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THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

A dcsciuptive: record of

THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS-
TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE

EARLIEST TIMES

Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD

Cyrus Adler, Ph.D. {Departments of Post-
Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America) .

GoTTHARD Deutsch, Ph.D. (Department
of History from 14^2 to igoi) .

Louis GiNZBERG, Ph.D. {Department of
Rabbinical Literature) .

Richard Gottheil, Ph.D. (Departments of
History from Ezra to I4g2 ; History of
Post -Talmudic Literature) .

Joseph Jacobs, B.A (Departments of the
Jews of England and Anthropology ; Revi-
sing Editor) .

Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. (Department of the Talmud).

Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D. (Department of the Bible) .

Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D. (Departments of Theology
and Philosophy) .

Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D. (Chief of the
Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor).

Isidore Singer, Ph.D. (Department of Modern
Biography from 1750 to igoi) .

Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of
Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature) .

ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.

Prolector and Managing Editor

ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS

(see page v)

VOLUME VII

ITALY— LEON

KTAV PUBLISHING HOUSE, INC.

N.Y. 2, N.Y.

PRINTED AND BOUND IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

5HLF

LITERARY DIRECTORATE /^^

EDITORIAL BOARD

v,7

CYRUS ABLER, Ph.D.

(Deijartmeiits uf P<M-BihUcal AntiQuitiea; the Jews of
America.)

President of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Librarian,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D.

(Department of Higtam from 1U$J to 1001.)

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,

Ohio ; Editor of " Deborah."

LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D.

(Department of Rahbinical Literature.)
New Yort ; Author of " Die Haggada bei den Kirchenvatem."

RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

{Departments of History from Ezra to 11,92 ; History of Post-

Talmudic Literature.)

Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York;

Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ;

President of the Federation of American Zionists.

JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A.

{Departments of the Jews of Emjland and Anthropology;
Beviging Editor.)

Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England ;
Author of " Jews of Angevin England," etc.

MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D.

(Department of the TaJmud.)
Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel-
phia, Pa. ; Author of "Dictionary of the Talmud."

MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D.

^Utpartiiuid 1,1 the Jiiljle.)
Professor of Sero'tic Languages and Librarian In the University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of "Relig-
ion of the Babylonians and Ass>Tlans," etc.

KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D.

{DcpartmenUi of Theology atid Philosophy.)

Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York ; President of the Board of

Jewish Ministers, New York.

FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, Ph.D.

(Chief of the Bureau of Translation; Revising Editor.)

Rabbi of the ^Vest End Synagogue, New York ; Vice-President

of Board of Jewish Ministers, New York.

ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.

Managing Editor.
{Department of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1901.)

CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D.

(Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic

Literature.)

Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge. Mass. ;

Author of " The Religion of Israel," " Judaism and

Christianity," etc.

AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim, Dean of the Jewish
Theological Seminary, New York.

B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago ; Author of " A
Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language."

GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-El, New York.

EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, 111.; Professor of

Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of

Chicago ; Editor of the " Reform Advocate."

HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D.,

Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures,
Catholic University of .\merica, Washington, D. C.

J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto,

Canada; Author of " History, Prophecy, and

the Monuments."

H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D.,

Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu-
guese), New York ; President of the Advisory Board of
Ministers of the Jewish Theological Seminary.

MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D.,

Professor of Talmudic Literature, Hebrew Union College, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio ; Author of " Introduction to the Talmud."

GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature and President of

Andover Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass.; Author

of a Commentary on the Book of Judges, etc.

DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Bene Israel : Professor of Homiletlc*.

Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; President of

Hebrew Sabbath School Union of America.

IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literature, University of

Chicago, 111. ; Author of " The .Monuments and

the Old Testament," etc.

LITERARY DIRECTORATE

HERMAN BOSENTHAIi,

Chief of the Russian section of The Jewish Encyclo-
pedia.
In charsre of Slavonic Department, New York Public Library.

JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D.,

President of Central Conference of American Rabbla ; Rabbi of
Temple Emanu-El, New York.

JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D.,

Rabbi of the ConjfreRation Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal.; Pro-
fessor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, Cal.

EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A.,

Editor of •' The Literary Digest," New York.

FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.,

Coedltor of the " Jewish Quarterly Review " ; Author of "Jew-
ish Life In the Middle Ages," etc. ; Senior TuUjr
in Jews' College, Loudon, England.

W. BACHER, Ph.D.,

Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest,

Hungary.

M. BRANN, Ph.D.,

Professor In the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger-
many ; Editor of " Monatsscbrift fur Geschichte und
Wlssenschaft des Judeuthums."

H. BRODY, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Nachod, Bohemia, Austria ; Coeditor of "Zeltschrift fur
Hebrjiische Bibliographie."

ABRAHAM DANON,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople,

Turkey.

HARTWIG DERENBOURG, Ph.D.,

Professor of Literary Arabic at the Special School of Oriental
Languages, Paris, France ; Member of the French Institute.

S. M. DUBNOW,

Author of " Isturiya Yevreyev," Odessa, Russia.

MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D.,

Principal of Jews' College, London, England; Author of "The
Jewish Religion," etc.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Budapest, Hungary.

M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria.

BARON DAVID GUNZBURG,

St. Petersburg, Russia.

A. HARKAVY, Ph.D.,

Chief of the Hebrew Department of the Imperial Public Library,
St. Petersburg, Russia.

ZADOC KAHN,

Chief Rabbi of France ; Honorary President of the Alliance

Israelite Universelle ; Officer of the Legion

of Honor, Paris, France.

M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary ; Corresponding Member of the
Royal Academy of Historj-, Madrid, Spain.

MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D.,

Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin ; Meran,

Austria.

ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIETT,

Member of the French Institute ; Professor at the Free School

of Political Science, Paris, France ; Author of

" Israel chez les Nations."

ISRAEL LEVI,

Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of
" Revue des Etudes Julves," Paris, France.

EUDE LOLLI, D.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Padua ; Professor of Hebrew at the University,
Padua, Italy.

IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary; Author of " Die Aramalschen
Pflanzennamen."

S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D.,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Chief Rabbi of
Florence, Italy.

H. OORT, D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State
University, Leyden, Holland.

ABBE PIETRO PERREATJ,

Formerly Librarian of the Reale Biblioteca Palatlna, Parma,

Italy.

MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D.,

Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn and

Brussels ; President of the Deutsch-Jiidische

Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany.

SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D.,

Rabbi in Warsaw, Russia.

SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D.,

Professor of Hebrew, University College, London, England;

Reader in Rabbinic, University of Cambridge ;

Author of "Studies in Judaism."

E. SCHWARZFELD, Ph.D.,

Secretary-General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris,

France.

LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D.,

Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor
of " Archiv fur Geschichte der Philosophie," etc.

HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages,
University of Berlin, Germany.

CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D.,

Master of St. John's College, Cambridge. England ; Editor of
" Sayings of the Jewish Fathers," etc.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLLME YII

A Cyrus Adler, Ph.D. ,

President of the American Jewish Historical
Society ; President of the Board of Directors of
the Jewish Theological Seminary of America ;
Librarian of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C.

A. A A. Amar,

Paris, France.

A. Bii Alexander Biichler, Ph.D.,

Uabbi, Keszthely, Hungary.

A. F A. Freimann, Ph.D.,

Editor (if the "Zeitschrift fiir Hebraisehe
Bibliographic"; Librarian of the Hebrew
Department, Stadtbibliolhek, Frankfort^on-
tbe-Main, Germany.

A. Fe Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D.,

Principal of the Uealschule, Fiirth, Bavaria.
Germany.

A. F.-G A. Frankl-Griin, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Krenisir. Moravia, Austria.

A. Ga Abraham Galante,

Editor of "La Buena Esperanca," Smyrna.
Asia Minor.

A. Gu Adolf Guttman, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Syracuse, N. Y.
A. H Abraham de Harkavy,

Librarian of the Hebrew Department of the
Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg,
Russia.

A. H. R . . . . A. H. Rosenberg-,

New York City.
A. K A. Kaminka, Ph.D.,

Rabbi ; Secretary of the Israelitische Allianz

zu Wien, Vienna, Austria.
A. Kai Alois Kaiser,

Cantor, Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore, Md.

A. Ki Alexander Kisch, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Prague. Bohemia, Austria.

A. Ku A. Kurrein, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Teplilz. Bohemia, Austria.

A. M. F Albert M. Friedenberg, B.S., Lli.B.,

Counselor at Law; Correspondent of "The
Jewish Comment," Baltimore, Md. ; New
York City.

A. P A. Porter,

Formerly Associate Editor of "The Forum."
New York ; Revising Editor " Standard Cyclo-
pedia," New York City.

A. Pe A. Peiginsky, Ph.D.,

New York City.

A. R A. Rhine,

Rabbi, Hot Springs, Ark.

A. S. W A. S. Waldstein, B. A. ,

New York City.

B. B Benuel H. Brumberg,

Contributor to " National Cyclopedlaof Amer-
ican Biography," New York City.

B. Ei Benzion Eisenstadt,

New York City.
B. Fr B. Friedberg,

Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany.
B. L Benno Lewinson,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

B. P Bernhard Pick, Ph.D., D.D.,

Fonncrly Paster of St. John's Lutherao
Church, Albany, N. Y. ; New York City.

B. T Blanche Tausik,

.New York City.

B. Te Bernhard Templer, Ph.D.,

Rablii, Vii'iina, .Austria.

B. Z Bernhard Ziemlich, Ph.D.,

Ralibi, .Nuremberg, Gerinany.

C. C. T Charles C. Torrey, Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages, Yale Uni-
versity. New Haven, Conn.

C. I. de S. . . .Clarence I. de Sola,

President of the Federation of Canadian
Zionists, Montreal, Canada.

C. J. M Charles J. Mendelsohn,

Philadelphia. Pa.

C. L Caspar Levias, M.A.,

Instiuctor in Exegisisand Talmudlc Aramaic,
Hebrew t:nion College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

C. S Carl Siegfried, Ph.D., LL.D. 'decea.sed).

Late Pnife^.sor of Theolngy, University of
Jena, Germany.

D Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D. ,

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union
College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

D. Ba David Bachrach,

Baliiuiore, Md.

D. G; Baron David von Giinzburg,

St. Petersburg, Russia.

D. P David Philipson, D.D.,

Rabbi. B"ne Israel Congregation ; Professor of
Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincin-
nati, Ohio.

D. Su David Sulzberger,

Philadelphia, Pa.

D. W. A David Werner Amram, LL. B.,

Counselor at Law, Philadelphia, Pa.

E. A Edouard Andr^,

Paris, France.

E. C Executive Committee of the Editorial

Board.

E. Q. H Emil G. Hirsch, Ph.D.. LL.D.,

Rabbi, Sinai Cuiigregation ; Professor of Rab-
binical Literature and Philosophy, University
of Chicago; Chicago, 111.

E. I. N E. I. Nathans,

Philadelphia, Pa.

E. J Emil Jelinek,

Vienna, .Vustrla.

E. L Eude Lolli,

tliief Rabbi : Professor of Hebrew, Univer-
sity I if Piiilua, Italy.

E. Ms Edg-ar Mels,

New York City.

E. N Eduard Neumann, Ph.D.,

Chief Uabbi, Nagy-Kanisza, Hungary.

E. N. A Elkan N. Adler,

Lomlon. Knglaiid.

E. Schr E. Schreiber, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Euiauu-EI Congregation, Chicago, 111.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VII

E. Sd E. Schwarzfeld, LL.D.,

Secretary of the Jewish Colonization Associa-
tion, Paris, France.

E. SI E. Slyper,

Amsterdam. Holland.

E. C Frank Cramer, B.Sc,

\e\v York City.

F. H. V Frank H. Vizetelly, F.S.A.,

Associate Editor of the "" Columbian Cyclo-
pedia" and of the Standard Dictionary;
New York City.

F. li. C Francis Li. Cohen,

Principal Rabbi, Sydney, N. S. W., Australia.

F. T. H Frederick T. Haneman, M.D.,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

G Richard Gottheil, Ph.D.,

Profe^^or of Semitic Languages, Columbia
University, New York : Chief of the Oriental
Department, New York Public Library : New
York City.

G. A. B George A. Barton, Ph.D.,

Professor of Biblical Literature and Semitic
L:\nguages, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr,
Pa.

G. A. K George Alexander Kohut,

Formerly Rabbi in Dallas, Texas; Assistant
Librarian of the Jewish Theological Seminary
of America, New York City.

G. F. M George F. Mooi-e, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Biblical Liteiature and the His-
tory of Religions, Harvard University, Cam-
bridge, Mass.

G. L Goodman Lipkind, B.A.,

Rabbi, New York City.

G. Ro G. Rosenmann, Ph.D.,

Vienna, Austria,

H. Ab Herman Abramowitz,

New York City.

H. B H. Brody, Ph.D.,

Rubbi; coeditor of the "Zeitschrift fiir He-
briiische Bibliographie " ; Nachod, Bohemia,
Austria.

H. Ba H. Baar,

Formerly Rabbi in New Orleans; Superin-
tendent, Hebrew Orphan Asylum, New York
City.

II. G. E H. G. Enelow, D.D.,

Rabbi, Congregation Adath Israel, Louisville,
Ky.

H. Gut H. Guttenstein,

New York City.

H. Hir Hartwig Hirschfeld, Ph.D.,

Professor, Jews" College, Loudon. England.

H. Hirs.. H. Hirschenson,

New York City.

H. M Henry Malter, Ph.D.,

Assistant Professor, Hebrew Union College,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

H. N H. Necarsulmer,

Couiiselor at Law, New York City.

H. R Herman Rosenthal,

Chiif of the Slavonic Department, New York
Public Library, New York City.

H. S Henrietta Szold,

Secretary of the Jewish Publication Society of
America ; New York City.

H. V Hermann Vogelstein, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Ki'miirsberg. East Prussia, Germany.

I. A Israel Abrahams,

Reader in Rabbinic, University of Cambridge;
Coeditor of " The Jewish Quarterly Review "' ;
Cambridge, England.

I. Be Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D. ,

Professor of old Testament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Berlin, Germany ; Jerusalem, Pal-
estine.

I. Ber Israel Berlin,

Chemist, New York City.

I. Br Isaac Broyde [Oificc Editor),

Doctor of the University of Paris, France ; for-
merly Librarian of the Alliance Israelite Uni-
verselle, Paris, France ; New York City.

I. E Ismar Elbogen, Ph.D.,

Instructor at the Lehranstalt fiir die Wissen-
scliaft des Judenthums, Berlin, Germany.

I. G. D I. George Dobsevage,

New York City.

I. li Israel L^vi,

Rabbi; Professor at the Jewish Theological
Seminary, Paris ; Editor of " Revue des Etudes
Juives"; Paris, France.

I. M. C I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D.,

United States National Museum, Washington,
D. C.
I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, B.D., Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages and Litera-
ture, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

I. S I. Schwartz,

Paris, France.

I. Z Ignaz Ziegler, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Carlsbad, Bohemia, Austria.

J Joseph Jacobs, B.A.,

Furinerly President of the Jewish Historical
Society of England ; Corresponding Member
of the Hoyal Academy of History, Madrid;
New Y'ork City.

J. D. E J. D. Eisenstein,

New York City.

J. E. B J. E. Boutelje,

Amsterdam. Holland.

J, F. M J. F. McLaughlin, M.A., B. D.,

Professor of Oriental Langu-ises and Litera-
ture, Victoria College, Toronto, Canada.

J. F. McC.J. Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University
College, Toronto, Canada.

J. G. L J. G. Lipman, Ph.D.,

Assistant Agriculturist, New Jersey State Ex-
periment Station, New Brunswick, N. J.

J. de H J. de Haas,

Journalist; Secretary of the Federation of
American Zionists, New Y'ork City.

J. H. G Julius H. Greenstone,

Rabbi, Philadelphia, Pa.
J. H. H Joseph Hermann Hertz,

Rabbi, Pretoria, South Africa.

J. Hy J. Hyams,

Bombay, India.

J. Ka Jacques Kahn,

Rabbi, Paris, France.

J. So Joseph Sohn,

Contributor to " The New International En-
cyclopedia"; formerly with "The Forum";
New York City.

J. Sto Joseph Stolz, D.D.,

Rabbi, Chicago, 111.

J. Stos Joseph Stijssel, Ph.D.,

r.aijiii, Stuttgart, Wuritemberg, Germany.

J. T J. Theodor, Ph.D.,

iiablij, Bojanowo, Posen, Germany.

J. V Jacob Voorsanger, D.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages and Litera-
ture, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. ;
Rabbi, Congregation Emanu-El, San Fran-
cisco, Cal.

J. Z. L J. Z. Lauterbach, Ph.D.,

New York City.

K Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New
Y'ork ; President of the Hebrew Union Col-
lege, Cincinnati, Ohio.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VII

K. B Karl Budde, Ph.D.,

Professiir of Did IVstainent Exegesis, Univer-
sity of Marburg, Uerinany.

L. B Iiudwig' Blau, Ph.D.,

P.ofessor, Jewish Thei)logicaI Seminary ; Edi-
tor of "Magyar Zsidd-Szemle " ; Budapest,
Hungary.

L. Be L. Belleli,

London, England.

L. E li. Edelstein,

New York t'ity.

Zi.Ot Louis Ginzbergr, Ph.D.,

Professor of Talmud, Jewish Theological Sem-
inary of America, New York City.

L. Grii Lazarus Griinhut,

Director, Orphan Asylum, Jerusalem, Pales-
tine.

L. La Laura Landau,

New York City.

L. Le Leo Lewinsohn,

New York City.

L. M L. Mag-nes, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Brooklyn, N. Y.

L. N. D Lewis N. Dembitz, D.H.L.,

Counselor at Law, Louisville, Ky.

L. V Ludwig Venetianer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Ujpest, Hungary.

L. Wie Leo Wiener,

Assistant Professor of Slavic Languages, Har-
vard University, Cambridge, Mass.

L. Y L. Ysaye,

Vienna, Austria.

SI. A M. Abrahams,

Leeds, England.

M. Ad Michael Adler, B.A.,

Rabbi, Hammersmith Synagogue; Fellow of
Jews' College, London, England.

M. A. M Martin A. Meyer,

Rabbi, Temple Beth Emeth, Albany, N. Y.

M. Co Max Cohen,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

M. Ei Mathias Eisler, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Klausenburg, Hungary.

M. F Michael Friedlander, Ph.D.,

Principal, Jews' College, London, England.

M. Fr M. Franco,

Principal, Alliance Israelite Universelle
School. Demotica, Rumelia, Turkey.

M. Qar M. Garsson,

New York City.

M. Go Milton Goldsmith,

Philadelphia, Pa.

M. Gr M. Grunwald, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Vienna. Austria.

M.J. K Max J. Kohler, M.A., LL.B.,

Counselor at Law ; Recording Secretary of
the American Jewish Historical Society, New
York City.

M. K Meyer Kayserling, Ph.D.,

Uabbi, Budapest, Hungary.

M. L. B Moses Lob Bambergrer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi ; Lecturer in Rabbinic, Jewish Semi-
nary, Wiirzburg, Bavaria, Germany.

M. L6 Max Lbhr, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Theology and Ex-
egesis, University of Breslau, Germany.

M. Mr M. Marg^el, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Pozega, Slavonia, Austria.

M. R Max Rosenthal, M.D.,

Visiting Physician, German Dispensary, New
York City.

M. Sc Max Schloessingrer,Ph.D.(0^ceJEdifor),

Rabbi, New York City.

M. Sel Max Seli^sohn (Office EdWjr),

Doctor of the University of Paris, France;
New 'N'ork City.

M. St Marcus Stiegrlitz,

Berlin, (Germany.

M. Sta M. Stark,

Kai)bi, Konlgllche Welnberge, near Prague

Bohemia, Austria.

M. Su Mayer Sulzbergrer,

IMiiladclpliia, Pa.

M. W Max Weisz, Ph.D.,

Budapest, Hungary.

M. We M. Weissberg,

stanislaw-Ziireiiicze, Gallcla, Austria.

M. W. L Martha Washington Levy, B.A.,

Contribut(jr to "The New International En-
cyclopedia," New York City.

M. W. M....Mary W. Montgomery, Ph.D.,

New York ( ity.

M. Z M. Zametkin,

New York ( ity.

N. P N. Porgres, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Leipslc, Germany.

N. SI N. Slouschz,

Paris, France.

N. T. L N. T. London,

New York City.

P. B Philipp Bloch, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Posen, Germany.

P. Wi Peter Wiernik,

Journalist, New York City.

R. Qu Raphael Gug'grenheimer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Kolin, Bohemia, Austria.

R. H. K Rosa H. Knorr,

New York City.

S Isidore Singer, Ph.D.,

Managi.N(; Editor. New York City.

S. A. B Samuel Augustus Binion, M.D.,

New York City.

S . Ba Solomon Bamberger,

Strasburg, Germany.

S. Be Simon Bernfeld,

Berlin, Germany.

S. E Samuel Ehrenfeld, Ph.D.,

Prague, Bohemia. Austria.

S. Fr Siegmund Frankel, Ph.D.,

Profess((r of Semitic Philology, University of
Breslau, Germany.

S. Fy Siegmund Frey ,

Rabbi, ( hicago. 111.

S. K S. Kahn,

Rabbi, .N'imes, France.

S. Kr Samuel Krauss, Ph.D.,

Professor, Normal College. Budapest, Hungary.

S. Le .S. Levy, M.A.,

Rabbi, London, England.

S. Lev S. Levene,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

S. M S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Wilmington. N. C.

S. Man S. Mannheimer, B.L.,

Instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,

Ohio.

S. Mdl S. Mandl, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Neutit,schm, Moravia, Austria.

S. Mu S. Miihsam, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi, Grutz, Styria. Austria.

S. P Samuel Poznanski, Ph.D.,

Hal)lii. Warsaw, Poland. Russia.

S. Po S. Posner,

Warsaw, Poland, Russia.

Vlll

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VII

S. S Solomon Schechter, M. A., liitt.D.,

President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary of America, New York City.

S. Sa Sigismund Salfeld, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Mayence, Hesse, Germany.

S. Se Sigmund Seelig-mann,

Rabbi, Amsterdam, Holland.

T Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL..D.,

Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.

TJ. C TJmberto Cassuto,

Florence, Italy.

V. O Vittore Castiglioni,

Chief Rabbi, Rome, Italy.

v. E Victor Rousseau En^anuel,

Laurel, Md.

v. R Vasili Rosenthal,

Kremeuchug, Russia.

V. Ry Victor Ryssel, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and
Semitic Languages, University of Zurich,
Switzerland.

W. B W. Bacher, Ph.D.,

Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Buda-
pest, Hungary.

"W. N Wilhelm Nowack, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Strasburg, Germany.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME YII

N. B.— In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated

under each heading.

America : see Jamaica ; Lancaster.

Amygdalon, Pool of: see Hezekiah, Pool of. page

Antonia, Tower of, Jerusalem 139

" Arba' Turim," Page from the First Edition of Jacob ben Asher's, Piove di Sacco, 1475 29

Archeology: see Coin; El-Amarna; Jehu; Lachish ; Seal; Tombs.

Arches, Street of, Jerusalem 155

Architecture: see Jachin; Job's Well; Synagogues; Tombs.

Ark of the Law and Perpetual Lamp of the Synagogue at Ramsgate, England 599

Entablature of the, of the Synagogue at Lancaster, Pa 605

Arms of Sir Otto Jaff e 61

of the Jews of Judenburg 374

Art: see Archeology; Architecture; Coat op Arms; Costume; Kaufmann, Isidor; Ketubah;
Lamts, Perpetual; Lamps, Sabbath; Manuscripts; Typography.

Ashkenazic Synagogue, Jerusalem. After Schwarz, 1850 137

The Great, Jerusalem 188

Atonement, Day of, Kapparot Ceremony Before the 435

Bar Kokba, Obverse of a Coin of. Bearing a Laver 630

Basins and Ewers, Used for Washing of the Hands by Priests 630-633

Bir Ayyub or Job's Well, South of Jerusalem 202

Black Obelisk, Tribute of Jehu to Shalmaneser XL, as Depicted on .the 89

Boaz, Column of: see Jachin.

Cairo Genizah, Thirteenth-Century Manuscript of Kohelet Kabbah, from the 531

Catacombs, Plan of the, on the Mount of Olives, East of Jerusalem 147

see also Jachin.

Tomb, Traditional, of Johanan ben Zakkai, Near Tiberias 215

of Joseph, Near Nablus (Sliechem) 240

Tombs of the Judges, Cave Leading to the, Jerusalem 147

Traditional, Plan and Sectional View of the, Jerusalem 146

of the Kings, Traditional, Grotto Leading to the, Jerusalem 148

Tombstone of Judah IjOw ben Bezaleel at Prague 354

Topographical Features of Jerusalem Frontispiece and 119

Tower of Antonia, Jerusalem 139

Towers of David and Hippicus 142

Tribute of Jehu to Shalmaneser II. From the Black Obelisk 89

Types: see Karaites.

Typography: seeFANo; Ixar; Lublin; Mantua; Naples; Piove di Sacco ; Zurich.

Valley of Jehoshaphat, Jerusalem 87

Wailing-Place, Jerusalem. After the Painting by Bida 143

Walls of Jerusalem at Various Times Frontispiece and 123

Well of Job, South of Jerusalem 202

*' Yosippon," Page from the First Edition of the, Mantua, 1475-80 261

Page from the First Edition of the Judaeo-German, Zurich, 1546 263

Zion, Citadel of, Jerusalem 144

Gate, Jerusalem 152

Zurich, Page from the First Edition of the Judaeo-German "Yosippon," Printed in 1546 at 263

THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

ITALY : Kingdom of southern Europe, with a
total population of about 32,000,000, in which there
are about 34,653 Jews (1901). This country, which
the Israelites, punning upon the name, called "I
Tal Yah " = " the land of the dew of the Lord "
(conip. Gen. xxvii. 39), has been prominent in the
liistory of the Jews. This prominence has not been
due to the number of Jews in Italy, which has never
been particularly large, but rather to the fact that
they were not subjected to those continue'd and
cruel persecutions to which they were exposed in
otlier countries ; and they may be said to have en-
joyed, especially at certain periods, a fair degree of
liberty.

The first definite appearance of Jews in the history
of Italy was that of the embassy sent by Simon Mac-
cabeus to Rome to strengthen the alliance with the
Romans against the Syrians. The ambassadors re-
ceived a cordial welcome from their coreligionists
who were already established there, and whose num-
ber at the time of the emperor Claudius was com-
paratively so great that when, for some unknown
reason, he was desirous of expelling them, he did not
dare to do so. . Moreover, when, toward the end of
his reign, by reason of trouble provoked by a Chris-
tian propagandist, he actually expelled a portion
of the Jews, there remained in Rome a fully organ-
ized community, presided over by heads called ap-
XovTCQ or yepovaidpxot. The Jews maintained in Rome
several synagogues, whose spiritual head was called
apxKyvvdycjyog; in their cemetery the tombstones bore
the symbolic seven-branched candlestick. Even in
the time of Tiberius — who pretended to be friendly
to the Jews, but really was as hostile to them as
Augustus had been — manj'- converts to Judaism
were made in Rome. It Avas when tlie wife of his
friend, the senator Saturninus, became a convert to
Judaism, that Tiberius showed his enmity toward the
adherents of this faith by publishing, on the advice
of his minister Sejanus, an edict commanding all
Jews and i)roselytes who should not have abjured
their faith before a fixed date to leave Rome under
penalty of perpetual bondage. A large number of

young Jews was ordered to fight

Under the against the brigands in Sardinia,

Umpire, where the greater part of them lost

their lives. This was the first persecu-
tion of the Jews in the West. There were other Jew-
ish colonies at that time in southern Italy, in Sicily,
VII.— 1

and in Sardinia, but thoy wore neither large nor
important.

From Rome, where Judaism liad many adiierents
and enjoyed a certain influence even at court, the
Jews spread into other parts of Italy ; but the greater
number of those who came to sudi parts somewhat
later immigrated from other countries. Thus in
Sicily there came from Africa to Palermo about
1,500 families, and to Messina about 200 families.
To Tuscany Jews came from Spain; to Lombaniy,
to Piedmont, and to the territory of Genoa, from cen-
tral Italy. But they were never numerous; only in
Milan, Turin, and Genoa were there communities of
some importance; and even from these provinces
they were frequently expelled and after an interval
allowed to reenter. From the Orient, where the
Venetian republic had important colonies, nianv
went to Venice, and also to Ancona and Pesaro.
From these cities, too, as from Ferrara. they were
at times expelled; and, as elsewhere, they were re-
admitted. There were some Jews in almost every
village of the Venetian possessions; at Padua, Ve-
rona, Mantua, and Modena there were long-estab-
lished and important communities. In the Neapol-
itan realm the greater mmiber of tlie Jews were
settled in Naples, in Capua, and in other large towns
along the Adriatic coast, such as Bari, Otrauto,
Brindisi, Taranto, Benevento, Sulmona, Salerno, and
Trani. In the interior there were scarcely an_v Ji-ws.

After Judca had been declared a Roman province,
the procurators sent thither by the Senate became
more and more cruel in their treatment of the Jews.
and finally incited them to a rebellion which 'ended
in the ruin of the Jewish state under the emperor
Titus (70 C.E.). A large number of prisoners and
soldiers were transferred to Italy; but naturally tin-
vanquished did not feel disposed to emigrate to the
land of their conquerors and oppressors. Titus had
a reign of short duration; and his successor, Domi
tian, treated the Jews cruelly. To liini is attributed
the intention to execute a decree which lie liud
forced the Senate to approve, and under which.
within thirty days after its pronudgation, all tlie Jew-
ish subjects of Rome were to be massjicred. The pa-
triarch, with three of the most illustrious, taunaim,
repaired to Rome in order to prevent the carrying
out of this infamous project; soon afterward l^o-
mitian died, and his successor, Nerva, showed
himself favorable to his Jewish subjects. He re-

Italy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

mained on the throne but a sliort time and was suc-
ceeded by Trajan, a persistent opponent of the Jews,
and in whose wars many thousands of them lost their
lives in Babylon, in Egypt, and in Cyprus. Ha-
drian, in turn, was at tirst inclined to favor the
Jews, and he even granted them permission to re-
build the Temple at Jerusalem (118). This conces-
sion he later withdrew, and, indeed, he became one
of their most bitter enemies, issuing an edict for-
bidding them to continue their rehgious practises.

A few years later this hostile legislation, which
for the most part had never been enforced, was re-
pealed, and the condition of the Jews was for a
short time improved. Through the growth and
diffusion of Christianity, however, it soon be-
came worse and worse. As the Christians detached
themselves from the Jews, the former became the
fiercest enemies of the latter. When Constantine,
who at the beginning of his reign had advocated
liberty of conscience, became a con-
Influence vert to Christianity, he established op-
ofChristi- pressive laws for the Jews; but these
anity. were in turn abolished by Julian the
Apostate, who showed his favor to-
ward the Jews to the extent of permitting them to
resume their scheme for the reconstruction of the
Temple at Jerusalem. This concession was with-
drawn under his successor, who, again, w^as a
Christian ; and then the oppression grew considera-
bly. Thus periods of persecution were followed by
periods of quiescence, until the fall of the Roman
empire.

At the time of the foundation of the Ostrogothic
rule under Theodoric, there were flourishing com-
munities of Jews in Rome, Milan, Genoa, Palermo,
Messina, Agrigentum, and in Sardinia. The popes
of the period were not seriously opposed to the
Jews; and this accounts for the ardor with which
the latter took up arms for the Ostrogoths as against
the forces of Justinian — particularly at Naples,
where the remarkable defense of the city was main-
tained almost entirely by Jews. After the failure of
the various attempts to make Italy a province of the
Byzantine empire, the Jews had to suffer much op-
pression from the Exarch of Ravenna; but it was
not long until the greater part of Italy came into
the possession of the Lombards, under whom they
lived in peace. Indeed, the Lombards passed no ex-
ceptional laws relative to the Jews. Even after the
Lombards embraced Catholicism the condition of the
Jews was always favorable, because the popes of that
time not only did not persecute them, but guaran-
teed them more or less protection. Pope Gregory
the Great treated them with much consideration.
Under succeeding popes the condition of the Jews
did not grow worse ; and the same was the case in
the several smaller states into which Italy was di-
vided. Both popes and states were so absorbed in
continual external and internal dissensions that the
Jews were left in peace. In every individual state
of Italy a certain amount of protection was granted
to them in order to secure the advantages of their
commercial enterprise. The fact that the liistorians
of this period scarcely make mention of the Jews,
proves that their condition was tolerable.

There was an expulsion of Jews from Bologna, it

is true, in 1172; but they were soon allowed to re-
turn. A nephew of Rabbi Nathan ben Jehiel acted
as administrator of the property of Alexander HI.,
who showed his amicable feelings toward the Jews
at the Lateran Council of 1179, where he defeated
the designs of hostile prelates who advocated re-
strictive and odious anti-Jewish laws. Under Nor-
man rule the Jews of southern Italy and of Sicily
enjoyed even greater freedom; they were considered
the equals of the Christians, and were permitted to
follow any career; they even had jurisdiction over
their own affairs. Indeed, in no country were the
canonical laws against the Jews so frequently dis-
regarded as in Italy. A later pope — either Nicholas
IV. (1288-92) or Boniface VIII. (1294-1303)— had
for his physician a Jew, Isaac ben Mordecai, sur-
named Maestro Gajo.

Among the early Jews of Italy who left behind
them traces of their literary activity was Shabbethai
DoNNOLO (died 982). Two centuries later (1150)
there became known as poets Shabbethai ben Moses
of Rome; his son Jehiel Kalonymus, once regarded
as a Talmudic authority even beyond Italy ; and
Rabbi Jehiel of the Mansi (Anaw) family, also of
Rome. Their compositions are full
Early of thought, but their diction is rather
Literature, crude. Nathan, son of the above-
mentioned Rabbi Jehiel, was the au-
thor of a Talmudic lexicon (" 'Aruk ") which became
the key to the study of the Talmud.

Solomon Parhon compiled during his residence at
Salerno a Hebrew dictionary which fostered the
study of Biblical exegesis among the Italian Jews.
On the whole, however, Hebrew culture was not in
a flourishing condition. The only liturgical author
of merit was Joab ben Solomon, some of whose com-
positions are extant.

Toward the second half of the thirteenth century
signs appeared of a better Hebrew culture and of
a more profound study of the Talmud. Isaiah di
Trani the Elder (1232-79), a high Talmudic author-
ity, was the author of many celebrated responsa.
David, his son, and Isaiah di Trani the Younger, his
nephew, followed in his footsteps, as did their de-
scendants until the end of the seventeenth century.
Meir ben Moses presided over an important Tal-
mudic school in Rome, and Abraham ben Joseph
over one in Pesaro. In Rome two famous physi-
cians, Abraham and Jehiel, descendants of Nathan
ben Jehiel, taught the Talmud. One of the
women of this gifted family, Paola dei Mansi, also
attained distinction; her Biblical and Talmudic
knowledge was considerable, and she transcribed
Biblical commentaries in a notably beautiful hand-
writing (see Jew. Encyc. i. 567, s.v. Paola Anaw).

About this period Frederick II., the last of the
Hohenstaufen, employed Jews to translate from the
Arabic philosophical and astronomical treatises;
among these writers were Judah Kohen of Toledo,
later of Tuscany, and Jacob Anatolio of Provence.
This encouragement naturally led to the study
of the works of Maimonides — particularly of the
" Moreh Nebukim " — the favorite writer of Hillel of
Verona (1220-95). This last-named litterateur and
philosopher practised medicine at Rome and in other
Italian cities, and translated into Hebrew several

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Italy

medical works. The liberal spirit of the writings
of Maimonides had other votaries in Italy; e.g.,
Shabbethai ben Solomon of Rome and Zerahiah Hen
of Barcelona, who migrated to Rome and contributed
much to spread the knowledge of his works. The
effect of this on the Italian Jews was apparent in
their love of freedom of thought and their esteem
for literature, as well as in their adherence to the
literal rendering of the Biblical texts and their op-
position to fanatical cabalists and mystic theories.
Among other devotees of these theories was Im-
MANUEL B. Soi.o.MON of Rome, the celebrated friend
of Dante. The discord between the followers of
Maimonides and his opponents wrought most seri-
ous damage to the interests of Judaism.

The political and social status of the Jews was also
destined to suffer because of the advent to the papal
throneof Innocent III. (1198-1216), the chief origina-
tor of the many persecutions suffered in later times by
the Jews in all Christian lanils. This retrogressive
pope, the most bitter enemy of freedom of thought,
set into operation against the Jews

Innocent most illegitimate measures; especially
III. did he threaten with excommunication

those who placed or maintained Jews
in public positions, and he insisted that every Jew
holding office should be dismissed. The deepest in-
sult was the order that every Jew must always weai,
conspicuously displayed, a special badge.

In 1235 Pope Gregory IX. published the first bull
against the ritual sacrifice Din flPvJ?- Other popes
followed his example, particularly Innocent IV. in
1247, Gregory X. in 1272, Clement VI. in 1348, Greg-
ory XI. in 1371, Martin V. in 1422, Nicholas V. in
1447, Sixtus V. in 1475, Paul III. in 1540, and later
Alexander VII., Clement XIII., and Clement XIV.
The rise of poetry in Italy at the time of Dante in-
fluenced the Jews also. The rich and the power-
ful, partly by reason of sincere interest, partly in
obedience to the spirit of the times, became patrons
of Jewish writers, thus inducing the greatest activ-
ity on their part. This activity was particularly
noticeable at Rome, where a new Jewish poetry
arose, mainly through the works of Leo Romano,
translator of the writings of Thomas Aquinas and
author of exegetical works of merit; of Judah Sici-
liano, a writer in rimed prose; of Kalonymus ben
Kalonymus, a famous satirical poet; and especially
of the above-mentioned Immanuel. On the initia-
tive of the Roman community, a Hebrew transla-
tion of Maimonides' Arabic commentary on the Mish-
nah was made. At this time Pope John XXII. Avas
on the point of pronouncing a ban against tlle^ Jews
of Rome. The Jews instituted a day of public fast-
ing and of prayer to appeal for divine assistance.
King Robert of Sicily, who favored the Jews, sent
an envoy to the pope at Avignon, who succeeded in
averting this great peril. Immanuel himself de-
scribed this envoy as a person of high merit and of
great culture. This period of Jewi.sh literature in
Italy is indeed one of great splendor. After Im-
manuel there were no other Jewish writers of ini
portance until Moses da Rieti (1388), a writer of He
brew as elegant as his Italian ; but despite this, Jiis
wearisome and unnatural style could not compare
with the pleasing and spirited works of Immanuel.

The Jews suffered much from the relentless per-
secutions of the antipope Benedict XIII. ; and the
accession of liis successor, Martin V., was hailed
with delight by tiie Jews. The .synod convoked by
the Jews at Bologna, and continued at
Benedict Forii, sent a deputation witli c(»stly
XIII. gitts to the new pope, j)raying iiim to
abolish the oppressive law.s promul-
gated by Benedict and to grant tiie Jews liio.sf priv-
ileges which had been accxjrded tiiem under previ.
ous popes. The deputation succeeded in its mission,
but the period of grace was short; for JSIartin's suc-
cessor, Eugenius IV., at first favorably disposed
toward the Jews, ultimately reenacted all the re
strictive laws issued by Benedict. In Italy, how
ever, his bull was generally disregarded. The great
centers, .such as Venice, Florence, Genoa, and Pisa,
realized that their commercial interests were of
more importance than the affairs of tlie spiritual
leaders of the Church ; and accordingly the Jews,
many of whom were bankers and leading merchants,
found their condition better than ever before. It
thus became easy for Jewish bankers to obtain per-
mission to establish banks and to engage in mon-
etary transactions. Indeed, in one instance even
the Bishop of ]\Iantua, in the name of the pope,
accorded permission to the Jews to lend money at
interest. All the banking negotiations c. Tuscany
were in the hands of a Jew, Jehiel of Pisa. Tiie
influential position of this successful financier was
of the greatest advantage to his coreligionists at the
time of the exile from Spain.

The Jews were also successful as medical practi-
tioners. William of Portaleone, physician to Ferdi-
nand, King of Naples, and to the ducal houses of
Sforza and Gonzaga, was one of the ablest of that
time. He was the first of the long line of illustrious
physicians in his family.

The revival of interest in the studies of ancient
Greece and Rome stimulated the study of Biblical
literature ; and such men as Pico di !Mirandola and
Cardinals ^gidius da Viterbo and Domenico Gri-
mani devoted themselves to the study of Hebrew and
Hebrew literature. This produced amicable rela-
tions between Jews and Christians. At the time of
the Medicis Jews frequented the universities and
were active in the renascence of letters and of the
sciences; but they remained strangers to the fine
arts, especially painting and sculpture. The print-
ing establishments of Reggio, Pieve
Influence di Sacco, Mantua, Ferram, Bologna,
of the and Naples were fountled at this
Renas- period. Obadiah of Bertiuoro, eio-
cence ; quent preacher and famous common-

Printing, tator of the Mishnah ; ]^Ie.>JS<'r I.con
(Judah ben Jehiel) of Naples, nibhi
and physician at Mantua; and Elijah Delmedigo.
the philosopher, flourished at this period. Picodi
Mirandola was a disciple of the last named, as were
many others, who learned from him the Hebrew
language or studied pliilosophy luider his guidanre.
Driven from Germany and Poland by persecutions,
many learned rabbis and Talmudists wont to Italy:
among these Avere Judah Minz, who iKcanic rabbi
at Padua, and Joseph Colon, of French extraction,
rabbi successively nt Bologna and Mantua. Both

Italy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

were opposed to the liberal ideas then dominant in
Italy ; and soon strife and controversy arose between
Colon and Messer Leon, between Minz and Elijah
Delmedigo.

Toward the end of the fifteenth century the monks
<listurbed the relatively peaceful condition of the
Jews. The most bitter enemy was Bernardinus of
Feltre. Not succeeding in Inflaming the Italians
with his calumnies, he instigated a bloody persecu-
tion of the Jews of Trent, then under German rule.
The murder of the infant Simon was attributed to
them. In their favor appeared the Doge of Venice,
Peter Mocenigo, and Pope Sixtus IV., who at first
refused to proclaim as a saint the child found dead,
firmly declaring the story of the ritual murder to be
an invention.

A great number of the exiles from Spain (1492)
betook themselves to Italy, where they were given
protection by King Ferdinand I. of Naples. Don
Isaac Abravanel even received a position at the
Neapolitan court, which he retained under the suc-
ceeding king, Alfonso II. The Spanish Jews were
well received also in Ferrara by Duke Hercules I.,
and in Tuscany through the mediation of Jehiel of
Pisa and his sons. But at Rome and Genoa they
experienced all the vexations and torments that
hunger, plague, and poverty bring with them, and
were forced to accept baptism in order to escape
starvation. In some few cases the immigrants ex-
ceeded in number the Jews already domiciled, and
gave the determining vote in matters of communal
interest and in the direction of studies.
Refugees From Alexander VI. to Clement VII.
from Spain, the popes Avere indulgent toward the
Jews, having more urgent matters to
occupy them. Indeed, the popes themselves and
many of the most influential cardinals openly violated
one of the most severe enactments of the Council of
Basel, namely, that prohibiting Christians from em-
ploying Jewish physicians; and they even gave the
latter positions at the papal court. The Jewish com-
munities of Naples and of Rome received the greatest
number of accessions; but many Jews passed on
from these cities to Ancona and Venice, and thence
to Padua. Venice, imitating the odious measures
of the German cities, assigned to the Jews a special
quarter (" ghetto ").

Isaac Abravanel with his sons exercised a benefi-
cent influence alike upon the native Jews and tlie
newcomers. Among the sons the most influential
was Samuel; he and his wife, Benvenida, were on
terms of intimacy with the court of Naples. The
daughter of the governor, Don Pedro de Toledo,
was attached to Benvenida, whom she called mother,
and continued her love and respect after her mar-
riage to Cosimo II., Duke of Tuscany. These rela-
tions with powerful and illustrious families made
Abravanel the pride and shield of the Italian Is-
raelites,

The Talmudic school at Padua, presided over by
Judah Minz, enjoyed great repute. Not only young
men but those advanced in life came to him from
Italy, from Germany, and even from Turkey, to at-
);end his lectures. He died at an advanced age; and
his son Abraiiam continued the school, though with
diminished success. At Bologna during the first

lialf of the sixteenth century flourished Obadiah
Sforno, who, while practising as a physician, ap-
plied himself with much earnestness to Biblical ex-
egesis and to philosophy. He dedicated some of his
works, written in Hebrew but furnished with a
Latin translation, to King Heurj^ III. of France.
At Feirara Abraham ben Mordecai Farissol, philos-
opher and exegete, enjoyed the protection of Her-
cules I. of Este, a patron of literature, science, and
art. It became common in the Italian cities for
learned Jews to enter into discussions of theological
questions Avith the monks, and in several of these
Farissol took part. B}" order of the duke his dis
sertations, originally written in Hebrew, were trans-
lated into Italian, so that his opponents could pre-
pare a defense. Among those who assisted Reuchlin
in aid of the Jews was ^gidius da Viterbo, head
of the Augustinians, disciple and patron of Elijah
Levita, and student of Hebrew literature and poetry.
•'P"'ighting Avith you," he Avrote to Reuchlin, "avc
fight for light against darkness, aiming to save not
the Talmud, but the Church." The Avatchword
Avhich went forth from Italy and passed on every-
where Avas "For the salvation of the Talmud."

In Italy Elijah Levita numbered many Christians
among his disciples. Just as many illustrious Ital-
ians, among them princes of the Church, devoted
themselves Avith zeal to HebreAv studies, sothe JeAvs
Avith equal ardor devoted their energies to Italian,
Avhich they spoke with ease and elegance and
which they sometunes employed in their Avritings.
A famous Avriter was Leo Hebra?us (Judah Abrava-
nel), knoAvn through his "Dialoghidi Amore." His
language Avas fluent and correct, and his Avork Avas
everywhere enthusiastically received.

In the sixteenth century cabalistic doctrines
Avere introduced into Italy by Spanish exiles, Abra-
ham Levita, Baruch of Benevento, and Judah Hay-
j'at, among others. These aAvakened
Spread of much interest, and their mystical ideas
the Cabala, appealed to many. Moreover, the
fact that prominent Christians, such as
^gidius da Viterbo and Reuchlin, were devoted to
the Cabala, exercised a great influence upon the
JeAvs. The wide-spread dispersion of the Jcavs had
weakened in many minds faith in a final redemp-
tion; so that the new IMessianic interpretations of
the cabalists appealed to them. The indefatigable
Abravanel wrote three Avorks in Avhich he attempted
to show the truth of the Messianic doctrines; but,
carried aAvay by the dominant error of the times, he
unwisely fixed a date for the advent of the Messiah.
In Istria — a country which had been under Venetian
dominion — appeared Ashcr Lammlein, a German,
Avho pretended to be a prophet, and Avho announced
Avith much solemnity the coming of the ]\Iessiah in
the year 1503. In this "year of penitence" there
were much fasting, much prayer, and a generous dis-
tribution of alms. The movement was so general
that even Christians believed Lammlein to be pos-
sessed of the true prophetic spirit. The year came
to an end, and the prophecy remained unfulfilled.
Discouraged, many embraced Christianity. The
cabalists, however, Avere not disheartened, and, sup-
ported by reports of miraculous happenings, they
began to revive the courage of their coreligionists

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Italy

and to preach again faith in the coming of the
^lessiah. They were (lisi)osed to place credence
in the most improbable assertions; and accord-
ingly, when David Jtc'ubeni made his
Pseudo- appearance in Italy, lie found ready a
Messiahs, large bod}' of supporters. His mis-
sion was to gain support, especially
from the pope, to tight the Turks. David went to
Venice and to Rome, where he presented himself
before Pope Clement VII., by whom he was received
with all the honors accorded to an ambassador. The
idea of a crusade of Jews against Turks was a most
pleasing one to the pope. After a year's .sojourn in
Rome David was called to Portugal. Here he found
a champion in a Marano in service at the court, who,
imdergoing circumcision and changing his name to
Solomon Moi.ko, announced his fealty to Judaism.
The Maranos and (;abalists maintained general!}' that
the sack of Rome in 1537 was a sign of the coming
of the Messiah. But David lost favor, and was ex-
pelled from Portugal. Thereupon the Maranos were
condemned to the stake by thousands. Many suc-
ceeded in escaping to Italy ; and the pope, together
with the college of cardinals, wishing to restore pros-
perity to Ancona, assigned to the e.xilesan asylum in
that city. Molko also went to Ancona, where, as a
professed Jew, he delivered public Messianic sermons,
and held theological disputations with illustrious
Christians. In some of his sermons he prophesied
a great flood. At Rome, where, after thirty days of
fasting, he presented him.self to the pope, he was
favorably received, and was given a safe-conduct
through all the papal dominions. The flood which
he had prophesied really came to pass (Oct., 1530);
and on his return to Rome he was greeted as a
prophet. Accompanied by a faithful servant, he
escaped the Inquisition and reached Ancona, where
he again began his preaching. The fierce persecu-
tions suffered bj- the Spanish and Portuguese Ma-
ranos induced Molko and Reubeni to repair to Ratis-
bon and appear before the emperors Charles V. and
Ferdinand of Austria to solicit their aid. Josel of
Rosheim gave them his support; nevertheless both
enthusiasts were made prisoners. Molko was burned
on the pyre at Mantua, and Reubeni was imprisoned
in Spain, where he died three years later.

The ultra-Catholic party tried with all the means
at its disposal to introduce the Inquisition into
the Neapolitan realm, then under Spanish rule.
Charles V., upon his return from his victories in
Africa, was on the point of exiling the Jews from
Naples, but deferred doing so owing to the influence
of Benvenida, wife of Samuel Abravanel. A few
years later, however (1533), such a de-
Expulsion cree was proclaimed, but upon this oc-
from. casion also Samuel Abravanel and
Naples. others were able through their influ-
ence to avert for several years the ex-
ecution of the edict. Many Jews repaired to Turkey,
some to Ancona, and still others to Ferrara, where
they were received graciously by Duke Hercules II.
After the death of Pope Paul HI. , who had showed
favor to the Jews, a period of strife, of persecu-
tions, and of despondency set in. A few years later
the Jews were exiled from Genoa, among the refu-
gees being Joseph ha-Kohen, physician to the doge

Andrea Dona and eminent historian. The Ma-
ranos, driven from Spain and Portugal, were allowed
l)y Duke Hercules toentr-r his dominions ami to pro-
fess Judaism without molestation. Tlius. Samuel
Usque, also a liistorian, who had Jled from the In-
quisition in Portugal, settled in Ferrara; and Abra-
ham Usque founded a large printing establishment
there. A third Usque, Solomon, merchant of Venice
and Ancona and poet of some note, translated the
sonnets of Petrarch into excellent Spanish verse,
which was much admired by his contemporaries.

While the return to Judaism of the Marano Usques
caused m\ich rejoicing among the Italian Jews, thi.s
was counterbalanced by the deep grief into which
they were plunged by the conversion to Christianity
of two grandsons of Elijah Levita, Leone Romano
and Vittorio Eliano. One became a canon of the
Church ; theother, a Jesuit. They violently slandered
the Talmud to Pope Julius HI. and the Inquisition;
and as a consequence the pope pronounced the sen-
tence of destruction against this work, to the print-
ing of which one of his predeces.sors, Leo X., liad
given his sanction. On the Jewish New-Year's Day
(Sept. 9), 1553, all the copies of the Talmud in the
jirincipal cities of Ital}', in the printing establish-
ments of Venice, and even in the distant island of
Candia (Crete), were burned. Still more cruel was
the fate of the Jews under Pope Marcellus III., who
wished to exile them from Rome because of a charge
of ritual murder. He was restrained from the exe-
cution of this cruel and imjust project by Cardinal
Alexander Farnese, who, animated by a true love
for his fellow creatures, succeeded in bringing to
light the infamous author of the murder.

But the most serious misfortune for the Jews was
the election of Paul IV. as Marcellus' successor.
This cruel pontiff, not content with confirming all the
more severe of the bulls against the Jews issued up
to that time, added others still more op-
Paul IV. pressive and containing all manner
of prohibitions, which condemned the
Jews to the most abject misery, deprived theni of
the means of sustenance, and denied to them the exer-
cise of all professions. They were finally forced to
labor at the restoration of the walls of Rome without
any compensation whatever. Indeed, upon one oc
casion the pope had secretly given ordei-s to one of
his nephews to burn at night the quarter inhabited
by the Jews; but Alexander Farnese, hearing oi
the infamous proposal, succeeded in frustrating it.
Many Jews now abandoned Rome and Ancona and
went to Ferram and Pesaro. Here the Duke <if
Urbino welcomed them graciously in the hope «)f
directing to the new port of Pesaro the extensive com
merce of the Levant, which was at that time exclu-
sively in the hands of the Jews of Ancona. Among
the many who were forced to leave Rome was the
illustrious Marano. Amato Lusitano, a distinguished
physician, who had often attended Pope Julius HI.
He had even been invited to become physician to
the King of Poland, but had declined the ofTcr in
order to remain in lVii\y. He fled from the In-
quisition to Pesaro, where he openly professed
Judaism.

The persecutions at Ancona now became barba-
rous. Three Jews and a Jewess. Doima Maiora. wen*

Italy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

burned alive at the stake, preferring death to apos-
tasy. The glories of their martyrdom were sung
by three Jewish poets in elegies which

Persecu- are still recited in the synagogue at
tion at Ancona on the anniversary of the

Ancoua. destruction of the Temple. Another
interesting personality was Donna
Gracia Mendesia Nasi. Charles V. and other poten-
tates had frequently had recourse to the bank
founded by her husband in Portugal. At her hus-
band's death Donna Gracia moved with her children
to Antwerp, and thence, after protracted wander-
ings with varying fortunes, to Venice, Ferrara,
Rome. Sicily, and finallj' to Turkey, where she suc-
ceeded in persuading Sulaiman to force the pope to
set at liberty all the Turkish Jews imprisoned at
Ancona. These tragic events, and in general the
unprecedented cruelty and violence of Paul IV., in-
duced the Jews to unite and to form a plan of re-
taliation by allying themselves with the Jews of the
Levant to boycott the port of Ancona, to stop all
commercial relations with that papal state, and
thereby to cripple its activity. This plan was par-
tially carried out, and the city of Ancona began
rapidly to decline. Special circumstances, however,
interfered with the complete execution of the
scheme, especially the supreme authority of the
pope throughout Europe, which enabled him to prej-
udice popular feeling against the Jews in countries
other than Italy and to intensify the antagonism
toward them in his own land. At the end of a year
the condition of Ancona was so desperate that the
magistrates of the city complained to the pope,
urging that if steps were not soon taken the city
would be entirely ruined. As the league against
the pope waned in influence, the Duke of Urbino,
who, as stated above, had hoped to attract to Pesaro
all the Eastern Jewish trade and had been disap-
pointed in his expectation, withdrew his protection
from the Jews. A very large number of them emi-
grated, including Lusitano, who settled at Pagusa.
Even the Duke of Ferrara showed himself less favor-
able to the Jews at this time, so that Abraham
Usque, being deprived of the duke's protection, was
forced to close his printing-office at Ferrara.

But it was about this time that there was founded
in the city of Cremona and under the protection of the
, Spanish governor of Milan, a famous

The School school, directed by Joseph of Ettlin-
of Cremona, gen (Ottoleughi). This eminent Tal-
mudist knew where to gather a goodly
number of hidden copies of the Talmud and of other
Jewish works; and he had other copies printed at
Riva di Trento, which were sent to Germany, Po-
land, etc. Thus the study of the Talmud was re-
sumed, and learning flourished in northern Italj-.
But peace was concluded between the pope and the
Spaniards ; and some fanatics, aided by certain bap-
tized Jews, persuaded the governor of Milan to des-
troy all the Hebrew books in Cremona. Twelve
thou.sand volumes were burned in public in May,
1559, including all Jewish books except the Zohar,
which, according to the opinion of most of the car-
dinals and princes of the Church, contained the mys-
teries of Christianity, and the introduction to which
had been printed (Mantua, 1558) by Emanuel Bene-

vento under Paul IV. with the sanction of the Inqui-
sition. Somewhat later a complete edition of the
Zohar was printed at a Christian establishment in
Cremona, with an introduction by the baptized
grandson of Elijah Levita, Vittorio Eliano, who had
already contributed so much to the destruction of
the Talmud. This predilection of the Church and
the clergy for the Zohar lasted but a short time; for
a few years later this book was likewise placed upon
the Index.

Pius IV., the successor of Paul IV., was in every
respect a better man than his predecessors; but,
being sickly and weak, he submitted to the influence
of the Jesuits. Mordecai Soncino appeared before
him to obtain for the emperor Ferdinand absolution
from an oath made by him to expel the Jews from
Prague. The absolution was granted; and the
Jews were favored, particularly during the succeed-
ing reign of Maximilian. The Soucinos had estab-
lished printing-presses in various cities of Lombardy,
also at Constantinople and a t Prague. They printed
not only Jewish works, but also Latin ones, among
them the poems of Petrarch. Permission to reprint
the Talmud, but under another name and with the
omission of all that might be considered contrary to
Christianity, was granted to a deputation which
Avaited on Pius IV. with a large gift of money. The
Talmud was immediately reprinted at Basel.

But this tolerant pope was succeeded by Pius V.,
even more cruel than Paiil IV., and excelling him in
wickedness. He Brought into force all the anti-
Jewish bulls of his predecessors — not only in his
own immediate domains, but throughout the Chris-
tian world. In Lombardy the expulsion of the Jews
was threatened, and, although this extreme measure
was not put into execution, they were tyrannized in
countless ways. At Cremona and at Lodi their books
were confiscated ; and Carlo Borromeo, who was
afterward canonized, persecuted them mercilessly.
In Genoa, from which city the Jews were at this
time expelled, an exception was made in favor of
Joseph ha-Kohen. In his " 'Emek ha-Bakah " he nar-
rates the history of these persecutions. He had no
desire to take advantage of the sad privilege ac-
corded to him, and went to Casale Monferrato,
where he was graciously received even by the Chris-
tians. In this same year the pope directed his per-
secutions against the Jews of Bologna, who formed
a rich community well worth despoiling. Many of
the wealthiest Jews v/ere imprisoned and placed
under torture in order to force theni to make false
confessions. When Rabbi Ishmael Hanina was being
racked, he declared that should the pains of torture
elicit from him any words that might be construed
as casting reflection on Judaism, they would be
false and null. It was forbidden to the Jews to
absent themselves from the city; but many suc-
ceeded in escaping by bribing the watchmen at the
gates of the ghetto and of the city. The fugitives,
together with their wives and children.
Expulsion repaired to the neighboring city of
from Papal Ferrara. Then Pius V. decided to ban-
States, ish the Jews from all his dominions,
and, despite the enormous loss which
was likely to rcsidt from this measure, and the re-
monstrances of influential and well-meaning cardi-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Italy

nals, the Jews (in all about 1,000 families) were actu-
ally expelled from all the papal states excepting
Rome and Ancona. A few became Christians; but
the large majority migrated to Turkey. A great
sensation was caused in Italy by the choice of a
prominent Jew, Solomon of Udiuc, as Turkish am-
bassador to Venice to negotiate peace with that re-
public, which was accomplished in July, 1574. As
there was pending a decree of expulsion of the Jews
from the Venetian domains, the Senate was at first
in doubt whether it could treat with this Jew ; but
later, through the influence of the Venetian diplo-
mats themselves, and particulaily of the consul,
Marc Anlonio Barbaro, who esteemed Udine highly,
he was received with great honors at the palace of
the doges. In virtue of this exalted position he was
able to render great service to his coreligionists, and
through his influence Jacob Soranzo, agent of the
republic at Constantinople, came to Venice. Solomon
was successful also in having the decree of expulsion
revoked, and he furthermore obtained a promise that
it should never be reissued and that those Jews who
had left Venice should be allowed to return and
settle in peace. Laden with honors and gifts, Solo-
mon returned to Constantinople, leaving his son
Nathan in Venice to be educated. Tlie success of
this mission cheered the Jews in Turkey, particu-
larly in Constantinople, where they had attained
great prosperity.

At that time there lived in Italy a man of the
highest intellectual attainments, one who could have
done much for Judaism had he been possessed of
greater courage or had the times been more propi-
tious— Azariah dei Rossi (Miu ha-Adummim), a na-
tive of Mantua and the author of " Me'or 'Enayim."
He went from Mantua to Ferrara, and thence to Bo-
logna; and everywhere he was regarded as a marvel
of learning. Rossi was conversant with all Jewish
literature, Biblical as well as Talmud-

Azariah ical ; he was likewise familiar with
dei Rossi. Latin and Christian literature, with
the works of the Fathers of the
Church as well as with those of Philo and of Fla-
vins. The orthodox rabbis opposed the "Me'or
'Enayim," the rabbi of Mantua prohibiting its study
by young men under twenty-live j'ears of age; but
it found favor in the world at large and was trans-
lated into Latin. A contrast to Rossi was Gedaliah
ibn Yahya of northern Italy, who traveled about
as a preacher in that part of the country. His short
history of the Jews, entitled "Shalshelet ha-Kab-
balah," is a mixture of fables and fantastical tales;
but it was more generally appreciated than the
careful work of Dei Rossi. At this epoch there
became famous in the field of the new Cabala Vital
Calabrese and Isaac Luria, both of whom were well
received at Safcd, the center of the adherents of the
new occult doctrine which was to bring such great
loss to Judaism.

The position of the Jews of Italy at this time was
pitiable; the bulls of Paul IV. and Pius V. had
reduced them to the utmost humiliation and had
materially diminished their numbers. In southern
Italy there were almost none left; in each of the
important communities of Rome, Venice, and Man-
tua there were about 2,000 Jews; while in all Lom-

bardy there were hardly 1,000. Gregory XIII. was
not less fanatical than his predecessors; he noticed
that, despite papal prohibition. Christians employed
Jewish physicians ; he therefore strictly prohibited the
Jews from attending Christian patients, and threat-
ened with tlie most severe punishment alike Chris-
tians who should have recourse to Hebrew practition-
ers, and Jewish physicians who should
Persecu- respond to the calls of Christians.
tions and Furthermore, the slightest assistance
Confisca- given to the Maranos of Portugal and
tions. Spain, in violation of the canonical
laws, was sufficient to deliver the
guilty one into the power of the Inquisition, which
did not hesitate to condemn tlie accused to death.
Gregory also induced the Inquisition to consign to
the flames a large number of copies of the Talmud
and of other Hebrew books. Special sermons, de-
signed to convert the Jews, were instituted ; and at
these at least one-third of the Jewish community,
men, women, and j'ouths above the age of twelve,
was forced to be present. The sermons were usu-
ally delivered by baptized Jews who had become
friars or priests; and not infrequently the Jews,
without any chance of protest, were forced to listen
to such sermons in their own synagogues. These
cruelties forced many Jews to leave Rome, and thus
their number was still further diminished.

Under the following pope, Sixtus V., the condi-
tion of the Jews was somewhat improved. He
repealed many of the regulations established by his
predecessors, permitted Jews to sojourn in all parts
of his realm, and accorded to Jewish physicians lib-
erty in the practise of their profession. David de
Pomis, an eminent physician, profited by this privi-
lege and published a work in Latin, entitled "De
Medico Hebraeo," dedicated to Duke Francis of
Urbino, in which he proved to the Jews their obliga-
tion to consider the Christians as brothers, to assist
them, and to attend them. The Jews of Mantua,
Milan, and Ferrara, taking advantage of the favor-
able disposition of the pope, sent to him an ambas-
sador, Bezaleel Massarano, with a present of 2,000
scudi, to obtain from him permission to reprint the
Talmud and other Jewish books, promising at the
same time to expurgate all passages considered of-
fensive to Christianity. Their demand was granted,
partly through the support given by Lopez, a Marano,
who administered the papal finances and who was
in great favor with the pontiff. Scarcely had the
reprinting of the Talmud been begun, and the con-
ditions of its printing been arranged by the commis-
sion, when Sixtus died. His successor, Gregory
XIV. , was as well disposed to the Jews as Sixtus
had been; but during his short pontificate he was
almost always ill. Clement VII. , who
Varied succeeded him, renewed the anti-Jew-
Fortunes, ish bulls of Paul IV. and Pius V.,
and exiled the Jews from all his ter-
ritories with the exception of Rome, Ancona, and
Avignon ; but, in order not to lose the commerce with
the East, he gave certain privileges to the Turkish
Jews. The exiles repaired to Tuscany, where they
were favorably received by Duke Ferdinand dei
Medici, who assigned to them the city of Pisa for
residence, and by Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga, at whose

Italy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

court Joseph da Fano, a Jew, was a favorite. They
were again permitted to read the Tahnud and other
Hebrew books, provided that they were printed ac-
cording to the rules of ceusorsliip approved by Six-
tus V. From Italy, where these expurgated books
were printed b}' tliousands, they were sent to the
Jews of other countries.

It was strange that under Philip II. the Jews ex-
iled from all parts of Spain were tolerated in the
duchy of Milan, then under Spanish rule. Such an
inconsistency of policy was designed to work ill
for the interests of the Jews. To avert this misfor-
tune an eloquent ambassador, Samuel Coen, was
sent to the king at Alessandria; but he was \msuc-
cessful in his mission. The king, persuaded by his
confessor, expelled the Jews from Milanese terri-
tory in th^ spring of 1597. The exiles, numbering
about 1,000, Avere received at Mantua, Modena,
Reggio, Verona, and Padua. The princes of the
house of Este had always accorded favor and protec-
tion to the Jews, and were much beloved by them.
Eleonora, a princess of this house, had inspired two
Jewish poets ; and when she was ill public prayers
were said in the synagogues for her restoration to
health. But misfortune overtook the Jews of Fer-
rara as well; for when Alfonso I., the last of the
Este family, died, the principality of Ferrara was
incorporated in the dominions of the Church under
Clement VII., who decreed the banish -
In meut of the Jews. Aldobrandini, a

the Ducal relative of the pope, took possession
Dominions, of Ferrara in the pontiff's name. See-
ing that all the commerce was in the
hands of the Jews, he complied with their request
for an exemption of five years from the decree, al-
though this was much against the pope's wish.

The Mantuan Jews suffered seriously at the time
of the Thirty Years' war. The Jews exiled from
the papal dominions had repeatedly found refuge in
Mantua, where the dukes of Gonzaga had accorded
protection to them, as they had done to the Jews
already resident there. The next to the last duke, al-
though a cardinal, favored them sufficiently to enact
a statute for the maintenance of order in the ghetto.
After the death of the last of this house the right
of succession was contested at the time of the Thirty
Years' war, and the city was besieged by the Ger-
man soldiery of Wallenstein.. After a valiant de-
fense, in which the Jews labored at the walls iintil
the approach of the Sabbath, the city fell into the
power of the besiegers, and for three days was at
the mercy of tire and sword. The commander-in-
chief, Altringer, forbade the soldiers to sack the
ghetto, thereby hoping to secure the spoils for him-
self. The Jews were ordered to leave the city, ta-
king with them only their personal clothing and
three gold ducats per capita. There were retained
enough Jews to act as guides to the places where
their coreligionists were supposed to have hidden
their treasures. Through three Jewish zealots these
circumstances came to tiie knowledge of the em-
peror, who ordered the governor, Collalto, to issue a
decree permitting the Jews to return and promising
them the restoration of their goods. Only about
800, however, returned, the others having died.

The victories in Europe of the Turks, who brought

tlieir armies up to the very walls of Vienna (1683),
helped even in Italy to incite the Christian popula-
tion against the Jews, who remained friendly to
the Turks. In Padua, in 1683, the Jews were
in great danger because of the agitation fomented
against them by the cloth-weavers. A violent tu-
mult broke out; the lives of the Jews were seriously
menaced ; and it was only with the greatest diffi-
culty that the governor of the city succeeded in res-
cuing them, in obedience to a rigorous order from
Venice. For several days thereafter the ghetto had
to be especially guarded.

At the end of the sixteenth and during the sev-
enteenth century several Hebrew writers attained
considerable fame. \mong them was Leon of
Modena, who wrote Italian and Latin verse. At
Venice, where there was a population

Leon of ofabout6,000 Jews, he and Simon Luz-

Modena. zatto (Simhah), both holding liberal
views, were members of the rabbinical
college. Several Jews of this epoch wrote elegant
Italian prose and verse. Two women merit special
mention, Deborah Ascarelli and Sarah Copia Sullam.
Even more cultured and profound than Modena was
his friend and disciple Joseph Solomon Delmedigo,
who had a special aptitude for mathematics, and
whose instructor was the great Galileo. Simon Luz-
zatto, in his " Discorso sullo Stato degli Ebrei," with-
out concealing their faults, took up the defense of the
Jews. Isaac Cardoso of Verona did likewise, in a
work entitled " Sulla Excellenza degli Ebrei. " These
liberal Italian thinkers persistently combated, asdid
others in various parts of Europe, the spirit of the
Cabala as well as some of the exaggerated practises
introduced later into Judaism ; for this reason their
works did not meet with popularity.

A strange phenomenon in the history of the Italian
Jews was Mordecai of Eisenstadt, a man of com-
manding presence, and a disciple and partizan of
Shabbethai Zebi. Abraliam Rovigo and Benjamin
Coen, rabbis of Reggio and Italian cabalists of the
school of Zacuto, were captivated by
Mordecai of him and greeted him with enthusiasm.
Eisenstadt. He proposed that they should go to
Rome to preach Messianic sermons.
The majority considered him a madman, and feared
the unlucky consequences of this foolish agitation;
others declared that it would be necessary for him
to become a Christian in order to achieve his pur-
poses. The Inquisition, failing in its attempts to
convert him, became suspicious; and his friends
counseled him to leave Italy and to go to Bohemia.

Moses Hayyim Luzzatto (born at Padua in 1707;
died at the age of forty) was a savant of the highest
order among Italian Jews famous in science and in
Hebrew poetry. He elaborated a new Zohar, which
brought upon him much trouble. Finally he was
persecuted, excommunicated, and forced to aban-
don his family and country and to become a wan-
derer. Isaac Lampronti compiled a monumental
work of rabbinical science, the great Talmudical
cyclopedia entitled " Pahad Yizhak. " Isaac Regoio,
influenced by Mendelssohn's works, above all by his
German translation of the Pentateuch, translated
portions of the Bible into Italian. He was the author
also of various poetical and philosophical works.

Comoo

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LEGHORN

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J.J.

I.G.D.

Map of Italy Showing Places Where Jewish Communities Have existed.

Italy
Itzigr

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Among the first schools to adopt the Reform
projects of Hartwig Wessely were those of Triest,
Venice, and Ferrara. Under the influence of the
liberal religious policy of Napoleon I., the Jews of
Italy, like those of France, were emancipated. The
supreme power of the popes was broken : they had
no longer time to give to framing anti-Jewish enact-
ments, and they no longer directed canonical laws
against the Jews. To the Sanhedrin convened by
Napoleon at Paris (1807;, Italy sent four deputies:
Abraham Vita da Cologna; Isaac Benzion Segre,
rabbi of Vercelli; Graziadio Ncppi, physician and
rabbi of Cento; and Jacob Israel Karmi, rabbi of
Reggio. Of the four rabbis assigned to the com-
mittee which was to draw up the answers to the
twelve questions proposed to the Assembly of Nota-
bles, two, Cologna and Segre, were Italians, and
were elected respectively first and second vice-presi-
dents of the Sanhedrin. But the libertj' acquired
by the Jews under Napoleon was of short duration ;
it disappeared with his downfall. Pius VII., on re-
gaining possession of his realms, reinstalled the In-
quisition; he deprived the Jews of every liberty and
confined them again in ghettos. Such
Reaction became to a greater or less extent their
After condition in all the states into which
Napoleon. Italy was then divided; at Rome
they were again forced to listen to
proselytizing sermons. But the spark of the French
Revolution could not be extinguished, so easily; a
short time after it burst forth into a flame more
brilliant and enduring. In the year 1829, conse-
quent upon an edict of the emperor Francis I., there
was opened in Padua, with the cooperation of
Venice, of Verona, and of Mantua, the first Italian
rabbinical college, in which Lelio della Torre and
Samuel David Luzzatto taught. Luzzatto was a .
man of great intellect; he wrote in pure Hebrew
upon philosophy, history, literature, criticism, and
grammar. Many distinguished rabbis, of whom
several still fill important pulpits, came from the
rabbinical college of Padua. Zelman, Moses Te-
deschi, and Castiglioni followed at Triest the pur-
poses and the principles of Luzzatto's school. At
the same time, Elijah BENAMOZEGH,.a man of great
knowledge and the author of several works, dis-
tinguished himself in the old rabbinical school at
Leghorn.

The return to medieval servitude after the Italian
restoration did not last long; and the Revolution
of 1848, which convulsed all Europe, brought great
advantages to the Jews. Although this was fol-
lowed by another reaction, yet the persecutions and
the violence of past times had disappeared. The
last outrage against the Jews of Italy was con-
nected with the case of Mortara, which occurred
in Bologna in 1858. In 1859 all the papal states be-
came the united kingdom of Italy un-
Modern der King Victor Emanuel II. ; and ex-
History, cept in Rome, where oppression lasted
until the end of the papal dominion
(Sept. 20, 1870), the Jews obtained full emancipation.
In behalf of their country the Jews with great ardor
sacrificed life and property in the memorable cam-
paigns of 1859, 1866, and 1870. Of the many who
deserve mention in this connection may be singled out

Isaac Pesaro Maurogonato. He was minister of
finance to the Venetian republic during the war of
1848 against Austria, and his grateful country erected
to him a memorial in bronze. There was also erected
in the palace of the doges a marble bust of Samuel
Romanin, a celebrated Jewish historian of Venice.
Florence, too, has commemorated a modern Jewish
poet, Solomon Fiorentino, by placing a marble tablet
upon the house in which he was born. The secretary
and faithful friend of Count Cavour was the Pied-
montese Isaac Artom ; while L'Olper, later rabbi of
Turin, and also the friend and counselor of Mazzini,
was one of the most courageous advocates of Italian
independence. The names of the Jewish soldiers who
died in the cause of Italian liberty were placed along
with those of their Christian fellow soldiers on the
monuments erected in their honor.

After the death of Luzzatto the rabbinical college
rapidly declined ; the wars and the revolutions that
convulsed Italy absorbed the interest of the Jews
entirely. Wlien the Venetian province became part
of Italy the college was abolished with the intention
of establishing another elsewhere. Somewhat later
(1887) such a college was founded at Rome, which had
been made the capital of the kingdom. The rabbinical
school at Leghorn continued its work. The abandon-
ment of the Jewish college in Padua not only resulted
in a loss to Jewisli studies in general, but was felt
throughout Italy likewise in the scarcity of able
Italian rabbis. The rabbinical college at Rome was
opened under thS leadership of Rabbi Mortara of
Mantua, Professors Ehrenreich and Sorani being
among the instructors. It was not successful ; and
it was transferred to Florence, where it flourished
under the direction of Dr. S. H. Margulies.

In 1853 the rabbis Pontremoli and Levi founded
at Vercelli a monthly review, which was entitled
"L'Educatore Israelita," for the discussion of vital
questions of Jewish literature and history. This was
published with the title " Vessillo Israelitico " at
Casale Monferrato, and was under the direction of
Flaminio Servi until his death (Jan. 23, 1904). About
fifteen years ago another Jewish magazine, the
" Corriere Israelilico, " was founded by Abraham Mor-
purgo at Triest, where it is still published.

The small and obscure old synagogues situated in
narrow streets have been replaced by magnificent
and imposing temples in Milan, Turin, Modena,
Florence, and even at Rome, where the commu-
nity, which is the largest in Italy, and contains be-
tween 12,000 and 14,000 Jews, is now being com-
pletely reorganized. As head of this most important
community Prof. Vittorio Castiglione of Triest has
lately been chosen chief rabbi. In order to make a
place in the service for the choir, the ritual has
been shortened, while the sermons have become
more general and elevated in tone. In exceptional
cases Jews have become ministers of finance (Leone
Wollemberg in 1901, andLuigi Luzzatti, for the fifth
time, in 1903) and minister of war (Ottolenghi in
1902-3). The Italian Jews, like those of other
countries, are worthily represented in all fields of
human activity; and it may be added that Italy
remains free from the contagion of anti-Semitism
with which too many of its influential European
neighbors liave become inoculated.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Italy
Itzigr

See Apulia; Bari; Bologna; Chukch Coun-
cils; Ferraka; Florence; Leghorn; Mantua;
Padua; Popes; Rome.

G. V. C.

ITHAMAR (lOn'N) : Youngest son of Aaron
by Elisbeba (Ex. vi. 23). Together witli his father
and three brotliers he was consecrated to the priest-
hood {ib. xxviii. 1 ; Lev. viii. 13). On the death of
Nadab and Abihu, Ithamar and his elder brother,
Eleazar, were ordered not to mourn for them ; and
he and Eleazar were appointed successors of Aaron
in the priesthood (Lev. x. 6-15; Num. iii. 4). Dur-
ing the wanderings of the Israelites in the wilder-
ness, Ithamar was the superintendent of the Ger-
shonites and Merarites, who were in charge of the
Tabernacle and its equipment, and he directed the
service of the Levites (Ex. xxxviii. 21 ; Num. iv.
21-33). The high-priesthood passed over into the
family of Ithamar through Eli, and from him de-
scended in regular succession until Abiathar was de-
prived of it by Solomon; the high-priesthood then
reverted to the family of Eleazar (I Kings ii. 27,
35). In the reign of David, as the descendants of
Eleazar were more numerous than those of Ithamar,
the latter w^ere appointed for the monthly services in
the proportion of one to two of the former (I Chron.
xxiv. 3, 4).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

ITIL. See Atel.

ITINERANT MENDICANT. See
Schnokrer.
ITINERANT TEACHERS. See Bahur.

ITTJREA {'I-ovpaia): Greek name of a province,
(derived from the Biblical " Jetur," name of a son of
Ishmael (comp. Gen. xxv. 15, 16). The name of
the province is mentioned only once (Luke iii. 1),
while in historical sources tlie name of the people,
theltureans ('iTovpalot, 'Iri>pa(o<), occurs. The latter
are first mentioned by Eupolemus — as one of the
tribes conquered by David (Eusebius, " Prseparatio
Evangelica, " ix. 30) — and subsequently by Strabo,
Pliny, Josephus, and others, some of whom desig-
nate the Itureans as Arabs and others as Syrians.
They were known to the Romans as a predatory
people (Cicero, "Philippics," ii. 112), and were ap-
preciated by them for their great skill in archery
(Caesar, "Bellum Africanum," 20).

The Itureans did not always possess the same
land ; as a nomadic people they roamed through the
country, and when dispossessed of one place set-
tled in another. Thus, according to I Chron. (v.
19-22), the people of Jetur, the Itureans bf the
Greeks, fell with the Hagaritesinlo the hands of the
children of Reuben, Gad, and the h^lf-tribe of Ma-
nasseh, who occupied their country. Later, in the
time of the Roman conquest, they dwelt in the
region of Mount Lebanon.

Many Christian theologians, among them Eusebius
("Onomasticon." ed. Lagarde. pp. 268, 298), taking
into consideration the above-cited passage of Luke,
place Iturea near Trachonitis; but this seems con-
trary to all the historical sources. According to
Josephus ("Ant." xiii. 11, § 3), the Iturean king-
dom lay north of Galilee, and in 105 B.C. Aristobu-

lus, having defeated the Itureans, annexed a part of
their country to Judea, imposing Judaism upon the
inhabitants. Strabo (xvi. 2, § 10, p. 753) includes
the land of the Itureans in the kingdom of Ptolemy,
son of Mennaius, whose residence was atChalcisand
who reigned 85-40 B.C. Ptolemj' was succeeded
by his son Lysanias, called by Dio Cassius (xlix.
32) "king of the Itureans." About 23 b.c. Iturea
with the adjacent provinces fell into the liands of a
chief named Zenodorus (Josephus, I.e. xv. 10, § 1;
idem, " B. J." i. 20, § 4). Three years later, at' the
death of Zenodorus, Augustus gave Iturea to Herod
the Great, who in turn bequeathed it to his son
Philip (Josephus, "Ant." xv. 10, § 3).

That Iturea was in the region of Mount Lebanon
is confirmed by an inscription of about the year6c.E.
("Ephemeris Epigraphica," 1881, pp. 537-542), in
which Q. ^'Emilius Secundus relates that he was sent
by Quirinius against the Itureans in Mount Lebanon.
In 38 Caligula gave Iturea to a certain Soemus,
who is called by Dio Cassius (lix. 12) and by Tac-
itus ("Annals," xii. 23) "king of the Itureans."
After the death of Soemus (49) his kingdom was
incorporated into the province of Syria (Tacitus,
I.e.). After this incorporation the Itureans fur-
nished soldiers for the Roman army; and the desig-
nations "Ala I. Augusta Ituraeorum " and "Cohors
I. Augusta Ituraeorum " are met with in the inscrip-
tions ("Epheini?ris Epigraphica," 1884, p. 194).

Bibliography: G. A. Smith, in Hastings, Diet. Bible; Winer,
B. R.; Schurer, Gesch. M ed., i. 707 et seq.
E. G. n. M. Sel.

xTZE (ISAAC) OF CHERNIGOV: Russian
scholar of the twelfth century, frequently consulted
by his contemporaries on questions of Biblical exe-
gesis. He is probably identical with Isaac of Rus-
sia, found in the English records of 1181. His ex-
planation of the term "yabam," for which he finds
a parallel in the Russian language, is quoted by
Moses ben Isaac Nasi of London in his lexicon
" Sef er ha-Shoham. " Zunz, and after him Harkavy,
see in this explanation evidence that the Jews living
in Russia in the time of Itze of Chernigov spoke the
vernacular of the country.

Bibliography: Zunz, Ritm^, p. 73; Harkavy, Ha-Yehudim
u-Sefat lia-Selavim, pp.14, 62; Neubauer, in AUg. Zeit.
des Jud. 1865, No. 17; Jacobs, Jens of Angevin England,
pp. 66, 73"; J. Q. R. ii. 329.

H. R. I. Br.

ITZIG (sometimes Hitzig) : Wealthy German
family which did much in the eighteenth century for
the development of modern culture among the Jews._

Babette Itzig : Born 1749; married Salomon;
her daughter Leah became the wife of Abraham Men-
delssohn and was the mother of Felix Mendelssohn
Bartholdy.

Bliimchen Itzig : Born 1752; married David
Fried lander

Bonem Itzig: Born 1756; probably the Julius
Eduard Hitzig whose son Georg Heinrich
Friedrich Hitzig (born Berlin April 8, 1811; died
there Oct. 11, 1881), the architect, built the Ber-
lin Stock Exchange on the site of his grandfather
Daniel Itzig's residence on the Burgstrasse (see Kay-
serling, "Moses Mendelssohn," p. 11, Leipsic, 1888).

P. Wi.

Itzigr
Ivan IV.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Daniel Itzig: German banker ; headof the Jew-
ish communities of Prussia (1764-99) ; born 1723;
aied at Berlin May 21, 1799. Itzig was a member
of the wealthy banking firm of Itzig, Ephraim &
Son, whose financial operations greatly assisted
Frederick the Great in his wars. He was also the
owner of the large lead-factories at Sorge as well as
of the oil-mill at Berlin, being one of the few Jews
permitted to engage in such enterprises. In 1756
Itzig was appointed "Milnzjude" (mint-master) by
Frederick the Great, and again in 1758, together
with his partner Ephraim.

In 1797 Itzig became " Hofbankier " (court-banker)
under Frederick William II. When the latter came
to the throne he instituted a commission to examine
into the grievances of the Jews and to suggest meas-
ures for their relief. Itzig, with his son-in-law
David Friedlander, was appointed general dele-
gate to that body. They had the courage to expose
to the conference the cruel legislation of Frederick
the Great and to refuse the inadequate reforms pro-
posed(Konig, "Annalen der Juden im Preussischen
Staate," p. 236).

The Itzigs were among those granted equal rights
with Christians, and an order was issued that they
should not be classified as Jews in official docu-
ments. Itzig was the first to plan the founding of
a home and school for poor Jewish children at Ber-
lin (1761), a plan which, through the endeavors of
David Friedlander and of Itzig's son Isaac Daniel
Itzig, was realized in 1778 in the establishment of
the Hinnuk Ne'arim, the first school of its kind in
Germany. At the instance of Moses Mendelssohn,
Itzig, as the head of the Jewish community, inter-
posed (April, 1782) in behalf of Wessely's " Worte
der Wahrheit und des Friedens," which work had
been put under the ban by Polish rabbis, and was
about to receive the same treatment from Hirschel
Levin, chief rabbi of Berlin.

Itzig married Miriam (daughter of Simhah Bonem),

by Avhom he had thirteen children.

Bibliography: Geiger, Oe»ch. der Juden in Berlin, pp. 84-
85. 140-141, Berlin, 1871; Kohut, Ge»ch. der Deut»chcn Ju-
den, pp. 720, 760 ; Graetz, HM. v. .^97, 413, 41.5-416 ; see also
Steinschneider, Hehr. Bibl. 1v. 72-73, for a poem dedicated to
Itzig by Israel Samosc. j q j)

Elias Itzig: Born 1755; father of Julius Edu-
ard Itzig, " Crirainalrath " and writer on criminal
law, who was born in Berlin March 27, 1780; died
there Nov. 26, 1849.

Henriette Itzig : Wife of Nathan Mendels-
sohn.

Jacob Itzig : Born 1764 ; his son adopted the
name of "Bornhcim."

Jettchen (Yetta) Itzig: Born 1767; married
Mendel Opperheim, whose sons adopted the name
of "Oppenfeld."

Johannet Itzig : Born 1748; married Fliess.

Julius Eduard Hitzig: Son of the architect
Georg Itzig; born in Berlin Feb. 6, 1838; medical
professor at the universities of Zurich and (later)
Halle ; an authority on diseases of the brain.

Rachel Itzig : Born 1766 ; died (unmarried) 1826.

Rebecca Itzig : Born 1763; married Ephiaim.

V6gelch.en Itzig : Became Baroness Fanny von
Arnstein, of Vienna; born in Berlin Sept. 29, 1757;
died June 8, 1818.

Zaerlche Itzig: Born 1761; died May 11, 1854;
married Samuel Levi.

Zipperche Itzig : Born 1760; married Bernhard,
Freiherr von Eskeles.

Most of the descendants of the Itzig family are
members of the Christian Church.
Bibliography: Steinschneider, Hehr. Bibl. iv. 73-74; AUu.

Deutsche Biog.x Mcucig KonversatUyns-Lexikon; Fuenii,

Kencset Yisrael, pp. 263-264, Warsaw, 1886.

s. P- Wi.

IVAN III., VASSILIVICH, THE GREAT :

Czar of Kussia 1462-1505. His attitude toward the
Jews was friendly. Under his reign the Jew Skhari-
yah (Zechariah), who arrived in Novgorod with the
suite of Prince Mikhail Olelkovich, founded a Juda-
izing sect to which several eminent Russians ad-
hered ; among them the priest Dionis, the archpriest
Aleksei, Feodor Kuritzyn, the archimandrite Sosima,
the monk Zechariya, and even Ivan's daughter-in-
law. Princess Helena.

With the aid of Chozi Kokos (from "Chozi" = "a
pilgrim to the Holy Land," and " Kok-Kos " = " the
blue-eyed "), an infiuential Jew of Kaffa, Ivan con-
cluded and maintained throughout his entire reign
a very important alliance with Menghli Girei,
Khan of the Crimea. The services rendered by Kokos
to Ivan may partly explain the latter's favorable
attitude toward the Jews. The part played by
Kokos as the agest of the grand duke is shown by
the instruction given by the latter to his emissary,
the boyar Nikita^Beklemishev, dated March, 1474
("Sbornik Imp. Russ. Istor. Obschestva," xli. 8).
In his letter Beklemishev is instructed by Ivan to
transmit to Kokos his credentials to the court of the
khan and the regards of the grand duke. Kokos is
requested to discontinue the use of the Hebrew lan-
guage in his further communications to the grand
duke, and to use either Russian or Tatar instead.

Although there is no evidence of the existence of
Jewish communities in Great Russia during the
reign of Ivan, it seems certain that Jewish mer-
chants from Kiev, Novgorod, and other towns were
prominent in the commercial transactions of Moscow
with Lithuania, the Orient, and the Crimea.

The fact that Ivan ordered the beheading (April
32, 1490) of his Jewish physician Leon should not
in any way affect the estimate of his attitude
toward the Jews as a whole ; for Leon had boasted
of his ability to heal the son of the grand duke, and
he was punished for his boastfulness and for his
failure to effect the promised cure. If the condi-
tion of the Jews of Moscow was changed for the
worse, it was through the persistent efforts of the
clergy, led by Gennadi, who saw a great menace to
the Greek Church in the spread of the heresy.

Bibliography: SlMrnik Imp. Buss. Istor. Ohschestva, xli. 8,
12, 40-41, .50, 71, 74, 77, 114, 309: Polnoye Sohraiiiiie Russkikh
Lijetoplsei, vl. 763, 786, 819; Karamzim, Istor. Gosud. Rosis.
vi. 1.54-156, 216, 225, notes 122, 125, 494, 595 ; Solovyev, Istor.
Rnssii, vol. v.; Platon, Kratkaya Tzerkovnaya RossL^kaya
Istoriya, passim, Moscow, 1833 ; Gratz, Oesch. (Hebr. ed.), vii.
63; P. Pierling, La Russie et VOrient; Mariage d'wi Tsar
an Vatican, Ivan III. et Sophie Paleolngue. Paris. 1891,
passim.

H. R.

IVAN IV., VASSILIVICH, THE TERRI-
BLE : Czar of Russia 1533-84. In his time the
prejudice against the Jews in the Muscovite domin-
ions was very pronounced. They were feared as

p.-

pmx^injp:) coh^y^cth^tvH^fr)*!^ vrMfrrpi'n^p) wyn^j^pjx^'
r^w»Pi^to jTW^ Jj^Pt5iPP'p7pk^ni^pTo?ijy?jn3pb?te

PAGE FROM Jacob ben asher's "Orah Hayyim," printed at Ixar, 1485.

(Fn the British Museum.)

Ivisa

Jabal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

magicians and proselytizers. In 1545 Ivan sent a
special embassy to Sigismund August, King of
Poland, with reference to boundary disputes and
to certain Jews of Brest whose goods had been
burned in Moscow because they had brought thitlier
some red ocher ("' mumeya "), notwithstanding the
prohibition to enter Muscovite territorj'. In 1550
Sigismund August asked Ivan the Terrible to per-
mit the Lithuanian Jews to trade without hindrance
throughout Russia, on the strength of old agree-
ments permitting Polish merchants to trade in Lithu-
ania. The czar firmly refused to comply with his
request.

When the Russian army occupied the flourishing
Polish city of Polotzk, which at that time (1563)
had a prosperous Jewish community, the czar ordered
that all the local Jews be converted to the Greek
Orthodox -faith; and those who resisted were either
drowned in the Dilna or burned at the stake.

Bibliography: Kniga Posolskaya Metriki Litovshoi, i. 5;
Chtennia v Mofiknvskom Obschestvue IsUmi i Drevnnstei,
1860, i. (>5, iv., pa.ssim : Bantysh-Kanienski, Perepuska Mezhdu
Rossiyeyu i PoWieuu, i. 77.

H. K.
IVISA or IVIZA. See Balearic Islands.

IVORY: The Hebrew word for ivory, i.e.,
"shen" ( = " tooth"), shows that the Israelites knew
what ivory was. The other term used to denote ivory,
"shenhabbim" (I Kings x. 22; II Chron. ix. 21), is
usually explained as a compound of "shen" and the
Egyptian, "ab," "ebu " (elephant). Other suggested
derivations, from the Indian or Assyrian, are im-
probable, though the question can not be decided
with certainty. In ancient times ivory was always
a very costly article. In the East it was commonly
used for inlaid work. It is related of Ahab (I Kings
xxii. 39) that he built for himself an "ivory house,"
or palace, the halls and chambers of which were en-
riched with inlaid ivory. With this should be
compared Homer's description of Menelaus' palace
("Odyssey," iv. 63). The Assyrians had similar
palaces. Ps. xlv. 9 (A. V. 8) and Amos iii. 15 also
speak of palaces, or houses, of ivory. As the latter
passage indicates, the luxury of the court was still
imitated by the great of the land at the time of
Amos. Whether or not it may be concluded, from
the "ivory tower" in Cant. vii. 4, that the exterior
of such palaces, or the exterior of one special tower,
was inlaid with ivory is doubtful.

Ezek. xxvii. 6 mentions the rich ivory ornamenta-
tion (of the deck ?) of Phenician ships. Inlaid work
was popular also for furniture. Amos (vi. 4) con-
demns the newly introduced luxury of couches in-
laid with ivory. Ivory couches and chairs are in-
cluded in the enumeration of Hezekiah's tribute to
Sennacherib. Solomon's ivory throne (I Kings x.
18 et seq.) seems to have been of another kind— most
probably of carved ivory. The statement that Solo-
mon's ships brought ivory from Ophir (I Kings x.
22) is the only indication as to the source of his sup-
ply. It is usually supposed that it came from India,
but it is more likely that it was brought mostly
from the east coast of Africa. Ethiopia supplied the
Egyptians with most of their ivory, and the Pheni-
cian markets were undoubtedly partially supplied
from Egypt.

E. G. H. L Be.

IWRE-TEUTSCH. See Jud.ko-Geuman.

IXAR (HIJAR) : Town in Aragou, Spain, 63
miles to the northeast of Teruel. Here were printed
by Eliezer Alantansi two parts of the Spanish edition
of the Arba' Turim: the Orah Hayyim in 1485, and
the Yoreh De'ah in 1487, possibly in continuation
of the Guadalajara Eben ha-'Ezer. Besides these,
Alantansi printed a Pentateuch with Megillot. In
the same year there appeared a Pentateuch with the
Targum, issued by Solomon Salmati, possibly in
rivalry with Alantansi. Alantansi used as a printer's
mark a lion on a black shield in his first publication,
a lion on a red shield in his second, and a lion fight-
ing with a unicorn in his Pentateuch.

Bibliography: Steinsclmeider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2880, 3099;
Cassel and Steinschneider, In Ersch and Gruber, Enclic. sec-
tion ii., part 28, p. 37a; Freimann, Ueber Hehriiische Iiiku-
nabelii, pp. 3, 4.

lYYAR : The second month in the Jewish calen-
dar, consisting always of twenty-nine days, and fall-
ing between the tenth of April and the eighth of June
(R. H. 3a et passim; Targ. Yer. to Ex. xii. 39; Targ.
Sheui to Esth. iii. 7). This month in the Bible is
designated as IT (I Kings vi. 1 = the month of be-
ginning the Temple-building), probably the same
as the Phenician or Punic 2^T (Lidzbarski, "Nord-
Semitische Epigraphik," p. 267). The word"Iy-
j'ar " is undoubtedly connected with the root "ilK,
and thus denominates the month as the month of
light, over and against Adar, which etymologically
is the dark month. Like all the names of the
months, "lyyar" is a loan-word from the Assyro-
Babylonian ("A-a-ru"; see Delitzsch, "Handwor-
terb." p. 34b). This month falls in the Omer, the
first of lyyar being the sixteenth day of Omer.

The principal events recorded in lyyar are as fol-
lows :

lyyar 1. — According to Seder '01am R. viii., the
census of the people was begun under Moses (Num.
i.-ii. 18).

2. — Solomon began the building of the Temple
(see above; II Chron. iii. 2).

7. — Anniversary of the dedication of the walls of
Jerusalem (Meg. Ta'an. ii. 1, xii. 5).

8. — Memorial day of the massacre of the Jews of
Speyer during the First Crusade (l"jn"n fin'TJ, 1096;
see Gratz, "Gesch." vi. 101 etseq.; Jellinek, "Kon-
tres Gezerot ").

10.— Eli died (I Sam. iv. 1-18).

15. — Arrival of the Israelites in the desert of Sin
(Ex. xvi.); also the day for Pesah Sheni (Num. ix.
7; II Chron. xxx.).

16. — The manna began to fall (Ex. xvi.).

17. — On this daJ^ rising against Florus, the Jews
broke down the colonnade connecting the citadel
Antonia with the Temple (3826 = 66; Josephus, "B.
J." ii. 16, § 17); also the anniversary of the im-
prisonment of the Jews in England (5047 = Friday,
May 2, 1287; Gratz, I.e. vii. 197-198).

18. — LaG be-'Omer = thirty -third day of Omer,
when marriages may be solemnized.

21.— Siege of Jotapata began 3827 = 67 (Gratz, I.e.
iii. 410-414).

23. — Arrival of Israel at Rephidim (Seder 'Olamj
R. v.).

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ivisa
Jabal

27. — A day of victory on account of the I'ccognition
of the independence of Jvidea under Simon I. (Meg.
Ta'an. ii.); beginningof a new Eu.\(3618 =142 b.c. ;
I Mace. xiii. 41, 42).

29. — Deatli of Samuel the prophet (Meg. Ta'an.
I.e.). E. G. H.

IZATES : Proselyte*; King of Adiabene; son of
Queen Helena and Monobaz I. ; born in the year 1 of
the cojumon era; died in 55. While in Charan
Spasinu, whither he had been sent by his father, a
Jewish merchant named Ananias acquainted Iiim
with the tenets of the Jewish religion, in which he
became deeply interested. His mother had been pre-
viously won over to Juclaism without his knowledge.
On ascending the throne on the death of his father,
Izates discovered the conversion of his mother;
and lie himself intended to adopt Judaism, and even
to submit to circumcision. He was, liowever, dis-
suaded from this step both by his teacher Ananias
and by his mother, but was ultimately persuaded
thereto by another Jew, Eleazar.

For some time Izates enjoyed peace; and he was
so highly respected that he was chosen as arbitrator
between the Parthian king Artaban III. and the re-
bellious nobles of that monarch. But when several
of Izates' relatives openly acknowledged their con-
version to Judaism, some of the nobles of Adiabene
secretly induced Abia, King of Arabia, to declare
war against him. Izates defeated his enemy, who in
despair committed suicide. The nobles then con-
spired with Volageses, King of Parthia, but the

latter was at the last moment prevented from carry-
ing out his plans, and Izates continued to reign
undisturbed for twenty-four years. He left twenty-
four sons and twenty -four daughters. Izates' re-
mains and those of Queen Helena were sent by
Monobaz II. to Jerusalem for burial. For the ac-
count of Izates' conversion given in the Midrash see
Gen. R. xlvi. Compare Adiabene; Ananias; Hel-
ena, and the bibliography there cited.

G. I. Br.

IZBAN. See Elon.

IZBAELITA : Jewish weekly in the Polish lan-
guage, published in Warsaw since 1865. It was the
successor of the Jutkzenka. At the beginning the
" Izraelita " met with many obstacles in the way of
restrictions from the censor; and it was also strongly
opposed by the Orthodox 'Jews. Even the Liberals
were not altogether pleased with it. While the
" Izraelita " advised the Orthodox Jews to introduce
the Polish language in the heder, it urged the Lib-
erals to teach their children Hebrew. From 1865 to
1897 the paper was edited by Samuel H. Peltyn,
who always conducted it in a spirit of patriotism,
and advocated assimilation. After his death (Sept.,
1897) N. Sokolow became its editor, and upheld
Zionism; but in 1901, when L. Grosglik became
editor, the " Izraelita " returned to its old program.

H. K. S. Po.

IZRAELITA KOZLdNY. See Periodicals.

IZRAELITA MAGYAR Ni^PTANITO. See
Periodicals.

JAARBOOKEN VOR DE ISRAELITEN.

See Year -Books.

JAAZER or JAZER ("iTy: in I Chron. xxvi. 31
^>jj;^ =" he will help "): A city east of the Jordan, in
or near Gilead (Num. xxxii. 1, 3; I Chron. I.e.), and
inhabited by the Amorites. It was taken by a special
expedition sent by Moses to conquer it (Num. xxi.
32). From the Septuagint, which reads 'laC'/p for TJ?
in Num. xxi. 24, it appears that Jaazer was on the bor-
der of Ammon. As an important city it gave its
name to the whole of the surrounding territory {ih.
xxxii. 1). Even a "sea of Jaazer" is mentioned in
Jer. xlviii. 32 (but comp. the Septuagint rendering
■n67iL^ 'laCf'/p, probably due to reading IT^' Ty iristead

of-iTy D^).

Jaazer is stated to have been a fertile land fit for
the raising of cattle (ib.) and a place having many
vineyards (Isa. xvi. 8, 9; Jer. I.e.). It was occupied
by the children of Gad (Josh. xiii. 25; I Chron. xxvi.
31), by which tribe it was allotted to the Merarite
Levites (Josh. xxi. 39; I Chron. vi. 66 [A. V. 81]).
In the time of David it seems to have been occupied
by the Hebronites, who were descendants of Kohath
(I Chron. xxvi. 31). It was chosen as one of the sta-
tions b}' David's officers who were sent to number
the children of Israel (II Sam. xxiv. 5).

According to Josephus ("Ant." xii. 8, ^ 1),

Jaazer was captured and burned by Judas Macca-
beus. The site of Jaazer was defined by Eusebius
and Jerome ("Onomasticon," ».t). "Azor")as being
8 or 10 Roman miles west of Philadelphia, and 15
miles north of Heslibon, and as the source of a large
river falling into the Jordan. It is identified by
some scholars (e.g., S. Merrill; see Hastings, "Diet.
Bible," s.r.) with the modern Khurbat Sar on the
road from 'Irak al-Amir to Al-Salt; but this identi-
fication has been rejected by Cheyne (Cheyne and
Black, "Encyc. Bibl." s.-y.).
e. g. h. M. Sel.

JABAL IBN JAWWAL : Jewish Arabic poet
of the seventh century ; contemporary of Mohammed.
According to Ibn Hisham (" Kitab Sirat Rasul Allah,"
ed. Wiistenfeld, pp. 690, 713) and Abu al-Faraj al-
Isbahani ("Kitab al-Aghani," viii. 104), Jabal was a
Tha'alabite (Abu al-Faraj gives the whole geneal-
ogy), but neither of them mentions the fact that he
w^as a Jew. Ibn Hajar, however, in his biographical
dictionary "Kitab al-Asabah fi Tamyiz al-Saha
bah " (ed. Sprenger, i. 453), relying on Ibn al-Kalbi
and on Al-Marzabani, declares that such was the
case and that Jabal subsequently embraced Islam.
Yakut ("Mu'jam," i. 765). quoting a verse of Jabal,
calls him erroneouslv "Jamal ibn Jawwal al-Tagh-
labi."

Jabali
Jablouski

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDLV

Jabal is sporadically cited by the above-mentioned
Arabic authors. Abu al-Faraj {I.e. p. 101) quotes
two verses of Jabal's, apparently from a poem which
he addressed to Al-Shammakh, himself a Tha'ala-
bite poet, in reference to a quarrel that arose be-
tween them. This is probably the same incident as
that related by Abu al-Faraj {I.e. p. 104); namely,
that Al-Shammakh fell in love with Jabal's sister
Kalbah, and when, shortly afterward, Al-Shammakh
went on a journey she married his brother, giving
rise to a poetical contest between the disappointed
lover and Jabal. Eleven other verses by Jabal, in-
dicating sufficiently the poet's Jewish religion, are
quoted by Ibn Hisham {I.e. p. 713). They are an el-
egy on the death of Huyayy (according to Sprenger's
punctuation in Ibn Ha jar, I.e., " Jubaj^y ") ibn Akh-
tab, chief of the Banu al-Nadir, and on the de-
feat by Mohammed of this tribe and of the Banu
Kuraiza. These verses were a reply to the poet
Hassan ibn Thabit. They apparently do not form a
complete poem; for Ibn Hajar {I.e.) quotes a verse
of Jabal's not appearing in the quotation of Ibn
Hisham, but having the same meter and the same
rime, and therefore probably from the same poem.

Bibliography : Besides the sources mentioned above, H.
Hirsclifeld, in R. E. J. x. 26.
G. M. Sel.

JABALI, ABU AL-TAYYIB AL- : Karaite
scholar of the tenth centuiy. His full name is said to
have been Samuel ben Asher ben Mansur. The
surname " al-Jabali " indicates that he came from the
province of Jabal, in the neighborhood of Hamadan.
According to Ibn al-Hiti, he was a contemporary of
Abu al-Faraj Harun, the author of "Mushtamil."
This is, however, inaccurate, inasmuch as Abu al-
Faraj wrote in the year 1026, whereas Al-Jabali is
quoted by an earlier writer, Sahl b. Mazliah. Al-
Jabali controverted Saadia Gaon in a special writing.
He is also said to have controverted a certain Mena-
hem, the head of a school, after he had read a
letter written by a son of this Menahem to one Abu
Thabit (otherwise unknown).

Perhaps this Menahem is identical with a scholar
of the same name w"ho directed questions to Saadia
in the Arabic language. In that case Al-Jabali can
not have flourished before 950-960.

Al-Jabali must not be confounded with the Ka-
raite author Samuel ibn Mansur, who presumably
belongs to the fourteenth century.

Bibliography : Steinschneider, Die Arabische Literatur der
Juden, §8 30, 42, 196.
K. S. P.

JABBOK (P3''): One of the principal tribu-
taries of the Jordan ; first mentioned in connection
with the meeting of Jacob and Esau and v/ith the
struggle of Jacob with the angel (Gen. xxxii. 23
etseq.). It was the boundary separating the terri-
tory of Eeuben and Gad from that of Ammon, the
latter being described as lying along the Jabbok
{Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16; Josh. xii. 2).
The territory of Sihon is described as extending
" from Arnon unto Jabbok " (Num. xxi. 24), and it
was reclaimed later by the King of Ammon (Judges
xi. 13, 22). Eusebius ("Onomasticon," ed. Larsow-
Parthey, pp. 222, 224, Berlin, 1862) places the river
between Gerasa and Philadelphia. The Jabbok is

identified with the Wadi or Nahr al-Zarka, a river
that rises in Mount Hauran, and, after receiving
many tributaries, empties into the Jordan between
Gennesaretand the Dead Sea (Schwarz, " Das Heilige
Land," p. 30; comp. Estori Farhi, "Kaftor wa-
Ferah," ed. Luncz, p. 63, Jerusalem, 1897). The
general opinion is that the name "Zarka" is given
to this river on account of the bluish color of its
water; but Schwarz {I.e.) says that it is because the
river in its course touches the fortress of Zarka on
the route between Damascus and Mecca.
E. G. II. M. Sel.

JABESH (more fully Jabesh - gilead [^y*,
ti^-a"" = "dry"]): Principal city of Gilead, east of
the Jordan. It is first mentioned in connection with
the war between the Benjamites and the other tribes
of Israel (Judges xxi. 8-24). Because its inhabitants
had refused to march against the Benjamites, 12,000
Israelites were sent against it. All the people of the
city were slain except 400 virgins, who were spared
to be given as wives to the surviving Benjamites. In
the beginning of the reign of Saul tlie city was at-
tacked by Nahash, King of Ammon, and was forced
to apply to Saul for help (I Sam. xi. 1-10). The
inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead remained grateful to
Saul for his assistance, and when he and his three
sons were killed by the Philistines on Mount Gilboa,
they went by night, took the bodies from the wall
of Beth-shan, brought them to Jabesh, burned
them, buried the remains, and fasted seven days {ib.
xxxi. 2, 6, 11-13). For this deed Jabesh-gilead was
afterward highly lauded (II Sam. ii. 4-6).

Josephus ("Ant." vi. 5, § 1) calls Jabesh the
metropolis of the Gileadites. Eusebius (" Onomas-
ticon ") speaks of it as of a village six Roman miles
from Pella on the road to Gerasa. The name is pre-
served in the modern Wadi Yabis; and Robinson
(" Researches," 2d ed., iii. 319) holds the ruins of Al-
Dair to be the site of Jabesh-gilead.

E. G. n.

M. Sel.

JABEZ : Eponym of a clan of the Kenite family
of the Rechabites, which clan was merged into the
tribe of Judah. I Chron. ii. 55 refers to " families
of scribes" ("soferim ") dwelling at Jabez ; while in
another passage {ib. iv. 9-10) Jabez is described as
"more honorable than his brethren." His name
(Ya'bez) is derived from his mother's saying: "I
bare him with sorrow " (" 'ozeb "). Another explana-
tion is {ib. iv. 10, Hebr.): "Jabez called on the God
of Israel, saying, ' If Thou wilt bless me and enlarge
my boundary, and Thine hand be with me, and Thou
wilt give me friendships that will not grieve me [an
allusion to " 'ezeb "] then ' [the concluding words are
omitted in the text; see the commentaries to iv. 10].
And God granted him that which he requested."

Jabez was prominent, particularly after the Exile,
among those Kenite clans that embraced Judaism
becoming scribes and teachers of the Law. Rabbin-
ical tradition identifies Jabez with Othniel the Ken-
ezite, the head of the bet ha-midrash after the death
of Moses (Tem. 16a; Targ. to I Chron. ii. 55, iv. 9).
Hence the vow of Jabez was understood to refer to
his schoolhouse: "If Thou wilt bless me with chil-
dren, and give me many disciples and associates,"
etc. (Tem. I.e. ; Sanh. 106a). " The whole tribe of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jabali
Jablonski

Jethro, the Kenites as well as the Rechabites, left
their habitations near Jericho and went to Jabez to
learn the Torah from him" (Mek., Yitro, 'Amalek,
ii. ; Sifre, Num. 78).

In the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (v, 5) Jabez
is mentioned together with Jeremiah and Gedaliah
among tlie saintly leaders of the people at the de-
struction of the Temple, being one of the deathless
frequently mentioned in rabbinical tradition (Mas-
sek. Derek Erez i. ; see "J. Q. K." v. 417 et seq.).

E. G. H. K.

JABEZ, BARZILLAI BEN BARUCH :

Turkish Talmudist of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries; son in-law of Elijah Hako, author of
"Ruah Eliyahu." Jabez was a Talmudist of con-
siderable reputation, and had many pupils, among
whom were his son-in-law Judah Ashkenazi, and
Isaac Nuiiez Belmonte, author of "Sha'arlia-Melek."
Jabez was the author of: "'Leshon 'Arummim"
(Smyrna, 1749), containing annotations to Elijah
Mizrahi's supercommentary on Rashi on the Penta-
teuch and to the passages in Maimonides, and novel-
la by Jabez 's father; "Leshon Li mm udim" (iY/. 1755),
novellae on the Turim.

Bibliogr.^phy: Aziilai, Shem ha-GednJim, p. 38; Michael, Or
hOnHaiiiiim, p. 297, No. 643; Fuenn, Kencsct Yi»racU P- 202.

s. s. I. Br.

JABEZ, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON BEN
ISAAC BEN JOSEPH HA-DORESH : Turkish
Biblical exegete and preacher in the second half
of the sixteenth century ; a descendant of Joseph
Jabez. He wrote: (1) "Hasde Abot," commen-
tary on Pirke Abot (Constantinople, 1583) ; (2)
"Yafik Razon," homiletic explanations of the Haf-
tarot according to the German and Portuguese
rites (Belvedere, 1593) ; (3) " Torat Hesed," commen-
taries on the Hagiograplia, except Chronicles (/i,
<•. 1593-94); the commentary to each book has a sub-
title indicating its contents — as " Tehillot Adonai "
(on Psalms), " Limmude Adonai " (on Proverbs),
"Yir'atShaddai" (on Job), "Kodesh Hillulim" (on
Canticles), " Zemah Zaddik " (on Ruth) — and a
commentary on the Pesah Haggadah is appended to
the work. All the hagiographic commentaries ex-
cept those on Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Esther are
printed in the rabbinical Bible "Kehillat Mosheh,"
Amsterdam, 1727, the subtitles in a few cases being
somewhat changed.

Bibliography: Benjacob, Ozar ?ia-Se.fan'm, pp. 196, 228, 647;
Conforte. Kore lia-Dornt. p. 30a; Fuenn, Keneset YUsrael,
i. 61.5; Furst, Bihl. Jiid. ii. 2; St^inschneider, Jewish Liter-
ature^ p. 232; Idem, Cat. Bodl. col. 1125.

G. M. Sc.

JABEZ, JOSEPH BEN HAYYIM : Spanish
theologian of the fifteentli and sixteeutli centuries.
He lived for a time in Portugal, where he associated
with Joseph Hayyun, who inspired him with that
taste for mysticism which he subsequentlj' displayed
in his writings. When the Jews were banished from
Spain Jabez settled at ilantua, Italy. There he met
his compatriot, the cabalist Judah Hayyat, whom
he induced to write the conimentary "^linhat Yehu-
dah" on the cabalistic work "Ma'areket Elahut."

Jabez was an opponent of philosophy. For him
the truth of the Jewish religion is demonstrated by
the miracles recorded in the Bible. He criticizes the
VII.— 2

thirteen articles of faith of Maimonides, the six of
Hasdai Crescas, and tlie three of Albo. According
to him, only the following three, alluded to in the
verse " I am that I am " (Ex. iii. 14), are the fun-
damental principles of Judaism: (1) that God is one;
(2) that He governs tlie world; (3) that in the end
all mankind will believe in His unity. These dog-
mas are expounded by him in the following books:
" Hasde Adonai " (Constantinople, 1533), an ethical
work wherein the author demonstrates that the wise
man is more grateful to God for his misfortunes than
for worldly advantages ; " Ma'amar ha-Ahdut " (Fer-
rara, 1554), on the unity of God ; " Perush 'al Mas-
seket Abot " {ib. 1555), on the sayings of the Fathers,
mentioned by the author of " Yesod ha-Emunah " ;
■'Or ha-Hayyim " {ib. 1555), against philosophy; a
commentary on the Psalms (Salonica, 1571).

Jabez left also a great number of manuscript
works, which, according to Ghirondi, are still in the
possession of the authors descendants.

Bibliography: Conforte. Kore ha-Dorot, p. 30a; Azulai,
Shem ha^Gedolim, ii. 4 ; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Fi.s-
rael, p. 158 ; Jellinek, in Orient, Lit. vii. 262 ; Steinschneider,
Cat. Bodl. col. 1474; Vogelstein and Rieger, Geach. der Ju-
den in Rom, il. 66.
G. I. Br.

JABIN : 1 . King of Hazor ; head of one of the
great confederations which faced Joshua in his con-
quest of Canaan (Josh. xi.). He summoned his
allies from eveiy side, including the Amorites, Hit-
tites, and many petty kingdoms. By " the waters of
Merom " the battle was fought, and the great coali-
tion, notwithstanding its chariots of iron, was de-
feated. Joshua took advantage of his victory,
captured the royal city Hazor, and slew Jabin, its
king. He thus conquered territory that was finally
divided by lot among (at least) Asher, Naphtali,
Zebulun, and Issachar.

2. King of Canaan "that reigned in Hazor"
(Judges iv.). Some regard Josh. xi. and Judges iv.
as referring to one and the same event. This Jabin
appears as an oppressor of Israel for twenty years,
whose most formidable instruments of war were nine
hundred cjiariots of iron. Israel arose under the
inspiration of Deborah and Barak to throw off this
yoke. Jabin's army was in charge of Sisera, his
commander-in-chief, who afterward fell in the tent
of Jael the Kenite. No mention is made of Jabin's
part in the battle, either in the prose or in the poetic
account of that event (Judges iv., v.). The result
of the battle, however, was that "God subdued on
that day Jabin, the King of Canaan, before the chil-
dren of Israel. And the hand of the children of
Israel prospered, and prevailed more and more
against Jabin, the King of Canaan, until they had
destroyed Jabin, King of Canaan " (ib. iv. 23, 24). An
interesting reference is found in Ps. Ixxxiii. 9: "Do
thou unto them as unto Midian, as to Sisera, as to
Jabin, at the River Kishon."

E. <:. II. L M. P.

JABLONSKI, DANIEL E. : German Chris
tian theologian and Orientalist; born Nov. 26, 1660,
in Danzig; died May 25,1741, in Berlin. After spend-
ing some time as a wandering scholar in the uni-
versities of Holland and England, he settled in Lissa
in 1686, but ultimately removed to Berlin, where
he became a member of the Academy of Sciences in

Jabneh
Jacob

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

1700. He established there a Hebrew printing-
press, from which he issued a text of the Old Testa-
ment (1699) based upon Leusden's (that is, Athias')
of 1667; several prayer-books; and an edition of the
Babylonian Talmud in twelve volumes (1715-21).
An attempt to produce a second edition of the Tal-
mud led him into pecuniary difficulties.
Bibliography: AUgcmeine Deutsche Biographic.

JABNEH (nj3''), or JAMNIA {'laiivia, 'la/z-
vtia): Philistine city; taken by Uzziah, who demol-
ished its wall (II Chron. xxvi. 6). Jabneh is men-
tioned with Gath and Ashdod, two other cities of
the Philistines, and is generally identified by Bib-
lical students with Jabneel (7NJT). on the boundary
of Judah, near Ekron, and not far from the coast
(Josh. XV. 11). Neither Jabneh nor Jabneel is men-
tioned afterward among the cities of Judah, but the
Septuagint renders n?3'1, which follows Ekron in
Josh. XV. 46, by Teiiva. In post-Biblical history, in
the books of the Maccabees, in Josephus and in other
Greek authors, the name occurs as "Jamnia,"and
in Judith (ii. 28) as "Jemnaan." AVith Ashdod,
Jamnia is described by Josephus sometimes as a
maritime city ("Ant." xiii. 15, § 4) and sometimes as
an inland city ("Ant." xiv. 4, ^ 4; "B.J." i. 7. § 7).
This w'as due to the fact that, though removed from
the coast, it had its own harbor; and it was con-
sidered by Pliny ("Historia Naturalis," v. 13, § 68)
and Ptolemy (v. 16, 2) likewise as two distinct
towns. According to Strabo (xvi. 759), Jabneh, or
Jamnia, was so populous that, witli the surround-
ing villages, it could furnish 40,000 able warriors.
It is referred to in I Mace. iv. 15, v. 58, x. 69,
XV. 40, and was apparently garrisoned by Gor-
gias; later it served other generals as a place of en-
campment. Judas Maccabeus took it by assault, and
fired the shipping in the harbor as well as the town,
so that the conflagration was seen from Jerusalem,
240 furlongs distant (II Mace. xii. 8-9, 40).

Jamnia was taken from the Syrians by Simon
Maccabeus, but the Jews did not enter into posses-
sion of the city until the time of Alexander Jan-
naeus. Pompey restored it to tlie Syrians, andabout
57 B.C. it was rebuilt by<Tabinius(" Ant. "xiii. 6, §7;
15, §4; xiv. 4, §4; "B. J." i. 2, §2; 7, §7; 8, §4).
Jamnia must have been given by Augustus to
Herod, for the latter bequeathed it to his sister Sa-
lome, who in her turn gave it to Livia (" Ant." x-vii.
8, § 1; 11, i^ 5; xviii. 2, § 2; "B. J." ii. 6. §3; 9,
>; 1). The inhabitants of the city at that time were
chiefly Jews (Philo, "Legatio ad Caium," § 30).
Philo states further that a Roman officer raised at
Jamnia an altar of mud for the deification of Calig-
ula, but that the altar was thrown down by the
Jews. Owing to the turbulence of its large popula-
tion, Vespasian twice found it necessary to besiege
the city ("B. J." iv. 3, §2; 8, § 1).

Jabneh became the seat of Jewish scholarship
even before the destruction of the Temple; for Jo-
hanan b. Zakkai, while predicting to "Vespasian that
he would become emperor of Rome, asked him as a
special favor to spare Jabneh and its scholars (Git.
66a). After the destruction of Jerusalem the Great
S.\NHEDRiN removed to Jabneh, where it was pre-
sided over by Johanan b. Zakkai (R. H. 31a). The

Sauhcdrin held its sittings in a " vineyard," which
term, however, is explained as figurative ('Eduy. ii.
4 ; Yer. Ber. i v. 1) : " the Sauhedrin sat in rows similar
to vines in a vineyard." Jabneh took
Seat of the place of Jerusalem, it became tiie
the Great religious and national center of the
Sanhedrin. Jews; and the most important func-
tions of the Sanhedrin, such as deter-
mining the time of the new moon and of the festi-
vals, were observed there It even enjoyed some of
the privileges of the Holy Cit}', among others the
right to blow the shofar when New Year's Day fell
on a Sabbath (R. H. iv. 1 [29b]) In the time of
Gamaliel II. the Sanhedrin removed to Usha, but it
met again in Jabneh from the time of Simeon b.
Gamaliel to that of Bar Kokba (R. H. 81b).

Benjamin of Tudela identifies Jabneh with the
Ibelin mentioned in the history of the Crusades. He
places Jabneh at three parasangs from Jaffa and
two from Ashdod (Azotus). He professes to have
seen there traces of the academy, though in his time
there were no Jews in the place (ed. Aslier' i. 43,
Hebr. ; comp. ii. 98, note). Rapoport (" 'Erek Mil-
lin," p. 4) places Jabneh the seat of the Sanhedrin in
Galilee, identifying it with the Jabneel of Naph-
tali (Josh. xix. 33). The modern Yabna, a village
situated on a hill south of the Wadi Rubin, is gen-
erally assumed to mark the site of the ancient Jab-
neh (comp. Robinson, "Researches," ii. 420, iii. 22).

Bibliography : Gratz, in Mimatsschrift, ii. 108-110 ; idem,
Gesch. 3d ed., iv. 13? 28, 95, 121 ; Guerin. Judee, it. 53 et xeq.^
Paris, 1868 ; Neubauer, G. T. pp. 73 et seq.\ Schiirer, Geach.
3d ed., ii. 98, passim; Biichler, Da^ Si/ucdrvm, passim, Vi-
enna, 1902.
G. M. Sel.

JACA(Hebr. NpXJ) : City of Aragon, Spain. Jews
were settled here as early as the eleventh century, dur-
ing which the city became the seat of a Jewish high
school. Sancho Ramirez the Great, King of Navarre,
did not permit the Jews to grind their grain in any
mill they pleased ; but a certain mill belonging to
the city w^as assigned to them and to the bread-
sellers. This they were allowed to use on payment of
a certain tax; and they were, in addition, compelled
to pay all the usual imposts and taxes. In 1281 the
Jews of Jaca and of the surrounding villages — who
were engaged in industries and lived in comfortable
circumstances — w^ere obliged, like those of Gerona,
to contribute toward repairing the fortifications,
which had been damaged during the French in-
vasion. In 1289 they had to pay King Jaime 6,000
sueldos toward defraying the costs of an expedition
against Sicily.

The Jaca Jews were victims of the outbreak of
the Shepherds in 1321, no fewer than 400 of them
being killed on Tammuz 17 (= July 14). In 1391.
also, Jews were killed or forcibly baptized at Jaca.
In 1438 the community was so reduced that it could
pay only 200 sueldos in taxes. Toward the end of
the fourteenth century Seraiah ben Daud and Sam-
uel Almosnino, who corresponded with Isaac ben
Sheshet, lived in Jaca. In 1492 the Jews of the
city left Saragossa for Italy and Turkey.

Bibliography: Zuaznavar, Legidacion de Navary-a.ii.Sl:
Usque, Consnlncdn, p. 181a; Isaac ben Sheshet, Responsa,
Nos. 413. 455, 470; Rios. Hist. ii. 13. 362; iii. 82; KayserllnR,
Geach. der Juden in Spanien, i. 10, 142; Jacobs, Sources,
Index.
G. M. K.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jabneh
Jacob

JACHIN (p"- = "be establishes"): 1. Tbe ligbt-
band pillar of the two brazen ones set up in the porch
of the Temple of Solomon, that on the left or north
being called "Boaz " (I Kings vii. 21; II Chron. iii.
17). For an elaborate reconstruction of these pillars
based on Assyrian and Egyptian models and on the
parallel description in Jer. Hi. 21-23, see Perrot and
Chipiez, " History of Art in Sardinia and Judaea," pp.
250-257, and plates vi. and vii., London, n.d. Comp.
Fkeem.\sonry. 2. Fourth son of Simeon and found-
er of the family of
the Jachinites (Gen. (W^WW TT
xlvi. 10; Ex. vi. 15;
Num. xxvi. 12). In
the parallel list of I
Chron. iv. 24 his
name is given as
"Jarib." 3. Head of
the twenty-first divi-
sion of priests in the
time of David (I
Chron. xxiv. 17); his
descendants returned
from Babylon [ib. ix.
10; Neh. xi. 10).

E. G. H. M. Set,.

JACKAL. See
Fox.

JACKLIN (JA-
COB) : Jewish finan-
cier of Ulm in the
fourteenth century;
married the daughter
of the "Grossjuden"
Moses of Ehingen.
Jacklin had several
sons; one of them,
Isaac, lived in Stras-
burg, another in Ried-
lingen, orReutlingen,
and a third, Veflin, in
Nuremberg. Jacklin
was probably presi-
dent of the Jewish
community of Ulm
for many years; he
loaned considerable
sumstothe numicipal
government of Ulm
and to the counties
of Helfenstein, Alten-
beck, and Werden-
berg. For example,
he advanced (Oct. 1,
1378) to the com-
munity of Ulm 1,680 gulden for the redemption of the
monastery of Langenau, receiving 84 gulden interest
semiannually; and later, 1,800 gulden, receiving the
gate-toll of the city in payment. On Nov. 13, 1378,
the council of Ulm entered into an agreement with
Jacklin to declare void all the documents bearing
upon the city's indebtedness to him, excepting those
relating to the two loans mentioned. A letters patent
(" Tedingbrief ") has been preserved which gives him
the right to remain in Ulm until Dec. 6, 1379.

Column

(Restored

Eberhard der Greincr (==*'tlie complainer") of
Wurttemberg taxed Jilcklin 4,000 gulden, which he
refused to pay. Thereupon Eberhard sued him and
won his case before the court of Nuremberg (1376);
the wife and son of Jilcklin were put into the
" lieichsacht " by the emperor (Charles IV.) until
the 4,000 gulden were paid (Sept. 5, 1376). It
seems that Jacklin nevertheless continued to live in
Ulm. The "Heichsacht" directed against Ulm as
also against JUckliu was annulled by the Reichstag

of Rothenburg May
31, 1377. On Oct. 6,
1370, in consideration
of the damage done
to the county of Hein-
rich von Wiirden-
berg, the emperor de-
clared void his debts
to'Jacklin. The city
of Ulm, however, re-
imbursed Jacklin by
]iaying him from 1378
onward, in half-
yearly instalments,
10 per cent interest
on Heinrich's debts.

Bibliography : Pressel,
Gesch. der Jnilen in
L'hn, p. 31; Niihlinpr,
Die Ju(ieiigemei)i(ien
c?es yiiltehiltcrs, pp.
Ixviii., 327 ct xeq.
G. M. Sc.

JACKSON,
HARRY : English
actor; born in Lon-
don 1886; died there
Aug. 13, 1885. At
an early age he left
England for Aus-
tralia, where he
adopted the stage as
a profession. After
playing at Auckland,
New Zealand, and at
San Francisco (1856-
1862) he returned to
England about 1870,
and appeared at tlie
Gaietj' Theatre, Lon-
don, later at the Prin-
cess', of which he be-
came stage-manager.
He held the same post
at the Druiy Lane
Theatre, where he
impersonated chielly
Jewish characters, or rather caricatures, in modern
melodramas. His portrayal of Napoleon I., whom
he much resembled, attracted some notice.

Bibliography : Jnr. Chnm. and Jew. World. -Augr. 21, IKS');
Era, Aug. 1.5 311(12*-', ISHT) ; lUusti-ated Sportiiw a)td Dra-
matic A"cii'S, Aug. 22, 1885.

J. G. L.

JACOB (2\)]}\ ^Ipy)? called also Israel (i?Nn::").
—Biblical Data: Third patriarch; son of Isaac
and Rebekah, and ancestor of the Israelites. He

N &«.'..«.

.laohin.

Jacob

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

was born when liis father was sixty jeais old and
after his mother had been barren for twenty years.
For the account of his birth and origin of his name
see Gen. xxv. 19, 26. Tlie name "Jacob" is ex-
plained elsewhere as meaning "supplanter" or "de-
ceiver" {ib. xxvii. 36; Hos. xii. 4 [A. V. 3], where
there is also an allusion to the struggle before birth
between the two brothers). Jacob was the favorite
of his mother (Gen. xxv. 2S). He is represented as
"a plain man [on E^^S], dwelling in tents," that is
to say, pursuing the life of a shepherd {ib. xxv. 27;
comp. ib. iv. 20).

Only two important incidents marked the early
period of Jacob's life. The first was his obtaining

Isaac Blessing JacuW.
(From a " Teutsch Chumesh.")

the birthright from his brother Esau. The birth-
right being a very important possession, Jacob
waited for the opportunity to acquire it, and the
opportunity came. Esau, returning one day tired
from hunting, and seeing Jacob cooking a mess of len-
tils, asked Jacob to give him some. Jacob offered to
do so in exchange for the birthright, and Esau, feel-
ing faint and ready to die, consented to sell it, an
oath confirming tiie bargain {ib. xxv. 29-34).

The second incident happened many years later,
and with it Jacob's life assumed an entirely new
phase. Isaac, having become blind, sent Esau to
hunt for some game and to prejiare for liim a meal
in order that he might bless hiia before his death.
Rebekah, hearing of this, instigated Jacob to intercept
the blessing by taking his brother's place. At tirst
Jacob objected; but he soon yielded to his mother's
persuasion. Having anticipated his brother in the
preparation of the meal and having put goatskins
upon his hands and neck lest his father should rec-
ognize him, Jacob brought the meal to his father,
who, after having partaken of it, blessed him and
promised him that lie should be lord

Obtains overliis brethren and that his mother's
Isaac's sons should bow to him (///. xxvii. 1-

Blessing. 29). This substitution was in agree-

luent with the divine purjjose (comp.

ib. xxv. 23); and Isaac, when he learned of Jacob's

trick, not only did not revoke his blessing, but even

confirmed it {ib. xxvii. 33, 37).

Owing to this deceit Esau hated his brother, and
resolved to kill him after their father's death, lie-
bekah found no better means to i)rotect her favorite
son from his brother's vengeance than to send him
to Haran, to her brother Laban. She advised Jacob

to sta}' will) lii.s imck' a short time till his brother
should have forgotten his wrongs, and to many one
of his uncle's daughters. Jacob, after having re-
ceived a further blessing from liis father, left the
paternal home {ib. xxvii. 42-xxviii. 5).

\Vhen Jacob was on his way he saw in a prophet-
ical dream a ladder reaching from earth to heaven
and angels ascending and descending thereon.
Yiiwii Himself appeared to him, piomising to give
the land of Canaan to his descendants, who should
be as numerous as the dust of the earth (ib. xxviii.
10-15). Jacob commemorated his dream by setting
up a pillar on the spot on which he had slept, call-
ing the name of the place "Beth-el" (= "the house
of God"; ib. xxviii. 18-22).

On his arrival at Haran Jacob met Rachel, his
uncle's second daughter. Jacob offered to serve
Laban seven years for Rachel. Laban, however,
deceived him at the end of that period by giving
him Leah instead of Rachel, and exacted of him a
further service of seven years for Rachel, though
he gave her to him immediately after the conclu-
sion of Leah's wedding-feast {ib. xxix.
Marriage 1-28). During the second seven, years
with Jacob begat by his two wives and two

Laban's concubines eleven sons and one daugh-
Daughters. ter, Dinah. By Rachel he had one
son only, Joseph {ib. xxix. 31-xxx.
25). Having finished the second term of seven
years, Jacob stayed wit^li Laban six j'cai's longer,
tending his sheep for pay, which consisted, accord-
ing to an agreement between them, of all the spotted,
speckled, and ring-straked sheep and goats born in
the flocks. Jacob, by means of peeled sticks which

Isaac Blessing Jacob.

(From the Sarajevo Haggadah, 14th century.)

he set up before them, caused all the strongest of
the flocks to bear speckled and spotted offspring.
Thus he baflled the plans of Laban, who endeavored
to deprive him of his liiie {il>. xxxi. 7, 8), and
Jacob amassed great wealth {ib. xxx. 26-43).

Jacob, seeing that Lal)un was no longer friendly
toward him, resolv.ed upon returning to his parents.
His resolution was approved by Ynwii; and, en-
couraged liy his two wives, he departed without
acquainting his uncle and father-in-law {ib. xxxi.
1-21). Laban, however, three days later learned of
Jacob's flight, and, after pursuing him for seven days,

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob

overtook liim ou Mount Gilead. Tliey at first quar-
reled, but were finally reconciled and made a cove-
nant, building, in commemoration of their compact,
a cairn which Jacob called "Galeed " (= "a lieap as
•witness"; ib. xxxi. 22-54).

Immediately after this Jacob was informed that
his brother Esau was coming to meet him, accom-
panied by 400 men. Jacob, fearing Esau, sent him
very rich presents, but at the same time made
plans to escape from his brother's fury in case
the latter should reject them. At night Jacob sent
liis family and all his possessions over the brook
Jabbok, he himself remaining alone on the other
side, where an angel wrestled with him all night till
the breaking of the day. While wrestling, the angel
touched the hollow of Jacob's thigh, causing him
to limp ; but the angel was overpowered by Jacob,

who would not let him go until blessed

Wrestles by him. The angel then changed

with Jacob's name to "Israel" (pXIK'V ap-

th.e Angel, parently shortened from D\"i~)K IK'' =

"he overpowered Elohim "). Jacob
gave to the place at which this event occurred the
name "Peniel" ("for I have seen Elohim face to
face "). The Ts-
raelites com-
memorate the
event to this day
by not eating
"the sine w
Avhich shrank
which is upon
the hollow of
the thigh" (ib.
xxxii. 32). IIo-
sea alludes to
Jacob's wrest-
ling with the
angel, whom he
calls once "Elo-
him " and once
"Mal'ak," add-
ing that the
angel wept and
implored Jacob
to let him go
(Hos. xii. 4).

After his meet-
ing with Esau, at
which the broth-
ers were reconciled (Gen. xxxiii. 1-16), Jacob went
to Sliechem, where he bought from tlie children of
H.\MOK, for a hundred pieces of money, a field in
which he erected an altar {ib. xxxiii. 17-20). The
abduction of Dinah, which occasioned the destruc-
tion of Shechem by her brothers, caused Jacob much
apprehension; but God allayed his fears, and he ar-
rived peacefully at Beth-el, where God api)eared
again to him, conflrniing the name "Israel" which
had previously' been given to him by the angel, and
repeating the promise that his children should pos-
sess the land of Canaan. While Jacob was on his
way home Rachel gave birth to Benjamin, his last
son. Jacob, with his twelve sons, tiie fathers of the
twelve tribes of Israel, then arrived at Hebron,
where Ins parents lived (ib. xxxv. 9-27).

At the end of ten years (comp. ib. xxxvil. 2) Ja-
cob's favorite son, Joseph, was sold to a company of
Ishmaelites by his brothers, who led theii' father to
think that he had been devoured b}' a wild beast.
While Jacob was still mourning for Jo.seph, Isaac
died, and at his funeral Jacob again met his brother
Esau {ib. xxxv. 29). Later, when the famine grew
severe in Canaan, Jacob sent his sons into Egyjjt to
buy corn, but kept with him Benjamin, Rachel's
second son. Jacob was, however, at last compelled
to let Benjamin go with his brothers to Egypt,
through Joseph's refusal otherwise to release Simeon,
whom he held as hostage until Benjamin should be
brought to him. When, on the second return of liis
sons from Egypt, Jacob heard that Joseph was alive
and was ruler over Egypt, he decided to go there to
see him {ib. xlv. 26-28). Before doing
Journey to so he journeyed to Beer-sheba, where
Egypt. his resolution to go to Egypt was ap-
proved by God. He went to Egypt
with his eleven sons and their children, numbering
altogether sixty-six, Joseph meeting him in Goshen
{ib. xlvi. 1-30). Afterward Jacob was honorably re-
ceived by Pharaoh, who assigned him and his sons

a residence "in
the best part of
the land, in the
land of Barne-
ses. " Jacob was
at that time 130
years old {ib.
xlvii. 5-11).

When about
to die, Jacob
made Joseph
swear that he
would not bury
him in Egj'pt,
but in thesepul-
cher of his fa-
thers in Canaan.
Jacob then
adopted Jo-
seph's two sons,
Ephraim and
Manasseh, pla-
cing them on the

K^..^,^jsis:^i».^-j^-^9^'X^»^^*^--*i-^:-^^!a:^!e^

Jacob's Dream.

(From the Sarajevo Haggadah, 14th century.)

same footing as

his own chil-
dren. While
blessing them he gave the first place to the younger
son, Ephraim. To Joseph himself lie gave one por-
tion more than his brothers {ib. xlviii. 22).

Jacob assembled his sons in order to bless them
(see Jacob, Blessing of), after which, having pro-
nounced his last will, he died, being 147 years old
{ib. xlix.). His body was embalmed according to
the Egyptian custom ; a great funeral procession,
which included all the servants of Pharaoh and all the
elders of Eg3'pt, acconii)ani('d it to Canaan , and there
Jacob was buried in his family grave in the cave of
Machpelah at Hebron {ib. 1. 1-13). The name " Jacob"
as well as that of " Israel," though to a lesser degree,
was u.sed by the Prophets to designate the whole na-
tion of Israel (comp. Isa. ix. 7, xxvii. 6, xl 27).
E. G. II. M. Sel.

Jacob

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

In Rabbinical Liiterature : Even before their

birth the struggle between the two brothers Esau
and Jacob commenced. Each of them wished to
be born first, and it was only after Esau threat-
ened to kill Rebekah, his mother, if he was not per-
mitted to be born first that Jacob acceded (Midrash
ha-Gadol [ed. Schechter, Cambridge, 1902] on Gen.
XXV. 23; comp. Pesik. R. [ed. Friedmann, Vienna,
1880], p. 48a). The respective characters of the two
brothers were thus revealed before they were boin.
Whenever Rebekah passed a pagan house of wor-
ship Esau moved within her; and whenever she
passed a synagogue or bet ha-midrash Jacob moved
(Gen. R. Ixiii. 6; Yalk., Gen. 110). There was also
a conflict between them as to who should inherit
this world, and who the world to come. In the
conflict the angel Samael was about to kill Jacob,
when Michael intervened; and the struggle between
the two angels was settled by a court which God
Himself convened for that purpose (Yalk., Gen. 110,
from Midrash Abkir). All these legends are based
upon the word " wa-yitrozezu " (=: " and they strug-
gled"; Gen. XXV. 22).

Jacob was born circumcised (Ab. R. N. ii. 5; Gen.
R. Ixiii. 7). Until the age of thirteen both he and
Esau attended school ; but later Esau became a hunt-
er, while Jacob continued his studies under various
tutors — Abraham, Methuselah, Shem,

Sale of and Eber {ib. ; Gen. R. I.e.). The sale
Birthright, of the birthright occurred after Esau
had slain Nimrod and two of his asso-
ciates and fled from his pursuers. Jacob did not
desire the material benefits of the birthright as much
as the spiritual prerogatives attendant upon it.
According to one opinion, this transaction was the
final settlement of the quarrel which the brothers
had had before they were born ; and Esau thus sold
to Jacob his portion in the world to come. Another
opinion is that Jacob wished for the birthright be-
cause the first-born was the forerunner of the priest
who offered the family sacrifices; and he thought
that Esau was not fit to bring offerings to God
(Yalk., Gen. Ill; comp. Zeb. 112b). With the
purchase of the birthright Jacob came into posses-
sion of the garments which Esau liad inherited from
Adam and which were the official robes of the oS\-
ciating minister (Midr. Tan. 67b).

The Rabbis attempted to explain that Jacob did
not intend to deceive his father in the words, " I am
Esau thy first-born" (Gen. xxvii. 19), but meant by
them : " I am the one whose children will accept the
Decalogue which begins with I ("anoki"); but Esau
is thy first-born" (Gen. R. Ixv. 14: Yalk., Gen. 115).
By confirming the blessing before Jacob's departure
((Jen. xxviii. 1-4), Isaac established the fact that the
blessing really belonged to Jacob (Gen. R. Ixvii. 10).

Furthermore, it was only to please his mother that
Jacob allowed himself to be disguised ; and he brought
the venison to Rebekah in a very distressed frame of
mind and crying (Gen. R. Ixv. 11). The goodly
raiment which Rebekah put upon Jacob was that
which Esau had taken from Nimrod when he mur-
dered him {ib. 12). Rebekah accompanied Jacob to his
father's door, and then Sfiid, "Thus far I was obliged
to go with you, but now may thy Maker assist you."
When Jacob entered and Isaac said, "Come near, I

pray thee, tiiat I may fe^l thee " (Gen. xxvii. 21),
Jacob felt his heart melting like wax ; but two angels
supported him (Gen. R. Ixv. 13, 15). He then came
near to his father, who said unto him, " See, the smell
of my son is like the smell of a field which the Lord
hath blessed " ; that is, according to the Rabbis, the
fragrance of paradise came with him {tb. 18).

When Jacob left the presence of his father he, by
reason of the blessing he had received, came out
crowned like a bridegroom, and the dew which is to
revive the dead descended upon him from heaven ;
his bones became stronger, and he himself was turned
into a might)' man (Pirke R. El. xxxiil.). Jacob
then fled from Esau, and went to the school of
Shem and Eber, devoting himself to the study of
the Torah. There he was hidden for fourteen years,
and then returned to his father. He found that his
brother was still purposing to kill him ; whereupon
he accepted the advice of his mother to go to Padan-
aram (Gen. R. Ixviii. 5; see also "Seferha-Yashar ").

When Jacob arrived in Haran he bethought him-
self that he had passed without offering any prayer
the place where his ancestors had prayed (Pes. 84a).
He therefore decided to turn back to Beth-el ; but
to his surprise the place came to him, and he recited
there the evening service (Ber. 26b). After this he
wished to proceed on his journey, but God said,
"This pious man came to My house: shall I permit
him to depart before night? " So the sun set before
its time, and Jacob remained in Beth-el overnight.
The contradiction in the text, where
At Beth-el. it says first that Jacob took "of the
stones " (Gen. xxviii. 11), and then that
he took " the stone " (I'b. verse 18), is variously ex-
plained. Some think that he took twelve stones,
corresponding to the number of the tribes ; others,
that he took three stones, corresponding to the num-
ber of the Patriarchs; others, again, that he took
two stones; but all agree that the stones were later
merged into one. Some of the rabbis say that he
took a number of stones and placed them all round
him for protection ; that the stones began to quarrel,
each one washing that Jacob should lay his head
upon it; and that, in order to settle the quarrel,
God made all the stones into one (Gen. R. Ixviii.
13; Yalk., Gen. 118-119; Hul. 91a; Sanh. 95b).

The angels that had accompanied Jacob thus far
on his journey ascended the ladder, and other angels
descended to accompany him farther. When the
angels saw Jacob's likeness engraved on the throne
of glory, they became jealous and desired to injure
him ; but God Himself came down and watched ov«r
him. When God promised to give him the land
whereon he was lying, the whole land of Palestine
folded up and placed itself under Jacob's head, so
that it should be easier later for his children to con-
quer it. The angels ascending and descending the
ladder are also interpreted to have represented
the tutelary genii of the various nations to whom
the Jews in later times were to be subjected. When
Jacob's turn came to ascend he refused, fearing
that, like the others, he, too, would have to come
down. Then God said unto him, "If thou hadst
had faith and hadst ascended thou wouldest not
liave come down ; but since thou didst not believe,
thy children shall be subjected to many nations.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob

Nevertlieless this slmll not be forever, for I uill re-
deem them from all the lauds of their exile."

When Jacob left his father's house he had with
Lim much silver aud gold which his father liad given
him. Esau, on learning of Jacob's intention to de-
part, summoned his thirteen-year-old son, Eliphaz,
and told him to encounter Jacob on his way aud to
kill him. Elipluiz with a company of ten men lay
in wait for Jacob by the road, but, being of a more
gentle disposition (Deut. R. ii. 13), he had pity on
him and did not injure him. He, however, took from
Jacob all his possessions, so that when the latter
cametoLaban lie had nothing with him ("Seferha-
Yashar," end of "Toledot").

From the very first Jacob suspected that Laban
would deceive him, and he therefore gave Rachel a
sign by which she might cause him to recognize her;
but she sacrificed her own love for the sake of her
sister, and before the marriage revealed Jacob's plan
to Leah. When Jacob discovered that Leah instead of
Rachel had been given to him he became very angry ;
but Leah reminded him that he had been guilty of
a similar deceit when he obtained the blessing
from his father by assuming his broth-
Leah and er's disguise (Gen. R. Ixx. 17; Midr.

Rachel. ha-Gadol to Gen. xxix. 23 ; comp. B. B.
123a). In his machinations to obtain
sheep from Laban 's flock, Jacob was assisted by
angels who brought sheep to him from Laban 's herds.
There are several estimates of the number of Jacob's
flock, ranging from 200 to 2,207,100 (Gen. R. Ixxiii. 8;
comp. commentary to Gen. R.). These sheep Jacob
gave to his children to watch, for he would not
take any time that belonged to his employer Laban
(Midr. ha-Gadol to Gen. xxx. 40).

The encounter between Jacob and the angel who
subsequently in j ured his thigh is explained in the fol-
lowing manner: When Jacob had transported a part
of his belongings over the Jabbok, lie met an angel
who appeared to him as a shepherd; and when Jacob
returned to gather up the rest of his belongings the
angel accused him of stealing from his flock, and the
encounter ensued. Others think that it was the
tutelary angel of Esau whom Jacob met ; while still
others identify him with the angel Michael, who
came to reproach Jacob for neglecting to give a tithe
of his possessions to God, as he liad promised (Yalk.,
Gen. 132 ; Pirke R. El. xxxvii. ; Tan., Gen. 87b). The
angel, although defeated by Jacob, injured the lat-
ter's thigh ; and when the sun rose he begged Jacob to
let him go (comp. Hos. xii. 5), as the time for adora-
tion had arrived, and if he, who was to begin the serv-
ice, was away, the adoration of the angels could not
take place. Jacob, however, eager for a blessing,
would not let him go until he blessed him. The
angel was compelled to submit; and in changing
liis name from " Jacob " to " Israel " he promised him
that his children should be as righteous as he. The
w ound inflicted b}' the angel was cured when the
sun appeared (Gen. R. Ixxix. 5; Yalk., Gen. 133).

When Laban returned to his place (Gen. xxxii.
1) he was not reconciled to Jacob's departure. He
then, with the purpose of avenging himself, sent his
son Beor, aged seventeen, and Abiharof, son of Uz,
son of Nahor, witli an escort of ten men, to Esau,
saying unto him, ''Have you heard what your

brother has done unto us? He who came unto nie
poor and forsiiken, that I went to meet, and brought
up, and to whom 1 gave my two daughters and
their maids, and whom God blessed for my sake, so
tliat he became mighty aud had sons and daughters
and female slaves, and sheep and oxen and camels
and asses, and much gold and silver— when he saw
that his fortune was great lie left me, and stole my
gods and ran away. Now, behold, I left him in the
valley of Jabbok. If thou intendest to go to him,
thou wilt And him there, where tliou mayest deal
with him as thy heart willeth." When Esau heard
this he recalled his hatred, and his wrath kindled,
and he took his sons and sixty others and gathered
all the 340 male descendants of Seir. He divided
these into seven parties; placing sixty men under
Eliphaz, hisflrst-born, and the other six parties under
the sons of Seir. But the messengers of Laban, on
leaving Esau, went to the land of Canaan to the
house of Rebekah, and said, " Behold thy son Esau is
preparing to attack Jacob with 400 men because he
has heard that he is coming." Rebekah therefore
hastened and took seventy-two men from among the
servants of Isaac to meet Jacob before his arrival,
because she thought that Esau would give battle on
the wa}'. When Jacob saw them he said, "This
host comes unto me from God " ; aud he called
the place "Mahanaim" ("Sefer ha-Yashar," sec-
tion " Wayesheb "). According to others (Gen. R.
Ixxiv. 16), the host consisted of 120 myriads of
angels.

When the messengers of Rebekah met Jacob they
said unto him in her name, " My son, I have heard
that Esau, thy brother, comes to meet thee with men
from the sons of Seir. And now, my son, listen to
my voice and consider what shall be done. Do not
speak hard words unto him ; pray for his mercy and
give him from thy fortunes as much as thou canst
afford ; and when he shall ask thee about thy affairs,
conceal from him nothing. Perhaps he will be in-
duced to forget his great anger, so that thou and all
depending upon thee will be saved; for it is thy
duty to respect him, seeing that he is thy elder
brother. "

When the brothers again met and Esau fell on

Jacob's neck, it was his intention to bite him; but

Jacob's neck became hard as marble,

Meeting- so that Esau's teeth were injured by
with Esau, the contact. This explanation is de-
rived from the fact that the word
" wa-yishshakehu " ("and ki.ssed him " ; Gen. xxxiii.
4) has dots on the top of each letter.

Although Jacob's gifts were accepted, he still
feared the anger of his brother; and during the
eighteen months that he lived in Succoth he sent
presents to his brother, whicl), however, his descend-
ants, the nations, will return to the Messiah (comp.
Ps. Ixxii. 10). Jacob's fears were well grounded;
for in the year that Leah died, when Jacob least
expected him, and had only 200 slaves with him, Esau
returned with a large and formidable arm}-. Jacob
pleaded with Esau from the wall of the fortress;
but Esau would not listen. Then Judah took his
bow and shot Admon the Edoniite, and also hit Esau
in his right loin with an arrow which later caused
his death (Yalk., Gen. 133). Jacob entered Shechcm

Jacob

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

"perfect" C'shalem ") in every respect, botli spiri-
tually and materially (Sluib. 33b).

Simeon and Levi did not ask their father's advice
in destroying the inhabitants of Shecheni; and Ja-
cob was very angry wlien lie heard of the action
of his children. Still, after the act was done, he
girded his sword and was ready to meet the enemy
(Gen. R. l.x.xx. 9; comp. ib. xcvii. 9). AlthougJi the
surrounding nations were afraid to fight them at
that time, they did so seven years later, when they
saw that Jacob had made Shechem his home and
was intent upon inheriting the land. The war lasted
six days; and every day witnessed great victories
for Jacob and his sons. On the sixth day all the
kings of the Amoritesmade peace with Jacob, agree-
ing to pay him a certain tribute (Yalk., l.c.\ " Sefer
ha-Yashar," section "Wayishlah"; comp. Jubilees,
34; see Amokites; Judah in Rabbinical Litera-
ture).

When Jacob Avas about to rest from the persecu-
tions of Esau and from the wars with the neighbor-
ing tribes, the troubles of Joseph came upon him.
The Rabbis severely censure Jacob for manifesting
liis love for Joseph by clothing him with a special
garment (Yalk., Gen. 141; comp. Shal). 10b).

The grief of Jacob at the loss of liis son Avas much
aggravated by the idea that he would now be un-
able to establish the twelve tribes, since he dared
not marry again because of the oath he
Favoritism had made to Laban that he would take
Toward no more wives. Lsaac knew that Jo-
Joseph, seph was living; but he did not reveal
this to Jacob, because 1k3 thought that
if God wished him to know, He would reveal it
Himself (Gen. R. Ixxxiv. 19; Yalk., Gen. 143).
When liis children brought him the report that Jo-
seph was still living, and that he Avas the ruler of
all Egypt, Jacob refused to believe it, vmtil they
told him in the name of Joseph at Avhat portion of
the LaAv they had suspended their studies twenty-
two years before. Then Jacob rejoiced in the
thought that Joseph still retained his piety, and
immediately prepared for his journey. Before he
Avent to Egypt he stopped at B.eersheba, and cut
down cedars which Abraham had planted and Avhich
Avere later used by the Israelites in the building of
the Tabernacle (Gen. \\. xciv. 3, xcv. 2).

Before his death Jacob Avished to reveal to his
children the time of the Messiah's advent, but he
could not recall it at that moment. When the}' Avere
all gathered around liis death-bed he said to them,
"Perhaps there is in your hearts a feeling against
GodV" (that is to .saj', an inclination to idolatry).
Then they all cried out, "Hear, () Israel, the Lord
is our God, the Lord is One." He replied, "Blessed
be the name of the glory of His kingdom forever and
ever" (Gen. R. xcviii. 4; Pes. 56a).

Jacob gave three connnandments to his children
before his death: (1) that tliey sliould not worship
idols; (2) that they should not blaspheme the name
of God; and (3) tiiat they should not
His Death, permit a pagan to toucli his hearse.
Three of his sons were to be stationed
on each side of the coffin even as the tribes Avere
later stationed in the wilderness. Tiie Rabbis looked
with disfavor upon Joseph's order to have his father

embalmed ; for to them it^ manifested a lack of faith
in the providence of God.

When Jacob's sons reached the cave of Mach-
pelah, they found Esau there prepared to prevent
them from interring their father's body in the an-
cestral cave, and claiming thai the place belonged to
him. Jacob, hoAvever, had foreseen such a complica-
tion, and had previously bought the place from
Esau ; but the deed of sale was in Egypt, and there
was nothing to do but to send some one back to
Egypt to procure the document. Naphtali, the
swift, volunteered to go, but Hushim, the son of Dan,
AvhoAvas hard of hearing, meanwhile inquired about
the delay. When told the reason he said angrily,
" Shall my grandfather's body lie and wait until the
deed is obtained from Egypt?" and thrcAV a missile
at Esau so that his eyes fell out on the knees of
Jacob, Avho opened his eyes and smiled. Then it
Avas that Rebekah's Avords, " Why should I be bereft
of both of you in one day?" (Gen. xxvii. 45) were
fulfilled (Yalk.. Gen. 162; "Sefer ha-Yashar,"
section " Wayehi " ; comp. Sotah 13a). Another
opinion is that Jacob had not died, although theem-
balmers and the mourners thought that he was dead
(Ta'an. 5b ; Rashi and MahrSiiA, nd loc. ; comp. B.
B. 17a, 121b). See Esau; Joseph; Patriarchs.

BiBLiOGRAPHA' : Hamburger, R. B. T.; Aguadat Bereshit ed.
Buber, Vienna, 1894 ; Midr. Lekah Ti)h, ed. Buber, AVilna,
]880 ; Peiser. Nnhalat S/ii'mc 'o»(', Wonzibeck, 1728 ; Heilprin,
Seder Ha-DtiroU .s.v., AA'arsaw, 189T.
s. s. J. II. G.

JACOB, BLESSING OF.— Biblical Data:

Name given to the chapter containing the prophetic
utterances of Jacob concerning the destiny of his
twelve sons as the fathers and representatiA'esof the
twelve tribes (Gen. xlix. 1-27). It is called thusafter
verse 28: "Every one according to his blessing he
blessed them"; though in reality many of the utter-
ances contain rebukes rather than blessings. Jacob is
represented as revealing to his sons that Avhich shall
befall tliem "in the last days." Reuben is told that
he has forfeited his birthright — that is, his leader-
ship among the tribes — on account of his incestuous
conduct Avith reference to Bilhah (Gen. xlix. 3-4;
comp. ib. XXXV. 22; I Chron. v. 1). Simeon and
Levi are called brethren Avliose inborn nature (for
"mckerah" or "mekurah" = " kinship "; comp. Ezek.
xxi. 35 [A. V. xxii. 3], xxix. 14) it is to handle Aveap-
ons of violence (A. V. "instruments of cruelty");
their fate — •" to be divided in Jacob and scattered in
Israel," instead of forming two strong tribes — is de-
clared to be due to their fierce anger sliOAvn at the
massacre of the men of Shechem (Gen. xlix. 5-7;
comp. ib. xxxiv. 25).

Judah, on the other hand, is addressed as the
leader of the tribes, before avIiotu his enemies shall
flee and his brethren shall bow doAvn. The rather
obscure verse, " The scepter shall not depart from
Judah, nor a laAvgiver from between his feet until
Shiloh come, and to him shall the gathering of the
peoples be," seems to refer to David as having been
elected king in Shiloh (this is not in harmony Avith
II Sam. V. 3; but the whole history of Siiiioh is
wrapped in mystery; see Shiloh). Judah's land,
as producing Avine, is especially praised (Gen. xlix.
8-12). Zebulun is told that he shall dwell on the coast
of the sea and be a neighbor of the Phenician mer-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob

chant city of Sidon {ib. verse 13). Issachar with his
beautiful laud is rebuked for having allowed him-
self from love of ease to become a tribute-paying
servant to the Canaanite (verses 14-15). Dan is rep-
resented as struggling hard for his existence among
the tribes ; he can assail his mightier foe only by way-
laying him and acting like the serpent, which bites
the heels of the horse so that the rider falls. The
situation is that of the later time of the Judges
(verses 16-18; comp. Judges i. 35, v. 17, xviii. 1-
29). The tribe of Gad is depicted as being pursued
by troops of the neighboring tribes of Ammon or
Moab, but at last overcoming them by falling upon
them iu the rear (Gen. xli.x. 19). Ashcr is praised only
because of its land, which yields choice fruits for the
table of kings (t'b. verse 20). Naphtali, according to
the Masoretictcxt, is declared to be a "hind let loose;
he giveth goodly words " ; but this fails to convey
a clear idea, and the original reading seems to have
been: " Naphtali is a stretched-out terebinth ["elah"
instead of "ayj'alah"], sending forth beautiful
branches." It refers to the beautiful landscapes of
the country {ib. verse 21 ; comp. Deut. xxxiii. 23).
Signal blessing is conferred upon Joseph, who is
called "a fruitful bough by the well, whose branches
run over the wall." His tribe is described as being
engaged in warfare but coming forth victoilous,
strengthened by tlie mighty God of Jacob and by the
arms (read "mi-zero'e" instead of "mi-sham ro'eh ")
of the Rock of Israel. In consequence of this he
posses.ses the hills of Ephraim, rich in blessing
(Gen. xlix. 22-26). Benjamin, the warrior tribe
(Judges iii. 15, xx. 16; I Chron. viii. 40, xii. 2), is
likened to a wolf that devours its prey in the morn-
ing and divides the spoil at night (Gen. xlix. 27).
E. c. K.
Critical View : It has been held b}' some au-
thorities that the text is not intact. Verses 10, 25, 26,
and probably verse 18, are regarded as interpolations.
Verse 10 interrupts the continuity of thought, verse
11 taking up the thread dropped in verse 8. All
these verses touch upon the possession of the land
of promise; whereas verse 10 refers to the future
and to the submission of the people. Venses 25 and
26 bear a suspicious resemblance to Deut. xxxiii.
13-16; and while the text of verses 22-24, corre-
sponding to other very ancient songs, presents a
knotty problem, A'erses 25 and 26 are comparatively
intelligible (Fripp, in "Zeit. filr Alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft," 1891, pp. 262 ct seq.; Holzinger,
"Commentar zur Genesis," ad loc). The lack of
connection between verse 18 and the other verses is
made clear by the form of the matter: the speech
concerning Dan consists of three couplets, and verse
18 seems to hobble lamely after. Moreover, the idea
expressed in verse 18 is different from that of the
other verses (comp. Ball, "S. B. (). T." ad loc).

The question as to the origin of the song is inde-
pendent of the age of the Pentateuchal sources; for
there is no doubt that the song bears no relation to

them, and that it had been composed
Origin of before the time of the author who in-
the Song, troduced it into his narrative. It is

difflcult to determine who that author
was: yet, since lieuben's great transgression and
the dispersion of Levi and Simeon, here mentioned,

were likewise touched upon, in fact were more ex-
plicitly given, in the oldest source (J)— in Gen.
xxxiv., xxxv. 22— it is liighly probable that J was
the one who wove the song into his story. Conse-
quently the origin of this oldest source determines
the latest date at which the song could have been
written.

The dilliculty of an exact determination is in-
creased by doubt concerning the unity of the com-
position. The first to dispute its unity was E.
Renan (" Histoire Generale des Langues Semitiques,"
p. iii.); and the conjecture that the song consists of
sayings originating in different periods gains more
and more credence (J. P. N. Land, " Disputatio de
Carmine Jacobi," 1857; Kuenen, Holzinger, and
others). The great variety of forms in the song sup-
ports this theory : while the language of one part is
smooth and clear, another part is obscure. The de-
termination of the correctness of this theory involves
an investigation of the age of each

Date of verse ; and in several instances this can
Composi- not be ascertained, since the verses in-
tion. dicate nothing concerning the time of
their origin (see verses on Zubulun,
Gad, Asher, and jSTaphtali). The verses on Issachar
have reference to the period after the struggles of
Deborah (Judges v.); the verses on Dan, describing
his battles in the north, where in his conflicts with
the surrounding nations he maintained the old Israel-
itish custom of making an insidious rear attack in-
stead of offering a bold challenge, refer to the time
after Judges xvii. ct seq. ; and the verses on Judah
(8, 11) presuppose the kingdom of Judah. The com-
parison of Judah to a lion's whelp seems to charac-
terize him as a rising power. This maj' appl}' to
different periods, not necessarily to the time of
David.

The verses on Joseph (22-27) allude to a defensive
war, in which Joseph was successful. Since the
text refers to archers, and the Arabs were excellent
marksmen, Dillmaun tiuuks that the war was with
the Arabs. But his conjecture is erroneous; for the
conflicts with the Arabs were confined to the portion
of Manasseh east of the Jordan, and the term "Jo-
seph " designates the portion of the tribe of Joseph
dwelling west of the Jordan. Since, moreover, the
reference could not have been to the Philistines, by
whom the tribe was occasionally subdued, the verse
clearly alludes to the Arameans of Damascus, with
whom the conflicts were of long duration, often
threatening the safety of tlie tribe of Joseph — that
is, of the Northern Kingdom. Verse 24, however,
bears no testimony of times following the glorious
period of Jeroboam II. ; consequently the passage
on Joseph points to the ninth century. Probably it
was in the second half of this centurj'. at all events
before the conquests of Jeroboam, and evidently in
the Southern Kingdom, that the collection of these
pithy descriptions of the tribes was completed. If
verses 25 and 26 are interpolations, this is the only
interpretation which would also explain both the
esteem felt \ov Judah. expressed in the passage on
him, and the silence concerning the Benjamite king
dom and possibly even the Northern Kingdom.

Dillmann endeavored to arrive at the same con-
clusion by tlie supposed sequence in the enumera.

Jacob

Jacob ben Asher

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

tion of the minor tribes, proceeding from south to
north. But this supposition is not tenable; for the
very first tribe mentioned is the most northerly, and,
furthermore, the sequence is broken by Gad. How-
ever, even if there were an exact geographical suc-
cession of -tribes from south to north, it would prove
nothing concerning the home of the collector of the
passages, since the same order would have been nat-
ural for an Ephraimite (comp. Holziuger ad loc).

Zimmern's attempt (in "Zeit. flir Assyriologie,"
1892, pp. 161 etseq.) to connect Jacob's blessing with
the Babylonian representation of the zodiac, spe-
cifically with the Gilgamesh epic, can not be re-
garded as successful. Ball has given some impor-
tant and well-founded arguments against this theory
(Commentary on Genesis iu''S. B. O. T." pp. 114 et
seq.). Zimmern himself does not assume that the
poet or collector of the song was aware of the orig-
inal significance of each passage.

Historical! J', Jacob's blessing is of the greatest
value, both because it is the only source of informa-
tion for certain of the tribes in ancient times, and
because it is an aid in rendering the sources (for ex-
ample, Gen. xxxiv.) more intelligible.

Bibliography: See, besides the commentaries on Genesis of Dill-
mann, Merx, Knobel. Delitzseh, Holzinger, Ball, and Gunkel,
Diestel, Segen Jakobn, 1853; Meier, Get<ch. der Poet. Ncv-
tiouaUiteratur, 185S ; K. Kohler, Der Segcn Ja/cobs, 18tj7 ;
Offord, The Prnphecu of Jacob, 1877.
E. C. W. N.

JACOB: 1. Tauua of the second century ; prob-
ably identical with Jacob b. Korshai (= "the Kor-
shaite," or " of Korsha "), the contemporary of Simon
b. Gamaliel II. Of his relations with this patriarch
the Talmud has preserved the following incident:
Nathan the Babylonian and Me'ir had determined to
humiliate Simon and bring about his deposition by
putting to him c|uestions on 'Ukzin. which he had
not mastered; but Jacob prevented the patriarch's
discomfiture by indirectly turning his attention to
the neglected treatise (Hor. 13b). He was a grand-
son of Elisha ben Abuyah on his mother's side (Kid.
39b ; Hul. 142a), and was a teacher of Judah I. (Yer.
Shab. x. 12c).

Jacob is frequently met in halakic controversies
with Akiba's later disciples (see'Tosef., Zeb. x. 9,
11; ib. Tem. i. 17; tb. Toh. vi. 5, 6). Sometimes
lie cites Mei'r as an authority (Tosef., Ma'as. Sh. ii.
10; ib. Yeb. xii. 11). The compiler of the Mishnah
cites Jacob (Tosef., 'Ab. Zarah, v. [vi.J 4), and pre-
serves the following eschatological remarks of his:
"This world is as if it were a vestibule to the future
Avorld: prepare thyself in the vestibule that thou
mayest [becomingly] enter the reception-room. One
liour devoted to penitence and good deeds in this
life is worth more than the whole of the life here-
after [where no opportunity is given for improve-
ment] ; and one hour's happiness in the world to
come is worth more than all the pleasures of this
world" (Ab. iv. 16, 17).

In this spirit Jacob interprets the rewards attached
to filial reverence and to sparing the dam when
rifling a bird's nest: "That thy days may be pro-
longed, and that it may go well with thee " (Deut.
V. 16, xxii. 7). An incident once came under his
notice that seemed to falsify this Scriptural promise.
A dutiful son, in obedience to his parent's wish,

climbed a tree after som^ birds. He duly complied
with the Scriptural requirements, and yet, in de-
scending, he fell and was killed. Thereupon Jacob
remarked, " In this world there is no reward for good
deeds: the rewards promised will be awarded in the
world which is all good and immeasurably long"
(Kid. 39b). Many decades later a prominent Baby-
lonian amora remarked, "Had Aher [Elisha b.
Abtjtah] interpreted those promises as did his
daughter's son he would not have become a sinner "
(ib. ; comp. Yer. Hag. ii. 77b ; Eccl. R. vii. 8).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 395; Briill, Mebo ha-
Mishnalt, 1. 242; Frankel, Darke ha-MUshnah, p. 202; Ham-
burger, K. D. T. ii.; Weiss, Dor, ii. 171.

2. Palestinian amora of the fourth century ; con-
temporary of R. Jekemiah; probably identical with
J.vcoB B. Aha (comp. Pes. 91b with Yer. Pes. viii.
36a, B. M. ioia with Yer. B. K. ix. 6d, and 'Ab.
Zarah 13b with Yer. 'Ab. Zarah i. 39d).

s. s. S. M.

JACOB B. AARON OF KARLIN : Russian
rabbi and author; died at Karliu, government of
Minsk, 1855. He was a grandson of Baruch of
Shklov, the mathematician and author, and was
one of the earliest and most renowned graduates of
the yeshibah of Volozhin. He held the office of
rabbi at Karlin for about thirty years, and was con-
sidered one of the greatest rabbinical authorities of
his time.

Jacob was the author of : (1) " Mishkenot Ya'akob "
(Wilna, 1838), responsa on the four parts of the
Shulhan 'Aruk; (2) " Kohelet Ya'akob" (ib. 1857),
novel l.TB on the tractates of the Talmudic orders
Zera'im and Mo'ed; and (3) another collection of
responsa.

Bibliography : Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 574.

s. s. N. T. L.

JACOB B.ABBA: 1. Babylonianscholar of the
third century; junior to Rab (B. M. 41a). He was
an expert dialectician, and prevailed in argument
even against his famous senior (Yer. Sanh. vii. 25c).

2. Amora of the fourth century ; contemporary of
Abaye and Raba (b. Joseph). His patronymic is va-
riously given as "Abba," "Abaye," " Abina," " Abu-
ha," "Abun," and "Aibu" (comp. Yer. Sanh. x.
28b; Gen. R. xlii. 3; Ruth R., proem, 7; Tan.,
Ahare Mot, 7 ; ib., ed. Ruber, 9 ; Num. R. ii. 26). As
regards his nativity, he appears in the company of
Palestinian scholars (Pesik. viii. 71a; Lev. R. xxviii.
6), but also, before the leaders of the fourth amoraic
generation, in Babylonia ('Er. 12a; Kid. 31b). The
fact, however, that he was a favorite in Babylonia
would make it seem more probable that he was a
Babylonian by birth. Whenever Jacob returned
from school his father and mother would vie with
each other in waiting on him ; but this Jacob did
not consider consonant with the respect due from
child to parent; he therefore appealed to Abaye,
who told him: "Thy mother's services thou mayest
receive, but not those of thy father, who is himself
a scholar" (Kid. 31a). He doubtless visited Pales-
tine, since he is mentioned in the company of Pales-
tinians; but as an old man he is found in Baby-
lonia (Zeb. 70b).

Bibliography: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, U.

8. 3. S. M.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob

Jacob ben Asher

JACOB B. ABBA MARI. See Anatolio

(Anatoli), Jacob ben Abba ISIaki.

JACOB BAB ABINA (ABIN ; BUN) : Pal-
estiniau amora of the fourth centur}". He is knowu
as having transmitted the haggadot of Samuel 1).
Nahniau, Abbahu, and Abba b. Kahaua (Eccl. R. i.
5). Jacob is reported to have had a heated contro-
versy with K. Jeremiah on tlie question of the paj^-
ment of taxes to the Roman government (Yer. JM.
K. iii. 1).

Bibliography: Bacher, Aa. Pcil. Amnr. iii. 712-713 et pas-
sim ; Heilprin, Seder ha-Durot, 11.
s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB BEN ABRAHAM FAITUSI

(^D"in"D) : Tunisian scholar; died at Algiers July,
1813. He settled in the later part of his life at
Jerusalem, whence he was sent as a collector of alms
to Italy and Algeria. He was the author of "Berit
Ya'akob " (Leghorn, 1800), the contents of which
were as follows: sermons; Bezaleel Ashkenazi's
" Shittah Mekubbezet " on Sotah, with the editor's
notes, entitled " Yagel Ya'akob " ; glosses of the
Geonim on the Talmudical treatises Nedarim and
Nazir, with the editor's notes; commentaries on
Nazir by Abraham ben Musa; "Sha'are Zedek," a
commentary, attributed to Levi ben Gershon, on the
thirteen hermeneutic rules of R. Ishmael; novelise
on Hullin and Pesahim; and poems, entitled "Kon-
tres Aharon."

Jacob wrote also " Yerek Ya'akob " {ib. 1842), ser-
mons arranged in the order of the Sabbatical sections,
with an appendix entitled " Ya'ir Kokab mi-Ya'a-
kob," containing novella? and responsa, and edited
" Mizbah Kapparah " of Nahmanides ; Bezaleel Ash-
kenazi's "Shittah Mekubbezet" on Zebahim and
various tosafot of Rabbi Perez, Eliezer of Touques,
and others on several Talmudical treatises, with an
appendix entitled "Ranenu le- Ya'akob" {ib. 1810)
containing Talmudic novelise and sermons by Jacob
(republished with additions bv Saul ha-Levi, Lem-
berg, 1861); "Sefer Mar'eh ha-Ofannim " (Leghorn,
1810), containing Asher ben Jehiel's novelise on
Sotah, Aaron ha- Levi's "Shittah" on Bezah, and
an appendix entitled "Yagel Ya'akob," containing
novelise on Pesahim, Bezah, Rosh ha-Shanah, JMo'ed
Katan, 'Abodah Zarah, and IVIakkot.

Bibliography : Nepl-Ghirondl, Tolednt Gedole Yistrael, p. 211 ;
Steinschneider. Cat. Bndl. col. 1210; Zedner, Cat. Hebr.
B<whti Brit. Mus. p. 247 ; Caz6s, Notes Bibliographiques, pp.
183 et geq.

D. I. Br.

JACOB BAR AHA: 1. Palestinian amora of
the third generation (latter part of the third century) ;
contemporary of R. Ze'era. He rarely gives opin-
ions of his own, but repeats halakot and homiletic
remarks in the names of earlier authorities. In Yer.
Ber. Ha he communicates in the name of Rabbi
Johanan a halakah relating to grace at meals. In
the name of R. Eleazar (probably ben Pedat) he re-
ports that in the words "Hide not thyself from thine
own flesh " (Isa. Iviii. 7) the prophet refers to a di-
vorced wife, whom her former husband has to sup-
port (Lev. R. xxxiv. 14).

Jacob bar Aha associated with Assi (Yer. Meg.
74b); and it is also recorded that he once took a
meal together with Ze'era, Hiyya bar Abba, and

Hanina, and was invited to say grace (Yer. Ber

11a).

2. Palestinian amora of the fourth generation; a

contemporary of Ilezekiah, with whom he associated

(Yer. Ber. ii. 5a, iii. 6a; Ket. v. 30a).

Bibliography : Zacuto, Yuhamn, ed. KSnlgsberg, 95a ; Fraa-
kel, Meho hn-Yervshalnn, 104b, IWm; Bacher, Afi- Pal.
Amor. ii. 178 and Index ; Heilprin, Seder ha-Durot. I. 236.

s- s- I. Br.

JACOB BEN AMRAM : Polemical writer of
the seventeenth century. He wrote in 1634, in
Latin, a book against the religion of the Christians,
with the Hebrew title "Sha'ar Emet" (" Porta Ve-
ritatis "). He borrows largely from Manas.seh ben
Israel, but that Manasseh himself was not the au-
thor of this book was proved by Wolf. The Eng-
lish bishop Richard Kidder, in bis " Demonstratio
Messise " (part iii., London, 1684, etc.), wrote a refu-
tation of Jacob ben Amram's arguments.

Bibliography : Jocher, Allgemeines Gelehrtenlexicon, 11.
1806 ; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 213; Wolf, Bibl.
Hebr. i. 686, iii. 442.

J. M. Sc.

JACOB BEN ASHER (known also as Ba<al
ha-Turim) : German coditier and Biblical commen-
tator; died at Toledo, Spain, before 1340. Very
little is known of Jacob's life; and the few glimpses
caught here and there are full of contradictions.
According to Menahem b. Zerah ("Zedah la-Derek,"
Preface), Jacob was the third son of Asher, and
older than Judah. Indeed, Jacob is usually men-
tioned before Judah. On the other hand, Jacob
himself, in his introduction to the Tur Orah Hay-
yim, which he wrote after his father's death, at a
time when Judah was more than fifty j-ears old
(comp. Judah's testament, published by S. Schech-
ter in "Bet Talmud," iv. 340 et seq.), says that he
himself was then a j'oung man. What is definitely
known is that, contrary to the assertions of Gedaliah
ibn Yahya ("Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah," ed. Zolkiev,
p. 47b) and Heilprin ("Seder ha-Dorot," p. 169),
Jacob emigrated with his father to Spain, where in
1317 he and his brother Judah were appointed by
their father treasurers of the money which the
family had to distribute as alms, his signature to his
father's testament coming before Judah's (Schech-
ter. I.e. p. 375). Besides his father, who was his
principal teacher, Jacob quotes very often in the
Turim his elder brother Jehiel; once his brother
Judah (Tur Orah Hayyim, § 417), and once his
uncle R. Hayyim {ib. § 49).

Jacob was very poor all his lifetime and suflFered
great privations (Tur Orah Hayyim, §242; comp. his
epitaph in Luzzat to, ' 'Abne Zikkaron, "
His Life. No. 7). His business seems to have con-
sisted in lending money (Tur, I.e. % 539).
It is also known, contrary to the statement of Za-
cuto ("Yuhasin,"ed. London, p. 223), that Jacob did
not succeed his father in the rabbinate of Toledo,
his brother Judah filling that ofiice (Schechter, I.e. ,
Luzzatto, I.e. No. 5). Jacob's testament (Schechter,
I.e. 378 et seq.) betrays a lofty spirit. He wandered
in different countries, wliere he observed the vary-
ing religious customs which he quotes in his Turim;
but his epitaph (Luzzatto, I.e. No. 7) refutes the as-
sertion of Azulai ("Shem ha-Gedolim," i.) that he
died and was buried in Chios. His pupil David

Jacob ben Asher
Jacob ben Benjamin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Abudarham, writing in 1840, speaks of Jacob as
already dead.

Jacob was one of the pillars of rabbinic learning.
His name became known throughout the entire Jew-
ish world through the following works, which he
wrote probably in Spain: (1) " Sefer ha-Remazim,"
or " Kizzur Piske ha-Rosh " (Constantinople, 1575),
an abridgment of his father's compendium of the
Talmud, in which he condensed his father's decisions,
omitting the casuistry. This work is arranged in
the same order as the treatises of the Talmud, and
is quoted by Jeroham b. Mcshullum ("Sefer Me-
sharim," Preface), Simeon b. Zemah Duran (Re-
sponsa, iii. , No. 86), Elijah Mizrahi (Responsa, No. 4),
and other Talmudists. (2) The four Turim, namely,
(a) Tur Orah Hayyim (separately Mantua, 1476),
containing the ritual laws relating to the daily
prayers, the Sabbath, and holy days; (b) Tur Yoreh
De'ah (separately first third, ib. 1476;
The Turim. completed at Ferrara, 1477), contain-
ing the laws concerning things lawful
and unlawful ("issur we-hetter"); (c) Tur Eben
ha-'Ezer (separately Guadalajara, n.d.), containing
the laws relating to marriage and divorce, legiti-
macy, etc. ; and (d) Tur Hoshen ha-Mishpat (edited
with the other three, Piove di Sacco, 1475), contain-
ing the civil laws. The tirst complete edition, that
of Piove di Sacco, finished July 3, 1475, is the sec-
ond dated Hebrew book, and must have been begun
earlier than the Rashi of Reggio of the same 3'ear.
It was, after the Bible, the most popular Avork
printed in the fifteenth century, no less than two
complete editions and seven editions of parts being
printed between 1475 and 1495 (Leiria). See In-

CUN.\BULA.

As stated above, Jacob was a young man when
he began the Turim, which remained the standard
code for both Sephardim and Ashkenazim up to the
appearance of the Shulhan 'Aruk. In the introduc-
tion to the Tur Orah Hayyim he says he w^as in-
duced to undertake such an immense work by a de-
sire to establish a code suited to the requirements of
the time. Maimonides' Yad ha-Hazakah, being a
compilation of all the laws contained in the six
orders of the Talmud, was too bulky for general
use. Besides, with the course of time, questions
arose to which no immediate solution was given in
the Talmud. Jacob on the one hand simplified
Maimonides' work by the omission of laws which
could not be applied after the destruction of the
Temple, thus reducing the whole code to four parts,
and on the other he inserted an account of the cus-
toms which he had observed in various countries.
In the Tur Orah Hayyim Jacob shows a greater
deference to Ashkenazic than to Sephardic rabbis,
citing the former very often. Once (§ 35) he even
bases his decision on the Cabala, and once (§ 113) he
speaks of the German Hasidim. Just the contrary
is the case in the other three Turim, where Sephar-
dic autliorities predominate. But throughout the
four parts he speaks of the customs of different
countries as an eye-witness; and very often he
points out the differences between the Ashkenazic
and the Sephardic practises.

Jacob was averse to all kinds of controversy ; and
he recorded the laws as they had been pronounced

by preceding expounders ("posekim"). In many
cases he indicated merely that he was inclined to
accept the opinion of a certain authority, with-
out forcing his view upon the student. In many
other cases he refrained from expressing his own
opinion, and left the decision to the officiating
rabbi. He never speaks either favorably or un-
favorably of secular sciences, ignoring them alto-
gether.

The Arba' Turim soon became very popular with
students; but, as is generally the case with works
of this nature, they felt the necessity of writing
commentaries upon it. The commentators are: Jo-
seph Card ("Bet Yosef "), who some-
Commen- times criticizes Jacob's text; Moses

taries on Isserles (" Darke IMosheh ") ; Joel
the Turim. Sirkes (" Bayit Hadash "); Joshua Falk
(" Derishah u-Ferishah ") ; and Joseph
Escapa ("Rosh Yosef"), who deals with only apart
of the work. The four Turim have been unduly
depreciated by GrStz and A. Geiger because they
were not written in the philosophical spirit of Mai-
monides.

Jacob wrote also two commentaries on the Pen-
tateuch: (1) "Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim" (Constanti-
nople, 1500), which is printed in all the editions of the
Pentateuch accompanied by commentaries, and con-
sists only of gematria, notarikon, and Masoretic cal-
culations; (2) "Perush 'al ha-Torah," less known
(Zolkiev, 1806), and taken mainly from Nahmanides,
but without his cabalistic and philosophical interpre-
tations. Jacob quotes many other commentators,
among them Saadia, Rashi, Joseph Kara, Abraham
ibn Ezra, Hiyya ha-Sefaradi, which last name Geiger
erroneously emends to " Abraham b. Hiyya " (" Wiss.
Zeit. Jud. Theol." iv. 401 ; comp. Carmoly in " Orient,
Lit." xii. 373).

Bibliography: Buchholz, in Monatsschrift, xiii. 253-254;
Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, 26a ; Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. ii. 14-16 ;
A. Gt'iper, in Jiid. Zeit. iii. 244 et fieq.: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed.,
vii. 29S ft scQ.\ Michael, Or ha-Haimim, No. 1060; Stein-
schneider. Cat. Bodl. cols. 1181-1192; Weiss, Dor, v. 118-123-
s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB (ABERIiE, ABRIL) BENEDICT

(BENET): Rabbi at Alt-Ofen at the beginning
of the nineteenth century ; sou of Mordecai b.
Abraham Benet (Marcus Benedict). Jacob was the
author of " Toledot Mordekai Benet" (Alt-Ofen,
1832). The first part contains a biograph}-, and the
second various writings of his father: "Likkutim,"
explanations of Biblical passages; homiletic ex-
planation of "dayyenu " as it occurs fifteen times in
the Pesah Haggadah; sermon onShabbatTeshubah,
delivered in 1820 ; commentary on the song of Debo-
rah; "Hiddushe Halakot." The biography is writ-
ten in a pure and easy Hebrew style.

Bibliography: Benjacoh, Ozar ha-f^cfarim, p. 620; Fiirst,
Bihl. Jud. i. 103; idem, in Orient, Lit. viii. 494; Steiiischnel-
der. Cat. Bodl. col. 1193.
G. M. Sc.

JACOB BEN BENJAMIN ZEEB SAK :

Lithuanian Talmudist; born in the first half of the
seventeenth century at Wilna, Russia; died at Jeru-
salem. Driven from his native city by the Chmiel-
nicki persecutions, he left Russia with his father-in-
law, Ephraim ben Aaron. On the way they were sep-
arated by their pursuers, and after barely escaping

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Page from thk fikst Edition of Jacob ben asher's "arha' tiuim/' Piove di Sacco, 147j.

(In the Library of Columbia University, New York.)

Jacob, Benno
Jacob Qebulaah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

death Jacob wandered about for several months,
finally arriving at Trebitsch, Moravia, where he
found his father-in-law.

About 1665 Jacob was appointed rabbi of Tre-
bitsch, later of Ungarisch-Brod, and after the deatli
of Ephraim he officiated in Ofen. There also fate was
against him ; for the city was captured in 1686 by
the imperial troops, and Jacob was carried captive
to Berlin. Ransomed by the Jews of that city, he
lived for some years with his son Zebi Ashkenazi in
Altoua, and then went to Jerusalem, where he died
at the age of seventy-three.

Bibliography : Fuean, Kiryah Ne'emanah, p. 85.

s. s. A. Pe.

JACOB, BENNO: German rabbi and Biblical
scholar; born at Breslau Sept. 8, 1862; educated at
tiie gymnasium, the university, and the theological
seminary of his native town (Ph.D. 1889). Since 1891
Jacob has been rabbi at Gottiugen.

Among his writings may be especially mentioned :
"Das Buch Esther bei den LXX." Giesscn, 1890;
"Unsere Bibcl in Wissenschaft und Unterricht," Ber-
lin, 1898. Healso edited "Predigten, Betrachtun-
gen und Gebete von Dr. Benjamin Rippner," ib.
1901 ; and has made many contributions to Stade's
"Zeitschrift."

s. F. T. H.

JACOB BERAH DE-BAT SAMUEL. See
Mari b. Raciiei, b. Samuel.

JACOB BAR BERATEH DE - ELISHA
AHER. See Jacob, 1.

JACOB 9ADiaTJE (ZADDIK) : Spanish phy-
sician and writer; born at Ucles in the second third
of the fourteenth century. He devoted himself to
the study of medicine, and became body-physician
to D. Lorenzo Suarez de Figueroa, Maestre de San-
tiago, from whom he received a commission to
translate from the Limousinian into the Castilian
dialect a moral-philosophical work containing prov-
erbs and sayings from the Old and New Testaments
and from the works of Aristotle, Seneca, Cicero,
and others. This work, entitled "Libro de Dichos
de Sabios^ Filosofos," and consisting of seven parts,
was finished in Velez July 8, 1402, and is still ex-
tant in manuscript in the Escurial. Whether Jacob
(,'adique was baptized, as Amador de los Rios states,
is not certain.

ibliography: Rios, Esturtios, pp. 443 et .«e(j.; Steinsclineider,
Jewixh Literature, p. 103; Kayserling, Uihl. Esp.-Pnrt.-
Jud. p. 110.
G. M. K.

JACOB OF CHINON: French tosafist ; lived
about 1190-1260. He was a pupil of Isaac ben
Abraham of Dampierre and a teacher of Perez of
Corbeil. His two brotliers were Nathanael, " the
Holy," and Eliezer ben Joseph, "the Martyr," both
Talmudical scholars. Jacob wrote: (1) "Shittah,"
probably on Sanhedrin, quoted by Mordecai (iii.,
Nos. 690, 691, on Sanh. ; see Benjacob, " Ozar ha-
Sefarim," p. 573); (2) commentary on Gittiii ; (8)
tosafot, some of which are quoted in Ber. 12a and
Nazir 5IJa, and in Mordecai (Shab. x. 377; 'Er. viii.
527; B. M. ii. ; comp. " Monats.schrift," 1878, p. 82).

In the "Semak" on Gittin (No. 81), a passage
somewhat doubtful as regards its genuineness,

some tosafot of " R. Tairt de Chinon " are quoted,

while in a corresponding passage in Kol Bo (No.

88) tlie name of the author is given as " Jacob de

Chinon." "R. Tam of Chinon" occurs also in the

Halberstam MSS. (No. 345), which makes it appear

likely that Jacob of Chinon was known also by that

name.

Bibliography: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 566, 579; Renan-
Neubauer, Les Rabhiiis Frangai,\ pp. 445-743; idem. Lea
Ecrivains Juifs Franqais, p. 469; Zunz, Z. G. p. 39.

S. S. M. Sc.

JACOB OF CORBEIL (called "the Saint"):
Frencli to.satist of the twelfth century. He was the
brother of Judah of Corbeil, author of tosafot to
various treatises of the Talmud. He is sometimes
confounded with Jacob ha-Levi, "the Pious," of
Marvfige or Marvejols (Lozere, France). Aaron ben
Hayyim ha-Kohen, in his commentary on the Mah-
zor, praises him highly. He is mentioned by Isaac'
ha-Levi ben Judah in his " Pa'aneah Raza " as well
as in Judah ben Eliezer's "Minhat Yehudah."

Jacob of Corbeil wrote tosafcr to several Tal-
mudical treatises, and lie is frequently mentioned
in the Tosafot, e.g., to Ket. 12b; Hul. 122b; Bezah
6b; Shab. 27a, 61a; Pes. 22. The "Memorbuch " of
Mayence names Jacob among the martyrs of Corbeil.

Bibliography: Zunz, Z. G. pp. .50, 77; Renan-Neubauer, Les
Bahhins Frau^aiK, pp. 438, 441; Rev. Etudes Juives, iv.
24 ; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 562.
L. G. S. K.

JACOB OF COUCY : French tosafist of the
thirteenth century ; mentioned in tosafot to Kiddii-
shin (43b, 67a), by Mordecai, and in Joseph Colon's
" She'elot u-Teshubot " (No. 47, Venice, 1579).

Bibliography: Gross, Gnllia Judaica. p. 556; Renan-N'eu-
bauer, Les Rabbins Fraiigais, p. 446 ; Zunz, Z. G. p. 50.

S. S. M. Sc.

JACOB BEN DAVID PROVENCAL

('^NVrillD or Wj-'Tid) : French Talmudist of the
fifteenth century ; not to be confounded with the
astronomer Jacob ben David ben Yom-Tob Po'el,
called "Sen Bonet Bongoron (or Bonjorn) of Perpi-
gnan " (14th cent.). Jacob lived at Marseilles, where
he was engaged in maritime commerce. Subse-
quently he retired to Naples, and thence addressed
a letter (1490) to David ben Judah Messer Leon of
^lantua on the utility of secular studies, and espe-
cially of medicine. Jacob was a learned Talmudist,
and wrote a letter of approbation for Jacob Landau's
casuistic work " Sefer Agur. " He wrote also a com-
mentary on Canticles.

Bibliography: Carmoly, i/i.sf. dcs Medecins Juifs, p. 125;
Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 383.
G. S. K.

JACOB B. ELEAZAR: Spanish grammarian
of the first third of the thirteenth centuiy. The as-
sumption that he lived in the first third of the
twelfth century (Geiger's "Jiid. Zeit." xi. 235;
Griitz, "Gesch." 8d ed., vi. 110; Winter and
Wiinsche, "Jiulische Litteratur," ii. 183) is errone-
ous. He was probably a native of Toledo, wliere
he liad access to the famous Bible Codex Hilleli
(David Kimhi, "Miklol," ed. Flirst. p. 78b); subse-
quently he went to southern Fiance, wliere he wrote
"Gan Te'udot" (see below) at the requcstof Samuel
and Ezra, the sons of Judah, who, according to
Steinsclineider (in "Z. D. M. G. " xxvii. 558), are

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob, Benno
Jacob Gebulaah

identical with Judah b. Natlianael's sons of the same
names, mentioned b}'^ Al-Harizi.

Jacob ben Eleazar's chief work, the "Kitab al-
Kamil " (Hebr. " Sefer ha-Shalem "), written in Ara-
bic, has long since been lost. Tanhiim Yerushalmi,
who quotes it in his lexicon (see Bacher, '' Aus dem
W5rterbuche Tanclium Jerushalmi's," 1903, p. 42),
says in the introduction to his Bible commentary
that the book was in reality, and not merely meta-
phorically, complete, as its name indicated ('' I^- E.
J." xl. 141). Tauhum's contemporary Abraham
Maimonides also cites the work in his Pentateuch
commentary ("Zeit. flir Hebr. Bibl." ii. 155).

The " Kitab al-Kamil, " which probably included
a grammar and a lexicon, is cited frequently by
David Kimhi ; in about twenty articles of his " Sefer
ha-Shorashim " he quotes opinions of Jacob's, some
of wliich are most original and remarkable (see
ed. Lebrecht and Biesenthal, p. xxviii.). Many cita-
tions are found also in an anonymous Hebrew-Arabic
lexicon (Steinschneider, " Die Arabische Literatur
der Juden," p. 290). As late as the fourteenth cen-
tury the work was freely quoted by Isaac Israeli of
Toledo in his commentary on Job (Neubauer, "Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 383; "Ozar Nehmad," iii.
151). A Hebrew author of Damascus (date un
known) says that complete copies of the "Kitab
al-Kamil" had been found in Egypt ("Zeit. fur
Hebr. Bibl." ii. 154). It may be assumed that, the
work being very large, only a limited number of
copies existed. If Israelson's assumption (really
originating with Poznanski in " Zeit. f iir Hebr.
Bibl." ii. 156) is justified, long portions of the
grammatical part of the "Kitab al-Kamil" are still
extant; namely, the fragments found in a St. Peters-
burg manuscript and elsewhere, which have been as-
cribed to the earlier grammarian Isaac ibn Yashush.
This fragmentary grammatical work also quotes the
Codex Hilleli.

Certain Hebrew works bearing the name of Jacob
b. Eleazar have been assigned, and probably cor-
rectlj', to the author of the " Kitab al-Kamil " ; and
they are probably among the twelve works by him
dealing with different subjects which TanhumYeru-
shalmi mentions (see "R. E. J." xl. 141, note 5).

The following three works of Jacob b. Eleazar
arestill extant: (I) " Gan Te'udot,"a ]>arenetic work
on the human soul, written in mosaic style (formerly
Halberstam MS., now in the Montetiore collection at
Ramsgate; see '' R. E. J." xv. 158). Copies of this
work, under a different title, seem to be also in the
libraries of the Vatican and the Escurial (see Stein-
schneider in "Z. D. M. G." xxvii. 555 et seq.). (2)
"Meshalim," parables in "makamah " form, written
in 1233 at tlie instance of friends, in order to show that
Hebrew was as good a language as Arabic (Munich
MS. No. 207). (8) "Sefer Kalilah wa-Dimnah,"a
Hebrew version of the famous book of fables, in
rimed prose, written for a certain Benveniste. Onl}'^
tlie beginning of tliis translation has been preserved
(Neubauer, 'Xat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 384); this
has been edited by Joseph Derenbourg (," Deux Ver-
sions Hebraiques du Livre de Kalilah et Dimnah,"
pp. 311-388. Paris, 1881; see Kat.it,ah wa-Dim-
NAii). Two liturgical poems by Jacob b. Eleazar
are enumerated in Zunz, " Literaturgesch." p. 201.

Bibliography : steinschneider, DU Arahixche Literatur
der Juden, pp.158 et neq.; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 87«; Gel-
ger's Jud. Zeit. xi. 232 et seq.; Idem, O^r Kefymad,, 11. 159
et seq.
T. W. B.

JACOB B. ELIEZER. See Temerles, Jacob.

JACOB BEN EPHRAIM : Syrian Talmudist
of the tenth century. From Salmon b. Jeroham's
commentary to Psalms (cxl. 6) it appears that Jacob
b. Ephraim wrote a commentary to the Jerusalem
Talmud. He is especially mentioned by the Karaite
Joseph al-Kirkisani in his "Ha-Ma'or ha-Gadol,"
where he recounts a dispute with Jacob ben
Ephraim al-Shami in regard to the permissibility of
marriage with a niece. Al-Kirkisani states further
that he asked Jacob b. Ephraim why the}' (the
Rabbinites) intermarried with the 'Isawite sectaries,
and that the latter answered, "They have not se-
ceded from us in regard to the calendar." Pinsker
erroneously conjectured that Jacob ben Ephraim
was to be identified with the Karaite Ben Ephraim,
who was so violently attacked by Abraham ibn Ezra
("Likkute Kadmoniyyot," p. 24), while Schorr, ig-
noring the evidence, denied the existence of Jacob
ben Ephraim ("He-Haluz," vi. 70).

Bibliography : Pinsker, Likkute Kadmnnijniot, p. 24 (Sup-
plement, p. U); Pozn&nskii 'in' Steinschneider Festschrift,
p. 201; idem, in J. Q. R. x. 159.
S. S. M. Sei,.

JACOB BEN EPHRAIM OF LUBLIN : Po

lish rabbi ; died in Lublin 1648. At first he occupied
the post of rabbi and instructor at the yeshibah of
that city, whence he was called to officiate as rabbi in
Brest. There he entertained in 1631 R. Yom-Tob Lip-
man Heller, who speaks of him with great respect, and
mentions his officiating as rabbi in the two cities cited
("Megillat Ebah," p. 28). From Brest he returned
to Lublin as rabbi, and remained there till his death.
Jacob was known as "the Gaon Rabbi Jacob of
Lublin"; for he was the teacher of the most emi-
nent Polish rabbis of his time, who studied in his
yeshibah and profited by his extensive knowledge of
Halakah. Only a few of his responsa have been
preserved : these are to be found among the re-
sponsa of the Geone Batra'e. Some novelke by him
and by his son R. Hoschel, on Yoreh De'ah, Eben ha-
'Ezer, and Hoshen Mishpat, are still in manuscript.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keur.set Yisrael,x>- 535; Ozerot JJay-
yim, p. 252 ; Carmoly, Ha-^Orebim u-Be.ne Yonnh, pp. 32, S3.

s. s. N. T. L.

JACOB OF FULDA. See Jacob ben Mor-

DECAI.

JACOB THE GALILEAN : Son of the Judah
who caused an uprising against the Romans at the
time of the taxation under Quirinius. Jacob fol-
lowed his father's example, and together with his
brother Simeon also rebelled against the Romans.
The procurator Alexander Tiberius had the two
brothers nailed to the cross about the year 46 (Jose-
phus, "Ant." XX. 5, § 2).

Bibliography: Cratz. GO'ch.Hh ed., iii. 364; Schurer, Gesc/i.
3d ed., i. 487, note 139, and p. 568.
o. S. Kr.

JACOB GEBULAAH (GEBULAYA) : Pales-
tinian scholar of the third century; disciple of Jo-
hanan (Yer. Yeb. viii. 9b). He seems also to have
sat at the feet of Hanina b. Hama, for he reports the

Jacob b. Gershom
Jacob ben Jekuthiel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

latter's halakot and liaggadot, and this even in the
presence of Johanan, wlio on one occasion expressed
himself as opposed to an opinion of Hanina's quoted
by Jacob (Yer. Hal. iii. 59a). Jacob transmitted the
halakot and haggadot of others also (Yer. Yeb. viii.
9b). Thus, he cites Hanina's eschatological inter-
pretation of the passage "A generation passeth
away, and a generation cometh" (Eccl. i. 4, Hebr.).
Adducing the Biblical " I [the Lord] kill, and I make
alive; I wound, and I heal "(Deut. xxxii. 39), Jacob
argues that there was no need for the latter clause,
since he who can revive the dead is surely able to heal
the wounded; the Bible means that as the gen-
eration passeth away so the generation will come
back; those who were lame at death will return
lame, and the blind at death will return blind, all
doubt of the identity of the dead and the resur-
rected being thus precluded. Then, after having
revived the dead, the Lord will free them from
their infirmities (Eccl. R. i. 4).
s. s. S. M.

JACOB B. GERSHOM HA-GOZER (="the
Mohel ") : German Talmudist of the twelfth cen-
tury. He was a nephew of Ephraim b. Jacob of
Bonn, with whom he carried on a scientific corre-
spondence ; he had also personal relations with Elie-
ZER B. Joel ha-Levi. As far as is known, Jacob
was the first to write a monograph on circumcision.
The work published by Glassberg in his collection
"Zikron Berit ha-Rishonim" (Berlin, 1892), after a
manuscript in the Hamburg Library, under the
title "Kelale ha-Milah le-Rabbi Ya'akob ha-Gozer,"
was not composed by Jacob himself, but by one of
his pupils, of whom nothing further is known ex-
cept that he was also a pupil of Eliezer b. Joel ha-
Levi.

The " Kelale " opens with a homily on circumcision,
very characteristic of the German preaching of that
time ; this is followed by a brief but very clear exposi-
tion of the processes "milah," "peri'ah," and "me-
zizah," and by a detailed account of the regulations
concerning circumcision on the Sabbath, leading the
writer to comment also on the cases when the milah
does not take place on the eighth day after birth.
The work contains valuable material for the historj'
of the liturgy and the religious customs of the Ger-
man Jews. Doubtless it is incomplete in its present
shape ; how much of it can be ascribed to Jacob and
how much to the anonymous compiler is unknown.
Aside from the Geonim, only German halakists and
some authorities of northern France, as Rashi and
Jacob Tam, are quoted in the book.

Bibliography: BriiU's .Ta/ir/*. ix. 12; MuUer, in the introduc-
tion to '/Akrim. Brvit ha-RiaJioiiim.
s. s. L. G.

JACOB THE GNOSTIC. See James (the Just).

JACOB BEN HANANEEL SEKILI(="of
Sicily"): Bible commentator and cabalist; lived in
the fourteenth century. He was the author of
"Minhat ha-Bikkurim." the first part of wliich,
"Torat ha-Minl.iah," is still extant in manuscript
(Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." Nos. 984-986).
It contains Jiomilies on Genesis, Exodus, and Levit-
icus, delivered on Sabbath afternoons. The author
knew Arabic, quotes Maimonides, and refers to his

own large commentary on the Pentateuch, entitled
"Talmud Torah." Each section is brought into
connection with some verses from the Prophets, and
cabalistic explanations are frequent. He wrote also
a work on Palestine, treating of localities and of the
tombs of prominent men.

Bibliography: Ttiljasiiu ed. London, p. 228; Azulai, Shem
ha^GedoUm, ii. 1.5;i ; Steinselmeider, Jewish Literature^ p.
104; Fuenn, Keneset YUrael,p.S70; Gross, Gallia Judaica,
p. 434.
K. I. Br.

JACOB BEN HAYYIM BEN ISAAC IBN
ADONIJAH : Masorite and printer; born about
1470 at Tunis (hence sometimes called Tunis!) ; died
before 1538. He left his native country in conse-
quence of the persecutions that broke out tliere at
tlie beginning of the sixteenth century. After re-
siding at Rome and Florence he settled at Venice,
where he was engaged as corrector of the Hebrew
press of Daniel Bomberg. Late in life he embraced
Christianity. Jacob's name is known chiefly in con
ncction witli his edition of the Rabbinical Bible
(1524-35), which he supplied with Masoretic notes
and an introduction which treats of the Masorah, of
"kere" and "ketib," and of the discrepancies be-
tween the Talmudists and the Masorah. The value
of his activity as a Masorite was recognized even by
Elijah Levita, who, however, often finds fault with
his selections (second introduction to " Massoret ha-
Massoret, " ed. Ginsburg).

Jacob's introduction to the Rabbinical Bible was
translated into Latin by Claude Capellus (" De Mari
Rabbinico Infido," vol. ii., ch. 4, Paris, 1667), and
into English by Christian D. Ginsburg (Longham,
1865). Jacob also wrote a dissertation on the Tar-
gum, prefixed to the 1527 and 1543-44 editions of
the Pentateuch, and published extracts from Moses
ha-Nakdan's "Darke ha-Nikkud weha-Neginot," a
work on the accents. He revised the "editio prin-
ceps" of the Jerusalem Talmud (1523), of Maimon-
ides' " Yad," and of many other works from Bom-
berg's press.

Bibliography : De Rossi, Dizinnarin, p. 322; Nepi-Ghlrondl,
Tolednt Gedole YisraeL p. 197 ; ("hristian D. Ginsburg, Mas-
soret ha-Massoret, pp. 3:3-34, London, 1867 ; Oznr Nehwad,
iii. 112; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1205;' Fiirst,' J?iW.
Jud. iii. 451.

J. L Br.

JACOB B. IMMANUEL PROVENQAL. See

BONET DE LaTES.

JACOB, ISRAEL : German banker and philan-
thropist ; born April 14, 1729, at Halberstadt ; died
Nov. 25, 1803. He was widely respected for his
philanthropy, which he did not confine to his own
coreligionists. He was court agent to the Duke of
Brunswick and the Margrave of Baden. Owing
to his efforts the Jews' body-tax was repealed
in the state of Baden. He also took a prominent
part in the conferences held in Berlin and Spandau
relating to the apportioning of the Jews' tax among
the Prussian communities.

Bibliography: Karl Witte, Israel nder der EdleJude, Mag-
deburg and Leipsic, 1804; Auerbach, Gesch. der Israclitv<chen
Grmeinde Halberstadt. 1806, pp. 137 et seq. ; E. Philippson,
Israel Jacob, in Jahreshericht der Jacobsnyischule, 1903;
A. Lewinsky, in Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1903, pp. 557 et seq.
s. R. H. K.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob b. Gershom
Jacob ben Jekuthiel

JACOB BEN ISRAEL HA-LEVI : Rabbi of
Zantc; died on lliat island in 1(584. He wasa native
of Morea, Greece, and passed tiie earlier part of his
life at Saloniea, where he studied under the direc-
tion of Aaron Hasun. Later he was called to the
rabbinate of Zaute, a position which he held until
his death.

Jacob combined great Talmudical learning with
extensive secular knowledge, and was highly es-
teemed by his contemporaries. He was the au-
thor of the following works: " She'elot u-Teshubot
Rabbi Ya'akob le-Bet Lewi" (2 vols., Venice, 1614;
witli additions, 1632), responsa; "Derushim," ser-
mons arranged in the order of the Sabbatical sec-
tions, no longer extant; a translation of the Koran
from the Latin into Hebrew, vrith an essay on the
history of Mohammed and his religion. This transla-
tion is still in manuscript (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl.
Hebr. MSS." No. 2207). A funeral oration on Jacob
pronounced by Azariah Figo is inserted in "Binah
le-'Iltim" (No. 73).

Bibliography: Conforte, Koi-e ha-D(m>t. p. 47a; Azulai,
Sliem hn-GcduUm, s.v.; Michael, in Orient, Lit. ii. tiOti;
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1221 ; Fuenn, Keiicsct Yit<-
rael, p. 552.
s. s. I. Br.

JACOB B. JACOB HA-KOHEN : Spanish
cabalist of tlie end of the thirteenth centurj- ; born
at Soria ; buried at Segovia ; also called GikatiHa,
according to Jellinek ("Beitrage zur Gesch. der
Kabbala," ii. 49). The cabalist Isaac lia-Kohen of
Beziers was his elder brother, and outlived him.
Nothing detinite is known regarding Jacob's life. Of
his works only "Tefillat R. Ya'akob mi-Seguba,"
a cabalistic prayer, has been printed (in Gabriel
Warschauer's " Likkutim me-Rab Hai Gaon "). His
most important work is "Perush Zurot ha-Otiyyot,"
on the form of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet.

Bibliography : Steinschneider, Hcbr. Bibl. 1877, xvii. ;}6.
K. P. B.

JACOB BEN JACOB MOSES OF LISSA:

German Talmudist; died in Stryj, Galicia, May 25,
1832. He was a great-grandson of Zebi Ashkenazi and
a pupil of Meshullam Eger. Jacob was ab bet din in
Kalisz and afterward in Lissa, and is usuallj' quoted
as Jacob of Lissa or Jacob Lisser." Later he re-
turned to Kalisz and lived there for ten years. Jacob
wrote: "Ta'alumot Hokmah," commentary on Ec-
clesiastes (Lemberg, 1804; Dyhernfurth, 1819);
"Zeror ha-Mor'' and "Paige Mayim," commentaries
on Canticles and Lamentations, under the general
title " Imre Yosher " (ih. 1815 and 1819); the character
of all three is homiletic-haggadic. Jacob had in-
tended to write commentaries on the Five Megillot
also under this title.

Jacob's importance, however, rests upon the fol-
lowing halakic writings, all of which contain hid-
dushim and bi'urim: (1) "Sefer Hawwot Da'at,"
commentary on Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 69-
201; the earlier sections of Yoreh De'ah (1-68)
are very briefly dealt with in the form of an intro-
duction to the work (Lemberg, 1799; Dyhernfurth,
1810, and often since in editions of the Yoreh De'ah,
as the Wilna [1894] ed.). In it the works of earlier
commentators are discussed and somewhat pilpulis-
tically developed. (2) " Sefer ^lekor Hayyim,'' com-
VII.— 3

mentary on Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 429 and
following, witii notes on the commentaries "Ture
Zahab " and " Magen Abraham " ; the second part
contains hiddushim on Keritot (Zolkiev, 1807;
Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1813; Warsaw, 1825; Dy-
hernfurth, 1827). (3) "Sefer Netibot ha-Mishpat."
commentary on Shulhan 'Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, in
two parts (Dyhernfurth, Lemberg; Zolkiev, 1809,
1816; Sudilkov, 1830; and often sinci' in Lemberg
editions of Shulhan 'Aruk, Hoshert Mislipa^). (4)
"Sefer Torat Gittin," commentary on Shulhan
'Aruk, Eben ha-'Ezer," 119-155, and hiddushim on
the Talmudic treatise Gittin (Frankforton-the-Oder,
1813; Warsaw, 1815). "(5) "Sefer Bet Ya'akob,"
commentary on Shulhan 'Aruk, Eben ha-'Ezer, 66-
118, and on the Talmudic treatise Ketubot (Grube-
schow, 1823). (6) "Sefer Kehillat Ya'akob," a col-
lection of discussions and notes on .several legal
points in the Eben ha-'Ezer and Orah Hayyim
(Lemberg, 1831).

Toward the end of his life Jacob composed a short
compendium of dinim, under the title " Derek ha-
Hayyim " (Zolkiev, 1828; Altona, 1831). This com-
pendium is very popular and was frequently reprinted
in the larger Hebrew prayer-books. These dinim
are taken either from later exponents of the Law as
contained in the works "Ture Zahab," "Magen
Abraham," "Peri Megadim," etc., or from his own
decisions. The sources from wdiicli he borrowed are
usually indicated.

Jacob wrote also a commentary on thePesah Hag-
gadah under the title "Ma'aseh Nissim," with the
text and a short compendium of the Passover ritual
(" Kizzur Dinim " ; Zolkiev, 1807, 1835; Minsk, 1816;
Dyhernfurth, 1817, and later). After Jacob's death
his grandson Naplitali Z. N. Chaehamowicz pub-
lished his "Nahalat Ya'akob " (Breslau, 1849), con-
taining sermons on the Pentateuch, halakic hiddu-
shim, responsa, and his last will.

Bibliography: Benjacob. Ozai- lia-S^cfarim; A. B. Flohm.
Eltel Yahid, Warsaw, 1833 ; Fuenn, Keneaet Yisi-acI, 1. 5.">4 ;
Fiirst, Bi'hl. Jud. ii. 21 et »cq.: Steinschneider, Cdt. Budl.vo].
1229; Walden, S?/fm ha-Grdolim }ie-Hadash ; Zedner, Cat.
Hebr. Books Brit. Mns. p. 304.
S. S. M. So.

JACOB BEN JEKUTHIEL : French Talmudic
scholar; boin at. Rouen; died at Arras in 1023.
Jacob became known by the fact that he was the
bearer of a petition to Pope John XVII. praying
him to stop the persecution of the Jews in Lorraine
(1007). These persecutions, organized by King
Robert of Fiance, are described in a Hebrew pam-
irlilet published in Berliner's "Magazin" (iii. 46-48,
Hebrew part, reproducing Parma [De Rossi] MS.
No. 563, 23; see also Jew. Encvc. v. 447, *. ;•.
Fkance). They were so terrible that many women,
in order to escape the fury of the mob, jumped into
the river and were drowned. Jacob undertook the
journey to Rome, but was imprisoned with his wife
and four sons by Duke Richard (doubtless Richard
the Fearless of Normandy), and escaped death only
by a miracle. He left his eldest son, Judah, as a
hostage with Richard while he with his wife and
three remaining sons went to Rome. He made a pres-
ent of seven gold marks and two hundred pounds
to tiie pope, who thereupon sent a special envoy to
King Robert ordering him to stop the persecutions.

Jacob ben Jeremiah
Jacob ha-Levi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob stayed in Rome till the return of the envoy,

a space of four years, during which time he made

the acquaintance of the three members of the Roman

rabbinate, Moses Nasi, Abraham, and Shabbelhai.

He then went to Lorraine and remained there

twelve years. In 1023, being invited by Count

Baldwin of Flanders to settle in his territory, he

went with thirty of liis friends to Arras with the

intention of so doing. Jacob, however, died three

months after his arrival; and, asthere was no Jewish

cemetery in the place, he was buried at Reims.

Bibliography : Besides the Hebrew text mentioned above.
Gross, GallM Judaica, pp. 71 etseq.; Vogelstein and Rieger,
Gesch. der Judcii in Rom, i. 212.
s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB BEN JEREMIAH MATTITHIAH
HA-LEVI : German translator of the seventeenth
century. He translated into Judoeo-German Abra-
ham Jagel's "Lekah Tob " (Amsterdam, 1675;
Wilmersdorf, 1714; jesnitz, 1719) and the "Sefer
ha-Yashar" (under the title "Tam weYashar";
Frankfort-onthe Main, 1G74; frequently reprinted).
The latter work contains Biblical history from
Adam to the period of the Judges, with haggadic
elaboration (see Zunz, "G. V." p. 163). After every
paragraph a short resume of the content and the
moral application of the story of the section are
given. The early editions contain also extracts from
Abraham Zacuto's "Sefer Yuhasin " and from
Eleazar Askari's "Sefer Haredim," together with
various prayers (in German).

Bibliography: Ben.iacob, Ozar ha^Scfarim, p. 23.3; Furst,
Bihl. Jud. ii. 20 ; Sleinsfhneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1222 ; idem,
Jevjish Literature, p. 2213.
D. M. Sc.

JACOB BEN JOEL : Russian rabbi in Brest-
Litovsk in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
He wrote: "She'erit Ya'akob," containing hiddu-
sliim on the Pentateuch, on the Five Megillot, and on
some Talmudic haggadot (Altona, 1727). See Brest-

LlTOVSK

Bibliography: Benjacob, Ozar 7ja-Sefarim,p.562; Feinstein,
'/r TchiUah, pp. 32, 37, Warsaw, !»*«; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ii.
19; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1223.
n R. M. Sc.

JACOB BEN JOSEPH ISRAEL (known also
as Joseph Israel) : P'rench scholar; lived at Pont-
Audemer in the twelfth century; pupil of Jacob
Tam, with whom he carried on a correspondence
("Sefer ha-Yashar," pp. 77-78; Tos. to Ket. 98b),
and of Samuel b. Meir ("Teshubot Rabbane Zarfat,"
No. 3). Gro.ss supposes that Jacob is identical with
Jacob of Pont-Audemer, known as a Biblical com-
mentator.

Bibliography: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 441.
o. I. Br.

JACOB JOSHUA BEN ZEBI HIRSCH :

Polish rabbi, born at Cracow in 1680; died at Of-
fenbach Jan. 16, 1756. On his mother's side he
was a grandson of Joshua of Cracow, the au-
thor of "Maginne Shelomoh." While a youth
Jacob became examiner of the Hebrew teachers of
Lemberg. In 1702 his wife, his child, and his
mother were killed through an explosion of gun-
powder that wrecked the house in which they
lived. Jacob himself narrowly escaped death. He
was then- called to the rabbinate of Tarli and Lisko,

small Galician towns. In 1717 he replaced Hakam
Zebi in the chief rabbinate of Lemberg ; and thence
he was called to Berlin in 1731. Having displeased
Veitel-IIeine Ephraim, one of the most influential
leaders of the community, by rendering a judgment
against him, he was compelled at the expiration of
his term of office (1734) to resign. After having
been for seven years rabbi of Metz he became chief
rabbi of Frankfort on-the-Maiu ; but the unfavor-
able attitude of the local authorities toward the
Jew^s, and the fact that the community was divided
by controversies, made his position there very pre-
carious. Soon afterward the quarrel between Jacob
Emden and Jonathan Eybeschlitz broke out. The
chief rabbi, because of his opposition to Eybeschlitz,
was ultimately compelled to leave the city (1750). He
wandered from town to town till he came to Worms,
where he remained for some years. He was then
called back to Frankfort; but his enemies prevented
him from preaching in the synagogue, and he left
the city a second time.

Jacob was one of the greatest Talmudists of his
time. He wrote "Pene Yehoshua'," novelise on the
Talmud, in four parts. Two of them were published
at Frankfort-on-the-Main (1752); the third, with his
" Pesak bet-Din Hadash," at Furth (1766) ; the fourth,
which, in addition to Talmudic novelise, contains
novelise on the Tur Hoshen IVlishpat and "Likku-
tim," also at Fiirth (1780). He wrote also a com-
mentary on the Pentateuch, which is mentioned by
the author himself, but has not appeared in print.

Bibliography : Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., x. a53, 362, 366 ; Buber,
A)ishe Shem.pp. 104-109; Landshuth, Toledot Anshe S?iem»
pp. 27-30 ; Fuenn, Keneset YUrael, pp. 567-569.
8. s. M. Sel.

JACOB JUDAH ARYEH LEON. See Leon.

JACOB BEN JUDAH HAZZAN OF LON-
DON : English codifier of the thirteenth century.
His grandfather was one Jacob he-Aruk (possibly
Jacob le Long). In 1287 Jacob wrote " 'Ez Hay-
yim," a ritual code in two parts, containing sixty
and forty-six sections respectively, dealing with the
whole sphere of Halakah, and following in large
measure Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah, though
Jacob utilized also the " Halakot Gcdolot," the
"Siddur" of R. Amram, and the works of Moses of
Coucy, Alfasi, and the tosafists. He quotes, further-
more, Isaac ben Abraham, Moses of London, and
Berechiah of Nicole (Lincoln). Some verses by him
are also extant (" J. Q. R. " v. 359). The " 'Ez Hay-
yim " still exists in a manuscript which formerly
belonged to Wagenseil and is now in the Raths-
bibliothek at Leipsic.

The work is of interest as the chief literary produc-
tion of an English Jew before the Expulsion, and
gives an account of the ritual followed by the Jews
of England at that date, a full analysis of which is
given by D. Kaufmann in "J. Q. R." iv. 20-64, 550-
561. The only part of the work that has been pub-
lished is the section edited by H. Adler in the
"Steinschneider Festschrift" (Hebr. section, pp.
156-208).

Bibliography: H. Adler, In Papers of the Anglo-Jexnish
HiMorUnl Kxhitiition, p. 276, London, 1888; idem, in Stein-
schneider Festschrift, pp. 241-242; D. Kaufmann, as above
and in J. Q. Ii. v. 3.^^374.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob ben Jeremiah
Jacob ha-Levi

JACOB BEN JUDAH LOB: Polish rabbi;
lived iu the second half ol" the eighteenth ceutui y.
Educated as a Talmudist, he became rabbi of Kras-
iiopolie, governmeutof Suwalki. He wrote "Pedu-
yot Ya'akob," an index to the halakot and subjects
of the Shulhan 'Aruk, in the reverse order of tlie
alphabet ^" tashrak "j. This was published in Frank-
fort-ou-the-Oder with the approbation of the rabbi
of that city, Naphtali Hirz, in 1800. In the preface
the author describes his sufferings at the liauds of
his enemies; how through them he was confined in
prison for seven Aveeks; and how when he was lib-
crated he wrote his work according to a vow that
he had made while in prison.
Bibliography : Fuenn, Kirmh Nc'emanah, p. 210.

s. s. N. T. L.

JACOB, JULIUS : German landscape- and por-
trait-painter; born in Berlin April 25, 1811; died
there Oct. 20, 1883. He studied under Wach at the
Dusseldorf Kunstakademie, and under Delaroche
in Paris. Having completed his studies at the lat-
ter place he traveled through Europe, North Africa,
and Asia Minor, returning with more than a thou-
sand landscape-studies and over three hundred cop-
ies of portrait-paintings from foreign art-galleries.
From 1844 to 1855 Jacob lived iu London ; he then
visited Vienna, where he painted the portraits of
several \)rominent men, among whom may be men-
tioned the princes jVIetternich, Schwarzenberg, Liech-
tenstein, and Lobkowitz, and Count Kinsky.

Among Jacob's most important paintings are the
following: "Steinfeld von Sorrent" and "Aus der
Mark" (exhibited iu Berlin, 1876); " Verstossung
aus dem Paradies " ; " Scene aus der Frithjofssage " ;
"Klinstlerleben"; and " Scenen aus der Geschichte
St. Ludwigs." Jacob was awarded gold medals by
the academies of arts in Paris, Lyons, and Rouen,
and became an honorary member of several acade-
mies throughout Europe.

Bibliography : MuUer, AUgemeinesKllnstler-Lexicon; Clem-
ent and Hutlon, Artists of the Nineteenth Century and
Their Works.
S. F. C.

JACOB OF KEFAB, HAN AN (HANIN) :

Palestinian amora of the third generation (3d and
4th cent.). Jacob is especially known as a hagga-
dist (Pesik. iv. 30b; Gen. R. xxxii. 5; Yer. Ber. v.
2; Yer. Ta'an. i. 1), but most of his haggadic say-
ings have been transmitted only by his pupils and
successors. Once (Pesik. R. 33 [ed. Friedmann, p.
153b]) his name occurs as "Jacob of Kefar Hana-
niah."

Bibliography: Bacher, Agada der PdlCLttinensischen Amo-
riier, iii. 569-571.
s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB OF KEFAK, HITTAYA (N"t3"'n) :
Palestinian scholar of the second centuiy ; contem-
porary of Judah I. Jacob is said to have been in
the habit of visiting histeacher every day (Hag. 5b).
Heilprin ("Seder ha-Dorot," ii.) concluded that he
was a pupil of Akiba and teacher of Judah I. ; this,
however, is not certain.

s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB OF KEFAB, NEBURAYA : Jud«o-
Christian of the fourth century. Neburaya is prob
ably identical with Nabratain, a place to the north

of Safed, where, according to Schwarz ("Tebu'at
lia-Arez," p. 103a), is the tomb of Jacob as well as
that of Eleazar of Modi'im. Jacob was well known
as a haggadist before he embraced Christianity; and
in two instances his haggadot met with the approval
of the Rabbis. One of these maybe quoted: in
the school of Cuesarea he interpreted Hab. ii. 19 as
being a rebuke of simony. On the same occasion
he indicated Isaac b. Eleazar as a worthy candi-
date for tiie rabbinate (Yer. Bik. iii. 3; Midr.
Shemu'el vii.).

Jacob was also consulted at Tyre on halakic mat-
ters; but his decisions were not accepted. He de-
cided (1) that the rules of shehitah should be ap-
plied to fish, and (2) that a son born of a Gentile
woman may be circumcised on the Sabbath. Ou
account of these decisions Jacob incurred repri-
mands from R. Haggai, who ordered him to be
flogged. Jacob, after presenting some arguments
against this punishment, finally acknowledged that
he deserved it (Pe-sik. R. 14 [ed. Friedmann, p. 61a];
Pesik. iv. 35b-36a; Yer. Y'eb. ii. 6 and parallels).
His heresy was not generally known.

Only Jacob's contemporary Isi of Cajsarea counts
him among the Juda?o-Christians, applying to him
the Biblical word "sinner" (Eccl. R. vii. 47). The
appellation "Jacob Mina'ah " (= "Jacob the Here-
tic "), met with in the Midrashim, may refer to the
subject of this article.

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amnr. iii. 709-711 et pas-
sim ; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dmnt, ii. ; Levy, in Ha-Maygid,
xiv. 245; Neubauer, O. T. p. 270.
s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB OF KEFAR SEKANYA (SIMAI) :

Juda;o-Chvistian of the first century ; mentioned on
two occasions, in both Talmuds and in the Midrash.
Meeting R, Eliezer iu the upper market-place of
Sepphoris, he asked him for an opinion on a curious
ritualistic question bearing upon Deut. xxiii. 18.
As R. Eliezer declined to give an opinion, Jacob
acquainted him with the interpretation of Jesus de-
rived from Micah i. 7. R. Eliezer was pleased
with the interpretation and was consequently sus-
pected of Christian leanings by the governor ("Ab.
Zarah 17a; Eccl. R. 1. 24; Tosef., Hul. ii. 24). On
another occasion R. Eleazar ben Dama, nephew
of R. Ishmael, having been bitten by a serpent,
Jacob went to heal him in the name of Jesus. R.
Ishmael objecting, Jacob proved from the Torah
that one may seek healing from any source whatever.
But in the meantime R. Eleazar died, and R. Ish-
mael rejoiced that his nephew had not been de-
filed by the treatment of a Christian (Yer. Shab.
iv., end, Avhere "Kefar Simai"" is given; 'Ab. Zarah
23b; Eccl. R. I.e.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Bacher, Ag. Tan. 1. 113 ; Gratz. Gesch. M ed.,
iv. 44; Neubauer, G. T. p. 234. ,, ,^

G. M. Sel.

JACOB B. KORSHAI. See Jacob, 1.

JACOB HA-LEVI HE-HASID : French
rabbi and cabalist; lived in the thirteenth century,
at Marv^ge. It was said that by prayers and in-
vocations he was able to obtain from heaven deci-
sions in religious matters, which were communicated
to him in dreams. His decisions are collected in his
"She'elot u-Teshubot min ha-Shamayim," published

Jacob Lioanz
Jacob ben Meir

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

by Judah Zeraliiah Aziihii in part five of David ibn

Zimra's responsa (Leglioru, 1818). Some of liis re-

sponsa are found also in Zedekiah ben Abraham's

"Bhibbole lia-Leket" and in Jeliiel's "Tanya," an

epitome of the latter.

Bibliography: Azulai, Slicm lia-Gednlim : Benjacob, Ozar
ha-Scforim, p. 5.t6 ; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 364;Gude-
inann, Gcsc/i. i. 81, Vienna, 1880; Michael, Or ha-Haynim^
No. UWb.
tJ. s. S. Man.

JACOB L.OANZ B. JEHIEL. See Loanz b
Jkiiip:l, Jacob.

JACOB OF LONDON : First known presbyter
f)f the Jews of England ; appointed to that position
by King John in 1199, who also gave him a safe con-
duct. He appears to have died in 1217, when Josce
is mentioned as his successor. He is possibly iden-
tical witli tlie rabbi Jacob of London who translated
the whole Haggadah into the vernacular so that
women and children could understand it (Isserles,
"Darke Mosheh," to Tur Orah Hayyim, 473).

BiBLior.RAPHY : Prynne, Short Demurrer, ii. 3-5; H. Adler,
in Papers of the Aiiglo-Jcwixh Hbitorical E.rliibition, pp.
262 3o.3.

JACOB OF LTJNEL. See Jacob Naziu.

JACOB BEN MEIB, TAM (known also as
Rabbenu Tarn) : Most prominent of French tosa-
fists; born at Kainerupt, on the Seine, in 1100; died
at Troyes June 9, 1171. His mother, Jochebed, was
a daughter of Rashi. Rabbenu Tarn received his
education from his father, from Joseph Tob 'Eleni
(Bontils) II., and from his eldest brother, Samuel
ben Mei'r (RaSMBaM). After his father's death
Jacob conducted a Talmudic academy in Raine-
rupt. On May 8, 1147, on the second day of the
Feast of Weeks, French crusaders broke into his
home, robbed him of eveiything except his books,
dragged him into a field, insulted him on account of
his religion, and decided to kill him. They inflicted
five wounds upon his head, in order, as they said, to
take revenge upon the most prominent man in Israel
for the five blows which the Jews had dealt to
Jesus. At that moment a prince of high rank hap-
pened to pass, and Jacob called upon liim for pro-
tection, promising him a horse worth five marks in
return. The prince thereupon bade the crusaders
give the rabbi into his keeping, promising that he
would either persuade him to be baptized or place
him in their power again on the following day
(Ephraiin bar Jacob, in Neubauer and Stern, " Hebr.
Berichte liber die Judenverfolgungen Wahrend der
Kreuzziige," p. 64).

Shortly afterward, Jacob went to Troyes, not far
away. It was probably there that the first French
assembly of rabbis took place in 1160, in the deliber-
ations of which Jacob (R. Tam) and his brother took
a prominent part. Among other things, it was de-
creed in this assembly under penalty of excommu-
nication that disputes between Jews must be settled
in a Jewish and not in a Christian court (Neubauer,
in "R. E. J." xvii. 66 ct m/. ; Jacob.s, "The Jews of
Angevin England," p. 47). A second synod in
Troyes, held after RaSIIBaM's death, renewed an
old law of Narbonne which decreed that if a woman
died childless within the first year after her mar-
riage her husband, after deducting the equivalent of

what she had used during the year, was to return
her dowry and valuables to her parents or guardians
(see "Seferha-Yashar," § 579; " R. E. J." xvii. 71-
72). This regulation and that of the first synod
(see Kol Bo, § 117) are by some authorities (Meir
Rothenburg, Responsa, No. 934, ed. Prague; No.
159, ed. Cremona; Harleian MSS., London, No. 5686)
designated "ordinances ["takkanot"]

His of R. Tam." A third synod, presided

Takkanot. over by R. Tam and Moses of Pon-
toise, threatened with excommunica-
tion any person who should question the legality of
a deed of divorce on the ground that the document
had not been written in the prescribed way. Other
ordinances, doubtless passed at similar synods (see
Synods, Rabbinical) by R. Tam in conjunction
with other French rabbis, were cited in the name of
R. Tam alone, and correctly, in so far as they were
due to his suggestion. Among them was the repe-
tition of the ban uttered by R. Gershom against
polygamy, and the regulation that men must not di-
vorce or desert their wives except for sufficient cause ;
according to Halberstam MS. No. 45, p. 256 (now
in Montefiore Library, No. 130, comp. H. Hirsch-
feld in "J. Q. R." xiv. 195), in which this second reg-
ulation is cited in the name of R. Tam, only the ex
igencies of business or study are suflicieut to justify
a man in leaving his wife at any time.

It is said that R. Tam was very wealthy, and had
oflicial relations with the King of France ("Sefer
ha-Yashar," ^ 595), who favored him (Abraham ben
Solomon, in Neubauer, "M. J. C." i. 102; Harkavy,
" Hadashim gam Yeshanim," supplement to the
Hebrew edition of Graetz, "Hist." vi. 6, note 10;
Heilprin, "Seder ha-Dorot," i. 208a). So far as is
known, Jacob had two sons, Joseph and Solomon,
and one daughter, who married in Ramerupt. The
" Isaac ben Meir " mentioned in the " Sefer ha-
Yashar" (§§ 99, 252, 604) was his brother. When
the news of the heroic death of the martyrs at Blois
reached Jacob, he appointed Siwan 20 (in the year
1171 it was May 26) a day of fasting for the inhabit-
ants of France, England, and of the Rhine provinces.
R. Tam's chief work is his "Sefer ha-Yashar," a
very poor edition of which was published in Vienna
in 181 1, from a manuscript ; the second

The part, according to an Epstein manu-

" Sefer ha- script, with the notes of Ephraim Sol-
Yashar." omon Margoliouth and his own, was re-
issued by F. Rosenthal, among the pub-
lications of the Mekize Nirdamiin Society (Berlin,
1898). The first part (ii§ 1-582) contains princi-
pally R. Tam's explanations ("bi'urim") and no-
velise (" hiddushim ") — usually called " tosafot " — to
thirty Talmudic treatises; the second part contains
principally his responsa. A very clear critical anal-
ysis of the " Sefer ha-Yashar " was made by I. H.
Weiss in 1883 ; according to him the book in its
present form was written by a pupil and relative of
R. Tam, a grandson of R. Yom-Tob ben Judah.
The original "Sefer ha-Yashar," written by R. Tam
himself, and corresponding approximately to the
first part of the present work, as the subscription at
the end of § 540 shows, has doubtless been lost.
The compiler, however, worked with great literary
precision and faithfulness, and such expressions as

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob Loanz
Jacob beu Heir

"I found no more in tliis connection in R. Jacob's
work," or, "so concludes H. Jacob," expressions
whicli occur repeatedly throughout the book, leave
no doubt as to the identity of the various sources.
In the tosafot also are various passages from tiie
"Sefer lia-Yashar," "vvhicii are cited in the name of
R. Tam {e.y., comp. § 26 wilhTos. to Ber. 34a; ^ 41
with Tos. to Ket. 27a; etc.). The compiler of the
"Sefer ha-Yashar" had before him both redactions
of the original work of R. Tam (see §§ 271, 353, 367,
and Tos. to "Er. 74b). The tosafot contained therein
are not arranged in the order of the Gemara, but
just as the last compiler chanced upon them, as he
himself says.

The present "Sefer ha Y'ashar" contains neither
all the tosafot of R. Tam, nor only his. He himself
had incorporated into his book the explanations of
other commentators, as R. Gershom, Rashi, Eliezer
of Mayence (RABeN), and RaSHBaM; and the later
compiler added further tosafot of R. Tam's pupils.
The original object of the book is plainly stated in
the introduction, which unfortunately has been pre-
served only in a very incomplete form : " I called it
' Sefer ha Yashar, ' " says the author, "because in it
I wish to reconcile the old [divergent] traditions
concerning the text of the Talmud with the original

form of the text" (comp. David of

Object and Estella's " Kiryat Sefer " in " M. J. C."

Method. ii. 231). In these words is proclaimed

a campaign against the conjectural
criticism which was prevalent among Talmud exe-
getes of Jacob's day. Rashi had often allowed him-
self to indicate in his commentary the necessity for
different readings based on evidence supplied by
the context. His pupils, however, and especially
Samuel ben Meir, went still further and corrected
the Talmud text itself according to these correc-
tions and their own. Against such violent treat-
ment of ancient texts ("Sefer ha- Y'ashar," p. 48b)
R. Tam vigorously' protested . " Where my grand-
father made one correction, Samuel made twenty,
and erased [the old readings] from the manu-
scripts [replacing them with new ones]." Although
R. Tam well knew that the Talmud was not free
from textual corruptions, he desired to restrain in-
competent commentators who were in the habit of
altering the established readings. Only old manu-
scripts and well-authenticated readings, which Jacob
zealously collected and examined, would he recog-
nize as tlie norm. He also made corrections in the
Talmud on the basis of the Talmud text of R. Hana-
neel, but he exercised the greatest caution in ma-
king such emendations (^ 361), and hoped that later
generations might understand what had seemed unin-
telligible in his age. Thus a large part of his tostifot is
devoted to a rectitication of the readings of the text.
Since li. Tam objected so strongly to textual
emendations, except in extreme cases, he was forced

to adopt a system of casuistic inter-
Treatment pretation, and to invent distinctions
of Contra- which did not exist in the plain read-
dictory ing of the text and which had to be
Passages, interpreted into it. He boasts of his

skill in reconciling contradictory deci-
sions found in the Talmud ("Sefer ha-Y'ashar," p.
78b). He Avould, however, have cnergeticallv on-

posed the designation of his method as " pilpulistic."
He emphatically asserts that his explanations follow
the simple meaning of tlie text (''peshat'j, and
argues against those persons "who, by their pilpu-
listic methods, distort the explanations of our teach
ers, and whose interpretations render the Halakot
wholly meaningless"; and he accuses them of in-
venting difficulties solely with the purpose of meet-
ing them {lb. p. 79c). The pupils of \i. Tam took
his warning against textual changes to heart, and in
so far as they were thereby induced to preserve com-
paratively unaltered the Talmud text as it existed
in their time, his inlluence can only be commended.
On the other hand, however, it can not be denied
that he is in some degree respcmsible for the pilpu-
listic methods followed by his successors.

R. Tam is generally regarded as the head of the
French school of tosatists ("ba'al ha-Tosafot";
Joseph ibn Zad<lik, in " M. J. C." i. 94). The closer
association of the French and German Jews with
their Christian fellow citizens created new condi-
tions of life, and necessitated religious
As regulations and decisions other than

Tosafist. those contained in the Talmud. To de-
rive such laws directly or by inference
from the Talmud, and to formulate them, was the
task of the tosatists; and it was above all R. Tam
who held that all new enactments must represent a
continuous development of the Talmud, as regards
both its halakah and its method of discu.ssion. He
is not content in his tosafot merely to give halakic
decisions, but in each case attempts their justitica-
tion. He uses two methods of demonstration — the
analogical or inductive metliod, and the logical
method ; the .second method consists of a series of
Socratic questions, by which all possible opinions or
decisions except his own are excluded as logically
impossible. The questions are thus the single .steps
in the demonstration.

R. Tam was well aware that he had created this
method of indirect demonstration. He wrote to his
pupil Joseph of Orleans ("Sefer ha-Y'ashar," p. 78b;
comp. also § 282): "Thou knowest my method of
postulating questions in order to reach the correct
halakic view ["shemu'ah"]. 1 give no forced an-
swers; my questions are their own answers." If
the tosatists are really the continuators or epi-
gones of the Amoraim, and differ from them only in
respect to language, it was chiefly R. Tam who
gave them the impulse in that direction.

A large part of the tosafot given in the "Sefer ha-
Yashar "have been reprinted in abbreviated form
among the Talmudic Tosafot. The
Relation to observation has been made that the
Tosafot decisions in the "Sefer ha Yashar"
of Talmud, and those in the Tosjifot frequently
contradict each other (comp e.fi.. on
riDM nyntr. "Sefer ha-Yashar," i^ 482, with Tos. to
Shebu. 41a, s.v. |ND^1)- These contradictions can be
partially explained by the fact of the existence of
various manuscripts of R. Tarn's tosjifot (see \). 78a),
into which textual divergence's, variations, addi-
tions, and mistakes crept at a very early period.
Afterward the mere content of his practical deci-
sions was regarded as sufficient, anxl these were
transmitted in the shortest form possible— often, iu-

Jacob ben Meir,
Jacob ibn Na'im

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

deed, in too brief a form ; so that when the laws came
in later times to be analj'zed and amplified again,
motives, methods of reasoning, and arguments which
were in reality wholly foreign to R. Tam were at-
tributed to him. Weiss suggests that if people had
studied the •' Sefer ha-Yashar " itself, which has al-
ways been neglected, and had learned to know the
writer through his book, the Halakah would per-
haps have had in many respects a wholly ditTerenl
development.

Even during his lifetime R. Tam was considered
the greatest Talmudic authority in France and Ger-
many, and questions from those two
His countries, occasionally also from Spain

Teshubot. (Mordecai, Hul., No. 666), England
(MeirRothenburg, Responsa, No. 240),
and Italy (Mordecai, Ket., No. 146), were addressed
to him. His elder contemporaries willingly recog-
nized his superiority, and were not offended at his
authoritative and rather overbearing tone. His
responsa are scattered through many halakic works;
the greater part (103) of them is contained in his
"Sefer ha-Yashar" (2d part); in "Halakot Pesukot
min ha-Geonim" (ed. Mtiller,- Nos. 7-9); in "Kerem
Hemed " (vii. 47 et seq.); and in the " Teshubot
Hakme Zarfat we-Lotar " (ed. Joel Miiller, pp.
ix. et seq., Vienna, 1881); others are found in
the Mahzor Vitry, which contains also his rules
for writing the Torah scroll (ed. Hurwitz, pp.
651 et seq., Berlin, 1893), and in a manuscript
in the Bodleian (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr.
MSS." No. 641, 9). No. 2343, 2 of the Bod-
leian collection contains his rules for the drawing
up of contracts, especially deeds of divorce (comp.
"Sefer ha-Yashar," §§ 68-69; Mahzor Vitry, ed.
Hurwitz, p. 782; comp. ib. p. 786 for the halizah
folmula; see also Z. Frankel, "Entwurf einer
Gesch. der Literatur der Nachtalmudischen Re-
sponsen," pp. 32 et seq.).

In the field of Hebrew poetrj', also, the importance
of R. Tam is not slight. He was influenced by the
poetry of the Spaniards, and is the
As chief representative of the tran.sition

Liturgical period, in Christian lands, from the
Poet. old " pay}'etanic " mode of expression
to the more graceful forms of the Span-
ish school. According to Zunz ("Literaturgesch."
pp. 265 et seq.) he composed the following pieces for
the synagogue: (1) several poems for the evening
prayer of Sukkot and of Shemini 'Azei'et ; (2) a
hymn for the close of Sabbath on which a wedding
is celebrated ; (3) a hymn for the replacing of the
Torah rolls in the Ark on Simhat Torah ; (4) an
"ofan" in four metric strophes (see Luzzatto in
"Kerem Hemed," vii. 35); (5) four Aramaic "re-
shut"; (6) two "selihot" (the second is reproduced
by Zunz in "S. P." p. 248, in German verse; see
also "Nahalat SHeDaL" in Berliner's "Magazin"
["Ozar Tob"], 1880, p. 36). It must, however, be
remarked that there was a synagogal poet by the
name of Jacob ben Meir (Levi) who might easily
have been confounded Avith the subject of this
article, and therefore Tam's authorship of all of
these poems is not above doubt (.see Landshuth,
"'Ammude ha-'Abodah," p. 106; comp. also Har-
kavy, "Hadashim gam Yeshanim," supplement to

the Hebrew edition of Graetz, "Hist." v. 39; Brody,
"Kuntras ha-Piyyutim," p. 72). The short poems
which sometimes precede his responsa also show
great poetic talent and a pure Hebrew style (see
Bacher in "Monatsschrift," xliv. 56 et seq.). When
Abraham ibn Ezra was traveling through France
R. Tam greeted him in verse, whereupon Ibn Ezra
exclaimed in astonishment, "Who has admitted
the French into the temple of poetry?" ("Kerem
Hemed," vii. 35). Another work of his in metric
form is his poem on the accents, which contains
fort3--five strophes riming in QT\; it is found in vari-
ous libraries (Padua, Hamburg, Parma), and is en-
titled "Mahberet." Luzzatto has given the first
four strophes in " Kerem Hemed " (vii. 38), and Hal-
berstam has printed the whole poem in Kobak's
"Jeschurun" (v. 123).

In the field of grammatical exegesis R. Tam tow-
ered high above his northern French contemporaries,
lie wrote his " Sefer ha-Hakra'ot "
As Gram- with the avowed intention of " harmo-

marian. nizing " the statements of the two
grammarians Menahem ben Saruk and
Dunash ben Labrat, but as a matter of fact he usu-
ally agrees with Menahem and defends liim against
his opponent. In this work R. Tam divides the
verbs into twelve cla.sses, according to their roots,
and it is a noteworthy fact that lie arrives at the
triliteral theory quite independently of Judah ben
David Hayyuj. The work has been published by
Filipowski in " Mahberet Menahem " (London, 1855).
Joseph Ki.MHi afterward wrote the " Sefer ha-Galui "
in opposition to this work of R. Tam.

The cabalists claimed R. Tam as one of them-
selves, ascribing to him a cabalistic prayer begin-
ning ^{<D"'D DDQ r[C'p22- It is reproduced in Nathan
ben Meir Krumenau's "Hayj'e '01am ha-Ba"
(Cracow, 1643; see Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." col.
1258). R. Tam probably wrote marginal notes to a
Mahzor (see Zunz, "Ritus," p, 26), to "Seder Ko-
dashim," and to the "Halakot Gedolot" (see Tos.
to Ber. 37a and 'Er. 40a; Meir Rothenburg, Re-
sponsa, ed. Prague, No. 74; "Sefer ha-Teruraah,"
No. 13).

R. Tam, in spite of absorbing scholarly activity,
looked upon life and its changing conditions with a
clear eye, and wherever the Talmud would permit
welcomed a less severe ritualistic practise (comp.
"Sefer ha-Yashar," p. 74a); in many cases he was
" the apologist for existing customs and usages "
(Low, "Lebensalter," p. 170). He was
Character- especially lenient in regard to per-

ization. mitted and forbidden foods ("issur
we-hetter"; see Tos. to Hul. 104b;
Tos. to 'Ab. Zarali 35b), to the collection of taxes
from Jews and Jewish proselytes (" Sefer ha-Yashar, "
§ 73b), to the wine-trade (-|DJJ P^ ; ib. § 618), and to
many other practical questions (comp. ib. p. 75b, on
unleavened bread at the Passover Feast), too numer-
ous to be indicated here. For example, he allowed
women to wear rings on the Sabbath, and under cer-
tain conditions permitted marriages to be performed
on that daj' ; for the formatioa of a quorum of ten
("minyan ") he was willing to recognize a boy who
was a minor ("katon ") as being of age (Tos. to Ber.
47b; see also Oppenheim in "Monatsschrift," 1869,

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob ben MeTr
Jacob ibn Na'im

p. 92, on the " Bernickelgans ")• In his decisions he
is everywhere independent of standard autliorities,
even of his grandfather Rashi ("Sefcr iia-Yasluir,"
§ 586) ; in this respect he served as a model for later
teachers (Asher ben Jehiel, Kesponsa, No. 53).

R. Tam had a large number of disciples, vi^ho had
come to him from France, Germany, Bolicmia, and
Russia; the following are the most prominent : Hay-
yim ben Ilanaueel ha-Kohen (see his saying in Tos. to
Ket. 103b); Isaac ben Samuel (HI the Elder), son
of R. Tarn's sister, and who afterward took his place
InRamerupt; Peter, who was killed in Cariuthia
(see Wiener. " 'Emck ha-Bakah," p. 165, note 107;
Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 434) in 1147; Joseph of
Orleans; Eliczer ben Samuel of Metz; Joseph Bekor
Shor. In after-times, R. Tam, like Rashi, was paid
almost unbounded respect. People hardly dared to
contradict him (see Meir Rothenburg, Responsa, ed.
Cremona, No. 144) or to decide between grandfather
and grandson, "those two high mountains" (ih. No.
159; Joseph Colon, Responsa, No. 161).

As a matter of fact both have exercised an un-
usually deep and a universal influence on the halakic
development of European Judaism down to the
present da.y. Fables have been woven around the
history of R. Tam, and it is said that on one occa-
sion, when certain rabbis were discussing whether
the knots in the tefillin should be tied anew every
day (Tos. to Men. 35b), he descended from heaven
"like a lion " and discussed the question with Moses
in the house of Meuahem Vardimas until Moses
acknowledged himself defeated, and told the rabbis
that R. Tam was worthy to be followed (see D.
Kaufmaun in "R. E. J." v. 273f< seq.). So high an
authority as Asher ben Jehiel placed R. Tarn's
knowledge eveji above that of i\Iaimonidcs (see
"Yam sliel Shelomoh" on B. K., Preface).

Bibliography : Berliner, in Jahrbuch der JIM. Litcrar.
GeselUchafty Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1903; Azulai, Shcm ha-
Gedolim,i.; Fuenn, Keiietfet Yiitrael, 1. 578 ct seq. ; Gratz,
Gesch. vi. 143, 144, 153, 176, 178 et seq.. IR"); Geiger, Parsclia)i-
datha, pp. 24 et seq. ; Gross, GalUn Judaica, pp. 230, 542, 636 ;
Gudemann, Gesch. i. 43, 48, 152, 236, 255 et seq. : Neubauer,
M. J. C. 1. 78, 84, 94, 102; ii. 229, 231, 235, 243; Loewinsohn,
Eleh Toledot Eahbenu Ya'akob Tam, in Ha-Shaliar. vol.
i.. No. 5, pp. 17 ft seq. ; Michael, Or ha-Haujiim, No. 1067;
Weiss (whom the author of the present article chiefly followed),
Toledot Gedole YisiacU No. 3, Vienna, 1883 {flnst appeared
in Bet Talmud, vol. iii.); idem. Dor, iv. 66. 24.5. 261,
286, 3:i7; Winter and Wiinsche, Die JVHli.<fchc Littcratur,
li. 181, 184, 185, 196, 279, 46.5, 468 ; iii. 6, 71, 321 ; Zunz, Z. G.
Index ; Low. Lehensalter, passim ; Neubauer and Stern.
Hehr. Bei-ichte Uher die JudenverfolQunqen Wdhrenddcr
KrexizzUae, pp. 31, 6.3, 64, 68; Ersch and Gruber, Encyc. sec-
tion ii., part 13, p. 191 ; Schechter. in J. Q. R. iv. 94 ; Zacuto,
Sefer Yuhasin, p. 218; Bacher, in Moiiatsschrift, xliv. 56 et
seq.
6. S. M. Sc.

JACOB BEN MORDECAI: German scholar;
fliourished in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies. A native of Fulda, he was generally called
"Jacob of Fulda"; but he was banished from that
town and settled at Schwerin. He wrote : (1) " Tikkun
Sheloshah jNIishmarot " (Frankfort - on - the - Oder,
1691), prayers to be recited in the three divisions of
the ni'glit, for which the Zohar was his main source.
This work was translated into Judsro-German by
the author's wife, Laza, who added a preface
(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1692). Benjacob ("Ozar
ha-Sefarim." p. 669), following Wolf ("Bibl. Hebr."
iii., Nos. 1338 et seq.), attributes the authorship to
Laza. (2) "Shoshannat Y'a'akob " (Amsterdam. 1706;

Leghorn, 1792), a treatise on chiromancy, physiog-
nomy, and astrology.

Bibliography: Stelnschnelder, Cat. liodl. cols. 462, 1239;
Fiirst, BiU. Jud. 1. 30.5, where he la mentioned under Fuld.
s. S. M. Sel.

JACOB BEN MORDECAI HA-KOHEN:

Gaon of Sura from 801 to 815; succeeded llilai ben

Mari. He officiated fourteen years, according to a

text of Sherira ("M. J. C." i. 39); according to

other authorities {I.e. i. 65, 188), eigliteen years. In

his decisions Jacob ben Mordecai leaned as much

as possible toward the milder interpretation of the

Law, for which Zadok (appointed gaon in 823) and

his contemporaries blamed him ("Hemdah Genu-

zah," ed. Jerusalem, No. 8; "Sefer ha-Eshkol," i.

91). A long responsum of his is preserved in "Or

Zarua' " (i.. No. 411 ;comp. alsoRosh to Hul. iii.. No.

14). His decisions are given in comparatively pure

Hebrew.

Bibliography : Halevy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ill. 121a et seq. ;
Miiller, Mafteah li-Teshubot ha-Ge'onim, pp. 73 et seq. ;
Weiss, Dor, iv. 41, 44-45.

G. M. Sc.

JACOB BEN MOSES BEN ABUN (called
ha-Nabi =^ "the prophet"): Head of the ycshibah
of Narbonne, France. As Abraham b. David in his
" Sefer ha-Kabbalah " (MS. quoted by Abraham Za-
cuto in his "Yuhasin," ed. London, p. 84) mentions
that Moses ha-Darshan was the son of Jacob b.
Moses, it may be concluded that Jacob lived in the
eleventh century. He is mentioned by Abraham b.
Isaac or Abraham, ab bet din of Narbonne (" Ha-
Eshkol," ed. Auerbach, iii. 152), as the author of a
responsum. The title "ha-Nabi" is honorific, and
was applied to other persons besides Jacob.

Bibliography: Gross, GaJlia Judaica, p. 410; R. E. J. xvl,
227.
s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB BEN MOSES OF BAGNOLS : Pro-
vencal theologian of the second half of the four-
teenth century; lived successively at Salon, Avi-
gnon, and Argon. He was the author of a casuistic
and philosophical work, still extant in manuscript
("British Museum Cat." MS. No. 2705). It is di-
vided into three parts, each with a different title:
(1) "Pesakim," on things permitted and prohibited
("issur we-hetter"); (2) " 'Ezrat Nashim," on mar-
riage, levirate, and divorce laws; (3) "Sod ha-Hash-
gahali," containing essays on ethics, philosophy, and
mysticism.

Bibliography: Neubauer, in R.E.J. in. 51-58; Renan-N'eu-
bauer. Lcs Ecrivaim Juifs Franrais, pp. 311 et seq.; Gross,
Gallia Judaica. p. 657. ^ „

G. I. Br.

JACOB B. MOSES MOLLN. See MOlln,
Jacob isen Mosks.

JACOB IBN NA'IM or NAYYAM : Rabbi of
Smyrna toward the end of the seventeenth century.
He'corresponded witii Hayyim Benveniste, author
of "Keneset ha-Gedolah," whom Jacob seems to
have succeeded in the rabbinate of Smyrna. Jacob
was the author of "Mislikenot Ya'akob" (Salonica,
1721), homilies on the Pentateuch and other sub-
jects, followed by a pampiilet entitled "Zenif Melu-
kah," on the obligations of subjects to their king;
a responsa collection entitled "Zera" Ya'akob," fol-

Jacob iDen Naphtali
Jacob ben Reuben

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

lowed by a collection of sermons bearing the title

•• Yeslm'ot Ya'akob," Legliorn, 1784. Zeduer ("Cat.

Hebr. Books Brit. Mus." p. 3) attributes the last two

works to a different author, whom he calls Jacob

Hayyini ibn Na'im; but Benjacob attributes them

to Jo.seph ibn Na'im.

Bibliography : Azulai, Shem ha-Gcdnlim, i., s.r.; Kiirst, Jiibl.
Jud. iii. It),
s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB BEN NAPHTALI: Talmudist of
Gnesen ; flourished about 1650. His father was
clerk of the Jewry in Great Poland (HjnD 1D1D),
and died in 1646. Jacob lost Jiis fortune and books
in a tire, and had to wander aimlessly about. In
1653 he published in Amsterdam " Nahalat Ya'akob :
Melizot," a book of poems, containing a dialogue
between the body and tlie soul, liymns for the dedi-
cation of a scroll of the Law, and elegies on the
Cossack massacre of 1648. Jacob superintended as
corrector the printing of Nathan Hanover's work
"Yewen Mezulah " (Venice, 1653). In 1654, when
Jacob intended to go to Rome in oi'der to procuie
from the pope a letter of protection against the blood
accusation and the excesses committed by the stu-
dents of Jesuit colleges in Great Poland, he was
highly recommended to the Italian communities by
Moses Zacuto.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1342; Kaiif-
mann, in Monati^schrift, 1894, p. 89.
D. P. B.

JACOB BEN NAPHTALI HA-KOHEN :

Italian printer; born in Gazolo; lived in the six-
teenth century. For some time prior to 1556 he was
the manager of Tobiah Foa's printing establishment
atSabbionetta, wliich issued Abravaners"Merkebet
lia-Mishneh " (1551). In 1556 Jacob removed to
Mantua, where he superintended the printing of a
great number of worksin Rufellini's printing-house,
first alone, afterward in as.sociation with Mei'r b.
Ephraim Sofer, then from 1560 to 1563 jigain alone.
The first work printed by Jacob at Mantua was Eli-
jah Levita's "Sefer ha-Bahur"; the last, "Midrash
Yelammedenu."

Bibliography : Fiirst, Bihl. Jiul. ii. ~4, 2.5 ; Ziinz, Z. G. pp. 252
ct seq.: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2930.
J. M. Skl.

JACOB BEN NATHANAEL IBN AL-

FAYYUMI (the name is given in this form in
"Mazref la-Hokmah," fol. 93a; in Neubauer, "M.
J. C." [Sambari] i. 133, 34; and in Nahum's Hebrew
version of Mairaonides' " Letter " cited below) : Rosh
ycshibah of the Yemen Jews in the second half of
the twelfth century. All that is known of him is
that at the suggestion of Solomon ha-Koheu, a pupil
of Maimonides, he wrote to the latter asking his ad-
vice in regard to a pseudo-Messiah who was leading
the Jews of southern Arabia astray. From a pas-
sage in Maimonides' " Letter to the Wise Men of the
Congregation of Mar.seilles," the date of Jacob's
letter is fixed as 1173 (Ilalub, in his ed. of "Iggeret
Teman," p. 51, note). In answer, Maimonides sent
his "Iggeret Teman," or, as it is also called, " Petal.i
Tikwah." Harkavy supposes that Jacob had cogni-
zance of Saadia's "Sefer ha-Galui " ("Studien und
Mittheil." v. 154; comp. "Monatsschrift," xliv. 508).
Jacob's father was known as a philosophical writer
(see Jkw. Encvc. v. 354). G.

JACOB BAR NATRON AI: Gaon of Sura
(911-934). After tlie death of his predecessor, Sha-
lom bar Mishael, the Academy of Sura became im-
poverished and was abandoned by most of the stu-
dents (Sherira, in " M. J. C." i. 39, 189). Jacob bar
Natronai was then made gaon, and he retained the
position for thirteen j^ears. Halevy has shown that
he is not to be identified with Amram ben Solomon,
as Griltz holds.

Bibliography : Gratz, Gcsc/i . vi. 346 ; idem, in Monati^schrift,
vi. 343; Halevy, D(j?-ot ha-Ruihuninu in. 128, 133, 142; Jew.
Kncy'c. v. 571, s.v. Gaon, and the chronological list there
given.
s. s. M. Sc.

JACOB NAZIR: French exegete; flourished in
the second half of the twelfth century; one of the
five sous of Meshullamben Jacob of Lunel. "Jacob
of Lunel" would accordingly be only another desig-
nation for "Jacob Nazir." Jacob Nazir wrote cer-
tain Biblical commentaries, including commentaries
on Genesis (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS."
No. 1646, 3) and Job (see Zunz, "Z. G." p. 74). An
explanation by him of a prayer in the ritual, giveu
to a certain Moses ben Isaiah, is also extant (Mahzor
Vitry, ed. Hurwitz, p. 368). Isaac ben Samuel of
Acre (c. 1300) is said to have described him as one
of the most prominent cabalists, and Abraham ben
David is said to have been one of his j)upils. It is,
however, very doubtful whether Jacob Nazir had
anj'thing to do with Cabala.

Bibliography: Gratz, Gesc/i. vi. 203 ; i^iross, in Maiiatfixchrift,
xxiii. 172 et w/.; idem, Gallia Judaica, p. 279; Steinschnei-
der, Jcu-i.sh Literotwe, pp. 144, 167, 306 ; Winter and Wiin-
sche. Die Jlidischc Litteratur, iii. 357; Zunz, Ritus, p. 197.

G. S. K.

JACOB BEN NISSIM IBN SHAHIN :

Philosopher; lived at Kairwan in the tenth century;
younger contemporary of Saadia. At Jacob's re-
quest Sherira Gaon wrote a treatise entitled "Ig-
geret," on the redaction of the Mishnah. Jacob is
credited with the authorship of an Arabic com-
mentary on the " Sefer Yezirah " (translated into He-
brew by Moses ben Joseph). He asserts in the intro-
duction that Saadia, while living in Egypt, used to
address very insignificant questions to Isaac ben Sol-
omon of Kairwan, and that, on receiving Saadia's
commentary, he found that the text had not been un-
derstood by the commentator. Jacob therefore de-
cided to write another commentary. In the same in-
troduction Jacob speaks of Galen, repeating the story
that that celebrated physician was a Jew named
"Gamaliel." The Hebrew translation of Jacob's
commentary is still extant in manuscript (Munich
MSS., No. '93, 30; De Rossi MSS., No. 769); ex-
cerpts from it have been given by Landauer and
Dukes.

Bibliography: Landauer, in Orient, vii. 121; Fiirst, ib. vi.
562; Dukes, Koiitres ha-Mai^tyret; Munk, iVofice.s-K?- yihou^
%oalid, p. 47'; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1243; idem,
Hebr. Ucherx. p. ;!96: idem, 73ic Ara}>i^che Litcvatur der
Jndeii, 8 58. _

K. I. Br.

JACOB BEN OBADIAH SFORNO : Italian
.scholar; lived at Venice in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries. He was the author of a work en-
titled " Iggeret ha-Te'amiin," on the Hebrew accents
(Venice, 1600). Steinschneider, however, believes

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob ben Naphtali
Jacob ben Reuben

the work to be identical with the "Iggeret ha-Te'-

ainim " of AAiiON Abkaham ben Bahuch.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 716, 1255;
Mortara, Indice, p. (31 ; Benjacob, Ozar lia-Sefarim, p. 11.

G. I. Br.

JACOB OF ORLEANS: French tosafist; died
as a martyr in Loudon Sept. 3, 1189. He wa.s one
of the most distinguished pupils of Rabbeuu Tam,
being often called by his teaelier's name. Accord-
ing to "'Emek ha-Baka " (ed. Cracow, p. 52), Jacob
was still at Orleans in 1171, and went to London
later, probably in response to a call as teacher from
the community. He was killed during the anti-
Jewish riots in London at the coronation of Richard I.

Jacob was a prominent tosatist, his tosafot being
often quoted; e.g., in 'Ab. Zarah 34a; Git. 8b; Ket.
47a; Men. lOb; Naz. 54b; Pes. 5b; Sanh. 35b; Zeb.
14b, 39a; Yeb. 4a; also in the old tosafot to Yoma
34a, 88a; in Judah of Paris' tosafot to Ber. 21b, etc.
He also wrote glosses to the Pentateuch, which are
included in Isaac ben Judah ha-Levi's "Pa'neah
Raza," and are mentioned even more frequently
in Judah ben Eliezer's "Minhat Yehudah." Jacob
introduces a large number of gematriotinto these
glosses.

According to Gross, Jacob is also the author of the

tosafot to Rashi's Pentateuch commentary which

were Avritten under the name of Rabbenu Tam, and

which are mentioned by Geiger (*' Parschandatha, "

p. 36).

Bibliography: 'Emelf ha-Baka, ed. Vienna, pp. 39,45; ed.
Cracow, pp. .52, 5S; R. E. J. Iv. 211 ; Or Zarua\ ii. 112a ;
Zunz, Z. (jr. pp. 51, 7.5, 91, 93; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 36;
Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, pp. 108, 419.
J. A. Pe.

JACOB OF PONT SAINT - MAXENCE :

French tax-farmer of the fourteenth century. With
Manecier of Vesoul and his brother Vivant he was
appointed (1360) by Charles V., King of France, to
collect the taxes imposed upon the Jews, retaining
two florins out of the fourteen which each Jew had
to pay upon entering Fiance. In 1365 a dispute
arose between Jacob and Manecier, in consequence
of which the former brought suit against his oppo-
nent before the parliament of Paris, and Manecier
was fined. The two functionaries became reconciled
in 1370, and tlieir position with the king, although
weakened, was still sufficiently important to enable
them at the approach of Passover in 1373 to obtain
the loan of the Hebrew books deposited in the Sainte
Chapelle, Paris.

Bibliography: Isidore Loeb, ies-Bxpwlsio/i.s, pp. 16-18; L^on
Kahn, Lea Juifs a Paris, p. 28; Revue Historiquc, 1878, vil.
368.
G. S. K.

JACOB B. REUBEN : Karaite Bible exegete of
the eleventh century. He wrote a brief Hebrew
commentary on the entire Bible, which he entitled
"Sefer ha-'Osher," because, as he says in the intro-
duction, the reader will find therein sufficient infor-
mation, and will not need to have recourse to the
many voluminous commentaries which the author
liimself liad consulted. The book is, in fact, merely
a compilation; the author's explanation of any given
pas.sage is frequently introduced by the abbrevia-
tions "yo or "y> {i.e., Arabic " ma'nahu" or •' ya'ni " =
" that is to say ") ; and divergent explanations of other

commentators are added one after the other and pre-
ceded by the vague phrase {<"| ("another says "). It
is, in fact, chiefly an extract of Jefet b. 'All's work,
from whom Jacob borrowed most of his ex planations
as well as the (quotations from various autliois, chielly
on the Pentateuch. But Jacob also drew upon later
Karaite authors, the last of whom is Jeshua b. Judah,
who, so far as is known, flourished about 1054 (see
Harkavy, " Hadasliim gam Yeshanim," vii. 17). This
date points to the second half of the eleventh cen-
tury as the date of composition of the "Sefer ha-
'Osher."

Among Rabbinitic authors Jacob quotes Abu al-
Walid ; but his quotations have apparently been
intentionally suppres.sed by Firkovich
The "Sefer in his edition (see Harkavy, "Altju-
ha-'Osher." dische Denkmiiler aus der Krim," p.
211, note 1), though they are found in
the manuscripts, and one of them has been given
in the edition (on Jcr. iv. 37; fol. 2b, line 1). If
Jacob read Abu al-Walid not in the Arabic original
but in the Hebrew translation, he must have com-
piled his book in the second half of the twelfth cen-
tury. Firkovich believes Jacob to have lived at
Kertch, in southern Russia, said to have been called
TlDD in Hebrew; and he asserts that the ""TiDDn
quoted several times in the commentary to the Pen-
tateuch is identical with Abraham b. Simhah of
Kertch (c. 986), a personage invented by him. Both
of these assumptions are of course impossible. Jacob
was probably a native of Constantinople, as his com-
mentary contains Greek glosses; and he was doubt-
less influenced by Byzantine authors.

The "Sefer ha-'Osher" is found in manuscript at
St. Petersburg, Paris, and Leyden. The library of
the last-named city is reported to contain two copies
of the commentary to the Earlier Prophets and to
the twelve Minor Prophets (" Cat. Leyden, " 8, 12 ; see
Steinschneider, "Hebr. Uebers." p. 941). Another
portion, from Jeremiah to Chronicles (except Psalms),
was printed, under the general title "Mibhar Yesha-
rim," together with Aaron b. Joseph's "Mibhar "
to the Earlier Prophets and Isaiah (Koslov, 1835).
Steinschneider has edited the introduction ("Cat.
Leyden," p. 384); Pinsker has printed passages to
the Pentateuch ("Likkute Kadmoniyyot," ii. 83 et
seq.); and Dukes, passages to the Psalms ("Arch.
Isr." 1847; "Orient, Lit." 1850, p. 12). Th^" Sefer
ha-'Osher" is of no especial importance for Karaitic
Bible exegesis, nor, so far as is known, is it men-
tioned by earlier Karaite authors. But it may have
been used by a Hebrew translator or editor of Jefet's
commentary to the Minor Prophets. Of the latter
work the beginning to Hosea has been edited by
Tottermann ("Die Weissagung Hoseas," pp. 90 et
seq., Leipsic, s.a. [1880J ; see Steinschneider, "Hebr.
Uebers." I.e.).

Jacob b. Reuben has been wrongly identified with
the Rabbinite translator of the "Liber Lapidura"
(by the Englisli bishop Marbod, d. 1123) from the
Latin into Hebrew, the translntion also bearing tlie
title "Sefer ha-'Osher" (Steinschneider, I.e. p. 957;
Kohut Memorial Volume, p. 56). Further, Jacob
must not be confounded with the Rabbinite polem-
ical writer Jacob b. Reuben, author of the anti-
Christian work "Milhamot Adonai."

Jacob ben Reuben
Jacob ben Zabda

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bibliography: Dukes, BeitrUge, H. 43; idem, preface to
Proverbs (in Cahen's French Bible), p. 33 ; Jost, Gesch. dcs
Judenthums, li. 354; Steinsclineider, Cat. Lcydem, p. 24;
Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoitiiniot, 1. 216, li. 80; Fiirst, Gesch.
des Karilert'. ii. 157; Gottlober, Bikikuret, p. 180; Gratz,
Gesch. 3d ed., vi. 5t5.
G. S. P.

JACOB BEN REUBEN IBN ZUR: Talmud
ist and rabbi of Fez ; born in the latter pkit of the
seventeenth century; died after 1750. That his
reputation as a Talmudist stood high is apparent
in the responsa ("Kerem Hemed," Leghorn, 1871) of
Abraham Ankava, where he is quotetl as an author-
ity recognized by all Moroccan Jewish communities.
Jacob was the author of the following works, still
extant in manuscript: " Hiddushim u-Derushim,"
casuistic and homilctic notes ("'Cat. Munich," MS.
No. 261) ; " Leshon Limmudim, " collection of epistles
signed |>T ( = J[acob] b[en] Z[ur] ; Steinschneider,
"Cat. Berlin," MS. No. 54). Jacob was also a litur-
gical poet, and wrote many dirges on the destruction
of the Temple which were incorporated in the
" Kinot " for the 9th of Ab in use among the Moroc-
can Jews; and his name occurs in the approbations
to various Talmudical works, the last of which is
dated 1750.

Bibliography: Azulai, Shem. ha-GednUm, i. 96; Nepi-Ghi-
TondU Toledot Gedole Yisi-ael, p. 214; Steinschneider, He ^.
Bibl. xvi. 33; Kaufmunn, in Z. D. M. G. 1. 234.
G. I. Bl{.

JACOB ROMAN IBN PAKUDA. See Ro

MAN, Jacob.

JACOB BEN SAMSON (sometimes called
Jacob ben Simeon) : French tosatist and liturgist ;
flourished at Paris or at Falaise in the first third of
the twelfth century. He is mentioned by Moses
Taku in his '• Ketab Tamim " (see "Ozar Nehmad,"
iii. 59) as having been the pupil of Raslii and the
teacher of Jacob Tam. The former statement is
confirmed by the fact that in his commentary on
Abot, Jacob frequently quotes Rashi, speaking of
him as liis mastei'. There exists also a decision of
his (Paris MS. No. 326, fol. 80) which he seems to
have written at the dictation of Rashi. Zunz, how-
ever (" Literaturgesch." p. 458), doubts the statement
of Taku that Jacob was the master of R. Tam.

Jacob is called by Me'ir of Rothcuburg (Responsa,
No. 655) "Jacob b. Samson of Paris," but in the cor-
responding passage in Mordecai on Bezah (No. 672)
he is called •' Jacob b. Simeon of Falaise. " He is also
mentioned in the tosafot to Hul. 54b (as " Jacob b.
Simeon"); 'Ar. 28b; Men. 64b; Mordecai on Yoma
(No. 727); and "Likkute Pardes," ed. Amsterdam,
12b (where also he is called "Jacob b. Simeon ").

Jacob's literary activity was both exten.sive and
varied. Of his works the following are extant: (1)
"Sefer ha-Elkoshi " (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr.
MSS." No. 692, 7), a calendar beginning with the
year 1123. (2) Commentary on Abot (Neubauer, I.e.
Nos. 376, 379), which, owing to its being anon-
ymous, was ascribed by some scholars to Rashi, by
others to R. Isaiah, Rashl)am, and R. Ephraim
(comp. Samuel of Uceda, preface to his "j\Iidrash
Shemu'el"). The author, liowever, introduces the
fourth chapter with an acrostic giving the name
Jacob b. Samson (see S. D. Luzzattn in " Kerem
Hemed," iv. 201 et seq., and S. Schechter, introduc-
tion to his edition of Ab. R. N. ch. ii.).

Jacob borrows freely from the Abot or Mishnah
or Baraita of R. Nathan, commonly designated by
him "Baraita." The authorities quoted by him
are Rashi, Mishnah of R. Gershom, R. Ephraim,
n "I (probably R. Tam), Meshullam b. Kalony-
mus, Nathan ha-Babli, "Haggadat Hashkem,"
" Dibre ha-Yaraim shel Mosheh," and "Midrash
shel R. Shim'on Kara." (3) Commentary on the
Seder '01am Rabbah, or perhaps a treatise so en-
titled and quoted by Judah Sir Leon in his tosafot
to Berakot (ed. Warsaw, p. 57b, or "Berakah Me-
shulleshet," 42(1), a fragment of which is to be found
in Neubauer (I.e. No. 692, 12). (4) "Piske shel
Bezim," halakic novellas on Bezah (Neubauer, I.e.
No. 1101, 2). It may also be concluded from his
being quoted by Shemaiah in his commentary on
Tamid that Jacob wrote a commentary on this
treatise. (5) Commentary on the Baraita of R.
Samuel and on the "Sefer Yezirah." (6) Notes to
Samson b. Jonah's halakot concerning the Passover
feast ("OrZarua'," ii. 116b). (7) A poem in Aramaic
on the tenth commandment and a commentary on it,
as well as on three Aramaic poems written by other
liturgists on the Decalogue (Parma [De Rossi] MS.
No. 159). In his commentaries Jacob sometimes fol-
lows the system of the mystics, explaining the words
according to gematria and notarikon, but he does so
in a less degree than the later commentators.

Bibliography: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 514-515; Zunz,
Litcraturgcsc)!. p. 458; A. Epstein, in Ii. E. J. xxxv. 240 et
seq.; Schechter, Ah. R. N. ch. ix.; Taylor, SaijUigs of the
Jewiah Fathers, Appendix, No. 20.
s. s. M. Sel.

JACOB B. SAMUEL SIRKES. See Sirkes,
Jacob b. Samuel.

JACOB BEN SHESHET GERONDI : Span-
ish cabalist of Gerona (whence his surname "Ge-
rondi")in the thirteenth century. He was the au-
thor of "Sha'ar ha-Shamayim," a cabalistic essay
published by M. Mortara in " Ozar Nehmad " (iii.
153 et aeq.), and of " Meshib Debarim Nekohim," an
apologetic work in defense of the Cabala, in thirty
chapters, still in manuscript (Neubauer, "Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS." Nos. 1585, 1586). According to
the preface, he composed this apology against a cer-
tain work full of heterodoxy. He refers to another
work that he had written, and quotes Ibn Ezra,
Maimonides, Ezra (Azriel), R. Joseph bar Samuel,
and Samuel ibn Tibbon's " Yikkawu ha-Mayim."

Bibliography: Griitz, Gesc?i. 3ded., vii. 303; Fuenn, Ke?ieset
Yisracl, s.v.
K. L Br.

JACOB BEN SOLOMON (called also Jacob of
Courson) : French tosafist; born at Courson, de-
partmentof the Yonne; flourished between llSOand
1250. He was a pupil of Samson of Sens and, ap-
parently, teacher of Meir of Rotlienburg (Meir of
Rothenburg, Responsa, ed. Cremona, No. 144). His
tosafot are quoted in "Shittah Mekubbezet" to B.
K. (ed. Venice, 1262) 43a, b, under the name "Jacob
of Courson," and 79a under the erroneous designa-
tion "Jacob of Kunso." According to"Haggah()t
Maimuniyyot" on " Ma'akalot Asurot," No. 13, Jacob
wrote a work entitled "Nimukim," containing com-
ments on the Talmud. Ho may also have been the
author of another work entitled " Matbea'," contain-
ing Talmudic decisions (comp. " Haggahot Maimu-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacob ben Reuben
Jacob ben Zabda

niyyot," I.e., and respousa of Samuel of Medina on
Yoreh De'ali, No. 193.

Jacob corresponded witli the liturgical poet Judali
b. Sbeneor, or Judali the Elder, as he is also called.

Bibliography: Ziinz, Z. G. p. 42; lAem, LiteraturQcsch. ^.
474; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 574.
6. s. A. Pe.

JACOB BEN SOSA : Idumeau leader. In the
great war against Rome, 67-70, when Simon bar
Giora went on a raid through Iduma;a to take pro-
visions, the Idinneans gatliered together to defend
their country, and then 20,000 of them went to Jeru-
salem. One of their four leaders was Jacob ben
Sosa (Josephus, *'B. J." iv. 4, t^ 2), Avho succeeded
in betraying the Jews to Simon (ib. 9, § 6). The
Zealots called the Idumeans to Jerusalem as a pro-
tection against the aristocrats, who were suspected
of favoring the Romans. Some 5,000 of these Idu-
means, whose chief leaders were Jacob b. Sosa and
Simon ben Kathla, joined the party of Simon bar
Giora {ib. v. 6, § 1). The Romans were repulsed in
an attack on the citadel of Antonia, one of the most
prominent in the defense being Jacob b. Sosa (ib. vi.
1, § 8). He was equally conspicuous when the Ro-
mans tried to storm the Temple {ib. 2, § 6).

The Idumeans finally grew tired of the unequal
conflict, and secretly opened negotiations with Titus
for surrender. When Simon bar Giora heard of this
he had their leaders seized and imprisoned, among
them Jacob b. Sosa (ib. 8. ^ 2).

Bibliography: Gratz, Gcsc/i. 4th ed., iii. 508, 513, .530.
G. 8. Kr.

JACOB TEMERLS. See Temerls, Jacob.

JACOB TUS (TAWUS). See Tawls.

JACOB TJZZIEL. See Uzziel, Jacob.

JACOB OF VIENNA: Austrian rabbi and
Biblical commentator of the fourtceutli century.
The Munich MSS. (HebreAv) contain a commentaiy
on the Pentateuch written by "Jacob of Vienna"
(No. 27, 2) and mention a certain '" Jacob of Austria "
(No. 402). Zunz ("Z. G." p. 103) identifies him with
the R. Jekel Avho Avas a pupil of Meir b. Baruch
ha- Levi and who was consulted by Jacob Molin
(MaHRIL) as "the great luminary R. Jekel of Aus-
tria" (Jacob Molin, Respon.sa, No. 101); JudahMinz
(Responsa, No. 15) also mentions a "R. Jekel of
Vienna," probably the same person.

Bibliography : Gudemann, GescJi. Iii. 27.

G. M. Sel.

JACOB (B. JUDAH) WEIL. See Weil,
Jacob.

JACOB BEN WOLF KRANZ OF DUBNO
(DUBNER MAGGID) : lUissiau preacher ; born
at Zietil, government of Wilna, about 1740; died at
Zamosc Dec. 18, 1804. At the age of eighteen he
went to Meseritz (ilezhirechye), where he occupied
the position of preaclier. He stayed there for two
years, and then became preacher successively at Zol-
kiev, Dubno, Wlodawa (government of Lublin),
Kalisch, and Zamosc. He remained at ' Dubno
eighteen years, his stipend being at tirst si.\ Polish
gulden per week with lodging, this amount be-
ing afterward augmented by two gulden. He
left Dubno for Wilna at the request of Elijah Wilna,

who, having recently recovered from a sickness and
being unable to study, sought diversion in his con-
versation.

Jacob was an unrivaled preacher. Possessed of
great eloquence, he illustrated both his sermons and
his homiletic commentaries with parables taken
from human life. By such parables he explained
the most ditlicult passages, and cleared up many
perplexing questions in rabbinical law. He was
also an eminent rabbinical scholar, and on many
occasions was consulted as an authority.

All of Jacob's works were published after his
death by ids son Isaac Kranz and his pupil Abra-
ham Biir Plahm. These are: " Ohel Yaakob," a
homiletic commentary on the Pentateuch abounding
with graphic parables (i., Jozefow, 1830; ii., Zolkiev,
1837; iii., Vienna, 1863; iv., 1861; v.. Vienna, 1859);
" Kol Ya'akob " (Warsaw, 1819), a similar commen-
tary on the Five Scrolls; "Kokab mi-Ya'akob," a
commentary on the " haftarot " ; " Emet le- Ya'akob "
(Zolkiev, 1836), a commentary on the Passover Hag-
gadah; "Sefer ha-Middot " (n.p., 1862), ethics ar-
ranged in eight " gates " or sections, each section
being divided into several chapters. This work
resembles very much the "Hobot ha-Lebabot" of
Bahya. As the author himself had given no name
to it, Abraham Bar Plahm, its editor, at first intended
to call it "Hobot ha-Lebabot he-Hadash " (= "The
New ' Hobot ha-Lebabot ' ") ; but out of respect for
Bahya he changed his mind. The editor also re-
vised the work, and added to it a preface containing
a sketch of the author's life, and glosses of his own
under the title " Shiyyure ha-Middot." Moses Nuss-
baum of Przemysl extiacted from the author's
" Ohel Ya'akob " all the parables, and published them
in one book entitled "Mishle Ya'akob" (Cracow,
1886).

Bibliography: Sefer ha-Midclot, Preface ; Fuenn, Keneset
Yisraeh p. 543; H. Margaliot, in Ha-Zeflrah, 1902, No. 8.
H. R. M. Sel.

JACOB B. YAKAR : German Talmudist ; flour-
ished in the first half of the eleventh century. He
was a pupil of Gershom b. Judah in Mayence, and
is especially known as the teacher of Rashi, who
characterizes him as "mori ha-zaken."

Jacob was one of the leading Talmudic authori-
ties of his time, although Rashi sometimes criticizes
the opinions of his teacher. It appears that Jacob
had already written commentaries on portions of the
Talmud before Rashi (e.fj., comp. Ra.shi on Bek. 41a) ;
at any rate, much in Rashi 's commentary on the Tal-
mud is derived from oral communications of Jacob,
who, in fact, is meant when Rashi says simply "my
teacher " without naming any one. It appears also,
from a remark of Rashi (commentary to Job xxii.
30), that Jacob was engaged in interpreting the
Bible and in the study of Hebrew. Besides Rashi,
the German Talmudists Eliakim b. Meshullam ha-
Levi and Solomon b. Samson were pupils of Jacob.

Bibliography: Gross, GaUin Jtirlaica. pp. 3(X). 506; Zunz,
Di<>i]7-aplnj of I{a»}ii. Hel)rew transl., pp. 7b, 26a, b.
s. s. ■ L. G.

JACOB BEN ZABDA: Palestinian amora of
the fourth generation (4th cent.): junior contempo-
rary, and probably pupil, of Abbahu, in whose name
he repeats several halakic decisions and homiletic

JacoDi
Jacobs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

remarks (Yer. Dein. 23c; Pes. 29d; Pesik. 75b; Sheb.
iv. 35a; Niddah ii. 6a). He also repeats halakot iii
the names of Jeremiah and Jose II. (Kelim i. 1).

Jacob was a firm believer in the powers of magic.
Bread or other eatables found on the road must not
he touched, according to him, because such food
may have been laid tiiere for magical purposes (Lev.
R. XXX vii.). From the words "And the people
spake against God, and against Moses" (Num. xxi.
5) Jacob infers that he who speaks against his
teacher is as though he insulted the majesty of God
(Midr. Teh. xxx.).

Bibliography : Zacutu. Yuhasin, ed. Konigsberg, 64b ; Heil-
prin. Seder ha-Dorot, i. 2;^; Bacher, A(i. Pal. Amor, ii.,
passim ; Frankel, 3Iebi> ha-rc7ushalmi, p. 10.5.
s 8. I. Br.

JACOBI, ABRAHAM : American physician ;
born at Hartum, near Miuden, Westphalia, May 6,
1830; educated at the universities of Greifsvvald,
Gottingen, and Bonn (M.D., 1851). Identified with
the revolutionary movement in Germany, he was

imprisoned at Berlin and
Cologne, under the charge
of high treason, from 1851
to 1853; when liberated
he emigrated to America,
settled in New York city,
and soon l)ecame one of its
leading practitioners. He
became professor of dis-
eases of children at the
New York Medical College
(1861-64), at the Univer-
sity of the City of New
York (1865-70), and at the
College of Physicians and
Surgeons, Columbia Uni-
versity (1870-92), from the last of which institutions
he received the degree of LL.D.

Jacobi was connected also with many of the hos-
pitals of New York city, and was president of the
New York Academy of Medicine (1885-89) and
chairman of the American Commission to the Four-
teenth International Medical Congress at Madrid
(1903).

Jacobi contributed articles on diphtheria, dysen-
tery, etc., to Gerhardt's "'Handbuch der Kinder-
krankheiten." Among liis works are: "Dentition
and Its Derangement," New York, 1862; "The
Raising and Education of Abandoned Children in
Europe," 2'6. 1870; "Infant Diet," ih. 1874; "Diph-
theria, " ih. 1876 ; " Therapeutics of Infancy and Child-
hood," Philadelphia, 1878; "Intestinal Diseases,"
New York, 1880.

Bibliography: Pagel, Bioo. Lex.; Hlrsch, Biog. Lex.
A. F. T. H.

JACOBI, HEINRICH OTTO: German phi-
lologist; born at Tlitz, West Prussia, 1815; died in
Berlin 1864. He studied at Berlin University, and
received the honorary degree of Ph.D. from the
University of Konigsberg in 1854 for his profound
knowledge of the Greek language. He was en-
gaged as teacher at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium,
Berlin, from 1854 till 1858, and then became teacher
at the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium at Posen,

Abraham Jacobi.

where in 1860 he received the title of professor. He
became a Protestant.

Jacobi is the compiler of the most valuable " In-
dex Grsecitatis" to Meineke's edition of "Gra?corum
Comicorum Fragmenta," Berlin, 1847. Of his other
works may be mentioned " In Comicos Gnvcos Ad-
uotationum Corollarium," th. 1866.

BiBLiOfiRAPHY : De le Roi, Judeii-Mismn)i. i. 318; AUn. Deut-
sche Bioaraphie.
s. F. T. H.

JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JAKOB : German
mathematician; born Dec. 10, 1804, at Potsdam:
died at Berlin Feb. 18, 1851 ; brother of Moritz Her-
mann Jacobi. He studied mathematics, philosophy,
and philology at the University of Berlin, and in

1824 (having embraced the Christian faith) became
privat-docent in mathematics at his alma mater. In

1825 he acted in the same capacity at Konigsberg,
where he was appointed assistant professor in 1827
and professor in 1829. At that period he, together
with Abel, made his epoch-making discoveries in
the field of elliptic functions. To benefit his health
he went in 1843 to Italy. On his return to Germany
he established himself as professor of mathematics
at the University of Berlin.

Most of Jacobi's papers were published in Crelle's
"Journal fur die Reine und Angewandte Mathe-
matik " and in the " Monatsberichte " of the Berlin
Academy of Sciences, of which he became a member
in 1836. Of his independent works may be men-
tioned: "Fundamenta Novfe Theoria; Functionum
Ellipticarum," Konigsberg, 1829, and "Canon Arith-
meticus, " Berlin, 1839. Jacobi's lectures on dynamics
were published in Berlin in 1866 (2d ed., 1884). The
Berlin Academy of Sciences published his " Gesam-
melte Werke" (8 vols., including supplement; ih.
1881-91).

Bibliography : BrocklMusKnnversatiinis-Lexikoii ;Lejeune-
Diriclilet, in AhhandlunQc n of the Berlin Aciideiny of Sci-
ences (18.52): De le Roi, Juden-MissUm , p. 204; (ierhardt,
Gesch. der Mathematik in Dcutscldaud, pp. 347-257.

JACOBI, MORITZ HERMANN: German
physicist; born Sept. 21, 1801, at Potsdam; died
March 10, 1874, at St. Petersburg. He was estab-
lished as architect at Konigsberg when, in 1835, he
was appointed professor of architecture in the Uni-
versity of Dorpat. Called in 1837 to St. Petersburg,
he became in 1842 an extraordinary member, and
in 1847 full member, of the Russian Academy of
Sciences, and later he received the title of " state
councilor." His greatest merit was the discovery of
galvanoplasty (1838). Besides his "Die Galvano-
Pla.stik " (St. Petersburg, 1840) and "Meinoire sur
I'Application de rElectromagnetisme an Mouve-
ment des Machines " (iVj. 1835), Jacobi published a
large number of papers in the " Memoires " of the
Academy of St. Petersburg.

Bibliography: Brcckliaiis Konversations-Lexikun; Wild,
Ziun (jediiclitnis an Moritz Hermann Jacobi, 187ti.

JACOBI, SAMUEL : Danish physician ; born
in Yaroslav, Galicia, 1764; died in Copenhagen
1811. He studied the Talmud for some years, but
later devoted himself to medical studies, which he
pursued at the universities of Breslau. Leipsic, and
Halle, obtaining liis diploma from the last-named.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacobi
Jacobs

In 1792 ]ie settkd in Copenhagon, und in 1790 ob
tuined pcimission to practise medicine in Denmark.
In 1798 a royal patent assured liim tliat his faith
should prove no hindrance to his jiromotion.

Jacobi was a very active worker in the interests
of his coreligionists. He acted as physician to the
Jewish ]i<)or, and assisted in founding a ficc school
for Jewish boys, as administrator of which he otli-
ciated until his death. During the last year of his
life Jacobi was vice-president of the Danish Medical
Society.

BiBLiOGRAPnv: C. F. Bricka, Dansk Bingrafisk Lexicon.
s. F. C.

JACOBS, GEORGE : American rabbi of Eng-
lish iSephardic descent: born in Kingston, Jamaica.
Sept. 24, 1834; died in Philadelphia July 14, 1884.
He went to the United States in 1854 and settled in
Richmond, Va., freijuentl}' officiating for the Con-
gregation Beth Shalome, studying meanwhile for the
ministry ; in 1857 he was elected to the rabbinate.
In 1869 he succeeded Isaac Leeser as rabbi of the
Congregation Beth EI Emeth in Philadelphia. He
was connected with many Jewish and other lodges,
and was one of the founders of the Young ]\Ien's
Hebrew Association of Philadelphia, of the Board
of Jewish Ministers of Philadelphia, and of the
American Jewish Publication Society. He was a
contributor to the Philadelphia Jewish press, pub-
lished several catechisms, and aided in the revision
of the English of the Szold-Jastrow Praj'er-Book.

Bibliography : JewMi Record (Philadelphia), JulvlS and 2:%
and Oct. 24, 1884.

JACOBS, HENRY S. : American rabbi ; born
in Kingston, Jamaica, March 23, 1827; died in New
York Sept. 12, 1893. He studied for the Jewish
ministry under the Rev. N. Nathan, at Kingston,
holding at the same time the jiosition of liead mas-
ter in the Jewish Free School. At tlie age of
twenty he accepted a call from the congregation in
Spanish Town, but later returned to Kingston as
rabbi of the English and German synagogue there.
In 1854 he went to the United States as rabbi of
the Congregation Beth Shalome in Richmond. Va.
His subsequent rabbinates were at Charleston (1858-
1862), at New Orleans (1866-73), and at New York
(Shearith Israel, 1873-74; B'nai Jeshurun, 1874-93).
The honorary degree of D.D. was conferred upon
him in 1900. He was president of the Board of
Jewish Ministers of New York from its organiza-
tion until his death, and was vice-president of the
New York branch of the Alliance Israelite Uni-
versclle. A.

JACOBS, JOSEPH: Critic, folklorist, histo-
rian, statistician, communal worker; born Aug. 29,
1854, at Sydney, N. S. W. ; educated at Sydney
Grammar School, Sydney and London universities,
and St. John's College, Cambridge (senior moralist,
1876)'. After taking hisB.A. degree at Cambridge
he went to Berlin (1877), where he studied under
Steinschneider and Lazarus. From 1878 to 1884 he
was secretary of the Society of Hebrew Literature.
In the London "Times" of Jan. 11 and 13, 1882, ap-
peared articles by Jacobs on the'persecution of the
Jews in Russia which drew the attention of Europe

to the "pogrom" of 1881 and led to the Mansion
Hou.se Meeting of Feb. 1, 1882, and to the forma-
tion of the Mansion House Fund and Committee, of
which Jacobs was secretary (1882-1900). From his
ccmnection with the Mansion House (later Russo-
Jewish) Committee he was led to investigate the
general "Jewish (piestion," as a result of which he
published a bibliography (1885) and social and
other statistics of the Jews of Europe in a series of
papers contributed to the "Jewish Chronicle " and
to the "Journal of the Anthropological Institute"
(1882 to 1889; afterward republished as "Studies in
Jewisli Statistics," 1890); they were among tlie
first attempts to apply the principles of statistical
science to modern Jewish problems.

Meanwhile his attention Iiad been drawn to Jew-
ish history by the Anglo-Jewish Historical E.xhibi-
tion of 1887, to the literature and art committee of
which he was honorary secretary, in that capacity
compiling, with Lucien Wolf, the catalogue of the
exhibition. He was associated with Wolf in the
compilation also of a bibliography of Angio-Jewish
history as one of the publications of the exhibition.
This bibliography has been the inspiration of all
subsequent research in that field. In 1888 he imder-
took a literary journey to Spain to investigate the
Jewish manuscript sources of that country; the
results of his journey were published in 1893 under
the title "Sources of Spanish-Jewish History." In
1891 he wrote, in connection, with the Guildhall
Meeting, a further account of Russian persecutions,
witii an appendix on anti-Jewish legislation in Rus-
sia (reprinted by the Jewish Publication Society of
America).

From his researches in connection with the Anglo-
Jewish Historical Exhibition Jacobs was led to
study the early history of the Jews in England, on
which he published his "Jews of Angevin England "
(1893). In 1896 he collected a number of his essays
on Jewish philosophy and history under the title
" Jewish Ideals " ; in the same year appeared the
first issue of his "Jewish Year-Book." One of the
chief critics of the " Athenneum," he wrote necrolo-
gies on George Eliot, Matthew Arnold, Newman,
Stevenson, and others, later assembled under the
title "Literary Essays " (1894). He has published
also a volume on " Tennyson and ' In Memoriam ' "
(1892). Jacobs has issued many editions of English
classics, including Howell's "Familiar Letters"
and Painter's "Pnlace of Pleasure, "and has written
introductions to Jane Austen's "Emma,"' Thack-
eray's "Esmond," and other masterpieces. Toward
the end of 1896 he visited the United States, lectur-
ing at Gratz College in Philadelphia and before the
Coimcil of Jewish Women at New York, Philadel-
phia, and Chicago, on the "Philosophy of Jewish
History." Jacobs was one of the founders of the
Jewish Historical Society of England, of which he
was president (1898-99), and also of the Maccabeans.
He was for many years on the executive committee
of the Anglo-Jewish Association and on the conjoint
committee of tliat body with the Board of Deputies.
In 1900 he went to Now York to act as revising edi-
tor of the Jkwish Encvclopedi.\, in which capacity
he is still engaged (1904). He was connected for a
time with the "Jewish Chronicle "of London and

Jacobs, Joseph
Jacobsou, Ludwig-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the "Jewish World " (New York), and is one of tlie
editors of "Jewish Charity."

Jacobs is one of the chief English authorities on
folk-lore, and was editor of "Folk-Lore," honorary
secretary of the International Folk-Lore Council,
and chairman of the literary committee of the Folk-
Lore Congress in London, 1881. He lias published
many works in this field, notably a reprint (1889) of
Caxton's "Esope" with a volume of prolegomena
on the history of the ^sop fable, as well as several
volumes of English and other folk-tales. From his
studies in folk-lore he was, in his " Studies in Bib-
lical Archeology " (1894), led to apply to the Bible
the method of comparative institutional archeology.
Jacobs has also written an imaginative life of Jesus
from a Jewish standpoint ("As Others Saw Him,"
1895; 3d ed. 1903).

Bibliography: Men and Women of the Time, 1894 ; Who's
Wlio in England ; Who's Who in America ; Dictionnaire
Inteinational des Folkloristes, 1889 ; Nat. Diet, of Am.
Bwg.; Encjic. of Am. Bwg. 1903; Critic (New York), Jan. 33,
1897; Brit. Mas. Cat. Supplement, 1903, ft.v.
A. I. A.

JACOBS, JOSEPH (known as Jacobs the
Wizard): English conjurer; born at Canterbury
1813; died Oct. 13, 1870. He first appeared in Lon-
don at Horn's Tavern, Kennington, in 1835, when
he introduced the Chinese ring trick. At the Strand
Theatre in 1841 he achieved a great success by the
aid of expensive apparatus. Jacobs in 1850 in-
vented the trick of producing from under a shawl
bowls of water containing goldfish ; lie appeared
at the Adelaide Gallery in 1853, in America in 1854,
and in Australia and New Zealand in 1860. In the
last-cited year he opened the Polygraphic Hall in
London.

Bibliography : Jewish Record, Nov. 18, 1870; Frost, Lives of
the Conjurer.'i, pp. 214-220, London, 1876; Boase, Modern
British Biography.
J. G. L.

JACOBS, SIMEON: Judge in the Supreme
Court of the Cape of Good Hope; born in 1830;
died in London June 15, 1883. He became a bar-
rister of the Inner Temple in Nov., 1852. In 1860,
in search of health, he emigrated to the Cape of
Good Hope, and in 1861 was appointed attorney-
general of British Kaffraria, which office he held
till 1866, when he became solicitor-general at the
Cape of Good Hope. He acted as attorney-general
from 1874 to 1882, in which year he was promoted
puisne judge and made a member of the executive
council. lu the course of a few months he retired
from active life, and was created C.M.G. in Nov.,
1882.

Bibliography : Jew. Chron. and Jew. World. June 23, 1883;
Time» (London), June 20, 1883; Zingari, March 14, 1873;
Cape Argus, July, 1883 ; Boase, Modern Britisli Biography.

J. G. L.

JACOBSOHN, PAUL : German physician and
hygienist; born in Berlin Sept. 30, 1868; educated
at the gymnasium in Berlin and the universities of
Berlin and Freiburg (M.D. 1891). He settled in his
native city, and from 1892 to 1894 was assistant
physician at the Jewish hospital there. From 1894
to 1897 he was assistant at the dispensary of Martin
Mendelsohn ; and since 1898 he has been coeditor
with E. Dietrich of the " Deutsche Krankenpflege-
Zeitung," of which he was the founder.

Jacobsohn's specialty is the improvement of
nursing and the training of nurses. He founded
the Deutsche Krankenpfiegerbund (society of Ger-
man nurses) in 1899. Jacobsohn lias invented a
special stretcher for the conveyance of patients,
and a scale for weighing. Among his works may
be mentioned : " Handbuch der Krankenversorgung
uud Krankenpflege " (with G. Liebe and G. Meyer),
Berlin, 1898-1902.

s. F. T. H.

JACOBSON : Danish family of engravers, of
whom the first important member was Aaron.
Jacobson (1717-75), who, in the middle of the eight-
eenth century, left Hamburg and settled in Copen-
hagen, where (1745) he became engraver of the royal
seals. He had two sons : David Aaron Jacobson.
(born in Copenhagen 1753; succeeded his father as
royal engraver) and Solomon Aaron Jacobson.
(born in Copenhagen 1754; died there June 28, 1830).
Solomon Jacobson was a skilful engraver, and in
1788 went to Stockholm to make miniature repro-
ductions in precious stones of some antique statuary
belonging to Gustavus HI. of Sweden. He was
a member of the Academy of Arts of Stockholm,
and was admitted (1796) to membership in the Da-
nish Academy of Fine Arts, to which he had sub-
mitted an onyx engraving of Apollo. He engraved
also several medals, among them being the "Ole
Borch Medal " and a medal in commemoration of
Queen Marie Sofie Frederikke. Albert Jacobson,
son of Solomon Jacobson, also became a noted medal-
ist and a member of the Danish and Swedish acade-
mies of arts. He carved (1826) in topaz a portrait
of King Frederick VI. of Denmark, and (1827) in
carnelian a portrait of Emperor Nicholas I.

Bibliography: Salmo.nsen''s Store Illustrercde Konversa-
ti^ms- Lexicon.

s. F. C.

JACOBSON, EDTJARD: German dramatist;
born at Gross Strelitz, Silesia, Nov. 10, 1833 (M.D.
Berlin, 1859); died in Berlin Jan. 29, 1897. He es-
tablished himself as a physician in Berlin. While n
student he wrote the farce " Faust und Gretchen "
(1856) ; and from this time on he wrote — either alone
or in collaboration with O. F. Berg, O. Girndt, G. v.
Moser, Julius Rosen, and others — burlesques whicli
became stock pieces in almost all German theaters.
The following may be specially mentioned: "Meine
Tante— Deine Tante ! " (Berlin, 1858); "Lady Beef-
steak" (1860); "WerZuletzt Lacht" (1861); "Back-
fische. oder ein Madchenpensionat " (1864); "Seine
Bessere Halfte" (1864); "Humor Verloren— Alles
Verloren!" (1867); "1,733 Thaler 22^ Silber-
groschen" (1870); "500,000 Teufel" (played 300
times successively in Berlin); "Der Nachbar zur
Linken" (1887); "Das Lachende Berlin" (1888);
" Salon tirolerin " (1888) ; and " Goldfuchs " (1890).

Bibliography : Meyers Konversations-Lexihon, 1897.

JACOBSON, HEINRICH : German physician ;
born Oct. 27, 1826, at Konigsberg, East Prussia;
died Dec. 10, 1890, at Berlin ; educated at the gymna-
sium of his native town and at the universities of
Heidelberg, Berlin, Prague, and Halle, he graduated
from the last-named as doctor of medicine in 1847.
Settling as a physician in Konigsberg, he became
privat-docent, and in 1872 assistant professor, at the

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacobs, Joseph
Jacobson, Ludwig'

university of that town. Being elected chief phy-
sician at tlie Jewish Hospital (Jildisches Kranken-
haus: Inneie IStatiou) in Berlin in 1872, he removed
to the German capital, where he resided for the re-
mainder of Iiis lite.

Jacobson was a great clinicist, and wrote many
essaysaud books, especially on experimental pathol-
ogy. Among them are: "Beitriige zur Hamody-
namik" (in Reichert-Du Bois's "Archiv," 1860-62);
"Zur Einleitung in die Hamodynamik " {ih. 1861);
"Ueber die Blutbewegung in den Venen" (in Vir-
chow's "Archiv fur Pathologische Anatomic und
Physiologic und fur Klinische Medizin "), 1866, 1867 ;
" Ueber Normale und Pathologische Localtempera-
tur," Berlin, 1870; "Ueber die Herzgerausche,"
"Ueber den Blutdruck in Comprimitirter Luft."

Bibliography: Jew. Clinm. Dec. 19,1890; Pagel, Bivg. Lex.
S.V., Vienna, 1901.
s. F. T. H.

JACOBSON, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH :

German jurist and writer on ecclesiastical law; born
at Marienwerder June 8, 1804; died at Konigsberg
March 19, 1868. He studied in the latter city, and
at Gottingen and Berlin; became privat-docent at
the University of Konigsberg; assistant professor
in 1831 ; and professor of law in 1836. Early in life
Jacobson embraced Christianity. He wrote : " Kirch-
enrechtliclie Versuche " (2 vols., Konigsberg, 1831-
1833); "Gesch. der Quellen des Kirchenrechts des
Preussischen Staats" (3 vols., ib. 1837-44); "Der
Preussische Staat " (Leipsic, 1854) ; " Ueber das
Oesterreichische Konkordat " («6. 1856); and "Das
Evangelische Kirchenrecht des Preussischen Staats
und Seiner Provinzen " (2 parts, Halle, 1864-66),
which was his principal work. Jacobson took
a very active part in the ecclesiastical movement of
his time and became a partizan of the Free Evan-
gelical Church. In this capacity he wrote on mixed
marriages (1838), and on the genuflection of Protes-
tants in Bavaria (1844), etc.

Bibliography: Mci/crs Konversations-Lexikon, 1897.

S.
JACOBSON, ISRAEL : German philanthropist
and reformer; born in Halberstadt Oct. 17, 1768; died
in Hanover Sept. 14, 1828. Originally his father's
name was Jacob. His parents were in humble cir-
cumstances. Owing to the very low level of efficiency
of the Halberstadt public schools, Israel attended
mainly the Jewish religious school, in his leisure
hours studying on his own account. At the age of
nineteen, after having accumulated a small fortune,
he became engaged to the granddaughter of Philip
Samson, founder of the Samson-Schule at Wolfen-
bilttel, at which Zunz and Jost were educated.
Jacobson took up his residence in Brunswick, and,
possessing great financial ability, rapidly increased
his fortune. He established (1801) in Seesen, near
the Ilarz Mountains, a school in which forty Jewish
and twenty Christian children were to be educated
together, receiving free board and lodging. This
close association of children of different creeds was
a favorite idea of his. The Jacobson school soon ob-
tained wide reputation, and hundreds of pupils from
neighboring places were educated there. During
the liundred years of its existence it has stood fore-
most in every line of educational work.

Israel Jacobson.

Jacobson very soon perceived the necessity of im-
buing the young as early as possible with proper
religious impressions. In 1810 he built a beautiful
temple within the school-grounds and showed his
Reform sympathies by supplying it with an organ,
the first instance of the placing of an organ in a
Jewish house of worship. Hymns in German were
sung by the boys; and
prayers in German were
added to those in He-
brew. The liberality
of his views was further
shown by his strong
advocacy of the intro-
ducticm of confirma-
tion. It was Jacobson
himself who, in 1811,
confirmed, in the Seesen
Synagogue, the first
five Jewish boys.
When, under Napole-
on's rule, the kingdom
of Westphalia was cre-
ated, and Jerome, the
emperor's brother, was
placed at its head,

Jacobson, who had removed to Cassel, the resi-
dence of the king, Avas appointed president of the
Jewish consistory. In this capacity, assisted by
a board of officers, he did his. best to exercise a re-
forming influence upon the various congregations of
the countrj'. He opened a house of prayer in Cassel,
with a ritual similar to that introduced in Seesen;
he also advocated a seminary for the training of
Jewish teachers.

After Napoleon's fall (1815) Jacobson removed to
Berlin, where also he attempted to introduce reforms
in divine service. For this purpose he opened in his
own house a hall for worship in which eloquent ser-
mons were delivered b}'^ Zunz, Kley, and Auer-
bach; but the Prussian government, remembering
the French sympathies of Jacobson, and receiving,
moreover, continued complaints from the Orthodox
party, ordered the services discontinued. It was
through Jacobson's influence and persuasion that
the so-called "Lcibzoll" (poll-tax) Avas abolished.
Throughout his life Jacobson seized every oppor-
tunity to promote a cordial understanding between
Jews and Christians, and his great wealth enabled
him to support many poor of both faiths.

Bibliography: AUoemeine Deutsche Biographic, xiil. 619;
Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ii. 6.
s. H. Ba.

JACOBSON, LUDWIG LEWIN : Danish
surgeon; born in Copenhagen Jan. 10, 1783; died
there Aug. 29, 1843. He received his early education
at the German Lyceum in Stockholm, Sweden, but
on deciding to pursue the study of medicine removed
to Copenhagen, where he entered the surgical acad-
emy. He was graduated as C.B. and M.D. in 1804,
and was appointed at his alma mater assistant sur-
geon in 1806 and lecturer on chemistry in 1807.
From 1807 to 1810 he was engaged as tutor at Den
Kongelige VeterinaT og Landboh6jskole (the Royal
Veterinary and Agricultural High School) in Copen-
hagen.

Jacobson, Ludwig:
Jacoby, Johann

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

During the bombardment of Copenhagen by the
British (1807j, Jacobson served as a military surgeon
at tlie lazaretto of the freemasons' academical lodge,
and after the capitulation he sliowed his zeal for
scientific research by requesting and obtaining per-
mission to inspect the British field-hospitals, of
which he later (1809) published an interesting ac-
count in the "Bibliothek for Laeger." It was, how-
ever, in the field of comparative anatomy that Jacob-
son won his reputation. This science, which at that
time constituted the main basis for the study of
biology, was being zealously cultivated by the most
distinguished savants. In 1809 Jacobson announced
to the Danske Videnskabernes Selskab his discovery
of and researches concerning a hitherto unknown
absorptive organ in the human nose (later named
after him "the Jacobsonian organ"). Of this dis-
covery G. Cuvier published an account, "Descrip-
tion Anatomiqued'un Organe Observe dans lesMam-
miferes," in "Annales du Museum d'Histoirc Na-
turelle " (Paris, 1811). This discovery
The Jacob- at once placed Jacobson in the front
sonian rank of the biologists of his age. The
Organ. Danish society of sciences awarded
him a silver medal of honor; he was
given military rank as a regimental surgeon, and
was granted a royal stipend to enable him to travel
through Germany and France.

During his sojourn in Paris Jacobson devoted a
great deal of time to the study of practical medicine
and surgery, and was so successful that the Danish
government, on his return in 1813, obtained for him
admission into the French army in order that he
might study the medical system employed therein.
In 1814 he served in a field-hospital near Leipsic,
and became dangerously ill with fever when the
lazaretto was attacked and pillaged by Cossacks.
He returned to Denmark the same year (1814) and
received from the University of Kiel an honorary
diploma as doctor of medicine and surgery. In 1816
the same university conferred upon him the title of
professor.

Jacobson invented several appliances which

proved of great benefit to the surgical profession.

Of these ma}'^ be mentioned his appa-

His ratus for the arrest of arterial hem-

Surgical orrhage and his lithoclast for the
In- crushing of stones in the bladder,

struments. The latter instrument, which replaced
the French lithotrites then in use, was
later somewhat modified by the eminent French sur-
geon Dupuytren.

In 1833 the Academic des Sciences awarded Jacob-
son one of the Monthyon prizes (4,000 francs), having
previously awarded him a gold medal for his im-
portant researches into the venal system of the kid-
neys in birds and reptiles. On the death of the
English anatomist Sir Everard Homes, Jacobson
became his successor as a corresponding member of
the Academic des Sciences. In 1836 he was elected
an honorary member of the Kongelige INIedicinske
Selskab, the Royal Medical Society (of Denmark).

Jacobson was created a knight of the Danebroge
in 1829, and he received the silver cross of the same
order in 1836. He was also honored with decora-
tions from several foreign potentates. In spite.

however, of all the flattering recognition that he re-
ceived, Jacobson felt depressed because he as a Jew
was barred from the University of Copenhagen. A
professorship had been offered him on the condition
that he embrace Christianity, but he refused to
abandon the faith of his fathers. His religious be-
lief prevented also his accepting a special invitation
to attend the first meeting of natural scientists to be
held in Christiania (1822), because at that time the
edict forbidding Jews to stay in Norway was still
in force.

Of Jacobson 's many writings the following may
be mentioned : " Undersogelser over den Steensen'ske
Naesekirtel hos Pattedyr og Fugle," Copenhagen,
1813; " Nyreportaaresystemet hos Fisk, Padder, og
Krybdyr," ib. 1813, 2d ed. 1821; "Primordial-
nyrerne," i6. 1830; " Primordialkraniet, " i6. 1842.

Bibliography: Salmonsen, Slnre Tlhtstrerede Konversa-
tinns-Lericon ; C. F. Bricka, Dansk Jiiograflsk Lexicon ;
Erslevv, For f alter ■Lexicmi.
S. F. C.

JACOBSON, NATHAN: American surgeon;
born in Syracuse, N. Y., June 25, 1857. He was
graduated from Syracuse University, and took a
postgraduate course at the University of Vienna.
He is professor of clinical surgery in the College of
Medicine of Syracuse University, visiting physician
to St. Joseph's Hospital at Syracuse, and consulting
surgeon to the Syracuse Hospital for Women and
Children. Jacobson has for more than twenty years
been a member of the executive board of the Jewish
Orphan Asylum of western New York. He has pub-
lished numerous papers on surgical subjects.

JACOBSTHAL, JOHANN EDUARD : Ger
man architect; born at Stargard, Ponierania, Sept.
17, 1839. He studied at the architectural academy
in Berlin, and, after long travels through Greece and
Asia Minor, became in 1874 professor in that insti-
tution. At present (1904) he is teacher in the tech-
nical high school at Berlin. His architectural abili-
ties were especially displayed in the construction of
railroad stations in Alsace-Lorraine (Metz, 1874-78;
Strasburg, 1877-84), of the Alexanderplatz station
of the Berlin surface railroad, and of the gates of
the railway bridges of Dirschau and ]\Iarienburg.
He has published: "Grammatik der Ornamente,"
2d ed., Berlin, 1880; " Siiditalienische Fliesenorna-
mente," ib. 1887; and " Araceenformen in der Flora
des Ornaments," 2(1 ed., 1889.

BiBLincRAPHY : Meyers Konvernations-Lexikon, 1897.

JACOBY, JOHANN: German physician and
statesman ; born at Konigsberg, Prussia, May 1, 1805;
died there March 6, 1877. The son of a well-to-
do merchant, after attending the Konigsberg Col-
legium Fredericianum, in 1823 he entered the univer-
sity in that city, devoting himself to philosophy and
medicine. After completing his course (1827) he
journeyed through Germany and Poland, and estab-
lished himself in Konigsberg as a physician in 1830,
soon acquiring an extensive practise.

In 1831 an article by him entitled "Einige Worte
Gegen die Unentbchrlichkeit der Medicinisch-Chi-
rurgischen Pepiniere zu Berlin " and consisting of an
attack upon the administration of the medical schools,

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacobson, Ludwigr
Jacoby, Johann

appeared in the "Zeitsclirift fiir Staatsarznci-
kunde." The same year witnessed the great cholera
epidemic. The disease was then almost unknown in
Europe, and Jacoby hastened to the Warsaw cholera
hospital, where he battled energetically to stem its
progress. On his return he was invited to lay the
results of his researches before the Konigsberg Med-
ical Society, the outcome being improved govern-
ment regulations for the prevention and treatment
of the disease.

IJut Jacoby 's principal field of activity was to be
the political, which he entered with a pamphlet en-
titled " Ueber das V'erhaltniss des Koniglich-Preus-
sischen Oberregieruugsraths Streck-
Political fuss zu der Emancipation der Juden "
Activity. (Hamburg, 1833), being a reply to the
pamphlet of Streckfuss, "Ueber das
Verhaltniss der Juden zum Christlichen Staate."
Jacoby points out that the edict of March 11, 1812,

did not break the fet-
ters of the Jews in
Prussia but only loos-
ened them, inveighs
against the plea of
Streckfuss that the
Jews should be satis-
tied for thirty or forty
years with the rights
that had been granted
to them, and insists
upon the principle that
Jews should be in-
vested with equalit}^
as a matter of right
instead of having
privileges doled out
to them as favors.
In his pamphlet
" Der Streit der Padagogen und Aerzte " (Konigs-
berg, 1836) Jacoby advocated a concurrent mental
and physical training for the young. An answer
by Director Gotthold elicited Jacoby's "Die Apo-
logie des Director Gotthold," in the same year.
In July, 1838, he brought out his "Beitrage zu
einer Kimftigen Gesch. der Censur in Preussen."
Jacoby identified himself with the Liberal party,
and won national recognition by his " Vier Fragen,
Beaut wnrtet von einem Ostpreussen," which ap-
peared in Feb., 1841, ou the eve of the meeting of
the provincial parliament, to whose members it was
addressed. This was at the beginning of the reign
of Frederick William IV., when constitutional agi-
tation was rife throughout the kingdom, and
Jacoby's anonymous pamphlet, claiming a consti-
tution as a matter of right, created much excitement.
The author sent a copy to the king, together with a
letter complaining that tlie pamphlet had been con-
fiscated by the police of Leipsic, and appealing for
royal protection. The response came in the form of
arrest for lese-majesty and subversive criticism of
the law. On April 20, 1842, Jacoby was found
guilty and sentenced to two and a half years' im-
prisonment, but was acquitted on appeal. Mean-
while the pamphlet was republished in Strasburg
and Paris. Three years later his two pamphlets en-
titled "Preussen im Jahi-e 1845" and "Das Konig-
VII.— 4

Johann Jacoby.

liche Wort Friedrich AVilhelms III." again moved
the authorities to proceed against him.

After such experiences it was natural that on the
outbreak of the agitation of 1848' Jacoby should be
recognized as one of the leaders of the democratic
movement. He took a prominent part in the delibera-
tions of the preliminary parliament convened at
Frankfort -on-the-Main i\Iarch31, 1848, and compo.sed
of unauthorized delegates chosen by a committee
for the purpose of creating a popular constitution,
and was chosen one of tlie committee of fifty to
carry out the provisions of the resolutions adopted
by it. On May 22, 1848, the opening day of the
Preussische Nationalversammlung, he issued an ap-
peal entitled "Deutschland und Preussen," main-
taining that it was the duty of the Prussian depu-
ties not to pursue a selfish Prussian policy but to
labor to make Germany a free and united coimtry.
A few weeks later he left Frankfort and went to
Berlin, where he was elected a member of the Prus-
sian National Assembly. He was ap-
Member of pointed a member of the deputation
Prussian which waited upon the king in vain
National remonstrance against the Branden-
Assembly. burg-Manteuffel ministry. When,
after the address had been read, the
king refused a hearing, he exclaimed, "That is
the misfortune of kings; they do not wish to hear
the truth." Jacoby continued to take part in the
proceedings of the National Assembly after its re-
moval to Stuttgart in 1849 and until its disso-
lution. When he returned to Konigsberg in Octo-
ber he was arrested for treason on the charge of
having taken part in the "Stuttgart Rumpfparla-
ment," was acquitted Dec. 8 following, and returned
to his medical practise. But Jacoby could not long
remain out of the turmoil of political life. At the
assembly of the electors of Konigsberg Nov. 10 and
11, 1858, he delivered a speech on the principles of
the Prussian democracy. On May 17 following
he was elected to the Prussian Abgeordnetenhaus
(Chamber of Deputies), and affiliated with the ex-
treme opposition. On Dec. 13, 1863, he delivered
a speech to the electors of Berlin denouncing mili-
tarism and the Junkers, for which he was sentenced
to six months' imprisonment. Details of his trial
are given in "Ein Urtheil des Berliner Kriminal-
gerichts, Beleuchtet von Jacoby" (Leipsic^ 1864)
and "Dr. Jacoby vor dem Kriminalsenate des Kam-
mergerichts" {ib. 1865).

In his "Heinrich Simon, ein Gedenkbuch fi'ir das
I)eut.sche Volk " (Berlin, 1865) Jacoby paid a tribute
to his former colleague. In 1866 appeared his pam-
phlet" DerFreie Mensch, Eiick- und Vor.schau Eines
Staatsgefangeuen." Other contributions to litera-
ture were "Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, der Philo-
soph," embodied in the biography of Le.ssing by
Adolf Stahr (Berlin, 1861) and afterward printed
.separately, and "Kant und Lessing, eine Parallele"
(Konigsberg, 1867).

Jacob}' gradually lost popularity during these
later years, and at last stood alone in the chamber.
He violently opposed Bismarck, the Austrian war,
the reorganization of the army, and the North-Ger-
man Bund. Estranged from the Fortschrittspartei,
he sought to reorganize the Volkspartci, and on

Oacoby
Jael

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jan. 30, 1868, in a speech at Berlin on " Das Zielder
Deutsclien Volkspartei," claimed that the working
classes must have a greater participa-
Reorgan- tion in the government ; the speech was
izer of the published at Konigsberginthe follow -
Volkspar- ing year. In Sept., 1868, the Stuttgart
tei. Congress adopted his program. On

Jan. 20, 1870, Jacoby spoke at Berlin
on "DasZielder Arbeiterbewegung" (Berlin, 1870),
expounding the principles of Lassalle. His opposi-
tion to the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine led to his
arrest at a public meeting on Sept. 20, 1870, and he
was confined for five weeks in the citadel of Lotzen.
In 1874 Jacoby definitely adopted the Social-Demo-
cratic program ; he was elected to the Reichstag in
the same year, but declined to serve. A complete
edition of Jacoby 's writings and addresses was pub-
lished at Hamburg (1872, 2 vols. ; Supplement,
1877). His "Geist der Griechischen Geschichte "
was published after his death by F. Riihl (1884).

Bibliography: Julian Schmidt, in National-Zeittmg, 1877,
No. 147 ; I. MoUer, Rede Gehalten hei der Gedilchtnixfeier,
etc., Konigsberg, 1877 ; Allg. Deutsche Biographic ; Brnck-
hmis Konversations-Lexihoii; Meyers Konversations-
Lexikon.
s. M. Co.

JACOBY, LOUIS: German engraver; born
June 7, 1828, at Havelberg, Brandenburg, Germany ;
pupil of the engraver Mandel of Berlin, in which
city he settled. The year 1855 he spent in Paris;
1856 in Spain ; and the years 1860-63 in Italy, espe-
cially in Rome. In 1863 he was appointed professor
of engraving at the Vienna Academy, and in 1882
was called to Berlin as adviser on art to the imperial
printing-office.

Jacoby 's first engraving, Tiarini's " St. John," ap-
peared in 1850. His most important engravings are :
Kaulbach's "The Battle of the Huns"; Raphael's
" School of Athens " (of which he had made a copy
during his stay at Rome) ; Soddoma's " The Wed-
ding of Alexander and Roxana " ; Winterhalter's
"The Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph and the
Empress Elizabeth " ; as well as the portraits of many
important scientists and members of society in the
Austrian and German capitals, e.g., Rokitansky,
Olfers, Ritter, Corneliu.s, Guhl, IMommsen, Henzen,
Grillparzer, Briicke, De la Motte-Fouque, and York
von Warteuburg.

Bibliography: Meyers Konversations-Lexikn)) .

s. F. T. H.

JACOPO (JACOMO) SANSECONDO: Ital-
ian musician of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries;
born about 1468. Jacopo was an eminent violinist ;
his reputation is shown by the fact that in 1502 he
played at the wedding of Lucrezia Borgia (Casti-
glioui, "II Cortegiano," ii.). He held a prominent
position at the court of Pope Leo X. Jacopo was
also known as a handsome man, and is said to have
been the original of Raphael's "Apollo on Parnas-
sus " (Galleria Sciara, Rome).

Bibliography: Burckhardt, Die Cidtur der Reiiaissance, p.
:!88, Basel, 1868; Vogelstein and liieger, Juden in Rom, ii.
3.5, 119, 120-121.

D. - M. Sel.

JACaUES, HEINRICH: Austrian deputy;
born in Vienna Feb. 24, 1831 ; shot himself Jan. 25,
1894. He studied philosophy and history at Heidel-
berg, and afterward jurisprudence at Vienna (Dr.

Juris, 1856). After having been for five years man-
ager of the Vienna banking firm of Hermann von
Wertheimstein Sohne, he severed his connection
with the house in 1859, and settled in Vienna as an
attorney.

In 1879 Jacques was delegated from the first dis-
trict of Vienna to the Reichsrath, where he joined
the constitutional party (" Verfassungspartei "), and
where he secured the passage of a law providing
that a certain amount of property, the minimum suf-
ficient for subsistence, should be exempt from taxa-
tion. He also endeavored, by repeated motions, to
arrange that the full right to pension — especially for
railway and postal employees — should commence
after thirty -five years' service.

Jacques was director of the following enterprises:
the Theissbahn, the Slid-Norddeutsche Verbind-
ungsbahn, the Sildbahn, the Creditanstalt, and the
Wiener Handelsakademie; in the interests of the
last-named institution he labored for twenty years,
first as its founder, and afterward as its vice-presi-
dent. In 1870 he superintended the collection for
the wounded in the Franco-Prussian war, and in 1873
was decorated with the Prussian Order of the Crown.

His best-known works are: "Theorie und Praxis
im Civilrecht," Vienna, 1857; "Denkschrift liber die
Stellung der Juden in Oesterreich," 4th ed., 1859;
"Unterrichtsrath und Uuterrichtswesen in Oester-
reich," 1863; "Revolution und Reaction in Oester-
reich 1848-49," 1867; "Die Wuchergesetzgebuug
und das Civil- und Strafrecht," 1867; "Die Legisla-
tive Organisation der Freien Advocatur," 1868;
"Grundlagen der Pressgesetzgebung," 1874; "Ab-
handlungen zur Reform der Gesetzgebung," Leip-
sic, 1874; "Alexis de Tocqueville," Vienna, 1876;
"Eisenbahnpolitik und Eisenbahnrecht in Oester-
reich," 1878; " Oesterreich 's Gegenwart und Nachste
Zukunft," 1888. Of a greater work, " Revision des
Deutschen und Oesterreichischen Strafrechtes,"
which he had planned, only the first volume was
completed.

s. L. Y.

JACaUES PASHA (Jacques Nissim Pasha):

Turkish army surgeon ; born in 1850 at Salonica ; died
there Aug. 25, 1903. The son of a physician, he was
sent at an early age to the school of medicine at
Constantinople, from which he was graduated in
1874. In the following year he was attached, with
the rank of captain, to the hospital Haidar Pasha at
Constantinople, and in the same year he accompanied,
as adjutant-major, a Turkish detachment to Bosnia
and Herzegovina. He later became director of the
Central Hospital of Salonica, which position he oc-
cupied until his death. He was also appointed
medical inspector of the Third Army Corps at Salo-
nica and inspector of public and private hygiene for
the vilayet of Salonica. He died from gangrene con-
tracted while dressin^the wound of a soldier who had
been disabled in a skirmish with the INIacedonians.
He was decorated with the orders of Nishan-i-Med-
jidie and Nishan-i-Osmanie, the medal of Iftikhar,
and a number of foreign decorations. He was pres-
ident of the Bikkur Holim of Salonica.

Bibliography : FA Ai^enir, Salonica, Auk. 26, 1903; Mnniteur
Oriental, Sept. 1, 1903; Jew. Chron. Sept. 4, 1903.

s. M. Fr.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jacoby
Jael

JADASSOHN, JOSEF: German physician;

burn at Liciinitz Sept. 10, 186:1 He was educated
at the universities of Giittingen, Breslau, Ileidel-
berp:, and Leipsic (M.D. Breshiu, 1886). From 1887
to 1893 lie Avas assistant pli^'sieian at tlie dermato-
logical liospital and dispensary of tlio University of
Breslau, and from 1892 to 1896 physieian-iu-chief of
the dermatological department of the Allerheiligen
Hospital. In 1896 he Mas appointed assistant pro-
fessor, and director of the dermatological clinic, at
the University of Bern; iu 1904, professor. He lias
contributed various essays on .syphilis and dermatol-
ogy to the medical joui-nals, and is the author of
"Veuerische Krankheiten," in Ebsteiu-Schwalbe's
"Ilandbuch der Praktischen Medizin."

BufLiOGRAPiiv: Pajrel, Bing. Lex. Vienna, 1901.

s. F. T. H.

JADASSOHN, SOLOMON: German com-
poser and music teacher ; born at Breslau, Prussia,
Aug. lo, 1831 ; pupil at the Breslau gymnasium and
of Hesse (pianoforte), Llistner (violin), and Brosig
(liarmon}'). In 1848 he entered the Leipsic Conserva-
torium, wiiicli, however, he left after a year in order
to study with Liszt at Weimar. Here he advanced
raiiidly, and eventually became a virtuoso of no
mean ability.

After a private course iu composition under
Hauptmann, Jadassohn in 1853 settled in Leipsic as
a teacher of music. In 1806 he became conductor
of the Psalterion Choral Society, and from 1867 to
1869 was director of the Euterpe concerts. Since 1871
he lias been professor of harmony, composition, and
instrumentation at the Couservatorium ; and his trea-
tises on these subjects are considered among the best.

Jadassohn's most noteworthy theoretical works
are: "Harmonielehre " (Leipsic, 1883, and four later
editions; English ed., New York, 1893; 2d revised
ed., 1894; also translated into French and Italian);
" Kontrapunkt " (1884) ; " Die Formen in den AYerkeu
der Tonkunst" (1889; 2d ed., 1894); "Lehrbuchder
Instrumentation " (1889). In addition to these works,
most of which have been translated into English, Ja-
dassohn has published more than 130 compositions.

Bibliography : Mendel, Muxih-Lexikon ; Baker, Biog. Diet,
of Muficianf. Famous Composers and Their Works, p.
595, Boston, 1900; Rieuiann, Mmik-Lexikon, s.v., 1900.

s. J. So.

JADDTJA: High priest at the time of the Sec-
ond Temjile. According to Neh. xii. 11, his father's
name was Jonathan, but according to verse 33 of
the same chapter, it was Johanan. If both of these
names are correct, and if Johanan was the son of
Jonathan, or vice versa, Jaddua belonged to the
si.xth generation after Jeshua, the first high priest
who returned from the E.xile; but if "Jonathan"
and "Johanan" refer to one person, then Jaddua
Avas of the fifth generation. A certain Jaddus, son
of Joannes, whose brother ]Manasseh married Sanbal-
lat's daughter, officiated at the time of Alexander the
Great (Josephus, "Ant." xi. 7, § 2); and between
this date and the return from the Exile there are six,
rather than five, generations. Indeed, even six seem
to be too few. The hypothesis that Johanan and
Jonathan were father and son is therefore the more
probable, since the Jaddua mentioned by Nehemiah
seems to be identical AVith the Jaddus mentioned by

Josephus; but it must be noted that the Septuagint
has once 'Judat and once 'lihlu, which do not corre-
spond well with 'IftfMotf, found in Jcsephus. The
liigli ])riest whom Alexander the Great greeted
respectfully before the gates of Jerusalem was Jad-
dus, according to Jose])hus(" Ant." xi. 8, ^ 4); while
in Talmudic accounts the same story is told of Simon
the Just. But as Jaddua's son was the same Onias
("Ant." xi. 8, ^ 7) wlio was, according to another
source (I Mace. xii. 7, 8, 20), acontemporaiy of King
Areusof Sparta (309-26515.0.), and as the often-men-
tioned Simon the Just was Onias' son ("Ant." xii. 2,
i^ 5), there is an insolvable discrejiancy between
Josephus and the Talmud. Josephus must be given
the preference here, as it is well known that the Tal-
mud was inclined to group all the legends of tliat
period around the person of Simon ; and the act of
Alexander the Great seems to be merely a legend.

The Christian chroniclers, as Eusebius, the " Chro-
nicon Paschale," and Syncellus, of course follow
Josephus; while the Jewish chroniclers of the Mid-
dle Ages tried to solve the diflerence in a naive
way which excited the ridicule of Azariah dei Rossi
("Me'or 'Enayim," t^ 37). The Jewish sources write
the name in the form ny or xny; e.ff., Simon Duran
in "Magen Abot," p. 4d (Leipsic, 1855). A more
detailed account of the person of Jaddua would
have to deal with the question how the lists of high
priests in Nehemiah and in Josephus are to be inter-
preted.

Bibliography: Herzfeld, Gcsch. dcs VoU;es Israel, ii. 368;
Griitz, Gesch. 2d ed., ii. 221; Schilrer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 183;
Skreinka, Beitrdge zur Eiitwickelungsgesch. der Jildi-
sclien Dngmen, pp. 140-153, Vienna, 1861; Krauss, in J.Q.
R. X. 361.

0. S. Kb.

JAEL, THE KENITE WOMAN: Wife of
Heber, the Kenite (Judges iv. 17). Jabin, the king
of Canaan, "that reigned in Hazor," liad tyrannized
over Israel for twenty years. Deborah and Barak
aroused the northern tribes and assembled them at
Mount Tabor, to throw ofE, if possible, the yoke of
their oppressor. Jabin "s general, Sisera, took the
field at the head of a great Canaanitish army, but
was defeated by Israel. In his flight Sisera, who
was on foot, came to the tent of Jael, whose hu.sband
had been on good terms with King Jabin. She in-
vited him into her tent: "Turn in, my lord, turn in
to me; fear not." He accepted the prolTei'ed refuge
and hospitality. She gave him nourishment in the
form of curds, and concealed him in her tent. He
asked her to protect him against any one who should
be seeking him. As soon as he had fallen asleep
she stealthily crept up to him and drove a tent pin
into his temples; and when she saw Barak in ])ursuit
she invited him in to see his enemy prostrate in death.

The poetic account (Judges v.), while it does not
give all the details of the prose record, by no means
conflicts; it is complementary. Jael's act, praised
in Judges v. 24, is contrary to modern ideas of right
and to the obligations of hospitality as recognized
in the East to-day. But she was a Kenite, akin to
Israel; and history contains many precedents to
justify a breach of faith under such circumstances.
Though barbarous to modern sentiment, her act was
not below the morality of her times.

E. G. II. I. M P.

Jaen
JafTe

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

JASN : Capital of the i^rovinc-e of Jaen in Anda
lusia, Spain. It possessed a tlourishiug Jewish com-
munity as early as the thirteenth century. In 1391
many of its members were either killed or forced to
accept baptism. A still heavier blow fell upon the
Jews of Cordova and the Maranosof Jaen in JVIarch,
1473. The Connetabe Miguele Lucas de Iranzo,
wlio tried t(j protect the Maranos, had to seek
refuge, and was speared to death in a church by the
infuriated populace, who then fell upon the Maranos
and Jews, plundering and killing them. The mas-
sacre at Jaen was even more terrible than that at
Cordova
Bibliography : Rios, Hi><t. ii. 362, iii. 159 et sea.

G. M. K.

JAFFA (Hel)r. Yafo ; A. V. Joppa ; Greek,
Joppe ; Arabic, Yaffa) : City of Palestine and Medi-
terranean port, i55 miles northwest of Jerusalem.
In ancient times it was Palestine's only point of
communication
with the Medi
terranean. The
cedars of Leba
non, destined for
use in the con-
struction of Sol-
omon's Temple,
were disem-
barked at Jaffa
(II Chion. ii. 15
[A. V. 16] ; Ezra
iii. 7). The
prophet Jonah
embarked there
for Tarshish (Jo-
nah i. 3). There
is no f II r t h e r
mention of the
city in the Old
Testament.

At a later date
the Maccabean

princes Jonathan and Simon wrested it from the
Syrians (I Mace. x. 76, xiv. 5). At the time of the
Jewish insurrection against the Ro-
Historical mans the town was taken by assault
Data. and burned by Cestius, 8,000 in-
habitants being massacred by the
Roman soldiers. Some time afterward the Jews re-
built the city walls. Pirates, putting out from the
port of Jaffa, troubled tiie coasts of Phenicia and
Syria, which brought down the Romans upon the
city anew. Vespasian took it by a night attack,
razed it to the ground, and erected in its place a
citadel in which he placed a Roman garrison.

There is no record of any Jews in Jaffa imder the
Byzantine domination, but there are mentioned in
Babli a Rab Adda and a R. Aha of Yafo (Ta'an. 16b ;
Meg. 16b). Under the Arabs there were no Jews in
JalTa.

During the period of the Crusades Benjamin of
Tudela (1170) sojourned at Jaffa, and found there
one Jew only, a dyer. At the end of the sixteenth
century Jaffa, according to the traveler Cotwyk,
was only a heap of ruins.

In 1780 the grand rabbinate of Constantinople

otlicially requested a Christian official, one Hanna
Domia, to protect Jews i)assing through Jaffa on
their way to Jerusalem. In 1820 I.saiah Agimann,
who acted as banker of the Janizaries at Constanti-
nople, shocked by the humiliation to which Jews
were exposed at Jaffa, purchased there a piece of
real estate which he legally transferred to the
Sephardic community of Jerusalem. One part of
this served as a free hotel for Jewish travelers, in
which was fitted up a prayer-room. Little by little
the Jews established them.selves in Jaffa.

A sailing vessel from the north of Africa, with a
large number of Jewi.sh passengers, foundered be-
fore Haifa; and those who escaped from the wreck
settled at Jaffa. In 1839 a body of A.shkenazim, com-
ing from Europe, established themselves at Jaffa.
The community was, however, too poor to buy a cem
etery, and continued to bury its dead at Jerusalem.

In 1841 the chief rabbi of Jerusalem, Abraham

Haj'yim Gagin,

Plan of the Modern City of Jaffa.

assigned to Jaffa
JudahHalevyas
rabbi. Thence-
forth the old
" herem " of the
Jerusalem rab-
bis against the
settlement of
Jews in Jaffa,
the object of
Miiicli was to at-
tract all immi-
grants to Jeru-
salem, ceased to
be binding.
Jews even from
Jerusalem went
to Jaffa and es-
tablished them-
selves there for
commercial pur-
poses. Among
these may be cited Amzaleg, the present English
consul in the city.

Jaffa, in a total population of 17,713 inhabitants,
including 11,630 Moslems and 3.113 Christians,
besides Armenians, Greeks, Latins, IManmites, and
Copts, possesses 2.970 Jews, of whom 1,210 are
Sephardim and 1,760 Ashkenazim. The Jews oc-
cupy three city districts, bearing the respective
names "Neweh Zedek," "Neweh Shalom," and
"Neweh Yafeh," and each comprising
Present a block of houses. The Jewish mar-
Statistics, ket, consisting of shops and work-
rooms, is partly on the quay and partly
on the main street traversing the city. Although
of recent foundation, the community possesses a
number of institutions, e.g. :

The Hospital Sha'ar Ziyyon, founded In 1891, and sustained
by the gifts of the Jewish philanthropists of Europe ; a public
library, founded in 18s."), and containing several thousands of
books in different languages ; two schools, founded in 1894, sus-
tained by the Alliance Israelite and by Zionist societies of Rus-
sia and Vienna, and educating 118 boys and 241 girls ; two Tal-
mud Torahs: one. Or Torah, Sephardic, founded (18.38) throujrh
the iiiiiniflcence of Baron Menasc^ of .Alexandria and educating
180 boys ; the other, Sha'are Torah, Ashkenazic, dating from 1884
and accommodating 130 boys ; three Ashkenazic synagoguesi

THE JEWISH KNCYCLOPEDIA

Jaen
JafFe

one Sepliardic ; and some private midrashim. Jaffa possesses also
five Jewish benevolent societies, auiou^ Ilieni a B'nai B'rith
lodge.

In 1898 Jaffa liad for chief rabbi Josepli ben

Nuss(d. 1901). He was succeeded by Kabbi Maika.

Bibliography: Ahnnnach Lunrz, 1898; litiUetin d' AU iance
Israelite, 1901 ; S. Munk, La Palcxtine.
D. M. Fh.

JAFFE ( JOFFE) : Family of rabbis, scholars,
and communal workers, with members in Germany,
Austria, Russia, Great Britain, Italy, and the United
States. It traces its descent from Mordecai Jaffe
(1530-1612), authorof the "Lebushim," and his uncle
Moses Jaffe, both descendants of an old family of
Prague. According to Joseph I.CAvinstein, rabbi at
Serock, government of Warsaw, the progenitor of
the Jaffes was Samuel ben Elhanan, a grandson of
Isaac haZaken (died at the end of the twelfth cen-
tury), whose father was Samuel, the son-in-law of
Kabbi Meir of Hamerupt, the father of Jacob Tam,
grandson of Rashi. Lewinstein's conclusions, how-
ever, have not yet been substantiated.

From Abraham, the father of Mordecai ("Lebu-
shim"), came the Jaffe branch proper, while another
^Mordecai, the son of Moses Jatfe, settled in Cracow,
where he married the daughter of Joel Singer and
assumed the name of his father-in-law, in accordance
with the custom current among the Jews of Poland.
His descendants, often called Kalmankes, were
sometimes confounded with the descendants of the
author of the "Lebushim," and it is difficult to as-
certain to which of the two houses some of the later
Jaffes belong. Again, many Jaffes liave taken the
names of Itzig, Meier, Margolies, Schlesinger, Rosen
thai, Wallerstein, etc., while many distant relatives,
really of other houses, have preferred to take the pop-
ular name of Jaffe. In the tables given below these
questions have been elucidated in so far as documen-
tary or authoritative private evidence has permitted.
Isaac and Eliczer, two other brothers of Abraham
ben Jo.seph (father of the author of the "Lebu-
shim"), settled in Italj', and there became the pro-
genitors of the Italian branch of the Jaffes. Tliree
daughters of Mordecai Jaffe ("Lebushim ") married

Moses Jaffe of Bologna
(15th cent.)

Abraham of Bohemia
(prefect of Jews of Poland ; 1512)

Eliezer Jaffe

Joseph of Prague

Moses Jaffe (d. 1520)

Abraham of Prague
(d. 1564)

Mordecai Jaffe

(author of " Lebushim " ;

see Pedigree II.)

Isaac Jaffe

Ashkenazi

(settled in

Italy)

Eliezer of
Mantua

Mordecai Jaffe
(d. c. 1565)

Kalonymus

of Lublin

(d. 1603)

Daughter =

Samuel Sirkes

of Lublin

I
Joel Sirkes (Bach)

Samuel Jaffe
(d. 1580)

Isaac Jaffe Joseph

I Jaffe

Menahem (d. 1631)
Jaffe (1657)

Moses Jaffe
(d. Jeru-
salem)

Joseph

I
Aryeh Lob

Hayyim Abraham
of Lublin of

Lublin

Abraham Kalmankes

Hirsch of Lublin

Jacob Kalmankes

Joseph of
Prague
(d. 16:37)

Kalman

Sarah =

Solomon
Zalman

Elijah
(1694)

Zalman

Kalonymus

Judah

Benjamin

Wolf of

Lemberg

(d. 1709)

Joseph of
Lublin

Joseph
Joske of
Dubno

Jacob Joseph of Kalonymus of Lublin Solomon ^rveh Lob

of Lublin I

Turbin Sender Lob Kalmankes

Aaron of Uman
(16.51)

Zalman

AsherJacob
Abraham
(d. 1681)

Israel Saba of Shklov
(1703)

I
Aaron

I
Israel Suta

Jedidiah

Israel of Suwalki

(d. New York, 1888)

Elijah of
Lemberg

Abraham of

Cracow

(d. 1652)

Zebi Hirsch

Kalmankes of

Cracow

Judah Lob

Kalmankes of

Cracow

H. R.

Jaffe Pedigree I.

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g=^a

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jaffe

Mordecai Jafle
(l.>;i 1-161^)

MeTr JalTe
(IHthcent.)

Ellas Meyer Jaffe of

Lissa (rt. 1810)

Meyer Elias .laffe
(Edward Meyer)

Fninz Tlieodor

Robert Meyei'

of Berlin

l^Iarcus Elias Jaffe
(d. 184:i)

Lewin Edward Jaffe
(d. 1848)

Elias Marcus Jaffe
of I'osen
(d. I8t>;)

Philipp Jatf<'
of Berlin
(d. 1870)

I.udwipr Jaffe
(17913-1870)

Solomon Jiiffe
(18()l-(«)

Beer Jaffe

Henriette =

Moritz Maniroth

of Posen

(iiistav
Jaffe

Albert
Jafle

Bernhard Jaffe
of Posen
(1834-85)

Joseph Jaffe

Mathilda -
Louis Jaffe

Moritz Jaffe
J.

Joseph Jaffe

Max E. Jaff^
of Berlin

Richard Jaffe

(ieorjre S. Jaffe

Mathilde
Eufrene Fucbs

Call E. Jaffe
of Munich

11. H.

Jakfe Pedigree 111.

the sous of three of the most prominent Jewish fami-
lies of tiiat time (see Table II.), and in this way the
Jaffe family became related to the Walils, Epsteins,
and Glmzburgs. The daughter of Moses Jaffe was
the wife of Samuel Sirkes. Later the Jaffes united
with the families of Katzenellenbogen, Schorr, Heil-
prin, Bat-haracli, Deidies, Rosenthal, Miuz, etc. The
following is a partial euumeraliou of the members
of both branches of the family, the descendants of
Closes Jaffe being indicated by K (= Kalmankes) :

Aaron Jaffe (K): Son of Israel (Saba) of Shklov
and father of Israel Jaffe Zuta; lived in the middle
of the .seventeenth century.

Aaron Jaffe (K) of Uman : Father of Israel
Jaffe (Saba) of Shklov; boru 1568 at Prague; died
at Glusk 1651. He was rabbi at Uman, and escaped
during the Cossack uprising (1648) to Glusk.

Abraham Abba ben Israel Jaffe : Rabbi at
Ponewiezh; author of "Sefatayim" ontlie Talmud,
and "Bet Yisrael," responsa (in manuscript at
Jerusalem). His mother was the daughter of David
Solomon, rabbi at Lissa, and his sons were Shabbethai
Weksner, Jedidiah of Bausk, and Isaac (went to
Jerusalem). The son of Shabbethai was Joseph of
"VVeksna.

Abraham Aberl b. Perez : Grandson of Mor-
decai Jaffe (" Lebushim ") ; died at Nikolsburg, Mo-
ravia, 1657. Misled by Warnheim (" Kebuzat Haka-
mim,"p. 117), N. Briill declared Abraham Aberl to
have been the son of Mordecai and the successor of
R. Pcthahiah as chief rabbi of Moravia. Fried-
lander and others followed him in that error.
Aberl's tombstone, however, was badly decayed,
and the words |»"iD "i (= "R. Perez") were ascer-
tained with great difficulty (Feuchtwang, in"Ge-
denkbuch zur Eriunerung an David Kaufmann,"
Breslau, 1900).

Abraham b. Aryeh Lob Kalmankes : Author
of "Ma'yan ha-Hokmah," an introduction to the
Cabala (Amsterdam,, 1652). Fuenn (" Keneset Yis-

rael," p. 59) confounded him with Asher Jacob
Abraham (see Joseph Kohcn-Zedek in "lla-Asam ").

Abraham of Bohemia (see Jew. Encyc. .i. 100) :
According to Joseph Lewinstein, the great-grand-
father of Abraham b. Joseph.

Abraham b. Elijah Kalmankes: Dayyan at
Cracow ; .son of Elijah b. Al)raiiam Kalmankes, labbi
at Lemberg. He was the son-in-law of Zalman
b. Jacob Walsh, and his signature appears in tlie
"pinkes" of Lemberg of 1650 in two cases (Deni-
bitzer, "Keliiat Yofi," p. 39b, note 2). He died
1652.

Abraham b. Joseph : Father of jMordecai Jaffe
("Lebushim "); a merchant and a rabbinical scholar;
pupil of Abraham benAbigdor; died 1564 ("Le-
bush ha-Or." p. 294).

Abraham b. Kalonymus of Lublin (K); Au
thor of " Adderet Eliyahu " (commentaries and notes
on the Pentateuch; Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1694).
He was a second cousin of Asher Jacob Abraham
b. Aryeh Lob (the author of " Ha-Eshel "). He liad
a sou named Kalonymus.

Abraham b. Kalonymus b. Mordecai (K):
Brother of the first Hebrew printers in Lublin. He
had two sons, Hirsch and Jacob.

Anselm Benjamin Jaffe : Died at Berlin 1812.
His wife was Reickc, daughter of Aaron b. Isaac Saul
of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, who published (1746),
in conjunction with his brother-in-law Judah Be'er,
the great-grandfather of Giacomo Meyerbeer, a Pen
tateuch with commentaries. Anselm's son was Saul
Ascher of Berlin.

Aryeh Lob b. Joseph b. Abraham Kal-
mankes : Father of Asher Jacob Abraham.

Aryeh Lob b. Mordecai : Son of the author of
the " Lebushim " ; mentioned in preface to " Yam
shel Shelomoh, Gittin " (Berlin, 1761).

Asher Jacob Abraham b. Aryeh Lob Kal-
mankes : Author of "Ha-Eshel," sermons (Lublin.
1674),' and "Birkat Abraham," on Talmudic law.

Jaffe

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Until the age of teu he studied Talmud with his
grandfather Joseph. During the Cossack uprising
(1648) he fled to Egypt, and from there went to Je-
rusalem. In 1671 he returned to Lublin, where he
became rabbi. He died at Lemberg 1681.

Benjamin Wolfb. Judah. Kalmankes : Died
at Lemberg 1709. He left in manuscript (preserved
at Oxford) a work entitled "Hanhagat ha-Bayit,"
on religious ethics, with a commentary; it is pub-
lished in " Mazzebet Kodesh " (see " Mazzebet Ko-
desh," i. 62; Euenn, " Keneset Yisrael," p. 173).

Daniel Jaffe. See Itzig, D.\nif:l.

David Friedlander : Soniu-law of Daniel Itzig-
Jaffe.

David Jaffe : Father of Aryeh Lob Wallerstein
of Holschitz.

David b. Zebi Hirsch Saba : Rabbi at the
Klaus-S3'nagoge, Prague.

Dobrush : Daughter of Phinehas Jaflfe of Kal-
variya; wife of Tobiah of Kalvariya, a pupil of
Elijah of Wilna; lived in the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries.

Eleazar Jaffe : His signature is found in the
pinkes of Berlin of 1743 (Landshuth, " ' Ammude ha-
'Abodah." p. 37).

Eliasberg-, Mordecai b. Joseph (1817-89), and
his son Jonathan (1850-98). See Jew. Encyc. v.
111.

Eliezer Jaffe : Son of Abraham of Bohemia ;
lived in the si.xteenth century.

Eliezer (Lazar) Jaffe : Physician; lived in the
nnddle of the nineteenth century ("Ha-Maggid,"
1861, No. 39, p. 255).

Eliezer b. Alexander Kleinberg (Bausker) :
Rabbi at Wilna; went to America and became rabbi
at Chicago, 111.; died in New York city 1891.

Eliezer (Lazar) b. Jacob Riesser-Katzenel-
lenbogen : Father of Gabriel Kiesser; son-in-law
of Raphael ha-Kohen, rabbi of Hamburg. He was
the author of "Zeker Zaddik," with a supplement,
"Ma'alele Ish," containing sermons and a biogra-
phy of Raphael ha-Kohen (Altona, 1805). He also
wrote, in German, "Sendschreibenan Meine Genos-
sen in Hamburg, oder eiue Abhandlung ilber den
Israelitischen Kultus" (Altona, 1815). ilis "Ma'a-
lele Ish" (p. lib) traces the descent of his father-in-
law from Mordecai Jaffe.

Eliezer of Mantua : Son of Joseph of Prague
and uncle of Mordecai Jaffe (" Lebushim ").

Eliezer (Lazar) b. Shalom Rosenthal : Born
at Brody 1768 ; died at Bausk, Courland, 1840 (.see
Rosenthal, Ei,tezei{).

Elijah b. Abraham Kalmankes : Rabbi at
Lublin, and later at Lemberg and Opatow ; died at
the latter place in 1636 ('' Kelilat Yoti." pp. 26, 38b).

Elijah b. Kalonymus : Author of "Adderet
Eliyahu " (see Jew. Encyc. v. 131). According to
Joseph Cohen-Zedek (Rabinowitz, " Ha-Meassef."
p. 134, St. Petersburg, 1902), he was the brother-in-
law of Solomon Zalman Kalmankes. He had a son
named Kalonymus.

Elijah b. Shalom : Rabbi at Neustadt-Shervint
(VVla(lislawow); born between 1750 and 1775; died
about the middle of the nineteenth century ; a brother
of Eliezer (Lazar) Rosenthal (see Rosenthal, Eli-
jah).

Enoch Zundel : Rabbi at Glinka ; son of Mor-
decai b. Jo.seph of Pluugian ; lived in the eighteenth
centurj'.

Enoch Zundel : Kabbi of Pultusk ; son of
Jacob of Lidvinovi; died on the 11th of Adar
(Sheni), 1891.

Enoch Zundel Jaffe (called also Zundel Hal-
fon) : Grammarian and authority on theMasorah;
son of IVIoses b. Mordecai b. Joseph Jaffe ; lived in
the eighteenth century.

Ephraim b. Aaron of Prague (K): Brother of
Israel of Shklov (author of "Or Yisrael"); born
about 1638, his father then being at the age of
seventy (Walden, " Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash,"
p. 26).

Epstein, Aryeh Lob (K): Relative of Israel b.
Aaron Jaffe (Saba) of Shklov (17th cent. ; see Fuenn,
"Keneset Yisrael," p. 694; Eliezer Kolm, "Kin'at
Soferim," p. 61b).

Epstein, Jehiel Michael ha-Levi : Phj-^sician ;
died in 1632; son of Abraham Epstein, rabbi of
Brest-Litovsk (d. 1617). He married Bella, the
daughter of Mordecai Jaffe. His son-in-law was
Abraham b. Joseph Heilpriu, rabbi at Kauth, a de-
scendant of Elhanan b. Isaac, the tosatist. Rabbi
Joseph Lewinstein of Serock is a descendant of this
family.

Frank Jaffe: Lived in London; translated A.
Mapas' "Ahabat Ziyyon" into English under the
title " Amnon, Prince and Peasant" (London, 1887).
His father was Abraham Jaffe, of London ; his
grandfather, Mordecai Jaffe, of Memel, Prussia.
Moses Jaffe, a lawyer of New York city, is a
nephew of Abraham.

Frommet : WifeofHayyim Jaffe; died at Prague
in 1635, at the age of seventy-three (Hock, "Die
FamilienPrag's," p. 172).

Ginzberg, Louis (see Jew. Encyc. v. 671):
Related to the Jaffes on his mother's side.

Hayyim b. Kalonymus b. Mordecai (K):
Printer at Lublin.

Hirsch b. Abraham (b. Kalonymus b. Mor-
decai: K) : Bought the printing establishment of
his grandfather Kalonymus (1606).

Hirsch b. Benzion Shlez : Grandson of Shab-
bethai JalTe of Weksna; author of "Te'ome Zebiy-
yah," on the Halakah, and of " SihatHullin," sayings
of rabbinical scholars (2d ed., Warsaw, 1889).

Isaac b. Joseph Jaffe-Ashkenazi : Studied in
Padua under Judah b. Eliezer Minz, and settled in
Italy, where he married into a Sephardic family.
His sons were' Samuel and Moses.

Isaac Kalmankes of Lublin : Teacher of Moses
lia-Kohen of Metz (formerly of Narol); author of
"Birkat Tob"; lived in the seventeenth century.
His son was Me'ir, and his grandson Mordecai (au
thor of "Tabnit ha-Bayit ")r

Isaac b. Simon of Warka.

Israel (K): Rabbi at Kopys, government of Moghi-
lef ; had a Hebrew printing establishment at Kopys,
and published an edition of the Talmud (1816-28).

H. R.

Israel ben Aaron Jaffe (Saba) : Russian rabbi ;
born at Uman about 1640; died at Frankfort-on-
the-Oder after 1702. From ehiklhood he was brought
up in the atmosphere of the Talmud. On attaining

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jaffe

maturity lie became rabbi at Shklov, where he re-
mained till 1703. He then went to Frankfort-on-
the-Oder to ]nil)lisli his "Or Yisrael" (1703), which
aroused considerable animosity because it was al-
leged to countenance the followers of Shabbethai
Zcbi.

JalTc, who in his youth had witnessed the sulYer-
ings of his coreligionists at the hands of Chmiei.-
MCKi and liis associates (1G48), devoted himself as-
siduously to the study of the Cabala in order to find
out the reason for the prolongation of the Exile
("Galut "), and why God had permitted the outrages
of 10-18. He rebuked the Habbis, who declared that
their work was the real work of God. Especially
did he rebuke them for their lack of interest in the
study of the Cabala; and it was on this account that
he composed the "Or Yisrael." Besides this work
he wrote "Tif'eret Yisrael." called also "'Milhamot
Adonai," appended to which are "Kishshut Tob "
and "Sefer Yisrael Zuta," liomiletical expositions of
the Law. It was published by his grandson Israel
Jaffe (Zuta), Frankfort on-the-Oder, 1774.
Bibliography : Fuenn, Keneset YUsrael, p. 694, Warsaw, 1886.

n. u. B. Fu.

Israel b. Aaron Jafife (Zu^a: K): Grandson of
Israel b. Aaron Jaffe (Saba); lived in the eighteenth
century. At the age of twenty-tive he published
an extract of his grandfather's "Tif'eret Yisrael"
("Ha-Shahar," vi. 929).

Israel David b. Mordecai Marg-olies-Schle-
sing-er- Jaffe (called also David Sered) : Kabbi at
Bosing, Hungary ; descendant of Mordecai Jaffe,
and, on his mother's side, of Liva b. Bezaleel of
Prague; author of " Meholat ha-Mahanayim," re-
sponsa (Presburg, 1859); " Har Tabor," responsa,
with a supplement in German directed against Dr.
W. A. Meisel, chief rabbi of Budapest (Presburg,
1861); and "Hazon la-Mo'ed," on the calendar.

Israel b. Jedidiah (K): Cantor at Suwalki and
in New York city; author of "Ishshe Yisrael," com-
mentary to Moses Isserles' " Torat ha-'Olah " (Konigs-
berg, 1854-57) ; died in New York city 1888 ; descend-
antof Israel b. Aaron of Shklov <as is evident from the
preface to "Torat ha-'Olah") and not of Jedidiah b.
Abba of Bausk (as given by N. Sokolov in " Sefer
Zikkaron ").

Israel Landau : Lived at Sadagora ; descendant
of Mordecai Jaffe ("Lebushim ").

Israel b. Zalkind b. Isaac Jaflfe : Lived at
Zhagory ; father-in-law of Dob Bar Rabbiner, the
father of Benash Zalkind Rabbiner of New York;
Israel's brother Simon was the grandfather of Hay-
yim Sack of Zhagory.

Israel b. Zebi Hirsch. Jaffe (called also Israel
"Weksler) : Prominent merchant at Bausk. Cour-
land; born in 1800; died in 1870; .son-in-law of Elie-
zer (Lazar) Rosenthal. His son Solomon "Wolf re-
moved to New York city.

Jacob : Son of Israel Jaffe of Shklov ; rabbi at
St. Petersburg, where he died April 23, 1820 (" Vosk
hod." Feb., 1881, p. 41).

Jacob : Rabbi at Ludvinovi ; author of " Gufe
Halakot " (1822) ; son of Phinehas of Kalvariya and of
Naomi, daugliter of Samuel of Karlin and Antipoli.

Jacob b. Abraham b. Kalonymus b. Mor-
decai (called also Jacob Kalmankes) : Lived in

the seventeenth century. In 1662 he reestablished
the Hebrew printing-press at Lublin, which had
been closed in 1648 on account of the Cf)ssack upri-
sing, and employed his two sons, Joseph and
Kalonymus (Kalman), as assistants.

Jacob of Krink : Son of Enoch Zundel Halfon;
died at Krink 1780; left various works in manu-
script (see "Da'at Kedoshim," p. 86).

Jedidiah b. Abraham Abe Jaffe: Educator;
lived at Bausk; died about 1862; brother of Shab-
bethai Jaffe (AVeksner) ; grandfather of S. Schaffer
of Baltimore, Md. (through his daughter Taube).

Joel ben Samuel Jaffe. See Sirkes, Jacob.

Joseph: Grandfather of Mordecai Jaffe (" Lebu-
shim"); lived in the lirtcenth centiuy.

Joseph b. Abraham Kalmankes (K): Rabbin-
ical scholar; rabbi at various i)laces in Poland and
Bohemia: died at Prague 16;37V'Gal Ed," No. 82).

Joseph b. Kalonymus b. Mordecai (K):
Printer at Lublin in the seventeenth century.

Joseph b. Mordecai b. Joseph of Plungian :
President of the Lithuanian council ; his signature
is attached to documents emanating from the coun-
cil of Krozhe (1779). H. R.

Joseph b. Moses Jaflfe : Russian rabbi; born in
Vilkomir, government of Wilna, 1846; died in Man-
chester. England, June 30, 1897. In 1874 he became
rabbi of Pokroi, government of Wilna, where he re-
mained nine j'ears. In 1883 he became rabbi of
Salaty, government of Kovno, and in 1886 he suc-
ceeded his father as rabbi of Garsdi, in the same
government. In 1893 he went to England as rabbi
of the Russian-Polish congregation at Manchester,
and retained the position until his death. He was
the author of "Yosef Bi'ur" (Wilna, 1881), on
Canticles, and of an etliical work in verse, entitled
"Ha-Sekel we ha-Yezer." He Avrote also responsa
and sermons, which are still in manuscript.

Bibliography : Eisenstadt, Dor Rabbanaiv we-Soferaw, i. 32,
Wilna ; Ahiasaf, 5659, rp. :342-343.
H. R. P. Wl.

Joseph Silver strom : Son of Jacob of Krink ;
son-iulaw of Arush Miutz of Meseritz (Mezhi-
rechye).

Judah Lob b, Asher Selig Margolioth :
Rabbi at Suchostav, Kapitschintze, Buzhanov,
Lesla, Plotzk, and Frankfort-on-the-Oder (where he
died 1811). He was a descendant of Mordecai Jaffe
and of Moses Mat, author of " Matteh JMosheh " (see
"Korban Reshit," Frankfort-ou-the-Oder. 1778).
His sons were Asher Selig Margolioth (rabbi
at Pruzhany) and Ephraim (Joseph Cohen Zedek,
"Shem u-She'erit," p. 72).

Judah Lob Jaflfe of Halberstadt : jVIember of
the Jewish community at Berlin about the middle
of the eighteenth century (see Landshuth, " 'Ain-
mude ha-'Abodah," pp. 28. 37. 40).

Judah Lob Kalmankes : District rabbi of Eid
litz in the seventeenth century ; son of Zebi Hirsch
Kalmankes, dayyan of Cracow.

Judah Lob b. Shabbethai Jaflfe : Rabbi at Cher-
nigov; his signature is attached to takkanotof 1818.

Kalman b. Joseph b, Kalonymus : Died at
Jerusalem in 1598 (13th of Shebat). His brothers
were Jehiel and Moses, the father of Kalonymus.

H. R.

Jafife

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kalonymus ben Mordecai Jaffe : Polish print-
er; (lied at Lubliu 1603. About 1556 he founded
a Hebrew printing-press at Lublin, and published
as his first work the Pentateuch, which was fol-
lowed in 1559 by an edition of the Talmud. In 1592
Kalonymus ben Mordecai left Lublin, on account of
an outbreak of cholera, and settled in Bistrowitz,
where, in that year, he published Isaac Abravanel's
"Zebah Pesah." He later returned to Lublin, and
continued in business there until his death.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. J?od?. col. 2918; B. Fried-
berg, Getich. der HebrUischen Tupographie, in Lnlilin, p. 3.
J. B. Fk.

Kalonymus b. Moses Jaffe : Died at Prague in
1656.

Kim Kaddish. : Dayyan of Krotoschin ; au-
thor of "Sefer Ma'amar Kaddishin 'al Hoshen Mish-
pat " (Prague, 1766) ; sou of Kim Kaddisli Jaffe of Pila
and father-in-law of Nahman b. Alexander of Pila.

Kresel : Wife of Ozer Jaffe; died at Prague
1618 (Hock, "Die Famihen Prag's," p. 172).

Lewinstein, Joseph : Rabbi at Serock, govern-
ment of Warsaw, Poland; descendant of IMordecai
Jaffe (" Lebushim ''). See Lewinstein, Joseph.

Maskileison, Naphtali. See Maskileison.

H. R.

Max Jaffe: German pharmacologist; born at
Grunberg, Silesia, July 25, 1841. He studied medi-
cine at the University of Berlin (M.D. 1862), and
was from 1865 to 1872 assistant at the university
hospital at Konigsberg, where he became privat-
docent (1867) and assistant professor (1872) of med-
ical chemistry ; in 1873 he was elected professor of
pharmacology by the university. In 1880 he was
appointed member of the German sanitary commis-
sion ("'Gesundheitsamt") and received the title of
" Geheime ]\Iedizinalrat. " Among his writings may
be mentioned: "'Ueber den Niederschlag Welchen
Pikrinsaure im Normalen Harn Erzeugt," 1886;
" Vorkommcn des Urethan im Alkoholischen Extrakt
des Normalen Harns," 1890; "Zur Kenntniss der
Durch Phenylhydrazin Fallbaren Harnbestand-
theile," 1897; "Ueber das Verhaltniss des Furfurols
im Thierischen Orgar.ismus," 1900.
Bibliography: Hirsch, Biographisches Lexiknn.

s. F. T. H.

Mordecai Hirsch : Rabbi at Kalvariya ; son of
Jacob of Lidvinovi.

Mordecai Jaffe : Codifier of rabbinical law ;
born in Prague about 1530; died at Posen March 7,
1612. His father, Abraham b. Joseph, was a pupil
of Abraham ben Abigdor. Moses Isserles and
Solomon Luria were Mordecai Jaffe 's teachers in
rabbinics, while Mattithiah b. Solomon Delacrut
was his teacher in Cabala. Jaffe studied also philos-
ophy, astronomy, and mathematics. He was head
of a yeshibah in Prague until 1561, when, by order
of the emperor Ferdinand, the Jews were expelled
from Bohemia. Jaffe then went to Venice and
studied astionomy (1561-71). In 1572 he was elected
rabbi of Grodno; in 1588, rabbi of Lublin, where he
became one of the leaders of the Council op Four
Lands. Later Jaffe accepted the rabbinate of Kre-
menetz. In 1592 he was called as rabbi to Prague ;
from 1599 until his death he occupied the position
of chief rabbi of Posen,

The "Lebush" is the achievement with which
Jaffe's name is principally associated, and he is best
known as the "ba'al ha-Lebushim"
The (" the author of the ' Lebushim ' "). It

"Lebush." is a rabbinical code, arranged in the or-
der adopted in the Turim and the Shul-
han 'Aruk, and divided into five parts. The titles of
the work and its various parts were derived by IMor-
decai, with allusion to his own name, from Esther viii.
15. The reason advanced by Jaffe for the compila-
tion of the work was his desire to give a digest of the
latest decisions and minhagim, mainly those of Ger-
man and Polish authorities and including those of his
teachers, in order to shorten the course in his yeshi-
bah (introduction). The appearance of Joseph Caro's
" Bet Yosef " appended to the Turim was hailed with
joy as a great event in rabbinical circles. Even Jaffe
thought, at the time, that this work was final. The
"Bet Yosef," however, was too scientific and volu-
minous for the general use of an ordinary rabbi. Jaffe
was on the point of publishing his work, when Caro
anticipated him with the Shulhan 'Aruk, to which
Isserles later added annotations and the minhagim
prevailing in Germany, Poland, and Russia. The
two extremes presented by the copiousness of the
" Bet Yosef" and the brevity of the Shulhan 'Aruk
left many dissatisfied, and Jaffe accordingly contin-
ued his work on his own lines, avoiding both the
exuberant, argumentative style and the too terse
and legal manner of Caro. Another advantage pos-
sessed by the "Lebush" was that it included parts
of the Turim omitted by Caro, and the latest min-
hagim collected by Isaac Tyrnau. The "Lebush,"
while its author was alive, enjoyed great popularity ;
but after his death Caro's code gradually superseded
it, not only in the Orient but also in Europe, for
the reason that the rabbis were obliged to consult
the "Bet Yosef" for the sources, Avhile the layman
was content with the shorter Shulhan 'Aruk.

Nevertheless, for scholars who study the spirit of
the Law, the " Lebushim " are a valuable contribu-
tion to halakic literature. As Jaffe
His rightly observes, the Shulhan 'Aruk is

Method, "a table well prepared with all kinds

of refreshments, but it lacks the salt

of reasoning." Jaffe seasoned his work with the

"salt of reasoning" by giving logical explanations

at the beginning of almost every section.

In treating ritual-legal matters from a cabalistic
standpoint, Jaffe is an exception among the codi-
fiers. Even Caro, in Safed, the seat of Cabala,
refrained from infusing Cabala into his code.
Jaffe's method was to a certain extent an innova-
tion, and tended to draw together the Talmudists
and cabalists, otherwise in danger of an open
breach.

In his "Lebush Tekelet," § 36, Jaffe treats the
form of the script alphabet cabalistically. In addi-
tion to the " holy and true science " of Cabala, Jaffe
was well versed in the secular sciences of his time.
In § 94, by means of a map, he indicated the site of
Jerusalem, and directed the worshipers of his own
country to face the Temple, to the east, " a degree
southward." In §§ 427-428 (written in 1579) he
gives a minute, scientific explanation of the calen-
dar, with tables and illustrations. That he was

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jaffe

familiar with tlie Russian ianguas^c is evidout from
his "Lcbusli Buz we-Argaman," i^ 129.

His "Lebush Hur," corresponding to Orah Hay-
yini, part ii., begins witli § 242, on "Sabbatli rules."

mighty, in the deliverance from Egypt, and in the
revelation of the Torah on Sinai. Therefore it is to
be presumed tliat in one who strictly observes the
Sabbatli tlie worship of idols is merely a formality,

2^0

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DDK pi nmoV nbio pii jwicj iibk

Page fhom the First Edition of Mordecai Jaffe's " LEBcsHiii," Li-blin,

(From the Suhbergi/r collection in the Jewish Theologic.ll Semmsry of America, New York.)

1390.

Jaffe quotes the Talmud freely and explains, " Who-
ever strictly observes the Sabbath, his worship of
idols is forgiven," as follows: Sabbath is based on
the belief in the creation of the world by the Al-

an involuntary act due entirely to the pressure of
circumstances. Perhaps Jaffe intended this for the
Maranos.

In his "Lebush 'Ateret," corresponding to Yoreh

Jaffe

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

De'uh, Jaffe follows the restrictions of his teacher
Isserles, as opposed to Caro, his reason for doing so
being " the lack of knowledge of physical science in
our time." In a case in which the upper jaw of
an animal has been removed (by accident or design),
Caro is inclined to pronounce it kasher, but is re-
luctant to do so because Maimonides decided other-
wise (ji 33). Jaile, however, says that authoritative
physicians concur in the rabbinical opinion that the
absence of the upper jaw is certain to result in the
death of the animal from tuberculosis, and that there-
fore it can not be slaughtered as kasher meat (ib.).

Regarding wine of Gentiles, Jaffe, like Isserles, is
somewhat lax. Caro prohibits " honey wine " (mead)
made by a IVIohammedau ; Jaffe permits it (§§ 123-
126). The principal reason for the existing prohibi-
tion is that wine is intoxicating and promotes com-
panionship, causing an intimacy that is

Liberal apt to lead to intermarriage between
Interpreta- Jews and Gentiles. But at the pres-
tion. ent time, when business with the Gen-
tile is generally opened with an intro-
ductory libation, it would be impossible to expand
or enforce the rule. Besides, Jews are now socially
too much separated from the Gentile to fear assimi-
lation. Hence there is no necessity to expand the
prohibition to include any other intoxicating bev-
erage than wine, which was the original Gezerah ;
and this can not be permitted in the absence of an
authoritative synod (ib.).

In regard to loans and interest, Jaffe considered a
Karaite as an Israelite, and significantly said that
" the Karaites are in a measure under duress, being
wrongly brought up from infancy to discard the rab-
binical traditions " (§ 159). He was very strict against
usur3% and would not allow any pretext or evasion,
as the evil is contagious ; " permit an opening of the
size of a pinhole, and it will enlarge from day today
until it becomes as wide as the entrance of the Tem-
ple corridor " (§ 160). In the next paragraph he at-
tacks an alleged ruling by Rashi to the effect that the
prohibition against interest can be avoided by an in-
termediary between debtor and creditor. Caro, in
"Bet Yosef," does not hesitate to say that an un-
scrupulous scribe inserted the ruling, and " hung him-
self on a tall tree" (that is, a recognized authorit}-) b}-
attributing it to Rashi. Jaffe is of the same opinion,
and criticizes his teacher, Isserles, for adding this
ruling to the Shulhan 'Aruk; he can not compre-
hend how his "holy mouth" could have uttered
such a thing, as there is not the slightest excuse or
basis for the subterfuge, which makes the prohibi-
tion of usury a mockery and a laughing-stock in
the eyes of the common people. He goes on to
threaten: "If I ever get into power I will order the
obliteration of that paragraph from the books" (ib.).

The "Lebush Buz we-Aigaman," corresponding
to Eben ha-'Ezer, contains rules, regulations, and
forms for the writ of divorce. In connection with
this appears an interesting alphabetical list of names,
male and female, with their spellings, appended to
§ 129.

The "Lebush 'Ir Shushan," corresponding to
Hoshen Mishpat, is devoted to civil laws. Speak-
ing, in the first section, of judges and judgment, he
says: "Judgment is one of the fundamental princi-

ples of creation ; as the Mishnah says, ' The triple
basis of the world is ti uth, judgment, and peace ' "
(Abot i. 18). The maxim "The law of the govern-
ment is law " is fully treated in § 369, and defined
democratically by the statement that "only that
government is legitimate in which the king's seal of
authority is voluntarily acknowledged by his sub-
jects; otherwise he is not their king, but a robber
gathering imposts by force, whose edicts have no
legal value."

Jaffe's other w'orks are: "Lebush Orah," a com-
mentary on Rashi to the Pentateuch (Prague, 1603);
"Lebush Simhah," sermons (in manuscript); and
"Lebush Or Yekarot, " consisting of three independ-
ent treatises: (1) "Lebush Yekarah," on Recanati;
(2) "Lebush Eder ha-Yekar," on the Jewish calen-
dar, following Maimonides ; (3) " Lebush Pinnat
Yekarot," on Maimonides' "Moreli" (Lublin, 1594).
He also annotated the Talmud, and his notes were
first published at Vienna in 1830.

Jaffe's opinion was sought on many questions of
law, and his responsa were highly valued.

Lublin was oue of the great fair-towns and com-
mercial centers of Poland, and thousands of Jews
from neighboring countries attended its fairs. Dis-
putes growing out of their transactions there re-
quired adjudication by an authority
Authority of more than local standing, and ]\Ior-
at Lublin decai Jaffe, who had already cstab-
Fair. lished a reputation in Lithuania as

rabbi of Grodno, was chosen as judge.
The reputation he had won did much also to in-
crease and extend his influence in the Council ok
Four Lands; and even after his return to Prague
he was recognized as its principal leader (D. Gans,
"Zemah Dawid," p. 46a, Frankfort-on-tlie-Main,
1692; see also Harkavy in Hebr. transl. by Rabino-
witz of Gratz, "Gesch." vol. vii. [" Hadashim we-
gam Yeshanim," p. 18]).

His last responsum, referring to a conditional di-
vorce, is printed in the collection of R. Mei'r of
Lublin (No. 125). Jaffe dictated this opinion from
his death -bed two days before he died. In it he said:
"I am now lying on my bed, subject to the judg-
ment of the King of Kings, hoping that He will
heal and cure me of my illness." His signature was
so faint that he directed his secretaries to authenti-
cate it (ib.).

Jaffe had five children, two sons and three daugh-
ters: Perez Jaffe (d. 1647; see D. Kaufmann in Nis-
senbaum's "Le-Korotha-Yehudim be-Lublin," War-
saw, 1899); Aryeh Lob; Walka, the wife of R.
Samuel Wahl ; Bella, the wife of Jehiel Michael ha-
Levi-Epstein, son of Abraham Epstein, rabbi of
Brest; and a third daughter, the wife of Benjamin
Wolf Giinzburg, rabbi of Mayence.

Bibliography: Graetz, HM. iv. 645; Perle.s, Gei>ch. der- Ju-
den in Poften, in Mnnatj<>ichrift, xiii. 4(19-416; Horodetzki,
Rabbi Mordecai Jaffe, in Ha^Eshknl, iii. 69-90, iv. 191-19:!.
H. u. J. D. E.

Mordecai Jaffe : Rabbi at Zelve in the eight-
eenth century; descendant of Abraham Aberl (the
grandson of the author of the " Lebushim ";. His
signature occurs in connection with the last meeting
of the Council of Lithuania.

Mordecai (Marcus) Jaflfe of Berlin : Rabbi at
Schwerin until 1770; born in Bohemia; died 1812.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jaffe

His correspondence with IVIoses Mendelssohn is pre-
served in "Bikkure ha-'Ittim" (iv. 183, 219, 233).
He was the father of Joseph Jaffe (17Go-1841).
His grandson Daniel Joseph Jaffe (1810-74) was
the father of Sir Otto JalTe.

Mordecai Jaffe of Brody : Kabbi at Gorocliov,
government of Voliij-nia; died 1828; corresponded
with Eliezer b. Aryeh Lob of Pilz (1788, 1802).

Mordecai Jaffe - Margolies - Schlesinger of
Vienna: Son-in-law of R. Raphael of Wilna; died
in 170-4. "Torat ha-Kena'ot" (p. 45, Amsterdam,
1737) contains two letters written to him about 1729
fi'oin Padua by the physician Jekuthiel b. Lob of
Wilna.

Mordecai Gimpel Jaffe : Rabbi at Ruzhany ;
died at Jeiiud (colony), near Petah Tikwah, Pales-
tine, in 1892. He was act-
ive in furthering the Zion-
ist colonization movement
among the Jews of Rus-
sia, his articles on which
subject appeared in " Ha-
Lebanon."

Mordecai b. Joseph
of Plungian : Descend-
ant of ]\Iordecai Jaffe
("Lebushim "): born in
1721 ; went with his father
from Posen to Plungian.
At the age of twelve he
was captured by soldiers
of the army of the Polish
Confederation and taken
to Wilkoviski, where he
was ransomed by the
wealthy Enoch Zundel
(sonin-law of Tobiah b.
Joseph Solomon Hasid-
Bacharach) for 1,200 " tin-
pes." He married Enoch
Zundel 's daughter. In
1756 he was appointed
rabbi at Keidany.

Mordecai b. Meir of
Zamoscz: Author of
"Tabnit ha-Bayit," eth-
ical poetry (Frankfort-on-
the-Oder, 1746). Another
edition, with a German
translation by Maier
Kohn, entitled " Abrissdes
Mikrokosmos," appeared in Vienna, 1853 (Stein-
schneider, " Hebr. Bibl. " i. 96). He was the grandson
of Isaac Kalmankes of Lublin. His mother be-
longed to the family of R. Lob b. Jacob Temer-
lesh.

Mordecai b. Moses of Prague : Rabbi at
Orodno and later at Cracow ; married the daughter
of Joel Singer of Cracow, and took the name of
Jaffe-Singer; president of the yeshibah at Cracow
in succession to Moses Storch. Died 1568.

Moritz Rosenthal : Prominent merchant and
communal worker; son of Hirsch and grandson of
Eliezer (Lazar) Rosenthal; born at Bausk in 1818;
died at Friedrichstadt July 29, 1896.

Moses Jaffe of Berlin : His signature appears

Mordecai

Rabbi at
the eight-
His sig-

Arms of Sir Otto Jafle.

in a document of 1743 (see Landsiiuth, "'Ammude
ha-'Abodah," p. 37).

Moses Jaffe of Pinsk : Pupil of Meir of Lublin
(Respousa, pp. 8G, 87) , lived in the early part of the
sixteenth century.

Moses b. Eliezer Jaffe : Born in Poland ; re-
moved to Italy, where, at the end of the fifteenth
century, he was prominent as a rabbi ; mentioned in
the "Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah " manuscript at St.
Petersburg (see Wiener's supplement to "Da'at
Kedoshim," p. 48). In printed editions of "Shal-
shelet ha- Kabbalah " lie is described as " of Bologna, "
not "of Polonia."

Moses b. Eliezer Jaffe: Rabbi at Cracow;
grandfather of Joel Sirkes; died 1520.
Moses ben Issachar: Author of "Pane Mo-

sheh," sermons (Lublin,
1681).

Moses b.
(b. Joseph) :
Wilkoviski in
eentli century,
nature appears in some
takkanot in the pinkes of
Wilkoviski. His son was
Zundel Half on, the
grammarian. H. R.

Sir Otto Jaffe : Lord
Mayor of Belfast ; born in
Hamburg 1846; the third
son of Daniel Joseph Jaffe,
and a descendant of Mor-
decai Jaffe. He was edu-
cated in Belfast, Ham-
burg, and Switzerland.
After carrying on business
in New York from 1865 to
1877, on the retirement of
his brothers he became
chief director of the Bel-
fast firm. He had acquired
considerable experience in
navigation concerns, and
in 1894 placed himself at
the head of the successful
agitation for the reporting
and destruction of dere-
licts in the North Atlantic
Ocean. Sir Otto is presi-
dent of the Belfast Hebrew
Congregation, a justice of
the peace for the city of Belfast, and a member of
the Harbor Board. He is also consul in Belfast for
Germany. He was elected lord mayor of the city
in 1899 and again in 1904, and was knighted in
March, 1900.

Bibliography: Jew. Chrnn. Jan. 27, 1899,
Whi/s WluK London, 1903.
J.

and March 3, 1900 ;
G. L.

Philipp Jaffe : German historian and philolo-
gist; born at Schwersenz, province of Posen, Ger-
many, Feb. 17, 1819; committed suicide at AVitten-
berg April 3, 1870. After graduating from the
gymnasium at Posen in 1838 he went to Berlin, enter-
ing a banking-house. Two years later he abandoned
commercial life and studied at Berlin University

Jaffe
Jahrzeit

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

(Pli D. 1844). Seven years later appeared his great
work, "Kegesta Pontiticuin Komauoruin ab Condita
Ecclc'sia ad Annum p. Ch. n. 1198," containing 11,000
papal documents, Berlin, 1851 (2d ed. by Lowen-
feld, Kallenbruuuer, and Ewald, Leipsic, 1885-88).
This work made him Avell known, but he liad still
to earn a livelihood ; he therefore again entered the
university, this time as a student of medicine, at Ber-
lin and later at Vienna. Graduating as M.D. from
Berlin in 1853, he engaged in practise in that city
for a year, and then became one of the editors of the
" ]\Iouumenta Gcrmaniiu Historica. " This position he
resigned in 1863, his chief work having been vols.xii.,
xvi."^ xvii., xviii., xix., and xx. of the " Scriptores."

In 1862 Jaffe was appointed assistant professor of
history at Berlin University, where he lectured on
Latin paleography and Roman and medieval chro-
nology. In 18(58 he became a Christian. During
the kst year of his life he suffered from delirium
persecutionis.

Jatle wrote, in addition to the above-mentioned

works, " Gesch des Deutschen Rciches Unter Lothar

dem Sachsen," Berlin, 1843; "Gesch. des Deutschen

Reiches Unter Konrad HI." Hanover, 1845; and

"Bibliotheca Rerum Germanicarum," ih. 1864-71.

Jaffe furthermore collaborated with Wattenbach in

editing the " Ecclesiaj Metropolitans! Coloniensis

Codices," which was published (Berlin, 1879) by

Wattenbach after Jaffe's death.

Bibiioc.raphy: AJM). Drutschc Biouraphic; Memrs Kon-
versations-Lexikon ; Drockhaun Konvcrtiations-Lcxikini.

s. F. T. H.

Babinowitz, Raphael Nata' : Great-grandson
of Simon Jaflfe of Zhagory. See separate biog-
raphy.

Raphael b. Jekuthiel ha-Kohen : Rabbi at
Hamburg 1722-1800. See separate biography.

Samuel : Son of Enoch Zundel of Kalvariya ; son-
in-law of Ezekiel of Serhei, the grandson of Elijah
of Wilna.

Samuel Hayyim : Rabbi at Meseiitz (Mezlii-
rechye); son of p]nocli Zundel of Krink.

Samuel b. Isaac Jaffe: Author of "Yefeh
To'ar." See separate biography.

Shabbethai b. Abraham Jaffe: Rabbi at
Weksna. His "haskamah " appears in the Talmud
of Slavuta (1814 and 1816).

Sirkes, Joel: Son of the daughter of Moses

Jaffe.

Solomon (Zalman) b. Jacob: Continued the
printing business at Lublin after the death of his
father in 1G62 ; married Sarah, daughter of his uncle
Kalonymus. ^^- K.

Theodor Julius Jaffe: German actor; born
at Berlin Aug. 17, 1823; died at Dresden April 11,
1898. In 1844 he appeared as an opera-singer in
Troppau, Austrian Silesia, and then in LUibcck,
Halle, :Magdeburg, and Cologne. In 1847 he aban-
doned opera and became an actor. He filled engage-
ments in Bremen (1847-49), Weimar (1849-53), Bres-
lau (1853-56), and in Brunswick. In 1864 he went
to Dresden as successor to Dawison, and was the
leading actor of the royal theater there for thirty
years. In 1894 he retired with the honorary degree
of professor. He took every opportunity to visit
the leading German theaters of Europe.

Jaffe's repertoire includes; JS'athan der Weise,
Richard III., Bhylock, lacjo, t^atiz Moor, Philippll.,
Carlos, Tartuffe, Mcphistopheles, etc.
BinMOGRAPHY: Mcuevs Konvcrsatiom-Lexikon ; Eisenberg,

Jiioy. Lex. F T H

Tobiah b. Mordecai (b. Joseph of Plungian) :

Rabbi at ludur (1765-69) and later in Tykotzin.

Walka: Daughter of ]\Iordecai Jaffe ("Lebu-
shim"); wife of Samuel Wahl (according to Horo-
detzki, in "Ha-Eshkol." vol. viii.).

Zebi Hirsch Jaffe : Russian mathematician and
writer; born at Amnastirshchizna, near Mstislavl,
government of Moghilef, June 17, 1853. He re-
ceived the usual Talmudic education and early
showed extraordinary mathematical talent. His
father would not allow him to enter a public school,
and, not having the opportunity to study mathemat-
ics from books'^ Jaffe began to solve algebraic prob-
lems according to rules of his own discovery. In
1873 his father presented him with Hayyim Selig
Slonimsky's works as well as with other mathemat-
ical works in Hebrew. In 1877 Jaffe published in
"Ha-Zelirah " (No. 24) his first mathematical article,
and since that time he has contributed many mathe-
matical and Talmudic articles to that periodical and to
"Pla-Asif." In 1881 Jaffe went to Moscow, where
he exhibited his calculating-machine, which won
him honorary mention by the administration of the
exhibition. At the same time he published in Rus-
sian his mathematical treatise "K Graficheskomu
Vypryamleniyu Dugi Okruzhnosti " (in "Matma-
ticheski Listok," 1881-82, Nos. 7-9). Early in the
last decade of the nineteenth century Jaffe settled
in Warsaw. In addition to his contributions to
Hebrew periodicals he has contributed notes to Rab-
binowitz's Hebrew translation of Griitz's "Gesch.
der Juden " (Sokolov, " Sefer Zikkaron," p. 51, War-
saw, 1889).

Zebi Hirsch Saba (K): Married Tilla, daughter
of Liva ben Bezaleel of Prague (1512-1609).

Zemah b. Jacob of Wilna : jVlarried a grand-
daughter of Mordecai Jaffe ("Lebushim "); father
of Abraham Abele, rabbi at Vilkomir ; Benjamin
of Vilkomir was the son of the latter and father of
Zemah of Prehn, the father of Aaron Prehner
(died at Wilna 1837).

Zemah Schdn : Son of Lob RallaN (R. Hirsch
Na'cheles' '?), who was a descendant of ]\Iordecai
.Jaffe ("Lebushim"; " 'Tr Wilna," p. 61, note 3);
father of Solomon Zebi Hirsch, rabbi at Wilna, whose
son was R. Eliezer Elijah Deiches (died at Wilna
1842).

The following also are regarded as among the de-
scendants of Mordecai Jaffe ("Lebushim") or of his
uncle:

Aaron b. Nathan Nata' of Trebovla (IStli cent.; see
Jew. Excyc. i. Ht). Abraham Hayyim Rosenberg (of
New York city; see Rosknbkrg). Abraham (r.ihbi at Jito-
mir; author of " Mislinat .Abraham "». Adolph Hubsch
(see separate article). Isaac Wolf Alschwang-er (rabbi
at St. Petersburg, Russia, 1878-00). Dob Bar (18th cent.;
rabbi at Utvan ; son of Hayvim b. Jacob of Karelitsch ; disciple
of Hayyim of Volozliin; left many works in manuscript; see
Wa'lden, "Shem ha-fiedolim he-Hadash." i.. No. 46; Jacobs
fatiier also was called "Hayyim." and Mordeciii (ximpel JafTe
of lluzhanv was the son of Dob Biir). Dob Bar Jaffe (nihbi at
Wirzeu [government of Kovnnl and Salaty). Eliezer Klem-
berg (oflSausk; d. New York city 1891). Elijah Bagoler

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jafte
Jahrzeit

(ralibi at Kalirih ; d. 1S.H) ; soc Fninikin, " Tolcdot Eliyaliii," p. 4) .
The Harkavy family (acconlinu: to E. Harkavy, in "DorYe-
shariiii," I'- 11. N*^"'^' Vork, liKti: Imt Aliraliam Harkavy of St.
IVtcrsburgdoiibisit). Hirsch Kalisher (DavidTebelo Efrat,
ill "Tolfddt Aiislie Stieiii." p- U : (.Ifsceiiacd from Z('l)i llirscb
Siiba. not from tliu author of the " Lebiishim"). Joshua
Hbschel b. Dob Bar Jaffe (b. Wirzcti, poverninetit of
Koviiii, lS4(i; d. New Vork city 1WI8; rabbi at Pliiiifrian, Nov-
fj-orod, lSti'.)-S>, Wirzeii ]8S3-y'.t, and Now Yoi-k city 1.H91-9S:
fatliLTof Moses Jaffe of New York). Meir of Kiemenetz
(David Tebele Efrat, in " Toledot Anslie Shein," p. :i8, note
2; descendant of Zebi Hirscli Saba, not of Mordecai Jaffe).
Mendel Jaffe (ioth cent.; rabbi at Hambnrg; author of
•'l!et Meiiahem," commentaries to Bible and Talmud, Kroto-
schin, ISU ; " Teshiibot," vol. i., Hambur<r, 18-32 ; responsa. with
commentaries of M. M. Jaffe, Leipsic, 18(l()i. Mordecai Mi-
chael b. Menahem Jaffe. Raphael (rabbi of I'eiser; au-
thor of "Or la-Yesharim " ; d. 1782). Reitben Jaffe (of
Ktiotin). Samuel (rabbi at Hyelostok; author of " Bigde
Yeslia'," Wilna, 1844). Shalomb. Asherlsraelsohn (rabbi
at Toronto, ("anada ; b. at Yanischek 18t)l). Shalom Elhanan
b. Simon Jaffe (rabbi at New York; b. Wobolnik, govern-
ment of Wilna, 1858; author of "Peri Eshel," on Yebamot,
Wilna, 1877; "Teflllat Shelomoh," |7). 1888; ' Sho'el Ke-In-
yan," responsa, etc., Jerusalem, 1895; " Siah Shelomoh," i/).
1896). Zebi Lebush (see Fuenn, " Kiryah Ne'emanah," p.
21(3).

BiBLiOfiRAPiiY : Eisenstiidt-Wiener, Da\it Kc(h)shiirux>- 34, St.
Piitersbur^', 1897 ; Joseph Kohen-Zedek, in Ha-Asam, p. 59,
St. Petersbui-g, 1897.

H. I\.

JAGEIi, ABRAHAM BEN HANANIAH
DEI GAliICCHI : Italian catechist, pliilosoplier,
and cabalist; bom at Monselice; lived successively
at Luzzara, Venice, Ferrara, and Sassuolo, in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Bartolocci
("Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica," i. 26), followed
by De Rossi (•' Dizionaiio," i. 160), Wolf ("Bibl.
Hebr." i., No. 78), and Fiirst ("Bibl. Jud." ii. 10),
erroneously identified Abraham Jagel with the
Christian censor Camillo Jagel, declaring tliat Abra-
ham Jagel embraced Christianity and changed his
name to " Camillo Jagel." The untenability of this
identification has been proved by later scholars,
including Hananiah Coen ("Saggio di Eloquenza
Ebrea," p. 25, Florence, 1827). Coen's chief argu-
ment is that many books dated as early as 1611 bear
the signature of "Inquisitor Camillo Jagel," while
Abraham Jagel was known in 1615 as a pious Jew,
as is shown by the following adventui'e related by
himself. In 1615 he was captured by bandits soon
after leaving Luzzara, between Reggio and Guas-
talla. His traveling companion, Raphael Modeua,
a rich Jew of Sassuolo, to whose house Jagel acted
as family adviser, was captured with him. Jagel
was sent back by the bandits to Mo-

Rescued dena's family for a ransom ; tlie sum
from being too high, the rabbis and influen-

Bandits. tial Jews of IModena came to his aid,
and, supported by the duke and his
brother, the cardinal, obtained Modena's liberty.

Many details of Jagel's life are given in his "Ge
Hizzayon," the first part of which was published by
Barucli Mani (Alexandria, 1880). It purports to be
the relation of a dream in which he saw his deceased
father, to vvliom he narrated the events of liis life.
After his father's deatii he went, an inexperieuccd
youth, to Luzzara, where he became involved in an
inheritance trial, and was thrown into prison. It
seems that he Avas imprisoned for a considerable
time, for lie wrote there one of his important works.
Jagel was the author of the following works: "Le-

kah Tob." a catecliism (Venice, 1587); "Moshia'
Hosim," a treatise on curing the pest b}' prayer and
fasting (Venice, 1587; this work is extant in manu-
script under the title "Orah Ilayyim"; see Neu-
bauer, "Cat. Bodl. llebr. 3ISS." No. 23 10, 1); "Eshet
Hayil," on tlie virtues of a wife and her duties
toward her husband (Venice, 1606); "Bet Ya'ar ha-
Lebanon " (see below) ; " Be'er Sheba'," on the secular
sciences; "Peri JMegadim," not extant, but men-
tioned by Jagel in another work.

It is evident that Jagel endeavored to make his
" Lekah Tob " conform to the catechi.sms then used
by the Roman clergy ; like the latter, lie pointed out
seven "cardinal sins" (ni'DV "'213), six other sins
that are "hated by God," and four sins that them-
selves "cry out for vengeance." With tlie Roman
clergy, he treats of the three virtues of faith, liope,
and charity, and defines faith in the Christian sense.
On the otlier hand, he deviates much from tlie
Christian catechisms by omitting the Decalogue,
lest the lieretics say that the Torah is only the Dec-
alogue (conip. Ber. 12a). Isaiah Hokowitz, Jagel's
contemporary, quotes in his "Shene Luhot ha-Berit "
(section "Gate of Letters," s. v. nV")3)a long passage
from the " Lekah Tob, " treating of love toward one's
neighbor. Tliis work has been translated into Latin
by Ludwig Veil (London, 1679), Carpzov (Leipsic,
1687), Odhelius (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1691). Her-
mann van derHardt(Helmstadt, 1704),
His and Buxtorf (unpublished). AJudoeo-

Catechism. German translation was made by
Jacob b. Mattithiah Ti-eves (Amster-
dam, 1658), and was followed by tiiree German
translations — one by Bock (Leipsic, 1694), one from
Van der Hardt's Latin translation (Jesuitz, 1722),
and one by Karl Anton (Brunswick, 1756).

"Bet Ya'ar ha-Lebanon," in fotir parts, discusses
Cabala, metaphysics, and natural liistory. The thir-
tieth chapter of the second part was published by
Reggio in his " Iggerot Yashar " (Vienna, 1834).

Bibliography: Delia Torre, in Arch. Isr. xxiv. 570; Fuenn,
Kene«et Yixracl, p. 29 ; Fiirst, I?i7(7. Jud. ii. 10 et xeq.: Mor-
tara, Indicc, pp. 2.)-20; D. Oppenheim, in Heln. BihLvii. 19-
:J0; Regffio, in Bihlnire lia-'Ittiin, ix. i;J-14; Steinsclineider,
in Hchr. Bibl. xxi. 76-79; idem. Cat. Budl. cols. (594-695 ;
Mavbaum, Abraham JancVtf Kateclii^inus Lckach-tob,
Berlin, 1892.
s. M. Set..

JAGEL, GAMALIEL BEN HANANIAH,
OF MONSELICE : Italian sciiolar; lived at Fer-
rara, later at Parma, in the seventeenth century.
He filled the position of chief rabbi or head of the
Talmudical schools of the province of Parma. Jagel
was the author of "Sifte Renanim," a commentary
on "Perek Shirah," published at Mantua in 1661
together with " Mesapperim Tehillot," a commentary
on that poem by his father. xV responsuin of Jagel's
is inserted in the " Be'er 'Eshek " of Shabbethai Beer
of Jerusalem.

Bibliography: Nepi-Ghirondi, Tolcdot Gednlc Fi'.s'rae?, p. 72;
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 998; Mortara, Indice. p. 29.

K. I. Bk.

JAHRZEIT : Judteo-German term denoting the
anniversary of a death, commemorated by mourning
and by reciting tiie Kaddish. Tiie custom of com-
memorating the deatii of the beloved and honored is
of ancient origin (see H.\zkarat Neshamot). In the

Jair

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Taimaitiic petkid theanmiveisirj" oi ai ianiier » or BcacJj-

er's death was often de'roted to fiastiag. In taking

a TOW to atKfc*™ from eadng meat and drinking

wine these was sometiines added the phiase ""as on

the death-day of a &theror teacher, €w oothe Fkst of

Gedaliah " (Ned. Ida). From the discassivm in the

Genma C^Siebu l'ia)it appeals that alistinenceoD the

da J of one's fiftfrher's death, nnlilke that on the Fast of

Gedaliah. was a Tolumtaij act, cmifonniiiig to the

injonctiDn to bocMMr one's £ftther '^ while ahre and

after his death'' (Kid. Slb>; while the anniTeisair}-

of the death of Gedaliah (Q Kings xxT.

A:- -* "iS ^ntaally oheoxed as a fast

; : — t i- - 1 Basfai €m Teb. 122a sJates tkj.:

--.-.'- Jist- it wascustaMnaryfor thedisapksand

m^. the gemexal public to sit aioiutd the

giaTe of a gieat man and othefwee

im„ en the anniveisiiry of his death f Bl K.

~ - meiDMHy of a great teacher was even

~<ed than that of a father.

1 ^Teisaiy of Moees' death is oteemred un

~ . ai Adar L (F*oir feii^inig- cm the annirer-

: a d^tfa oompture "Sefer Ha^JJdJm." §§ 331-

333; laseries' glo@ to l^nlhan "AiMk, Yoireh De'ah,

?" ' ^ "f the fast-day oocmrs oa Sabbath or New

:cn3inemo«afiiQn dioald be postponed to

. lay ((R. Jioseph CokaK BespaasM, 'So.

-ffe is an infanral of three days

: je days of death and borial the

- shotiM be oba^ved oo the latter day on the

r^aiy, and on the fonneron all fdttowir r

• ts (l^saK to Yovdii De'ah. 4mi

I-.-.i : jfTyraan'^aspirofeaiblythefersEwTitertocall

"^-tirman wmium^ *'jahixat"';

:an be traced to the sis-

tteemlih Mmdecai Jafe fd. 161^), in his

*Lcbnsii-i-lT ■ ' ■ ■ '■-"'" -ras the second writer

jsenruBce ofthejahr-
Qnginof zeit fior parents originated piobaUy
Jalnxeife. in the IGddle Ages with the J-"
G^maray, wheite; the tenn itae
osedby die Oraich to denMe the occaaoo of hon-
oring the memoiy of tiie dead.

In the Orient, especially in I^ilestine; the Sephar-
diok weseoppcieed t& idse KaddMi^ hoMimg that: dnr-
iug the fiist elere 'jjs it is a paayer for the

depaited, to aarast ~ - Js to esiter paradise^ and
to eiggiitinae the Kaddi^ after that time wonld be a
m^eetioin npoo the dead. Bet Isaac Lnria, the cdle-
btated eabnlist of Safed and a native of Gemsany,
cxplaiDS that '^ wMle the orj^nan's Kaddidi within
the eleren months beips lShe smU to pass from Ge-
hnmom to Gan "Eden, the jahiz^t KaddB^eterates
the HMol eresy year to a MaHhn^ sphese in paradise"
fqnoied by Lewysohn^ '^Mekcne Hinhagim,"' § 98.
Baffin. 18461. Manaseeh ben 1s!»tl sirailaiily says:
"^Eirary ascent is Mke a new departnsef death]; hence
the pofKilar costouE oS svying Kaddi^ on the anm-
TCiauie^ year by year, which enstffinB, howerer, is
strange'' (CNMrauat BsijjiBa,^ S. 2m, Ans^eirdain.
VtSS%. 'As a iS^i&aidi bmt a calsali^ he was in^lioic-
tant to adffpt this '^strange'" enstom. The Sephar-
dbn BnaHy adopted the jabizeit eostom, wMch they
can ''nahafah'' finfaeritanee>.

As to the observance trf the jahiz^ of a mothe: .
death while the lEuiher k still afire, some authorities

claim that the fftther may object on llie ground that
people might think the jahrzeit inti^iMied for him;
but this objectioii Las been overruled. The jabrzeil
is distinguished by ilirve rites: (1) fasting, which
has been relaxed in modem times : C? <i the Kaildish
prayer ; (B) the jahrzeit candle, vrhicli is kept burning
for twenty-four hours^ Some authorities pronounce
this light to be of Christian origin (Gudemann.
'"Gesch." iiL 1S3>. Aaron Berechiab of Modena
explains that, the burning wick in the candle is like
the soul in the body, and ** man'ssoul

Jahrseit is the candle of (iod" (oomp. Prov.

Civile. sx. 2T|; the numerical value of pHTTU

il^~ burning candle') = 390. and is there-

fOTB equal to that of rc*3rn (" the Sbekinah '' ), which

likewise = 390 (- Maalnr Yabbc^ ' ; - Sefat Emet,*

XV. 94b. Amsterdam. 1732).

The jahrzeit of Simeon ben Yohai, the supposed
author of the Zodiar. on Lag be-'Omer. is yearly ob-
served at MeriMi, near Safed, by about 20, 000 Oriental
Jews with hynms and rught illuminations that may
be seen miles away. A <:imila»r jahrzeit celebration
his been lately introduced in honor of R. Meir Ba'al
ha-Xcs at TIberiais on the 13th of lyyar. The
jahrzat of Moses ISeries at Cracow, on the 18th of
lyyar. is observed by the Jews of that vicinity.
The P»<adim oelebraie the jahrzeit of their respective
rabbis with accompanying hymns, religious dances,
and general rejoicing. This has had a tendency
to tain an criginally moumfal celebration into an

oason of joyous festivity (Bolet^iower. ~Shem
-7yeh," § 14; ^Publications Am. Jew. Hist. Soc'
ix. G^. The Mitnaggedim, the oppmients of the
Ra^gMim strmuoiisly objecte<l to this innovaticHi.
aod even protested agaiikst excessive cost in cele-
brating the jahrzeit of Simeon b. Yohai. See Kai>-

DIBH.

Bouo^LkinT: Zata.Momateta!fed£tEnlemdtritMhn,\
ISS; KaTsofiae, SUrbOage ami AMer umd Xeuer ZeU,

CaSiOiiitime, Ijad^mte ShaOmtumim, Sio. 1214. Bentiii. 18»:
Tie JemiA Tear Batik. SSR (m&^u Loodon (jjUebe*
trtles WSt-ISfS'K DemiMtz. SerrSee* in Sunagngme amd
Brnm. npL SSH «i: Ha-Matz, vmk So. 8ft: Fwfnatria.
M(Oimrmer'* Aiwmmat:^ Sew T«fc. fSm.
A- J. D. EL

■J AHV18T (osnally symbolized as J) : The name
givoa in miodem BUde criticism to tibe supposed an-
Hmx of those portions of the Pentateuch (or of the
Hexatench) in wMch the name Yn WH is used for God
in prefoence to the name "Eloliim." which latter is
employed by die Elofaistic writets. Since the analy-
SB of the Pentateoich as based on this distinction
has changed scanewhat in methodand results witinn
the last, centory and a half, the limits assigned to
the JahvisI have also varied in some degree. It is
imse poasble to present the history of the analytic
BuiOTement in this article, which must be confined to
a statement of present critical opinion. First may
be indicated the seictions ascribed to the Jahvist; sec-
ondly, tibe goieial tenor and cbaiateter of his work:
and, fhitdly, the history of its ptodnctioD, and tiie
nwKt probable period ef its eempfmtUm.

T. It sboold be premmd that J has beoi com-
bined with a. kindred docnment, the work of the
■-.T^er EXfiimtie writer (E$, and that both of diem
:^-s pfaiBsly distjngaidnbk: from the later 0«4nstlc or
Priefstly docsunent (F>. It is very often not ci^ to

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jahrzeit
O'air

distinguish the contributions of J from those of E ;
but critics now agree with virtual unanimity in their
assignment of tlie most important passages at issue
to one or to the otlier.

From the Jahvist there is in Genesis the account
of the creation of tlie world of men, of the probation
and fall of "the man" and his "helpmeet," and of
the career of the earliest men generally (ii. 4-iv.).
He gives a part of the complex story of the Flood,

and the sole account of the settlement

Contribu- of Babylonia (x. 8-12) and of the dis-

tions of J pcrsionof the race (xi. 1-9). Thestories

to the of Abraham's relations Avith Lot and of

Hexateuch. the cities of the plain (xviii., xix.) are

also from J, as are the narratives of the
quest of a wife for Isaac (xxiv.), most that is told
of the earlier life of Jacob and Esau (xxv., xxvii.),
Judah's family history (xxxviii.), and a large part
of the storj' of Joseph, especially Avhere Judah is
prominent. The same writer contributed the bless-
ing of Jacob (xlix.). In Exodus is found less of J
than of E (or of P); but he tells much of the prepa-
rations for the migration from Egypt and of the
flight itself. In Numbers it is mostly impossible to
separate J and E. They together have given x. 29-
xii., XX. -xxv. 6, and most of xxxii. In Josliua J
and E form practically one document, comprising
most of the first half of the book.

II. J is classed with E as belonging to the pro-
phetic school, as distinguished from P, or the Priestly
writer. The main distinction betw-een J and E is
that wdiile both of them in their narratives aim to

set forth God's providential guidance
J's Distinct- and His manifestation of Himself, J
ive illustrates his theme by indicating the

Teaching, ideas and principles of revelation, and
E by exhibiting its forms and modes.
J is an adept at conveying religious truth in his
matchless stories, even when these are legendary.
Nowhere else earlier than the Later Prophets can be
found such profound views of the nature and prog-
ress of sin among men, or of God's plan of redeem-
ing the world from sin, or of His choice of Israel
and Israel's representative men to be the instruments
of such redemption.

Admiration of the Jahvist is heightened when one
studies the literary forms in which he conveys these
great and far-reaching ideas. In a certain sense it
is immaterial in what guise truth is
The Style presented if onlj^ it come out strong
of J. and clear; hence one must always
maintain that the stories of the Pen-
tateuch as literature are of secondary importance as
compared with their prophetic teachings. Still, of
all narrators he is the most skilfid in selection of
details, the most vivid, graphic, and jiicturesque,
and withal the most simple, realistic, and sympa-
thetic. As one reads one sees Isaac tremble, one
hears Esau's cry, and Judah's appeal to Joseph.
To make God real to the reader J shrinks not from
the most extreme anthropomorphism; and much of
the world's faith in Ykwii today is due to the fact
that the Jahvist has told how He used to come down
to men and talk and walk in the midst of them.

III. There seems to be good reason for believing
that the work of the Jahvist is composite ; not

VII.— 5

merely that he worked over materials from differ-
ent sources into his book, but that he incorporated
directly considera])ie portions of a separate composi-
tion. Gen. xxxviii. and xxxix., for examjjle, both
belong to him, ])ut they are not continuous, and they
apparently occupy (lifierciit levels of moral develop-
ment (J' and J-). The question thusarising, though
important for the history of the growth of prophetic
ideas, becomes of secondary importance in view of
the fact that the w'ork in general is on a very high
plane and as a whole must be the product of a single
mind and of a definite epoch.

But there is no approach to unanimit}' on the
part of critics as to the time of composition. The
place of its production is usually held to be the king-
dom of Judah. Yet such enuuent critics as Keuss,
Kuenen, and Schrader maintain that it proceeded
from the Northern Kingdom, on the ground that a
JudahiteAvould not have matle so much of the north-
ern shrines of Shechem, Beth-el, and
Time and Peuiel (Gen. xii. 6, etc.). But one re-
Occasion of members that the prophets of Judah,

"Writing, as devoted Israelites, held fast to all
the great common Hebrew traditions.
Moreover, one must without doubt hold to a Judah-
ite origin, in view of the association of Abraham and
Jacob with Hebron, and the special prominence
given to Judah, the head of the tribe that gave its
name to the kingdom.

The standpoint, however, is not that of Judah
alone, but that of Judah as representing all Israel.
This obvious fact suggests as a date a time after the
destruction of the Northern Kingdom. It was there,
undoubtedly, that E was composed, probably about
770 B.C. ; and it is natural to suppose that J was
written as its counterpart, and as an expression of
the view that Yhwh ruled all things from the be-
ginning, and that the faith and worship cherished
in Jerusalem were also those of the Fathers. The
date is therefore perhaps about 720 b.c. Soon there-
after J and E were combined into a single work.

For a brief summary of the results of the analysis
see Jew. Encyc. iii. 174 et seq., s.v. Bible Exegesis.

Bibliography : Since the study of the Jahvist can not be pur-
sued independently of that of the other sources of the Hexa-
teuch, it nuist sufflce here to pive a general reference to recent
critical commentaries, especially those upon Genesis, above
all that of Dillmann ; to critical treatises, such as the epoch-
making works of Kuenen and WelUiausen ; and for the history
of the analysis and the limits of J the following : Westphal,
Le^ Sources^ (hiPcntatctiqiie. 188S-93 ; Holzinger. EinleitUDU
in den Hexateuch. 1893: Briggs, Hiaher Ciiticism of the
HexateKch, 1893. The introductions of Driver and Cornill
distribute the several sources in convenient tabular form.

e. g. n. J. F. 3IcC.

JAIL. See Imprisonment.

JAIR (T'X'' = "He gives light"): 1. A contem-
porary of Moses, called in the Pentateuch "son of
Manasseh," who in the beginning of the conquest
took from the Amorites the whole tract of Argob,
containing sixty fortified cities, which he called
Havotii-.taik (Nuin. xxxii. 41; Deut. iii. 14; Josh,
xiii. 30; I Kings iv. 13). In I Chron. ii. 22, 23 Jair
is mentioned as of mixed descent, he being the son of
Segub, whose father was Hezron, a Judahite. and
whose mother was the daughter of Machir, grandson
of Manasseh and father of Gilead.

2. A Gileadite wlio judged Israel for twenty-two
j'ears. He had thirtj-sons; and thirty cities were

Jalomstein
James

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

called after him "Havoth-jair." He was buried at
Camon (Judges x. 3-5). This Jair is probably the
same as No. 1. According to another tradition the
number of cities called after liim was twenty-three
(I Chron. ii. 22).

3. The father of Mordecai, a Benjamite (Esth.
ii. 5).

4. (Kere ~|ij;'; ketib, -|lj?' = "IIe awakens.'')
Father of Elhauan, one of David's heroes (I Chron.
XX. 5). In the parallel narrative in II Sam. xxi. 19
his name is stated to bo " Jaare-oregim."

E. G. H. M. SeL.

JAIiOMSTEIN, MORDECAI B. DAVID:

American journalist; l)oru in Suwalki, Russian Po-
land, 1835; died in New York city Aug. 18, 1897.
He was well versed in Talmudic and neo-Hebrew
literature, and was a skilful linguist. He went to
New York in 1871 and for several years edited
Hirscli Berstein's " Ha-Zofehbe-"Erez ha-Hadashah,"
the first Hebrew periodical issued in the United
States. He was a regular American correspondent of
" Ha-Meliz, " his letters, over the signature " Yashan, "
attracting much attention. For about twenty years
Jalomstein was the chief collaborator on the "Jew-
ish Gazette " (Yiddish) of New York, founded by
his brother-in-law, K. H. Sarasolm. He also con-
tributed to "Ha-'Ibri," and his "Dibre Yeme Arzot
lia-Berit " (New York, 1893) is a reprint from that
periodical, in which it appeared as a serial during
about two years.

Bidliograpuy: Ha-'Ibi-i, vii. No. 4<5; Jewish Gazette, xxiil.
No. 35.

A. P. Wl.

JAMAICA : Largest island in the British West
Indies. It has a total population of 644,841 (1901),
of whom about 2,400 are Jews. When England
conquered the island in 1655, a considerable num-
ber of Jewish inhabitants was found there, known
as "Portugals," under which name the Scphardic
Jews concealed their true faith from Spanish perse-
cution. Jews settled in Jamaica during the century
preceding Cromwell's conquest. The proprietary
rights of the family of Columbus to Jamaica were
recognized in 1508 and 1538, and passed to the
female Braganza line in 1576. The friendship
which subsisted between Columbus and the Jews
continued with his descendants, and as their propri-
etary rights excluded the Inquisition and prevented
the inclusion of Jamaica in the bishopric of Cuba,
unavowed Jews were enabled to live in Jamaica in
comparative safety, even during the Spanish period.
Clarendon's "State Papers" refer, under date of
1623, to some of these Portuguese as yearning to
throw off the Spanish j'oke.

The principal pilot, Captain Campoe Sabbatha,
whom Pennand Venables relied upon in their attack
upon Jamaica seems to have been a Jew, and there
is strong reason for believing that Cromwell consid-
ered Jews settled and to be settled in and about
Jamaica as important factors in the establishment of
his ambitious British colonial policy. Simon de
Caceres, one of Cromwell's principal secret-intelli-
gencers, furnished him with reports on conditions
in Jamaica immediately after its conquest. The
British, in their methods of dealing with the con-
quered residents, were careful to distinguish between

the Portuguese Jews and the Spanish inhabitants,
with the result that Jews at once began to estab-
lish and develop the commercial prosperity of the
island. The Dutch capitulation of Brazil aug-
mented the Jewish settlement in Jamaica; it was
further increased by considerable accessions from
Surinam upon tlie British withdrawal from that
district in 1675, and b}'^ direct migration from Eng-
land, beginning in 1663, and later from Curasao and
Germany. In 1700 the Jews bore the b\!lk of the
taxes of the island, tiiough the avowed
Immigra- Jewish population at that time is fig-
tion from ured as only 80. No fewer than 151
England, of the 189 Jews in the American col-
Curagao, onies whose names have been handed
and down as naturalized under the Act of

Germany. Parliament of 1740 between that year
and 1755, resided in Jamaica. The
vanilla and sugar industries of Jamaica, and in fact
almost the entire foreign and intercolonial trade of
the colony during the first half of the eighteenth
century, were principally in the hands of the Jews,
and Jamaica was a far more important commercial
center in that century than it since has been.
Among the leading Jewish families that contributed
most signally to the development of Jamaica's trade
are the following: Da Silva, Soarez, Cardoza, Beli-
sario, Beliufante, Nunez, Fonseca, Gutterecet, De
Cordova, Bernal, Gomez, Vaz, and Bravo.

Efforts were early made to abolish the special
taxes which were imposed on Jews in the colony,
which efforts, with the assistance of the crown,
finally succeeded. Attempts, inspired by local mer-
cantile jealousy, made during the reign of William
III. to expel the Jews from the island, also met with
a vigorous royal check. In fact, Jamaica led the
way for all the present Britisii possessions in the
direction of abolishing Jewish disabilities; this had
been accomplished as early as 1831, with the result
that in 1838 it was possible for Sir F. H. Goldsmid
to compile a long and remarkable list of Jews ap-
pointed to civil and military offices in Jamaica since
the Act of 1831, which list was used by him as a
potent argument in favor of Jewish emancipation
at home. The first Jew cho.sen as a member of the
Jamaican assembly was Alexander Bravo, for the
district of Kingston, in 1835 ; a year or two later he
became a member of the council of the island ; after-
ward, receiver-general. In 1849 eight of the forty-
seven members of the colonial assembly were Jews ;
and the legislature adjourned over
In the Leg- Yom Kippur by a decisive vote, the
islature. Jews not voting. Dr. C. M. Morales
was elected speaker of the House of
Assembly in 1849. Numerous other positions of im-
portance, civil, judicial, and military, have been held
by the Jews since 1831.

In 1700 Jews are referred to as having made at
least three different settlements on the island, though
Kingston, from the time of its foundation, has been
the most important. Spanish Town, Montego Bay,
Falmouth, and Lacovia have also had Jewish settle-
ments, and Jews are, in fact, to be encountered in
all portions of the island, though Kingston alone
has now any Jewish synagogues. Spanish Town
had two Jewish congregations between 1840 and

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jalomstein
Ji-ines

1845. A synagogue is iiu-iitioned by local historians
as having boen established about 1684; it is referred
to in the Journal of the House of Assembly in 1G87.
The Spanish and Portuguese synagogue of Kings-
ton, situated in Princess street until the time of its
destruction by fire in 1882, was consecrated in 1750.
The English and German synagogue was consecrated
in 1789, a new synagogue taking its place in 1837.
Hannah Adams, in her "History of the Jews," Avrit-
ten in 1812, refers to two parties among the Janiai-
cau Jews, one of which regarded the other as heretics
because they had relaxed in the observance of the
ritual and had intermarried with Christians. A
third (German) synagogue was used for purposes
of worship beginning at some time prior to 18o0,
but the congregation merged iu that year with
the Portuguese. l?ev. M. N. Nathan Avas rabbi of
the English and German synagogue at the time of
the consecration of its new building in 1837, and for
a number of years thereafter, and was active in vari-
ous Jewish literary controversies and undertakings,
including the editorship of a Jewi.sh monthly, called
"First Fruits of the West" (1845). Among other
Jewish clerical leaders in Jamaica were Joshua
Pakdo (went to
Jamaica as rabbi
in 1688), Dciuiel
Israel Lopez Lx-
ciCNA (Spanish
Jewish poet, a
contemporary of
Pardo), Haham
d e C o r d o z a
(went to Jamaica
about the time
of the American
Re volution; died
and was buried
in Spanish Town
in 1798), Rev. A.
P. Mendes, and
Rev. George Ja-
cobs.

After the dis-
astrous confla-
gration inKings-
ton in 1882, an
effort was made
to unite all three
of its syna-
gogues, espe-
cially as the de-
crease of the
Jewish popula-
tion of Jamaica
importance had

and its diminished commercial
made it desirable to concentrate
religious energies. Differences as to
Recent ritual, hoAvever, induced a number of
History, the members of the Spanish and Por-
tuguese congregation to Avithdraw
from the movement ; they consecrated a synagogue
in East street iu 1884. A number of members of
the English and German congregation also with-
drew, and finally consecrated a synagogue in 1894.
The majority of both, however, constructed a syna-
gogue iu Duke street under the name of "Amalga-

mated C'ongregalion of Israelites," consecrated in
1888. The two principal congregations were merged
in Dec, 1900, since wO)ich they have worshiped under
one roof, Rev. Jo.seph M. Corcos being their minis-
ter. Several communal charitable organizations are
maintained in Kingston, the chief of which is the
Hebrew Benevolent Society, established in 1851.

Bibliography: Ricliard Hill. Eight Chapters in the HMory
(if Jamaica (I.'-OS-IOHO), IUu.-<tratiiiii the Settlctneni of the
./cK'-sni </(« i.s.Vnif/. King-ston, IHW; Mem, Liuhts ami :^li(ui-
(nrs <if Jantaica)! JliHtoru; I'lihlii-ntiona Am. Jew. I1i.-<t.
S(,c. i". 108; ii. 9.5-9SJ, m5; ill. ;{. 7',), 110; v. 48, lU-llti; vi. 9;
viii., p. X.; ix., pp. xiv., 81 ; x. o8 ; Koliut, Slietches of Jewitih
Loyalty in the Sovitt American Colonies 07i(f the West
Indies, in Wolf's American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and
Citizen, pp. 483^484; Lucien Wolf, Menassth Den Israel;
idem, CroiinveWx Jewi.<h Intellificuceri^; Jaoob.s and Wolf,
Bihl. Aiujlo-Jnd.\ Kohler. Mena.'iseh Ben Israel and Some
Unjnddislicd Paijrs of America )i History ; Hannah Adams,
History of the ,Iew^: F. Jiidali, Hi.<tory of tlie Jews in
Jamaica, in the Daily Tcleuraph (Kingston), heginninR July
25, I'JOO; Leslie Alexander, The Testimony of the Tombs,
in Jamaica Daily Gleaner, June and Oct., 1898; Bridpes,
Ann cds of Jamaica; Edwards. Hi.ft<n-y of the West Indies:
Lons, Hi!<tory of Jamaica; Kayserling, The Jews in Ja-
maica and Daniel I. Lopez Laijuna, in J. Q. R. July,
]9tX) ; Archer, Monumental Insc7'ipt ions of the Britisli West
Indies; Catatogue of the Leeser Library, ed. Cyrus Adler.

A. M. J. K.

' JAMES (English equivalent for 'loKw/^of =r "Ja-
cobus " ; Italian,
Giacomo):
Name of three
persons promi-
nent in New Tes-
tament history.

1. Son of Ze-
bedee (Aramaic,
" Ya'kob bar
Zabdai ") ; with
his brother John
one of the first
disciples of
Jesus. Like
their father, both
were fishermen
of Galilee (:Matt.
iv. 21 ; Mark i.
19; Luke v. 10);
their mother, ap-
parently Sa-
lome, is men-
tioned among
the women
watching at the
grave of Jesus
(Matt, xxvii. 56;
Mark xv. 40);
she was possibly
sister to Mary,
James and liis

Synagogue at Spanish Town, Jamaica.

(From a photograph.)

the mother of Jesus (John xix. 25)
brother John are mentioned immediately after Peter
and Andrew in the list of the Twelve Apostles (Matt.
X. 2-4; Luke vi. 14-16); Mark iii. 17 has preserved
the story that when calling them to the apostleship
Jesus surnamed them "Bene Ra'ash" or "Bene
Rogez" (.Job xxxvii. 2) (the text has "Boanerges,
which is. The sons of thunder"). This by-name
was probably expressive of their impetuous nature
(comp. Luke ix. 55 and Mark x. 37). James and
liis brother John together with Peter were the in-
separable followers of Jesus (Mark v. 37, ix. 2, xiii.

James

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

y, xiv. 33), and after the death of their master they
with the other apostles remained in the city of
Jerusalem "steadfast in prayer" (Acts i. 14). James
was the first one of the apostles to suffer a martyr's
death (Acts xii. 2). What action of James and the
other disciples provoked the wrath of Herod Agrippa
is not stated. Legend added new features to the mar-
tyrdom (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl." ii. 9); and Spain,
whose patron saint James became, surrounded his
life with miraculous incidents.

2. Son of Alpha;us (Aramaic, "Halfai" or "Hol-
pai " = " Cleophas " ; see John xix. 25; Eusebius,
" Hist. Eccl." iii. 11, iv. 22), an apostle mentioned in
the list of the twelve (Matt. x. 2-4; Mark iii. 16-19;
Luke vi. 14-16; Acts i. 13). Probably he was the
brother of "Levi the son of Alphteus" (Mark ii. 14),
better known as Matthew (Matt. ix. 9) ; nothing else
is known of liim. He is often identified with James
the Little ("ha-Katan." Mark xv. 40; A. V.. incor-
rectly, "the less," John xix. 25; but see No. 3, be-
low). According to Hegesippus (see Eusebius, I.e.),
James was a cousin, and his father an uncle, of Jesus.

3. Brother of Jesus ; also called James tlie Just.
James is mentioned as the first among the brothers
of Jesus, the others being Joses, Simon, and Judas
(Matt. xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3), all of whom were, ac-
cording to Luke ii. 7, younger than Jesus. Neither
James nor any of the other brothers believed in the
miraculous powers of Jesus (John vii. 5; Matt. xii.
47 ct seq. ; Mark iii. 31). But after the crucifixion
James, the brother of Jesus, is said by Paul to have
seen the risen Jesus in a vision after Peter, the twelve,
and the five hundred had seen him (I Cor. xv. 7);
and when Paul went to Jerusalem to defend his claim
to the assumed apostleship to the heathen, James
was the head of the Church (Gal. i. 19; ii. 9, 12; Acts
xii. 17, XV. 13, xxi. 18). According to Clement of
Rome, quoted by Eusebius ("Hist. Eccl." ii. 1),
James, surnamed " the Just " on account of his great
virtue, was the first bishop of the Church elected at
Jerusalem. About his martyrdom Clement writes
that "he was cast from a wing of the Temple and
beaten to death with a fuller's club." Somewhat
diiterently Josephus writes: "The younger Anan, a
high priest belonging to the sect of the Sadducees,
who are very rigid in judging offenders, had James,
the brother of Jesus, the so-called ' Christ,' together
with some of his companions, brought before the
Sanhedrin on the charge of having broken the Law,
and had them delivered over to be stoned. This act
of Anan caused indignation among the citizens best
known for their fairness and loj-alty " ("Ant." xx.
9, § 1). Hegesippus, quoted by Eusebius (I.e. ii.
23), gives the following description of James:

" James, the brother of the Lord, succeeded to the government
of the Church in conjunction with the Apostles. He was holy
from his mother's womb : he drank no wine nor did he eat flesh.
No razor came upon his head, nor did he anoint himself with
oil or use any [warm] bath. He alone was permitted to enter
the Holy Place, for he wore not woolen, but linen garments ; he
was in the habit of entering alone into the Temple, and was
frequently found upon his knees praying for forgiveness for the
people, so that his knees became hard as those of a camel. . . .
Because of his exceeding great justice ["Zaddikut"] he was
called 'the Just ' [" Ya'akohKobal 'Am" = "Jacob, the bulwark
of the people"] and * Zaddik Yesod '01am ' [= "the righteous are
the foundation of the world " ; Prov. x. 2-5, Hebr.]. Now, when
some of the seven sects which existed among the people [the
Sadducees] asked him: 'What is the gate of salvation?'

["sha'ar ha-yeshu'ah" : comp. Lev. R. xxx.; Ps. cxviii. 20; for
which some copyist wrote "sha'ar Yeshua'" = "the gate of
Jesus "] he replied that it was the Messiah. James's words were
understood to refer to Jesus, and led many to believe in him. . . .
The Scribes and the Pharisees, fearing lest the people would all
be led over to the belief in Jesus, asked James to place himself
upon a wing of the Temple and address the people assembled
there on account of the Passover, and persuade them not to be
led astray.

" Whereupon James said : ' Why do ye ask me concerning
Jesus the Son of Man ? He sitteth in heaven at the right hand
of great Power, and is about to come upon the clouds of heaven.'
And when many cried 'Hosannah to the Son of David,' the
Scribes and Pharisees cast him down and stoned him. And
James before dying said : ' Lord, God, Father, forgive them ; for
they know not what they do' [the words ascribed to Jesus;
Luke xiii. 34J. And one of the Rechabites cried out: 'Cease!
What do ye ? The just one prayeth for you.' Then one of the
crowd, a fuller, took the club with which he beat out clothes
and struck the just man on the head. Thus he suffered martyr-
dom; they buried him on the spot by the Temple where his
monument still remains. Immediately after this, Vespasian be-
sieged them."

It is difficult to say whether this legendary record
contains any actual facts or not. The Essene char-
acter of James "the Little," or "the Just," seems to
rest on authentic tradition. According to Epipha-
nius ("Ha?res." Ixxviii. 14), he wore a golden plate
on his forehead (comp. Meg. iv. 8, where this is
characterized as " the way of the Gnostics" ["derek
minut" or "hizonim "]), and no sandals. Another
evidence of his Essene piety manifests itself in the
following: "When, during a drought, he stretched
forth his hands in prayer, rain immediately came "
(comp. Ta'an. 2Sa. et seq.).

It is possible that the last words ascribed to Jesus
were original with James the Just. The idea that
]Mary, the mother of Jesus, should afterward have
borne other children became obnoxious to the ascet-
ics of the Church, and consequently either the broth-
ci'hood of James was explained to have been on
the father'sside only (so Clement, in Eusebius, I.e. ii.
1; "Clementine Recognitions," xi. 35), or Mary, the
mother of James the Little and of Joses, was differ-
entiated from Mary, the mother of Jesus (Matt, xxvii.
56 ; Mark xv. 40, 47 ; Luke xxiv. 10 ; but comp. John
xix. 25). This, again, gave rise to a number of dif-
ferent versions in the early literature of the Church,
many claiming that James the Little was identical
with the son of Alphoeus, the cousin of Jesus, and
was as such called brother (see Lightfoot on Colos-
sians, 10th ed., pp. 260-267, London, 1896).

JAMES, GENERAL EPISTLE OF : Letter
of exhortation and instruction, written by "James,
a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ," and
addressed "to the twelve tribes which are of the Dis-
persion" (i. 1, R. v.). The writer is supposed to be
James, the brother of Jesus, on which account the
epistle was accorded the first place among the so-
called "general epistles" of the New Testament.
Asa matter of fact, aside from the reference to Jesus
Christ in the introductory verse quoted above, and
in ii. 1 (where the words "Jesus Christ" are obvi-
ously an interpolation), the epistle contains nothing
to indicate a Christian origin. It comprises, loosely
joined together, a number of moral sayings which
liave their parallels in contemporary Jewish wri-
tings, and there is no reason for holding that "the
brethren " addressed may not have been Jews of a
particular frame of mind— pious and humble, such

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

James

as were the Essenes, who formed a strong brother-
liood in the Diaspora. Especially noteworthy are
the facts that the name of the meeting-place of the
worshipers addressed is "synagogue" {avvaycjyrr, ii.
2), not "church " ('f^•^•/?/(Tf«), and that the Hebrew
prophets Job and Elijah are regarded as patterns, but
nowhere the personality of Jesus (v. 10, 11, 17 et
ul.). The canonical character of the epistle has ac-
cordingly at all times been questioned; Eusebius
("Hisl. Eccl." iii. 25, 3) counts it among the contro-
verted writings — avri^ityd/irva ; Origeu (" Joliannem,"
xix. 6, XX. 10) speaks of it as " the so-called Epis-
tle of James " ; Luther, who calls it "a right strawy
epistle," as well as Erasmus, doubted its genuine-
ness; Schneckenburger ("Beitrage zur Eiuleitung
in das N. T." 1832, pp. 196 et seij.) and Jiilicher
("Einleitung in das N. T." 1894, p. 143) likewise
find its standpoint to be Jewish; and Spitta("Zur
Gesch. und Lit. des Urchristenthums," 1896, ii. 61-
239), whom this article follows, has, notwithstand-
ing all contradictions or doubts, established its Jew-
ish origin and character.

The author, beginning with the Greek formula of

greeting {xaipeiv z= " joy "), urges his " brethren " (i.

2—4) to rejoice over tlieir trials (comp.

Contents Judith viii. 25; IV Mace. vii. 22, ix.
of the 12), as through such " tests of faith "

Epistle. (comp. ib. xv. 21) they shall acquire
" patience " (Test. Pair., Joseph, 2, 10 ;
IV Mace. xiii. 13, Ix. 8 et seg.; Book of Jubilees,
xvii. 17 et seq.) and become "perfect " (comp. Philo,
"De Abrahamo,"§ 33). The same test of virtue is
given in Rom. v. 4 and II Peter i. 5. He who lacks
wisdom should, in order to be perfect (see Wisdom
ix. 6), pray to God for it with a confiding heart, free
from wavering doubt (i. 5-8 ; comp. Wisdom i. 3-5,
vii. l et seq.), and not be double-minded {<Vi-\l)vxoq =
"be-leb wa-leb"; Ps. xii. 3 [A. V. 2]; Tan., Ki
Tabo, ed. Buber, 3 : " Pray not before God with\wo
hearts"; comp. Ecclus. [Sirach] i. 28; Enoch, xci.
4; "Shepherd of Hermas," Mandate, ix. 4, 5, and
the Jewish apocryphon quoted; I Clement xxiii. 3;
II Clement xi. 2). In allusion to Jer. ix. 22 et seq.
(comp. Ecclus. [Sirach] iii. 18, x. 21, xi. 1), the
lowly brother is admonished to glory in that
(through self-humiliation) he is exalted, and the rich
to rejoice in that he is made low (by the speedy
vanishing of his riches; i. 9-10). "Blessed is the
man that . . . is tried; he shall receive the crowm of
life, which the Lord hath promised to them that
love him" (comp. i. 12 with Job v. 17; Ecclus.
[Sirach] xxxiv. 8-10 ; " Shepherd of Hermas," Visio,
ii. 2 et seq. ; Wisdom v. Wet seq. ; the passage quoted
in I Cor. ii. 9 and the passages in Yalkut, Judges,
59; see also Crown).

In i. 12-16 temptations are declared to come, not
directly from God, but from the powers of the
flesh, the "yezer ha-ra' " — lust which leads to sin
and death (comp. Ecclus. [Sirach] xv. 12; Test.
Patr., Reuben, 2 et seq. ; Judah, 14, 19; and often).
" Only good gifts come from God " (" kol de-'abed
rahmana le-tab 'abed"); "What God doeth is for
good" (Bcr. 60b, after Gen. i. 31; comp. Philo, " De
Profugis,"§15; and often). "TlieFather of Lights"
{i.e., of the stars as sons of God ; comp. Apoc. Mosis,
36 ; Philo, " De Somniis," i. 13 ; idetn, " De Sacrifican-

tibus," §4) is one "with whom there is no varia-
tion or turning," as with the stars (Wisdom vii. 18;
Enoch, xli. 8; Ixxii. 5, 35). Especially is man created
by His word of truth, the first-fnnt of His creation
(comp. Yer. Shab. 5b: "man is the pure ' hallah '
[lirst dough] of creation ").

Decidedly Jewish or rabbinical in conception and
expression are the following sentences — i. 19-27:
"Let every man be swift to hear, slow to speak,
slow to wrath" (comp. Abot v. 11-12: "Hard to
provoke and easy to be pacified is the disposition of
the hasid " ; " Quick to hear and slow to forget
is wise"). "Lay apart all filthiness . . . and re-
ceive in meekness the engrafted word which is able
to save your souls" (comp. Zech. iii. 3 et seq.;
pseudo-Phocylides, 128; Apoc. Mosis, 20-21; Ps.
cxix. 11 ; Test. Patr., Gad, 4). "Be ye doers of the
word, and not hearers only " (comp. Abot i. 17, v.
14; Shab. 88a: "A crown for Israel's promise to do,
and another for his promise to hear "). In i. 25 " the
word " is spoken of as " the perfect law of liberty "
(comp. Abot vi. 2; IV Mace. xiv. 2; Philo, "Quod
Omnis Probus Liber," § 7), the observance of which
brings eternal bliss (IV Mace. xvii. 18, xviii. 23).
"The attendance at the divine service where the
word of God is read should lead to pure speech and
a pure worship of God the Father [comp. Ps. Ixviii.
6] through works of charity, visiting the father-
less and widows in their affliction " (comp. Ec-
clus. [Sirach] iv. 10, xxxii. 14), and " keeping
oneself unspotted from the world " (comp. Enoch,
xlviii. 7).

In ch. ii. the Synagogue audits specific teachings

form the main subject of discussion, introduced by

verse 1 : " M}' brethren, show not respect of persons

while professing belief in [the Lord of

Synagogal Glory]" (comp. Enoch, xl. 3, Ixiii. 2;

Teaching' Ps. xxiv. 7-10; the Christian inter-

and. polation, "our Lord Jesus Christ,"

Practise, destroys the sense of the whole sen-
tence and of all that follows). " Dis-
crimination between the rich and the poor in
the assignment of seats in the synagogue is not
in keeping with the faith professed bj' the breth-
ren, according to which God has chosen the poor
as those rich in faith and as heirs to the king-
dom promised to those that love Him " (2-5; comp.
Ecclus. [Sirach] x. 22, xi. 6; Wisdom iii. 9; Enoch,
xliii. 4; and often). "To despise the poor and honor
tiie rich who drag the poor to the courts and thus
desecrate the fair [/caAw; perhaps originally fj.e}a/.ov
= "great"] name by which ye are called [that is,
"hillul ha-shem"] is not fulfilling the royal Law.
' Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself ' [Lev. xi.\.
18] ; those who do so are transgressors of the Law,
inasmuch as he who offends in one point is guilty of
transgressing the whole "(6-11 ; comp. Lev. xix. 15;
Dent. xvi. 19, xxvii. 26; the Decalogue is quoted
after the LXX., Ex. xx. 13-15; comp. Philo, "De
Decalogo," §§24-26).

The writer then continues: "The freedom that
comes from the study of the Law [Abot vi. 2] does
not consist in the mere speaking of it, but must be
shown in the doing; the mere profession of faith
without works is of no avail ; words without action
do not relieve the naked and destitute — the demons

James

Jauuarius

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

qjso believe that there is one God. Abraham, our
father, testified to his faith by his action, so it was
accounted to hinl for righteousness [Gen. xv. 6], and
be became the friend of God [comp. Book of Jubi-
lees, xix. 9]. Also, Rahab the iieathcu was justified
by her work in relieving the messengers [Josh. ii. 9-
11] and not by mere confession. Faith without
works is like the body without motion [so Spitta:
text has " without the spirit"]" (12-20; comp. IV
Esd. vii. 24, viii. 32-36, ix. 7, xiii. 23; Enoch,
xxxviii. 2). It has been assumed by most New
Testament exegetes that these observations refer to
Paul's doctrine concerning justification by faith, a
doctrine which also is based upon Gen. xv. 6 (see
Rom. iv. 3; Gal. iii. 6). but which is contradicted
by James. Spitta, however, insists that thej' were
made independently of Paul (see, especially, I.e. ii.
204 ei seq.).

Ch. iii. contains observations, in the spirit of the

Wisdom literature, regarding the evil longue (comp.

Ps. xxxii. 9, xxxiv. 16; Ecclus. [Si-

The Power rach] xxii. 25, xxviii. 10-23). The

of the readers are admonished not to pursue

Tongue, in large numbers the vocation of teach-
ers, as it entails great responsibilities
(comp. Abot i. 10, 11), since by the unbridled tongue
all men are apt to sin. The tongue often defiles the
whole body and sets on fire tlie whole wlieel of ex-
istence (A. V. " course of nature "). With the mouth
with which we bless God the universal Father we
also curse men made in His image (1-10; comp.
Tan., ]\Iczora', ed. Buber, 4-5; 'Ar. 15b-16a; Test.
Patr., Benjamin, 6). Let therefore the Avise show
his wisdom in removing strife and envy, for the
wi.sdom that comes from above works peace and
mercy witiiout partiality and hypocrisy (11-18;
comp. Abot i. 12, ii. 15; Test. Patr., Levi, 13).

In ch. iv. the brethren are warned against lusts
which produce war among the members of the body
(1-3; comp. Test. Patr.. Reuben, 2; Dan, 5; Ned.
32b, with reference to Eccl. ix. 14). In the spirit of
Essenism the author calls them (4-5) '' adulterers," be-
cause cherishing unlawful desir^'S, and says, '"Know
ye not that the friendsiup of the world is enmity with
God?" (comp. Enoch, xlviii. 7); and with reference
to Gen. vi. 3 and Prov. iii. 34 (LXX.) he tells them
to resist the devil, or tempter, and he will flee from
them ; and instead to cling to God, and He will
draw nigh to them (comp. Ps. xviii. 26 [A. V. 25] ct
seq. ; Zech. i. 3; Test. Patr., Simeon, 3; Is.sacliar, 4,
7: Dan, 5, 7; Naphtali, 8). They should therefore
cleanse hands and liearts and weep over their sins,
and through humbleness before God they will be
lifted up (8-10; such monitions could never have
emanated from a believer in Jesus as Christ without
some reference to the power of forgiving sin ascribed
to him by his followers). The brethren are espe-
cially warned against speaking evil against, and
judging, one anotlier. inasmuch as, being teachers
of the Law, they thereby speak evil against, and
judge, tlie Law itself. "God alone is tJie Lawgiver
and Judge who is able to save and to destroy. Who
art thou that judgest thy neighbor?" (Il-i2).

In the following (iv. 13-15) the rich merchants
who plan great voyages and undertakings for tlie
future are reminded of the uncertaintv of liuman life

(comp. Deut. R. ix.); they ought to say, "If God
wills, we shall live and do this or that." (Compare

the Jewish saying, "Im yirzeh ha-

The Great shem " = " If God permits. " On the

Judgment- other hand, " he who is able to do good

Day. and does it not, sins.") Finally, the

rich oiies who live only for their own
pleasure and withhold the wages of their laborers
are told to prepare for the great judgment-day (v.
1-5; comp. Enoch, xciv.-c, cii. 9, ciii. 5 et seq.\
Ecclus. [Sirach] xxxi. 21 ; Wisdom ii. 20). On the
other hand, the righteous who suffer innocently at
the hands of the rich are admonished to wait pa-
tiently for the judgment-day of the Lord which is
nigh, not to bear grudges one against anotlier, and
to take for their example tlie Prophets and Job, who
also suffered in the cau.se of God (6-11).

Here follow, without any connection with the
preceding, a number of Essenc teacliiugs concerning
(1) swearing and (2) the treatmentof membersof the
brotherhood. (1) "But above all things, my breth
ren, swear not, neither by heaven, neither b}-- the
earth, neither by anj- other oath: but let yoiir yea
be .yea and j'our nay, nay ; lest ye fall into [eternal]
judgment" (12; comp. Josephus, "B. J." ii. 8, § 6;
Ecclus. [Sirach] xxiii. 9-11; Philo, "De Decern
Oraculis,'^ 17; Sifra, Kedoshim, viii. ; Ruth R. vii.
5; Num. R. xxii. ; Lev. R. vi. ; Ned. 8b; Shebu. iv.
13: Matt. V. 33-37 is probably an amplification of
this passage in James). (2) " Pray for the afflicted
and sing psalms with the joyful." If one is sick,
tlie ciders of the congregation (A. V. "church")
should be called to offer praj'er for him and anoint

him witli oil (for healing) in the name

Specific of the Lord (comp. B. B. 116a; Ned.

Essene 40a; Apoc. Mosis, 9; Sanh. 101a;

Teachings. Yoma 77b; Yer. Ma'as. Sh. ii. 53b;

Shab. xiv. 3). A confession of sins
(" widdui") should precede the prayer (Lev. R. x.);
"the prayer of true faith saveth the sick, and that
of the righteous man availeth much " (comp. Ber. v.
4b, 5; Test. Patr., Reuben, 1. 4; Gad, 5). As an
example of the power of the saint the story of Eli-
jah (I Kings xvii. 1, xviii. 1) is referred to. As the
ailing brother is thus induced by the one who visits
him to repent of his sins, the writer closes with the
general sentence (19-20) : " If any of the brethren
leads another to repentance [" teshubah "] he saves
him from death, and hides [?. e. , removes from sight]
a multitude of sins."

To ascribe these instructions to a believer in Jesus
as the Savior and Healer of men is absolutely with-
out fofindation. As Spitta has shown, much of
early Christian literature, especially the Second
p]pistle General of Peter, is founded on the epistle.

Bibliography: Spitta, Der Brief dcs Jiuolm^, Gottingen,
1896.
T K.

JAMES, DAVID (DAVID BELASCO): Eng-
lish comedian; born at Birmingham 1839; died in
London Oct. 3, 1893. Under the auspices of Charles
Kean, James made his debut, when a child, in the
ballet at the Princess' Theatre. London. Next he
appeared in various burlesques, his best creation
being Mercury in F. C. Burnand's " Lxion," produced
at the Royalty.

THE JEWISH E^'CyCLOPEDIA

James
Januarius

In 1870 James joined H. J. -Montague and Thomas
Thorne in the management of the Vaudeville
Theatre.

His greatest success was as Perkyn Middlemek in
Byrons " Our Boy3," a part which he made famous
and which he played more than thirteen hundred
consecutive times — the record run for an English
play— Jan. 16, 1875, to April 18, 1879. In 1881 he
went to the Haymarket to join the Bancrofts: and
thence he removed to the Lyceum, where "Two
Roses" had been revived especially for liim. In
1886 he joined Charles Wyndham's companj', ]
ing at the Criterion Theatre. In 1893, shortly be. _ .
Jamess death, " Our Boys " was revived for him.

James left his large fortune to charity, mainly to

Jewish institutions.

Bibliographt: The Timen (London), Oct. 3, 1888;-Jcir.
Chrou. Oct., 1898.
J. E. 3Is.

JAMNIA. See J.\BXEn.

JANINA or TANYA : City in Albania, Euro-
pean Turkey, on the lake of Janina.

The community, which was flourishing in the mid
die of the nineteenth century, is now dwindling. It
includes about 1,000 families in an entire population
of 30.000 inhabitants. It has two synagogues and
two private meeting-rooms for prayer, a Talmud
Torah, a school (400 boys and 150 girls) where Turk-
ish and Greek are taught in addition to Hebrew, and
about ten benevolent societies.

Bibliography: Vniv. l*r. (Paris, April :S, 1&B>.

D. M. Fp..

JANNAI. See Yaknai.

JANNES AND JAMBRES (more correctly
Mambres, D"i2w"! D'J'; also S'tDJDI ':mvYokaiiEi
and Mamre) : Names of two legendary wizards >, -
Pharaoh " who withstood 3Ioses " (11 Tim. iii. 8) by
imitating "with their enchantments" the works of
Moses and Aaron, though they were defeated (Ex.
vii. 11. viii. 7). According to rabbinical tradition
they were the two chiefs of the magicians at the
court of Pharaoh who foretold the birth of Moses,
'• the de.stroyer of the laud of Egypt," thereby caus-
ing the cruel edicts of Pharaoh i Sotah 11a: Sanh.
106a). They said to Moses when he performed his
miracles with the water and the rod: "Dost thou
wish to introduce magic into Egypt, the native laud
of the magic art?'" (Men. 8oa). According to Mid-
rash Yelammedenu. Ki Tissa (Ex. xxxii.), they were
among "the mixed multitude that went up with
Israel from Egypt " (Ex xii. 38) and aided iu the
making of the golden calf. They were the "two
3'ouths" (A. and R. Y. "servants") that accom-
panied Balaam on his travels when commissioned to
curse Israel (Targ. i. to Zs'um. xxii. 23). They flew
up into the air before the sword of Phinehas and made
themselves invisible, until, by the power of the In-
efftible Name, they were caught and slain (Zchar,
Balak. 194; comp. Targ. Yer. to Xum. xxxi. 8).

Numenius the Pythagorean, quoted by Eusebius
("Pra?paratio Evangelica," ix. 8), relates after Ar-
tapanus (see Freudenthal, "Alexander Polyhistor."
1875, p. 173) that "Jannes and Jambres, the most
powerfiil Egyptian magicians, dispersed the plagues
which Moses (Mussus) had brought upon Egypt."

In the third century- the tomb of Jaones and Jambres
was shown in Egypt; Christian saints knew it as a
place where the evil demons could be consulted for
magic purposes (see the story of Macarius in Palla-
dius. " Historia Lausiaca " : . Fabrieius, " Codex Pseu-
phus Vet. Test." i. 181, iL 106-111). Jannes
«^-- o..aibres are tlie subjects of many legendary
tales, one of which is presented in a Greek work en-
titled " ntia Jannis et Mambre," counted

among .^ocrypha in Pope Gelasius' "Decre-

tura." and referred to by Origen (to Matt, sxvii. 9).
-em to have been known also to such
.,_^\._ .iS Pliny and Apuleius: Pliny ("His-
toria Naturalis.'- xxxL 11) mentions Moses, Jannes.
and Jotap»: :-?) among the Jewish magicians,

and Apule: ^ - __^ ^'logia, " xc. ) mentions Moses and
Jannes among the world's great magicians.

Regarding the names, various etymologies have
been proposed. Ewald ("(Sesch." i., pt. ii. 128),
Lauth(" Moses der HebrSer," p. 77). and Freuden-
thal ('.c."^ believe them to have been derived from the
Egyptian ; Steiner (Schenkel, " Bibel-Lexicon ") at-
tempts to find for them a Hebrew origin; Geiger
C 1^- ; - "^ p." 474 -■ Vrs the sons of Jambri as

An omp. I ? ;:. 36; see Kohut, "Aruch

Completum "). Jastrow (" Diet. '^ and Levy (" Ifeu-
hebr. Worterb.'O each offer equally untenable ex-
planations. The fact that a demon belonging to the
class of Lilith, or a sorceress named Yohane bat Retibi
('3'DT "3 ':" ' "is gseatly dreaded in Talmudical
limes tSot 1 and that Abraham's concubine

Keturah (believed to have been familiar with magic)
was also known as "Yohane" (Zeb. 62b; but see
Bacher, " Ag. Tan." i. SSI; 2d ed., p. 350), seems to
throw some light upon the names "Jannes" and
.. T — -" ia Pliny; while the name "Mambre" ap-
_ be correcth' identified "with ntao (= "the

rebel"; Levy, I.e.).

BIB006-

literar
Abraluii

. . Bil'i.

aii-i liraei

JAXOWSKT, DAVID: Russian chess-player;
bom ]^!ay :}5. iMvS. iii Russian Poland. He learned
to play chess as a child, but diti not make a serious
study of the game until about 1886, when he removed
to Paris, where he still (1904) resides. In interna-
tional tournaments Janowski has played as the repre-
sentative of France. His chief sue - -■;ivebeen:

lS8t.
1896.
ISSS.
1697.

Leipsic, flftlj prize.
Xuremberg, fifth phxe.
Budapest, tourtQ prir-
Benin, fourth prize.
Vieana. third prize.

189^. > leana. tnira pnze.

In 1902 Janowski succeeded S. F.
editor of "Le Monde Hiustre "

— 136

as cbe^

Bib:

-~-ir?. The Ha&t}'.^ Ch':--^
' : H. Helms, in BtXKV.

A. P.

JANVAB.TnS i0^^n2^2^) '• Talmudic name of a
legendary hcio: it is taken from the name of the
first of the twelve Roman months. R. Jobanan, in
Yer. 'Ab. Zarah i. 39c, relates as follows: "The
governments of Egypt and Rome, having been at
war with each other for a long time, finally agreed
to cease their cruel bloodshed and instead to recog-
nize as ruler that government whose seneral would

Japheth
Jare

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

in obedience to command foithwitii cast himself
upon bis sword and die. Egypt found no general
willing. The Romans, bovvever, bad an old man by
the name of Januarius, wbo bad twelve sous. To
bim tbey said : ' Obey our command, and in compen-
sation we will make tby twelve sons dukes, eparcbi,
and leaders of tbe army. ' He tben cast bimself upon
bis sword and died ; and bence tbe first of January
was called ' Calenda3 Januarii, ' and tiie following day
was made a day of mourning." Tbis is obviously
a misunderstood Roman legend of old King Janus,
tbe fatber of Time, wbo — like Cbronus — dies to
make room for bis twelve sons, the twelve montlis
of tbe year, and probably is connected with a festi-
val of Janus celebrated in Rome on tbe 1st of Jan-
uary.

Bibliography: Bruir.s Jahrb. i. 161, note; Michael Sachs,
Beitrdge zur Sprach- unci Alterlhumsforschunu, ii. 1:.'5,
Berlin; 1854.
A. K.

JAPHETH (nS^).— Biblical Data : One of the

sons of !Noab, and tbe ancestor of a branch of the
human race called " Japhetites. " Japheth and bis
two brothers, Shem and Ham, were born when Noah
bad attained bis five hundredth year (Gen. v. '62).
It is not clearly indicated which of the three brothers
was tbe eldest. Japheth usually comes third in order
(ib. vi. 10, vii. 13, ix. 18, x. 1), but in the geneal-
ogy of their descendants tbe order is inverted (ib. x.
2-22). Tbe words "tbe elder" (ib. x. 21) are more
probably applied to IShem. Still, it seems, from a
comparison of Gen. v. 32, vii. 6, and xi. 10, that
Japheth was by two years Shem's senior. Ja-
pheth with his brother Shera covered the naked-
ness of their father when he lay drunken in bis
tent, for which deed he received from bis fatber tbe
blessing that his descendants might extend over the
surface of tbe earth and that Canaan should be his
as well as Shem's servant (ix. 23, 27). Japheth was
married before the Flood, and had bis wife with bim
in tbe ark (vii. 13); but bis seven sons were born
after the Deluge (x. 1).

Tbe name " Japheth " is derived, according to Gen.
ix. 27, from tbe Aramaic root nns = "to extend,"
in allusion to tbe expansion of tbe Japhetites. Saa-
dia and the modern lexicographers, as Gesenius and
others, derive it from nQ"* = " fair " ; but this inter-
pretation bad already been rejected by Ibn Ezra.

As to tbe identification of Japheth with tbe lape-
tos of tbe Greek mythology, see D. S. Margoliouth in
Hastings, "Diet. Bible"; comp. also Sayce in "Tr.
Soc. Bibl. Arch." 1883, p. 154. See Biblical Eth-
nology.

E. G. II. M. Sel.
In Rabbinical -Iiiterature : Japheth is con-
sidered by the Talmudists to have been the eldest
son of Noah (Sanh. 69b; Gen. R. xxvi.). Tbe reason
wbj'' Shem's name always appears first is that tbe
sons of Noah are named in the order of their ability
(i.e., aswise men, among whom Shem excelled ; Sanh.
I.e.). According to the Midrasb, the jjrosperity of
Japheth is alluded to in Ps. i. 3: "and whatsoever
be doeth shall prosper " (Gen. R. I.e.). In tbe act of
covering Noah's nakedness it was Shem wbo first
took "the cover"; but Japiietb came afterward to
help him and was repaid therefor in that bis de-

scendants Gog and Magog were granted burial
(Ezek. xxxix. 11 et seq. ; Gen. R. xxxvi.).

The words "yaft elohim le-Yefet " (Gen. ix. 27) are
interpreted as alluding to tbe construction of tbe
Second Temple by Cyrus, wbo was descended from
Japheth (Yonia 10a). Bar Kappara interpreted the
passage as meaning that tbe Law will be explained
in tbe language of Japheth (Gen. R. xxxvi. ; Deut.
R. i.); R. Hiyya b. Abba, interpreting "yaft" as
derived from tbe root ns% meaning " beauty " (see
Japheth, Biblical Data), explains it more clearly
thus: "Tbe Law will be explained in the beautiful
language of tbe Greeks, descendants of Japheth"
(Meg. 9b). According to the Targum pseudo-Jona-
than {ad loc.), tbe passage means that the descendants
of Japheth will become proselytes and will study
the Law in tbe schools of Shem.

When God blessed Noah and bis sons (Gen. ix. 1),
He in blessing Japheth promised that all of bis sons
should be white ; and He gave them as their portion
deserts and fields (Pirke R. El. xxiv.).

s. s. M. Sel.

JAPHETH HA-LEVI (Arabic, Abu or Ibn
'Ali Hasan [=: Japheth] al-Basri al-Lawi) :

Karaite Bible translator and commentator ; flourished
at Jerusalem between 950 and 980. He was one of
tbe most able Bible conunentators among tbe Ka-
raites, who distinguished him by the epithet " maskil
ba-Golah " (= " teacher of the Exile "). Unlike bis
Karaite predecessors in the field of Bible exegesis,
Japheth realized the importance of grammar and
lexicography for the interpretation of Scripture, al-
though he did not excel in either. The interest
which bis commentaries present lies chiefly in the
accumulation of material for tbe history of tbe dif-
ferences between tbe Rabbinites and tbe Karaites;
for he enters into lengthy disputes with tbe Rabbin-
ites, especially with Saadia, from whose commen-
taries on the Bible and polemical works, including
some no longer in existence, be gives many extracts.
Thus in regard to Ex. xxxv. 3 be discusses with
Saadia the kindling of a fire by a non-Jew on Sab-
bath, a practise which the Karaites considered to be
forbidden. Japheth reproaches Saadia with being
unfaithful to tbe principles he himself had laid down
for the interpretation of the Law, according to which
no deductions by analogy are admissible in definite
revealed precepts. On Lev. xxiii. 5 Japheth cites
fragments from Saadia's "Kitab al-Tamyiz," a po-
lemical work against Karaism, in which tbe author
states that there are three sects which are divided on
the question of tbe new moon: (1) tbe Rabbinites,
wbo, except in special cases, determine it by the
molad ; (2) tbe sect of tbe Tiflis, which follow the
molad absolutely ; and (3) a sect which is guided by
tbe first appearance of tbe moon.

Japheth claims full freedom for the exegete, refu-
sing to admit any authority for the interpretation of

tbe Law ; and, although he sometimes

His uses tbe thirteen liermeneutic rules laid

Exegetical down in tbe Misbnah, be denies their

Principles, authority: they are to be applied,

be claims, only when it is not possible
to explain tbe passage literally. Thus, notwith-
standing bis profound veneration for Anan, tbe

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Japheth.
Jare

founder of Karaism, and for Benjaniin Nahawandi,
be often rejects their iuterpretalioiis.

Japheth was a decided adversary of tlie jjliilo-
sophico-allegorical trcatnieut of Scripture. He, how-
ever, symbolizes several Biblical narrutioiis, as, for
instance, that of the burning bush, in which he finds
a re])resentation of Israel, whom enemies can not
annihilate; and he admits that the Song of Solomon
is an allegory.

Japheth attacked Islam with the greatest violence.
For him the words of Isaiah, " Woe to thee that spoil-
est " (Isa. xxxiii. 1), refer to Mohammed, who robbed
all nations and dealt treacherously with his own peo-
ple, and Isa. xlvii. 9 to the downfall of Islam. In
the following verse he sees an allusion to the suffer-
ings inflicted b\' the Mohammedan rulers upon the
Israelites, who are loaded with heavy taxes, com-
pelled to wear badges, forbidden to ride on horse-
back, etc.

Japheth was no less bitter in his attacks on Chris-
tianity and on rabbinical Judaism, to which he refers
many prophecies. Unlike his predecessors, he was
not an opponent of secular science. To him the
word "da'at" (Prov. i. 7) denotes "the knowledge"
of astronomy, medicine, mathematics, etc., the study
of which is to be undertaken before that of theology.

Japheth's commentaries were much used by suc-
ceeding Karaite exegetes, and were often quoted by
Ibn Ezra. Written in Arabic, some
Their of them were rendered into Hebrew
Influence, either in full or abridged. Nearly the
whole Arabic text on all the Bib-
lical books is extant in manuscript in the leading
European libraries (Leyden, Oxford, British Mu-
seum, London, Paris, Berlin, etc.). The parts which
have been published are: on the Psalms and the
Song of Solomon, by Abbe Barges (Paris, 1861, 1884) ;
on Proverbs, by Z. Auerbach (Bonn, 1866) ; on Ilosea,
by Tottermann(Leipsic, 1880); on Daniel, by Margo-
liouth (in "Anecdota Oxoniensa," Semitic Series, i.,
vol. iii., Oxford, 1889); on Ecclesiastes i.-iii., by J.
Giinzig (Cracow, 1898); on Kuth, by N. Schorstein
(Heidelberg, 1903).

Before devoting himself to Biblical exegesis Ja-
pheth wrote several other works of lesser importance.
Among these were: (1) an epistle in
Other rimed prose refuting the criticism on

Works. Karaism by Jacob ben Samuel, sur-
named by the Karaites "ha-'Ikkesh"
(= "the intriguer"), published by Pinsker in his
"LikkuteKadmoniyyot," p. 19. Japlieth endeavors
in this epistle to demonstrate that there is no trace
of oral tradition in Scripture, and consequently the
Mishnah, Talmud, and other rabbinical writings fall
under the prohibition "Ye shall not add unto the
word which I command you " (Deut. iv. 2). (2)
"Sefer ha-Mizwot," treating of the precepts, and
containing many controversies with the Rabbinites;
mentioned by Japheth in the commentaries to I Sam.
XX. 27; Dan. x. 3. Some fragments of this work
Avere found in the Library of St. Petersburg and
published by A. Harkavy. (3) " 'lyyun Tefillah," in
ten chapters, treating of all that pertains to prayer;
extant in manuscript (Paris MS. No. 670). (4)
" Kalam." perhaps a liturgical work, extant in manu-
script. Levi, Japheth's son, mentions in his " Mukad-

dimah " to Deuteronomy another work by his father,
entitled "'Salah Berurah," the contents of which are
unknown (the supposition of Filrst that it was a
grammatical treatise is considered to be erroneous).

Biri.io(;raphy: PinskPr, Lihkute Kndmnniyyol, passim;
Muiik, in Josl's Ainialcn, l'H41,"pp. '70 et xe<j.; .Jost, Ocwii.
den Judeiithunis inid Seiner Sekten, ii. 'MH; i'mat. (icnli.
des Kardert. ii. l:.'4 et .»••«•(;.; Griitz, Gesch. v. 28 ; Poznanslii.
in J. Q. It. viii. tlS)!, x. 24«i ; Bacher, in R. E. J. xxviii. 151 et
seq.; Steinschneitler, in J. Q. li. x. .533. xi. 327: idem, Hchr.
Uebcrx. p. !M1 ; idem, Die Aialmche Litcratur der Judeiu
§44.

K. L Br.

JAPHIA (y>D' = " He shineth ") : 1. King of La-
chish, and one of the five kings who, entering into a
confederacy against Joshua (Josh. x. 3), were killed
by the latter at Makkedah (see Adoni-zedek). 2.
According to II Sam. v. 15, the eighth of the eleven
sons of David born in Jerusalem, but according to
I Chron. iii. 7, xiv. 6, the tenth of thirteen sons born
there. This name is given in the Peshitta as
"Nefia," which reading seems to have been fol-
lowed by Josephus, Avho has "Ennaphen" ("Ant."
vii. 3, ^ 3). 3. A place marking the boundary of
Zebulun (Josh. xix. 12, 13). It is identified with
Japha, a strong village of Galilee fortified by Jo-
sephus ("Vita," 37, §45; irkm, "B. J." ii. 20, § 6; iii.
7, § 31), and with the modern Yafa, a small village
southwest of Nazareth, in which Robinson found
about thirty houses (Robinson, " Research es," iii.
200). This village is also described by Eusebius and
Jerome (" Onomasticon," ft.i'. "Japheth "). The Ital-
ian monks now call it " St. Giacomo," on account of
the tradition that this village was the residence of
Zebedee and his two sons James and John.

E. G. H. M. Sel.

JAPHO. See Jaffa.

JARE (t^l' = " God-fearing " ; by some it is re-
garded as the abbreviation of the words " Yehi rezui
ehaw " [Deut. xxxiii. 24]): Name of an ancient
Italian family of scholars dating back to the fifteenth
century.

Giuseppe Jare : Italian rabbi ; born at Mantua,
Dec, 1840. He was educated at the Istituto Rab-
binico of Padua, being one of the last pupils of S. D.
Luzzatto. In 1868 he received his rabbi's diploma,
and at the same time a professor's diploma from the
university. He officiated as rabbi in his native city,
and in 1880 went in the same capacity to Ferrara. A
specialist in Jewish literature, he has collaborated on
the works of prominent scholars. His independent
works include: "Delia Immutabilita della Legge
Mosaica" (Leghorn, 1876); "Cenni su Abramo Co-
lorni " (Ferrara, 1891).

s. I. E.

Isaac Jare : Rabbi at Ivrea. Another Isaac Jare
was rabbi at Mantua about 1720.

Mordecai b. Berechiah Reuben Jare: Italian
preacher; lived at Mantua toward the end of the
sixteenth century. His father died at Mantua in
1598. Mordecai compiled for the Shomerim la-Boker
society the collection of liturgical poems known
under the title "Ayyelet ha-Shahar," including
chiefly "tefillot," " bakkashot, " "selihot," and "piz-
monim," printed first at Mantua in 1612 in the newly
established printing-office of Eliezer d 'Italia. Jare
included many poems by his contemporary Hananiah

Jargon
Jassy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Eliakim Rieti. The collection contains also the fol-
lowing compositions by Mordecai: (1) "Leka Eli
Teshukati," bakkashah for the Sabbath, in verse, a
clever imitation of an anonymous bakkashah in the
Spanisii ritual (printed also in 'Si. Sachs's "Religiose
Poesie," Hebrew part, p. 44; D. Kohn, "Abraham
ibu Esra," i. 204). Both poems are closely connected
with GabiroFs " Leka Nafshi Tesapper. " (2) " Ehyeli
Asher Ehyeh,'' selihah for days on which no "taha-
nun " is recited, consisting of eleven strophes, each of
which, except the last, begins with a name of God.
It was written at tlie request of Isaac Galico.

Mordecai wrote also an approbation for Joseph
Jedidiah Karmi's "Kenaf Renanim'' (Venice, 1626).

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Jiwll. col. 1666; idem,
Hebr. Bibl. ^ii. 23; Zunz, Literaturaesch. p. 424.

G. n. B.

Pethahiah Jare, of Spoleto, received from his
teacher in Arabic a work entitled " Kontros 'Erez ha-
Zebi," which Iiis son, the plij-sician Moses Jare,
showed to Azariah doi Rossi at Ferrara.

Reuben Jare : Father of 3Iordecai Jare ; teacher
and rabbi at Mantua about 1598.

Bibliography: Zunz, Lite rat urgesch. p. 424; idem, in Ke-
rcm Hemed, v. 158; Steinsclinelder, Cat. Bodl. No. 6333; R.
E. J. "v. Ill ; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. il. 28.
D. M. K.

JARGON. See Jud-eo-German.

JARMON, NEHORAI, See G.\rmon,

NEHOR.\r.

JARNO, JOSEF (Josef Cohen) : Austrian act-
or; born at Budapest Aug. 24, 18GG. He was edu-
cated for a mercantile career, but went on the stage
when nineteen years of age. His debut was made in
1885 at Ischi, where he lias since been engaged
during the summer months. From 1887 to 1890 lie
played in Laibach ; from 1890 to 1899 in Berlin at
the Residenztheater and the Deutschestheater; and
since 1899 he has been a member of the Josefstiidter
Theater company at Vienna.

Jarno has written several plays, among which may
be mentioned: " Der Rabenvater " ; "lUusionen";
" Der Vielgeliebte " ; " Die Wahrsageriu " ; etc.

Bibliography: Eiseuberg. Biog. La.
s.

F. T. H.

JAROSLAW. See Yaroslav.

JAROSLAW, AARON: One of the Biurists;
a tutor in the house of Jlendelssohn ; afterw^ard
teacher at Lemberg. His commentary on the Book
of Numbers appeared in tlie first edition of Mendels-
sohn's Pentateuch ("Netibot ha-Shalom," Berlin,
1783) and has been included in all subsequent edi-
tions. He published the third edition of Mainionides'
"Miilot ha-IIiggayon," with Moses Mendelssohn's
Hebrew commentary (Berlin, 1784).

Bibliography: Furst, Bihl. Jud. ii. 28; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodl. col. 721; Zeitlin, Bibl. Pfint-Mejuiels. pp. 153-154; Moses
Mendelssohn, Geaammeltc Schrifteii, v. 660.

s. S. Max.

JASHER, BOOK OF (Hebrew, "Sefer ha-
Yashar " = " Book of the Righteous One ") : A book,
apparent])' containing heroic songs, mentioned twice
in the Old Testament: in the account of the battle
of Gibeon a fragment of a song of Joshua is given
as taken from it (Josh. x. 13) ; and another fragment

is quoted in David's lamentation for Saul and Jona-
than (II Sam. i. 18).

The nature of this book has been a matter of dis-
cu.ssion from the time of the Septuagint up to the
present day. The Septuagint, in Joshua, omits all
reference to the Book of Jasher, while in II Samuel
it refers to it as Bifi/uov -oh Ei'Woif. On the other
hand, in I Kings viii., transposing verses 12-13,
which are a fragment of a song, after verse 53, it
adds, "is it not written in the book of songs (ev
jii^'ALu T7/C o)'5vf) ? " It is evident that the Septuagint
had a text which in this passage read {<'ri xbn
"Ctl^r! "IDD^ ^\2^T)2 ; and it ma}' be supposed that the
word ic"m. which occurs in the two passages men-
tioned al)Ove, is simply an anagram of "i^K'n. This
supposition is supported by the Peshitta, which
reads in II Samuel "Sefer Ashir,"' while in Joshua
it translates "Sefer ha-Yashar " by "Sifra de-Tush-
behata " (= "Book of Praises "). Another theory is
that "Sefer lia-Yashar" is a misreading for "Sefer
Az Yashir" (-l■'E^'' TX: comp. E.k. xv. 1), the book
beginning with this phrase, and containing songs.

The Rabbis, followed by Jerome, translated
"Sefer lia-Yashar" by "Book of the Righteous"
("Liber Justorum ") ; but while following the ren-
dering of theTargum Yerushalmi, " Sifra de-Oraita"
(= "The Book of the Law "), they did not agree as
to which book was meant. R. Johanan referred it
to Genesis, finding there allusions both to the title
("Book of the Righteous") and to the incidents in
connection with which it is quoted ; R. Eleazar re-
ferred it to Deuteronomy: and Samuel b. Nahmani
to the Book of Judges ('Ab. Zarah 25a). Sixtus
Senensis ("Bibl. Sanct." book ii.) states that some
Hebrew writers (whose names he does not give) un-
derstand by the " Book of Jasher " the twelve ^Minor
Prophets.

Levi b. Gershon was the only commentator who
thought that the " Sefer ha-Yashar " was a special
book, lost during the Captivity. His opinion has
been adopted by Junius, Hottinger ("Thos. Phil."'
ii. 2, § 2), and manj" others. For further details in
regard to the opinions of modern critics and Donald-
son's attempt to reconstruct the book, see W. A.
Wright in Smith, "Diet. Bible." For the more
modern midrash of the same name .see Y.\siiai{.

E. G. n. 31. Sei,.

JASON (JESHUA or JESUS) : 1. High priest
from 174 to 171 B.C. : brother of the high priest Onias
III. During the absence of Onias, who had been sum-
moned to Antioch to meet charges brought against
him by the Hellenists, Jason joined hands with his
brother's enemies. Througli the paj'ment of large
sums he obtained from Antiochus the transfer of
the higii-priesthood, permission to erect at Jerusa-
lem a gymnasium and an ephebeum, and the grant
to the inhabitants of Jerusalem of the ])rivileges
and title of citizens of Antioch; for the latter
favor alone he paid 150 talents.

During the three years of Jason's administration
the influences of Hellenism in Judea reached their
climax. In his desire to pass for a Hellene Jason
went so far as to send representatives to a duplica-
tion of the Olympian game? celebrated in the presence
of Antiochus at Tyre, and presented 300 drachmas

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jarg-on
Jassy

for a sacrifice to Hercules, to wliom the games were

dedicated. But notwithstanding his z.eal Jason was

deposed at the end of the third year, having been

outbid by Menelaus, supported bj' tlie Toiuads.

Jason, however, did not consider himself defecated;

profiting by the absence of Antiochus Epiidianes,

then engaged in a war with Egypt, and backed by

tlie majority of the inhabitants, he rendered himself

master of the city, and compelled his adversary to

seek refuge in the fortress. Jason's triumph was

short-lived. Antiochus, forced by the Romans to

abandon his campaign against Egypt, seized the

opportunity afforded by Jason's uprising to march

against Jerusalem. When the city was taken Jason

lied to the Ammonites, among whom he remained

until his death.

Bibliography: II Mace. iv. 7-26; Josephus. Ant. xii. 5;
Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, iii.
324; Gratz, Gesch. ii. 298 et seq.; Schiirer. Gesch. i. 194:
Wellhausen, Israelitische ruul JUdische Gesch. 2d ed., p.
23.5. Berlin, 189.5; Biidiler, Die Tohiaden und Oiiiaden, pp.
106 et seq., Vienna, 1899.
E. G. H. I. Br.

2. Son of Eleazar; sent by Judas Maccabeus as
envoy to Rome (I Mace. viii. 17; Josephus, "Ant."
xii. 10, § 6). In the reference to the embassy in
II Mace. iv. 11 onlj^ Jason's companion, Eupole-
mus, son of John (or John, son of Eupolemus), is
mentioned.

G. S. Kr.

JASON OF GYRENE : Juda'oHellenistic his-
torian. He wrote a history of the Maccabean revolt
in five books, from which the author of II INIaccabees
took his data (II Mace. ii. 23), this book being prac-
tically an abstract {kTzirouy; ib. ii. 26, 28) of Jason's
work. The author of II Maccabees himself gives a
short account of Jason's work, in which he indicates
the moral value of reading it.

Jason doubtless presented the events in fine rhe-
torical language, his stj'le being still easily recogni-
zable in II 3Iaccabees. The four letters incorporated
in II Mace. xi. 16 et seq., as well as the legendary
stories of the martyrdom of Eleazar and the seven
brothers {ih. vi.-vii.), were written probably bj' Ja-
son himself. Jason no doubt described the occur-
rences in detail for the purpose of edifying his read-
ers, chiefly Jews, and of confirming them in their
faith. This explains why he required five books for
a narrative that was compressed into one small book
like II jNIaccabees. The epitome preserved covers a
period of fifteen j'ears, from the death of Seleucus
IV. to the victory over Nicanor (175-161). The
abrupt ending is probably due to the epitoinist ; for
this victory marks no period in the Maccabean up
rising.

The many important details in Jason's work prove
that he was not far removed from the events; he
therefore probably did not make use of written notes,
but obtained his information by word of mouth. In
any case he wrote his work in Greek, and II Macca-
bees also is in pure Greek, and is not a translation.
The epitomist probably copied many passages out-
right ; but he may also have incorporated material
of his own. The two letters in the beginning of
the book are not b)' Jason.

Nothing is known about Jason beyond the refer-
ences to him in II Maccabees. A Jason of Cvrene

who inscribed his name on the temple of Thothmes
III. in Egypt (Sayce, " Revue des Etudes Grecques,"
vii. 297) may be identical with the subject of this
article. In this case he must have traveled; and he
may therefore have been in Palestine also and have
gathered his material on tiie spot.

Poly bins may be regarded as a source used by Ja-
son, though doubtless only for the dates of general
history (Willrich, "Judaica," p. 140). It is also as-
sumed that Jason drew upon III Maccabees; e.g., the
account of the Dionysus celebration (II Mace. vi. 7)
is said to have been taken from III Mace. ix. 29
(Willrich, I.e. p. 165), though this can not be proved.
If it is rightly assumed that the Hebrew " Yosippon."
or Goriouides, shows traces of Jason's work, as was
stated first by Trieber, and, following him, by Will-
rich {I.e. p. 170), further reference might be found to
Jason's lost work. It must have been one of the
finest examples of Jud;ieo-Hellenistic literature ; and
its loss is irreparable. Even Philo did not know Ja-
son's work itself, but only the extract in II Macca-
bees; it was this epitome therefore that caused the
original work to be forgotten so quickly.

Bibliography : Trieber, Zur Kritik des Gnrioiiides, In Nach-
richten der Koniglichen Oesellschctft der Wissenschafte n
zu Gfittingen, 1895, pp. 401, 408 ; Willrich, Judcn und Griec}i-
en, eh. ii., Gottingen, 1895; idem, Judaica, ch. iv., ih. 190tJ;
Schlatter, .Teuton I'on Kyrene, m Festschi-ifl der Univerxi-
tat GreifswaJd, 1899; Schiirer, Ge.<fch. 3d ed., iii. aj9-364.

G. S. Kr.

JASSY ( Jaschi) : City of Rumania. Jassy con-
tains the oldest and most important Jewish com-
munity of Moldavia, of which principality it was
formerly the capital. Psantir has found in the old
cemetery there stones with inscriptions dating back
to 1467 and 1549. Jews were living at Jassy before
it became the capital of Moldavia (1565), and their
numbers certainly increased after that, for Jassy,
on the commercial highway between Poland and
Turkey, was frequented by Jewish merchants. The
numerical importance of the Jews of Jassy after the
second half of the sixteenth century explains their
having among them at that time the distinguished
Rabbi Jacob (or Solomon) b. Arvi, who officiated
there for fort}^ years, whom Joseph Solomon Del-
medigo cites as an able physician and cabalist, and
who migrated to Palestine in his old age.

When Prince Aaron rose against Turkey, Nov.,
1594, and killed all the Turks at Jassy, nine-
teen Jews were also victims; and when the Cossacks
rose against Poland, 1648-52, killing indiscrimi-
nately Christians and Jews, a number of the latter
fled to Jassj', while the conununity ransomed others
from the Tatars. Others were sent to Jassy by the
Jews of Constantinople, who had bought thera in
the slave-market of that city. Some of these re-
deemed Jews remained at Jassy. Soon after, the
Jews of Jassy themselves were harried
The by the Cossacks. When Timush. the

Cossack son of Climielnicki, went to Jassy,

Revolt. Aug., 1652, to marry the daughter of
Vasilje Lupul, the soldiers of his large
escort fell upon the Jews, who were forced to hide
while the Cossacks remained in the citj' ; about sixty
Jews who were caught were maltreated and com
pelled to pay a high ransom for their lives. When
V^asilje Lupul, dethroned by Stephen George, called

Jassy
Jastrow

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

upon Ins son-iu-law for aid, the Cossacks returned
and the Jews suffered more cruel tortures at their
hands; all would liave perished had not the Pa-
triarch of Antioch intervened in their behalf on his
passage through the city.

The insurrection was propitious, however, for the
intellectual life of the Jews of Jassy, for among tiie
Polish Jews that sought refuge in Moldavia was
Rabbi Nathan Nata Hanover, author of the "Ye wen
Mezulah'." Called to Jassy from the rabbinate of
Focsani, he directed its community for several years.
Since that time many learned rabbis have occupied
the rabbinate of Jassy, and the inscriptions on tomb-
stones preserve the names of a number of Biblical
and Talmudic scholars who dwelt in the commu-
nity. At the beginning of the eighteenth century
the rabbinate was filled by Pethahiah Lida, son of
David Lida, who fled to Jassy when Lemberg was
sacked by the Swedes. His successor was Bezaleel
ha-Kohen, subsequently hakam basha, whose son
and grandson held in turn the same office. In fact,
about the beginning of the eighteenth century Jassy
became the seat of the hakam bashas, who exercised
authority over the Jews of the entire country.

During the troublous times of the first war be-
tween Russia and Turkey the community of Jassy
suffered greatly, especially under the kaimakam
Lupul(1711). Aftera period of quiet

In the under Nicholas Mavrocordato (1711-
Eighteenth 1715) tlie Jews were again harassed
Century, under the terrible Michael Racovitza
(1716-26), the last year of whose reign
was marked by an accusation of ritual murder at
Onitzcaui. The case, on being appealed, was tried
at Jassy, where the populace, incited by the prince,
plundered the ghetto and set fire to the synagogue,
while Racovitza had a number of Jews tortured in
order to extract money from them. During the
periodic wars between Russia and Turkey in this
century the Jews of Jassy suffered equally with their
Christian fellow citizens, being despoiled and pil-
laged by both sides. The community was, more-
over, torn bj'' internal dissensions. The Frankists
also caused trouble by their propaganda, and the
hakam basha of Jassy was forced to appeal to the
pasha of Chotin to prevent them from seeking ref-
uge in Moldavia after the death of Archbishop
Dembowsky.

On the death of Isaac ha-Kohen, Dec, 1776, or
Jan., 1777, the community split into two hostile par-
ties, one of which chose Isaac's son Naphtali as his
successor, while tlie other elected Mordecai b. Moses
Hayyim. A violent conflict arose, during which
both sides spent enormous sums, and the prestige of
the Jews of Jassy suffered greatly. The quarrel
was finally compromised in 1783, when Naphtali ha-
Kohen was recognized as titulary hakam basha,
though he ceded certain of his rights to his less suc-
cessful rival. After foreign consulates were estab-
lished at Jassy, in 1780, there were incessant conten-
tions between the native Jews and the foreign or
protected Jews in regard to the gabel, which the
latter refused to pay. Agreements were made but
soon broken, and the dissensions between the two
parties finally led to the suspension of the office of
hakam basha (1832).

In 1803, during the reign of Prince Alexander

Murusi, the Jews of Jassy were threatened with a

general massacre, and were saved only

During- through tlie intervention of the metro-
the Nine- politaii, who sheltered them in the

teenth court of the archbisiiop's residence,
Century, declaring that the mob would have to
pass over his body before reaching the
Jews. Calimah (1812-19), although favorably dis-
posed toward them, could not prevent the annoy-
ances and extortions to which tliey were subjected
by his rapacious officials. The plague that raged
in Moldavia in 1815 was made a pretext for subject-
ing the Jews to oppressive regulations, enacted
ostensibly for the protection of the city. The assess-
ments of the community were considerably increased,
and the Jewish money-lenders wei'C restricted in
their business. The most calamitous days fell upon
the community in 1821-22, at the time of the Greek
revolution. This uprising, known as the " Hetaria,"
first broke out at Jassy, where Turks and Jews were
slain indiscriminately. There were continual con-
flicts between Jews and Hetjerists; Jewish tailors
were compelled to furnish gratuitously the uniforms
of the revolutionists; the shops of the Jews were
plundered, their horses were carried off, and they
Avere generally oppressed and harassed. The well-
to-do Jews left the city and country. When the
Turks took possession of Jassy, they in turn pillaged
and oppressed the Jews as well as the rest of the
people; many Jews were imprisoned in order to ex-
tort money from them, and women and children
were violated. There were frequent fires in the Jew-
ish quarters; the largest of these occurred on July
29, 1822, when three-fourths of the entire city was
reduced to ashes. Many Jews perished in the
flames, and those that succeeded in saving anything
were despoiled by the soldiers. Five synagogues
and hundreds of Jewish houses were burned.

During the reign of the easy-going prince loan

Sandu Sturza (1822-28), the Jews Avere forbidden to

make or sell candles or bread to Chris-

XJnder the tians. Much suffering followed the fire

Sturzas of Aug., 1827, when the main and the

and neighboring streets v/ere destroyed ;

Dynasty the merchants lost not only their goods

Ghika. but their books, and were thus de-
prived of the legal means of holding
their debtors, many families being completely ruined.
The provisional government of Russia (1828-34)
imposed such heavy taxes that the Jews felt the con-
sequences even after the departure of the army.
They suffered still more during the plague of 1829
and the cholera of 1831-34. All business was in-
terrupted ; the wealthy Jews left the city, while the
poor ones were driven out and forced to live misera-
bly in tents on the outskirts.

On the accession of Prince Michael Sturza (1834-
1848) the community of Jassy had to pay heavily in
order to set aside the decree relating to vagabondage,
deliberately intended as an excuse for despoiling the
Jews. The people of Jassy were several times in-
duced by the prince to bring complaints against the
Jews in order to justify the revival of restrictive
measures against them, which measures were ignored
as soon as the Jews had paid a sufficient sum. Or-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jassy
Jastrow

dinances forbidding the Jews of Jassy to live in cer-
tain streets, hire Cliristiau servants, engage in
money-lending or in selling old clothes, were in turn
promulgated and then quietly disregarded. Gregory
Ghika (1849-56) reorganized the community and
admitted Jewish children to the public schools.
During his reign a modern Jewish school was estab-
lished at Jassy, this being the tirst step toward the
civilization and progress that steadily continued
under the tirst Cuza (1859-66).

In addition to the hakam basha the affairs of the
community were originally managed by three sta-
rosts, who exercised also a certain judicial power;
they represented the community before the author-
ities and supervised the collection of

Organiza- taxes. After 1833 the starosts were
tion. replaced by "epitropes," officials who
were recognized by the authorities
down to 1866. For a long time there was only one
official synagogue, in the upper part of the city, and
rebuilt after a fire in 1764; but there has always
been a number of hebrot. No new synagogues were
built before the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The community now possesses a modern temple, sev-
eral large synagogues, and about one hundred smaller
places of worship. All its educational and philan-
thropic institutions are managed by special commit-
tees or societies and supported by voluntary contribu-
tions. The meat-tax, which as late as 1866 yielded
200,000 francs annually, has not been reestablished.
The religious affairs of the community are in the
hands of one preacher at the temple (Rabbi Niemi-
rover, 1903), two rabbis of the old school, and five
dayyanim. Among the older rabbis at Jassy who con-
tributed to Jewish literature, Aaron INIoses Taubes
(d. 1852) should be mentioned. The society Cultura
supports two primary schools; the society Junimea
and a ladies' society support a school for girls; other
educational institutions include a gymnasium, a
business school, a trade-school for girls, a Talmud
Torah (where Rumanian is taught), a large number
of hadarim, and some private schools for Jewish
boys and girls. The philanthropic institutions in-
clude a hospital with 120 beds, a home for the aged,
an orphan asylum, a B'nai B'rith lodge, the society
Fraterna Pacurar (furnishing medicine and mone-
tary relief to its members), and a women's benevo-
lent society. Certain committees distribute bread
and wood to the poor at Passover, and clothing and
shoes to needy school children. Of the many Zion-
ist societies formed at Jass}- only three survive. The
cemetery is in charge of the hebra kaddisha.

According to partial statistics, published in 1901,

there are at Jassy 1,014 Jewish master workmen in

a total of 1,493; 1,038 Jewish journeymen in a total

of 1,620; and 511 JewLsh apprentices in a total of

717. In consequence of the restrictive

Statistics, measures enacted against the Ruma-
nian Jews since 1880 many have left
Jassy; since 1899 more than 5,000 Jews have gone
elsewhere. In 1803 there were 563 Jewish taxpayers
at Jassy in a Jewish population of more than 3,000.
Their numbers increased considerably as the city
became more important. In 1820 there were 1,099
Jewish taxpayers; in 1827 they had increased to

1.256; in 1831, to 1,700 in a total Jewish population

of 17,032; in 1839, to 4,528 in a total of more than
30,000. The census of 1859 showed a Jewish popu-
lation of 31.000; that of 1894, 33,253; and that of
1899, 39,441.

The city and district of Jassy have, according to
the census of Dec, 1899, a Jewish population of
46,696 in a total of 191,828. The Jews in the dis-
trict are divided among the following communities:
Tirgu-Formoss (2,107), Podul Iloei (1,692), Bivolari
(1,005), Sculeui (410), Caminareschti (Tziganash,
170), Tzibana (122), Poieni (100), Socola (71), and
Dimache (57). About 1,520 live in villages.

G. E. Sd.

JASTROW, IGNAZ: German economist and
statistician; born Sept. 13, 1856, at Nakel. Having
studied at Breslau, Berlin, and Gottingen (Ph.D.
1878), he became in 1885 privat-docent of social econ-
omy at the University of Berlin.

Among Jastrow 's works may be mentioned : " Zur
Strafrechtlichen Stellung der Sklaven bei Deutschen
und Angelsachsen," Breslau, 1878; "Gesch. des
Deutschen Einheitstraums und Seiner Erflillung,"
Berlin, 1884 (4th ed., 1891); "Die Volkszahl Deut-
scher Stadte am Ende des Mittelalters und zu Be-
giun der Neuzeit," ih. 1886; "Das Interesse des
Kaufniannsstandes am Biirgerlichen Gesetzbuch,"
ib. 1890; "Deutsche Gesch. im Zeitalter der Hohen-
staufen" (with G. Winter), ib. 1894; "Kommunale
Anleitungen," ih. 1900.

Jastrow is the editor of the " Jahresberichte
der Geschichtswissenschaft " and " Soziale Praxis "
(formerly " Blatter fur Soziale Praxis ").

Bibliography : Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.
s. F. T. H.

JASTROW, JOSEPH : American psychologist ;
born Jan. 30, 1863, at Warsaw, Poland. He accom-
panied his father. Dr. Marcus Jastrow, to the
United States in 1866, and was educated in Philadel-
phia. In 1882 he graduated from the University of
Pennsylvania and took the degree of B.A., in 1885
that of M.A. ; at .Johns Hopkins University he be-
came fellow in psychology (1885-86), and in 1886
took the degree of Ph.D. In 1888 he accepted the
chair of psychology in the University of Wisconsin,
which position he still (1904) holds. He was placed
in charge of the psychological section of the World's
Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. For the year
1900 he served as president of the American Psycho-
logical Association. Among Jastrow 's publications
are : " Time Relations of Mental Phenomena " (1890) ;
" Epitomes of Three Sciences " (the section on psy-
chology ; Chicago, 1890) ; " Fact, Fable, and Psychol-
ogy "TBoston, 1900). During 1902-3 he contributed
numerous articles on abnormal psychology, mental
pathology, and on anthropology to Baldwin's "Dic-
tionary of Philosophy and Psychology." He is a
prolific contributor on psychological subjects to
scientific journals, magazines, and encyclopedias.

A. F. H. V.

JASTROW, MARCUS (MORDECAI):

American rabbi and scholar; born .June 5, 1829, at
Kogasen, Prussian Poland ; died Oct. 13, 1903, at
Germantown, Pa. ; fifth child of Abraham Jastrow
and Yetta (Henrietta) RoUe. Until 1840 he was
privately educated. In 1844 he entered the third-

Jastrow, Marcus
Javal, Ernest

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Marcus Jastrow.

year class of the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium at
Posen, graduating in 1853. Thence he went to
Berlin University., and continued his Talraudic stud-
ies under the rabbis of Berlin. The strongest influ-
ence exerted upon him during his Berlin student

days was that of IVIi-
chael Sachs.

In 1855 he took the
Ph.D. degree at the
University of Halle,
his thesis being " De
A brail am ben Meir
Aben Esra2 Principiis
Philosophise." InElul,
5617(1857), he received
tlie rabbinical author-
ization from Rabbi
Feilchenfeld of Roga-
sen and from Dr. Wolf
Landau of Dresden.
He taught in the re-
ligious school of the
Berlin congregation, at
that time conducted by
Dr. David Rosin.
In 1858 Jastrow removed as rabbi to Warsaw, and
threw himself into the study of the Polish language
and of Polish conditions. By Feb. 27, 1861, na-
tional feeling had risen so high in Poland that the
government called out the military; five victims
fell in the Krakauer Vorstadt, Warsaw, and their
burial and the memorial service were turned into
patriotic demonstrations, in which, for the first time,
" the Old Testament Brethren " of the Poles partici-
pated as a community. Though it was Sabbath,
three rabbis, including Jastrow, joined the funeral
cortege; at the memorial service in his synagogue,
also on a Sabbath, Jastrow- preached
Joins in his first Polish sermon, which aroused
Polish such great enthusiasm that on Sunday
Revolution, his auditors reassembled and took it
down at his dictation. Circumventing
the censor, they distributed ten thousand manu-
script copies within a week.

On various pretexts the three rabbis were arrested
(Nov. 10, 1861) and incarcerated in the citadel of
Warsaw. For twenty -three days Jastrow was kept
in solitary confinement; for seventy-two days he
shared the cell of Rabbi Meisels. His release came
on Feb. 12, 1862, when, being a Prussian subject,
lie was sent across the frontier. During his impris-
onment he had been required to answer in writing
three questions concerning the relation of the Jews
to the Polish Christians in their opposition to the gov-
ernment (see "Hebrew Leader," July 15, 22, 1870).

Broken in health, Jastrow, with his family, spent
the spring and summer of 1862 in Breslau, Berlin, and
Dresden ; in the autumn he accepted a
Returns to call from Mannheim. A few weeks
"Warsaw, later, Nov., 1862, the order for his ex-
pulsion was revoked, and gave occasion
for a controversy between the congregation at War-
saw (which had continued his .salary until he went
to Mannheim) and that of Mannheim; at Jastrow's
request the latter released him. A few months
after his return to Warsaw (Jan., 1863) the rev-

olution broke out. During its progress, and while
Jastrow was traveling, his Pru.ssian passport was
canceled, and he was not permitted to return to
Warsaw.

The literary results of his Polish period are: "Die
Lage der Juden in Polen " (anonymous; Hamburg,
1859); "Kazania Polskie," a volume of Polish ser-
mons (Posen, 1863); "Die Vorliiufer dcs Polnischen
Aufstandes " (anonymous; Hamburg, 1864). He
probably had a considerable share in the production
of "Beleuchtung eines Ministeriellen Gulachteus"
(Hamburg, 1859 [?]). In July, 1864, Jastrow ac-
cepted a call to Worms as district rabbi, and while
there he produced " Vier Jahrhuuderte aus der Gesch.
der Juden von der Zerstorung des Ersten Tempels
bis zur Makkabaischen Tempelweihe " (Heidelberg,
1865).

In the autumn of 1866 he Avent to Philadelphia as
rabbi of the German-Hebrew Congregation Rodeph
Shalom, with which he was connected until his death,
remaining in active service until 1892 and identify-
ing himself with the interests of the Jewish commu-
nit}\ The problem under discussion at the time was
organization, urged in the Eastern States by Isaac
Leeser, and in the Western by Isaac M. Wise. It
dealt with higher education, representation, and the
regulation of liturgical changes, and Jastrow's per-
sonality became a factor in its solution.

Aids Or- When, through the exertions of Isaac
ganization Leeser, the Maimonides College was
of opened at Philadelphia, Oct., 1867,

American Jastrow occupied the chair of religious
Jews. philosophy and Jewish history, and
later also of Biblical exegesis; he was
identified with the college until it closed its doors.
He supported the plan of organizing the Board
of Delegates of Civil and Religions Rights, and, un-
der its auspices, the American Jewish Publication
Society (1873). His main activity, however, from
1867 to 1871, was directed toward combating the
tendencies expres.sed in the resolutions of the rab-
binical conferences of 1869 and 1871. His opposi-
tion to them found expression in a series of polemical
articles published in "The Hebrew Leader" and
"The Jewish Times."

To the same period belongs his collaboration with
Benjamin Szold in the revision of the latter's prayer-
book (" 'Abodat Yisrael ") and home prayer-book
("Hegyon Leb"), and his translation of the same
prayer-books into English. In his own congregation
his mfluence effected consolidation and growth ; in
the Jewish communitj^ he participated in the forma-
tion and reorganization of societies.

In 1876 Jastrow fell severely ill, and for some
years his public activities were limited by his poor
health, which necessitated a sojourn in the south of
Europe. During this period of withdrawal he fully
matured the plans for his great work, " A Dictionary
of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi,
and the Midrashic Literature " (London and New
York, 1886-1903). When the dictionary was ap-
proaching completion in manuscript (1895), the Jew-
ish Publication Society of America was about to
begin work on its projected new translation of the
Bible into English, and to JastroAv was entrusted the
chief-editorship. At the time of his death the trans-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jastrow, Marcus
Java!, Ernest

lation of more tlian half tlie books of the Bible liad
been revised by liiin. lu addition to these two great
undertakings, lie was a member of the Publication
Committee of the Jewish Publication Society from
the time of its establishment, and was connected with
the Jewish Encyclopedia as editor of the depart-
ment of the Talmud ; he took a prominent part in
the proceedings of the Jewish 3Iinisters' Association,
held a seat in the central board of the Alliance
Israelite Universelle at Paris, Avas on the committee
of the Mekize Nirdamim, Avas one of the vice-
presidents of the American Federation of Zionists,
and was active in relieving the needs, material and
intellectual, of the Russian immigrants.

In 1900 the University of Pennsylvania conferred
upon him the doctorate of literature.

Besides the journals previously mentioned, arti-
cles of his appear in the " Revue des Etudes Juives " ;
Frankel's " Mouatsschrift " ; Berliner's " Magazin f lir
die Wisscnschaft des Judenthums " ; "Sippurim",
"Journal of Biblical Literature"; "Hebraica";
"Young Israel"; "Libanon"; "Jewish Record";
" Jewish Messenger " ; " American Hebrew " ; " Jew-
ish Exponent " ; etc.

BiBLiOGR.iPHY : M. Jastrow, Blir Mcisels, Oberrahbiiier zu
Warschatt, Ein Lchoishild cmf Hintorischem Hinter-
grunde nach Eigner vln.sc/iaiiMJiy Entworfen, in Hebrew
Leader, April 1-July 1, 1870; Jeivish Exponent, Oct. 16, 1903.

A. H. S.

JASTROW, MORRIS, JR.: American Orien-
talist and librarian ; son of Marcus Jastrow ; born
Aug. 13, 1861, at Warsaw, Poland. His family re-
moved to the United States in 1866, and settled in
Philadelphia. Morris received his early education
cliiefly at private schools until, in 1877, he entered
the University of Pennsylvania. He graduated from
that university in 1881, and shortly afterward went to
Europe with the intention of studying for the Jew-
ish ministry. He entered the seminary at Breslau
and at the same time took up the study of Oriental
languages at the university there. In 1884 he re-
ceived the degree of Ph.D. at Leipsic, and spent
another year in Europe, continuing his studies in
Paris and Strasburg. On his return to America he
occupied the post of lecturer to his father's con-
gregation for a year, but at the expiration of that
period determined to leave the ministry. He was
elected to the chair of Semitic languages in the
University of Pennsylvania in 1892, a position he still
(1904) holds; in 1898 he accepted the post of librarian
of that university.

Jastrow is the author of " Religion of the Babyloni-
ans and Assyrians "(Boston, 1898), of which a revised
edition in German is now appearing under the title
" Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens" (1903 et
seq.). He published also- " A Fragment of the Baby-
lonian Dibbarra Epic" (Boston, 1891); the Arabic
text of the two grammatical treatises of Abu Zaka-
riyya Hayyug (Leyden, 1897); and "The Study of
Religion " (London and New York, 1902). His liter-
ary activity has embraced the editing of "Selected
Essays of James Darmesteter," translated by Helen
Bachman Jastrow (Boston, 1895). He is the editor
of a series of handbooks on the history of religion,
of which three have appeared (1903), and has con-
tributed numerous articles to the journals for Ori-

ental languages and to the transactions of various
learned societies in America and Europe.

A. F. II, V.

JATIVA or XATIVA (Hebrew ^3^DK^^'; not
identical with Setif, Algeria; Gross, "Gallia Ju-
daica," p. 289): City in the kingdom of Valencia.
The Jew-s of this locality were granted special priv-
ileges by Don Jaime, the conqueror of Valencia. He
gave them houses and fields, and allotted them a
street as a special quarter. . In 1267 the bailiff of the
city was ordered by the king to see that the Jews
were not insulted or injured in their property. la
1320 they received permission to rebuild their syna-
gogue. In 1336, when their privileges were renewed,
they were so poor that they could no longer pay their
taxes, which in 1274 had amounted to 600 sueldos.
In the year of terror, 1391, the congregation dis-
solved, its members being either murdered or forced
to accept baptism.

Here lived one Isaac ben Janah, who in 1273 was
freed of all taxes for five years. In the last third of
the fourteenth century Phinehas ben Salamis of
Lilnel was rabbi of Jativa. He, as well as Rabbi
Habib and the aged scholar Hayyim ben Vivas, both
of whom also resided in Jativa, corresponded with
Isaac ben Sheshet.

BiBLioGKAPHY : Rios, Hist. i. 405, ij. 153; Jacobs, Sources,
Nos. 417, 5:^6, 561, 7W ; Isaac ben Sheshet, Responsa, Nos. 253
et seq., 297 et ifcq., 326.
G. M. K.

JAVAL, EMILE : French physician and dep-
uty; born May 5, 1839, at Paris; son of Leopold
Javal. Emile studied both medicine and mineralogy
(M.D. 1868); he devoted himself specially to oph-
thalmology, and invented an ingenious method for the
diagnosis of astigmatism. He became one of tliQ lead-
ing authorities on strabismus; and in 1877 he was ap-
pointed director of the ophthalmological laboratory o f
the Sorbonne. On July 28, 1885, he was elected mem-
ber of the Academy of Medicine. In January of the
same year he had been returned by a large majority
as the Republican member for the district of St;ns, and
he sat on the benches of the Republican Union. At
the general elections of the following October he was
sent to the Chamber of Deputies by the department
of Yonne. Here he opposed the Panama scheme.
He did not offer himself for reelection in 1889. Javal
is an officer of the Legion of Honor. In 1900 he was
stricken with blindness.

Among his published works are the following:
" Du Strabisme dansses Applications a la Physiologic
de la Vision, " 1868 ; " Hygiene des Ecoles Maternelles
et des Ecoles Primaires," 1884; "Memoires d'Oph-
thalmometrie " (translated into four languages) ;
"Manuel du Strabisme," 1894. Javal translated
Helmholtz's "Handbuch der Physiologischen Op-
tik."
Bibliography : Vapereau, Diet.; La Orande Encyclopedic.

s. V. E.

JAVAL, ERNEST LEOPOLD: French ad
miuistrative officer; born Sept. 25, 1843, at Paris;
died there Sept. 1, 1897; sou of Leopold Javal.
He was a lieutenant in the Gardes Mobiles during
the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71). In 1877 he was
appointed successively subprefect of Boussac and
Aubusson; in 1880, of Luneville; in 1881, of Doucie

Javal
Jedidja

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

(Juue 27) and Gueret (July 30), and in the same year
lie became prefect of the department La Creuse at
Gueret; in 1883, inspector of administrative service
in tlie Ministry of the Interior ; and in 1885, director
of the Institution Nationale des Sourds-Muets. As a
result of observations made during a prolonged visit
to America, he introduced in the institution various
innovations, including manual training and the oral
method of instructing deaf-mutes. He was made a
chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1888.

s. J. Ka.

JAVAL, LEOPOLD : French politician ; born
at Mulhausen Dec. 1, 1804; died at Paris March 28,
1872. The son of a wealthy merchant, he entered
the army and became a sublieutenant ; as such he took
part in the expedition against Algiers (1830). He
subsequently resigned his commission and returned
to France, where he interested himself in financial
matters. Javal helped to establish in Paris the first
omnibuses, which we: 3 known as " Orleanaiscs " and
" Favorites. " He became a bank director and estab-
lished a model farm at Vauluisant; for planting
pine trees in certain sandy plains he gained a gold
medal at the Exposition of 1855, and he was award-
ed the cross of an officer of the Legion of Honor after
the London Exhibition of 18(53. Javal also took a
prominent part in establishing the Alsatian railways.

In 1857 Javal was elected to the legislature as
deputy for the Yonne department, and he consist-
ently advocated free trade. He was reelected in
1863 and 1869, voted with the Left, opposed the
Plebiscite, and aided Thiers and E. Picard in pro-
claiming the republic. The Yonne department .sent
him to the National Assembly in Feb., 1871. Javal
represented the Jews of Alsace at the Central Con-
sistory of Paris.
Bibliography : Larousse, Diet.; La Grande Encyclopedic.

s. V. E.

JAVAN (JV) : Name of one of the seven sons of
Japheth, given in the list of nations (Gen. x. 2, 4;
comp. I Chron. i. 5, 7), and as such the progenitor
of Elisha, Tarshish, the Hittim, and the Dodanim
(Rodanim). The word corresponds to the Greek
'lauv, thepluralof Avhichis 'laowf, with the digamma
between the a and o (see Homer's "Iliad," xiii. 685).
The Greek name denotes the Lmians, settled, when
the list of Genesis was written, on the mainland of
Greece and on the islands of the ^gean Sea as well
as along the coast of Asia Minor. The Greeks were
designated by this name in Assyrian (" Ya-wa-nu "
[Greece], "Yawnai" [Greek]; Schrader, " K. A. T."
2ded., pp. 87 cise*/.) and in Old Persian, and the name
was used in this sen.se by the Syrians, the Arabs, and
the Egyptians. The question is still open whether in
the Old Testament "Javan " connotes the Greeks, in
keeping with this usage of other ancient peoples, or
merely the lonians proper. According to Stade
("De Populo Javan," Giessen, 1880), the term stands
for the lonians of Asia Minor in all pre-Persian pas-
sages of the Old Testament {e.(j., Ezek. xxvii. 13;
Isa. Ixvi. 19, and therefore also in Gen. x. 2, 4). It
has the wider significance in Joel iii. 6 (Persian age),
Zech. ix. 13, and Dan. viii. 21

In these passages the context shows merely that
a distant country is meant (Isa. Ixvi. 19) into which

Israelites were sold as slaves (by the Phenicians and
Philistines; Joel iii. 6). Something of this kind is
certainly also referred to in Zech. ix. 13; in fact
Ezekiel (xxvii. 13) speaks of "Ionian "(or Greek)
slave-trading in the markets of Tyre. In Ezek.
xxvii. 19 the word "Javan " is cither a corruption of
the text (in view of the circumstance that in verse 13
it is used in a clearly different meaning from that
required here ; see Cornill, " Ezekiel," pp. 351 et aeq.),
or it designates an Arabic people. Glaser ("Skizze
der Gesch. und Geographic Arabiens," ii. 428) sug-
gests that in this verse it is the name of the place
called "Jain," not very far from Medina.

In Talmudic literature "Javan" stands unquestion-
ably for Greece {e.g., in Yoina 10a); "lashon Ye-
wanit " means the Greek language. In late Hebrew
" Javan" denotes the Russians, because the}-" belong
to the Greek Catholic Church ; therefore Nathan Nate
Hanover calls his description of the Ciimielnicki
l^erseeution "Yewen Mezulah," punning on Ps.
jxix. 3. In Yiddish literature and in the parlance
of the Russian Jews "Javan " (pronounce " Yoveu ")
denotes the soldier. So Perez in his sketch " Der
:\r&shullah " : " Bei Yoven is a gut Cheder " = " Mili-
taiy service is a good training."

Bibliography: Ed. Meyer, DicHeinmt der Innier.in Philnln-
gus, mw series, iii- 479 ct .icq.; Fr. Lenormant, Hi-ttoire Ait-
'eieniude I'ijricnt. i. 29tj, Paris, 1881 : idem, Le^ i>ri(jincsde
VHif'toire, etc., i., ii. 1-29. Paris. 1884 ; Fr. Delitzsch, ll'o Lag
das Paradics? pp. 248-250. Leipsic, 1881; W. Max Miiller,
Asien und Europa, p. 370, ib. 189;?; Stade, De Popnln
Java}i, Giessen, 1880 (now incorporated in Rcden nnd
Afihnndluiigen. ib. 1899); Ed.Mever. Gesrh. des Altertums,
i. 490-494. ii. 433, 685 et scq., StuUgart, 1883-84.

E. G. H.

JAWLIKAR, SAMUEL ISAAC : Beni-Israel ;
born about 1820 in Bombay. He enlisted in the
Third Bombay Native Light Infantry April 4, 1840;
was promoted jemidar Jan. 1, 1855; native adjutant
March 19, 1855; subahdar Feb. 1, 1862; and subah-
dar-major May 12, 1869. He was admitted to the
second class of the Order of British India Dec. 10,
1869, and to the first class Jan., 1877. He served
with the Bomba}' column of the army of the Punjab
1848-49, was present during the siege of IVIultan
from Dec. 27, 1848, to Jan. 22, 1849, and Avas
present at the storming of Mundi Ava at ]V[ultan
(Dec. 27, 1848). He was witli the reserve brigade at
the attack of the city of Multan Jan. 2, 1849, and at
the battle of Gujarah Feb. 21, 1849, and accom-
panied General Gilbert's force in pursuit of the Sikh
army under Shere Sing, witnessing its surrender
at Hoormuck March 10, 1849. He next proceeded in
pursuit of the Afghan army, then stationed at Pe-
shawuir. For the above services Jawlikar won the
Punjab medal with two bars.

Jawlikar served also with the field force which
penetrated the Eussufzee country north of Pesha-
wur in Dec, 1849, for the purpose of chastising the
hill tribes on the Swat border, and was present at
the capture and destruction of the villages of Sujas,
Pullival, Shairkhanee, and Zoorumundee in the Baz-
durrah valley, for which he was awarded a medal
and bar. He was in garrison at Canton, China,
1860-61, and gained a medal in the Abyssinian cam-
paign of 1868.

Jawlikar after his retirement from the army be-
came treasurer of the Thana Synagogue.

J. J. Hy.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Javal
Jedidja

JEARIM, MOUNT. See Chesalon.
JEBUS. See Jerusalem.

JEBUSITES (^DITn, "Dm, -DU").— Biblical
Data : One of the natious that occupied Palestine
at the time of the invasion of tlic Israelites. In the
list of the sous of Canaan, the Jebusite occupies the
third place, between Heth and the Amorite (Gen. x.
1"), 16; I Chron. 1. 13, 14). This is also its position
in Num. xiii. 29; in Josh. xi. 3, however, the Jebu-
site is mentioned between the Perizzite and the
Hivite. On the other hand, in the oft-repeated
enumeration of the tribes that occupied the land of
Canaan, the Jebusite comes always at the end (Gen.
XV. 21; Ex. iii. 8).

The Jebusites, stated to have dwelt in the moun-
tains (Num. xiii. 29; Josh. xi. 3), were a warlike
people. At the time of Joshua's invasion the capi-
tal of the Jebusites was Jerusalem, called also
"Jebus" (Judges xix. 10, 11; II Sam. v. 6), whose
king Adoni-zedek organized a confederacy against
Joshua. Adoni-zedek was defeated at Beth-horon,
and he himself was slaughtered at Makkedah (Josh.
x. 1-27); but the Jebusites could not be driven
from their mountainous position, and they dwelt at
Jerusalem with the children of Judah and Benjamin
(Josh. XV. 63; Judges i. 21).

The Jebusites contested David's entrance into
Jerusalem (II Sam. v. 6-8). Later a notable Jebu-
site, Araunah, or Oman, solcVhis thrashing-floor to
David for the erection of an altar (II Sam. xxiv.
18-24; I Chron. xxi. 18-25). The Jebusites as well
as the other tribes that had not been exterminated
were reduced to serfdom by Solomon (I Kings ix.
20, 21). In the expression of Zechariah, " and Ekron
will be as a Jebusite " (Zech. ix. 7), "Jebusite " must
be taken to mean " Jerusalemite."

E. G. n. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature: The Jebusites,

who are identical with the Hittites, derived their
name from the city of Jebus, the ancient Jerusalem,
which they inhabited. Within their territory lay
the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham wished to
buy. But they said to him: "We know that God
will give this country to your descendants. Now,
if you will make a covenant with us that Israel will
not take the city of Jebus against the will of its in-
habitants, we will cede to you the cave and will give
you a bill of .sale. " Abraham, who was very anxious
to obtain this holy burial-place, thereupon made a
covenant with the Jebusites, who engraved its con-
tents on bronze. When the people of Israel came
into the promised land they could not conquer Jebus
(comp. Judges i. 21) because the bronze figures, with
Abraham's covenant engraved thereon, were stand-
ing in the center of the city.

The same was the case later with King David, to
whom the Jebusites said: "You cannot enter the
city of Jebus until you have destroyed the bronze
figures on which Abraham's covenant with our an-
cestors is engraved." David thereupon promised a
captaincy to the person who sliould destroy the fig-
ures; and Joab secured the prize (comp. II Sam. v.
6; I Chron. xi. 6). David then took the city of
Jebus from its owners; the right of appeal to the
covenant with Abraham liad been forfeited by them
VII.— 6

through the war they had waged against Joshua;
and after the tigures themselves had been destroyed,
David had not to fear even that the people would
reproach him with having broken the covenant.
Nevertheless lie paid the inhabitants in coin the full
value of the city (comp. II Sam. xxiv. 24; I Chron.
xxi. 25), collecting the money from all the tribes of
Israel; so that the Holy City became their common
property (Pirke R. El. xxxvi. ; comp. David Luria's
notes in his commentary ad loc. ; on the money paid
for Jerusalem, comp. ]\iidr. Shemu'el xxxii., begin-
ning; Sifre, Num. 42; Zeb. 16b).

According to a midrash quoted by Rashi on 11
Sam. V. 6, the Jebusites had in their city two figures
—one of a blind person, representing Isaac, and one
of a lame person, representing .Jacob—and tliese fig-
ures had in their mouths tiie words of the covenant
made between Abraham and the Jebusites.

s- s. L. G.

JECONIAH. See Jeiioiachix.

JEDAIAH PENINI. See Bedersi, Jeuaiah
BEN Abraham.

JEDIDAH: :Mother of Josiah, King of Judah;
daughter of Adaiah of Boscath, and wife of Amon
(II Kings xxi. 26, xxii. 1). The name means "be-
loved."

E. G. H. I. M. P.

JEDIDIAH (GOTTLIEB) BEN ABRAHAM
ISRAEL: Galician preacher and Masorite; lived
at Lemberg in the seventeenth century. He wrote:
"Ahabat ha-Shem," fifty haggadic expositions on
Deut. X. 12 (Cracow, 1641 ; Lublin, 1645); "Shir
Yedidut," conmientary on the Masorah, in four parts
and in alphabetical order {ib. 1644).

BiBLiOfiRAPHY: Fiirst. Bihl. Jud. i. 340; Michael. Or lia-Hau-
yim. No. 943; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. coL ia.^8.

D. S. Man.

JEDIDIAH BEN MOSES OF RECANATI

(called also Amadeo of Rimini ben Moses of
Recanati) : Italian scholar; tiouri.shed in the second
half of the sixteenth century. At the request of
Immanuel di Fano, Jedidiah translated, in 1580, the
"Moreh Nebukim " into Italian, under the title
"Erudizionedi Confusi." Parts of this translation,
which is still extant in manuscript (Parma MS.
No. 5), were published in 1892 by G. Sacerdote, under
the title " Una Versione Italiana Inedita del Moreh,"
in the "Rendiconti della R. Accademia dei Lincei."
Jedidiah is mentioned, together with other Italian
rabbis, in a responsum of the sixteenth centurv (Neu-
bauer, " Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 2317). He was
the author of a Hebrew-Italian vocabularj' of the
Bible, entitled "Sefer Turgeman " (ib. No. 1498).
In a manuscript collection of letters (ib. No. 241)
are two addressed by him to Eleazar ben Solomon of
Camerino. Some mathematical notes of Jedidiah
and a hymn beginning with '•2 103 "I11X. in which
the name of the author is given in acrostic, were in
manuscript in the library of the late D. Kaufmann.

BiBLiofiRAPHY: steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. p. 923; idem,
in Mdnat^chrift, xliii. 33.

G. L Br.

JEDIDJA.

RIODKALS.

See Heinemann, Jeremiah; Pe-

Jeduthun
Jehoahaz

JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

JEDUTHUN: The name of one of the three
great orders or gilds of Temple singers, in charge of
the music of the Temple from David's day down
into post-exilic times. In I Chron. xvi. 41, 42 Jedu-
thun is mentioned along with Heman as one of the
musicians in service before the Ark of the Covenant ;
and also as the father of a class of doorkeepers {ib.
xvi. 38, 42). In I Chron. xxv. 1, 6, and II Chron. v.
12 Jeduthun, Asaph, and Heman are mentioned as
the three heads of the musical part of the Temple'
service. In II Chron. xxxv. 15 Jeduthun is called
"the king's seer." In Neh. xi. 17 is mentioned the
descendant of a Jeduthun engaged in service with the
Levites. In I Chron. vi. 33, 39, 44, and xv. 17 the
name "Ethan " seems to be used in place of "Jedu-
thun," and some scholars have devised a plan to show
the possible philological identity of the two names.

The titles of three psalms (Ps. xxxix., Ixii., and
Ixxvii.) contain the word "Jeduthun," possibly as
indicating some kind of musical direction or instru-
ment.

E. G. II.

I. M. P.

JEHIEL ANAW. See Anaw.

JEHIEL BENASHER: Liturgical poet; flour-

islied in Andalusia in the fourteenth and fifteenth

centuries. He was the author of four liturgical

poems, mentioned by Zunz ("L. G." p. 520), and of

a dirge of twenty-five strophes on the iiersecution

of the Jews in Spain in 1391. Jehiel was also the

author of a poetical work entitled " Ma'aseli 'Ugah,"

published, together with Profiat Duran's "Iggeret

AlTehi Ka-Aboteka," at Constantinople about 1577.

Firkovich claims to have seen in the possession of a

Karaite of Constantinople named Joseph Kimhi a

manu.script containing a poem by Jehiel, entitled

"Ha-Rewayah."

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1273; idem,
Jewish Literature, p. 152; Dukes, in Orient, Lit.xi. iM ;
Ha-Karmel, ii. 385.
G. I. Br.

JEHIEL B. JEKUTHIEL ANAW. See

An.\w.

JEHIEL BEN JOSEPH OF PARIS : Tosa
fist and controversialist; born at Meaux at the end
of the twelfth century : died in Palestine in 1286.
His French name was Sir Vives, and in rabbinical
literature he is variously designated as Jehiel of
Paris, Jehiel the Holy, Jehiel the Pious, and
Jehiel the Elder. He was one of the most distin-
guished disciples of Judah Sir Leon, whom he suc-
ceeded, in 1224, as head of the Talmudical school of
Paris. This school was attended under Jehiel's di-
rection by three hundred disciples, among whom
were the later renowned tosafists Isaac of Corbeil
(Jehiel's son-in-law), Perez ben Elijah of Corbeil,
Yakar of Cliinon, Mei'r of Rothenburg, and many
other well-known rabbis of the thirteenth century.
Jehiel was held in great esteem even by non-Jews;
and, without giving any credence to the legends
that present him as Saint Louis' councilor, it is quite
probable that he was favorably received at court.
Jehiel's position as chief of the Jewish community
of Paris forced him into many controversies with
Christians. Thus he once had to combat the argu-
ments of the chancellor of Paris, who pretended to
prove by the Bible that Jews are compelled by the

demands of their ritual to use Christian blood. On
another occasion he debated with a friar who, on the
strength of a misunderstood Biblical text, main-
tained that Jews could not, consistently Avith their
belief, bear witness in courts of justice.

But these minor controversies were trivial in com-
parison with the disputation which, in the presence
of Saint Louis and his court, he, together with two
other rabbis, had to sustain in 1340 against the apos-
tate Nicholas Donin, who denounced the Talmud as
containing blasphemies against Christianity. The re-
sult of this controversy was, as was to be expected,
the condemnation of the Talmud; but Jehiel dis-
played on that occasion great courage and dignity.
At first he refused to enter into the discussion, alleg-
ing that the popes had a.ssured independence to the
Jews in their domestic affairs, and that the Talmud
was the very essence of their lives. Then, being as-
sured by the queen that the lives of the Jews were in
no danger, he consented to answer any questions sub-
mitted to him, but positively refused to take an oath.
After the controversy the state, of the French Jews
grew daily worse, and Jehiel had the mortification
of seeing his son thrown into prison upon a baseless
charge. He decided, therefore, together with his
son to leave his native country for Palestine, where
he stayed until his death.

Jehiel was the author of tosafot on the Talmudical
treatises Berakot, Sliabbat, Pesahim, Mo'ed Katan,
Bezali, Yebamot, Ketubot, Baba Kamma, HuUin,
Zebahim, and probably Menaliot; but these tosafot
are no longer in existence. By the later tosafists,
Jehiel is mentioned as a Biblical commentator. He
wrote also halakic decisions, several of which are
cited by Mordecai ben Hillel and Meir of Rothen-
burg and in "Orhot Hayyim." See Disputations ;
DoMN, NiciiOL.\s, OP La Rociielle.

Bibliography: Carmolv, Itincrnirc, p. 183; Zunz, Z. G. p.
43; Zadoc Kahn, in R. E. J. 1. 232; Mniiatsschrift, 18C9, p.
148; Gratz. Gench. vii. 130; Gro.ss, Gallia Judaica, pp. 526-
531.
s. s. I. Br.

JEHIEL MICHAEL BEN ELIEZER : Rabbi
at Nemirov, Russia; murelered May, 1048. When
the hordes of Chmielnicki, taking Nemirov, began
the work of pillage and massacre, a Cossack con-
cealed Jehiel, hoping that the latter would show him
where the Jews had hidden their wealth. A shoe-
maker, however, discovered Jehiel and his mother,
dragged them to the cemetery, and murdered them.
Jehiel was the author of a work entitled "Shibre
Luhot," containing homilies on several Sabbatic sec-
tions and the various Biblical readings given in the
Talmud. The work was published posthumously at
Lublin in 1080.

Bibliography: steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1247; Fuenn,
Keucsct Yisrael, P- 526.

H. R. I. Br.

JEHIEL MICHAEL BEN JUDAH LOB

(known also as Michael Hasid) : Rabbi of Berlin;
died March, 1728. After filling the office of rabbi
in several Polish communiti(!S he removed about
1701 to Berlin, where, with his brother-in-law
Aaron, he was entrusted with the direction of the
yeshibah founded by Jost Liebman. When in 1713
Aaron was called to the rabbinate of Frankfort-on-
the-Oder, Jehiel was nominated rabbi of Berlin.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeduthun
Jehoahaz

This iioniinutiou was ratified by royal edict in 1714,
which provided that when the rabbinate of Frank-
fort became vacant it would be annexed to that of
Berlin. Accordingly on the death of Aaron in 1721
Jehiel's jurisdiction was extended to Frankfort.
Jehiel was a Talmudist of high repute, and was well
versed in Cabala. His predilection for Cabala was,
indeed, so great that he blindly gave his approba-
tion to the works of the Shabbethaian llay^'un.
Jehiel, however, was not long in acknowledging his
fault, and at the conference of rabbis lield at Frank-
fort-on-the-Oder in 1726 he was the first to demand
that a "herem '' should be launched against the fol-
lowers of Shabbethai Zebi, and that all the cabalistic
works published since 1666 in which Shabbethaian
ideas were expressed should be put under the ban.

Jehiel's distrust of the Cabala became, indeed, so
great that he abstained from publishing his owm
cabalistic works, fearing lest they might be inter-
preted in the Shabbethaian spirit. Jehiel wrote
novellas on Megillah (published with the text at
Berlin in 1714) and on Rosh ha-Shanah (published in
the 1726 Amsterdam edition of the Talmud). Other
novelise and homilies of his are scattered in various
works of his contemporaries, such as the "Kol
Ychudah " of Judah Glogau, the " Asifat Hakamim "
of Israel Isserles, etc. He annotated the commen-
tary on Canticles of his son-in-law Joel ben Jekuthiel
Sachs, and wrote "Miklal Yofi," annotations on the
haggadot found in the Jerusalem Talmud (published
as a supplement to the"Yefeh Mareh " of Samuel
Jaffe; Berlin, 1725-26). Jehiel left several cabalis-
tic works in manuscript.

Bibliography: 'La.ndshuth, ToledotAnshe Shem, pp.11 ct
seq. : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1374 ; Ludwig Geiger,
Gesch. der Judcn in Berlin^ p. 40; Fuenn, Keiieset Yisi'aeJ,
p. 524.
K. I. Br.

JEHIEL MICHAEL BEN UZZIEL OF GLO-
GAU : Rabbinical author; died in Vienna 1730.
He was well versed in the ^lidrashim, and was the
author of "Nezer ha-Kodesh," an extensive com-
mentar}^ on Midrash Kabbah, a part of which,
namely, on the fir.st section of Genesis, was published
in Tessnitz 1718. Jehiel carried on a correspond-
ence with Jacob Emden, as is mentioned in " She'elot
Ya'bez," No. 2.

Bibliography: Azulai. SJtcm ha-GcdoUm, i. 85: Fuenn,
Keneset Yii^-aeh p. 521.
s. s. N. T. L.

JEHIEL OF PISA : Philanthropist and scholar
of Pisa; died there Feb. 10, 1492. The wealth he
had acquired in the banking bu.sine.ss he spent liber-
ally for charitable purposes. Himself a scholar, he
extended his protection to .Jewish learning. Johanan
Alemanno, the teacher of Pico di Miiaudola, seems
to have lived for j'ears in Jehiel's house. Jehiel was
on intimate terms with Don Isaac Abravanel, with
whom he carried on a correspondence. In 1472
Abravanel induced Lopo de Almeida and the phy-
sician Joao Sezira, Alfonso's ambassadors to the
pope, to pay Jehiel a visit. They carried costly
liresents to Jehiel's wife from Abravanel, and valu-
able manuscripts, among wiiich were copies of Abra-
vanel's own works, to Jehiel.

The end of Jehiel's life was embittered by tlic
apostasy of one of his daughters. On that occasion

Abravanel wrote him a letter of consolation, in which
he reminded him of the saying of the Rabbis (M. K.
20b) that the result of education is not dependent
upon the merits of the parents: thorns grow in every
field among the ears of corn.

Gedaliah ibn Yahya relates that most of Jehiel's
fortune was spent in aiding the refugees of Spain.
Jehiel's death was bewailed by the poets and writers
of his time, such as Eliezer Ezra of Volterra, Solo-
mon of Camerino, and the astronomer Abba Mari
Halfon.

Bibliography : Ozar Keljmad, ed. Blumenfeld, ii. 6;5 et scq.;
Gratz, Gesch. viii. 239; Kaufmann, in R. E. J. xxvi. W.

I. Br.

JEHOAHAZ: 1. Son of Jehu; second king in
the fifth dynasty of northern Israel ; reigned 814-797
B.C. During the period of his rule Syria under
Hazael and Ben-hadad became particularly aggres-
sive (II Kings xiii. 1-9, 22); Israel's army was re-
duced to a mere handful of troops {ib. xiii. 7); and
the land was practically at the mercy of the Syrians,
as foretold by Elisha the prophet {ib. viii. 12). I.s-
rael's religious decline is likewi.se noted, in the
continuation of the abominations of Asherah worship
in Samaria {ib. xiii. 6). The humility of Jehoahaz
and his appeal to Yhwh call forth the statement
that a savior was given and Israel was released from
its oppression. Just when that savior appeared or
who he was is not determined. But in II Kings xiii.
25, xiv. 27, Jehoahaz 's son Joash and his grandson
Jeroboam II. would seem to fulfil the requirements.
It is also true that Adad-nirari 111., King of Assyria
(812-783 B.C.), made campaigns into the west (804-
797), and on one of the incursions captured and sacked
the city of Damascus, and thus removed the worst
enemy of Israel's prosperity (Schrader, "K. A. T."
3d ed., p. 260).

Bibliography: Commentaries on Kings; histories of Israel
by Stade, Gutlie, and Winukier (1. 154); Goodspeed. HiVf. of
AA^f/ria and Bahijlunia ; J. F. McCurdy, HUtoni. Pniphecu,
and the Mnnunicnt.-i; Price, M<))tumcnts and Old TestO'
ment, §§ 140-142.

2. (Called also Shallum.) Third son of Josiah,
King of Judah (II Kings xxiii. 31, 36). In I Chron.
iii. 15 Shallum is named as the fourth son of Jo-
siah; but the ages given of those who became king
show that Zedekiah (II Kings xxiv. 18) was the
youngest. The identity of Jehoahaz and Shallum
seems to be estal)lishcd by the evidence of the
chronicler above indicated and of Jer. xxii. 11.
The change to the more dignified regal name may
have been made at his coronation. Immediately
upon the death of Josiah at the hands of Necho in
608 B.C., the people of the land took Jehoahaz and
anointed him king in the place of his father, allhougli
he was not the first in the line of succes.sion. This
fact attests the popularity of the }'oung man, and
probably also his political affiliations or policy, as
being in line with those of his father. At any rate
his disposition (Ezek. xix. 3-4) was such that Neclio
had him seized and carried to Riblah in the jilains
of Ilamatii, the .seat of Necho's authority. Jehoa-
haz's elder brother Eliakini, under his ncAv name
"Jehoiakim," was enthroned under Egyptian suze-
rainty ; and the land was laitl under tribute toEgypt's
coflfers. The captive king. .lehoaliaz, was carried
prisoner to Egypt (Ezek. \i\ 4). and he here disap-

Jehoash
Jehunadab

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

pears from history, mourned as having gone never
to return to his native laud (Jer. xxii. 10-12).

Bibliography : Commentaries on Kings and Chronicles ; and
the histories of Israel mentioned above.

3. Name, occurring in two ijassages in II Chroni-
cles (xxi. 17, XXV. 23), for Ahaziah, King of Judah.
Etymologically the names "Ahazyah " and "Yeho-
'ahaz " are one and the same; the element "Yah"
following in the one case, and the longer " Yeho "
preceding in the other. See Ahaziah.

E. G. H. I. M. p.

JEHOASH. See Joash.

JEHOIACHIN.— Biblical Data : King of Ju-
dah ; son and successor of Jehoiakim (II Kings xxiv.
6); reigned a little over three mouths. He was
scarcely on the throne when Jerusalem was besieged
by Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon. Unable to
resist, he soon surrendered with the queen-mother
Nehushta, the servants, captains, and ofilcers. With
these he was sent captive to Babylon. The treas-
ures of the palace and the sacred vessels of the Tem-
ple were also carried away. For thirty -six j'ears
Jehoiachin remained in prison at Babylon, his throne
having been given by Nebuchadnezzar to Mattaniah
(son of Josiah), who.se name was changed to "Zede-
kiah" {lb. xxiv. 11-17; II Chron. xxxvi. 9-10; Jer.
xxxvii. 1). When Nebuchadnezzar died, his son
Evil-merodach released Jehoiachin and gave him an
honorable seat at his own table (II Kings xxv. 27-
30; Jer. lii. 31-34).

E. G. H. B. P.

In Rabbinical Literature : Jehoiachin was

made king in place of his father by Nebuchadnez-
zar; but the latter had hardly returned to Babylon
when some one said to him, " A dog brings forth no
good progeny," whereupon he recognized that it
was poor policy to have Jehoiachin for king (Lev.
R. xix. 6; Seder '01am R. xxv.). In Daphne, near
Antiochia, Nebuchadnezzar received the Great San-
hedrin, to whom he announced that he would not
destroy the Temple if the king were delivered up
to him. When the king heard this resolution of
Nebuchadnezzar he went upon the roof of the Tem-
ple, and, turning to heaven, held up the Temple kej's,
saying: "As you no longer consider us worthy to
be your ministers, take the keys that j'ou have en-
trusted to us until now. " Then a miracle happened ;
for a fiery hand appeared and took the keys, or, as
others say, the keys remained suspended in the air
where the king had thrown them (Lev. R. I.e. ; Yer.
Shek. vi. 50a; other versions of the legend of the
keys are given in Ta'an. 29a; Pesik. R. 26 [ed.
Friedmann, p. 131a], and Syriac Apoc. Bariich, x.
18). The king as well as all the scholars and nobles
of Judali were then carried away captive by Neb-
uchadnezzar (Seder 'Oiam R. I.e. ; compare Ratner's
remark ad lor.). Areording to Josephus, Jehoiachin
gave up tiie city and iiis relatives to Nebuchadnez-
zar, who took an oath that neither they nor the city
should be liarmed. But the Bal)ylonian king broke
his word; for scarcely a year had elapsed when he
led the king and many others into captivity.

Jehoiachin's sad experiences changed iiis nature
entirely, and as he repented of the sins wiiieji lie iiad
committed as king lie was pardoned by God, who

revoked the decree to the effect that none of his
descendants should ever become king (Jer. xxii. 30;
Pesik., ed. Buber, xxv. 163a, b); he even became
the ancestor of the Messiah (Tan., Toledot, 20 [ed.
Buber, i. 140]). It was especially his firmness in
fulfilling the Law that restored him to God's favor.
He was kept by Nebuchadnezzar in solitary confine-
ment, and as he was therefore separated from his
wife, the Sanhedrin, which had been expelled with
him to Babylon, feared that at the death of this
queen the house of David would become extinct.

They managed to gain the favor of Queen Semi-
rainis, who induced Nebuchadnezzar to ameliorate
the lot of the captive king by permitting his wife
to share his prison. As he then manifested great
self-control and obedience to the Law, God forgave
him his sins (Lev. R. xix., end). Jelioiachin lived to
see the death of his conqueror, Nebuchadnezzar,
which brought him liberty; for within two days of
his father's death Evil-merodach opened the prison
in which Jehoiachin had languished for so many
years.

Jehoiachin's life is the best illustration of the
maxim, "During prosperity a man must never for-
get the poissibility of misfortune; and in adversity
must not despair of prosperity's return " (Seder
'01am R. XXV.). On the advice of Jehoiachin, Neb-
uchadnezzar's son cut his father's body into 300
pieces, which he gave to 300 vultures, so that he
could be sure that Nebuchadnezzar would never re-
turn to worry him ("Chronicles of Jerahmeel," Ixvi.
6). Evil-merodach treated Jehoiachin as a king,
clothed him in purple and ermine, and for his sake
liberated all the Jews that had been imprisoned by
Nebuchadnezzar (Targ. Sheni, near the beginning).
It was Jehoiachin, also, who erected the magnificent
mausoleum on the grave of the prophet Ezekiel
(Benjamin of Tudela, "Itinerary," ed. Asher, i. 66).
In the Second Temple there was a gate called " Jeco-
niah's Gate," because, according to tradition, Jeco-
niah (Jehoiachin) left the Temple through that gate
when he went into exile (Mid. ii. 6).

s. s. L. G.

JEHOIADA : High priest under Ahaziah, Atha-
liah, and Jehoash (Joash). By his marriage with
the princess Jehosheba or Jehoshabeath, daughter
of Jehoram, he became tlie brother-in-law of Ahaziah
(II Chron. xxii. 11). After the death of Ahaziah at
Megiddo, Athaliah slew all the royal fainilj^ of
Judah (II Kings ix. 27, xi. 1; II Chron. xxii. 10)
with the exception of Jehoash (Joash), whom Je-
hoiada and his wife had stolen from among the
king's sons and whom they kept hidden for six years
in the Temple.

Athaliah, who liad usurped the throne of Judah
(842-830 B.C.), promoted the worship of Baal and
produced disgust among those who adhered to the
true worship. In the seventh year of her reign a
great and enthusiastic assembly took place in the
Tenijile which hailed Jehoash (Joash), whom Je-
hoiada liail brought from his hiding-place, as the
legal claimant to the throne of Judah. Cnder the
guidance of Jehoiada, Baal-worship was renounced,
the altar and temple of Baal were destroyed, and
other measures were taken for the purification of the

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jehoash
Jehonadab

Temple. Jehoiada died at the age of 130, "and was
buried in the cit}^ of David among the kings, be-
cause he had done good in Israel, botli toward God,
and toward his house" (II Chrou. xxiv. 16).
E. G. H. B. P.

JEHOIAKIM.— Biblical Data : King of Judah
(608-597 B.C.) ; eldest sou of Josiali, and brother and
successor of Jehoahaz (Shallum), whom Pharaoh-
uecho l)ad deposed. When placed on the throne,
his name, originally "Eliakim," was changed to
" Jehoiakim " (II Kings xxiii. 34). During his reign
Nebuchadnezzar invaded Palestine, entered Jeru-
salem, and compelled Jehoiakim to pay tribute to
him. After three years Jehoiakim rebelled against
Nebuchadnezzar {il^. xxiv. 1), thereby bringing ruin
upon himself and upon the country. Dying after a
wicked reign of eleven years, he was buried " with
the burial of an ass, drawn, and cast forth beyond
the gates of Jerusalem" (Jer. xxii. 19). It was
Jehoiakim who slew the prophet Uriah " and cast his
dead body into the graves of the common people "
{i/t. xxvi. 23); and it was he also who impiously
"cut with the i)enknife and cast into the fire " Jere-
miah's roll of prophecies from which Jehudi had
read three or four leaves to the king {ib. xxxvi. 23).
Jehoiakim's history is briefly stated in II Kings
xxiii. 34-xxiv. 6 and II. Chron. xxxvi. 4-8, which
must be read in connection with Jer. xxii. 13-19,
xxvi., xxxvi.

E. G. II. B. P.

In Rabbinical Literature : Although Jehoia-
kim was Josiah's eldest son, he was passed over at
the latter's death as being unworthy to be his father's
successor, and his brother Jehoahaz mounted the
throne in his place. Jehoahaz was publicly anointed
king to offset his brother's claims to the throne
(Seder '01am R. xxiv.; Hor. lib; Ratner's objec-
tion ad loc. to Seder '01am was anticipated and an-
swered by the Gemara). When, subsequently, Je-
hoiakim took the government, after Jehoahaz had
been led captive to Egypt, he showed how little he
resembled his pious father: he was a godless tyrant,
committing the most atrocious sins and crimes. He
lived in incestuous relations with his mother, daugh-
ter-in-law, and stepmother, and was in the habit of
murdering men, whose wives he then violated and
whose property he seized. His garments were of
"sha'atnez,"and in order to hide the fact that he was
a Jew, he had made himself an epispasm by means
of an operation, and had tattooed his body (Lev.
R. xix. 6; Tan., Lek Leka, end; Midr. Aggadat Be-
reshit xlviii. ; see also Sanh. 103b). He even boasted of
his godlessness, saying, "My predecessors, Manasseh
and Amon, did not know how they could make God
most angry. But I speak openly ; all that God gives
us is light, and this we no longer need, since we
have a kind of gold that shines just like the light;
furthermore, God has given this gold to mankind
[Ps. cxv. 16] and is not able to take it back again"
(Sanh. I.e.).

When Jehoiakim was informed that Jeremiah was
writing his Lamentations, he sent for the roll, and
calmly read the first four ver.ses, remarking sarcastic-
ally, "I still am king." When lie came to the fifth
verse and saw the words, "For the Lord hatii

afilicted her for the multitude of her transgressions"
(Lam. i. 5), he took the roll, scratched out the names
of God occurring therein, and threw it into the tire
(M. K. 26a). No wonder then that God thought of
" changing the world again into chaos," and refrained
from doing so only because the Jewish people under
this king were pious (Sanh. 103a). Yet punishment
was not withheld. Nebuchadnezzar came with his
army to Daphne, near Antiochia, and demanded from
the Great Sanhedrin, whose members came to pay
him their respects, that Jehoiakim be delivered to
him, in which case he would not disturb the city and
its inhabitants. The Sanhedrin went to Jehoiakim
to inform him of Nebuchadnezzar's demand, and
when he asked them whether it would be right to
sacrifice him for their benefit, they reminded him of
what David did in a similar case with the rebel
Sheba (Lev. R. xix. 6).

Various opinions have been handed down con-
cerning the circumstances of Jehoiakim's death, due
to the difficulty of harmonizing the conflicting Bib-
lical statements on this point (II Kings xxiv. 6; Jer.
xxii. 18, 19; II Chron. xxxvi. 6). According to
some, he died in Jerusalem before the Sanhedrin
could comply with the demand made by Nebuchad-
nezzar, who therefore had to be content with .the
king's body, which was cast to him over the walls.
Another version says that he died while being let
down over the wall. Others, again, maintain that
after leading him through the whole land of Judah,
Nebuchadnezzar killed him, and then threw his
corpse piecemeal to the dogs, or, as one version has
it, put it into the skin of a dead ass (Lev. R. xix. 6 ;
Seder '01am R. xxv., agreeing in part with Josephus,
"Ant." X. 6, §8; see also Jerome to Jer. xxii. 18, and
Nebuchadnezzar in Rabbinical Literature).

Even this shameful death, however, was not to
be the end of the dead king, upon whose skull were
scratched the words, "This and one more." After
man}'' centuries the skull Avas found by a scholar be-
fore the gates of Jerusalem ; he piously buried it,
but as often as he tried to cover it the earth refused
to hold it. He then concluded that it was the skull
of Jehoiakim, for whom Jeremiah had prophesied
such an end (Jer. xxii. 18) ; and as he did not know
what to do with it, he wrapped it in a cloth and hid
it in a closet. After a time his wife found it and
showed it to a neighbor, who said : " Your husband
had another wife before j'ou whom he can not for-
get, and therefore he keeps her skull." Thereupon
the wife threw it into tlie fire, and when her husband
returned he knew what the enigmatical words
" this and one more " meant (Sanh 8'2a, 104a). Not-
withstanding his many sins, Jehoiakim is not one of
the kings who have no part in the future world
(Sanh. l'03b).

s. s. L. G

JEHONADAB ( JONADAB) : Son of Rechab,

a Kenite (I Chron. ii. 55). the founder of the so-
called Recliabitcs (I Chron. ii. 55; Jer. xxxv. 6-7).
The English versions transliterate everywhere in
Jeremiah "Jonadab," although the Masoretic text
reads thus in Jer. xxxv. 6, 10, 19 only. The name
signifies " God promised or gave " (comp. " Chemosh-
nadab "). Jehonadab was contemporary with Jehu,
King of Israel, whom he met on his way to the city of

Jehoram
Jehovah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Samaria, where he purposed to eradicate the worship
of Baal. Jehu, discovering in him a ready ally,
took In in into his chariot, and on the way they con-
cocted the scheme which ended with the massacre of
the worshipers of Baal (II Kings x. 15-23). The
good example set by Jehonadab was followed bj^
his descendants, and in couse(iuence a blessing was
pronounced upon liim and them by the prophet
Jeremiah (Jer. xxxv. 18-19).

E. G. H. B. P.

JEHORAM (JORAM) : 1. King of Israel (852-
842 B.C.); son of Aliab and Jezebel; brother and
successor of Ahaziah. Like his predecessors, Jeho-
ram worshiped Baal. With Jehoshaphat and the
King of Edom, Jehoram attacked Mesha, King of
Moab. In the war between Syria and Israel, Elisha
befriended Jehoram, revealing to him the plans of
the enemy. Subsequently, when Ben-hadad besieged
Samaria, reducing the city almost lo starvation, Je-
horam sought to kill the prophet. The latter, liow-
ever, foretold a period of plenty, which quickly
came, and the old relation between the king and the
prophet was restored. Wlien Hazael revolted in
Damascus, as Elislia had predicted (II Kings viii.
12), Jehoram made an alliance with his nephew
Ahaziali, King of Judah, the two kings going forth
to take Ramoth-gilead from S3'ria. The project
failed; Jehoram was wounded, and he withdrew to
Jezreel to recover. Attacked by Jehu, the com-
mander of the army in rebellion against Jehoram,
he fell pierced by an arrow (see Jeuu). With the
death of Jehoram the d3'nasty of Omri became
extinct.

E. G. H. B. P.

2. Fifth king of Judah; son of Jehoshaphat and
grandson of Asa. He was first named as regent in
854 B.C., when his father went with Ahab to fight
the Assyrians at Karkar (comp. II Kings i. 17, iii. 1,
viii. 16). He was entrusted with the full reins of
government in tlie twenty-third year (849 B.C.) of his
father's reign, and lie ruled eight j-ears. The records
of his reign are given in II Kings viii. 16-24, 27;
and II Chron. xxi. After his father died, and he
had secured himself in power, he slew his six broth-
ers (to whom his father had given fenced cities and
great wealth) and certain other influential men in
Israel (II Chron. xxi. 2-4).

Jehoram took to wife Athaliah, daugliter of Ahab
of Israel, " and he walked in the way of the kings of
Israel, as did the house of Ahab " (II Kings viii. 18,
27). Hi.s wickedness would have brought his people
to destruction, except for the promise to David "to
give him always a light, and to his children " (ib. viii.
19; comp. I Kings xi. 36, xv. 4). The Edomites,
who apparently had been subservient to Judah
since David's day (II Sam. viii. 14), revolted. Je-
horam's attempt to force them to submit almost re-
sulted in fatal disaster to his own troops. His army
was surrounded, but undercover of night succeeded
in cutting its way out and retreating to its own ter-
ritory. About the same time Libnah revolted, and
the Philistines and Arabians invaded the land of
Judah, captured and sacked Jerusalem, and carried
off all the royal household except Jehoahaz (Aha-
ziah; II Chron. xxi. 16, 17). During this time the

king received a letter of warning from Elijah {ib.
12-15).

Jehoram's idolatry, viciousness, and general wick-
edness brought upon liim an incurable disease. At
the end of two years of intense suflering he died,
unmourned, and despised by his own people. They
"made no burning for him, like the burning of liis
fathers," and "they buried him in the city of Da-
vid, but not in the sepulchres of the kings " (ib. xxi.
19, 20).

Bibliography: Commentaries on K'i»jgs and Chronicles; his-
tories of Israel by Stade, Guthe, Wlnckler. and others ; J. F.
McCurdy, Hi&tor]), Prophecy, and the Monumentu; Price,
MonumenU and Old Tetitament.
E. G. II. I. M. p.

JEHOSHABEATH (called also Jehosheba) :

Daughter of Jehoram, King of Judah, and wife of
the high priest Jehoiada, together with whom she
saved her brother's son Joasli from Athaliah (II
Kings xi. 2; II Chron. xxii. 11).

E. G. H. B. P.

JEHOSHAPHAT : Son of Asa ; fourth king of
Judah (873-r. 849b. c); contemporary of Ahab, Aha-
ziah, and Jehoram, kings of Israel. He inaugurated
a polic}' which was contrary to tliat pursued by his
predecessors, by recognizing the conditions created
by the division of the realm, and by entering into a
close alliance with the Northern Kingdom. In exe-
cution of this policy, liis son Jehoram married Ath-
aliah, Ahab's daughter (I Kings xxii. 51; I Chron.
iii. 11; II Kings viii. 18; II Chron. xxi. 6). Jehosh-
aphat took part in the expedition undertaken by
Ahab against the Arameans (I Kings xxii. 1 et seq. ;
II Chron. xviii. Set seq.), and together with Jeho-
ram of Israel waged war upon King Mesha of
Moab (II Kings iii. 4 et seq. ; comp. II Chron. xx. 1
et seq., where the episode is embellished with relig-
ious and miraculous elements). He also had the
ambition to emulate Solomon's maritime ventures to
Ophir, and built a large vessel for Tar.shish. But
when this boat was wrecked at Ezion-geber he relin-
quished the project (I Kings xxii. 48 et seq. ; II
Chron. xx. 35 etseq.).

In I Kings xxii. 43 the piety of Jehoshaphat is
briefly dwelt on. Chronicles, in keeping with its
tendency, elaborates this trait of the king's charac-
ter. According to its report (II Chron. xvii. 7 et
seq., xix. 4 et seq.) Jehoshaphat organized a mission-
ary movement by sending out his officers, the priests,
and the Levites to instruct the people throughout
the land in the Law of YnwH, the king himself de-
livering sermons. Ecclesiastical and secular juris-
dictions, according to II Chron. xix. 11, were by
royal command kept distinct.

Underlying this ascription to the king of the pur-
pose to carry out the Priest h' Code, is the liistorical
fact that Jehoshaphat took heed to organize the ad-
ministration of justice on a solid foundation, and
was an honest worshiper of Yhwh. In connection
with this the statement tliat Jehoshaphat expelled
the "Kedeshim" (R. V. "Sodomites") from the land
(I Kings xxii. 46) is characteristic; while II Chron.
xix. 8 credits liim witli having cut down the A.she-
rot. The report (II Chron. xvii. 6) that lie took
away the " high places " (and the Asherim) conflicts
with I Kings xxii. 44 (A. V. v. 43) and II Chron.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jehoram
Jehovah

XX. 33. The account of Jeliosliaiiliat's tremendous
army (1,160,000 men) and the ricli tribute received
from (among others) the Philistines and the Arabs (II
Chron. xvii. 10 etscq.) is not liistorical. It is in har-
mony with the theory worked out iu Clironiclcs that
pious raonarchs liave alwaj'S been the mightiest and
most prosperous.

BiBLiooRAPHY: Commentaries on Kiim^and. Chronicles; the
histories of Stade, Giithe, Wiuckler, Piepenbring, Smith, and
Ewald ; Hastings, Diet. Bible ; Guthe, Kurzes Bihel W6r-
terh.; Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl.; Riehm, Hand-
wOrterb. 2d ed.

E. G. H.

JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF : A valley
mentioned by the prophet Joel (Joel iv. [A. V. iii.]
2, 12), where, after the return of Judah and Jerusa-

(the present Wadi Sitti i\Iar3-ani, whicli separates
Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives, and through
which at one time the stream Kidron flowed), and
believe that the Last Judgment will be held there.
According to the Midra.sh Tehillim (viii. ; quoted
by Neubauer, "G. T." p. 51) no "valley called
Jehoshaphat" exists (ODt»>"in'' lOK^C* poy pNI)-

E. G. IL B. P.

JEHOVAH : A mispronunciation (introduced by
Christian t heologians, but almost entirely disregarded
by the Jcavs) of the Hebrew "Yiiavh," the (ineffa-
ble) name of God (the Tetuagrammaton or " Shem
ha-Meforash "). This pronunciation is grammatically
impossible; it arose through pronouncing the vowels

Valley of Jeuoshaphat,

(From a photograph by Bonfils.)

lem from the Captivity, Yhwh would gather all the
heathen and would sit in judgment on their mis-
deeds to Israel. On account of the significance of
the name "Jehoshaphat" ("Yhwh judges") some
commentators and translators have thought the des-
ignation " Valley of Jehoshaphat " to represent only
an imaginary locality. Thus Theodotion renders
r^ Xupav TTjc Kpiaeug ("the land of judgment");
Targum Jonathan, KJ'T i\bzi IB'^D ("the plain
of the settlement of judgment"). The name is
first met with in the fourth century of the com-
mon era, having been applied by the unknown Pil-
grim of Bordeaux in 333. It has since continued
to be so used among Jews, Christians, and Moham-
medans, who identify it with the valley of Kidron

of the "kere" (marginal reading of the Masorites:
■•inX = "Adonay ") with the consonants of the "ke-

tib " (text-reading : nin' = " Yhwh ") — " Adonay "
(the Lord) being substituted with one exception
wherever Yhwh occurs in the Biblical and liturgical
books. " Adonay " presents the vowels " shewa "
(the composite -- under the guttural N becomes
simple — under the >), "holem," and "kamez," and
these give the reading nirr* (= "Jehovah"). Some-
times, when the two names riMl'' and '•JTX occur to-
gether, the former is pointed with "hatef segol"
(tt) under the "< —thus, niH' ( = " Jehovah")— to indi-
cate that in this combination it is to be pronounced
" Elohim " (D'rif'N). These substitutions of " Ado-

Jehovah
Jehudi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

nay" and "Eloliim" for Yhwh were devised to
avoid tlie profanation of tlie Ineffable Name (lience
nin' is also written 'n, or even T, and read "ha-
Shem" = "the Name").

The reading "Jehovah " is a comparatively recent
invention. The earlier Christian commentators re-
port that the Tetragrammaton was written but not
pronounced by the Jews (see Theodoret, " Question.
XV. in Ex." [Field, "Hexapla," i. 90, to Ex. vi. 3];
Jerome, "Prtefatio Regnorum," and his letter to
Marcellus, "Epistola," 136, where he notices that
" PIPI " [= nini ■= nin''] is presented in Greek man-
uscripts; Origen, see "Hexapla " to Ps. Ixxi. 18 and
Isa i. 2; conip. concordance to LXX. by Hatch and
Redpath, under mill, which occasionally takes the
place of the usual nvpiog, in Philo's Bible quota-
tions ; KvpLog = " Adonay " is the regular translation ;
see also Aquila).

"Jehovah " is generally held to have been the in-
vention of Pope Leo X. 's confessor, Peter Galatin
("De Arcanis Catholicte Veritatis," 1518, folio xliii.),
who was followed in the use of this hybrid form by
Fagius (= Biichlein, 1504-49). Drusius (— Van der
Driesche, 1550-1616) was the first to ascribe to Peter
Galatin the use of "Jehovah," and this view has
been taken since his days (comp. Hastings, "Diet.
Bible," ii. 199, s.v. "God"; Gesenius-Buhl. "Hand-
worterb." 1899, p. 311 ; see Drusius on the tetragram-
maton in his "Critici Sacri," i. 2, col. 344). But it
seems that even before Galatin the name " Jeliovah "
had been in common use (see Drusius, I.e. notes to
col. 351) It is found in Raymond Martin's "Pugio
Fidei." written in 1270(Paris, 1651, iii., pt. ii., ch. 3,
p. 448; comp. T. Prat in " Dictiounaire de la Bible,"
S.V.). See also Names of God.

The pronunciation "Jehovah " has been defended
by Slier ("Ilebr. Lehrgebaude ") and Holemann
("Bibelstudien," i.).

The use of the composite " shewa " " hatef segol " ( ~ ) in cases
where " Elohim " is to be read has led to the opinion that the
composite "shewa" "hatef patah" (~) ought to have been used
to indicate the reading " Adonay." It has been argued in reply
that the disuseof the " patah " is in keeping with the Babylonian
system, in which the composite " shewa " is not usual. But the
reason why the " patah " is dropped is plainly the non-guttural
character of the "yod"; to indicate the reading "Elohim,"
however, the " segol " (and " hirek " under the last syllable,
i.e., ^V]\ ) had to appear in order that a mistake might not be

made and "Adonay" be repeated. Other peculiarities of the
pointing are these: with prefixes ("waw," "bet," "min") the
voweling is that required by "Adonay": "wa-Adonay," " ba-
Adonay," "me-Adonay." Again, after "Yhwh" ( = "Adonay")
the " dagesh lene " is inserted in pddij^, which could not be
the ca.se if "Jehovah" (ending in n) were the pronunciation.
The accent of the C(jhortative imperatives (noiK' , 7\'oyp ), which
should, before a word like "Jehovah," be on the first syllable,
rests on the second when they stand before nin\ which fact is
proof that the Masorites read "Adonay" (a word beginning
with "a").

BiBi.iOfJRAPHY: Schrader-Schenkel, BihcUe.rikon, iii. 147 et
scf/.; KiJhler, De I'ronunciatume Tetrnrjrammati.'i, 18(57;
Driver, Recent Thenr'irx on the . . . Pmntuniation, etc.,
in Stuilia JBihlica, i., Oxford, IHS."); Dalman, Der Gnttesud-
n\e Aihmn.) und fieine (Ve.sc?). 18Hil; T)\\\mi\nn,K(>mmenlnr
zu E.V()<h(j< 11 nil Leinticufi, p. 39, Leipsic, 1S<.)7; Herzog-
Hauck, Real-Encuc. viii., s.v. Jahve.

E. G. II.

J E H O VA H - J I R E H (nH'" niH"' = " Yiiwii
seeth"): Name given by Abraham to the place
wlicre lie sacrificed a ram instead of his son Isaac
(Gen. xxii. 14). The name may be an allusion either

to Gen. xxii. 8 or, as is the opinion of the commen-
tators, to the future importance of the place on
"which the Temple was to be built by Solomon.
The Targumim do not regard " Jehovah-jireh" as a
proper name.
E. G. H. M. Sei,.

JEHU (Assyrian, Ja'ua) : 1. Son of Jehoshaphat
and grandson of Nimshi, founder of the fifth Israel-
itish dynasty (842-743 B.C.); died 815 B.C., in the
twenty-eighth year of his reign. A commander of
troops (II Kings ix. 5-14, 25), with the cooperation
of the i^rophetic party intent upon making an end
of Baal-worship and the Phenician atrocities in
vogue in the Northern Kingdom under Jezebel's in-
fluence (I Kings xix. 16; II Kings ix. 1; see Eli-
jah; Elisha), Jehu, profiting by the absence of
King Jeiioram, who had gone to Jezreel to be healed
of the wounds which the Syrians had inflicted on
him at Ramah (II Kings viii. 29), had himself pro-
claimed king by the soldiers in garrison at Ramoth-
gilead (ib. ix. 13). Taking precautions that the
news should not leak out, Jehu hastened to Jezreel,
where he met Jehorara in company with his vis-
itor Ahaziah, King of Judah, who had come out to
greet him. Jehu slew Jehoram with his own hands,
casting the body into a portion of the field of
Naboth; while Ahaziah, overtaken in flight, was
mortally smitten at his command {ib. ix. 21-27).
Jezebel was by his orders thrown out of the win-
dow by the eunuchs, and he trod her under foot,
leaving her body to be "as dung upon the face of
the field " {ib. ix. 30-37).

His next care was to exterminate the house of
Ahab and its adherents {ib. x.). Meeting, on his
triumphal march to Samaria, Ahaziah 's brethren,
he caused them to be put to death {ib. x. 13-15);
and in Samaria he continued his policy of annihila-
ting Ahab'^ family and party {ib. x. 17). True to
the intentions of the prophetic partizans, aided by
Jehonadab, the sou of Rechab, he, pretending to be
a worshiper of Baal, succeeded in gathering the
priests, devotees, and prophets of Baal in Baal's
temple, where he had them put to death by his sol-
diers, and then destroyed the sanctuary and the
sacred pillars (//j. x. 18 etseq.). The "golden calves"
at Dan and Beth-el he did not remove {ib. 29-31).

One of Jehu's first cares was to cultivate the good
graces of Shalmaneser II., King of Assyria (see the
Black Obelisk, second line from top on the four sides;
Schrader, "K. B." p. 151; III Rawlinson, 5, No. 6,
40-65; Schrader, "K. A. T." 2d ed., p. 210). It is
not unlikely that Assyria had a hand in the revolution
that carried Jehu to the throne ("K. A. T." 3d ed.,
p. 43) : Assyria at least promised to be a protectot
against Damascus and Hazael. Assyria did not
keep Damascus in check, liowever, and so Jehu lost
(after 839) to Hazael the control over the district
east of the Jordan (II Kings x. 32).

The war must liave been waged with great
cruelty. The Damascenes penetrated also into the
Southern Kingdom and beyond (II Kings xii. 17,
18). Amos refers to the atrocities then committed,
while Jehu's a.ssassination of Jezebel and her son is
mentioned with horror by Hosea (i. 4). Jehu was
succeeded by bis son Jehoahaz.

THE jp:wish encyclopedia

Jehovah.
Jehudi

Bibliography : Commentaries to Kings; histories of Israel by
EwaUi, Stade, Winckler, and Guthe ; Schrader, K. A. T.'M
ed., pp. 255-258, and the references given In the notes thereto.

E. G. H.

2. Son of Hanaui; a prophet. lie deuounced
Baasha for the idolatry practised by liim, and pre-
dicted the downfall of his dynasty (I Kings xvi. 1,
7). He censured also Jehoshaphat, King of Judah,
for his alliance with Ahab (II Cliron. xix. 2, 3).
Jehu's father was probably the Hanani who proph-
esied against Jehoshaphat's father, Asa (II Chron.
xvi. 7). Jehu must have either lived to a very great
age or begun his prophetical career very young ; for
between his two prophecies there is an interval of
thirty years. Besides, he survived Jehoshaphat,
and wrote the hitter's life (II Chron. xx. 34).
Jerome (in the Vulgate) adds a gloss to I Kings xvi.

itself (verse 46) the writer names himself explicitly
"Jehudi [see Jer. xxxvi. 14] ben Sheshet." The
father's name is punctuated n^K', and made to rime
with words ending in " -shat," hence it should prop-
erly be pronounced "Sheshat," instead of, as is usu-
ally done, "Sheshet." The polemic gives no further
information concerning the person of Jehudi. He
wrote it during the lifetime of his teacher Dunasii,
perhaps with his assistance; Hasdai ibn Shaprut,
however, was no longer living, a fact which may
explain why Jehudi did not preface his work with
a eulogy of this great patron of the sciences.

Jehudi b. Sheshet makes the three pupils of Men-
ahem the object of relentless Invective, and hia
coarse ridicule does not spare even their names, es-
loecially that of Ben Kafron, which he derides be-

Tkibute ok Jehu to Shalmaneseu 11.

(From the Black Obelisk.)

7, representing Jehu as having been killed by
Baasha.

3. Son of Obed, a descendant of Jarha, an Egyp-
tian, and of a daughter of Hezron the Judahite, the
direct male line being Egyptian (I Chron. ii. 38).

4. A Simeonite prince, son of Josibiah ; lived in
the reign of Plezekiah (I Chron. iv. 35, 41).

5. One of David's heroes, an Antothite, who
while David was still at Ziklag, for his sake forsook
the cause of Saul (I Chron. xii. 3).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

JEHUDA. See Judah.

JEHUDI B. SHESHET: Hebrew philologist
of the tenth century ; pupil of Dunash b. Labrat.
He is known exclusively through the polemic in
which he defended his teacher against tlie attacks of
tlie ])ui)ils of Menahcm b. Saruk. The only man-
uscript which has preserved this very interesting
polemic (Parma MSS., Codex Stern, No. 6) names
in its title "the pupils of Dunash " as having framed
the ansv/er to the pupils of Menahem. At the end
of the manuscript, however, the answer is called
" Teshubot shel Talmid Dunash," and in the work

cause of its signification in Latin (" caper " =
"goat"). He reproaches Judah b. David Hayyuj,
the youngest of them, for his Christian descent; in-
deed, he goes far beyond his teacher and the pupils
of Menahem in his polemical zeal.

Jehudi ben Sheshet uses the same meter and the
same rime as Dunash and his opponents had used.
His writing consists of a metrical part containing 154
verses, of which 1-83 form the introduction, and
of a prose part preceded by a prologue in rimed
prose. The portion in prose is an elucidation of the
second half of the metrical part. He answers only
about tiiirty of the fifty criticisms of i^Ienahcm's
pupils, and is very emphatic in his eulogy of Dunash,
preferring him even to Saadia (verse 61). He also
defends the application of Arabic laws of prosody
to Hebrew ver.se (p. 22), introduced by Dunash.
Jehudi's polemic has been published, with that of
Menahem's pupils, by S. G. Stern in "Sefer Teshu-
bot: Liber Responsionum " (Vienna, 1870).

Bibliography : Racher, In Winter and Wiinsche, DieJtldisclie
Littcratur, ii. 156, 101.
G. W. B.

Jeiteles

Jekuthiel ben Judah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

JEITELES (JEITTELES): Austrian family
of some importance, which can be traced back to
the first lialf of the eighteenth century.

Aaron (Andreas) Ludwig Joseph Jeitteles :
Physician, poet, and writer; born at Prague Nov.
24, 1799; died at Graz June 17, 1878; son of Judah
Jeiteles. Having graduated from the gymnasium
of his native city at tlie age of fifteen, he studied
medicine at the universities of Prague and Vienna
{>I.D. 1825). Three 3'ears later he was converted to
Catholicism. From 1829 to 1835 he was successively
prosector and professor in the anatomical depart-
ment of Vienna University, and from 1835 to 1869
he held the chair of surgical therapeutics at the
University of Olmiitz. He contributed several
scientific dissertations to medical journals and pre-
pared a new edition of A. M. Mayer's " Beschreibung
des Ganzen Menschlichen Korpers" (Vienna, 1831).
In 1848 he took an active part in the revolutionary
movement, edited the journal " Neue Zeit," and rep-
resented the Olmutz district in the revolutionary
parliament at Frankfort -onthe-Main.

Aaron had entered the field of literature while
still attending the gymnasium. He wrote a great
number of poems, some of which were set to music
by Beethoven and other composers. On the cente-
nary of his birth his son published his " Gesammelte
Dichtungen," which form the tenth volume of
the "Bibliothek der Deutschen Schriftsteller aus
Bohmen." He pleaded strongly for humanity, jus-
tice, and freedom (hence his pseudonym "Justus
Frey "), and in his hymn in honor of Huss and Je-
rome of Prague he attacked the obscurantism of the
Roman Church. His former coreligionists found in
him a warm defender. In the poem " Warnimg " he
appealed to them to adhere to their ancestral faith,
and gave expression to the pangs which torment the
soul of him who without conviction deserts the re-
ligion of his fathers

Bibliography: Bemhard Miinz, in Beiblatt zum Gcneral-
Anzeiger fVir die Gesammten Interessen des Jiidenthiimx,
Berlin, No. 52, Dec. 21, 1908; Wurzbach, Biographischcs Lex-
ihon, X. 119 et seq.
D. S. Man.

Baruchb. Jonah (Benedict) Jeiteles: Bohemian
Talmudist and Hebraist ; born in Prague April 22,
1762; died there Dec. 18, 1813; eldest son of Jonas
Jeiteles and father of Ignaz Jeiteles. He turned from
the Orthodoxy then dominant in Prague, and es-
poused the liberalism championed by Mendelssohn.
He conducted a yeshibah there and took an active in-
terest in communal affairs, but his endeavors to
modify the prejudiced views of his coreligionists in
Prague subjected him to many persecutions at the
hands of the more zealous.

After the battles of Kulm and Dresden, in
1813, when the numbers of the wounded who
were brought into Prague increased to such extent
that the public hospitals could no longer accommo-
date them all, Jeiteles urged the erection of private
infirmaries for the unfortunate men, who had been
neglected for weeks. Unceasingly active, collecting
funds, visiting the soldiers and relieving them with-
out regard to tiieir religion or nationality, he con-
tracted hospital fever, of which he died.

Jeiteles was tlie author of the following works:
"'Ammude lia-Shahar" (Prague, 1785), on Talmud-

ical subjects ; " Dibre Yosef ha-Sheni ha-Aharonim "
{ib. 1790), translated from the German; " 'Eniek ha-
Baka " (il>. 1793), a funeral sermon on the death of
R. Ezekiel Landau ; " Ha-'Oreb" (Vienna, 1795), which
purports to be by Phinehas Hananiah Argosi de Silva,
and to have been published in Salonica, but which
was really the work of Baruch : it deals with a dis-
pute between him and Landau ; '" Sihah ben Shenat
X'Dpni D'pn," on the disciples of Shabbethai Zebi
and of Frank in Prague, which was published anon-
ymously (Prague, 1800) and is attributed (by Ben-
jacob, " Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 574) to his brother
Judah Jeiteles; " Ta'am ha-Melek " (Brlinn, 1801-
1803), on the "Sha'ar ha-Melek" of Isaac Nunez
Belmonte. It was republished with additions by
R. Joseph Saul Nathansohn, Lemberg, 1859.

Baruch wrote also Hebrew poems and epigrams
which appear in his brother's "Bene ha-Ne'urim,"
and he delivered a lecture on vaccination, " Die Kuh-
pockenimpfung " (Prague, 1804). In 1784, 1790,
and 1794 he published in " Ha-Meassef " some ex-
cellent translations of the fables of Lessing and
Lichtwer; and odes, elegies, and funeral and other
orations by him in German and Hebrew are scat-
tered through various periodicals.

Bibliography: Fiirst, 2?ih/. Ji/d. ii. 51-52 ; Zedner, Cat. Hehr.
Boi>h)< Brit. Mux. p. 319; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 194-
195, Warsaw, 1886.

s. s. A. Ki.— P. Wr.

Ig-naz Jeiteles : Austrian writer on esthetics and
philosophy ; born at Prague Sept. 13, 1783 ; died at
Vienna June 19, 1843. The son of Baruch (Benedict)
Jeiteles and grandson of Jonas Jeiteles, he was care-
fully educated under their supervision. He studied
at the Piarists' gymnasium at Prague, and was then
enrolled in the law school of the univerfeity in that
city, but devoted himself to classical literature and
esthetics, being infiuenced by A. G. Meissner, who
was then lecturing at Prague on these subjects.
Forced by private circumstances to devote most of
his time to commercial pursuits, he removed to
Vienna, where, nevertheless, he soon became known
by the clear, incisive articles, full of common sense,
which he wrote for different periodicals of Vienna.

He especially interested himself in all that per-
tained to the oppressed condition of the Jews, al-
though he was not always successful in liis endeav-
ors. His " Gedankcn an der Wiege eines Jiidischen
Kindes " still possesses con.siderable value. He con-
tributed hundreds of essays to the "Annalen fiir
Oesterreichische Literatur" (1816-20); "Elegante
Zeitung" (1809-12); " Dresdener Abendzeitung "
(1817); "Sulamith" (1806-18); " Hormayers Archiv "
(1812-15) ; " Wiener Zeitschrift fiir Kunst und Liter-
atur" (1817-20); Lewald's " Europa " ; and the vari-
ous "Taschenblicher" of that time. Unfortunately
he could not carry out his plan (1838) of issuing a
literary supplement to Bauerles' "Theater-Zeitung."
His death interrupted also his work on a history of
literature, for which he had been collecting material
for years.

Jeiteles published in book form: "DieKuhpock-
enimpfung," Prague, 1804 (together with his father
and grandfather); "Biographic des Dr. Jonas Jei-
teles," «7a 1806; "Analekten, Arabesken, und Ana-
logien," th. 1807; "Clio, eine Reihe Welthistorischer
Szenen," Vienna, 1834; and his chief work. "Acs-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeiteles

Jekuthiel ben Judah

Jonas Mischel Jeiteles.

thetisches Lexicon, cin Alphabetisclies Handbiich
zur Tlieorie der Philosopliie des Schouou uud der
Schonen Kunst," 2 vols., Vienna, 1835-38. During
his last years he undertook a journey to Italy, the
fruit of which, "Eine Keise nach Koin," was pub-
lished posthumously by August Lewald (Siegen
and Wiesbaden, 1844). In 1838 Jeiteles received the
honorary degree of Ph.D. from the University of
Jena for his works on esthetics. A. Ki.

Jonas Mischel Jeiteles : Austrian physician ;
born at Prague May 5, 1735; died there April 18,
1806. His early training he received from his father,

who was an apothecary.
In 1752 he went to Leip-
sic to study medicine,
and in 1753 to Halle,
where hegraduatedM.D.
in 1755. Returning to
his native town, he in
1756 received a license
to practise medicine
among his coreligionists,
and in 1763 was ap-
pointed physician of the
Jewish hospital. In 1784
he received a license to
practise medicine and
surgery without restric-
tion as to the creed of
his patients, and suc-
ceeded in building up a large practise. He was the
author of " Observata Quaedam Medica," Prague,
Vienna, and Leipsic, 1783.

Bibliography : Sulamith, ii. 1, Dessau, 1809.

F. T. H.

Judah Jeiteles : Austrian Orientalist ; born at
Prague March, 1773; died at Vienna June 6, 1838;
son of Jonas Jeiteles. He devoted himself to the
study of Oriental languages and literature under the
direction of his brother Baruch. He was the
first to compose in Hebrew a grammar of Biblical
Aramaic, its title being "Mebo Lashon Aramit "
(Prague, 1813). He edited and wrote commentaries
on the books of Samuel, Kings, the twelve Minor
Prophets, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel
for Anton Schmid's ue'^v (fourth) edition of the
Bible Avitli German translation. Jeiteles also pub-
lished: "Sihah: Gesprach uber die Sekte der Sab-
bataer" (in Hebrew, Brilnn, 1800); "Psalm zum
Lobe Gottes," Prague, 1817; and "Sammlung He-
braischer Gedichte, Fabeln, Sprilche," etc., ib. 1821 ;
besides contributing many essays to" Ha-Meassef."

s. A. Ki.

JEITELES, ALOIS: Austrian physician and
poet ; born June 20, 1794 (or 1795), at Briinn, IMoravia ;
died there April 16, 1858. He studied pliilosophy
at Brunn and Prague, and medicine at Vienna
(M.D. 1819). Stimulated by his intercourse with
men like Beethoven, Griilparzer, and the leading
artists of tlie Vienna Burgtheatcr, he turned to
poetry, attracting attention even as a student. His
song-cycle, " An die Feme Geliebte," which appeared
in "Selam Aglaja," was set to music by Beethoven.
The parody "Der Schicksalstriumph," written in
1818 in collaboration with Castelli, made the rounds

of the German stage. In 1819 he together witli his
cousin Ignaz Jeiteles founded the weekly "Siona";
but it was soon discontinued. In 1821 he settled as
a pliysician in Briinn. In 1848 he was appointed
editor of the official "Brlinner Zeitung," an office
which he held till his death.

A student of the old Italian and Spanish drama-
tists, Jeiteles published translations from the latter,
and also wrote plays that appeared at the Burg-
theater, Vienna. Among these were: "Fegefeuer
des Heiligen Palricius'"; "Die Macht des Blutes";
"Der Richter aus Zalamea"; "Die Vergeltung";
"Auge uud Ohr"; "Der Liebe Wahn und Wahr-
heit"; " Die Hausgenossen " ; and "Derllirtenknabe
von Tolosa." Most of his scientific works have ap-
peared in annuals and other periodicals. His last
work, "Der Lehrer des Propheten," was printed
in Wertheimer's "Jahrbuch fiir Israeliten," 5618
(= 1857-1858), pp. 667 ci scq.

Bibliography : Wiener Zeituno, 1858, No. 91 ; Low, Ben Cha-
nniija. 1858. p. 240; Wertheimer, Jalirh. 5619 ( = 1858-59), p.
336; Judisches Atltenihim (Grimma and Leipsic). 1851. pp.
Ill et seq.; Wiirzbach, Bing. Lex. x. 117 : Godelfe. Grundriss
zur Gescli. der Dcutschen DicMunu, vii. 28 et sea., Dresden,
1900.
s. B. Te.

JEKEL, RABBI. See J.\cob of Vienna.

JEKUTHIEL IBN HASAN: Statesman
and scientist of the eleventh century ; lived in Sara-
gossa. According to Geiger, he is identical with the
astronomer Hasan ben Hasan, who lived asdayyan
in Cordova, where he wrote a work on astronomy,
and later settled in Saragossa, where he filled a high
position under the emir. "The government was
upon his shoulders, and by his word princes ruled,"
sings Solomon ibn Gabirol, who found in Jekuthiel
a benefactor and true friend, and who continually
praises his learning, modest}-, and generosity. In
the revolution under Abdallah ibn Hakam, who con-
spired against his uncle. King Mundhir of Sara-
gossa, and beheaded him (1039), Jekuthiel also
was beheaded (Nisan, 1039), notwithstanding his
great age ; a year later, however, the murderers met
their punishment. Jekuthiel's death was lamented
by the foremost Jewish poets of his age, especially
by Gabirol in a poem of more than 200 verses.

Bibliography: Gratz, Gexch. vi. 26; idem, in Monatsschrift,
vii. 453 et seq.: Geiger. in Z. D. M. G. xii. 514 et seq.; idem.
Salomn GabirnJ, pp. 38 et seq., 118 et .•<eq.: Dukes, 8/1 ire
Shelomoh, pp. 29 et seq.; Senior Sachs. Salomn Gahirol, pp.
29-36.

J. M. K.

JEKUTHIEL BEN JUDAH HA-KOHEN
(YaHBI [^a n^] ; known also as Jekuthiel ha-
Nakdan and Zalman ha-Nakdan) : Grammarian
of Prague; lived in tiie second half of the thirteenth
century. Baer claimed to have seen a manuscript
which gave 1171 as the date of Jekuthiel's death
(" Orient. Lit." xii. 6), butaccording to Steinschneider
("Cat. Bodl." col. 1381) the date refers to Jacob
Tarn (comp. Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 117). Jeku-
tliiel occupied himself chiefly with the Masorah and
its punctuation, lience his surname " ha-Is'akdan "
(the punctuator). AVith the help of si.x ancient
Spanish manuscripts he prepared a correctly vocal-
ized and accented text of the Pentateuch and the
Book of Esther. His rules of punctuation are ex-
plained in his "'En ha-Kore," in which be quotes

Jekuthiel ben Lob
Jellinek

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the ancient grammarians Ben Naplitali, Ben Asher,
Ibn Janah, Ibn Ezra, Jacob Tam, and others. In
ancient texts of the Pentateuch his work is indi-
cated by the initials n"y. It is quoted by Abraliam
de Balmes in his "Mikneh Abraham," by Elijah
Levita in his "Masoret ha-Berit," and by Solomon
Hanau in his " Zohar ha-Tebah. " Heideniieim pub-
lished the preface of the " 'En ha-Kore," and many
extracts from it, in his editions of the Pentateuch
("Me'or 'Enayim")and the Seder Purim. It was
Heidenheim's opinion that Jekuthiel lived before
David Kimhi.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keiieset Yisrael,x>- 669; Furst, BiW.
Jud. ii. 53; Zunz, Z. G. p. 115.
T. M. Sel.

JEKUTHIEL BEN LOB GORDON : Russian
physician and cabalist ; born at the beginning of the
eighteenth century. Even as a young man he en-
joyed a reputation as an able Talmudist. He went
to Padua to study medicine, and there made the
acquaintance of the young Moses Hayyim Luzzatto,
under whose guidance he took up the study of the
Cabala. From his letters to Mordecai Jaffe of
Vienna (to whom he probably had been introduced
by his father-in law, R. Raphael of Wilna) and to
Joshua Hoschel, rabbi of AVilua (in 1729; published
in Emden's "Torat ha-Kena'ot," p. 45, Amsterdam,
1737), it is evident that he was a tirm believer in the
teachings of the Cabala, and even in miracles. He
was careless enough to write to Wilna and Vienna
that Luzzatto was a great cabalist and a seer of
visions, an indiscretion which led to Luzzatto's per-
secution by Moses Hagiz and other fanatical rabbis.
When Luzzatto was compelled to leave Padua, Jeku-
thiel remained, and for two years, with a circle of
companions, continued in secret the study of the
Cabala. He then returned to Lithuania and made
many converts to the Cabala. In 1742 he was sent
from Brest-Litovsk as a delegate to Wilna (?); from
that time his movements are unknown. He left
many works in manuscript, of which the following
came into the possession of Jeshuah ben Hoschel
Schorr at Brody: "Mar'ehha-Musar " ; "Derushim,"
etc. ; "Mar Kashshisha" ; " Sugyot ha-Talmud," com-
mentary to the thirteen rules of Rabbi Ishmael and
other rules of the Talmud. The first three are caba-
listic works.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kiryah Nc'cmanah, pp. 104, 110;
idem. Kenrset Yisrael, p. 668; Jazkan, Rabbenv Eliuahu
mi-Wilna. p.:iO; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 429; Kauf-
mann, in Ii. E. J. .x.xiii. 256.

II. u. J. G. L.

JEKUTHIEL BEN SOLOMON (called also
Maestro Bonsenior) : French physician ; lived at
Narljonne in the second half of the fourteenth cen-
tury. In 1387 he translated into Hebrew, under the
title "Shoshanha-Refu'ah," the "Lilium Medicinal "
of Bernard of Gordon. The translation is extant in
manuscript.

Bibliography : Renan-Neubauer, if* Ecrivains Juifs Fran-
mi'.s, p. 386; Steinschneider, Hehr. Uehcrs. p. 785.
G. I. Br.

JEKUTHIEL OF WILNA. Sec Jekuthiel

B. Li'lIJ (ioUDON.

JELIN, ARYEH L6b : Rabbi of Byelsk.
government of Grodno, Russia; born 1820; died
April 2, 1886. He was one of the most prominent
Russian rabbis, to whom halakic matters were fre-

quently referred for decision. He was the author
of " Kol Aiyeh" and "Mizpeh Aryeh," novellae
on various Talmudical treatises. His most impor-
tant production is the " Yefeh 'Enayini," giving
the parallel passages found in the Babylonian Tal-
mud, the Yerushalmi, the Midrashiin, the Pesiktas,
and other ancient rabbinic productions, occasionally
with critical remarks which are of the greatest value
to the rabbinic student. The " Yefeh 'Enayim "
accompanies the Talmudic text in the new Talmud
editions of the Ronims of Wilna. Jelin left in man-
uscript many novellae on the Talmud and a collec-
tion of responsa.

Bibliography: Bravermann, Aivilie Shem, p. 95: Ha-Asif,
iii. 123.
s. s. L Br.

JELLINEK : Austrian family whose name has
been rendered illustrious by the great preacher
Adolf Jellinek.

Adolf Jellinek : Austrian rabbi and scholar ;
born June 26, 1821, at Drslawitz, Moravia; died Dec.
29, 1893, at Vienna. In 1845 he became preacher
at the Leipsic-Berliner Synagogue in Leipsic, and
in 1848 preacher at the Leipsic community syna-
gogue ; in 1856 he was called as preacher to the
Leopoldstadter Tempel, Vienna, where he remained
until the death of Mannheimer, whom he succeeded
in 1865 in the Seitenstettengasse Tempel.

Jellinek's intellectual activity covered the three
fields of religious philosophy, bibliography, and
oratoiy, and falls naturally into two periods, that
of Leipsic and that of Vienna. The first may be
designated as the preeminently scientific period;
the second, as the preeminently oratorical one. Like
most self-taught scholars, Jellinek was an omniv-
orous reader and inves-
tigated many subjects;
he had a remarkable
memory and a brilliant
intellect. He was greatly
stimulated to scientific
studies by the scholarly
circles of Leipsic. While
he did not issue a large
number of independent
works he edited many
in his chosen fields, add-
ing valuable scholarly
notes or introductions.
He devoted especial
attention to the Cab-
ala, his first work be-
ing " Die Kabbala von
Dr. Franck, aus dem
Franzosischen Ueber-

setzt," Leipsic, 1844. This was followed by: "Mo-
ses b. Schem Tob de Leon unci Sein Verhaltniss
zum Sohar," ib. 1851; " Beitrilge zur Gesch. der
Kabbala," ib. 1852; " Auswahl Kabbalisti.scher Mys-
tik," ib. 1853; "Thomas von Aquino in der Jii-
dischen Literatur," ib. 1853; "'Maarich von M. de
Lonsano," ib. 1853; "Philosophic uud Kabbala,"
parti., ib. 1854. His works on the philosophy of
religion include: " System der Moral von R. Bechaje
b. Josef," ib. 1846; "Mikrokosmos: 'Olaiu Katon von
R. Josef ibn Zadik," ib. 1854; "R. Salomon Alamis

Adolf Jellineli.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jekuthiel ben Lttb
Jelliuek

Sittenlehre," ih. 1854; "DcrMcnsch von Sabb. Do-
nolo, " 1854. He published with seholurly introduc-
tions a collection of small midrashim taken partly
from manuscripts, i)artly froni printed books, and
entitled " Beth ha-Midrascli " (six parts, 1853-78).
Others of his editions are commentaries by Tobiah
b. Eliezer, ISolomon b. Meir, Simon b. Zemah, Joseph
Bekor Slior, and Jedidiah Solomon Nurzi.

Very valuable are his si.x bibliographies (1876-78)
on the earliest commentators of the Talmud (" Kon-
tres ha-Mefaresh "), Jewish proper names (" Kontres
ha-Mazkir"), haggadic hermeneutics ("Kontres ha-
Maggid "), the 613 precepts ("Kontres Taryag"),
Maimonides' legal code (" Kontres lia-RaMBaM "),
and the methodologic-hermeneutic and chronolog-
ical literature to the Midrash and the Talmud (" Kon-
tres ha-Keialim "). In this connection must also
be mentioned Jellinek's index to the German trans-
lation of De Rossi's " Diziouario " (1839-46).

While Jellinek's most valuable scientific works
were produced during his sojourn at Leipsic, his
oratorical achievements culminated at Vienna. Al-
though his discourses printed at Leipsic gave indica-
tion of latent power, he at this time was still under
the influence of Salomon, the famous preacher of
Hamburg; but as soon as he went to Vienna he
manifested his independence. "The air of the large
city bewitches one," he was wont to say; and he
certainly w^ould not have reached his commanding
position if he had not occupied the pulpit at Vienna.

Jellinek was the greatest, most gifted Jewish
preacher that modern Judaism has produced. His
thorough knowledge of the Midrash, and the start-
ling uses he made of it in his sermons, distinguish him
especially from all his contemporaries and predeces-
sors. In his discourses he is the most brilliant apol-
ogist of Judaism and the most accomplished and
courageous opponent of all its enemies, both within
and without the Synagogue. All his addresses are
timely answers of Judaism to present-day questions
and problems of intellectual and national life, of re-
ligion and science. With admirable insight he im-
mediately recognizes in every midrash the whole
structure of the original discourse, as he strikingly
proved in the sermon "Eine Alte Schutzrede fiir die
Proselyten " ("Zeitstimme," ii. 19). Jellinek printed
about 200 discourses, singly or in volumes. Three
parts, containing 68 discourses, were published in
the years 1862, 1863, and 1866; and the following
later: "Das Weib in Israel " (Vienna, 1866), two dis-
courses ; " Das Gesetz Gottes Ausser der Thora "
(1867), five discourses; "Schema Israel " (1869), five
discourses; "Zeitstimmen " (1870-71), two parts,
eighteen discourses ; " Bezelem Elohim " (1871 ). For
the seventieth birtliday of I. N. Manuheimer he is-
sued "Nofeth Zufim, R. Jehuda Messer Leons Rhe-
torik uach Aristoteles. " Jellinek was one of the
most productive honnletic writers, the modern
classical haggadi.st i)ar excellence. His " Der Jii-
dische Stamm " (1869) and " Der Judisciie Stamm in
Nichtjlidischen Sprlichwortern " (1881-82) are psy-
chologic and ethnologic studies.

Bibliography: B. Leiinrlorfer, in AUu.Ztit. dcx JiuK 19(«.
Ixvii. 581-5H2; Knlnit, BerlUimtf Isrnditische M''i)uicr riml
Frmicn: I. M. Jost, Adulf Jdlinrk uiui die. Kalilinhi.
Leipsic, 1852: Morais, Eminent If<raelites of the Xineteextli
Centum, Philadelphia, 18«0. a j^y.

Arthur Jellinek : Hungarian deputy ; born
March 15, 1851. He studied law at the University of
Vienna (Ph.D. 1875). In 1876 he opened a law
office at Budapest, and in the following year he was
elected to the Parliament (Diet). He drafted among
other bills that on the jurisdiction of the courts in
electoral matters, also tiie general report on marital
laws; and he lias contributed many articles on legal
topics to the periodicals "Themis," "Togtudomanyi
Kozlony," and " Cgyvedeklapja." His chief works
are "Katonai Biintetojog ei Katonai Eskii " (1884)
and " A Magyar Maganjog mai Ervenyeben " (1886).

Bibliography : Pallas Lex. ix.

M. W.

Georg Jellinek: Austrian jurist and author;
born at Leipsic June 16, 1851 ; son of Adolf Jelli-
nek; educated at the universities of Heidelberg,
Leipsic, and Vienna, where he studied law and philos-
ophy. He entered the Austrian government service
in 1874, but resigned in 1879 to become privat-
docent at Vienna University. Appointed professor
of jurisprudence in 1883, he resigned in 1889. The
following year he was appointed professor at Basel,
and since 1891 he has held the chair of international
law at the University of Heidelberg. He studied
Orientalia at the University of Prague and later in
Leipsic.

Among his works may be mentioned the follow-
ing, all, with one exception, published in Vienna:
" Die Sozial-Ethische Bedeutung von Recht, Un-
recht und Strafe," 1878; "Die Rechtliche Natur der
Staatenvertriige," 1880; "Die Lehrevonden Staaten-
verbindungen, " 1882 ; " Oesterreich-Ungarn und Ru-
manien in der' Donaufrage," 1884; "Ein Verfas-
sungsgerichtshof ftir Oesterreich," 1885: "Gesetz
und Verordnung," Freiburg-in-Baden, 1887; "Sys-
tem der Subjektiven Oeffentlichen Rechte," 1892.

Bibliography : Meyers Konversations-Lexikon ; Bmckhaus
Konversations-Lexikon.

F. T. H.

Heinrich Jellinek de Haraszt : Born at Buda-
pest Dec. 21, 1853; son of Moritz Jellinek. After
having studied the street-railway system of the Con-
tinent, he entered the offices of the Budapest Tram-
way Company, and later succeeded his father as its
president. He introduced electric traction, and ex-
tended the sj'stem to the environs of Budapest, es-
tablishing the branches Budapest-Szent-Endre and
Budapest-IIaraszti. He was ennobled bj' the king
in recognition of his services. Jellinek is president
of the Budapest chamber of commerce and of the
Budapest Sick Fund for Working Men.

M. W.

Hermann Jellinek : Austrian writer; brother of
Adolf Jellinek; born Jan. 12, 1823, at Drslawitz,
near Ungari.sch-Brod, Moravia; executed Nov. 23,
1848, at Vienna. At the age of tliirtecn he left home,
going successively to Presburg, Nikoisburg, and
Prague. At Prague he studied Kant and Schelling,
and wrote essays on philcsophj' and tlieology. Heat
this time intended to qualif}' for the rabbinate, but
later he became a derided ojiponent of all religion. In
1842 he went to Leipsic, where he studied Hegel,
Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, natural science, political
economy, and socialistic literature.

Jellinek
Jerahmeel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

94:

A most determined character, all his writings
were in the nature of polemics. For this reason he
was expelled from Leipsic in 1847, and subsequently
from Berlin. He then returned to Vienna and en-
gaged in journalism, writing editorials for the "All-
gemeiue Oesterreichische Zeitung " and "Die Radi-
calen." During the October revolution he criticized
the lack of unity in the defense of democracy. On
the fall of Vienna Jellinek was imprisoned (Nov. 9,
1848). During his court martial he so bitterly ar-
raigned his judges that he was threatened with phys-
ical punishment. Attempts made to induce him to
disavow his works, in order that he might be liber-
ated, proved futile. He said, in a letter written the
night before his death, that his printed ideas could
not be shot. He was buried in the cemetery of
Wahring, near Vienna, where his grave is marked
by the ligures "26," his age.

Jellinek was the atithor of the following works:
"Uriel Acosta," Zerbst, 1848; "Das Verhaltniss der
Lutherischen Kirche zu den Reformatorischen Be-
strebungen," Leipsic, 1847; "Die Tiiuschungen der
Aufgeklarten Juden und Ihre Filhigkeit zur Eman-
cipation," Zerbst, 1847; " Das Denunciationssystem
des Sachsischen Liberalismus," Leipsic, 1847; "Die
Gegenwartige Krisis der Hegelschen Philosophic,"
ib. 1847; "Kritik der Religion der Liebe," Zerbst,
1847; "Kritische Gesch. der AViener Revolution,"
Vienna, 1848; " KritischerSprechsaal fiirdie Haupt-
fragen der Oesterreichischen Politik," ib. 1848;
" Kritisch-Philosophische Schriften," 1849.

Bibliography: Jildhichcs Athenllum, 1851, p. 113; Mci/erg
Konvcrsations-Lexiknn.

L. V.

Max Hermann Jellinek : Austrian philologist;
born in Vienna May 29, 1868; son of Adolf Jelli-
nek. Educated at tiie university of his native city
(Ph.D. 1889), he became privat-docent there in Ger-
man philology (1892) and subsequently assistant
professor (1900).

Of Jellinek's publications the following may be
mentioned : " Die Sage von Hero und Leander in der
Dichtung," Berlin, 1890; " Beitrage zur Erklilrung
der Germanischen Flexion," ib. 1891 ; " Die Psalmen-
iibersetzuugdes Paul Schede Melissus," Halle, 1896;
" Ein Kapitel aus der Gesch. der Deutschen Gram-
matik," ib. 1898. He edited Philipp von Zesen's
"Adriatische Rosemund," ib. 1899. S.

Moritz Jellinek : Hungarian political economist ;
born at Ungarisch-Brod, Moravia, in 1823; died at
Budapest June 13, 1883; brother of Adolf Jellinek.
He studied political economy at the universities of
Vienna and Leipsic. Influenced by his brother Her-
mann, he took part in 1848 in the Austrian revolu-
tion, founding Liberal periodicals at Briinn and
Krems. He was associated with the revolutionists
at Vienna. Early in the second half of the nine-
teenth century iie went to Budapest, where he estab-
lished a wholesale grain-house. As president of the
Grain Exchange, he organized the Stock Exchange
tribunal, wliieii still exists. In 1H64 he founded the
Budapest Tramway Company, of which he remained
general director till his death. He was president
also of the (Jorn Exchange. He contributed to
"Hon" articles on tiie Magyarizing of commerce,
and to the annals of tlie Academy of Sciences es.says

on the price of cereals and on the statistical organi-
zation of the country.

Bibliography : Pallas Lex. ix.

M. W.— L. V

JENER, ABRAHAM NAPHTALI HIRZ
BEN MORDECAI : Polish rabbi ; born at Yanov
1806; died at Cracow July 14, 1876. He was a
pupil of his father and of his brother Johanan, and
soon distinguished himself as a Talmudist. In 1826
he went to Cracow, where he engaged in business,
but was unsuccessful. He accepted the position of
dayyan or judge of the city of Cracow, and was
later appointed president of the bet din.

Jener was an eminent Talmudist and an able day-
yan, many renowned rabbis relying upon his deci-
sions.

His responsa are contained in " Birkat Abraham "
(1874) and " Zeluta de- Abraham. " Some of his liom-
ilies were added to those works (Lemberg, 1866).

Bibliography : B. FTiedberg, Lxihot Zikkaron, p. 79, Droho-
bicz, 1897 ; idem, Keter Kehunn'ah, p. 38, ib. 1898.
s. s. B. Fr.

JEPHTHAH (nnS"').— Biblical Data: Judge
of Israel during six years (Judges xii. 7) ; conqueror
of the Ammonites. According to Judges xi. 1, he
was a Gileadite, son of Gilead and a harlot. Driven
from his father's house by his father's legitimate
sons, he settled in the land of Tob as chief of a band
of freebooters (Judges xi. 3). On the occasion of
the war with the Ammonites, Jephthah's aid was
sought by the elders of Gilead and obtained on the
condition that they would accept him as their chief;
and he was accordingly solemnly invested with au-
thority at Mizpah (Judges xi. 4-11). Before taking
the field, Jephthah resorted to diplomacy, send-
ing an embassy to the King of Ammon. This fail-
ing, Jephthah attacked and completely defeated
him, taking from him twenty cities (Judges xi.
12-33).

The most prominent act in Jephthah's life was his
vow to sacrifice to Yhwh whatsoever came first out
of his house to meet him if he should return victori-
ous. His vow fell upon his only daughter, who
came out to meet him dancing to the sound of tim-
brels. Jephthah, having given her a respite of two
months, consummated liis vow. After this It be-
came the custom for the daughters of Israel to
lament four days in every year the death of Jeph-
thah's daughter (Judges xi. 34-40). After the war a
quarrel broke out between Jephthah and the Ephra-
imites, who reproached him for not having called
them to take part. Having seized the fords of the
Jordan, Jephthah required every fugitive wiio at-
tempted to cross to pronounce the word ".shibbo-
leth." Those who betrayed their Ephraimite origin
by saying "sibboleth " were put to death; in this
manner 42,000 Ephraimites fell (Judges xii. 1-6).

E. G. n. M. Sel.
In Rabbinical Literature: Jephthah is rep-
resented by the Rabbis as an insignificant person.
Tliat vain men gathered about him (Judges xi. 3)
was an illustration of the proverb that a sterile date-
palm associates with fruitless trees (B. K. 92b). His
name being mentioned in connection with Samuel's
(I Sam. xii. 11) shows that even the most insignifi-
cant man, when appointed to a position of iinpor-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jellinek
Jerahmeel

tance, must be treated by liis contemporaries as if
]iis character were equal to his office (K. 11. 35b).
He is classed with the fools who do not distinguish
between vows (Eccl. R. iv. 7); he was one of the three
men (Ta'an. 4a), or according to other autliorities
one of the four men (Gen. R. Ix. 3), who made im-
prudent vows, but he was the only one who had
occasion to deplore his imprudence. According to
some commentators, among whom were Kimhi and
Levi b. Gershom, Jephthah only kept his daughter
in seclusion. But in Targ. Yer. to Judges xi.
39 and the Midrash it is taken for granted that
Jephthah immolated his daughter on the altar, which
is regarded as a criminal act; for he might have
applied to Pliiuehas to absolve him from his vow.
But Jephthah was proud : " I, a judge of Israel, will
not humiliate myself to my inferior." Neither was
Phinehas, the high priest, willing to goto Jephthah.
Both were punished: Jephthah died by an unnatu-
ral decaying of his body ; fragments of flesh fell
from his bones at intervals, and were buried where
they fell, so that his body was distributed in many
places (comp. Judges xii. 7. Hebr.). Phinehas was
abandoned by the Holy Spirit (Gen. R. I.e.).

The Rabbis concluded also that Jephthah was an
ignorant man, else he would have known that a vow
of that kind is not valid; according to R. Johanan,
Jephthah had merely to pay a certain sum to the
sacred treasury of the Temple in order to be freed
from the vow; according to R. Simeon ben Lakish,
he was free even without such a payment (Gen. R.
I.e. ; comp. Lev. R. xxxvii. 3). According to Tan.,
Behukkotai, 7, and Midrash Haggadah to Lev. xxvii.
2, even when Jephthah made the vow God was irri-
tated against him; "What will Jephthah do if an
unclean animal comes out to meet himV" Later,
when he was on the point of immolating his
daughter, she inquired, " Is it written in the
Torah that human beings should be brought as
burnt offerings?" He replied. "My daughter, my
vow was, ' whatsoever cometh forth of the doors of
my house.' " She answered, " But Jacob, too, vowed
that he would give to Yhwh tlie tenth part of all
that Yhwh gave him (Gen. xxviii. 22); did he sac-
rifice any of his sons? " But Jephthah remained in-
Hexible. His daughter then declared that she would
go herself to the Sanhedrin to consult them about
the vow, and for this purpose asked her fatlier for a
delay of two months (comp. Judges xi. 37). The
Sanhedrin, however, could not absolve her father
from the vow, for God made them forget the Law
in order that Jephthah should be punished for hav-
ing put to death 42,000 Ephraimites (Judges xii. 6).

s. s. M. Sel.

Critical View: The story of Jepiithah (Judges

X. 17-xii. 7) does not, in the opinion of most critics,
consist of a uniform account. The following four
views are held respecting it:

(1) The nuun narrative is held to be derived from
a single source into which a long interpolation {ib.
xi. 12-28) has been introduced. This interpolation
has really notiiing to do with Jepiithah, but dis-
cusses Israel's title to the land between the Arnon
and the Jabbolv. Jephthah is an eponymous hero;
the narrative is introduced because of tiie story of
the sacrifice of his daughter; and the whole tale is

unhistorical. This hypothesis is adopted by Well-
hausen ("Die Composition des Hcxateuchs," etc.,
1889, pp. 228 et serj.) and Stade ("Gesch. des Volkes
Israel," 1889, i. 68).

(2) Another view supposes, like the foregoing,
that the narrative is derived from one source, with an
interpolation as above, but regards either the whole
story or the main thread of the narrative as histor-
ical. Some of its supporters hold that the myth
connected witJi the women's festival of Gilead has
attached itself to this historical portion. This view
is supported by Kuenen (" Die Historischen Biicher
des Alten Testaments," 1890, pp. 13, 18 et seq.),
Budde ("Richterund Samuel," 1890, pp. 125 et .<teq.),
and Jloore ("Judges," in "International Critical
Commentary," 1895, pp. 282 et seq.).

(3) A third view regards the story as composed of
two narratives from J and E respectively. E pic
tured Jephthah as residing at Mizpah, from which
he made war on some foreign people who had done
him great injury, and as winning a victory at the
cost of his daughter. J represented him as a free-
booter on foreign soil, who was commissioned by
the Gileadites to avenge their wrongs, which he
did without the help of the west-Jordanic tribes.
This view, put forth by Holzinger in an unpublished
manuscript, has been elaborated and defended by
Budde (" Richter," in " K. H. C." pp. 80 et seq.), and
is adopted by Nowack ("Richter," in his "Hand-
Kommentar," 1902). Supporters of this hypothesis
see evidence of a mixture of sources in Judges xi.
12-28, and make a stronger argument than do the
adherents of the second view for the historical char-
acter of the whole story.

(4) Cheyne ("Encyc. Bibl." s.».) adopts the two-
source theory, but supposes that only one of the
original narratives concerned itself with Jephthah.
He thinks that the other was a story about Jair.

Of these views the second is, perhaps, the most

probable.

BiBLiOGKAPHY : In addition to the works cited. W. Franken-
ber?, Bie Composition des Deuteronomischcn Richter-
huchp.'i. 1895.
E. G. n. G. A. B.

JERAHMEEL (^xom"').— Biblical Data :
David, while he was a refugee at the court of
Achish, King of Gath, is said to have made a raid
against the "south of the Jerahmeehtes" (I Sam.
xxvii. 10) and after his raid to have sent a part of
the spoil to the "cities of the Jerahmeelites " {ib.
XXX. 29). In I Chronicles (ii. 9) Jerahmeel appears
as a great-grandson of Judah {i.e., he was the son of
Hezron, the son of Pliarez, the son of Judah) ; and
Caleb is said to have been a brother of Jerahmeel
{ib. verse 42).

Critical View: From the foregoing references

the natural inference is that the Jerahmeelites were
a Judean clan, to the south of whose habitat a part
of the Negeb extended. But Professor Cheyne has
put forth concerning the Jerahmeelites a most sur-
prising theory. In his view they were a powerful
north-Arabian tribe, with which the Hebrews came
into conflict on their first approacii to the land. A
part of the Jerahmeelites was absorbed by the He-
brews, but there were many contests between the
Israelites and the main body of the Jerahmeelites
all through the period of the Kings. Even among

Jeremiah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the post-exilic opponents of Nebemiah, the Jerah-
meelites appear again. Cheyne believes that echoes
of these conflicts once reverberated throughout the
Old Testament, but that, owing to the corruption
of the Masoretic text, they must now be reawa-
kened by conjectural emendation of the text.

Carrying out this idea, Cheyne finds the chief ele-
ments of Israel's origin, religion, and history in
Jerahmeel. Babylonia and Assyria sink into insig-
nificance beside Jerahmeel in so far as influence on
the Old Testament is concerned. " Amalekites " is a
corruption of " Jerahmeelites " ; " Beer-lahai-roi "
(Gen. xvi. 14) is a corruption of "Well of Jerah-
meel "; "Ephraim " is often a corruption of "Jerah-
meel." The epithet of Jericho, " city of palm-trees,"
is a corruption of " city of Jerahmeel " ; the names
of Saul, of Kish, his father, and of most of the sons
of Saul are held to be corruptions of "Jerahmeel ";
and Isaiah's " Maher-shalal-hash-baz " is held to be a
corruptionof" Jerahmeel will be deserted." "Jerah-
meel " has been displaced by "Babylon " in Isa. xiii.
and xiv. ; and Ezekiel's three wise men Avere
"Enoch, Jerahmeel, and Arab." This list might be
continued indefinitely.

The ingenuity of Cheyne 's method may be ad-
mitted ; but the thesis must be rejected as altogether
arbitrary. That it has received serious attention is
owing solely to the great service rendered by its
sponsor in other departments of Old Testament re-
search.

Bibliography : Cheyne and Black, E/icj/c. Bllil. passim,
especially the articles Jerahmeel, Ncgeh (§ 2), Saul, and
Soryo)!(§20); Cheyne, Critica Biblica, 1903, passim: Peake's
review of Encyc. Bihl. vol. iii., in Hihhcvt JimrnaJ, No. 1,
and Herford's review (vol. iv.) of the same work, ib. No. 6.

E. G. H. G. A. B.

JEREMIAH.— Biblical Data : Son of Hil-
kiah ; i:)rophet iu the days of Josiah and his sons.

§ I. Life : In the case of no other Israelitish
prophet is information so full as in that of Jeremiah.
The historical portions of the Book of Jeremiah
give detailed accounts of his external life evidently
derived from an eye-witness — probably his pupil
Baruch. Jeremiah's prophecies give an insight into
his inner life, and by reason of their subjective qual-
ity explain his character and inward struggles. Of
a gentle nature, he longed for the peace and happi-
ness of liis people, instead of which he was obliged
to proclaim its destruction and also to witness that
calamity. He longed for peace and rest for him-
self, but was obliged instead to announce to his peo-
ple the coming of terrors, a task that could not but
burden his heart with sorrow. He had also to fight
against the refractor}' ones among them and against
their councilors, false propliets, priests, and princes.

Jeremiah was born in the year 650 B.C. at Ana-
thoth, a small town situated three miles north of Jeru-
saleiii, in the territory of Benjamin. He belonged to
a priestly family, probablj- the same one as cared for
the Ark of tlie Covenant after the re-
His Family, turn from Egypt, and theone to wliicli
the high jjriest Eli had belonged, l)ut
which had retreated to Anathotli when Abiathar,
David's priest, was banished by Solomon (I Kings
ii. 26). The family owned property in this ])lace, so
that Jeremiah was able to give himself up wholly to

his prophetic calling. Devoted as he was exclu-
sively to his high vocation, and realizing that it en-
tailed vexation and involved the proclaiming of dis-
aster, he did not marry (Jer. xvi. 2 et seq.). In the
thirteenth year of King Josiah (626 B.C.) while still a
3'oung man Jeremiah was called to be a prophet.
It was just at this time that the plundering Scythian
hordes, which troubled Nearer Asia for decades in the
second half of the seventh century, swept past the
western boundary of Palestine on their swift horses,
to capture rich booty in the ancient civilized land of
Egypt (Herodotus, i. 164). Since he continued to
prophesy until after the conquest and destruction of
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.), Jeremiah's
prophetic career covered a period of more than forty
years. All the important events of this period are
reflected in his prophecies : the publication of the
Deuteronomic law (621 B.C.) and the religious re-
forms instituted by Jo.siah in consequence; the first
deportation to Babylon, that of Jehoiachin, or Jeco-
niah (597); and the final catastrophe of the Jewish
kingdom (586). Strange to say, of all these events
the publication of the Deuteronomic law and the
religious reforms of Josiah are the least prominently
brought out in his writings.

It is not improbable that the opposition in which

Jeremiah seems to have stood to the priesthood of

the central sanctuary at Jerusalem

Attitude was a continuation of the oppositioi

Toward which had existed from former times
Jerusalem between that priesthood and his fam-
Priesthood. il}' and which is traceable to Zadok,
the successful opponent of x\biathar.
Jeremiah's attitude may also have been influenced
by the fact that he considered Josiah 's measures too
superficial for the moral reformation which he de-
clared to be necessary if the same fate were not to
))efall the Temple of Zion as had in days gone by
befallen the Temple of Shiloh (I Sam. iv.). An in-
ward opposition of Jeremiah to the Deuteronomic
law is not to be thought of. This maj^ be seen from
the exhortation {ib. xi. 1-8) in which Jeremiah calls
on his people to hear " the words of this covenant "
{ib. V. 3) which God had given to their fathers when
He brought them up out of Egypt. In this passage
there is a plain reference to the newly found law.

Just as little justifiable is the theory, wliicli lias
recently been suggested, that Jeremiali in his later
years departed from the Deuteronomic law. " The
false [l3ing] pen of the scribe," which, as Jeremiah
says. " makes the Torah of Yiiwn to falsehood "
(Jer. viii. 8, Hebr.), could not have referred to
the Deuteronomic law, nor to its falsification b}'
copyists. Bather, Jeremiah is thinking here of an-
other compilation of laws which was then in prog-
ress imder the direction of his opponents, the priests
of tlie central sanctuary at Jerusalem. Jeremiah
probably ex]iected from them no other conception
of law than the narrow Levitical one, which actually
is apparent in the legal portions of the so-called
Priestly writings and results from the Priestly point
of view.

§ II. Prophetic Career : (a) Dvuing the Time of
King Josiah: No furtlier details of Jeremiah's life
during the reign of Josiah are known. This is
probably due to the fact, as has recentl}' been sug-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah

gested, that Jeiemiali continued to live in liis home
at Anathoth during the opening years of liis pro-
phetic career. This tlieory is supported by tlie
description of the prevailing religious rites which he
gives in his tirst prophecies (Jer. iv. 4) and which
applies better to the rough, simple, local cults than to
the elaborate ritual of Yhwii in the central sanctu-
ar}'. " On every hill and under every green tree "
{ib. ii. 20) they honor the "strangers " {ib. v. 25),
i.e., the Baalim (ib. ii. 23), who, introduced from
abroad, had taken their place among the local deities.
Israel had " acted wantonly " with them from the
time when he first settled in the land of Canaan and
had even burned his own children for them " in the
valley " (ib. vii. 31).

The oldest discourses concerning the Scythians {ib.
iv. 5-31) seem also to have first been written in Ana-
thoth. In them Jeremiah describes the irresistible
advance of the people "from the north" which will
bring terrible destruction upon the land of Israel on
account of its apostasy. Another proof in favor
of the theory that Jeremiah continued to live in
Anathoth at the outset of his career is that the
prophecies before ch. v. do not concern themselves
"with the doings of the capital, and that only
with his supposed change of residence to Jerusalem
"begins the account of the external details of his life
"by his pupil, who was probably originally from
Jerusalem and wiio first became associated with the
prophet there. In the capital the simple local cults
dwindled into comparative insignificance before the
central sanctuary, but on the other hand immorality,

frivolity, and deceit made themselves

S.esidence prominent, together with a disregard

in of the words of the prophet spoken by

Jerusalem, him to the people by Yhwh's order.

Even the prophets took part in the
general moral debasement ; indeed they were worse
than those who erstwhile had "prophesied in the
name of Baal" {ib. ii. 8), i.e., the prophets of the
Northern Kingdom. The people, moreover, which
Jeremiah was to test for its inner worth, as an as-
sayer {ib. vi. 27) tests the purity of metal, had lost all
its preciousness and was only a generation of wrath,
(b) During the Time of King Jehoiakim : Jeremiah's
removal from iVnathoth to Jerusalem seems to have
taken place a little before the time of Jehoiakim 's
accession ; at least he appears as a resident in Jeru-
salem under that king. Just as his sternness and his
threat of impending punishments had already dis-
pleased his fellow citizens in Anathoth to such an
extent that they sought his life {ib. xi. 19), so also
in Jerusalem general anger was soon aroused
against him. The first occasion therefor was an event
in the reign of Jehoiakim. Jeremiah preached a
sermon in the valley Ben-hinnom against idolatry.
and in order to bring the utter and complete ruin of
the kingdom of Judah more clearly before the minds
of his hearers he broke an earthen pitcher. When
immediately afterward he repeated the same sermon
in the Temple court, he was put in prison by
Pashur, the priest in charge, being liberated, how-
ever, on the next day. The following section
{ib. XX vi.) gives more details. When the people at
the beginning of Jehoiakim's reign, in spite of the
terrible loss they had sustained by the death of
VII.— 7

Josiah in the unfortimate battle of Megiddo and the
resultant establislnnent of the Egyptian domina-
tion, still took comfort in the thought of the Tem-
ple and of the protection which the sanctuary was
believed to afford, Jeremiah stood in
Imprison- the Temple court and called on the
ment and people to improve morally ; otherwise
Release, the Temple of Jerusalem would share
the fate of that of Shiloh. In terrible
excitement the priests and prophets cried out that
Jeremiah was worthy of death, lie, however, was
acquitted by the priests and elders, who seem to
have had great respect for the word of a prophet,
especially in view of the fact that some of the most
prominent persons rose up and called to mind the
prophet Micah, who had prophesied the same fate for
the Temple and for Jerusalem.

The following incidents in Jeremiah's life are most
closely connected with public events as he was more
and more drawn into political life by them. In the
fourth year of Jehoiakim, the same in which the
Babylonians conquered the Egyptians in the battle
of Carchemish and thus became the ruling power in
the whole of Nearer Asia for almost seventy years,
Jeremiah dictated to Baruch the speeches he had
composed from the beginning of his career till
then, and caused his pupil to read them before the
people in the Temple, on a feast-day in the fifth year
of Jehoiakim. Upon hearing of this event the
highest officers of the court caused Baruch to read
the roll once more to them; and afterward, in their
dismay at its contents, they informed the king of it.
Jehoiakim next caused the roll to be
Reading of brought and read to him, but scarcely
the Roll, had the reader Jehudi read three or
four leaves when the king had the
roll cut in pieces and thrown into the brazier by
which he was warming himself. Jeremiah, how-
ever, who on the advice of the officials had hidden
himself, dictated anew the contents of the burnt
roll to Baruch, adding "many like words" {ib.
xxxvi. 32). It was his secretary likewise who (later)
wrote into the roll all the new prophecies which
were delivered up to the time of the destruction of
Jerusalem.

(c) Daring the Time of ZedeMah : In the original
roll which was burned by Jehoiakim, and which
probably included practicall}^ the prophecies con-
tained in ch. ii.-xii., Jeremiah had not made any
positive demands concerning the political attitude
of the kingdom of Judah. He had merely, in ac-
cordance with the principle laid down
Political by Ilosea and Isaiah, declared that
Attitude. Judah should not take any political
stand of her own, and should follow
neither after Assyria nor after Egypt, but should
Avait and do what Ynwii commanded {ib. ii. 18, 36).
But in the course of events he felt impelled to take
active part in political affairs. This was during
the time of Zedekiah, who had been placed on the
throne by Nebuchadnezzar after the deportation of
Jehoiachin (2:6. xxvii., xxviii.). When, in the fourth
year of Zedekiah, ambassadors from the surround-
ing nations came to deliberate with the King of
Judah concerning a common uprising against the
Babylonian king, a prophet by the name of Hananiah

Jeremiah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

proclaimed in tlie Temple the speedy return of Jehoi-
achin and his fellow exiles as well as the bringing
back of the Temple vessels which had been carried
off by Nebuchadnezzar, supporting his prophecy
by the announcement that the "word of Yiiwu "
was to the effect that he would " break the yoke of
the king of Babylon " {ib. xxviii. 4). Jeremiah then
appeared in the market-place with a j'oke of wood
and counseled the ambassadors, King Zedekiah. and

his people to submit voluntarily to the

Advises Babylonian power. When Jeremiah

Acceptance appeared also at the Temple, Hana-

of Yoke, niah tore the yoke from his shoulders

and repeated his prophecy of good t\-
dings(z5. V. \Qetseq.). Jeremiah likewise advised tlie
exiles in Babylon to settle there quietly (//;. xxix.),
whicli caused one of them to write to the higli priest in

to surrender before the beginning of hostilities,
in order toward off the worst. Zedekiah, however,,
did not dare follow this advice, and thus the catas-
trophe came to pass, not without Jeremiah having
in the meantime to endure many hardshijis owing
to the siege. Since he undoubtedly prophesied the
overthrow of Jerusalem by the Babylonians, and
Avarned against resisting them as well as against
trusting in the Egyptians for help, he was regarded
as a traitor to his country ; and for that
Second reason and because his openly ex-
Imprison- pressed conviction robbed the besieged
ment. of their courage, he was placed in con-
finement. He was treated as a deserter
aLso because he desired to go to his native city on a
personal matter at a time when the Babylonians
had temporarily raised the siege to march against

Grotto of Jeremiah, North of Jerusalem.

(From a photograph by Bonfils.)

Jerusalem directing him to fulfil his duty, to watch
over every mad man in tlie Temple and over every
one that "maketh himself a prophet" aiul, conse-
quently, to put Jeremiah " in prison and in the
stocks" {ib. xxix. 26).

But destiny was soon fulfilled, and with it came
new trials for Jeremiah. Zedekiah had been obliged
to succumb to the insistence of the war party and
to rebel against Nebuchadnezzar. The Babj'lonians
then marched against Judah to punish Zedekiah and
quell the rebellion. When Jeremiah's prophecy was
near its fulfilment, the king sent often for him to
consult with him and to ascertain how it would go
with the people and with him.self and what he should
do to save himself. Jeremiah told him jjlainly that
the Babylonians would conquer and advised him

Ilophra, the Egyptian king (the " Apries " of Herodo-
tus), who was advancing against them. Jeremiah
was arrested and thrown into a dungeon, whence he
was released by the king. He was then confined in
the court of the guard in the royal castle, as his
discouraging inttuence on the soldiers was feared.
Although he was allowed a certain freedom there,
since he continued to make no secret of his con-
viction as to the final downfall of .ludah, the king's
olUceis threw him into an empty cistern. From this
also lie was rescued by a eimuch with the king's,
permission, being saved at the same time from death
by starvation {ib. xxxvii., xxxviii.). He then re-
mained in the lighter captivity of the court prison
until he was liberated at the capture of Jerusalem
by the Babylonians.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah

(d) During the Time After the Fall of Jerusalem :

Tlie Babyloniaus luiuded Jeiemiuh over to the care
and protection of the governor Gedaliah, witli
whom he lived at Mizpah. After tlic murder of
the governor, Jeremiah seems to liave been car-
ried off by Ishmael, the murderer of Gedaliah,
and to have been rescued by Johanan and Ins com-
panions. This may be concluded from tlie fact
that the prophet, with Baruch, was among
the non-deported Jews who thought of going
to Egypt through fear of the Babyloniaus.
During a stay near Beth-lehem he was asked for
God's will on the matter. When, after ten days, he
received the answer that they should remain in the
country, his warning voice was not heard, the cry
being raised against him that Baruch had incited
him to give this counsel. Accordingly the Jews
dragged the prophet Avith them, as a hostage
(Dulim [" Theologie der Propheten," p. 235] : "as an
amulet ") to Tahapauhes {i.e.. Daphne,
Taken to on the eastern branch of the Nile).

Egypt. Here Jeremiah continued to prophesy
the destruction by the Babylonians
of his fellow refugees as also of the Pharaohs
and of the temples of Egypt {ib. xxxvii.-xliv.).
Here also he must have experienced tlie anger of
the women refugees, who could not be prevented
by him from baking cakes and pouring out Avine
to the " queen of heaven " {ib. xliv. 15 et seq.).

Jeremiah probably died in Eg}'pt. Whether his
countrymen killed him, as tradiiion says, can, on ac-
count of the lack of historical data, be neither
affirmed nor denied. But his assassination does not
seem wholly impossible in view of the angry scene
just mentioned. At any rate, liis lijfe, even as it had
been a continual struggle, ended in suffering. And it
was not the least of the tragic events in liis life that
his chief opponents belonged to the same two classes
of which he himself was a member. The priests
fought him because he declared sacrifice to be of little
importance, and the prophets because he declared
that it was self interest whicli prompted them to
projiiu'sy good for the people.

§ III. Character : (a) Character of Personality :
The tragic element in Jeremiah's life has already
been mentioned. It was heightened by the subjec-
tive trait which is peculiar to Jere-

Strong- miali more than to other prophets.
Per- even the older ones. This personal

sonality. suffering over the hard fate which he
is obliged to proclaim to his people as
God's changeless Avill is so strong that he even
makes the attempt in earnest intercession to
move God to a milder attitude toward the guilty.
*• Remember that I stood before thee to speak good for
them and to turn away thy wrath from them " {ib.
xviii. 20). He would undoubtedly like to keep si-
lence and yet must speak: "I said, I will not make
mention of lum, nor speak any more in his name.
But his word was in mine heart as a burning tire shut
up in my bones, and I was weary with forbearing,
and I could not stay" — i.e., "I struggled to keep it
within me and I could not " {ib. xx. 9). Yiiwir even
has to forbid his intercession for the sinners {ib. vii.
16, xi. 14, xiv. 11), and to forbid the people to seek
his intercession {ib. xlii. 2, 4). Jeremiah's sympathy

for his countrymen who have been punished by God
is so great that at one time the prophetical declara-
tion to tiie people is changed into tlie people's peti-
tion: "O Lord, correct me, but with judgment; not
in thine anger, lest thou bring me to nothing" {ib.
X. 24). In moving terms he describes the pain which
he feels witliiu him, in his " very lieart," when he
hears tlie sound of war and must announce it to the
people {ib. iv. 19, viii. 18-22); and indespair over his
sad life he curses the day of his birth (^7». xx. 14-18).

With this intense sensitiveness on the part of the
prophet, it should not cause surprise that, on the
other hand, his anger l)reaks forth against his perse-
cutors and he desires a day of destruction to come
upon them {ib. xvii. 18).

(b) Character of His Writing : It is doubtless due

to this despondent and often despairing frame of

mind that his words frequently make a dull and

lifeless impression wliich is not reme-

Des- died by a heaping up of synony-

pondent mous terms; and this is all the more
Tone. noticeable because the rhythm of the
speeches is veiy feeble and frequently
almost disappears. Although this may have been
due in part to the fact that Jeremiah did not write
his book liimself, it is still undeniable that there is
a monotony in the contents of his speeches. This
may be traced to the conditions of his age. The
prophet is always complaining of the sins of the
people, particularly of their idolatry, or else desci'l-
bing the catastrophe which is tf) burst upon them
through the hordes from the north. Seldom is there
a brighter outlook into a better future. The hope
which he had at the beginning, that the people would
recognize the evils of idolatry and would turn again
to God with inward repentance {ib. ii.-iv. 4), entirely
disappears later in face of the utter perverseness of
the people; as does the other hope that Ephraim,
the lost favorite of Yinvii, that child of Rachel who
had been lost sight of for 100 years,

Relieved would return from "out of the des-

by Con- ert." But when Jeremiah speaks from

solation. the depths of his soul the monotony

of the content is relieved by the charm

of the language in which he. as no other prophet,

is able to relate God's words of love to his faithless

wife Judah.

From his choice of words it may be concluded
that Jeremiah, like Isaiah, was an educated man.
The pictures whicli he paints of outdoor life show a
deep, delicate appreciation of nature. The voices
of the desert sound in his poems; he speaks of the
swift-footed dromedary running to and fro, of the
cattle grown wild on the plains, of the thirsty wild
ass gasping for breath witli dim eyes, and of tlie
bird of prey which the fowler has tied to a stake in
order to attract his victim. Even in the description
of chaos {lb. iv. 25) "Jeremiah does not forget the
birds" (Duhm, in the introduction to his translation
of .leremiah, p. xxii.). His is, indeed, rather a lyr-
ical nature, since even without a picture he tarries
sometimes in an appreciative contemplation of
nature, wliich corresponds to his sensitive compre-
hension of the human heart. God's greatness is
manifested to him in the sand on the shore, which is
placed as an eternal boundary for the sea: "and

Jeremiah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

100

though the waves thereof toss themselves, yet can
they not prevail ; thougli they roar, yet can they not
pass over it " (tb. v. 22). He observes the lengthening
shadows as the day is sinking {ib. vi. 4), or the dry
wind of the high places which comes in from the
wilderness and is too strong to serve either for fan-
ning or for cleansing (ib. iv. 11). Now and then
with a special touch he raises his pictures of
human life above the vagueness which on account
of the suppression of details is common to the Old
Testament illustrations and examples. He furnishes
the "smelter" (C)"I1V). who has been
His a stereotyped example since the oldest

Similes, prophets, with bellows (ib. vi. 29); as
symbols of the joyful existence which
his prophecies foretelling punishment will drive
away, he mentions, besides the voices of the bride-
groom and of tiie bride, the sound of the millstones
and the light of the candle (ib. xxv. 10; comp. ib.
vii. 34, xvi. 9). He also observes how the shepherd
counts the sheep of his flock (ib. xxxiii. 13).

The symbolic acts of which he makes frequent
use, whether he actually carries them out, as in
breaking the earthen pitcher, in putting on the cords,
and in placing the yoke on his neck, or merely im-
agines them, as in the allegories in Jer. xiii. 1 et seq.,
are simple and easily intelligible (Baudissin, "Einlei-
tung," pp. 420 et seq.).

(c) Character of His Eelig^ous Views : In conform-
ity with the subjectivity of his nature, Jeremiah
raised the conception of the bond between God and
His people far above the conception of a ph3^sical
relation, and transferred piety from mere objective
ceremonies into the human heart (comp. ib. iv. 4,
xvii. 9, xxix. 13, and, if Jeremianic, also xxxi. 31
et seq.). Through this conception of man's relation
to the divinity, the idea of the divine universality, if
not created by him, was yet (if Amos ix. 2-4, Setseq.
be excluded) very clearly demonstrated. Although
a large part of the passages in which the universality
of God is most clearly expressed (Jer. xxvii. 5, 11 :
xxxii. 19; xlix. 11) are doubtful as regards their
authorship, there are nevertheless undoubted pas-
sages (ib. xii. 14 etseq., and xviii. 7 et seq.) in which
Jeremiah, although from the stand-
XTniversal- point that Yhwh is the special God of
ity of the Israel, expresses his conviction that
Godliead. He can reject nations other than Israel
and afterward take them again into His
favor. If in these passages the particularistic con-
ception of God is not completely abandoned, never-
theless His universality is the direct consequence
of the portrayal, which was first given by Jere-
miah, of His omnipresence and omnipotence, filling
heaven and earth {ib. xxiii. 23; comp. ii. 16). Thus
Jeremiah, starting out from his conception of God,
can characterize the gods of the heathen as "no
gods," and can express his conviction that "among
the idols of the heathen there is not one which can
cause rain," whereas Yhwh has made all (ib. xiv.
22; comp. xvi. I'd etseq.). But in spite of this tendenc}'
toward auniversaiistic conception of God, which later
became a firm article of belief, the barriers of the na-
tional religion had not yet fallen in Jeremiah's mind.
This is shown most clearly by the fact that even he
conceives of a final restoration of the tribe of Israel.

Bibliography: C. W. E. Nagelsbach, Der Prophet Jeremia
und Babylon, Erlangen, 1850; C. H. Cornill, Jeremia und
Seine Zeit, 1880; T. K. Cheyne, Jeremiah : His Life and
Times, 1888 ; Lazarus. Der Prophet Jeremia ; K. Marti, Der
Prophet Jeremia von Anatot, 1889; W. Erbt, Jeremia
und Seine Zeit, 1902; Bemhard Dnhm. Das Buch Jeremia,
L'ebersefzf, 1903 (comp. Introduction, pp. v.-xxxiv.); bibli-
ography under Jere.miah, Book of.

E. G. II. V. Ry.

In Rabbinical Literature : Jeremiah, a de-
scendant of Itahab by her marriage with Joshua
(Sifre, Num. 78; Meg. 14b, below), was born during
the persecution of the prophets under Jezebel (Gen.
R. Ixiv. 6; Rashi on Jer. xx. 14 reads, probably
correctly, " Manasseh " instead of "Jezebel"). The
lofty mission for which Jeremiah was destined
was evident even at his birth ; for he not only came
into the world circumcised (Ab. R. N. ii. [ed.
Schechter, p. 12] ; Midr. Teh. ix. [ed. Ruber, p. 84]),
but as soon as he beheld the light of day he broke
out into loud cries, exclaiming with the voice of a
youth: "My bowels, my bowels! lam pained at
my very heart ; my heart maketh a noise in me," etc.
(Jer. iv. 20). He continued by accusing his mother
of unfaithfulness; and as the latter was greatly
astonished to hear this unbecoming speech of her
new-born infant, he said: "I do not mean you, my
mother. My prophecy does not refer to you ; I am
speaking of Zion and Jerusalem. They deck out
their daughters, and clothe them in purple, and put
golden ci'owns on their heads ; but the robbers shall
come and take these things away."

Jeremiah refused God's call to the prophethood,
and referred to Moses, Aaron, Elijah, and Elisha, all
of whom, on account of their calling, were subjected
to sorrows and to the mockery of the Jews; and he
excused his refusal with the plea that he was still
too young. God, however, replied: "I love youth
because it is innocent; it was for this reason that
when I led Israel out of Egypt I called him ' my
son' [comp. Hosea xi. 1], and when I think lovingly
of Israel, I speak of it as of a boy [Jer. ii. 2] ; hence
do not say ' I am a boy. ' " Then God handed to
Jeremiah the "cup of wrath," from which he was
to let the nations drink ; and when Jeremiah asked
which nation should drink first, the answer was
"Israel." Then Jeremiah began to lament his fate,
comparing himself with the high priest who was
about to perform in the Temple the ceremonies pre-
scribed in the case of a woman suspected of adultery
(Num. V. 12 et seq.), and who, when he approached
her with the "cup of the bitter water," beheld
his own mother (Pesik. R. 26 [ed. Friedniann, p.
129a, b]).

The prophetic activity of Jeremiah began in the

reign of Josiah ; he was a contemporary of his

relative the prophetess Hulda and of

His his teacher Zephaniah (comp. Maimon-

Prophetic ides in the introduction to " Yad " ; in

Activity. Lam. R. i. 18 Isaiah is mentioned
as Jeremiah's teacher). These three
prophets divided their activity in such wise tiiat
Hulda spoke to the women and Jeremiah to the men
in the street, while Zephaniah preached in the syna-
gogue (Pesik. R. I.e.). When Josiah restored the
true worship, Jeremiah went to the exiled ten tribes,
whom he brought to Palestine under the rule of the
pious king ('Ar. 33a). Although Josiah went to

101

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

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war witli Egypt against tlie prophet's advice, j'et
the latter kuevv that the pious king did so only in
error (Lam. R. I.e.); and in his dirges he bitterly
laments the king's death, the fourth chapter of the
Lamentations beginning with a dirge on Josiah
(Lam. R. iv. 1 ; Targ. II Chron. xxxv. 25).

Under Jehoiakim the propiiet's life was a hard
one; not only did the wicked king burn the early
chapters of Lamentations, but the prophet was
even in danger of his life (M. K. 26a; Lam. R., In-
troduction, p. 28). He fared still worse, however,
under Zedekiah, when he had to withstand many at-
tacks both upon his teachings and upon his life. On
account of his descent from the proselyte Rahab he
was scorned by his contemporaries as one who had
no right to reproach the Jews for their sins (Pesik.,
ed. Buber, xiii. 115b), and they furthermore accused
him of unchastity (B. K. 16b). The hatred of the
priests and of the war party against Jeremiah
brought about his imprisonment on a false accusa-
tion by one of them, Jeriah, a grandson of Hana-
NiAii, an old enemy of Jeremiah. His jailer Jona-
than, a relative of Hananiah, mocked him with the
words: "Behold, what honors your friend has
brought upon .you! How fine is this prison in
which you now are ; truly it is like a palace ! " Yet
the prophet remained steadfast ; and when the king
asked whether Jeremiah had a prophecy for him,
the prophet fearlessly answered : " Yes : the King of
Babel will lead you into exile." When he saw how
angry the king grew on hearing this, he tried to
change the subject, saying: "Lo, even the wicked
seek a pretext when they revenge themselves on
their enemies ! How much greater right has one to
expect that a just man will have sufficient reason
for bringing evil upon any one! Your name is
' Zedekiah, ' indicating that you are a just ' zaddik ' ;
I therefore pray you not to send me back to prison. "
The king granted this request ; but he was unable
to withstand for long the clamorings of the nobles,
and Jeremiah was cast into a muddy pit, the inten-
tion being that he should perish therein. As there
was enough water in the pit to drown a man, the
design of his enemies would have been carried out
had not God miraculously caused the water to sink
to the bottom and the dirt to float, so that Jeremiah
escaped death. Even then his former keeper, Jona-
than, mocked the prophet, calling to him: " Wh}^
do you not rest your head on the mud so that you
may be able to sleep a while? " At the instance of
Ebcd-melech, the king permitted Jeremiah to be
rescued from the pit. Jeremiah at first did not an-
swer Ebed-melech when he called to him, because
he thought it was Jonathan. -Ebed-melech, who
thought that the prophet was dead, then began to
weep, and it was only after he had heard the weep-
ing that Jeremiah answered; thereupon he was
drawn up from the mire (Pesik. R. 26 [ed. Fried-
mann, p. 130a, b] ; comp. Ebed-melech in Rab-
binical Liteuature).

The enemies and adversaries of the prophet were
not aware that to him alone they owed the preser-
vation of the city and the Temple, since his merits
were so great in the eyes of God that He would not
bring punishment upon Jerusalem so long as the
prophet was in the city (Pe.sik. R. I.e. [ed. Fried-

mann, p. 131a]; somewhat different in tho Syriac
Apoc. Baruch, ii.). Tiie prophet was therefore com-
manded by God to go to Anathoth ; and
During- the in his absence the city was taken and
Destruction the Temple destroyed. When Jere-
of the miah on his return beheld smoke ri.sing
Temple. from the Temple, he rejoiced because
he thought that the Jews had re-
formed and were again bringing burnt offerings to
the sanctuary. Soon, however, he discovered his
error, and began to weep bitterly, lamenting that he
had left Jerusalem to be destroyed. He now fol-
lowed the road to Babylon, Avhich was strewn with
corpses, until he overtook the captives being led
away by Nebuzar-adan, whom he accompanied as
far as the Euphrates (Pesik. R. I.e. ; comp. Syriac
Apoc. Baruch, I.e.). Although Jeremiah, by the ex-
press command of Nebuchadnezzar, was allowed to
come and go as he pleased (Jer. xxxix. 12), yet when
he saw captives he voluntarily caused himself to be
chained or otherwise bound to them, notwithstand-
ing Nebuzar-adan, who, anxious to carry out the
orders of his master, always unchained him. At last
Nebuzar-adan said to Jeremiah: "You are cue of
these three: a false prophet, one who despises suf-
fering, or a murderer. For years j'ou have prophesied
the downfall of Jerusalem, and now when the
prophecy has been fulfilled, you are sorry, which
shows that you yourself do not believe in your
prophecies. Or you are one who voluntarily seeks
suffering ; for I take care that nothing shall happen
to you, yet you yourself seek pain. Or perhaps you
are hoping that the king will kill me when he hears
that you have suffered so much, and he will think
that I have not obeyed his commands" (Pesik., ed.
Buber, xiv. 113; Lam. R., Introduction, p. 34).

After the prophet had marched with the captives
as far as the Euphrates, he decided to return to Pal-
estine in order to counsel and comfort those that had
remained behind. When the exiles saw that the
prophet was about to leave them, they began to cry
bitterly, saying: "O father Jeremiah, j'ou too are
abandoning us! " But he answered: "I call heaven
and earth to witness, had you shed a single tear at
Jerusalem for your sins you would not now be in
exile" (Pesik. R. 26 [ed.Friedmann, p. 131b]; ac-
cording to Pesik., ed. Buber, and Lam. R. I.e. God
commanded .Jeremiah to return to Palestine). On
the way back to Jerusalem he found portions of the
bodies of the massacred Jews, which he picked up
lovingly one after another and placed in various
parts of his garments, all the while lamenting that
his warnings had been heeded so little by these un-
fortunates (Pesik., ed. Buber, and Lam. R. I.e.).

It was on this journey that Jeremiah had the cu-
rious vision which he relates in the following words:
"When I went up to Jertisalem, I saw a woman,
clad in black, with her hair unbound, sitting on the
top of the [holy] mountain, weeping
Vision and sighing, and crying with a loud
of the voice, ■ Who will comfort me? ' lap-
Mourning- proached her and said, ' If j'ou are a
Woman. woman, tiien speak; but if you are a
spirit, then depart from me.' She an-
swered, ' Do j'ou not know me? I am the woman with
the seven children whose father went far oversea,

Jeremiah
Jeremiah, Book ox

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

loa

and while I was weeping over his absence, word
was brought to me tliat a house had fallen in and
buried my children in its ruins ; and now I no longer
know for whom I weep or for whom my hair is un-
bound.' Then said I to her, 'You arc no better
than my mother Zion, who became a pasture for the
beasts of the field.' She answered, 'I am your
mother Zion : I am the mother of the seven. ' I said,
' Your misfortune is like that of Job. He was de-
prived of his sons and daughters, and so were you ;
but as fortune again smiled upon him, so it will like-
wise smile upon you ' " (Pesik. R. I.e. ; in IV Esd.
there is mentioned a similar vision of Ezra ; comp.
Levi in "R. E. J." xxiv. 281-285).

On his return to Jerusalem it was the chief task
of the prophet to protect the holy vessels of the
Temple from profanation ; he therefore had the
holy tent and the Ark of the Covenant taken [by
angels ?] to the mountain from which God showed
the Holy Land to Moses shortly before his death (II
Mace. ii. 5 et seq. ; comp. Ark in Rabbinical Lit-
erature). From the mountain Jeremiah went to
Egypt, where he remained until that country was
conquered by Nebuchadnezzar and he was carried
to Babylon (Seder '01am R. xxvi. : comp. Ratner's
remark on the passage, according to which Jeremiah
went to Palestine again).

The Christian legend (pseudo-Epiphanius, " De
Vitis Prophetarum " ; Basset, "Apocryphen Ethio-
piens, " i. 25-29), according to which Jeremiah was
stoned by his compatriots in Egypt because he re-
proached them with their evil deeds, became known
to the Jews through Ibn Yahj'a ("Shalshelet ha-
Kabbalah," ed. princeps, p. 99b); this account of
Jeremiah's martyrdom, however, maj' have come
originally from Jewish sources. Another Christian
legend narrates that Jeremiah by prayer freed Egypt
from a plague of crocodiles and mice, for which rea-
son his name was for a long time honored by the
Egyptians (pseudo-Epiphanius and Yahya, I.e.).
The assertion— made by Yahj-a {I.e. p. 101a) and by
Abravanel (to Jer. i. 5), but not by Isserles, as
Yahya erroneously states — that Jeremiah held a
conversation with Plato, is also of Christian origin.

In haggadic literature Jeremiah and Moses are
often mentioned together, their life and works being
presented in parallel lines. The following old mid-
rash is especially interesting in connection with
Deut. xviii. 18, in which a prophet like Moses is
promised : " As Closes was a prophet for forty years,
so was Jeremiah ; as Moses prophesied concerning
Judah and Benjamin, so did Jeremiah; as Moses'
own tribe [the Lovites under Korah] rose up against
him, so did Jeremiah's tribe revolt against him;
Moses was cast into the water, Jeremiah into a pit;
as Moses was saved by a female slave (the slave of
Pharaoh's daughter), so Jeremiah was rescued by a
male slave [Ebed-melech] ; Mo.ses reprimanded the
people in discourses, so did Jeremiah" (Pesik., ed.
Buber, xiii. 112a; comp. ^latt. xvi. 14).

Compare the rabbinical section of the following
articles: Ebed-melkch ; Manna; Temple.

s. s. L. G.

JEREMIAH, BOOK OF.— Biblical Data:

Contents : At the beginning of tiie book is a super-
scription (i. 1-3) which, after giving the parentage

of Jeremiah, fixes the period of his prophetical
activity as extending from the thirteenth j^ear of
Josiah to the eleventh of Zedekiah {i.e., the year of
the second deportation, 586 B.C.). This period cer-
tainly does not cover the whole contents of the book ;
hence probablj' the superscription was originally
that of an older book of smaller coinpass. This is
followed by the first part, i. 4-xxxviii. 28a, contain-
ing prophecies concerning the kingdom of Judah and
incidents from the life of the prophet up to the de-
struction of Jerusalem and the second deportation.
Only one passage treats of a different subject, viz.,
ch. XXV. 13 et seq., containing Yhwh's command

to Jeremiah, according to which the

Three prophet was to proclaim God's judg-

Sections. ment to foreign peoples. The second

part of the book, xxxviii. 28b-xliv.
30, contains prophecies and narrations from the pe-
riod following the destruction of Jerusalem. As an
appendix to this, in ch. xlv., is a short warning to
Baruch on the occasion of his writing down the words
of Jeremiah. A third part, xlvi.-li., comprises
prophecies against foreign peoples. At the end are
given, by way of appendix, historical data (lii.) con-
cerning Zedekiah, the deportation of the captives to
Babylon, and the change in the fortunes of King
Jehoiachin.

Critical View : § I. The Prophecies in Part I. :

In the first part no consistent plan of arrangement,
either chronological or material, can be traced. The
speeches not being separated by superscriptions,
and data generally (though not always as to time
and occasion) being absent, it is very difficult to fix
the date of composition. In this first part, hoAV-
ever, may be distinguished different groups which,
with a single exception, reflect substantially the
successive phases of the development of Jeremiah's
prophetic activity. These groups are five in num-
ber, as follows:

(1) Ch. i. 4-vi. 30, belonging to the reign of Josiah.
Its first passage, describing the calling of the prophet,
is also chronologically the oldest (iii. 6b-18, fixed
by the superscription as belonging to the time of
Josiah, does not harmonize with the assumed his-
torical background [see below, § II.]; the super-
scription is undoubtedly a later addition).

(2) Ch. vii.-xx., in the main, of tlietimeof Jehoia-
kim. This group contains passages that belong to
earlier and later dates respectively. For instance,
ch. xi. 1-8 is earlier : the mention of the " words of the
covenant " assigns it to the antecedent period (Jo-
siah) and as having been written soon after the dis-
covery of the Book of Deuteronomy. Ch. xiii. is cer-
tainly later, and probably belongs to the time of the
young king Jehoiachin (see below, § II.). Other
passages in this group sliould be excluded as not
being by Jeremiah, or at least as having been only
partially written by him: cii. ix. 22 etseq.; ch. ix.
24 et aeq. ; ch. x. 1-16; and the sermon on the Sab-
bath, ch. xvii. 19-27 (see below. § II.).

(3) Speeches from various periods: («) a proc-
lamation of the certain fall of Jerusalem made, ac-
cording to the superscription to Zedekiah and the
people, during the siege of Jerusalem, i.e., about
588 B.C. (xxi. 1-10); (i) menacing prophecies against
the kings of Judah in the time of Jehoiakim (608;

103

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah
Jeremiah,

Book of

xxi. 11-xxii. 19), completed by the passage xxii. 20-
30, descriptive of the leading away of Jehoiachin
into captivity (597) ; (c) threats against the "unl'aitli-
ful shepherds" (i.t'., the prophets), the promise of
peace and of the real shepherd (after 597), and warn-
ings against false prophets and god-
Dated less priests (perhaps in the time of
Prophecies. Jehoiakim; xxiii. 1-8, 9-40); (rf) the
vision of the two baskets of tigs, illus-
trating tlie fate of the captives and of those who
■were left behind, from the period after the first de-
portation by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 (xxiv.); (e)
threats of pimishments to be inflicted on Judah and
the surrounding nations, in the fourth year of Je-
hoiakim, i.e., the year of the battle of Carchemish
{605 ; XXV.); (/) the first of the historical passages
recounting Jeremiah's prophecy in the Temple
{comp. vii.), his arrest, his threatened death, and his
rescue, in which connection the martj'rdom of the
prophet Uriah is briefly mentioned (xxvi.).

(4) Utterances from the time of Zedekiah (see
§ II.), with an appendix, the last connected prophecj'
of any length, in ch. xxxv., treating of the fidelity
of the Rechabites and of the unfaithfulness of Judah.
This dates from a somewhat earlier period, that of
Jehoiakim (because certainly before 597), and thils
forms a transition to the first passages of the narra-
tive sections.

(5) The fifth group of part I. consists of the first
half of the historical narrative concerning Jeremiah's
life and work, xxxvi.-xxxviii. 28a, and maybe thus
•divided : (a) account of the writing, destruction, and
rewriting of the prophecies of Jeremiah under Jehoi-
akim (xxxvi.); (b) narratives and sayings from the
time of Zedekiah, wlio is introduced as a new ruler
at the beginning of this historical account (xxxvii.
1), although often mentioned before in the prophe-
cies (xxxvii. -xxxviii. 28a).

§ II. Displaced, Disputed, and Non-Authentic Passages
of Part I.: In group 2 the short admonition in ix. 22
€t seq. is certainly not genuine ; it is a warning against
■self-glorification and an appeal to those who would
boast to glory in the knowledge of God instead.
As its sententious style indicates, it was probably
taken from a collection of wise sayings. The ques-
tion as to the genuineness of the second short utter-
ance, ix. 24 et seq., which proclaims God's punish-
ment upon the uncircumcised — the heathen who are
uncircumcised in the flesh, and the Israelites who
are uncircumcised in heart — can not be so easily de-
cided, since the Biblical conception of being uncir-
cumcised in heart is found elsewhere in Jeremiah.

Again, the following section, x. 1-16,

Relations is certainly not genuine. Here, in a

with style wholly like that of Deutero-

Deutero- Isaiah, the speaker mocks at the un-

Isaiah. reality of idols, which exist only

as images and hence are not to be
feared ; this recalls the time of Deutero-Isaiah and
the idols of Babylon rather than the period of Jere-
miah and the tendency of his contemporaries to wor-
ship other gods than Yhwh. The interpolated Ara-
maic verse (x. 11) is held by Duhm to be a magic
formula with which the later Jews, who did not
know much Hebrew, used to exorcise the various evil
spirits in the air, shooting stars, meteors, and comets.

la xi.-xx., besides various additions to Jeremiah's
sayings which can not be by the prophet himself,
there are two passages which till now have gener-
ally, and probably rightly, been hekl to be genuine,
although they do not belong to the time of Jehoia-
kim. That the passage xi. 1-8 is earlier, and be-
longs to the time of Josiah, has been explained
above (§ I.). Ch. xiii., however, must have been
written later than Jehoiakim 's time ; after a symbolic
narrative of a girdle buried beside the Euphrates,
and which, in that it is soiled and unfit for use,
represents Israel and Judah, the passage treats of
the king and "queen" — that is, the queen mother —
to whom it is announced that they must descend
from their throne; and the deportation of the
whole of Judah is similarly foretold. The king in
this case, however, with whom his mother is men-
tioned on equal terms, is certainly (comp. xxii. 26,
xxix. 2) the youthful Jehoiachin, and the time is
shortly before bis deportation to Babylon. The one
non-authentic passage incorporated in group 2 is
that concerning the ISabbath, xvii. 19-27. The rea-
son why the prophet can not be credited with the
authorship of this passage, though in
Passage on form and content it is not unlike

Sabbath Jeremiah, is the high value put upon
Not the observance of holy days, which is

Genuine, wholly foreign to the prophet. The
author of the passage not only recom-
mends the keeping of the Sabbath day holy as a
day of rest ordained by God, but he even goes so
far as to make the possibility of future salvation, and
even directly the destruction of Jerusalem, depend
upon the observance or non-observance of this day.

In group 3, ch. xxv. is doubtful (see below, g IV.,
in connection with the prophecy against foreign
peoples in xlvi.-li.).

In group 4 (of the time of Zedekiah) certain parts
of the promises in xxx.-xxxiii. have given rise to
doubt in more than one respect. Of the three sec-
tions in this collection, xxx. et seq., xxxii., and
xxxiii., the middle one may, however, be accepted
without reserve. This section begins (xxxii. 9) with
a relation of Jeremiah's purchase of a field in Ana-
thoth in accordance with ancient usage, at tlie time
when the Babylonians were already besieging Jeru-
salem (comp. xxxii. 1 with lii. 5, in opposition to
lii. 4), and of Jeremiah's prophecy to Zedekiah of the
conquest of the city and of the deportation to Bab)'-
lon. The divine promise is appended to this narra-
tion: " Houses and fields and vineyards shall be pos-
sessed again " (ib. verse 15), which, upon a question
of the prophet's, is explained thus (ib. verses 26 et
seq.): Jerusalem will be burned by the Chaldeans on
account of its sins, but afterward Yiiwii will collect
His people, scattered in all lands. He will make
an everlasting covenant with them, and will cause
them with rejoicing to settle again in this land {ib.
verse 41).

The first of the three sections, xxx. etseq., fore-
tells another day of terror for Jacob, but also prom-
ises liberation from foreign rule, punishment of the
enemy, the rebuilding of the destroyed cities by the
people (who will have begun to increase again and
whose numbers will have been swelled by the return
of Ephraim), and the making of a new covenant. In

Jeremiah, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

104:

tliis section the following passages are doubtful as

regards a Jeremianic origin : the passage in which

the servant of God, Jacob, is comforted

TJng-enuine in his exile with words of Deutero-

Passag-es Isaiah (xxx. 10 et seq. ; comp. Isa. xl.

in Later et seq.); the threat inserted among

Sections, the words of promise (xxx. 23 et seq. ;
comp. xxiii. 19 et seq., where this
threat occurs again, likewise in an inappropriate
place); the description of Yiiwii's power on the sea
(xxxi. 35b, similar to Isa. li. 15); and various other
passages which have many points of contact with
Deutero-Isaiah. A considerable portion of this sec-
tion is shown to be secondary matter by the fact
that it is lacking in the text of the Septuagint. At
any rate, examination leads to the conclusion that
this section, like so much else in the Book of Jere-
miah, was worked over afterward, although it is not
justifiable to deny to Jeremiah the authorship of the
whole of the section, nor to assume that it was
written by a post-exilic author. Such a writer
would have had more interest in the hope that the
Judeans, only a part of whom had come back, would
all return home, whereas for a prophet who Avrote
immediately before the downfall of Judah it was
more natural to recall the overthrow of the Northern
Kingdom, and to express the hope that with the
return of Ephraim Judah also would return, al-
though its present downfall seemed certain to him.

In tlie third of these sections, ch. xxxiii., the con-
clusion (xxxiii. 14-26) is suspicious. It is missing in
the Septyagint, although no plausible reason for the
omission is apparent. Not to speak of smaller mat-
ters, the fact that the people among whom (accord-
ing to verse 24) the prophet was sojourning, and
who were w-holly opposed to the compatriots of
the prophet, can only have been Babylonians — who
indeed might have said insultingly of Israel that "it
was no more a nation before them" (ib.) — does not
seem to accord with Jeremiah's authorship. The
passage must consequently have been written by
one of the exiles in Babylon and not by Jeremiah,
in whose time such a taunt could not have been ut-
tered either in Palestine or later in Egypt.

§ III. The Historical Sections of Parts I. and II. :
The historical passages contained in XX vi. and xxx vi.-
xlv. display such an exact knowledge of
Ch. xxvi. the events described in the life of Jere-
and miah, and contain so many interesting

XXXV. -xlv. details, that as a matter of course they
were formerly considered to have been
written by a pupil of Jeremiah in close touch with
him. When Kuenen and other commentators object
that in certain passages the Single episodes are not
properly arranged and that details necessary for a
complete understanding of the situation are lacking,
it must be remembered that it is just an eye-witness
who would easily pass over what seemed to him as
matter of course and likewise displace certain details.
Moreover, a comparison with the text of the Septua-
gint shows that in the historical as in the prophetical
passages man}' changes were made after composition.
It is therefore neither necessary nor advisable to set,
with Kuenen, 550 b.c. as the date of the first edition
of the book; but even if that late date be accepted
one must still suppose that the notes of a pupil and

eye-witness had been used as material. If, however,
the former and generally prevalent opinion is main-
tained (which has been readopted also
Work of by Duhm), namely, that the historical
Baruch. passages were written by a pupil of
Jeremiah, there can be no doubt that
this pupil was Baruch. Since it is known that it
was Baruch and not Jeremiah who first wrote down
the prophecies, and since in all cases the speeches in
the historical portions can not be taken out of their
setting, it seems the most natural thing to suppose
that Baruch was also directly concerned in the com-
position of the historical passages. But this does
not at all exclude the possibility of the insertion,
shortly after the passages had been written and put
together, of various details and episodes. This
theory is supported by Jeremiah's admonition to
Baruch (in xlv.), which, although addressed to
him by the prophet on the occasion of Jeremiah
dictating the prophecies in the time of Jehoiakim,
yet stands at the end of the section containing proph-
ecies against Judah. The fact that this admonition
occurs at the end of the original Book of Jeremiah
(concerning xlvi. et seq. see § IV.) can only mean
that Baruch placed it at the end of the book edited
by him as a legitimation of his labor.

§ IV. The Prophecies Against Foreign Peoples in Part
III.: Ch. xxv. speaks of the direction received by
Jeremiah from God to proclaim His anger to foreign
peoples. In the fourth year of Jehoiakim — that is, the
year of the battle of Carchemish and of Nebuchad-
nezzar's victory and accession to the throne^Jere-
miah proclaims that Yhwh, in revenge for Judah 's
sins, will bring His servant Nebuchadnezzar and the
peoples of the north against Judah and the surround-
ing peoples; that they will serve the King of Baby-
lon for seventy years; and that at the end of this
time Yhwh will punish the King of Babylon and
the Chaldeans. In connection with this, Jeremiah is
further told to pass the wine-cup of divine wrath to
all the nations to whom he is sent, and all the na-
tions who must drink of the cup are enumerated.
But however appropriate it may have been for Jere-
miah to announce the downfall of foreign nations
(comp. xxxvi. 2 and i. 5), and however much the
expression "cup of wrath " may sound like one of
Jeremiah's, since this illustration oc-
Prophecy curs often after him and accordingly
Not by probably goes back to him. yet this
Jeremiah, prophecy as it now stands (in xxv.)
can not have been written by him.
The proclamation of the pimishment of Babylon
(ib. verses 12-14) interrupts the connection of the
threatening of the nations by Babylon. Also tlie
words "all that is written in this book, which Jere-
miali hath prophesied against all the nations" (verse
13) can not of course have originated with Jere-
miah. Finally, the enumeration of the nations that
must drink from the cup of wrath (verses 17-26) is
not Jeremianic ; indeed, some of the nations were
located far from Jeremiah's horizon, and the con-
cluding remark (verse 26), with the puzzling word
"Sheshach " (i.e., Babylon), certainly dates from a
much later period. This passage characteristically
illustrates the fact that more than one liand worked
on the amplification, and that such passages arose

105

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah, Book of

in several stages, as may be observed in detail by a
comparison with the Septuagint text (see § VI.).

The question next arises as to whether the proph-
ecies against foreign nations contained in xlvi.-li.
are really those which, according to xxv., were to
be expected as the latter's amplification. This ques-
tion seems all tlie more natural because in the text
of the Septuagint those prophecies are actually in-
corporated in xxv. If 1. etseq., a long oracle dealing
with the sentence against Babylon, be left out of
consideration, there can be no doubt that the section
xlvi.-xlix. has in some way a Jeremianic basis. The
single oracles of this section are in part expressly
referred to Jeremiah in the heading, and the victory
of Nebuchadnezzar is in part given as their occasion.
At any rate the hypothesis that this section is a work-
ing over of original Jeremianic material is to be pre-
ferred to the difficulties attending the various other
theories that have been suggested to explain the later
origin of xlvi.-xlix. On the face of it, it is hardly
probable that a later author would have written a
whole series of oracles and have artificially made
them seem to belong to the time of Nebuchadnezzar,
merely for the sake of enriching the Book of Jere-
miah. If it is suggested that some one else, perhaps
Alexander the Great, was intended by the Nebu-
chadnezzar of these oracles, it must be objected that
even to the last judgment, that against Elam (which,
however, did not originally belong in

Oracles this section ; see below), which might

Worked be taken to mean Persia, no reference
Over. to post-Jeremianic events can be found.
A detailed examination, however,
shows that in most of these prophecies only a Jere-
mianic basis is possible. The prophecy concerning
the Philistines in xlvii. (but without the heading)
is the one that could most readily be accepted as
belonging as a whole to Jeremiah.

On the other hand, it is to be supposed that all
the other oracles underwent a more or less extensive
revision, so that they do not give the impression of
being real prophetic utterances, but seem rather to
be compilations by later scholars, who also made
use of the oracles of other prophets, especially of the
exilic and post-exilic passages in Isaiah (comp. Jer.
xlviii. 43 et seq. with Isa. xxiv. 17, 18a; Jer. xlix. 18
with Isa. xiii. l^ctseq. ; Jer. xlix. 24 with Isa. xiii. 8).
This working over of the material explains the lack of
perspicuity and the non-adherence to the historical
situation which frequently characterize these proph-
ecies. The following oracles are contained in this
section: {a) the oracle against Egypt, in two parts,
xlvi. 1-12 and xlvi. 13-28 (comp. xlvi. 27-28 [= xxx.
10 et seq.^ with the consolations of Deutero-Isaiah);
{b) that against the Philistines, xlvii.; (c) that
against Moab, xlviii., which in parts recalls Isa. xv.
etseq.; (<?) that against Ammon, xlix. 1-6; (c) that
against Edom, xlix. 7-22, which has much in
common with that of Obadiah ; (/) that against Da-
mascus and otlicr Aramaic cities, xlix. 23-27; {g)
that against Kedar and other Arabic tribes, xlix.
28-33; and (//) that against Elam, xlix. 34-39.
Whereas the other nations named all lay within
Jeremiah's horizon, this was not the case with Elam,
since Judah had no direct dealings with this coun-
try luitil after the Exile. This alone would not,

however, be a sufBcient reason for denying that
Jeremiah wrote the oracle, especially since as early
as Isa. xxii. 6 the Elamites were known as vassals
of the kings of Assyria, and hence an interest in the
history of Elam could not have been so far removed
from a prophet of Israel as may now appear. By
whom and at what time the supposed revi.sion of
Jeremiah's original stock of material was made, it is
impossible to determine; but the large number of
similar expressions connecting the separate oracles
makes it probable that tliere was only one redaction.
The oracle against Babylon, l.-li. 58, which fol-
lows the section xlvi.-xlix., and to which a histor-
ical addition is appended (li. 59-64), is very clearly
seen to be non-Jeremianic in spite of the fact that
individual passages recall very vividly Jeremiah's
style. It is really no oracle at all, but a description
in oracle form, dating from .after the Exile, and
originally written so as to appear as a production by
Jeremiah, for which purpose the author assumes the
standpoint of an older time. Since he is acquainted
with Deutero-Isaiah (comp. li. 15-19 with Jer. x. 12-
16, which is also taken from Deutero-Isaiah, and ap-
parently furnishes the direct basis for the passage
in question), and describes the upheaval in Baby-
lon and the destruction of the city — making use of
the exilic oracle in Isa. xiii. et seq. (Jer. 1. 16, 39 etseq. ;
comp. 1. 39;li. 40 with Isa. xxxiv. 14 andxxxiv. Qet

seq.). he can not have written it before

Not Before the end of tlie Babylonian exile at the

the End of earliest. This also explains why the

the Exile, destroyers of Babylon are called

" kings of Media " (li. 28). Moreover,
the author of the oracle against Babylon made
use of the Jeremianic oracle against Edom, at
times quoting it literally (comp. 1. 44-46 with
xlix. 19-21 ; and the origin of 1. 41-43 is found
in vi. 22-24). That he lived in Jerusalem may
be inferred not only from 1. 5, in which, speaking
of the returning exiles, he says that their faces were
turned "hitherward," but also from the fact that
he is much more concerned with the desecrated and
destroyed Temple of Jerusalem than are the proph-
ets of the Exile. The added passage, li. 59-64, pro-
ceeding probably from a historical record of a jour-
ney to Babylon made by Seraiah, was most likely
written by the author of the oracle against Babylon,
if not by some one later, who desired by his short
narrative to authenticate the oracle which he took to
be Jeremianic.

The section closes with the words: ''Thus far
[are] the words of Jeremiah," showing that the Book
of Jeremiah once ended at this point, and that that
which follows is a later addition. In fact, lii. is a
historical account, concerning Zedekiah, the depor-
tation to Babylon, and the turning-point in the for-
tunes of .lehoiachin, which was transferred from tiic
Book of Kings to that of Jeremiah. This is shown
by the fact that with slight variations and with the
exception of two passages, the two accounts agree;
one of the exceptions is presented by three verses
giving a count of the exiles, which are found
only in Jeremiah (lii. 28-30) and which were
probably inserted later from some separate source,
since they are lacking also in the text of the Septu-
agint; the other is the short passage recording

Jeremiah, Book of
Jeremiah, Epistle of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

106

the appointment of Gedaliah as governor, his
murder, and the fliglit to Eg3'pt of those who
were left, which is lacking in Jeremiah (II Kings
XXV. 22-26), and which doubtless was purposelj^
omitted because the same facts had already been re-
corded elsewhere in tlie Book of Jeremiah (xl. et
sej.). Moreover, the addition of ch. Hi. was of
itself not necessary, since the information given in
it was already partially known from earlier state-
ments of the Book of Jeremiah ; and the last pas-
sage concerning the change in the fate of Jehoiachin
is wholly superfluous, since the event recorded
took place after Jeremiah's deatli.

§ V. Sources of the Book of Jeremiah, According to
Duim : What has here been said concerning the sup-
posed origin of the Book of Jeremiah corresponds to
the opinion held on the subject by most modern
scholars, whose consensus, though they may differ
in detail, has indorsed the view as a whole and in
substance. The views of Duhm differ materially
from this opinion, however many points of contact
therewith it may show, because Duhm, in opposition
to previous conceptions, lias with an unparalleled
boldness and confidence extended his critical inves-
tigation to the most minute details, for which reason
his analysis is here given separately. Although it
seems more plausible to suppose that the real proph-
ecies of Jeremiah are contained in the versified por-
tions, whereas in the prose utterances the thoughts of
Jeremiah have been woiked over, for the most part
in the form of sermons, the question still- arises
whetlier one is justified in "ascribing, with the
greatest detail, [the various parts ofj writings
which without doubt have passed through many
hands before tliey received the form in whicli we
know them, to their [respective] authors" (see
Noldeke in "Z. D. M. G." Ivii. 412). Duhm distin-
gui.shes :

(1) Jeremiah's Poems. These, in all about sixty,

date (a) from the period when Jeremiah was still

in Anathoth: the cycle ii. 2b, 3, 14-28;

Duhm's 39-37; iii. 1-5; 12b, 13,19,20; 21-35;
Analysis, iv. 1, 3, 4; the cycle xxxi. 2-6; 15-20;
21, 22, and perhaps xxx. 12-15; the
oldest five poems concerning the Scythians, iv. 5-8;
lib, 12a, 13, 15-17a; 19-21, 23-26; 29-31; (h) from
the time of Josiah : v. l-6a; 6b-9; 10-17; vi. 1-5;
6b-8, 9-14; 16, 17, 20 ; 32-26a ; 27-30 ; \n. 2S et seq. ;
viii. 4-7a;8, 9. 13, 14-17; 18-23 ;ix. 1-8; 9:16-18:19-
21 ; X. 19, 20, 22; {c) from the time of Joah : xxii. 10;
(d) from tlie time of Jehoiakim : xxii. 13-17, and prob-
ably xi. 15 ct seq. ; xii. 7-12 (from the first period);
xxii. 18 et seq., and periiajis xxii. 6b, 7; 20-23; xiii.
15 etseq. ; 17; 18, 19; 20, 31a, 32-25a, 26 ctseq. (from
the time after tiie burning of the book-roll) : (c) from
the time of Jeiioiachin: xxii. 24; 28; (/) from a later
period (a more exact definition is unnecessary): de-
scription of tiie great famine, xiv. 2-10; of the evil
conditions in tiie country and their results, xv. 5-9;
xvi. 5-7; xviii. 13-17; xxiii. 9-12; 13-15; impressive
complaints of jicrsonal enmities, xi. 18-20; xv. 10-
12, 15-19a, 20etseq. ; xvii. detscq., 14, Wet seq. ; xviii.
18-20; XX. 7-11; xx. 14-18; from an earlier period,
but first inserted after the restoration of tlie roll:
xiv. 17 et seq. : xvii. 1-4; (g) from the last period of
Zedekiah (according to Baruch), xxxviii. 22.

(2) The Bvok of Bnntch. Besides single data and
exhortations preserved in i.-xxv. {e.g., i. 1-3, 6; vii.
18; comp. xliv. 15 etseq., xi. 21, vii. 21 etseq.), the
following passages are derived from this book (they
are here arranged according to their original order
of succession, the groups of verses which have been
revised being marked with an asterisk): («) on the
time of Jehoiakim: xxvi. 1-3, 4 (to "h^), 6-24 (early

period); xxxvi. 1-26; 83 (fourth and

Parts fifth years of Jehoiakim); xxxv. 1-11*

Ascribed, (a later year) ; {b) on the time of Zede-

to Baruch. kiah : xxviii. la, xxvii. 2 etseq., xxviii.

2-13, 15-17 (fourth year of Zedekiah);
xxix. 1 (to n^ljn), 3, 4a, 5-7, 11-15, 21-23, 24 et seq.,*
26-39 (probably the same period); xxxiv. 1-7*
(ninth year); xxxiv. 8-11*; xxxvii. 5, 12-18, 30 et
seq. ;xxxii. 6-15; xxxviii. 1, 3-22, 34-38a (during the
siege of Jerusalem) ; (c) on the time after the con-
quest of Jerusalem, events in Mizpah and the emi-
gration to Egypt: xxxviii. 28b, xxxix. 3, 14a, xl. 6;
xl. 7-xlii. 9,T3a, 14, 19-21, xliii. 1-7; {d) on an event
in Egypt (comp. vii. 18): xliv. 15a, 16-19, 34 etseq.,*
28b; xiv. forms the conclusion.

(3) The Supplements to the Writings of Jeremiah
and Baruch. These comprise about 800 verses, that
is, more than the poems of Jeremiah (about 280
verses) and the sections from the Book of Baruch
(about 300 verses). The process of amplification,
by which the Book of Jeremiah grew to its present
size, must have gone on for centuries. It is possible
that single additions (which are difficult to identify)
were incorporated in the roll of the Book of Jere-
miah in the Persian period. The greatest number
of additions was made in the third century, the age
of "the most midrashic literature " ; the most recent
are in general the Messianic passages and their com-
plement, the prophecy concerning tlie

Messianic heathen. They are in part (as in i.-
Passages. xxv.) inserted among older additions,
in part placed together in a separate
section (xxx. et seq., xlvi.-li.), which could not have
originated before the end of the second century B.C.,
and which have received even later additions; single
pas.sages (e.g*., xxxiii. 14-26) are so late as not even
to have come into the Septuagint. These additions
fall into separate categories according to their con-
tents: (rt) amplifications in the nature of sermons in
connection with verses of the Jeremianic text, to
suit the needs of the post-exilic period ; {h) short
narratives, in the form of the IMidrash or of free
versification, recording deeds and sayings of the
prophet; (r) consolatory passages Avhich in part are
appended to an admonitory sermon, and in part
stand in a separate group in xxxii. et seq. ; {d) addi-
tions of various kinds having no connection with
the contents of the book.

However justifiable it may be to separate the
"songs" of .Jeremiah, the question still arises
whether much of that which Duhm excludes as a
later addition may not still be Jeremianic, since it is
easy to suppose that besides the versified portions
tliere must also have been pro.se utterances of Jere-
miah, to which those excluded pa.ssages may liave
belonged.

§ VI. Relation of the Hebrew Text to the Septua-
gint : A comparison of the ]Masoretic text with the

107

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah, Book of
Jeremiah, Epistle of

Scptuagint throws some light on tlie hist phase in
the history of the origin of tlie Boole of Jeremiah,
inasmuch as the translation into Greek was already
under way before the work on the Hebrew book
had come to an end. This is shown by the faet that
a large part of the additions to the Hebrew text,
which, absent in the Scptuagint, are evidently sec-
ondary, are proved also by their contents to be
later elaborations. The two texts differ above all in

that the Scptuagint is much shorter.

Additions containing about 2,700 words (that is,

to the about one-eighth of the whole book)

Septuagint. less than the Hebrew. On the other

liand, headings in the Hebrew text
are only comparatively rare. Even if the text of
the Septuagint is proved to be the older, it does not
necessarily follow that all these variations first arose
after the Greek translation had been made, because
two different editions of the same text might have
been in process of development side by side. Fur-
thermore, the correspondence between the Septua-
gint and the Hebrew is too great, and their rela-
tionship too close, for one to be able to speak of
two redactions. They are rather two editions of
the same redaction.

§ VII. Origin of the Book of Jeremiah : The
different stages in the history of the growth of the
book as they are shown in the two theories of its
origin, that of Duhm and that of Ryssel, practically
coincide. The book, dictated by Jeremiah himself
under Jehoiakim, was first worked over by a pupil,
probably Baruch, who added later utterances, which
he wrote perliaps partly at the dictation of the
prophet, but in the main independently, and to
which he furthermore added narrative passages (at
least for the time preceding the conquest of Jerusa-
lem). This "Book of Baruch," the composition of
Avhich Kuenen without sufficient reason (see above,
§ III.) places first in the second half of the Baby-
lonian exile, concludes with the passage addressed
to that scribe. It contains oracles concerning for-
eign nations, which, however, stood immediately
after the section referring to the cup of wrath for the
nations, and had little to do with the group of
oracles, now contained in xlvi.-li., concerning the
nations conquered by Nebuchadnezzar. Besides

the oracle concerning Babylon, which

Final is without doubt not genuine, the

Redaction, one concerning Elam must also have

been added later, since, according to
its dating, it did not belong to the oracles of the
fourth year of Jehoiakim. The Book of Jeremiah
nt a comparatively early date became subject to
additions and revisions, which were made especially
in the schools and from the material of Deutero-
Isaiah ; and the only question which suggests it-
self is whether this critical activity in reality must
have continued until the end of the second century
or even later. The book as a whole was first ter-
minated by the addition of the oracle concerning
Babylon, and again later by the addition of the
account taken from the Book of Kinsrs.

Bibliography: Commentaries: Hitzlp, in KurzgefasM>'>(
Exe(ietischef< Handlntch. Leipsic, 1841; 2fi erl. 1866; Ewald,
in Prophet isclie liUclimlc^ AUini Tistamrntii, IH-ti; :iiled.
1H68; Karl Heinricli (iraf. 1H62; C. W. E. Naeelsbach, in llic-
tilogUich-Homikt.ischcs Bihelwerk, 1868; T. K. Cheyne, in

Spence and F.xell's Pulpit Commentam '3 vols., with Lnm-
oitationx), 188:^85; ('. von Orel li, in KurzyeffUigter K<im-
incntar, 1887 ; 2d ed. 1891 (tdgetber witli Jeremiah); Friedrlcli
Gieseltrecljt, in Hmnlkdininentnr zum Alteii Teatament,
1894; B. Duhm, in Kurzir Hnndkommentar, 1901.

Treati.ses and Monotrraphs : (1) On sinple critical question.s :
K. Budde. Ueberdie Kapite.l 5u vnd r>l tlca Hitches Jcremia.
in JahrhUdier flir Deutuche Tlieohmic. xxiii. 42«-470, 529-
.562; (,'. J. Cornill, Kapitel r,2 des Buchen Jeremid (in Stade's
Zeituclnift, iv. 10.5-107); B. Stade, Jer. Hi. G-lG (ih. pp. 151-^
154), and Jer.XJ-.rii. ll-lk (ih. v. 175-178); Das Vermeint-
liche Aiamilisch-AKsurisclte Aequivaleiit fUr Z''r:z'n rj r,
Jer. rliv. 17 (Ui. vi. 289-:M9); F. Schwally, Die Redcn dex
liuches Jeremia (iegen dieHeiden, x.rr.. xlvi.-li. (il>. vlii.
177-217); B. Stade, Bcn\erkini(jen zum Buelic Jeren^ia (ih.
xii. 276-308). (2) On the metrical form of the speeches: K.
Budde. Ein Althehrdisches Klagelied (in Sfddf'sZeitschrift,
iii. 299-306): C. J. Cornill, I>!"e Metriachen StUckedes BuchcK
Jeremia, Leipsic, 1902. (3) On Biblical-theological Ques-
tions: H. Guthe, De Frederis Notione Jereminna Vom-
mentatio Theolnqiva. 1877; A. von Bulmerincq, Das Zu-
kunftshild des Protiheteii Jei-emia, 1894; H. (i. Mitchell,
Tlie Theologii of Jeremiah, in Jinir. Bibl. Lit. xx. 56-76.
(4) For the life and personality of Jeremiah see the bibliogra-
phy to Jkremiah (the prophet).

The Text and Translations : (1) Edition of the text : C. J.
Cornill, The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah (English transl.
of the notes by C. Johnston), part xi. of P. Haupfs S. B. O.
T. 1895. (2) A collection of single conjectures in the appen-
dixes to Kautzsch's translation of the Old Testament (2d ed.
1896) -eLUdtoHet OufZe Tf.stomejit ; much scattered material,
e.g., on Jer. ii. 17, in Stade's Zeitschrift, xxi. 192. (3) Relation
of the Masoretic text to the Septuagint: F. K. Movers, De Ut-
riusque Reccnsionis Vaticiniorum Jeremia;, GreecceAlex-
andriiue et Hebraicce Masorethicce, hidole et (Jrigiiie, 1837 ;
P. F. BYankl, Studien Uber die LXX. und Peschito zu
Jeremia, 1873 ; G. C. Workman, The Text of Jeremiah,
1889; Ernst Kiihl, Da,s Ve7-hilltniss der Massora zur Septua-
ginta im Jeremia, Halle, 1882; A. W. Streane, The Double
Text of Jeremiah, 1896.

In general, comp. also the Introduction to the Old Testa-
ment and articles on the Book of Jeremiah in the theological
cyclopedias.

E. G. H. V. Ry.

JEREMIAH, EPISTLE OF: AGreekapocry-
phon, being a fictitious letter which Jeremiah is sup-
posed to have written to the Jews who were about
to be led as captives to Babylonia, the purpose of
the letter being to warn them against idolatry. It
seems to be written with especial reference to Jer.
X. 1-16, wherein the prophet sharply contrasts the
living and everlasting God of Israel Avith the idols
of Babylonia. Jer. x. 11, a declamation addressed
to the Babylonians, distinguished by being written
in Aramaic, appears to have suggested the idea
(as may be seen from the Targum to the passage)
that Jeremiah sent an epistle of that nature (comp.
Jer. xxix. 1) to the elders of the Captivity, who
were to read it to all the Jews as a warning against
being induced by their heathen masters to worship
idols. The author, however, while making use also
of such passages as Isa. xliv. 9-19, xlvi. 1-2 ;Ps.
cxv. 4-8, cxxxv. 15-18, has Egyptian idolatry in
view, as may be gathered from verse 18, where the
Feast of Lights at Sais (Herodotus, ii. 62) is obvi-
ously alluded to. The epistle, therefore, must be
classed among the propagandist literature of the
Alexandrian Jews issued for the purpose of winning
the heathen over to Jewish monotheism.

After a few introductory verses announcing the
transportation of the Jews to Bab3ioniaasa punish-
ment for their sins, and promising their return to
the Hoi}' Land after the lapse of seven generations
(possibly a mistake for the seven decades in Jer.
xxix. 10), the writer of the epistle immediatel}' turns
to his subject, describing with fine sarcasm and vivid
coloring, and ostensibh' from his own experience,
the practises of the idolatrous priests and people :

" The idols are decked with silver and gold, which often the
priests steal to give them to harlots (8-11); they are given pur-

Jeremiah, The Lamentations of
Jeremiah ben Jacob

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

108

pie aud scepters, but have no power ; dapgers and axes, but
can not defend themselves against thieves (12-16, 18) ; they have
candles lit before them, but see not (19); their eyes are full of
dust, their faces black with smoke (17, 21); insects and bats
cover their bodies, but they feel them not (20, 22). They are
carried upon the shoulders, and when they fall they can not
rise ; yet gifts are set before them as unto the dead ! The
priests sell and misuse them, take oft their garments and clothe
their wives and children (26-33); they can give neither health
nor wealth, nor sight nor speech, nor any help whatsoever to
their worshipers, and instead cause women to deliver them-
selves over to Incest (34-43). [A survival of this Astarte cult is
reported by S. I. Curtiss (" Primitive Semitic Religion To-day,"
Chicago, 1901) as still existing in Egypt.] Men's own handi-
work, they can neither save them from war and plague nor
from famine, nor their own temples from flre (45-5.5). Any
vessel or piece of furniture in the house is of greater use than
they : the stai-s and the clouds fulfil the command of their Maker,
but these Idols are like a scarecrow in a garden of cucumbers,
thatavaileth nothing (61-71)."

This description is made quite effective by the re-
frains

" Whereby they are known to be no Rods ; therefore fear them
not" (16, 23, 29, 66); "How should a man think and say that
they are gods ? " (40, 44, 52, 56, 64); " And ye shall know them
to be no gods ..." (73-73); "Better the just man that hath
no idols ; he shall be far from reproach."

In some editions of the Greek text, as well as in
the Old Latin and Syriac versions, and accordingly
in Luther's and the English translation, the Epistle
of Jeremiah constitutes ch. vi. of Baruch, but with-
out justification.

Bibliography : Bissell's Apocnipha, 1880, pp. 433-441 ; Ewald,
Die JlUigstoi Prophcteii, 1868; Fi-izsche's Handbuch zu
den Apocn/phen, 1851, i. 203-222 ; Herzfeld, Gesch. dex Volkm
Jiirael 1847. 1. 316 ; K&Mzsch'.'^ Apocrnphen, 1900, 1.236-229;
Speaker's Apnerupha, 1888, ii. 287-1303.

JEREMIAH, THE LAMENTATIONS OF.

See Lamentations.

JEREMIAH : Polish rabbi in the second half of
the eighteenth century; head of the yeshibah at
Mattersdorf, Hungary, in which he devoted himself
especially to the legal treatises of the Babylonian
Ta-lmud. Aaron Choiun was one of his pupils.
Jeremiah was the author of "Moda'ah Rabbah," a
commentary to Hayyim Shabbcthai's "Torat Hay-
yim," part ii. (on "Moda'ah we Ones," a protest
against a forced or unduly influenced action); Jere-
miah's son Joab wrote a parallel commentary enti-
tled "Moda'ah Zuta." In tlie approbation to his
work, published at Lemberg, 1795, by his son,
Jeremiah is given the title of "gaon." Joab wrote
also "Sha'are Biuah," novelise to the "Siia'are
Shebu'ot" of Isaac ben Reuben, grandson of Isaac
Alfasi.

BIBLIOORAPIIY : Azulai. Shem ha-Gcdalim, i., Warsaw, 1864,
p. 37b; ii.. Warsaw, 1880, p. 74 ; Beniacob, ()zar Jia-Scfariiii,
pp.306. t>02, Wilna, 1880; Michael, Or ha-Haimim, No. 902;
Low, Oeaammelte Schrifte)i, ii. 2.54, Szege'din, 1890; Schrei-
ber, RefdrmedJudaium, p. 66, Spokane, 1892.
s. s. S. Man.

JEREMIAH : Palestinian scholar of the fourtli
century; always c|UOte(l by the single name "Jere-
miah," thougii sometimes that name is used for
Jeremiah b. Abba. A Babylonian by birth, he
passed his youtii in his native land witliout giving
much promise of gaining celebrity as a scholar (Ket.
75a). He emigrated to Ca?sarea, in Palestine, where
he made rapid progress in his studies. Among his
teachers were Abbahu (B. M. 16b); Samuel b. Isaac,
whose homilies he very frequently reports (Yer.

Peah i. 16b ; Yer. Meg. i. 70d ; Yer. Hag. i. 76c) ; and
Assi II. (Git. 44a; Hul. 21a); but his principal
teacher was his countryman Ze'era. Both Ze'era
and Abbahu loved the young scholar as a son (M.
K. 4a; B. M. 16b). Ammi employed Jeremiah as
tutor to his son (Yer. Bezah v. 63a). Once while
Ze'era and his pupil were engaged in some halakic
investigation the hour of prayer arrived, and Jere-
miah began to betray impatience at being detained.
Ze'era, noticing it, reproved him with the words,
" He that turneth away his ear from hearing the
law, even his prayer shall be abomination " (Prov.
xxviii. 9; Shab. 10a).

Jeremiah developed such industrious habits as to
evoke from his teacher the remark that since the
death of Ben 'Azzai and Ben Zoma, with whom
industry ended, there had not been so zealous a
student as Jeremiah (Yer. Ned. viii. 40d; comp.
Sotah ix. 15). But in his anxiety to acquire knowl-
edge and accuracy he developed extreme captious-
ness. He frequently provoked the laughter of
the college, except of his teacher (Niddah 23a); and
ultimately his ultra-subtleties became insufferable.
His considerate preceptor lime and again warned
him against pursuing his arguments beyond the
bounds of the Halakah (R. H. IBa; Sotah 16b), but
it proved of no avail. At last his colleagues gave
vent to their displeasure. The college was seriously
discussing a point of law, when Jeremiah broke in
with what appeared to be a ridiculous objection,
whereupon he was ordered out of the
His Over- academy (B. B. 23b). It happened
Subtlety, that after the death of the great teach-
ers a legal problem vexed the minds
of the scholars, aud there was none to solve it. It
was submitted to Jeremiah, who returned it with
the solution, which he prefaced with the humble
words: "Although I am not worthy [to be consulted
by you], your pupil's opinion inclines this wa5^"
On receipt of this, which was taken as an apology
for the past, his colleagues reinstated him (B. B.
165b).

Thenceforth Jeremiah was the undisputed head
of the scholastic circle at Tiberias (Yer. Shab. i. 8d,
iii. 6c ; comp. ib. vi. 8a), and questions were ad-
dressed to him from different parts of Palestine.
Nor was his fame limited by the boundaries of his
adopted country. In Babylonia also his opinions
carried great weight, and when a contemporary or
later Babylonian scholar introduced a statement I)j'
the phrase "It is said in the West," it was generally
assumed that that statement emanated from Jere-
miah (Sanh. 17b). The reverence in which he was
held by his former countrymen appears from the
following colloquy between his younger contempo-
raries Abaye and Raba: Said the former: "One
Palestinian scholar is worth two of ours " ; where-
upon the other remarked : " And yet when one of
ours emigrates to Palestine he is worth two of the
natives. Take, for example, Jeremiah; although
wMiile he was here he could not comprehend our
teachers, since emigrating to Palestine he has risen
to such eminence as to look upon us as ' stupid
Babylonians'" (Ket. 75a). Indeed, not only did
Jeremiah repeatedly apply this epithet to Baby-
lonian scholars, but he spoke disdainfully of his na-

109

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah, The Lamentations of
Jeremiah ben Jacob

tive land as well. Whenever an opinion bv a Baby-
lonian scholar met with bis disapprobation, he would
say " Those Babylonian simpletons! they dwell in
a land of darkness and advance opinions of dark-
ness " (Pes. 84b ; Yoma 57a ; Bek. 25b).

With the leadership of the scholastic circle the
management of public affairs was entrusted to him.
He considered this occupation as paramount to en-
gaging in the study of the Law (Yer. Ber. v. 8d) ;
but it sometimes occasioned him unpleasantness.
On one occasion some serious trouble threatened the

Jews of Tiberias, and much treasure

Active was required to avert it. Jeremiah

liife. was called upon to assess the people,

and in discharging this duty he dis-
pleased his older colleague Jacob b. Bun. Jere-
miah had called on Jacob for a considerable contribu-
tion, whereupon he remarked, "Jeremiah is still
at his tricks: he deserves excommunication." The
feeling between them became so bitter that they
excommunicated each other, though they soon re-
voked their decrees and became reconciled (Yer. M.
K. iii. 81d).

Jeremiah had many pupils, among them Jonah
and Hezekiah II., who stood in the front rank of
the scholars of the next generation. His name is
frequently found in the departments of the Halakah
and the Haggadah, in the Babylonian as well as in
the Palestinian Gemara, and in the Midrashim. He
left the following directions for his interment:
"Clothe me in white garments with sleeves, put
stockings and shoes on my feet, place a staff in my
hand, and lay me down on my side. Thus equipped,
when the Messiah comes I shall be ready to follow
him" (Yer. Kil. ix. 33b; Yer. Ket. xii. 35a).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 95; Frankel.
Mebo. p. 107b ; Halevy, Dvrot ha-RUhonim, li. 356 ; Weiss,
Dor, iii. 107.
s. 8. S. M.

JEREMIAH B. ABBA (b. Wa in the Pales-
tinian Talmud): Babylonian amora of the third
century; disciple and fellow of Rab (Ber. 27b). In
Yerushalmi his patronymic is often omitted (comp.
'Er. 21a with Yer. 'Er. ii. 20a: see also ih. 19d and
Abina). Jeremiah devoted himself to the study of
the Halakah; but he is also cited in connection with
haggadot. Most of the latter are embodied in the
Babylonian version of the treatise Sanhedrin (pp.
91a, 92b, 93b, 103a). A specimen of these follows.
The Jewish Bible canon not recognizing a separation
of the Book of Nehemiah from that of Ezra, the Tal-
mud raises the question, "Since what is contained
in the Book of Ezra has been told by Nehemiah b.
Hachaliah, why is there no Biblical book bearing
the name of Nehemiah ? " To this Jeremiah answers,
"Because Nehemiah claimed credit for what he had
done, saying, 'Remember [A. V. "Think upon"]
me, O my God, for good, according to all that I have
done for this people'" (Neh. v. 19; Sanh. 93b).
He proves from Scriptural texts that the following
four classes of persons will never be admitted into
the Divine presence: (l)scorners; asitissaid (Hosea
vii. 5), "He stretched out his hand with [Hebr.
"Jt^TD = "withdraweth from"] scorners " ; (2) liars;
as it is said (Ps. ci. 7), "He that telleth lies shall
not tarry in my sight " ; (3) deceivers ; as it is said

(Job xlii. 16), "A hypocrite shall not come before
him " ; and (4) slanderers : as it is said (Ps. v. 5,
Hebr.), "Evil shall not dwell with Thee" (Sanh.
103a).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ay. Pal. Amor. Hi. 582; Hellprin,
Seder ha-Doroi, ii., s.v.
S. s. S. M.

JEREMIAH OF DIFTA : Babylonian amora
of the fourth century; contemporary of Papi (B.
B. 52a; 'Ab. Zarah 40a). Rabbina, who eventually
assisted in the compilation of the Babylonian Ge-
mara, w^as his pupil. Once, while they were study-
ing, a certain man passed them without covering his
head (out of respect to the scholars). Rabbina there-
upon remarked, "How bold this fellow is!" But
Jeremiah rejoined, "Possibly he comes from Mata
Mehasya, where scholars are not rare and people
pay no special attention to them " (Kid. 32b).

s. s. ' S. M.

JEREMIAH BEN ELEAZAR: 1. Palestinian
scholar of the second century ; contemporary of
Simeon b. Gamaliel, the father of Judah I. He is
known through one haggadah, transmitted by his
pupil Bar Kappara, and giving various reasons for
the death of the two sons of Aaron, Nadab and Abihu
(Pesik. xxvii. 112b; Lev. R. xx. 8; Tan., Ahare
Mot, 7). Ephraem Syrus ("Opera," i. 240) adopted
an explanation by Jeremiah without mentioning his
name (comp. Graetz in "Monatsschritt," iii. 319).
Jeremiah's son Eleazar is mentioned in Pesik. R.
23 (ed. Friedmann, p, 117b) and Sotah 4a.

2. Haggadist of the third amoraic generation
(second half of the third century). Bacher places
him among the Palestinian haggadists, although
several of his haggadot are found in the Babylonian
Talmud, while only one is recorded in Yerushalmi
(Shab. vi. 10).

Jeremiah's haggadot are numerous; and a whole
group of them is found in 'Er. (18a-19a). He in-
ferred from Ps. cxxxix. 5 that Adam was created
with two faces, one of a man and one of a woman,
and that God afterward cleft them asunder ('Er.
18a). In Gen. R. viii. 1 this opinion is ascribed to
Samuel b. Nahman, while Jeremiah's opinion is stated
to have been that Adam was created a hermaphro
dite (see Androgynos). From Gen. v. 3 Jeremiah
concluded that all the time that Adam lived under
the curse (that is, till the age of 130) he begot
demons and spirits ('Er. 18b; see Lilith). Accord-
ing to Jeremiah, the builders of the Tower of Babel
were divided into three different groups, which re-
spectively had the intention of dwelling there, of
establishing there the cult of idolatry, and of wa-
ging war against God. The first group was dis-
persed ; the second was punished by a confusion of
language; and the third was transformed into one
of apes, demons, and spirits (Sanh. 109a). Jeremiah
also indicated the crow as a bird of prophecy (Lev.
R. xxxii. 2).
BiKLiOGRAPHY: Bacher, Aq. Pal. Amor. iii. 583-587.

s. s. M. Sel.

JEREMIAH BEN JACOB BEN ISRAEL
NAFHTALI : German Talinudist and philanthro-
pist; died in Halberstadt before 1664. Like his
father, Jacob (Jockel Halberstadt), Jeremiah was
parnas of the congregation. His wealth, which he

Jeremiah ben Jacob
Jericho

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

110

used for the benefit of tlie communit}-, his learning,
and his broad culture gave him importance and se-
cured for liim the government's recognition, which
enabled him to obtain many advantages for liis co-
religionists.

That, however, which procured influence for him
in the higher circles of society availed him nothing
against the rage of the populace. On the Ninth of
Ab, 1621, the synagogue built by liis father was
destroyed by a mob. Jeremiah seized the very first
opportimity of building a new synagogue at liis
own expense. This opportunity seemed to be afforded
by the wording of a sentence in the rescript issued
by the elector Frederick William on May 1, 1652:
"The Jews, on accoimt of the synagogue which
they shall keep, shall give yearlj' a gulden in gold."
Jeremiah interpreted this to refer to a synagogue
proper, and lie proceeded to build one. It was
claimed, however, that the rescript permitted only
a meeting-place for private devotions, and a protest
against the new edifice was made to the elector.
Before the latter's decision was rendered Jeremiah

of the country in general and of Jericho in particular
{ib. ii. 1). They lodged at Rahab's house in the wall
of the city, and, upon their presence being suspected,
Rahab let them out through the window by means,
of a rope {ib. ii. 2-15). Crossing the Jordan, and
having first encamped at Git.g.\l {ib. v. 10;>, Josliua
besieged Jericho and took it in a miraculous manner
{ifj. vi. 1). The whole army marched around it
once a day for .six days and seven times on the
seventh day. When the last circuit had been made
and while the [seven] priests blew trumpets, the
Israelites were ordered to shout, and when they did
so, the walls fell down before them {ib. vi. 2-20).
According to this narrative, the Israelites had no
conflict with the people of Jericho; but Josh, x.xiv.
11 speaks of their fight Avith the "men of Jericho."

The conquerors, by special command

Taking of of the Lord, spared the life of none

Jericho. except Rahab and her family, who

were saved according to the promise
given to her by the spies; even the cattle were des-
troj'cd. The city and everj^thing in it were l)urned:

ruADiTioxAL Site of An'cient Jericho.

(From a photograph by Bonfils.)

died, being thus spared the pain of seeing the sec-
ond synagogue destroyed (^Nlarch 18, 1669).

Bibliography: Auerbach, Gesch. rler IsraeUtischcn Ge-
meinde HaWer.stadt, Halberstadt, 1866.
s. s. A. Pe.

JEREZ DE LA FRONTERA. See Xerez de
i..\ Fronter.^.

JERICHO (im% irrns and once, I Kings xvi.
34, nn^l').— Biblical Data : A city in the Jordan
valley, opposite Nebo (Deut. xxxii. 49), to the
west of Gilgal (Josh. iv. 19). Owing to its impor-
tance, the part of the Jordan near Jericho was called
"the Jordan of Jericho" (Num. xxii. 1, Hebr.). It
was a well-fortified city, surrounded by a wall, the
gate of which was closed at dusk (Josh. ii. 5, 15),
and was ruled by a king {ib. ii. 2, xii. 9). It was
also rich in cattle and particularly in gold and silver
(see the account of the spoil taken there, ib. vii. 21).

Jericho commanded the entrance to Palestine; hence
while Joshua was still encamped at Shittim, east of
the Jordan, he sent two spies to investigate the state

only the vessels of gold, silver, copper, and iron
were declared sacred and were reserved for the treas-
ury of the Lord {ib. vi. 21-25). Joshua pronounced
a solemn curse on the man who should rebuild Jeri-
cho {ib. vi. 26), and this curse was fulfilled on Hiei>
(I Kings xvi. 34). Still it can not be aftirnicd that
Jericho I'emained uninhabited till Hiel's time.

Jericho was given by Joshua to the tribe of Ben-
jamin (Josh, xviii. 21), and later, when David's am-
bassadors had been ill-treated by Hanun, the King-
of Amnion — he liad shaved off one-half of their
beards — they were told by David to stay at Jericho
till their beards should be grown (II Sam. x. 4-5).

The "city of palm-trees," conquered b}' Eglon,
King of ]\Ioab (Judges iii. 13), was probably Jericho
(comp. Deut. xxxiv. 3; II Chron. xxviii. 15). After
it had been rebuilt by Hiel, the city gained more
importance. The sons of the prophets settled there ;
Elisha "healed " its waters by casting salt into them
(II Kings ii. 5, 19-22). .Elijah's ascension took
place not far from Jericho {ib. ii. 4 et seq.).

Ill

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeremiah ben Jacob
Jericho

Tlie captives who liad been carriod away by Pekah
to Samaria, and were released by order of the prophet
Oded. were brought to Jericho, "the city of pahn-
trees"(II Chron. xxviii. 8-15). Zedekiah was cap-
tured by the Chaldeans in the plains of Jericho (II
Kings XXV. 5; Jer. xxxix. 5). At the return from
captivity, under Zerubbabel, the children of Jericho
are stated to have been 345 in number (Ezra ii. 34;
Nell. vii. 36). It seems that they settled again in
their native town; for men of Jericho assisted Nehe-
miah in reconstructing the wall of Jerusalem (Ezra
iii. 2). Later, Jericho was fortified by the Syrian
general Bacchides (I Mace. ix. 50). The fertility of
the plain of Jericho, alluded to in the
Post- Bible by the appellation "city of

Biblical palm-trees" (see above), is described

History, at length by Josephus("B. J." iv. 8,
§ 8). Strabo (xvi. 2) likens the plain
surrounded by mountains to a theater.

Jericho was an important place under the Romans.
When Pompey
endeavored to
clear Palestine
of robbers, he
destroyed their
two strongholds,
Threx and Tau-
rus, wliich com-
manded the ap-
proach to Jer-
icho (?7>.). After
Jerusalem had
been taken by
Pompey, Gabi-
nius divided the
whole country
into five judicial
districts {civodoi,
awe6pta), one of
wliich was .ler-
iclio (Josephus,
"B.J." i. 8, §5).
L a t e !• , when
Herod in his
fight with An-
tigonus for the
throne needed
corn for his army, Jericho was plundered by the
Roman soldiery, who " found the liouses full of
all sorts of good things " (ih. i. 15, § 6). A short
time after this event Jericho was the scene of the
massacre of five Roman cohorts and of the death of
Joseph, brother of Herod. Herod himself, coming
at the head of two legions to avenge his brother's
death, was wounded by an arrow, and had to retire
from Jericho ("Ant." xiv. 15, ^g 8, 10-12; "B. J."
i. 15, § 6; xvii. 1, §§ 4-6). In the year 34 u.c. An-
tony gave Jeiicho with other cities of Judea as a
present to Cleopatra ("Ant." xv. 4. §§ 1-2; "B. J."
i. 18, g 5), who farmed out to Herod the revenues of
the regions about the city (" Ant." xv. 4, § 2). Four
years later Herod received from Augustus the whole
country (including Jericho) that had been in Cleo-
patra's^ possession {ih. XV. 7, ^ 3; "B. J." i. 20, g 3).
He erected many villas ?i Jericho for the entertain-
ment of his friends, calling them after their respect-

:%v-n,

.>^jC^

Jabal Karanlal and Probable

(From a photograph by

ive names ("B. J." i. 21, § 4); he built also a wall
about a citadel that lay above Jericho, calling it
"Cypros" {ib. i. 21, g 9).* At Jericho Herod caused
Aristobulus to be drowned by Gallic mercenaries in
one of the large water-reservoirs of the city ("Ant."
XV. 2, ^§ 3-4; "B. J." i. 22, § 2). Jericho had its
amphitheater, and it was there that Salome an-
nounced Herod's death to the soldiers {ib. i. 33, § 8).
After Herod'sdeath hisex-slave Simon burned the
royal palace at Jericho and plundered what had been
left in it (" Ant. " xvii. 10, § 6). It was magnificently
rebuilt bj'^ Archelaus, who also carried on some im-
portant irrigation works (ib. xvii. 13, ^ 1). In the
time of Josephus, Judea was divided into eleven
toparchies, of which the eleventh was Jericlio (" B.
J." iii. 3, §5). When Vespasian approached Jericho
the inhabitants fled to the mountains {ib. iv. 8, «^ 2).
Vespasian erected a citadel at Jericho and garrisoned
it {ib. iv. 9, t^ 1). Among the remarkable events that
took place at Jericlio according to Christian tradi-
tion was Jesus'
healing the
blind (Matt. xx.
2 9; Mark x .
46, Luke xviii.
35).

Jericho, on ac-
count of the fer-
tility of its soil,
continued to
prosper till
about 230, when
it was destroyed
in the war be-
tween Alexan-
der Severus and
Ardashir, sur-
name d " A r -
taxerxes," the
founder of the
Sassanid dy-
nasty (Solin,
"Collectanea,"
inTh. Reinach's
"TextesRelatifs
au Judaisme,"
p. 339). It is
most probable that Jericho was destroyed by the
Romans themselves in order to chastise the Jews for
their Persian leanings. Many historians, including
Graetz, ascribe the second destruction of Jericho to
Artaxerxes III., Ochus; but Solin's text shows the
improbability of this interpretation. It is to this
destruction that Jerome (" Onomasticon ") refers in
his statement that after Jericho was destroyed by
the Romans it was rebuilt a third time. Muuk
("Palestine," p. 41b) maintains that Jericho had
been destroyed by Vespasian, and was rebuilt by
Hadrian. It was entirely burned during the Cru-
sades. Near the site of ancient Jericho there is now
a small village called "Al-Rihah," inhabited by forty
or fifty Mohammedan families (Munk, ib.).

It may be of interest to note that, according to
Eusebius ("Hist. Eccl." vi. 16), in the last years of
Caracalla's reign (217) there were found at Jericho
manuscripts, both Hebrew and Greek, of the Old

Site of Aiicieat Jericho.

Dr. W. Popper.)

Jericho
Jeroboam

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

112

Testament, and Origen is said to have used these
for his Hexapla.

During Mohammedan occupation Jericho was
the center of an extensive sugar-cane industry
("Kitab al-Masalik," pp. 57, 78, Leyden, 1889;
Al-Ya'kubi, "Kitab al-Buldan," p. 113, ib. 1861).
Jericho or Al-Rihah was destroyed for tlie last time
in 1840 by Ibrahim Pasha in a punitive expedition
against the Bedouins.

Bibliooraphy: Bliss, in Hastings, IHct. Bible; Guerin, Sa-
marie, Paris, 1874 ; Robinsou, Researches, ii. 273 et seg.; Tli.
Reinach, in the Kohut Memorial Volume, pp. 457 et seq.;
Schiirer, Oesch. 3d ed., i. 224 et passim, iii. 6; Conder, Tent
Work in Palestine, il. 1-34, London, 1879.
E. G. H. M. SeL.

In Rabbinical Literature : Jericho is greatly

praised by the Talmudists for its fertility and the
abundance of its palm-trees; it is alluded to in the
Bible as the "city of palm-trees" (see Biblical
Data, above). The Targum of Jonathan without
hesitation renders the " 'Ir lia-Temarim " of Judges
(i. 16, iii. 13) as well as the "Tainar" of Ezekiel
(xlvii. 19) by "Jericho." It was also rich in balsam
{Ber. 43a; comp. Strabo, xvi. 2), and its plain was
covered with wheat (Mek., Beshallah, 'Amalek, 1
[ed. Weiss, p. 64a]). When the Israelites divided the
land of Canaan among themselves they left a fertile
area of the plain of Jericho, 500 ells square, to the
tribe on whose territory the Temple was to be built,
giving it in temporary charge to Jonadab b. Rechab
(Sifre, Num. 81 [ed. Friedmann, p. 21b]). In Jericho
fruit ripened earlier than in any other place, while
at Beth-el it ripened later (Gen. R. xcix. 3).

Owing to its geographical position, Jericho was
considered the key to Palestine ; therefore the Israel-
ites said, " If we take Jericho we shall possess the
whole of Palestine" (Midr., Tan., Beha'aloteka, ed.
Vienna, p. 206b). Jericho was conquered by Joshua
on Saturday (Yer. Shab. i. 3), its wall being swal-
lowed up by the earth ; and it is counted among the
places where miracles were performed and where a
benediction must be recited (Ber. 54a, b). When
Joshua pronounced the curse against whomever
should rebuild it, he meant both the rebuilder of
Jericho and the builder of an)'^ other city under the
same name (Sanh. 113a). The King of Babylon had
a viceroy in Jericho who sent dates to his master,
receiving in return articles manufactured in Baby-
lonia; hence the Babylonian garment stolen by
Achan (see Josh. vii. 21; Gen. R. Ixxxv. 15; Yalk.,
Josh. 18).

In the time of the Taunaites Jericho had a large
priestly population (Ta'an. 27a). An indication of
the size of its population is the fact that for each
of the twenty-four groups ("ma'amadot ") of men
furnished by Jerusalem for the service in the Temple,
Jericho furnished another group, but half as numer-
ous. It could have supplied as many men as Jeru-
salem, which, however, was given the preeminence
(Yer. Taan. iv. 2; Pes. iv. 1). The bellicose priests
<"ba'ale zero'ot") so often spoken of in the Talmud
were at Jericho, where the owners of sycamore-trees
were obliged to consecrate them to the Lord in order
to save them from the rapacity of the priests (Pes.
57a). It is said that the people of Jericho were ac-
customed to do six questionable things; graft palm-
trees during the whole day of the 14th of Nisan ;

read "Shema'" without stopping between "chad"
and "we-ahabta"; reap before the 'Omer; use the
fruit of the consecrated sycamore-trees ; eat on Sab-
bath the fruit which fell from the trees; leave
" pe'ah" of vegetables. The Talmudists blamed them
for doing the latter three things (Pes. 55b, 56a; Yer.
Pes. iv. 9). These six things are somewhat differ-
ently enumerated in Men. 71a. Blichler concluded
that by "the people of Jericho" the priests are
meant. There was a school in Jericho which was
named "Bet Gadya" (Yer. Sotah ix. 13) or "Bet
Guriyya" (Sanh. 11a).

Though ten parasangs distant from Jerusalem the
people of Jericho could hear on Yom Kippur the
Sacred Name pronounced by the high priest in the
Temple of Jerusalem, and the daily closing of the
large gate of the Temple (Yoma 39b; Yer. Suk.v. 3).
It is said (Ab. R. N., Text B, ed. Schechter, 53b) that
in Jericho could be heard the singing of the Levites
and the sound of the horn and trumpet. The fra-
grance of the incense burned at Jerusalem pervaded
Jericho and rendered perfume unnecessary for its
women's toilet (Yoma I.e. ; Yer. Suk. I.e. ; Ab. R.
N. I.e.).

Bibliography: BQcliler, Die Priester und der CuUus, pp. 161
et seq., Vienna, 1895 ; Neubauer, G. T. pp. 161 et seq.
S. S. M. Sel.

JERIDIE-TERJUME : Title of a Jewish peri-
odical, written in Judaeo-Spanish, and printed in
rabbinic characters, which was published at Con-
stantinople in 1876 under the editorship of Nissim
Niego.

G. M. Fr.

JEROBOAM (Dym^) : Name of two kings of
Israel. The meaning generally attached to the name
is " [he] strives with [oppresses] the people," or " the
people strive," the root of the first element being
taken to be 3n = T"l (comp. Judges vi. 32). This
equation, however, between "rub" and "rib" pre-
sents difficulties. Hommel (" Z. D. M. G. " 1895, pp.
525 et seq.) holds "'Am" to be the name of a de-
ity, and gives " 'Am fights [for us]." Kittel ("Die
Bilcher der KOnige," p. 99) suggests the derivation
from "rabab" (= "to be numerous"), and proposes
the rendering " the people, or the sept, is become
numerous." This would necessitate the pointing
" Yerubbe'am."

1. Biblical Data: Son of Nebat; founder of
the kingdom of Israel ; an Ephraimite of Zeredah,
whose mother, Zeruah, is described as a widow.
Jeroboam rebelled against Solomon, whose favor he
had won by his industry during the repairing of the
city wall and the building of the Millo. Though
appointed by his royal protector overseer of "all
the labor of the house of Joseph " (R. V.) he en-
gaged in a conspiracy against him (I Kings xi. 26-
28). In this he was encouraged by the prophet
Ahijah, the Shilonite, who, upon meeting the young
conspirator, rent his new garment into twelve pieces,
bidding Jeroboam take ten of them, thus symbolic-
ally announcing the division of the realm (as a pun-
ishment for Solomon's idolatry) and the appointment
of Jeroboam to rule over the ten northern tribes,
while one tribe (or two '?), retaining Jerusalem, re-
mained faithful to the house of David. Solomon,
suspecting Jeroboam's loyalty, sought to kill him,

113

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jericho
Jeroboam

but the conspirator succeeded in escaping to Egypt,
where, under the protection of Shishak, the Egyp-
tian king, he awaited the death of Solomon (I Kings
xi. 30-40).

When Rehoboam convened Israel at Shechem,
after his father's death, to contirm his own succession
to the throne, Jeroboam, apprised of what had oc-
curred, returned. He seems to have been the spokes-
man for assembled Israel and to have represented
their demands for relief from the " grievous yoke. "
Upon the refusal of Rehoboam to accede to their
demands, and the failure of the attempt to coerce
the complainants into submission, which led to the
stoning of Adoram, the ten north-
Crowned ern tribes asserted their independence
King. by proclaiming Jeroboam their king,
the prophet Shemaiah preventing any
warlike measures on the part of Rehoboam (I Kings
xii. 1-24; II Chron. x., xi. 1-4).

Jeroboam selected Shechem for his capital, and for-
tified it and Penuel. To prevent his people from
turning again to the house of David, he set up two
golden calves, one in Beth-el and the other in Dan,
on the plea that the pilgrimage to Jerusalem was
" too much " for the people and that " these are thy
gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the
land of Egypt. " Jeroboam also built altars on High
Places, and appointed non-Levites to serve them;
he changed the date of the Feast of Sukkot from the
seventh to the eighth month ; on the new date Jero-
boam himself offered incense on the altar (I Kings
xii. 25 ei seq.). This act of his provoked a " man of
God" to journey from Judah to Beth-el to cry out
against the altar and announce that under Josiah its
priests would be slaughtered. As a sign the altar
would be rent. Jeroboam, in anger, stretched forth
his hand, commanding his attendants to seize the
prophet of evil, whereupon the king's hand was
"dried up " and the altar was rent; the king recov-
ered the use of his hand only by humbly imploring
the prophet to restore it (II Kings xiii. 1 ei seq. ; for
the fate of this "man of God " see I Kings xiii. li et
seq.).

Jeroboam, undeterred by this incident, continued

his policy of appointing priests regardless of their

Levitical origin (I Kings xiii. 38). But when his son

Abijah fell sick, Jeroboam sent his wife, in disguise,

with presents to Ahijah the prophet, at Shiloh, to

consult him concerning the cJiild. Though blind,

the prophet recognized her and announced to her

the doom of the dynasty : the sick son of Jeroboam

would be the only one of his house to come to the

grave; all others would meet a violent death (I

Kings xi V. 1-17). The account of this episode names

Tirzah as the royal residence. Jeroboam became

involved in war with Rohoboam's sou Abijah, and

was defeated, nowitlistanding superior

"War with numbers and strategy. Inconsequence

Judah. of this defeat several districts reverted

to the Southern Kingdom. Jeroboam

reigned twenty-two years (1 Kings xiv. 20 ; comp.

II Chron. xiii. 1).

In Rabbinical Literature : Jeroboam be-
came for the rabbinical writers a typical evil-doer.
This appears in the Septuagint (2d recension),
where even his mother is represented as a disreputable
VII.— 8

woman. The name is explained as Dj;3 n2^"lD iltJ'ytJ'
(="one that caused strife among the people," or
■'one that caused strife between the people and their
Heavenly Father " ; Sanh. 108b). The name (Nebat)
of his father is construed as implying some defect
in his progenitor. Jeroboam is excluded from the
world to come ( Yalk., Kings, 196). Although he
reached the throne because he reproved Solomon, he
was nevertheless punished fordoing so publicly {ib.).
In the meeting between Jeroboam and the Shilonite
the Rabbis detect indications of Jeroboam's presump-
tion, his zeal for impious innovations (i6.). His arro-
gance brought about his doom (Sanh. 101b). His
political reasons for introducing idolatry are con-
demned (Sanh. 90). As one that led many into sin, the
sins of many cling to him (Abot v. 18). He is said to
have invented one hundred and three interpreta-
tions of the law in reference to the priests to justify
his course. At first God was pleased with him and
his sacrifice because he was pious, and in order to
prevent his going astray proposed to His council of
angels to remove him from earth, but He was pre-
vailed upon to let him live; and then Jeroboam,
while still a lad, turned to wickedness. God had
offered to raise him into Gan 'Eden ; but when Jero-
boam heard that Jesse's son would enjoy the high
est honors there, he refused. Jeroboam had even
learned the " mysteries of the chariot " (Midr. Teh. ;
see "Sefer Alidrash Abot," Warsaw, 1896).

Critical "View : The account of Jeroboam's

reign as contained in the First Book of Kings reflects
the religious views of later, post-Deuteronomic
times, though it is not altogether true that it is writ-
ten from the Judeau standpoint, as stated by Well-
hausen in Bleek's "Einleitung" (4th ed., p. 243;
Stade, "Gesch." i. 344 et seq.). The stress laid on the
popular election of the king (I Kings xii. 2) and
the evident effort apparent in some portions to re-
gard Jeroboam as an innocent favorite of the people
point to an original Israelitish source which in course
of time had been worked over by Judean writers
(Benzinger, "Die BiVcher der Konige," p. 86). Tlie
Septuagint has a double recension. This circum-
stance indicates that the account of this episode
must have passed through different stages, in which
Jeroboam was first represented as the people's
choice, then as the chief conspirator artfully utili-
zing the just dissatisfaction of the people for his
ends, and finality as the wicked seducer of his fol-
lowers, who, if left to themselves and not kept away
from Jerusalem, would soon have overcome their
feelings of resentment and returned to the house of
David. Even so, their continued defection was not
altogether due to Jeroboam's intrigue: it had been
foreordained by Ynwii as a penahy for Solomon's
idolatry (I Kings xi. 33; comp. 1-8). The prophetic
episodes are seemingly introduced in accordance
with the editor's desire to have prophets appear at
every important crisis (see Benzinger, I.e. Introduc-
tion, iii.).

In the second Septuagint recension (.xii. 24, Swete
= xiii. 15, 16, Lagarde) the Ahijah episode is placed
after Jeroboam's return from Egypt, and the prophet
is identified with Shemaiah (I Kings xii. 22). It is
curious that, though the mantle is rent into twelve
pieces, only eleven are accounted for (I Kings xi.

Jeroboam
Jerome

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

114

29-82). Klostermann suggests (commentary ad loc.)
that originally no numbers were mentioned, and that
" twelve " is an interpolation. The Septuagiut boldly
introduces dvo in verses 32 and 36. After separating
the different strata of the story and allowing for
their respective biases the following results as the
most probable account of Jeroboam's reign.

The antipathy between North and South (Joseph
and Judah) was as old as the house of Israel itself.
Saul and David had with difficulty succeeded in es-
tablishing a closer union under the
Becon- hegemony of the southern tribes ; but
structed. Solomon, by extravagant building, by
History. his luxurious court, and by his intro-
duction and support of foreign cults,
liad awakened again the old spirit of disunion,
never altogether extinct in the north. Jeroboam,
for a time in the service of Solomon, grasped the
opportunity, but, detected in an attempt to build
for himself a fortress (see LXX., 2d recension, I
Kings xi. 28; Wiuckler, "Gesch.") and organize an
army in his native district, was compelled to tlee to
Egypt. (The story of his having married Shishak's
sister-in-law Ano [LXX., 2d recension] is unhistor-
ical, a double of the preceding episode in Hadad's
career. ) There he succeeded in winning for his plans
the favor of the Egyptian king, with whose con-
sent (see LXX., 2d recension) he returned after the
death of Solomon. At home, undoubtedly, a pro-
phetic party countenanced his movement, and his
return crystallized the sentiments of all malcontents.
He was acknowledged king by the northern tribes,
and his southern rival would not even renew the at-
tempt, which cost his general his life during the
gathering at Shechcm, to retake the rebellious cities
by force of arms.

The sanctuaries at Beth-el and Dan, where the
golden calves were enshrined, were old and recog-
nized places of worship and pilgrimage (see High
Places). The king, by making them royal sanctu-
aries, gave these old places new significance. The
censure passed on Jeroboam for his appointment
of non-Levitical priests is post-Deuteronomic. The
postponement of the Feast of Sukkot to the eiglith
month is also charged against him as a sin by later
writers. Probably in the north, where the harvest
ends later, this annual pilgrimage (not the Sukkot
of P or D) took place in the later month. The pro-
plietic party, finding Jeroboam not so pliant a tool
as expected, were organizing against him and look-
ing again to the south. This is the basis of the epi-
sode at the altar at Beth-el, if the whole is not to be
looked upon as altogether a later embellishment
drawn from a collection of prophetical experiences,
like those of Elijah and Elisha (Budde, in "Zcit-
schrift flir die Alttestameutliche Wissenschaft,"
1892, pp. ^1 etseq.).

From I Kings \iv. 2^^et seq. the inference has been
drawn that it was Shishak who kept the Southern
Kingdom from resorting to arms. But the inscrip-
tion of Shishak, on tlie southern wall of the great
temple at Karnak, enumerates as conquered more
than sixty cities that belonged to Israel. The most
plausible explanation of this is that Shishak en
couraged Jeroboam to secede from Judali, at first
keeping the latter in check in order after the divi-

sion the more easily to carry out his intention to re-
establish Egyptian suzerainty over Palestine and
Syria. Judah, under Abijah, entering into an alli-
ance with King Tabrimmon of Damascus (I Kings
XV. 19), succeeded in getting the better of Israel.
This is the historical basis of the fiction in II Chron.
xiii. 19. Thus, in the closing years of his reign,
Jeroboam began to lose ground, and his failure pre-
pared the way for his successor's assassination and
the extermination of his dynastj'. The chronology
of this reign is not beyond all doubt ; Ebers gives
949 as the year of Shishak's expedition; Maspero,
925 ; modern scholars give, variously, 933-912, 937-
915, 937-916.

2. (Jeroboam II.) — Biblical Data: Son of
Joash ; fourth king of the dynasty founded by
Jehu. He ascended the throne in the fifteenth year
of Amaziah, King of Judah, and reigned forty-one
years (II Kings xiv. 23). His religious policy fol-
lowed that of Jeroboam I. ; that is, under him Yiiwii
was worshiped at Dan and Beth-el and at other old
Israelitish shrines (see Hioir Places), but through
actual images, such as the golden calf (II Kings,
xiv. 24). But in his foreign policy he was ex-
tremely successful, restoring the old frontiers of
Israel " from the entering of Hamath unto the sea of
the plain" {ih.). In fact, Jonah, the son of Amittai
the prophet, had designated him as the "helper"
("moshia'") for Israel; his reign arresting for the
time being the impending doom of the kingdom. He
is remembered as having waged war and won back
for Israel Damascus and Hamath (II Kings xiv.
26-28). In II Chron. v. (vi.) 17 he is credited with
having classified by genealogies the inhabitants of
the recovered (trans jordanic) territory.

Critical View : Contrary to the usual method

of the Books of Kings, in which prophetic expe-
riences and predictions are elaborately introduced,
the words of Jonah ben Amittai are not given. The
reference to his acclairiiing the powerful monarch
lias the appearance of a timid excuse to account for
the palpable exception presented to the Deutero-
nomic construction of history by the successes of
this emulator of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, and
the note (II Kings xiv. 28) shows that sufficient
material was accessible to give a much fuller history
of his reign. The chronological data require emend-
ing. The synchronism in II Kings xiv. 23 agrees
with verse 17 preceding, but does not harmonize
with XV. 1 following. Again, the length ^f the
reign (41 years) can not be reconciled with xv. 8.
In XV. 1 "twenty-seventh year" must be changed
to "fifteenth," wliile the "forty-one" in xiv. 23
should perhaps be "fifty-one." The dating for-
merly accepted (825-772 B.C.) is now generally a])an-
doned ; about 785(3)-745(o) is more probable. The
boundaries mentioned correspond with the ideal
limits given in Amos vi. 14 — Hamath on tlie Orontes
and the Arabah, the southern continuation of the
Jordan plain (the Ghor) from Jericho and the Dead
Sea to the Bed Sea. The expression in xiv. 28 is
almost imintcUigible, tiiough in meaning it is prol)-
ably identical with xiv. 25: "to Judah " is ceriainjy
a textual error, ])crhaps due to a false resolution
of an abbreviation of tlie following "for Israel."

A man of great energy, this monarch turned to

115

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeroboam
Jerome

good profit the developments of liis times. Damas-
cus liad, since the very tirst days of tiie independent
Nortiiern Kingdom, been u thorn in
His tlie tlesh of tlie Israeiitish kings. At-

Character. tacked by Assur-dan III., King of
Assyria (773), Damascus liad been
sensibly weakened. But Assyria itself was on the
decline. This enabled Jeroboam to carry out his
own ])lans and extend the boundaries of his kingdom
in accoi-dauce witli claims never totally relinquished.
According to Schrader ("K. A. T." 2d ed.. pp. 212
et seq.), Jeroboam II. had to pay tribute to Assyria
for its acquiescence in his military expeditions
and conquests, among which, according to Gratz
("Gesch."), were the cities Lodebar and Karnaim,
alluded to in Amos vi. 13.

That certain of the prophets saw in these suc-
cesses signs of Messianic import is plain from the
mention, however grudging, of Jonah's oracle by
I he compilers of the Books of Kings. Amos and
Hosea reveal the disappointment at the miscarriage
(if these extravagant expectations. The triumphs
of the king had engendered a haughty spirit of
boastful overconlidence at home (Amosvi. 13). Op-
pression and exploitation of the poor by the miglity,
luxury in palaces of unheard-of splendor, and a
craving for amusement were some of the internal
fruits of these external triumphs. The Yhwh serv-
ices at Dan and Beth-el, at Gilgal and Beer-sheba,
were of a nature to arouse the indignation of these
prophets, and the foreign cults (Amos v.), both
numerous and degrading, contributed still further
to the corruption of the vainglorious people. What
these conditions were bound to lead to, Amos and
Hosea had no doubt. Assyria, now weak, would
soon recover its prestige, and then would come the
day of reckoning. But it is for this arousing of the
jirophetic spiiit that the reign of Jeroboam II. is an
important period in the evolution of Judaism. The
old Israeiitish religion of Yhwh was more and moj-e
ethicized, and the connection between it and the old
"high places" was loosened. See Amos; Hosea.

E. G. H.

JEROHAM BEN MESHULLAM : French
Tahnudist; tlourished in the tirst half of the four-
teenth century. According to Gross, he lived in Lan-
guedoc, but on the banishment of the Jews from that
province (1300) he settled at Toledo, where he devo-
ted himself to the study of the Talmud under the di-
I'cction of Asher ben Jehiel and Abraham b. Ishmael.
Jeroham was the author of two casuistical works:
"Sefer]\Iesharim,"on the civil laws (Constantinople,
1516), and "Toledot Adam we-Hawwah " {ib.).
The latter work is divided into two parts, the first
l)eing entitled "Adam"; the second, "Hawwah."
The first part considers tlie laws and regulations that
come into force before marriage, such as 1 hose regard-
ing circumcision, instruction, prayer. Sabbath ordi-
nances, etc. ; the second part deals witli the laws
and observances that become obligatory at and after
marriage, such as those connected with betrothal,
marriage, etc.

BiBMOGRAPHY : Abmliam Zarutn, Yuha^n. p. 224. ed. Fili-
powski ; Geifrer's ./(((?. Zcit. iii. 284'; Sleinsi'liin-idcr, Cat.
Jiinll. col. i;i84: Kcnan-Neubauer, Lcs Evrimiinx Juifs
Fraiiraix, pp. 221 it .very.; Gross, Gallin Judaica, p. 490.
o. I. Bii.

JEROME (EUSEBIUS HIERONYMUS SO-

PHRONIUS): Chuieh lallier; next to Origen,
who wrote in Greek, the most learned student of the
Bible among the Latin ecclesiastical writeis, and,
previous to modern times, the only Christian scholar
able to study the Hebrew Bible in the original. The
dates of his birth and death are not definitely known;
but he is generall}' assumed to have lived from 337
to 420. Born in Stridon, Dalmatia, he went as a
youth to Rome, where he attended a school of
gramnmr and rhetoric. He then traveled in (iaul
and Italy, and in 373 went to Antioch, where he be-
came the pupil of Apollinaris of Laodicea, the rep-
resentative of the exegetical school of Antioch ; sub-
sequently, however, Jerome did not accept the
purely historical exegesis of this school, but adopted
more nearly the typic-allegoric method of Origen.
From Antioch he went to Chalcis in the Syrian
desert, where he led the strictly ascetic life of a her-
mit, in atonement for the sins of his youth. Here
to facilitate his intercounse with the people, he was
obliged to learn Syriac ; and this language doubtless
aided him later in his Hebrew studies ("Epistolae,"
xvii. 2; yet comp. I'/j. Ixxviii. and conuu. on Jer. ii.
18). Here also lie began with great labor to study
Hebrew, with the aid of a baptized Jew (ib. cxxv.
12), and it may be he of whom he says (ib. xviii.
10) that he was regarded by Jewish scholars as
a Chaldean and as a master of the interpretation
of Scripture (ib. cxxv. 12). On a second visit to
Antioch Jerome was ordained a priest. He then
went to Constantinople, and thence to Rome, where
he undertook literary work for Pope Damasus, be-
ginning at the same time his own Biblical works (c.
388). He finally settled at Bethlehem in Palestine
(c. 385), founding a monastery there which he di-
rected down to his death. This outline of Jerome's
life indicates that he was a master of Latin and
Greek learning, and b}^ studying furthermore Syriac
and Hebrew united in his person the culture of the
East and of the West.

It was in Bethlehem that he devoted himself most
seriously to Hebrew studies. Here he had as teach-
ers several Jews, one of whom taught
His him reading ("Hebranis autem qui nos

Teachers, in veteris instrumenti Icctione erudi-
vit"; comm. on Isa. xxii. 17); the pe-
culiar pronunciation of Hebrew often found in Je-
rome's works was probably therefore derived from
this Jew. Jerome was not satisfied to study with
any one Jew, but applied to several, choosing al-
ways the most leai'iied (preface to Hosea : " dicerem-
que . . . quid ab Hebra^orum magistris vix uno
et altero acceperim " ; "Epistola?," Ixxiii. 9 [i. 443]:
"hiEc ab eruditissimis gentis illius didicimus").
With similar words Jerome is always attempting to
inspire confidence in his exegesis; but they must not
be taken too literally, as he was wont to boast of his
scholarship. However, he was doubtless in a po-
sition to obtain the opinions of .several Jews; for he
often refers to "quidam Ilebrit'oruni." He even
traveled in the province of Palestine w ith his Jewish
friends, in order to become better acquainted with
the scenes of Biblical history (preface to " Parali-
pomena," i.); one of them was his guide (preface to
Nahuml

Jerome

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

116

Of only three of his teachers is anything dctiuik'
known. One, whom he calls "Lyddaeus," seems to
have taught him only translation and exegesis, while
the traditions (" midrash ") were derived from an-
other Jew. Lyddaeus spoke Greek, with which Je-
rome was conversant (comm. on Ezek. ix. 3 ; on Dan.
vi. 4). Lyddaeus, in interpreting Ecclesiastes, once
referred to a midrash which appeared to Jerome ab-
surd (comm. on Eccl. iii. 1); Jerome thought him
fluent, but not always sound ; this teacher was there-
fore a haggadist. He was occasionally unwilling to
explain the text (ib. v. 1). Jerome was frequently
not satisfied with his teacher's exegesis, and dis-
puted with him; and he often says that he merely
read the Scriptures with him (comm. on Eccl. iv. 14,
V. 3; "Onomastica Sacra," 90, 12).

Another teacher is called "Baranina," i.e., "Bar
Hanina," of Tiberias. He acquainted Jerome with
a mass of Hebrew traditions, some of which referred
especially to his native place, Tiberias. He came at
night only, and sometimes, being afraid to come
himself, he sent a certain Nicodemus ("Epistolae,"
Ixxxiv. 3 [i. 520] ).

A third teacher, who may be called "Chaldseus,"
taught Jerome Aramaic, which was necessary for
the Old Testament passages and the books of the
Apocrypha written in that language. This teacher
of Aramaic was very prominent among the Jews,
and Jerome, who had great difficulty in learning
Aramaic, was very well satisfied with his instruction
(prefaces to Tobit and Daniel). Jerome continued
to study with Jews during the forty j^ears that he
lived in Palestine (comm. on Nahum ii. 1 ; " a qui-
bus [Judaeis] non modico tempore eruditus"). His
enemies frequently took him to task for his inter-
course with the Jews; but he answered: "How can
loyalty to the Church be impaired merely because
the reader is informed of the different ways in which
a verse is interpreted by the Jews? " (" Contra Rufi-
num,"ii. 476). This sentence characterizes the Jew-
ish exegesis of that time. Jerome's real intention in
studying the Hebrew text is shown in the following
sentence: "Why should I not be permitted, . . .
for the purpose of confuting the Jews, to use those
copies of the Bible which they themselves admit to
be genuine? Then when the Christians dispute with
them, they shall have no excuse " (ib. book iii. ; ed.
Vallarsi, ii. 554).

Jerome's knowledge of Hebrew is considerable
only when compared with that of the other Church
Fathers and of the general Christian
His public of his time. His knowledge

Knowledge was really very defective. Although
of Hebrew, he pretends to have complete command
of Hebrew and proudly calls himself
a "trilinguis" (being conversant with Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew), he did not, in spite of all his hard
work, attain to the proficiency of his simple JewLsh
teachers. But he did not commit those errors into
which the Christians generally fell; as he himself
says : " The Jews boast of their knowledge of the Law
when they remember the several names which we
generally pronounce in a corrupt way because thcj^
are barbaric and we do not know their etymology.
And if wc happen to make a mistake in the accent
[the pronunciation of the word as affected by the

vowels] and in tlie length of the syllables, lengthen-
ing short ones and shortening long ones, they laugh
at our ignorance, especially as shown in aspiration
and in some letters pronounced with a rasping of the
throat " (comm. on Titus iii. 9). Jerome not only
acquired the peculiar hissing pronunciation of the
Jews, but he also — so he declares — corrupted his pro-
nunciation of Latin thereby, and ruined his fine Latin
style by Hebraisms (preface to book iii., comm.
on Galatians; "Epistolae," xxix. 7; ed. Vallarsi, i.
143). This statement of Jerome's is not to be taken
very seriously, however. In his voluminous works
Jerome transcribed in Latin letters a mass of Hebrew
words, giving thereby moi'e or less exact information
on the pronunciation of Hebrew then current. But,
although he studied with the Jews, his pronuncia-
tion of Hebrew can not therefore be unhesitatingly
regarded as that of the Jews, because he was led by
the course of his studies, by habit, and by ecclesi-
astical authority to follow the Septuagint in regard
to proper names, and this version had long before
this become Christian.

Jerome shared the belief of the Hebrews and of
most of the Church Fathers that Hebrew was the
parent of all the other languages (" Opera, " vi. 730b).
He sometimes distinguishes Hebrew from Aramaic
(preface to Tobit), but sometimes appears to call
both Syriac. In reference to Isa. xix. 18 (comm.
adloc. ; comp." Epistolae," cviii.) he speaks also of
the " Canaanitish " language, as being closely related
to Hebrew and still spoken in five cities of Egypt,
meaning thereby either Aramaic or Syriac. In ex-
plaining "yemim" (Gen. xxxvi. 24), he correctly
states in regard to the Punic language that it was
related to Hebrew (" Quaestiones Hebraicae in Gene-
sin "). His knowledge of Hebrew appears most
clearly in his two important works, that on the
Hebrew proper names and that on the situation of
the places mentioned in the Bible; in his extensive
commentaries on most of the books of the Old Testa-
ment; and especially in his chief work, the new
Latin translation of the Bible from the Hebrew
original (see Vulgate). Through these works he
not only became an authority on the Bible during
his lifetime, but he remained a leading teacher of
Christianity in the following ages, because down to
very recent times no one could go direct to the origi-
nal text as he had done.

Jerome's importance was recognized by the Jew-
ish authors of the Middle Ages, and he is frequently
cited by David Kimhi ; also by Abu al-Walid (" Se-
fer ha-Shorashim," s.v. ppj and DH), Abraham ibn
Ezra (on Gen. xxxvii. 35), Samuel b. Mei'r (ouEx. xx.
13), Nahmanides (on Gen. xli. 45), Joseph Albo (iii.
25), and the polemic Isaac Troki (in " Hizzuk Emu-
nah"). Jerome is also important because he could
consult works which have since disappeared, as, for
example, Origen's "Hexapla" (he says that he had
seen a copy of the Hebrew Ben Sira, but he seems
not to have used it); he had Aramaic copies of
the Apocryphal books Judith and Tobit; and the
so-called Hebrew Gospel, which was written in He-
brew script in the Aramaic language, he translated
into Greek and Latin ("Contra Pelagianos," iii. 2;
■' De Viris Illustribus," ph. ii. ; comm. on Matt,
xii. 13).

117

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerome

Jerome's exegesis is Jewisli in sjiirit, reflecting tlie
metliods of the Palestinian haggadists. He expressly

states, in certain cases, that lie adopts
Exegesis, tlie Jewish opinion, especially when he

controverts Christian opponents and
errors (comm. on Joel iv. 11: "nobis axitem He-
bnporum opinioneni sequenlibus "); he reproduces
the Jewish exegesis both in letter (comm. on Amos
V. 18-19) and in substance {-afjaippaaTiKuc; comm. on
Dan. ix. 24). Hence he presents Jewish exegesis
from the purely Jewish point of view. Even the
language of the Haggadah appears in his commenta-
ries, e.g., where the explanation is given in the form
of question and answer (comm. on Dan. ii. 12: "qu;e-
runt Hebr.'ei ") ; or wiien he says, in explaining, " This
it is that is said " (" Hoc est quod dicitur " ; comp.
"IDXJE^ Nin ilT) ; or when several opinions are cited
on the same subject ("alii Judaeorum "); or when a
disputation is added thereto (" Epistola xix. ad Hedi-
biam," i. 55). He even uses technical phrases, such
as "The wise men teach" ("Epistolse," cxxi.) or
" One may read " (comm. on Nahum iii. 8). This kind
of haggadic exegesis, wiiichis merely intended to in-
troduce a homiletic remark, leads Jerome to accuse
the Jews unjustly of being arbitrary in their interpre-
tation of the Bible text. But he did not believe that
the Jews corrupted the text, as Christians frequently
accused them of doing. While at Rome he obtained
from a Jew a synagogue-roll ("Epistolse," xxxvi. 1)
because he considered the Hebrew text as the only
correct one, as the " Hebraica Veritas, " which from
this time on lie regarded as authoritative in all exe-
getical disputes. Jerome hereby laid down the law
for Bible exegesis. Of course he recognized also
some of the faults of Jewish exegesis, as, for exam-
ple, the forced combination of unconnected verses
(comm. on Isa. xliv. 15: "stulta contentione ") ;
lie sometimes regards his teacher's interpretation
to be arbitrary, and opposes to it his own {ib.
xlix. 1). Contrary to the haggadic interpretation of
the Jews, he correctly notices a difl:erence between
"Hananeel" (Jer. xxxi. 38; see comm. ad loc.) and
"Hanameel" {ib. xxxii. 7). Jerome rarely employs
simple historical exegesis, but, like all his contem-
poraries, w^anders in the mazes of symbolic, alle-
goric, and even mj'stic exegesis. In his commentary
on Joel i. 4 he adopts the Jewish interpretation, ac-
cording to which the four kinds of locusts mean the
four empires; Zech. iv. 2, in which the lamp means

the Law, its flame the Messiah, and its

TTse of seven branches the seven gifts of the

Notaril^on. Holy Spirit, he interprets entirely

mystically. In his commentary on
Eccl. i. 9 he even teaches the preexistence of all
beings, including man. He frequently uses the No-
TARiKON, e.g., in reference to Zerubbabel (comm. on
ilag. i. 1) or to Abishag ("Epistoke." Hi. [i. 210]).

Jerome's exegesis came in some respects like a
revelation to the Christian world, and cleared up
difficulties in reading the Bible; e.g., his explana-
tion of the Hebrew alphabet ("Epistola xxx. ad
Paulam," i. 144) or that of the ten names of God
("Epistola XXV. ad Marcellam," i. 128). It must
always be remembered that in many portions of his
allegorical exegesis Jerome is entirely in agreement
with Hellenistic methods; for instance, in the ex-

jilanation of the four colors in tiie sanctuary of the
desert ("Epistola Ixiv. ad Fabiolam," i. 364; comp.
Philo, "De Monarchia," § 2; Josephus, "B. J." v.
4, 5^ 4; uhm, "Ant." iii. 7, ^ 7). Jerome's commen-
taries are of small value for Old Testament criti-
cism, on accountof the inclination to allegorize which
leads him to a free treatment of the text, as well as
on account of his polemics against Judaism (comp.
Jew\ Encyc. iv. 81, s.v. Church Fathkus).

Jerome's works are especially imjiortant for Ju-
daism because of the numerous Jewish traditions
found in them, particularly in his
Traditions, work "Quicstiones Hebraica^ in Gene-
sin." .Jerome designates by the gen-
eral name " tradition " all supplementary and edify-
ing stories found in the ]\Iidrasli and relating to the
personages and events of the Bible; these stories
may fitly be designated as historic haggadah. Here
also Jerome affirms that he faithfully reproduces
what the Jews have told him (comm. on Amos iv.
16 : " hoc Hebrtei autumant et sicut nobis ab ipsis tra-
ditum est, nostris fidellter exposuimus"). He des-
ignates tlie Jewish legend of Lsaiah's martyrdom as
an authentic tradition (comm. on Lsa. Ivii. 1 : " apud
eos certissima traditio "), while he doubts the story
of Jeremiah's crucifixion because there is no refer-
ence to it in Scripture (comm. on Jer. xi. 18). Je-
rome often remarks that a certain story is not found
in Scripture, but only in tradition (comm. on Isa.
xxii. 15), and that these traditions originated with
the "magistri," i.e., the Pabbis (comm. on Ezek.
xlv. 10) ; that these " fables " are incorporated into
the' text on the strength of one word (comm. on
Dan. vi. 4) ; and that many authors are cited to con-
firm this tradition. All these remarks exactly char-
acterize the nature of the Haggadah. Jerome appar-
ently likes these traditions, though they sometimes
displease him, and then he contemptuously desig-
nates them as " fabulsE " or " Jewish fables, " " ridicu-
lous fables" (comm. on Ezek. xxv. 8), "ridiculous
things " (on Eccl. iii. 1), or " cunning'inventions " (on
Zech. v. 7). Jerome's opinion of these traditions is
immaterial at the present time. The important point
is that he quotes them; for thereby the well-known
traditions of the Midrash are obtained in I^atin form,
and in this form they are sometimes more concise
and comprehensible — in any case they are more in-
teresting. Moreover, many traditions that appear
from the sources in wiiich they are found to be of a
late date are thus proved to be of earlier origin.
Jerome also recounts traditions that are no longer
found in canonical Jewish sources, as well as some
that have been preserved in the Jewish and Christian
Apocrypha. It is, furthermore, interesting to note
that Jerome had read some of these traditions;
hence they had been committed to writing in his
time.

Although other Church Fathers quote Jewish tra-
ditions none equal Jerome in the number and faith
fulness of their quotations. This Midrash treasure
has unfortunately not yet been fully examined ; schol-
ars have only recently begun to investigate this field.
Nor have Jerome's works been properly studied as
yet in reference to the valuable material they con-
tain on the political status of the Jews of Pales-
tine, their social life, their organization, their relig-

Jersey City
Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

118

ious views, their Messianic hopes, and their relations
to Christians.

Jerome was no friend to the Jews, although he
owed them much ; he often rebukes them for their
errors; reproaches them for being stiff-necked and
inimical to the Christians; controverts their views in
the strongest terms; curses and reviles them; takes
pleasure in their misfortune; and even uses against
them both the books that he has cunningly obtained
from them and tlie knowledge he has derived there-
from. Thus Jews and Christians agree that he is
eminent only for his scholarship, and not for his char-
acter. See Church Fathers.

BiBLiOGRAPHT: O. Zockler. Hieroiiymtts, Sein Lehen und
Sein Wirhen, Gotha, 1865; A.Thierry, St. Jerhme, Paris,
1867, 1875; Griitzmacher, Hierovymus, part i., Leipsic, 1901;
Nowack, Die Bedeutuny des Hienmymus filr die A. T.
Textkritik, 1875, pp. 6-10; S. Krauss, in Magyar Zsido
Szemle, 1890, vii.. passim ; i<iem, in J. Q. R. vi. 225-261; M.
Rabmer, Die Hehrdischen Traditionen in den Wcrkcn des
Hieronymus, i., Breslau, 1861 ; ii., Berlin, 1898 ; idem, in Ben
Chananja, vii.; idem, in Moiiatsschrift, 1865, 1866, 1867,
1868; idem, in Gi-Utz Juhelschrift ; Siegfried, Die Aus-
sprache des Hehrdischen bei Hiernnymu^, in Stade's Zeit-
sclu'ift, iv. 34-83; Spanier, Eregetische Beitrdfiezu Hierony-
mus, Bern, 1897; W. Bacher. Eine Angebliche LUcke im
Helirdischen Wissen des Hieronynms, in Stade's Zeit-
schHft, xxii. 114-116.
T. S. Kr.

JERSEY CITY. See New Jersey.

JEBUBBAAL : A name given to Gideon by his
father, Joash (Judges vi. 32), because the men of the
city of Ophrah demanded that he turn over to them
Gideon, who had destroyed the altar of Baal. When
Joash named him "Jerubbaal," he said, "Let Baal
contend against him, because he hath broken down
his altar. " The name means " Baal strives, " or " con-
tends." It is used three times in subsequent pas-
sages {ib. vii. 1 ; viii. 29, 35) when referring directly
to Gideon, and in two of these passages "who is
Gideon " is added to the new name. In Judges ix.,
however, it occurs often. In II Sam. xi. 21 it is re-
placed by "Jerubbesheth" ("Beshet-Ba'al"). See
Gideon.

e. g. h. I. M. P.

JERUSALEM— Ancient : Capital at first of all
Israel, later of the kingdom of Judah ; chief city of
Palestine; situated in 31° 46' 45" N. lat. and 35° 13'
25" E. long., upon the southern spur of a plateau
the eastern side of which slopes from 2,460 ft. above
sea-level north of the Temple area to 2,130 ft. at the
southeastern extremity. The western hill is about
2,500 ft. high and slopes southeast from the Judean
plateau. Jerusalem is surrounded upon all sides by
valleys, of which those on the north are less pro-
nounced than those on the other three sides. The
principal two valleys start northwest of the present
city. The first runs eastward with a slight south-
erly bend (the present Wadi al- Joz), then, deflecting
directly south (formerly known as "Kidron Val-
ley," the modern Wadi Sitti Maryam), divides the
Mount of Olives from the city. The second runs
directly south on the western side of the city, turns
eastward at its southeastern extremity, then runs
directly east, and joins the first'vallcy near Bir Ay-
yub (".Job's Well"). It was called in olden times
the " Valley of Hinnom," and is the modern Wadi al-
liababi, which is not to be identified with the first-
mentioned valley, as Sir Charles Warren (in his "Re-
covery of Jerusalem," p. 290, and in Hastings,

119

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jersey City
Jerusalem

"Diet. Bible," s.v.) has done. Easy access to Jeru-
salem could be bad only on the north and northwest.
In olden times there were other valleys which di-
vided up this complex ; but these are now filled in
by the accumulated rubbish of centuries. A third
valley, commencing in the northwest where is now
the Damascus Gate, ran south-sovitheasterly down
to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part
into two hills (the lower and the upper cities of
Josephus). This is probably the later Tyropoeon
(" Cheese-makers' ") Valley, though it should be men-
tioned that W. R. Smith, Sayce, Birch, and Schwartz
identify the Tyropoeon with the Valley of Hinnom
(Cheyne and Black, "Encyc. Bibl." ii. 2423; Has-
tings, "Diet. Bible," ii. 387). A fourth valley led
from the western hill (near the present Jaffa Gate)
over to the Temple area: it is represented in modern
Jerusalem by David street. A fifth cut the eastern
hill into a northern and a southern part. Later
Jerusalem was thus built upon four spurs (see
frontispiece map of physical features of Jerusalem).

that given to it by Abraham (Gen. R. Ivi. 10; Midr.
Teh. to Ps. l.x.wi. 3). A more plausible derivation
makes it the equivalent of "Uru-shalim" (= "City of
[the god] Shalim " ; comp. the As.syrian god Shalman
or Shulman, the Phenician p^^ [Greek la?Mfiav],
and the Egyptian Sharamana [Zimmern, in " K. A.
T."3ded., pp. 224. 475; Praetorius, in "Z. I). M. G."
Ivii. p. 782), " Uri " having become " Yeru " by met-
athesis (see Haupt in "Isaiah," in "S. B. O. T."
Eng. transL.p. 100). In the Greek period the name
was Hellenized into 'lepoadXvua (Sibyllines, x. 103,
New Testament, Josephus, Philo, and the classical
writers). Following the New Testament, the Vul-
gate has both " Hierusalem " and " Ilierosolyma " (or
"lerusalem," "lerosolyma"). Philo uses the name
'lEpd-oliq (cd. Mangey, ii. 524). Under Hadrian (135)
the city was renamed " -^lia Capitolina, " from which
Ptolemy took his Kaivtroliaq. The Arabs at times
preserved the ancient forms "Urishalam," "Urishal-
1am," "Uraslam" (Yakut, I. c. i. 402), or "Iliya"
{lb. 423), or more commonly "Bait al-Makdis" or

Sketch Showing Topographical Features of Jercsalkm.

(After Fulton, "The Beautiful Land.")

The name " Jerusalem " is written in the Old Testa-
ment and upon most of the old Hebrew coins defect-
ively D75J'1"1\ though punctuated " Yerushalayim "
as a"kere perpetuum " (with the exception of five
places where the " yod " is added ; Frensdorff , " Mas-
sora Magna," p. 293). The Aramaic form, " Yerush-
lem" (Ezraiv. 8, 20, 24, 51), theSyriac "Urishlem,"
the Septuagint transcription 'Ie/JOT;cra/\77/i, the Assyrian

"Urusalim" (El-Amarna tablets) and
The Name. "Ursalimu "(Sennacherib), point to an

original pronunciation " Yerushalem " ;
the ending " -ayim " either being due to a diphthong-
ization or representing a dual formation (KOnig,
"Lehrgebaude,"ii. pt. 1, p. 437). A shortened form is
perhaps to be found in "Shalem" (Gen. xiv. 18; Ps.
Ixxvi. 3; comp. Josephus, "Ant." i. 10, § 2), known
also to the Arabs (" Shallara," in Yakut, " Geograph-
ischesWOrterb." iii. 315). Several etymologies for
the word ha ve been su ggested •,e.g.,'ch^ K'l"!' = " pos-
session of peace " or " of Salem " ; D^tJ* "n\ " founda-
tion of peace " or " of Shalem [God of peace] " ; ac-
cording to the Midrash it is made up of "Shalem,"
the name given to the city by Shem, and " Yir'eh,"

"al-Mukaddas" {ib. iv. 590); in modern parlance,
"Al-Kuds al-Sharif " or simply " Al-Kuds" = "the
Sanctuary."

The earliest historical notices respecting Jerusa-
lem come from the El-Amarna tablets. Before the
fifteenth century b.c. Babylonian influences must
have been present. There was a city
In the called "Bit-Ninib" (Temple of the
El-Amarna God Ninib) in the "district of Jerusa-

Tablets. lem " (Letter 180, 25). In the fifteenth
century Amenophis III. had extended
Egyptian rule so as to include Syria, Mesopotamia,
Babylonia, and Assyria. This empire, however, be-
came disrupted through its own weight. The indi-
vidual districts in Palestine and Syria had been first
under native princes ("amelu ") with an Egyptian
resident ("rabiz"), and then under a "hazzanu,"
who was in reality a viceroy of the Pharaoh. Jeru-
salem was the chief seat of one of the districts, in
consequence of which it may at one time have
changed its name ("the king has placed his name
upon Jerusalem," Letter 180. 60). The four El-
Amarna letters from Jerusalem were written by its

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

120

hazzanu, one Abdi Heba. Tlie whole district was
sorely pressed by the Habiri. The chief conspira-
tors against him were Milki-il, his father-in-law
Tagi, Shuardatu, the Banu Lapaya, the Banu
Arzawa, and Adaya, a military chief; they pre-
vented him from personally reporting to his sover-
eign, upon whom he impressed tlie fact that if reen-

One of the El-Amarna Tablets Meutioniug Abdi Heba of
Jerusalem.

(From Bal], " Light from the East.")

forcements were not sent, the whole "land of the
King " would be lost. He protested his loyalty, and
mentioned the presents he had sent to the king by the
latter's officer Shuta. How long the conspiracy had
lasted is not known. Before that, an Egyptian spe-
cial officer (rabiz) had been sent to Jerusalem.

The Kash (?) had also entered Abdi Heba's domin-
ions ; and one city had gone over to the Kilti. From
another of the El-Amarna letters (182, 5) it appears
that Jerusalem itself was in the hands of rebels, and
that Egyptian troops which had been sent under
Haya had been detained in Gaza. It was evidently
a period of general anarchy, due to the break-up of
the Egyptian power.

In Hebrew annals Jerusalem is first mentioned in
connection with Melchizedek, King of Salem (Gen.
xiv. 18), then with the incursions of the Israelites
after the taking of Ai. It was one of the five cities
of the Amorites, who seem to have succeeded to the

Egyptian power in southern Palestine.

Resists the Each of these cities had its prince

Israelites, ("melek"), that of Jerusalem being

Adoni-zedek, who took the lead against
the city of Gibeon (Josh. x. 1 et seq.). All the
princes were taken, slain, and hanged at Makkedah
(see, also, the list, ib. xii. 10). The relation of the
inhabitants of Jerusalem to the Jebusites can not
now be determined. They may themselves have
been Jebusites; at least, the latter were not com-

pletely driven out at the time {ib. xv. 63). In fact,
Jerusalem is expressly called a "foreign city," not
belonging to the Israelites (Judges xix. 12); and the
Jebusites are said to have lived there for very many
years together with the Benjamites {ib. i. 21 ; ac-
cording to Josh. XV. 63, "with the children of
Judah "), in whose territory the city lay. At one
time the city seems to have been called "Jebus"
(Josh. XV. 8, xviii. 28; Judges xix. 10). It was at
Jerusalem that Adoni-bezek died (Judges i. 7).
Finally the Judahites took the place, burned it, and
killed its inhabitants. It must have been soon re-
built; for in the early history of David (I Sam. xvii.
54) it is again called by its old name, "Jerusalem."
Perhaps only the " lower city " had been taken
(Josephus, "Ant." v. 2, § 2) — just as in Maccabean
times the Acra or citadel was held for twenty-six
years by the Syrian garrison — which would explain
the apparent contradiction between verses 8 and 21
of Judges i. (Moore, "Judges," p. 21). The name
" Zion " seems already to have been attached to a por-
tion of the city; at least the "Mezudat Ziyyon " is
mentioned (II Sam. v. 7; I Chron. xi. 5). But the
place was renamed by David " 'Ir Dawid " (= " City
of David "), in the same manner as Assyrian rulers
were wont to give their names to captured cities.
Though dignified by the name " 'Ir," the town need
not necessarily have been large. In addition to the
fortress, it must have contained some place of wor-
ship, besides houses for the people and the soldiers.
What the "Zinnor " (II Sam. v. 8) was is not known.
The word is usually rendered " watercourse "
{LXX. napa^i^iC {1); Aquila, Kpovvicfioq =r "stream";
Symmachus, eTvaTi^i^ = " battlement, " " parapet " ;
according to later Hebrew usage, "canal," "aque-
duct ").

The exact situation of these early settlements has
always been a matter of dispute. The author of
I Mace. iv. 37 says expressly that the Temple was
built upon Mt. Zion ; and the presence of St. Mar3''s
Well and the Siloam Pool seems to show that the
natural position of the ancient fortress was upon the
edge of the southeastern hill, where, as the excava-
tions of Guthe and Bliss have shown, the level of
the ground was much higher than at present. It is
true that later tradition, both Jewish and Christian,
agrees in placing Zion upon the southwestern hill ;
but even the latest attempts of Karl
Situation Riickert (" Die Lage des Berges Siou, "
of Zion. Freiburg, 1898), Georg Gatt ("Sion in
Jerusalem," Brfxen, 1900, and "Zur
Topographic Jerusalems," in "Z. D. P. V." xxv.
178), and C. Mommert ("Topographic des Alten
Jerusalems," Leipsic, 1902) have not been successful
in harmonizing this theory with the Biblical data.
The theory is based chiefly upon (1) the direction of
the old north wall, ending at the Haram, as described
by Josephus ("B. J." v. 4, § 2), and south of which
Zion must ( ?) have stood, and (2) the place of David's
burial, which, according to tradition, is usually
placed on the southwestern hill (see "Z. D. P. V."
xxiv. 180-185).

There were only two natural water sources near
Jerusalem, En rogel and Gihon, respectively east
and southeast of the city. The first (II Sam. xvii.
17; I Kings i. 9) has generally been identified with

121

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

St. Mary's, or the Virgin's, Spring, largely because
the fliglit of steps running from the spring to Sil-
wan is to-day called "Zahwayleh," i.e., "Zoheletli"
(I Kings ^.c). But the distance is too great; and
the application of the term to these particular steps
is not certain. En-rogel, according to tradition
("Ant." vii. 14, § 4), was in the king's garden; and
Mitchell's identitication of it -with the Bir Ayyub is
worthy of acceptance ("Jour. Bib. Lit." xxii. 108).
The well Gihon (I Kings i. 33, 35, 38; II Chron.
xxxii. 30, xxxiii. 14) is the so-called "Virgin's
Spring." In addition, there were several pools: the
"old pool " (Isa. xxii. 11), now called the Patriarch's
Pool, northwest of the city; the "lower pool" (Isa.
xxii. 9), now known as the Birkat al-Hamra;and
the "upper pool" {ib. vii. 3, xxxvi. 2; II Kings
xviii. 17), probably the Mamilla Pool, west of the
Jaffa Gate, which fed the "old pool." In regard to
the "Serpents' Pool," see below.

The city at this epoch may liave extended to the
southwestern hill ; but it is not clear what enlarge-
ments were due to David. In II Sam. v. 9 it is said
that he built "round about from Millo and inward."
The Millo, however, was built by Solomon (I Kings
ix. 15, 24) ; and the reference at the time of David
may be to the place where in later times the Millo
was. Whether the latter was part of the wall or a
citadel (LXX. v aupa) is not known. It was, how-
ever, part of the defense of the city.

City of and is mentioned in connection Avith

David. the walls {ib.). It was strengthened

by Hezekiah upon the approach of

Sennacherib (II Chron. xxxii. 5); and may have

been an artilicial terrace (comp. the Assyrian

"Mulu"and"Tamlu").

A palace of stone and of cedar-wood from Lebanon
was built for David by Tyrian workmen (II Sam.
V. 11, vii. 2). It must have stood somewhere be-
tween the Temple and the Siloam Pool, from the lat-
ter of which steps led up to the city of David (Neh.
iii. 15). Some sort of tabernacle must also have been
erected for him (^nx. II Sam. vi. 17; r\V^'\'^, ib.vn. 2);
for he brought the Ark from the house of Abinadab
in Gibeah, first to the house of Obed-edom, and then
to the city of David {ib. vi. 8, 11). It was here that
he deposited the gold and the silver that he had
taken from the Aramean princes and from the Moab-
ites and Ammonites, whom he had subdued {ib.
viii. 11 et seq.). The plague that appeared in the
land toward the end of David's reign does not seem
to have touched Jerusalem. It was supposed to
have been stayed mysteriously at a threshing-floor
on Mt. Moriah, north of the city of David, belong-
ing to one Araunah or Aranyah, which place was
then bought by David, who erected an altar there
(II Sam. xxiv. 14 et seq. ; I Chron. xxi. 15 -et «*eq.).
David was buried " in the city of David " (I Kings
ii. 10). The site of the tomb is unknown; but it was
situated probably in the rocks of the southeastern
hill ("Z. D. P. V."iii. 210, v. 330). It is mentioned
in Neh. iii. 16 as being near to the steps (see
above) ; and it was known in New Testament times
(Acts ii. 29).

Under Solomon the city took on a much grander
aspect. There is now definite reference to a wall
surrounding it (I Kings iii. 9, ix. 15), a part of which

seems to have been the Millo mentioned above.
This wall must have enclosed some portion left open
by David {ib. xi. 27). Solomon erected
Improve- a palace made up of various build-
ments by ings {ib. iii. 1), which took thirteen
Solomon, years to build {ib. vii. 1). The Temple
was commenced in the month Ziv {ib.
vi. 1 ; .see Temple); it occupied seven 3X'ars in con-
struction, and was finished in the montli Bui {ib. vi.
38). With the help of a Tyrian, the two pillars
Jachin and Boaz were fashioned out of bronze {ib.
vii. 13 et seq., ix. 11). The Temple was made up
of a forecourt, the Holy Place (40 X 20 X 30 ells),
the Holy of Holies (a cube of 20 ells), and various
smaller buildings adjoining. To this Temple the
Ark was removed from the city of David on the
Feast of Tabernacles {ib. viii. 1). With the assist-
ance of Hiram of Tyre (I Kings v. 15 etseq.), Solo-
mon built a palace for Pharaoh's daughter {ib. vii.
8), and the "house of the forest of Lebanon " ("bet
ya'ar ha-Lebauon," ib. vii. 2), Avhich measured 100
X 50 X 30 cubits, and the top part of which was used
as an armory {ib. x. 16). All these buildings, con-
structed of stone and wood, seem to have stood in
a sort of court ("hazer"), around which was a wall
of three courses of stone (ib. vii. 12). Smaller courts
surrounded the individual buildings. Solomon is
said to have embellished Jerusalem with silver and
costly wood {ib. x. 27). In later years he built, also,
a " bamah " to Chemosh and to Molech " in the mount
that is before Jerusalem" {ib. xi. 7, R. V.).

The extent of the city at this time might be gaged
by tracing the probable line of the wall, if that line
were at all certain. Some scholars believe that Sol-
omon enclosed the western hill ; the wall would then
be the first of the three, Avhich had sixty crenela-
tions, mentioned by Josephus ("B. J." v. 4, § 2). It
would accordingly have commenced at what was
later the tower Hippicus, near the present Jaffa
Gate; running eastward to the Xystus, it would
then have encircled the greater part of the Temple
mount ; bending south and southwest, it would have
skirted Ophel, though not including the Siloam
Pool (Josephus says " above the fountains ") ; and,
enclosing the present Jewish and Protestant ceme-
teries, it would then have turned north again, meet-
ing the other end at the Jaffa Gate. Upon this sup-
position, the remains found in the excavations of
Maudslay in 1865, successfully followed by Bliss in
1896-97, are parts of this wall. Where the towers
Hananeel and Ha-Meah or Meah stood can not be
ascertained. They are mentioned in Jer. xxxi. 38;
Zech. xiv. 10; Neh. iii. 1, xii. 39. The former
seems to have marked the northeast corner of the
city ; the latter, to have been on a wall leading west-
ward from this corner.

After the partition of the kingdom Jerusalem suf-
fered many vicissitudes. It was taken by Shishak
of Egypt at the time of Rehoboam of
As Capital Judah (I Kings xiv. 25-26) ; and Je-
of Judah. hoash of Israel destroyed 400 cubits of
the wall from the Ephraim Gate to the
corner gate (II Kings xiv. 13). It seems probable
that the wall was repaired under Uzziah ; at least,
according to II Chron. xxvi. 9, he built towers over
three of the gates. The Ophel wall was further re-

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

122

paired or enlarged by Jotham {ib. xxvii. 3); and a
gate, called in Jer. xxxvi. 10 the "new gate," was
built in the north wall of the Temple court (II
Kings XV. 35). The coming of Sennacherib (701)
caused the rebuilding of some portion of the wall
which in the course of time had become ruined ; but
Sennacherib withdrew and Jerusalem was spared a
siege (see Nagel, " Der Zug des Sanherib Gegen Jeru-
salem," Leipsic, 1902; and Jensen in "Theol. Lit.
Zeitung," 1904, 4, col. 103). Ilezekiah is mentioned
as having done this repairing. He also rebuilt the
Millo, and especially erected "another wall out-
side" (Isa. xxxii. 10; II Chron. xxxii. 5). This is
probably Josephus' second wall, which " took its
beginning from that gate which they called Gen-
neth, which belonged to the first wall: it only en-
compassed the northern quarter of the city and
reached as far as the tower Antonia," the northwest
corner of the Temple mount ("B. 3." I.e.). This
indicates the growth of the city to the north ; the
additional part being called " Mishneh " (" second
city"; II Kings xxii. 14; Zeph. i. 10). Whether
the Maktesh (Zeph. 1. 11), in which the Phenician
traders lived, was a part of the city can not be
ascertained (Neh. xiii. 16; Zech. xiv. 21).

To Hezekiah was due also the regulation of the
water-supply in Jerusalem, so that the city might
be prepared for a siege. The only natural spring of
real value is Gihon on the southeastern side in the
Kidron Valley (now called "Virgin's Spring" or
" Spring of the Steps "), which from early times
seems to have been used to provide the city with
water. Undoubted traces have been found of an
early conduit, partly open and partly underground,
which conducted the water from the spring around
the hill into the city of David (perhaps the earlier
" Shiloah " of Isa. viii. 6 ; see Schick in " Palestine
Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement " [hereafter
cited as "P. E. F. S."], 1886, p. 197). In 1867 a rock
tunnel was discovered by Warren that brought
the water westward into a basin cut in the rocks; to
this access was had by a shaft from above (per-
haps the "king's pool," Neh. ii. 14), from the top
of which a series of corridors led to an exit
on the Hill of Ophel. Hezekiah cut off the flow
of water to the north and had a conduit exca-
vated through the rock, thus leading the water
within the city limits to the Siloam Pool (II Chron.
xxxii. 30; II Kings xx. 20). This Siloam conduit,
which was discovered in 1880, is 1,757
"Water- feet in length. At about 19 feet from
Supply, the Siloam end was found the famous
inscription detailing the manner in
which the undertaking had been carried out (see
Siloam Inscription). The usefulness of this work
may be gaged by the fact that it is specially men-
tioned to Hezekiah's honor by Ben Sira (Ecclus.
[Sirach] xlviii. 17). It seems probable also that this
king built a special fortification around Siloam
("wall of the pool of Siloah,"Neh. iii. 15; "between
the two walls," Isa. xxxii. 11 ; Jer. Hi. 7). The graves
of the common people (Jer. xxvi. 23, xxxi. 40) were
probably in the Kidron Valley. The wall built
by Manasseh (II Chron. xxxiii. 14) encompassed
Ophel; starting west of Gihon, it must have been
an additional protection for the southeastern for-

tifications. Its position can not be accurately de-
termined.

In the reign of Jehoiakim, Nebuchadnezzar of
Babylon made his first invasion into Palestine.
There is no trace of a siege of Jerusalem at this
time; but some of the Temple vessels were carried
off {ib. xxxvi. 7). In 597 B.C., however, an encir-
cling wall was built by the invaders, and the city
invested. At the time of Jehoiachin (Jer. Iii. 6)
famine raged in the city. The rebellion of Zedekiah
caused a second invasion in 587; and after a siege of
a year and a half Jerusalem was taken on the nintJi
day of the fourth month (Ab), 586. The beauty
and the strength of the city were destroyed. Nebu-
chadnezzar's general, Nebuzar-adan, burned the
Temple, carrying away all the brass and the ves-
sels; he burned also the king's palace and the
larger houses of the city. The walls were razed,
and a large number of the inhabitants (10,000, ac-
cording to II Kings xxiv. 14) were deported and
settled in various parts of Babylon;
Taken by anumberprobably at Nippur, to judge
Nebuchad- from the names found by Hilprecht in

nezzar. the business documents of that city
("P. E. F. S." 1898, pp. 54, 137; Bat-
ten, "Ezra and Nehemiah," p. 57, in "S. B. O.
T."). Even before this the city must have been
depleted through the flight of many to Egypt
(Jer. xlii. et seq.). The seat of government was re-
moved to Mizpah (II Kings xxv. 23; Jer. xli. 1
et seq.).

There are no materials for a history of Jerusalem
during the period of the captivity, or even during
the centuries following the return. The view ad-
vanced by Kosters and supported especially by
Wildeboer and Cheyne will be criticized elsewhere
(see Zerubbabel); but there seems to be no really
valid ground for doubting the tradition reported by
the chronicler in Ezra iii. of a first return under
Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel in 539, during the reign
of Cyrus; though Kosters may be right in pointing
out that the Judahites who had been left in the city
must have continued the worship of Yhwh in some
manner or other. In the seventh month of that year
there was a great gathering in Jerusalem, and the
altar of burnt offering was again set up — presuma-
bly upon the place it had formerly occupied. The
reconstruction of the Temple was begun in the sec-
ond month of the second year (537; Ezra iii. Set seq.).
Though this was attended with great ceremony (ib.
verses 10-11), it is entirely ignored by the accounts
in Ezra v. 2; Hag. i. 14, ii. 15; and Zech. viii. 8,
which place the commencement of the building sev-
enteen j'ears later, in 520, during the reign of Darius
Hystaspcs, under the same Zerubbabel and the high
priest Jeshua. But as nothing is said

Rebuilt in Ezra iii. of the amount of building
537-516 done, it may be surmised that it did
B.C. not extend beyond the mere founda-

tions, the work being interrupted by
the evil devices of the Samaritans (ib. iv.), who made
complaint to the suzerain in Babylon. Even the
erection of the building of the year 520 was not un-
interrupted, Tatnai, governor of Coele-Syria and
Phenicia, making a second reference of the matter
to Babylon necessary (Ezra vi.). It was at length

123

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

finished iu 516 {ib. verse 15). For the Temple build-
ing itself see Temple.

It is possible that the Birah or fortress was built
at this time, though it is tirst mentioued in Neh. ii.
8. It was twice rebuilt in later times: once (" Ant."
XV. 11, § 4, " Baris ") by thelTasmoneau kings, and a
second time by Herod, who renamed it "Tower of
Antonia." It was a strong, square building in the
northwestern corner of the Temple mount, of some
extent, as it had several gates. It was here that the
high priests' vestments were kept {ib. xviii. 4, § 3),
if the tower "built" by the high priest Hyrcanus is
to be identified with Antonia, as is done by Josephus.

The population of the city was further augmented
by the expedition under Ezra in the year 458, which
comprised 1,496 men, besides women and children.
It was through Ezra and Nehemiah that the new
community was organized. It is difficult to esti-
mate accurately
the relation of
these two to each
other; but the
material build-
ing up of the
city seems to
have been due
to the latter.
Whatever theo-
ries may exist
regarding the
composition of
the Book of Ne-
hemiah, the data
there given are
old and trust-
worthy. Nehe-
miah's night
journey around
the walls (Neh.
ii. 13 et seg.), the
account of the
building opera-
tions (ib. iii.),
and the route of
the processions
(ib. xii.), would give definite information as regards
the extent of the city if the identification of the
gates were in every case certain. A thorough ex-
position of the archeological data to be gotten from
Nehemiah's accounts will be found in Ryssel's com-
mentary (" Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch").
The most recent study of the subject has been com-
menced by H. Vincent in "Revue
The Night Biblique," 1904, pp. 56 et seq. In his

Ride of night ride Nehemiah starts from the
Nehemiah. Valley Gate : goes in the direction of
the well 'En-Tannin, then to the
Dung Gate, the Fountain Gate, and the Pool of the
King; passes through the valley ; and returns to the
Valley Gate. The location of these various places
depends upon the position assigned to the Valley
Gate. The word "Gai" undoubtedly stands for
" Gai ben Hinnom " ; and this must be identical with
the Wadi al-Rababi on the south and its continua-
tion northward on the west. Bliss has uncovered a
line of wall starting southwest of the old Pool of

Southern Wall of Jerusalem at Various Times

(After Bliss.)

Siioam and running in a northwestern direction, as
well as remains of a gate 600 feet from what was
the southwestern corner of the ancient city. This
was probably the Valley Gate, althougii many iden-
tify the latter with the present Jaffa Gate, on the
western side of the city. From the Valley Gate
Nehemiah, taking the direction of the Serpents'
Pool (" 'En-Tannin " ; sometimes identified with the
pool of that name mentioned by Josephus ["B. J."
V. 3, § 2]; by Caspari and Schick ["Z. D. P. V."
xiv. 42], witli the aqueduct which led the water
from the Pools of Solomon; by Stade and Mitchell,
however, with Eu-rogel ["Jour. Bib. Lit." 1903, p.
114]), proceeded to the Dung Gate, 1,000 cubits
from his starting-point, and possibly the Harsith
Gate of Jer. xix. 2, which in turn may be identified
with a second gate, discovered by Bliss, 1,900 feet
east of the first. He then went east, crossed the Ty-

ropceon below
the present Bir-
kat al-Hamra,
and came to the
Fountain Gate
near the Siioam
Pool (here called
the " pool of the
king"), perhaps
the " gate be-
tween two
walls " through
which King Zed-
ekiah fled (II
Kings XXV. 4;
Jer. xxxix. 4, Iii.
4), traces of
which have also
been found by
Bliss. Nehe-
miah was then
in the Kidron
Valley, and, be-
ing unable to
proceed farther
along the walls,
he returned to
the city through the Valley Gate. It seems there-
fore that he examined only the southern and the
southwestern walls of the city.

The walls and gates as rebuilt under Nehemiah's
directions are succinctly noticed in Neh. iii. ; and their
order is partially assured by the reverse enumera-
tion, ib. xii. 38 et seq. The Sheep Gate is naturally to
be sought for north of the Temple area. It is identi-
fied by some with the " gate of Benjamin " (Jer.
xxxvii. 13, xxxviii. 7). The Fish Gate was so
named after Tj^rians who brought fish to Jerusalem
(Neh. xiii. 16), and was situated on the northwestern
side near the present Damascus Gate (II Chron.
xxxiii. 14; Zeph. i. 10). The latter, which was
strengthened by Manasseh, is sometimes called the
"middle gate" (Jer. xxxix. 3). The
The Gates. " old gate " or " gate of the old pool "
— referring perhaps to the Patriarch's
Pool northwest of the city — is called also "Sha'ar
ha-Rishon" (Zech. xiv. 10) and "Sha'ar ha-Pinnah"
(II Kings xiv. 13; Jer. xxxi. 38; "ha-Poneh," II

OTerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

124

Chron. xxv. 23; "ha-Pinnim," Zech. xiv. 10). The
Ephraim Gate led to the chief road to the north,
where the throne of the Persian governor was
placed ; which throne can not have been in another
place, Mizpah, the residence of the governor, as
Kyle and Mitchell suggest. Where the " broad wall"
was can not now be determined. In connection
with it, reference is made to the "tower of the fur-
naces" (Neh. iii. 11), mentioned before the Valley
Gate, and which was probably somewhere along the
Tyroposon Valley. Schick, however (" Z. D. P. V."
xiv. 51), places it near the Tower of David; Stade,
about the middle of the western wall ; and Mitchell
{ib. p. 138), at the southwestern corner of the ancient
city, where the remains of a tower whose base was
hewn out of the native rock have been found ("P.
E. F. S." 1875, p. 83). Then came the Dung Gate
and the Fountain Gate mentioned above, a wall or
a dam enclosing the Siloam Spring {i.e., the "lower
pool," Birkat al-Hamra), in the neighborhood of
which were the king's gardens (II Kings xxv. 4),
the king's wine-presses (Zech. xiv. 10), and the steps
leading down from the city of David on the eastern
side of the hill ("Z. D. P. V." xi. 12), an artificial pool
(Neh. iii. 16), and the "house of the warriors," either
a tower or a species of barracks. The line of wall
then turned ("angle," ib. verse 19) apparently to the
northeast. Here two corners were found by Guthe
("Z. D. P. V." V. 298), between which turning and
Ophel were the houses of the high priest and the
dwelling-places of the Nethinim (Neh. iii. 21-23).
Then came the upper royal palace, a projecting
tower the ruins of which have been found, tlie
"court of the guard" {ib. 25, 26), and the Water
Gate {ib. iii. 26, xii. 37), near which there must have
been an open space {ib. viii. 1, 3, 16); it was prob-
ably so called because a road led from it to the
Virgin's Spring. The Horse Gate {ib. iii. 28) was
probablj' toward the southeastern corner of the
Temple. In former times it was directly connected
with the palace (II Kings xi. 16; II Chron. xxiii.
15 ; comp. Jer. xxxi. 40). The other gates of the
Temple wall on the east were the "gate of Benja-
min " (Jer. XX. 2 ; R. V. " upper gate of Benjamin " ;
Zech. xiv. 10); the "gate of the Guard," generally
located at the northeastern corner of the Temple
area, though Schick and Mitchell are inclined to place
it south of the Temple; and the "gate Miphkad "
(Neh. iii. 31). The Sheep Gate on the north ended
the work.

In addition to the walls, Nehemiah did much for
the rebuilding of the city itself. A house for the
high priest is mentioned (Neh. iii. 20), as are also
dwellings for the other priests near the Horse Gate
{ib. iii. 28) ; while, as stated above, the Nethinim
had residences on Ophel, west of the Water Gate
{ib. iii. 26), where there was also an outlying tower.
The king's palace seems still to have been standing,
or to have been rebuilt {ib. iii. 25), and was also
flanked by a tower. It has been computed that the
whole city thus included within the walls (Temple
mount, the old city, and its southern additions) oc-
cupied about 200 acres, and covered both the eastern
and the western hills. It is said to have been " large
and great " {ib. vii. 4) ; but there were few houses
built for the common people.

No events during the Persian period are recorded
with any certainty. Josephus has a story that one
Bagoses (Bagoas), " the general of Artaxerxes' army, "
used a quarrel between the high priest John and his
brother Jesus (in which the latter was slain) as a

pretext to enter the Temple with his

Seized Persian soldiers and to "punish the

by the Jews for seven years" ("Ant." xi. 7,

Persians. § 1; Eusebius, ed. Schoene, ii. 112).

This Bagoas is supposed to be the
general of the same name under Artaxerxes Oclius
(357-338), who with Memnon put down an Egyp-
tian revolt. The identification is quite uncertain,
in spite of the authority of Noldeke (" Aufsatze," p.
78), Wellhausen ("I. J. G." p. 146), and Cheyne
("Introduction to Isaiah," p. 360). Winckler places
the occurrence under Cambyses (Schrader, "K. A.
T."3ded., pp. 120, 291).

Whether Alexander the Great was really in Jeru-
salem after the siege of Gaza in 332 is a matter of
dispute, though it is hardly to be supposed that he
was in Palestine without visiting the capital. The
Talmud (Yoma 69a, etc.) has a reminiscence of such
a visit, which may be true despite the legendary
character of the details in Josephus (Gratz, "Gesch."
ii. , 2d. ed. , p. 221). The latter says (" Ant. " xi. 8, §§ 4
et seq.) that Alexander exempted its inhabitants from
the payment of tribute in the seventh year (see Jew.
Encyc. i. 341, s.v. Alexander the Great). But
the city naturally suffered during the wars between
the Ptolemies and the Seleucids which followed the
disruption of Alexander's Asiatic empire. Ptolemy
Soter seized Jerusalem (in 320 or 305) on a Sabbath-
day, as Josephus says ("Ant." xii. 1, § 1) on the au-
thority of Agatharchides of Cnidus, and the priests
probably paid tribute to him. In 203 the city was
taken by Antiochus; but it was retaken in 199 by
the Egyptian general Scopas. The Jews inclined to
the Seleucids. According to Josephus ("Ant." xiii.
3, § 3), they even assisted Antiochus when in 198 he
seized the (Egyptian?) garrison which was in the
citadel of Jerusalem, and admitted him and his sol-
diers into the city. The Syrian king showed his
gratitude by assisting in the rebuilding of various
places which had fallen into decay, by repopulating
the city, by supplying material for the sacrifices,

and by removing part of the heavy
Under the taxes. It seems probable that Simon,
Seleucids. the high priest, using the permission

to offer sacrifices, had the Temple re-
paired, a cistern dug, the wall for the Temple
("hekal melek ") built, and the city fortified; for
all of which he is praised by Ben Sira (Ecclus.
[Sirach] 1. 1-4).

If the letter of Ari&teas dates from about 200 B.C.,
as Schiirer and Abrahams hold, it gives a fair de-
scription of the appearance of the city and especially
of the Temple at that time. The city comprised 40

stadia, and the wall had towers. The

Described narrator expresses his especial aston-

by Aristeas ishment at the many canals that carried

and off the blood and the water from the

Hecataeus. Temple, and at the magnificence of

the service. A similar description of
Jerusalem at this time occurs in the fragments
ascribed to Hecataeus of Abdera (cited by Jose-

125

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

pbus, "Contra Ap." i. 23), wiio speaks of the city as
being 50 stadia in extent, with 120,000 iuliabitants;
of the wall surrounding the Temple area (150 miles
in length, 44 miles wide); and of the altars and
priests in the Temple (Heinach, "Textes," ]). 232).
The " flagrant mistakes " whicli the letter of Aristeas
is supposed to contain (Kautzsch, " Apokryphen,"
ii. 12, note b) are not apparent. Tliis view rests upon
his description (§§ 100-104) of the Acra or citadel,
whicli was the chief defense of the Temple area.
That such an Acra existed is evidenced, in spite of
Wendland, Willrich, and Wellhausen, by the pres-
ence of the Sj'rian garrison left there by the Egyp-
tian general Scopas (II Mace. iv. 27; "Ant." xii. 3,
§ 1), which garrison was driven out by Simon Mac-
cabeus (I Mace. xiii. 49). Where the Acra stood is
doubtful, as the word is applied by Josephus in a
general sense to various citadels. Under the Has-
moneans this defense was finally razed, the hill on
which it stood being leveled, in order that the Tem-
ple might rise high above all other buildings, and to
prevent the occupation of the citadel by an enemy
("Ant." xiii. 6, § 7). The northwestern part of the
Temple mount can not be meant, as the rock upon
which the Antonia was built still exists. In addi-
tion, I Maccabees speaks repeatedly of the Greeks
fortifying themselves in the "city of David" (i. 33,
ii. 31, vii. 32, xiv. 36), which overlooked the Temple
("Ant." xii. 9, §3; 10, %5).

The spread of Hellenism was in many w^ays fatal
to the Jews of Jerusalem. It introduced factions
into the life of the people ; and the contests between
the brothers Jason and Menelaus for the high-
priestly office occasioned the presence of Antiochus
Epiphanes (170 B.C.), who plundered the Temple of
its treasures and killed a large number of the inhab-
itants (I Mace. i. 20; II Mace. v. 12; "Ant." xii. 5,
§ 3; "B. J." i. 1, § 1). Two years later his general
and farmer of the taxes, Apollonius, attacked Jeru-
salem with a large army; took the city, also kill-
ing a large number ; set fire to many of its build-
ings, razed some of its walls, and carried away
many captives. The altar of the Temple was dese-
crated; and the Temple itself was given over to
heathen worsliip. Apollonius built a strong wall
around the Acra, which he evidently enlarged (I
Mace. i. 29; II Mace. v. 24), and in which he en-
trenched the Syrian garrison. Jerusalem must, how-
ever, have commenced to take on the appearance of
a Hellenic city. There was a gymnasium built on
the hill west of the Temple (I Mace. i. 14; "Ant."
xii. 5, § 1); probably the Xystus (Colonnade), which
was joined to the Temple plateau by a bridge.

In 165 Judas Maccabeus was at length successful
in driving the Syrians out of the Temple and out
of the greater part of the city, in honor of which
the Feast of Hanukkah was instituted. The Tem-
ple mount was fortified with high walls and strong
towers (I Mace. iv. 60, vi. 7). The
Recaptured citadel, however, was not freed until
by Judas the time of Simon (142). In 163 Jeru-
Maccabeus. salem was once more besieged, by
Antiochus V"., Eupator. Failing to
take it, he feigned a peace ; and, entering the city,
be caused the wall around the Temple area to be
xazed (I Mace. vi. 60 et seq. ; "Ant." xii. 9, g§ 5-7).

It was rebuilt by the Maccabean Jonathan with rect-
angular stones, and he also repaired the walls of
the city (I Mace. x. 10, 11). In 143 he raised the
wall still higher, rebuilding a portion called " Caphe-
natha," which led down to the Kidron Valley, and
which had fallen into decay {ib. xii. 36, 37). Fi-
nally, he built a wall to separate effectually the
Acra from the rest of the city (ib.). This work was
completed by his successor, Simon (ib. xiii. 10), who
as related above expelled the Syrian garrison and
leveled the hill of the Acra. Tlie author of I Macca-
bees, however, knows nothing of this leveling ; in
xiv. 37 he speaks of Simon's fortifying the citadel,
and in xv. 28 he mentions it as still existing. Well-
hausen ("I. J. G." p. 227) supposes that the work
was done at the time of John Hyrcanus. No cer-
tainty can be reached on this subject; but that the
leveling occurred is proved by the various ground-
levels as they exist to-day (Schurer, " Gesch." i. 195,
note 14).' Under Hyrcanus the city was once again
besieged, by Antiochus VII., Sidetes (134 B.C.).
Towers were raised by him opposite the northern
wall; and great suffering ensued. On this occasion
Hyrcanus opened the sepulcher of David and took
out 3,000 talents ("Ant." vii. 15, § 3; "B. J." i. 2,
§ 5). A truce was made and, while the Syrian gar-
rison was not admitted, some part of the fortifica-
tions around the city was leveled ("Ant." xiii. 8, §^
2-4); it seems, however, to have been soon rebuilt
(I Mace. xvi. 23).

The Roman power was hovering not far from
Judea. It was soon to fasten its claws upon Jeru-
salem, in consequence of the fratricidal war be-
tween Aristobulus II. and Hj'rcanus II. Aristobu-
lus had fortified himself on the Temple mount,
where he was besieged by Hyrcanus, aided by the
Idumean Aretas. Pompey was appealed to by
both combatants ; and, not wishing to decide in favor
of either, he moved against the city (66 B.C.). The
war party had entrenched itself behind the walls in
the northern part of the Temple area, and day after
day Pompey raised a bank on which the Roman
battering-rams were placed. These finally broke

down one of the towers and made

Captured breaches in the wall (Tacitus, "Hist."

by V. 9; Dio Cassius, xxxvii. 16). Jose-

Pompey . phus (" Ant. " xiv. 4, § 4 ; " B. J. " i. 7,

§ 12) says that 12,000 Jews perished,
and that many houses were fired by the Jews them-
selves. Though the Temple was not touched, the
bridge crossing the Tyropceon to the Xystus was
destroyed; this, however, was rebuilt later ("B. J.'"
ii. 16, 1 4). Jerusalem thus became (in the autumn of
63) the capital of one of the five provinces into
which Palestine was divided ("Ant." xiv. 5, §4;
" B. J. " i. 8, § 5) ; but this arrangement was not of
long duration. The Syrian proconsul M. Lucinius
Crassus despoiled the Temple, taking 2,000 talents
of money and all the golden objects he could find
("Ant." xiv. 7, § 1; "B. J." i. 8, § 8). Permission
to rebuild the walls was given by Julius Cssar
("Ant." xiv. 10, § 5). More blood was shed in the
conflicts between Antigonus. Phasael. and Herod,
the sons of the Idumean Antipater; and in the year
40 the Parthians, under Pacorus and Barzapharnes,
occupied Jerusalem and plundered it and the sur-

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

126

rounding country ("Ant." xiv. 13, §9). The city
itself was beleaguered by Herod (87 b.c.) and the
Roman general Sosius, the attack coming again
from the north. After forty days the first wall was
taken ; after fifteen more, the second ; finally, the
Temple and the upper city were captured and a ter-
rible slaughter ensued (" Ant. " xiv. 16, § 3 ; " B. J. " 1.
18, § 2).

With the accession of Herod the city entered on a
period of outward brilliancy. He was the great
building king, and is renowned especially for the
palace that he erected and for the Temple that he
restored. The palace was built (24 B.C.) upon the
extreme western part near the present Jaffa Gate,
where to-day are the barracks and the
Buildings Armenian Garden. It was walled in
of Herod, to the height of 30 cubits; it had tow-
ers, many porticos in which were pil-
lars, and large chambers; and outside were groves
of trees, a deep canal, cisterns, and brazen statues,
all of which excite the admiration of Joseplius.
Herod's restoration of the Temple, begun in 20 b.c.
(finished in 62-64 c.E.), was carried out with great
magnificence. He built also a theater, and in the
plain ("P. E. F. S." 1887, p. 161) an amphitheater
covered with "inscriptions of the great actions of
CfBsar " ("Ant." XV. 8, § 1 ; a hippodrome, according
to "B. J." ii. 3, § 1), as well as a town hall, near the
present mahkamah ; and in the northeast he erected
a monument to himself ("B. J." v. 12, § 2), which
can not be exactly located. He enlarged the Baris
commanding the Temple on the north, and renamed
it"Antonia." It was connected ■with the Temple
by a flight of stairs (Acts xxi. 35). He does not
seem to have added to the walls, but to have
strengthened and beautified them to the north of his
palace by four towers called respectively " Psephi-
nus " (an octagon 70 cubits high), " Hippicus " (a
square of 25 cubits), " Mariamne " (a square of 40
cubits), and " Phasael " (a square of 30 cubits). In
these towers were reservoirs and living-rooms; and
they had battlements and turrets ("B. J." v. 4, § 3).
Of the other features of the city at this time may be
mentioned the Ko^vfift^6[)a 'Afivydalov (" B. J." v. 11,
§ 4), which, if it represents the Hebrew "Bere-
kat ha-Migdalim," must have been in the neighbor-
hood of the four towers. Where the " Lishkat ha-
Gazit." in which the Sanhedrin sat, w^as .situated is
not clear. According to the Mishuah, it was in the
inner court of the Temple. If it is the Bovatj of
Josephus, or rather the BovIevtt/piov, it must have
been on the western side of the Temple mount not
far from the Xystus, of which word the Hebrew
"Gazit" would be a translation (Schiirer, "Gesch."
3d ed., ii. 211). The city, largely extended as it
was to the north, was indeed magnificent in appear-
ance, but with a strangely Roman character im-
printed upon an Oriental background. It was dur-
ing the reign of Herod that Jesus was born (Matt.
ii. 1; Luke ii. 1); and during the reign of Herod's
successor, Herod Antipas, that he was crucified (see
Jesus).

Very little change was effected in Jerusalem dur-
ing the years between Herod and the destruction
under Titus. Pilate increased the water-supply by
building a conduit 200 furlongs in length; whence

the water came, Josephus does not state ("Ant."
xviii. 3, § 2). If this conduit was one of those
which carried the water from the Pools of Solomon
south of Bethlehem, it is probable that Pilate only
repaired what already existed (Baedeker, " Palestine
and Syria," p. 132). The friction between Jews and
Romans increased, especially as a garrison of the
latter was permanently stationed in the Antonia.
The northern suburb had grown to such an extent
that in the year 41 of the common era Agrippa I.
repaired its walls, making them broader and higher
("Ant." xix. 7, § 2). Josephus says that the work
was stopped by Emperor Claudius,
Growth of and that the people completed it.
Northern probably not in as magnificent a style
Suburb. as had been contemplated ("B. J." v.
4, § 2). According to Schick, this
work is represented by the present northern wall
("Z. D. P. V." xvii. 87). Most of the original wall
has in course of time been carried off for building^
purposes; but as late as 1869 about forty or fifty
yards were still visible (Merrill, in "P. E. F. S."
1903, p. 159). This new part of the city was over
against the Antonia, but was divided from it, as a
precaution, by a deep valley. Josephus calls this
"Bezetha" ("B. J." v. 5, §8), which he interprets
as "New City," but which in Aramaic ought to be
" Bet-Hadta. " It is called " Bezeth " in I Mace. vii.
19; "Bezetho" in "Ant. " xii. 10, § 2; "Bethzatha"
in John v. 2 (R. V., margin; "Bethesda," A. V.;
NTDn n^3 in Palestinian Syriac ; see Gratz, "Gesch."
iii., note 11).

The beauty of the city was enhanced by several
palaces erected toward the south hy the royal fam-
ily of Adiabene: one by Monobaz near the wail run-
ning east from Siloam (" B. J. " v. 6, § 1) ; another for
Queen Helena ("in the middle of the Acra," "Ant."
vi. 6, § 8) ; and a third built by Grapte, a relative of
Izates ("B. J." iv. 9, § 11). A family burial-place
was erected by Helena three furlongs north of the
city in the form of a triple pyramid ("Ant." xx. 4,
§ 3). Agrippa II. built an addition to the Hasmo-
nean palace near the Xystus, which, however, gave
offense to the priests, as from it all the doings in the
Temple courts could be observed. It was also a
menace in time of war. They, therefore, erected a
wall which effectually shut out the inner court even
from the western cloisters, in which a Roman guard
was kept ("Ant." xx. 8, § 11). The Antonia was
also a constant menace to the Temple itself. In the
time of Florus the Jews destroyed the cloisters be-
tween the two buildings ("B. J." ii. 15, §6); but
subsequently they were rebuilt.

A picture of Jerusalem shortly before its final de-
struction can be drawn from the accounts of Jo-
sephus, Tacitus, and the New Testament. The ;
varied character of its population must have been '
quite evident, made up, as it was, of different i
parties of Jews, notably Zealots and Hellenists, on \
the one hand, and of Romans on the other. At the \
time of the great festivals, the city and its surround- i
ings must have been filled with Jews from other j
towns and villages, and even from the farthest por- ]
tions of the Diaspora ("Ant." xvii. 9, §3). Jose-
phus says that at one time 2,565,000 offered the
Passover sacrifice ("B. J." vi. 9, t^ 3; comp. John

127

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

xii. 20; Acts ii. 5-11; and "Z. D. P. V." iv. 211),
and that at the similar festival in the time of Florus
3,000,000 were present ("B. J."ii. 14, § 3)— as evident

an exaggeration as the Talmudic reek-
Jerusalem oning of 12,000,000 (see Chwolson,
Before "Das Letztc Passamahl Christi," p.
the Fall. 48), though Tacitus ("Hist." v. 13)

states that the number of the besieged
was 600,000. According to Josephus ("B. J." v. 6,
§ 1) there were 10,000 soldiers in Jerusalem at the
time of the final rebellion in addition to 5,000 Idu-
means. The Roman procurator had his court in the
Pretorium (Mark xv. 16 et seq.). It seems likely
that this was part of the Antonia, where the Roman
garrison was situated (Acts xxi. 34) and where the
procurator's judgment-seat is said to have been
(Matt, xxvii. 19).

The account of Tacitus ("Hist." v. 8-12) is
meager. He mentions the walls with towers 120 feet
high, part of which height was that of the natural
elevation upon which \hej were built. He mentions
also a perennial fountain of water. Further details,
especially of the walls, are given by Josephus ("B.
J." V. 4). He says that the city lay upon two op-
posite hills, with a valley between: the one contain-
ing the upper city was much higher and longer,
and was called in his day the " upper market-place " ;
the other hill, called "Acra," was afifiKvprog ("gib-
bous"), referring, no doubt, to the city of David
of the (31d Testament, i.e., Zion. Over against this
was a third hill, lower and separated from it by a
valley, evidently the Temple mount. In addition
to this there was the " new city " (for another, novel
but unacceptable, view of these designations see
Gatt in "Z. D. P. V." xxv. 178). This would give
the city an extent of about 33 stadia or 6 square
kilometers; though Eusebius gives only 27 stadia.
The walls were three in number. That on the north
was a triple one, on account of the vulnerable con-
dition of the city from that direction. The southern-
most wall encompassed the upper and the lower city
and Ophel. It started at Hippicus, ran south to the
Gate of the Essenes at the southwest corner of the
city, then east, curving as it approached the Kidron
Valley, from which it ran north-northeast, joining
the Temple enclosure at its southeastern extremity.
Bliss supposes that this wall did not include the
Siloam Pool, as Josephus ("B. J." v. 9, § 4) speaks
of the pool as being in the hands of the Romans. On
the north it ran from Hippicus directly east to
the northern edge of the southwestern hill, near the
Xystus, where it joined the western porch of the
Temple. The second wall to the north has been
partly retraced by the excavations of Schick. It
must have started near Hippicus and the gate Gen-
natb, running slightly northward, enclosing the
Amygdalon Pool, and then east; thence it ran
north-northeast until it reached the Antonia. Schick
supposed that it did not include the place where
now the Church of the Sepulcher stands; but, ac-
cording to Mitchell, he made a wrong estimate of

the material found by him in 1887, and
Tlie Walls, the wall included this space ("Jour.

Bib. Lit." xxiii. 142). The third wall
was that built by Agrippa I. It started also at Hip-
picus, ran northwest, then northeast, over against

the monuments of Helena, passed by the tomb
of the kings, and joined the old wall in the Kidron
Valley. It seems probable that this coincided with
the present northern wall of the city. See frontis-
piece, map of Jerusalem (time of destruction).

The city, liowever, was doomed to destruction,
parti}' because of the dissensions among its inhabi-
tants and partly because of the exactions of the Ro-
man procurators. Among the latter was particularly
Gessius Florus (66 c.e.), who inflamed the multi-
tude by taking 17 talents out of the treasury of the
Temple, and by bringing his soldiers to Jerusalem,
where they plundered the upper market-place and
lobbed man}- houses; though in the end he was
forced to retire again to Caesarea ("B. J." ii. 14-15).
Cestius Gallus tried to retrieve the lost fortunes of
Florus: he burned the new city Bezetha, stormed
the inner wall, and had commenced to undermine
the Temple wall when he was repulsed. Under
Vespasian (70) was commenced the great siege of
Jerusalem, which lasted from the 14th of Nisan
until the 8th of Elul, 134 days. The war party, the
parties of Simon and of John of Giscala, the Idu-
means, and the peace party rent the city in pieces.
Simon held the upper and lower cities; John, the
Temple and Ophel ; and they did as much destruc-
tion from within as the Romans did from without
("B. J." ii. 6, § 1). Vespasian was succtfeded by
his son Titus, who came with four legions. On the
fifteenth day of the siege the wall of Agrippa was
taken ; on the twentieth and twenty-fourth, the sec-
ond wall; on the seventy-second, the Antonia; on
the eightj'-fourth, the daily sacrifice in the Temple
Avas stopped ; on the ninety-fifth, the northern clois-
ters of the Temple were destroyed; on the one hun-
dred and fifth, fire was set to the Temple and the
lower city was burned; finally, the greater part of
the city went up in flames. The Jews commemo-
rate the Ninth of Ab as the day of the destruction of
the Temple, though this seems to have taken place
on the 10th of the month (Schiirer, "Gesch." i. 530).
Josephus says("B. J." vii. 1, § 1) that orders were
given to allow the towers Hippicus, Phasael, and
Mariamne to stand, and "so much of the wall as en-
closed the city on the western side," but that all
of the remaining walls were leveled, and even
their foundations Avere dug up. How far this
is to be taken literally is not clear : recent excava-
tions seem to show that it is only partially true.
There is no proof that even the altar of burnt offer-
ing in the Temple was left, and that some sacrifices
were still offered there; the explicit statement
(Ta'an. iv. 6) that on the 17th of Tammuz the daily
offering ceased is proof against the notices in the
Epistle to the Hebrews, Clement of Rome, and
Josephus (see discussion in Schiirer, "Gesch." i. 548
et seq.). The suffering in the city must have been
terrible. Many of the inhabitants were carried off
and sold as slaves in the Roman markets. Accord-
ing to Josephus ("B. J." v. 13. § 7), as
Destruc- many as 115,880 dead bodies were car-
tion of the ried out through one gate between the
City (70). months of Nisan and Tammuz; and
even before the siege was ended, 600,-
000 bodies had been thrown out of the gates. The
10th Roman legion was left in the city, for whose

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

128

purposes tlie towers mentioned were allowed to
stand. Bricks marked " leg. X Fret."' {i.e., Fretensis)
have been found in numbers both in and outside of
the city proper. C*sarea, however, remained the
capital of the Roman province (see Church, "The
Last Days of Jerusalem," 1903).

The emperor Hadrian attempted to erect a Roman
city upon the ruins of Jerusalem, and even to turn
the Temple into a place of worship of Jupiter
Capitolinus. A stone from the foundation of the
statue of the latter, with a Roman inscription, is
still to be seen in the southern wall of tlie Haram
(Luncz, "Jerusalem," v. 100). The Jewish legend
(Gen.R. Ixiv.),
mentioned also
by Chrysos-
tom,Cedrenus,
and Callistus,
that the Jews
themselves at-
tempted to re-
build the
Temple, seems
untrustwor-
thy ; and the
" C h r o n i c o n
Paschale " says
expressly that
it was actually
rebuilt by
Hadrian (Sell ii-
rer. I.e. i. 564).
This may or
may not have
been the direct
cause of the
Bar Kokba war
(see Jew. En-
CYC. ii. 508, s.v.
Bar Kokba) ;
at any rate,
during the Bar
Kokba revolt
Jerusalem suf-
fered still fur-
ther. It seems
probable that
the leader and
his insurgents
did occupy Je-
rusalem for a while ; his restruck Greco-Roman
tetradrachms have as symbol a portico with four
columns, evidently representing the Temple (Rei-
nach, "JewLsh Coins," p. 51), with the inscrip-
tion "Of the Freedom of Jerusalem." When the
rebellion was put down, in 134, the city was
further destroyed (Appian, "Syria," p. 50), and the
plow was drawn over the Temple mount by the
governor-general Tinnius Rufus (Ta'an. iv. 6; Je-
rome on Zech. viii. 19). The new city was finally
built and was named JEAia Capitoliua after Hadrian
and Jupiter Capitolinus; heathen colonists were in-
troduced, and the Jews were prohibited from enter-
ing— a decree of Hadriaii wliich was in force cer-
tainly up to the time of Eusebius, 312 (" Hist. Eccl."
iv. 6). After a while the walls were repaired ; but

The Hereford Mappa Mundl, 1280, Showing Jerusalem in the Center of the World.

the citj' does not seem to have had the same ex-
tent as before. The new wall did not include part
of Ophel and Mount Zion, and seems to liave stood
on the south where the present wall is found. Va-
rious pTiblic buildings were erected: a temple to
Venus in the northern quarter, and a sanctuary to
Jupiter on the site of the Temple. Statues to Ha-
drian and Jupiter were placed on the Temple area.
The Antonia was rebuilt, but on a smaller scale, the
ground to the north being turned into a covered
market-place on which a triumphal arch was erected
to Hadrian, part of which is the present so-called
" Ecce homo " arch. The above - mentioned edict

does not seem
to have been
strictly ob-
served ; for the
Bordeaux Pil-
grim (333)
states that the
Jews were al-
lowed to visit
annually " the
pierced stone,"
w h i c h they
anointed, and
at wliich they
bewailed their
fate ("Pales-
tine Pilgrim
Text S o c.
Publ."i.,v.22),
a fact corrobo-
rated by Je-
rome (on Ezek.
i. 15) and by
the rabbinical
Avritings (Eccl.
R. xi. 1; Cant.
R. i. 15; Lam.
R. i. 17; Yer.
B e r . 13b,
above; "Luah
Erez Yisrael,"
V. 16). Stone
ossuaries ("os-
t e 0 p h a g i " )
containing
bones of both
Jews and Jew -
second to the
the Valley of

dating

from the
been found

isli Christians and

fourth century have

Jehoshaphat.

With the advent of Constantine the Great the city

became thoroughly Christian. In 336 the Church of

the Anastasis was built over the Holy Sepulcher,

and the Pool of Siloam was surrounded by a portico.

There is a tradition that the emperor Julian, called
" the Apostate," in 362 gave the Jews,
Under the of whom Rabbi Hillel was nasi, per-
Christian mission to rebuild the Temple, but
Emperors, that the plan was not carried out be-
cause of an explosion (Socrates, " Hist.

Eccl." iii. 20: see Hauauer in "P. E. F. S." 1902, p.

389). Valeutinian commenced to rebuild the walls,

but died before the work was accomplished. In 450

129

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

the empress Eudoxia, widow of Theodosius II., re-
stored them, enclosiug within them the Pool of
Siloam. Under the Council of Chalcedon (451) Jeru-
salem became an independent patriarchate. Addi-
tional Christian buildings were erected by Justinian
in 532. In 614 the Persian Chosroes II. attacked
Jerusalem. He is reported by the " Chronieon Pas-
chale " to have been aided by 24,000 Jews (" P. E. F.
S." 1898, p. 36). At the time of the emperor Mau-
rice there were several earthquakes in Palestine;
one of these caused the destruction of the building
which had been erected on the site of the Temple.
It is said that Jews were sent to rebuild it. In 629
Heraclius made peace with Siroes, tlie son of Chos-
roes, and reentered the city. He renewed the edict
prohibiting the Jews from dwelling in Jerusalem. In
637 Omar and the Arabs appeared before Jerusalem,
and the citj'' came under the power of the Moslems.
Omar erected a wooden mosque west of the Rock,
and ordered that no new churches were to be built.
For the whole of the Talmudic period very little
information in regard to Jerusalem is to be obtained
from the Jewish sources. What became of the Tem-
ple utensils carried off by Titus, and figured upon
the arch erected to him in Rome, can not be ascer-
tained, despite the various legends that have gath-
ered around them (see, e.g. , Naphtali b. Isaac, " 'Emek
ha-Melek," p. 14a, Amsterdam, 1648). It is interest-
ing to note that a picture on colored glass dating
from the third century and representing the Temple
at Jerusalem has been foundin the Jewish catacombs
of Rome ("Archives de I'Orieut Latin," ii. 439).
Jerusalem was supposed by the Rabbis to be the
center of the habitable world (see the passages in
Farhi, "Kaftor wa-Ferah," p. 18a), a view adopted
by medieval Christendom (see Bevan and Phihoth,
"Medieval Geography," p. xiii.); and the earthly
Jerusalem (HDD h^ D'^'J^'IT') was be-
Rabbinic lieved to be paralleled by the Jerusa-

References. lem above {rhv^^ h^ D'^^C^I")''), which
had been prepared before the creation
of the world (Apoc. Baruch, iv. 3). The same idea
is found in the Apocrj^pha (II Esdras vii. 26 ; viii. 52,
53; X. 44-59) and in the New Testament (/; avu
'lEf)ovaa/j)iu, Gal. iv. 26; Heb. xii. 22; Rev. iii. 12,
xxi. 10; see Weber, "Lehren des Talmuds," p. 356;
Charles, "Apoc. of Baruch," p. 6, note 3; and Jew.
Encyc. v. 215).

The Rabbis count seventy different names for
Jerusalem in the Bible (Midr. ha-Gadol, ed. Schech-
ter, p. 678; "Agadat Shir ha-Shirim," 1. 125, and
Schechter's note in his ed. p. 50, Cambridge, 1896;
see also Ta'an. v. ; Midr. ha-Ne'elam, in Zohar Ha-
dash, section " Noah "). They are of course extrav-
agant in their praise of the city: " Whoever lias not
seen Jerusalem in its glory has never seen a deliglit-
tul city " (Suk. 51a ; Midr. Teh. on Ps. xlviii.) : " Ten
measures of beauty descended upon the world : Jeru-
salem took nine, and the rest of the world one " (Kid.
49b; Esther R. i.); "There is no beauty like tliat of
Jerusalem" (Ab. R. N. § 28); "No serpent or .scor-
pion ever did harm in Jerusalem " ( Ab. v. 48) ; " nor
was there ever a destructive fire or ruin in Jerusa-
lem " (Ab. R. N. XXXV.).

Of the city itself the following data may be men-
tioned: There were 480 synagogues (Lam. R., Pref-
VII.— 9

ace, 12)and 80 .schools (Num. R. xviii.), among them
the bet ha-midrasii of Johanau b. Zakkai, all of
winch were destroyed bj' Vespasian. Each bet
ha-midras!i contained an elementary and a high
school (Pesik., ed. Buber, p. 121b, and
Syna- note). Mention is made of a syna-
gogues and gogueof the D^DID (Naz. 52a), which
Schools, was sold to Rabbi Eliezer b. Zadok
(Meg. 26b). This may refer to a syn-
agogue of the Jews of Tarsus, though Tosef., Meg.
iii. 6 reads: "Synagogue of the Alexandrians. " In
Midr. Tadshe xxii. (Epstein, "Beitrage," p. xliv.)
occurs tlic following: "Jerusalem originally was
made up of two cities: the upper one, which fell to
Judah's lot; and tiie second, to that of Benjamin.
Upon Josliua's death, the Judahites took their por-
tion, fired the city, and made it waste. The lower
city remained until the time of David, who com-
menced to rebuild the upper one and to surround
both with a wall. In the upper one was the tliresh-
ing-floor of Araunah; in the lower one (Mt. Moriah)
the Temple was situated." Ten peculiarities are
mentioned in connection with Jerusalem : its houses
could not have balconies or extensions; neither ash-
pits nor potters' ovens were allowed, nor gardens,
other than those of roses ; chickens were not to be
raised ; a corpse was not to remain over night ; a
house might not be irredeemably sold ; the ceremony
of the "beheaded heifer" was not performed to
atone an unknown murder committed in Jerusalem
or its neighborhood (Deut. xxi. 1-8); it could not be
declared "a city led aslra}'" (Deut. xiii., xiv.); nor
could any house in it be made unclean by reason
of a plague (see Lev. xiv. 34 et seq. ; see also B. K.
82 and parallels). Tliere were twenty-four squares
in Jerusalem, each having twenty-four porticoes
(Lam. R. 1). The following market-places are men-
tioned: |''0L3S ^EJ' plE^, for those that fattened ani-
mals: explained by .some to be either a meat- or
poultry-market or the market of the apothecaries
(Yer. Sotah viii. 3) ; it was closed on the Sabbath-
day (*Er. X. 9) ; D"'"1JDV ^L*' pIL". that of the wool-
dealers (i6. 101a); JV^J?rt plEJ*, wliere the non-Je\vi.sh
washers dwelt (Shek. viii. 1); and the D'VJ?n TT
(Tosef., 'Eduy. iii. 3), the wood-market, or, perhaps,
a chamber in the Temple area where wood for
the altar was kept (Zeb. 113a). There was also a
large court, Bet Ya'zek, in which the witnesses to
the new moon collected (R. H. 23b); a Lishkat
Hashsha'im (Shek. v. 6), where the charitable made
their contributions in secret and the poor received
them also in secret; the Eben ha-To'im (or To'en),
where found articles were brought and returned to
their owners (B. M. 28b) ; the Shokat Yehu (" Water-
channel of Jehu "), cut in the rocks (Mik. iv. 5; Yeb.
15a) ; the Kippah shel Heshbonot, a vaulted place
immediately outside of the city, in which business
accounts were settled; it was placed there so that
no one miglit sprrow in Jerusalem on account of a
money loss (Ex. R. Iii.. end). Courts were built
over the rocky ground ; in the hollows below Avere
born those children who were to assist the high priest
in offering the red heifer (Num. xix. 2; Suk. 21a and
parallels). Very peculiarly, Sliiloh (Siloam) is said
to have been in the middle of the city (Yer. Hag.
76a). The trees of Jerusalem were cinnamon-trees,

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

130

and gave lortli an odor over the whole land (Shab.
63a). All sorts of pictures ("parzupot") except
those of human figures were in Jerusalem (Tosef. ,
'Ab. Zarah, vi.). There were no graves there except
those of the house of David and of Huldah the
prophetess (Tosef., Neg. vi.).

Certain customs peculiar to Jerusalem are men-
tioned in the rabbinical writings. A man invited
to a meal turned up one of his sleeves as a sign of
the receipt of the invitation (Lam. R. iv. 2); a flag
("mappah ") was displayed at the door of a house
where a feast was Ijeing held ; after it had been
taken away no one could enter (Tosef.,
Old Ber. iv. 8; comp. Yer. Demai iv. 4).

Customs. Jerusalemites were accustomed to bind
their hilabs with golden bands (Suk.
S6b). Certain women habitually provided the nar-
cotic which was given to a condemned man in order
to blunt his sensibilities (Sanh. 43a; comp. Matt.
xxvii. 48 and parallels). On the Fifteenth of Ab
and on the Day of Atonement the maidens went
abroad in borrowed white garments and danced in
the vineyards, saying to the young men, "Lift up
thy eyes and see whom thou wouldst choose '' (Ta'an.
26b). In writing deeds in Jerusalem it was custom-
ary to state not only the day but also the hour of
execution (Ket. 94b). A man approaching the city
recited, "Zion is a wilderness, Jerusalem a desola-
tion" (Isa. Ixiv. 10), and made a rent in his garment
(M. K. 26 and parallels) — a custom observed to this
day. As a congregation, the Jews of Jerusalem are
called specifically D''i?:r'n'21 XCmp N^Hp (Ber. 9b)
and n:;'np my (Yer. Ma'as. Sh. ii. lU).

The liabbis further held that the western wall,
the Gate of the Priests, and the Huldah Gate were
not and never will be destroyed (Cant. R. § 2), and
that whether the Temple was standing or not the
Shekinah was not removed from it; it still dwelt
near the western wall (Tan., Shemot, x. ; Cant. R.
ii. 9). God will bring back all the former joy to Je-
rusalem ; and every one that on earth bewails its de-
struction will in the future world rejoice at its resto-
ration (Pes. 28 and parallels). It will not be rebuilt
imtil all the Diaspora is gathered together (Tan., ed.
Buber, Noah, 17) ; then it will reach to the Gate of
Damascus (Cant. R. § 7; Slfre ii. 1); and people
will come borne on clouds (Pes. 1). God and His
angels will be a wall around the city (Yalk., Zech.
569), which will be a "metropolis for all countries"
(Cant. R. i., § 37); it is even said that all nations
will be collected therein (Ab. R.N. xxxv., end), and
that the city will then have a new name (Isa. Ixii.
2 ; Pesik. § Sosa Asis). The passages from the Tal-
mudical writings will be found in Jehiel Zebi Hirsch-
ensohn, "Sheba' Hokmot sheba-Talmud," pp. 128 et
seq., Lemberg, 1883; Judah Idel Zisling, "SeferYal-
kut Erez Yisrael," Wilna, 1890; David b. Simon,
"Sha'ar ha-Hazer," Jerusalem, 1862; see also Farhi,
"Kaftor wa-Ferah," ed. Edelmann, p. 14a, and Neu-
bauer, "G. T." pp. \Uetseq.

After the conquest of Jerusalem by the Arabs the
city soon took on a Mohammedan aspect. In 688
the calif 'Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock ;
in 728 the cupola over the Aksa mosque was erected,
the same being restored in 758-775 by Al-Mahdi. In
831 Al-Ma'mun restored the Dome of the Rock and

built the octagonal wall. In 1016 the Dome was
partly destroyed by earthquakes; but it was re-
paired in 1022. The chief Arabic his-
Under the tories of Jerusalem are those by Al-
Arabs. Makdisi, "Mutir al-Ghanam" (" J. R.
A. S." xix. 297) ; Al-Suyuti, " Ithaf al-
Ahissa" (1470, p. 258); and Mujir al-Din al-'Ulaimi,
"Ins al-Jalil" (1496), ed. Cairo, 1866 (partly trans-
lated in H. Sauvaire, "Histoire de Jerusalem," Paris,
1876). Mujir al-Din relates that when 'Abd al-:Malik
built the Dome, he employed ten Jewish families,
Avlio were freed from all taxes. They increased so
quickly in number that they were removed by the
calif Omar {c. 717). He relates further: "And
among the servants of the sanctuary, too, was an-
other company of Jews, who made the glass plates
for the lamps and the glass lantern-bowls and glass
vessels and rods. No poll-tax was demanded of
them, nor from those that made wicks for the
lamps." Another tradition, reported by a number
of Arabic writers, says that the original position of
the Temple was pointed out to Omar by the apos-
tate Kab ("Z. D. P. V." xiii. 9 et seq.). This tradi-
tion is referred to also in an anonymous Hebrew let-
ter ("Ozar Tob," 79, 13) and by Isaac Helo (1333),
who says that the place was pointed out by an old
Jew to the Mohammedan conqueror on condition
that he preserve the western wall (Carmoly, "Itine-
raires de la Terre Sainte," p. 237). Bar Hcbrteus
("Chronicum S3'riacum," p. 108) as.serts that it was
specially stipulated betv.^een Omar and Sophronius,
the patriarch of Jerusalem, that the Jews should
not live in the city — a statement which can not be
verified.

The geographer Al-Mukaddasi, writing in 985,
does not speak highly of Jerusalem ; he complains
that the Christians and the Jews "have the upper
hand " (ed. De Goeje, p. 167). He adds that in Pal-
estine and Syria most of the minters, dyers, tanners,
and money-changers were Jews {ib. p. 183). The later
complaints about the burdensomeness of the taxes
were evidently not imwarranted ; for, according to
Al-Mukaddasi, the tax on Palestine was 259,000
dinars {ib. p. 189). The Persian traveler Nasir
i-Khusrau (1047) says that both Christians and Jews
came up to Jerusalem to visit the church and the
synagogue there (Guy le Strange, "Palestine under
the Moslems," p. 88). According to the Ahimaaz
Chronicle (Neubauer, "M. J. C." ii. 128, 25), Paltiel,
the vizier of Al-Mu'izz in the second half of the
tenth century, presented, among other gifts, 1,000
dinars to the D'ohj?!! n^3 ''^UN {Ic. 128, 25), other-
wise called the JW ""fj^aX {ib. 130, 13). These are
the usual designations for the Karaites in Jerusalem
(" R. E. J." xxxii. 149; "Monatsschrift," xl. 535).

The Karaite Sahl b. Mazliah of the eleventh cen-
tury gives a picture of the Jerusalem of his day.
There were very few Jews there to bewail her fate,
and Sahl begs his fellow Jews wherever they may be
to return to the city. He speaks of the wailing
women Avho lamented the city's state in Hebrew,
Persian, and Arabic; especially on the Mount of
Olives in the months of Tammuz and Ab. Zion, he
says, is in the hands of Esau ; Jerusalem, in the
hands of the Arabs (Harkavy, "Meassef Niddahim,"
No. 13, in "Ha-Meliz," 1879, No. 31, p. 639, and in

131

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

Berliner's "Magazin," 1878, p. 181). There seems
to be some support even for tliG view that there
were German Jews in Jerusalem at this time. The
story is told, on the authority of Elijah Ba'al Sliem
of Chelm, that a young man named Dolberger was
saved by a Jew in Palestine who knew German, and
tiiat out of gratitude one of his family who was
among the Crusaders saved some of the Jews in
Palestine and carried them to Worms ("'Seder ha-
Dorot," ed. 1878, p. 252). ■ In the second half of
the eleventh century halakic questions were sent
from Germany to Jerusalem (Epstein, in "Monats-
schrift," xlvii. 344).

It is said that Harun al-Rashid sent the keys of
Jerusalem to Charlemagne, and that under Harun
various Christian buildings were erected. In 969
Mu'izz al-Din of Egypt took the city ; and under
Hakim (1010) certain buildings were
During- the destroyed, which were restored in 1048
Crusades, by the patriarch Nicephorus. In 1077
the Seljuk Turks, under Isar al-Atsis,
drove the Egyptian garrison out of Jerusalem, and
3,000 of the inhabitants of the city were slain. Dur-
ing the First Crusade (1098) the Turks were expelled
by Egyptians after a siege lasting fortj' days. The
walls were rebuilt, and the city was taken by the
Crusaders July 15, 1099. The latter built exten-
sively and repaired the walls in 1177. The Franks
were defeated in Jerusalem in 1187 by Saladin, who
is said to have invited the Jews to return to Pales-
tine. The Hai'am area was reconverted into a
mosque, the Dome rebuilt, and in 1192 the city
walls were repaired. There are very few notices
of the Jews in the city during all this time. Abra-
ham b. Hiyya says that in his day (1136) it contained
no Jew ("Monatsschrift," xlvii. 450). Yet there
must have been some there, as the street in which
they lived is called "Judairia" in Latin documents
of the times ("Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani,"
ed. Rohricht, p. 109). A Petrus Judceus is men-
tioned as swearing allegiance to Baldwin III. on
Feb. 11, 1056; and the same name occurs in a docu-
ment of 1160 (ib. pp. 77, 78, 89, 95). That a yeshi-
bah existed or was reinstituted during the first half
of the tenth century is proved by the title "Rosh
ha-Yeshibah " given to Bex Meir, perhaps by Saadia
himself (Schechter, "Saadyana," p. 18, lines 11, 17).
He seems, also, to have had about him both a large
and a small Sanhedrin ("R. E. J." xliv. 239; "Zeit.
fiirHebr. Bibl." vii. 147).

It was in the first half of the eleventh century
that the attempt was made to revive the gaonate in
Palestine. The yeshibah in Jerusalem is mentioned
in the vear 1031 (see also Schechter, "Saadvana," p.
18, 1. io [comp. "J. Q. R." xv. 96]); and in 1046
Sol(5mon b. Judah was at its head; but upon the
coming of the Seljuks it was removed to Tyre (see
Jew. Encyc. v. 572a, s.v. Gaon).

A letter from Jerusalem dated 1188 seems to relate
to the dire straits of the Jews, perhaps after Saladin
had recaptured the city, to which event a certain
passage in the letter ("Ozar Tob," p. 79, 12) may
refer. It is partially an alphabetic acrostic, and
was given to R. Jonah b. Judah the Sephardi, who
was sent out to collect money. He mentions the ye-
shibah, which at his time had practically ceased to

exist. The Jews, though very few in number, were
bound to pay the same tax which was originally laid
upon them (see Berliner's " Magazin, " iii. 217, i v. 233 ;
" Ozar Tob," p. 77). A fragmentary letter, referring
probably to the same time, is published in Luncz, I.e.
V. 67. A letter of 1137 mentions not only the as-
sembling of the Jews in their synagogue (" Midrash
Me'at"), but also theirgathering together with Jews
from other places on the Mount of Ohves on the fes-
tivals of Sukkot and Hosha'na Rabbah, a custom
otherwise attested (see Schechter, I.e. 22, 5; accord-
ing to 21, 12, the dates of the festivals were promul-
gated on the Mount of Olives ; " Sefer ha-Ha.sidim, "
p. 169, § 630 ; " R. E. J. " xlii. 181 ; Luncz, 'i.e. i. 65).
Abraham ibn Daud (Neubauer, "M. J. C." i. 79, 7)
also mentions the custom, but adds that the "Minim"
(Karaites) were in tents opposite the other Jews.

About the year 1140, Judah ha-Levi visited Jeru-
salem and was inspired, as legend says, to compose
his "Zionide" before its walls. In 1173 Benjamin
of Tudela visited Jerusalem. He describes it as a
small city full of Jacobites, Armenians, Greeks, and
Georgians. Two hundred Jews dwelt in a corner
of the city under the Tower of David. He mentions
especially the two buildings of the

Medieval Hospitalers and of the Templars; the
Jewish four gates of Abraham (Khalil), David,

Visitors. Zion, and "Gushpat" (Jehoshaphat);
the Gate of Mercy ; the house and
stable of Solomon ; the Pillar of Absalom ; and the
grave of Uzziah. In front of Jerusalem is Mt. Zion,
upon which there is only a Christian church, and
where are the graves of the princes of the house of
David ("P. E. F. S." 1894, p. 294). It is curious
that Pethahiah of Regensburg (p. 11) mentions only
one Jew in Jerusalem, a certain R. Abraham the
dyer, who had to pay a heavy tax for permission to
remain (ed. Benisch, p. 60). Pethahiah recalls (p.
64) the tradition connected with the Gate of Mercv ;
namely, that it could not be opened until the She-
kinah returned to the gate by means of which it had
left the city. Though often spoken of as one, this
was really two gates in the eastern wall of the
Temple enclosure (now called the " Golden Gate ") —
the Gate of Repentance and the Gate of Mercy,
the first of which was for happy people, the second
for the unhappy (see "Ozar Tob," p. 35; Carmolv,
I.e. pp. 237, 239, 458; Gurland, "Ginze Yisrael," pjp.
13, 39, 49; "Shibhe Yerush." p. 19b; Luncz, I.e. v.
242; "Luah Erez Yisrael," vii. 95, 106; ix. 8). The
later Arabs had the same designations for these gates
("Z. D. P. V." vii. 163; Guy le Strange, I.e. pp. 161,
177, 184), and many tales are told In Jewish wri-
tings of the futile attempts of the Arabs to open
them (see, e.f/., Gurland, I.e. p. 39; "Sammelband,"
Mekize Nirdamim, 1888, pp. 27, 47; Obadiah of
Bertinoro, ed. Neubauer, p. 65; and Jehudah, in
Luncz, I.e. v. 240 ei seq.). Reference to a gate sepa-
rating the blessed from the damned is made in the
Koran, sura Ivii. 13.

In 1210-a certain Samuel b. Simon made a pilgrim-
age to Palestine as the forerunner (Berliner's " Maga-
zin," iii. 158) of the 300 and more rabbis from the
south of England and from France who went to the
Holy Land in 1211 ("Shebet Yehudah," p. 113). His
account has been published in "Ozar Tob," p. 35;

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

132

transl. in Carmoly, I.e. p. 127. He mentions the
custom of praying on Sabbatlis on the Mount of
Olives. In 1218 Al-Harizi visited Jerusalem and
saw the English and French rabbis mentioned above.
Among them were Samuel b. Simon, Joseph b.
Baruch, his brother R. Meir, and Samson b. Abra-
ham. According to Gratz ("Gesch." vi. 404), this
migration was the consequence of the Albigensian
persecutions. Al-Harizi speaks of the Jews coming
to Jerusalem in large numbers ; but he bewails the
spirit of discord he found there (see "Tahkemoni,"
ch. xxvii., xxviii., xlvi., and xlvii. ; and M. Schwab
in "Archives de I'Orient Latin," 1881, pp. 231 et
seq.). In 1219 the walls of the city were taken down
by order of the Sultan of Damascus; in 1229 by
treaty with Egypt Jerusalem came into the hands
of Frederick II. of Germany. In 1239 he began to
rebuild the walls; but they were again demolished
by Da'ud, the emir of Kerak.

In 1243 Jerusalem came again into the power of
the Christians, and the walls were repaired. The
Kharezniian Tatars took the city in 1244; and they
in turn weio driven out by the Egyptians in 1247.
In 1260 the Tatars under Hulaku Khan overran the
whole land, and the Jews that were in Jerusalem
had to flee to the neighboring villages.

On Aug. 12, 1267, Nahmanides visited Jerusalem.
He found there only two Jews, brothers, who \vere
dyers, and who on Sabbath and at festivals gathered
Jevi s from the neighboring villages (see his letter to
his son in " Sha'ar ha-Gemul "). He reorganized the
community, and on New-Year's Day, 1268, service
Avas held in a new synagogue, later called IJ^^I DSlin
TDnn rmn\ in a court to the right of the present
synagogue. It was near the Zion Gate, which led
down to the traditional graves of the kings of Judah
(" Yihus ha-Abot," in Carmoly, I.e. p. 440), and
seems to have been called "Midrash ha-Ramban "
(Conforte, "Kore ha-Dorot," p. 19a).
Nahmani- Palestine at this time was under Egyp-
des in tian rule. This rule was clement and
Jerusalem, the congregation grew. Nahmanides
also founded a yeshibah and planted
in Jerusalem the study of the Cabala. Pupils came
to him from all parts of the Diaspora, among the
most famous being the commentator and lexicog-
rapher R. Tanhum, who may, however, have been
there even before Nahmanides, as he was perhaps an
eye-witness of the Tatar raids (see Bacher, " Aus dem
Worterbuch des Tanhum," 1903, p. 11). Nahmanides
died in 1270, and the j'eshibah lost its attraction.

In the year 1322 Estori Farhi was in Jerusalem ;
and his " Kaftor wa-Ferah " (ch. vi.) gives an arche-
ological description of the city (Eng. transl. in "Itin-
erary " uf Beajamin of Tudela, ii. 393 ; German, in
Zunz, "G. S." ii. 268). According to Farhi, Jeru-
salem was three parasangs long. He mentions
the entrance to the Cave of Hezekiah (B. K. 16b),
within the walls of Jerusalem to the north; the tent
erected by David for the Ark, which was supposed
to be still in a place called " David's Temple," south
of Mt. Moriah (comp. "Yihus ha-Abot," p. 25);
northwest of this was a place near which were a
synagogue and the Jewish quarter (see David b.
Zimrah, Responsa, No. 633). The city of Jerusalem
is, according to him, higher than Mt. Moriah, and

of course higlier than the above-mentioned syna-
gogue. A further description of the city is obtained
from a letter written by Isaac Helo of Aragon in the
year 1333 (Luncz, I.e. v. 55). He describes the com-
munity as a large one, most of its members having
come from France (probably referring to the rabbis
mentioned above) ; they lived at peace and in seem-
ing tranquillity. Many were dyers, clothiers, and
shoemakers ; others were engaged in commerce and
shopkeeping. A few were busy with medicine, as-
tronomy, and mathematics; but most of them were
students of the Law and were nourished by the com-
munity. It was an old institution that the Talmudic
scholars should be exempt from all taxes except
the poll-tax. This was reenforced by Isaac Cohen
Sholal, and is mentioned in 1535 by Moses de Rossi
("J. Q. R." ix. 498, 23). Isaac Helo describes four
gates of the city : Ha-Rahamim to the east, leading to
the Mount of Olives, where the Jewish cemetery is;
David 's Gate, leading to the Valley of Rephaim on the
west ; the Gate of Abraham to the north, leading to
the tombs of the kings and to the cavern of Ben Sira,
the grandson of Jeremiah ; and the Zion Gate to the
south, leading to Mt. Zion, the Hinnom Valley, and
Siloah. He places David's fortress upon Mt. Zion,
but the Temple upon Mt. Moriah. He enumerates
seven remarkable things in Jerusalem: the Tower of
David, where the Jews used to live, but which at
his time was only a fortification ; the Palace of Solo-
mon, in Christian times a hospital, but at his time a
market-place ; the tomb of Huldah on the Mount of
Olives; the sepulchers of the kings of Judah, the
exact location of which was unknown to him ; the
tombs of the kings; the Palace of Helena, used in
his day by the Mohammedan officials ; the Gate ha-
Rahamim and the western wall of the Temple.

The number of Ashkenazim in Jerusalem grew
rapidly, and a certain Isaac ha-Levi (Asir ha-Tik-
wah) founded a yeshibah for them. R. Samuel
Schlettstadt had come from Strasburg (e. 1390), but
had returned after a short while. Though the Se-
phardim formed a separate congrega-
Ashkena- tion, all the Jews worshiped in one

zim and synagogue. In 1434 the plague broke
Sephardim. out in the city and ninety Jews per-
ished. A short while after this the
Italian Talmudist, Elijah of Ferrara, came to Jeru-
salem ; and in 1437 he was chosen chief rabbi and
head of the bet ha-midrash, his decisions having
validity in Syria on the one hand and in Egypt on
the other. He seems also to have been a physician
(for his letters see Jew. Encyc. v. 131, s.v.). He
relates that the Jewish women manufactured silk,
which the men then sold.

If Isaac Zarfati's letter (Jellinek, "Kontres
Tatnu," p. 14) belongs to this period (end of the fif-
teenth century; Gratz, "Gesch." viii. 446), it would
seem that the report had been spread in Germany
that the Jews had bought Mt. Zion, had destroyed
the buildings upon it, and had also bought the Holy
Sepulcher. For this reason Jews were not allowed
on Venetian ships, but had to travel to Jerusalem by
the land route (mentioned also by Obadiah of Berti-
noro, ed. Neubauer, p. 68). Probably in connection
with a similar rumor, the Jews of Calabria were
mulcted in a large sum, owing to the vexations

133

THE JEAVISII ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

Ciiusc'd by Jonisalcm Jews to the ^linoritc convent
on 3Iount Zion (Jorga, "Notes . . . pour I'Histoirc
(U-s Croisades,"ii. 25"), Paris, 1899). The conditions
in Jerusalcni srrew so bad tiiat witiiin six yi"vrs more
than 100 families left tlic city, among tliem that of
K. Natiian Coiicn Sholal. A contributing cause was
anotiicr famine which in 1441 came upon tiie city.
In addition to tliis, the ]\Iamelul<e sultan Ka"it Bey
('•. 14o0) demanded of tiie Jews 400 ducats a year,
besides the 50 ducats whicli they had to pa}- to the
city autiio-ities for the privilege of making wine.
For tlie collection of this stim, a sort of " vice-nagid "
was cstablislu'd in Jerusalem, who togetlier witli five
others was responsible for tiieta.x. The conseciuent
harciship was so great that the communit}" was
forced to sell its books, the lioly ornaments, and even
tlie scrolls of the Law (see tiie letter of the Jerusa-
lem congregation, dated 1456, in " Sammclband,"
Mekize Nirdamim, 1888, p. 46). The attitude of tlie
Scphardim toward tlie Ashkenazim in this matter
was not calculated to increase the good-will between
tlie communities, tlie latter feeling that they were
being made the scapegoat (see the complaint of
Israel Isserlein in "Pcsakim," No. 88; Gratz,
•'Gcscli." viii. 294). It was at this time that the well-
known " takkauah"' was laid down " that if a man
die without issue his property (with the exception
of real estate) shall go to the community unless lie
shall have made an arrangement with the leaders
during his lifetime." As many old people came to
Jerusalem, this brought in a considerable sum of
money (Moses Hagiz in his " Sefat Emet " says that
in his time it was as much as 2,000 francs a year) ;
but it also led to abuses, as the old people were not
properly cared for. The decree therefore created
much discussion and opposition, and had to be re-
newed every ten or twenty j'ears. In 1720 it was
enforced hy a haskamah from the rabbis in Constan-
tinople (Lunez, I.e. v. 121).

In 1481 Mcshullam of Volterra visited the city
(see his letter in Luncz, I.e. i. 202). He found there
10,000 Mohammedan and about 250 Jewish families
(Brull's"Jahrb."vii. 123). The Gate ha-Rahamim,

he says, is 4 cubits above the earth

Meshullam and 2 cubits below ; and he solemnly

of records that on every Ninth of Ab,

Volterra. when the Jews go to pray near where

the Temple was situated, the lights
go out of their own accord. Of the twelve gates in
the Temple area, five were closed: the two Ha-
Rahamim mentioned above and tliree others which
had been built up by the Moslems, but the traces of
which could still be seen. He speaks of the build-
ings in Jerusalem as large and beautiful ; and it is
interesting to note that he gives the name "Mt.
Zion " to the hill on which the Temple stood (pp.
202, 207). He mentions as parnas li. Joseph de
Montana Ashkenazi, and as vice-parnas R. Jacob b.
Moses. The chief rabbi was R. Shalom Ashkenazi
It seems probable that the custom of regularly send-
ing out "shelihim " commenced at this time. The
first of them seems to have been R. Moses Twent}--
four (yniNI Dn^'y)- The two letters of Obadiah of
Bertinoro, dated respectively 1488 and 1489 (ed.
Neubauer. Leip.sic, 186:5), give an interesting picture
of the Jerusalem Jews at this time. Among the

4,000 iiihabitanls he touiid seveiit}- Jewish families,
all in poor circumstances, and in the latio of seven
women to one man. Tlie coniinunity was in debt to
the extent of 1,000 gold iiieces. Even the ornaments
on the scrollsof the Law had been sold. Jews lived
not only in the Jews' street, but also on Zioii. lie
was especially interested in the Ashkenazic Jews, to
whom all the iiouses around the synagogue belonged.
The exjiulsion of the Jews from Spain and Por-
tugal in 1492 sent large numbers of Jews to tiie
East. In a few years 180 families were added to
those already in Jerusalem, and the community
numbered 1.500 souls. The anonymous writer wh.i
came to Bertinoro in Jerusalem in 1495 (Neubauer,

"Zwei Briefe(Jbaujahs," pp. 80 et .scfj.)
Effect of could hardly lind a dwelling-place in
Expulsion the city. With the exception of the
from goldsmiths, it was difficult for work-
Spain, men to make a living. The Jews had

to pay a poll-tax of 1^ ducats. Near
the Jews' quarter there was a gate of which they
had the key. The houses were made of stone and
brick, no wood being used ; they contained five or
six rooms each. He mentions the Midrash of King
Solomon {i.e., the Aksa Mosque), near the syna-
gogue, and states that the Jews were not allowed to
enter it. This midrash is also mentioned by Isaac
b. MeiT Latif (see his letter in "Ozar Tob," p. 33).
He saj's that Jerusalem was twice the size of An-
cona, and that it took him six hours to make the
tour of the city. He found the .lews living on
good terms with the Moslems, which had not always
been the case, at least as regards the Ulemas. A
significant example of their fanaticism is given in
connection with the synagogue of Nahmanides. It
is said that a woman out of spite Iiad sold a piece
of property near the sj'nagogue to the !Mohammed-
ans, who had built there a mosque and who desired
to make a street leading directly to it. The Mos-
lems wished to buy a courtyard for this purpose,
but the Jews refused to sell. The rain had
washed away part of the wall and disclosed a door
in this courtyard west of tlie mosque. The matter
was carried before the sultan in Egypt. It was held
that the synagogue was a new one and that there-
fore, according to the Pact of Omar, it had no right
to exist. It was closed for a time, and thougii the
Jews paid a large sum of money, it was pulled down
by the fanatical religious leaders. The case was
again brought before the sultan ; the ringleaders
were punished : and the synagogue was eventually
rebuilt (1478; see the account by Mujir al Din in
Luncz, I.e. iii. 72; Gratz, "Gesch." viii. 295; Olia
diah of Bertinoro, p. 60; Kolon, Responsa. No. 5;
Schwarz, "Tebu'ot ha-Arez," ed. Luncz, 1900. p.
465).

The exiles from Spain commenced to form a new
congregation ('Adat Sefardim), which caused the
Ashkenazim to form one also; the North Africans
instituted a third ('Adat ha-Ma'arabini); and the
old inhabitants were thus left to themselves ('Adat
ha-^Ioriskos or Musta'rihim). These communities,
however, still .seem to have used one and the same
sj'nagogue. In course of time the Araliic-speak-
ing Jews drew together again and joined tlie Sephar
dim, the result being the establishment of two main

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

134

classes, the Ashkenazitn and the Sephardim. The first
set of takkanot for the community seems to have
been laid down by the nagid of Egypt, Isaac Cohen
Sholal, in 1509, and accepted by the Jerusalem yeshi-
bah. In 1517 a further series of takkanot was
drawn up, approved by the nagid, engraved on a
plate, and affixed to the wall of the synagogue.

In the same year the Ottoman Turks captured
Syria. Salim I. abolished the office of nagid in
Egypt; and Sholal came to Jerusalem. The latter
did much good in the city, spending his own money
and founding two new yeshibot, so that many schol-
ars flocked thither from other parts of
Takkanot. Palestine. He also laid down some
further takkanot; namely, that a Jew
should not cite a fellow Jew before a Mohammedan
court, unless he had previously cited him three
times before a bet din ; that no unseemly drinking
should take place at the tomb of Samuel the prophet ;
and that disputes should not be held in the syna-
gogue. He seems to have commenced to regulate
the halukkah and to have instituted vigils ("mish-
marot "), for which in 1521 he drew up special rules.
It is said that on the first day of these vigils there
was a heavy rainfall, and lightning damaged the
dome of the Great Mosque (see letter of the Jerusa-
lem rabbis, published by Neubauer in "Ha-Leba-
non," 1868, v. 26).

In 1527 Sulaiman I. began to rebuild the walls of
Jerusalem. He also improved the water-supply,
bringing water from a distance into three basins
near the Haram area. The Tower of David was
also restored, the walls being finished in 1542. Su-
laiman gave the Jews permission to do whatever
work they wished, and the Jewish accounts take
cognizance of his action; e.g., the author of the
" Yihus ha-Abot" (ed. Hottinger, 1659; ed. Baruch,
Leghorn, 1785; transl. Carmoly, I.e. p. 453), who in
1522 came to Jerusalem from Venice. He relates that
there were four covered market-places: one for Mo-
hammedans selling wool and flax ; a second for Jews
selling spices; a third for the sale of vegetables;
and a fourth for the sale of fruit. The most beau-
tiful street was that leading from a gate in the Tem-
ple area. He himself lived "in the house of Pilate."
He refers to the twelve gates of the Haram area, ten
of which, he says, were open ; and seven gates of
the city, of which he mentions only Bab al-Sabt,
Bab al-'Araud, and Bab al-Kuttan, and three gates
on the side of Zion. He gives a description of the
Nahmanides Synagogue with its beautiful marble
columns. The only window was in the door on the
west side, so that lights had to be used even during
the daytime. There were 300 Jewish families in the
city, among which were more than 500 widows. In
addition to Isaac Sholal, he mentions R. David ibn
Shoshan, the physician, as head of the Sephardic
yeshibah, and a R. Israel as head of the Ashkenazic
yeshibah. In 1523 David Reubeni was in Jerusalem
for five weeks. He affirms (Neubauer, "M. J. C."
ii. 145) that the Moslems showed him the cave below
the rock in the Great Mosque. He speaks of two
hills; one being Zion, where David was buried, and
the other, Jerusalem. The same year a severe
drought afflicted the city so that many fled ; among
them the nagid, who died in 1525. He was followed

as head of the community by Levi ibn Habib, who
was active in promoting harmony among the vari-
ous Jewish parties in the city. A
Jacob certain disturbance was wrought in
Berab and 1529 by the coming of Solomon Molko.
Ibn Habib. Many people commenced to fast,
awaiting the end of time. His influ-
ence, however, was effectually nullified by Ibn Ha-
bib. In 1538 Jacob Berab attempted to reestablish
the old practise of ordination ("semikah") in Pal-
estine; and although Ibn Habib himself was one
of those ordained by him, he resented the ordination,
and Berab was obliged to fly to Egypt.

The inhabitants, especially the scholars, had
largely increased in number ; and though the former
were well-to-do because of the many merchants that
came from Italy, the scholars languished. Debts
were contracted ; and some of the houses used for
charitable purposes had to be sold. This is espe-
cially dwelt on in two letters written by a certain
R. Israel to Abraham of Perugia ("Sammelband,"
Mekize Nirdamim, 1888, p. 26). In his day there
were two yeshibot, one of David Shoshan; but
the scholars had to leave and seek sustenance
elsewhere. Only gold.sniiths, silversmiths, weav-
ers, and shoemakers could make a living {ib. pp.
25, 26); the rest of the Jews hawked their wares
in the neighboring villages. Most of the learned
men were Sephardim ; but two German scholars had
recently arrived {ib. p. 30, below). Attempts had
been made at various times to force the scholars to
contribute to taxes other than the poll-tax. In
order to prevent this, atakkanah had been laid down
in 1509 by the Bene ha-Yeshibah (20 in number);
this was renewed toward the end of 1547 and again
in 1566 (according to Avila) or 1596 (Steinschneider,
"Hebr. Bibl." xvi. 58; " Centralanzeiger fur Jii-
dische Literatur," i. 51).

Ibn Habib died in 1553, and was succeeded by
David ibn Abi Zimra. Even he was unable to lighten
the burden of the taxes levied by the Turks; and
with many others he left the city in 1567 and went
to Safed. In addition to Ibn Habib the following
prominent men deserve mention : ]\Ienahem di Lon-
sano (1562), Moses Alshakar of Egypt, Aaron b.
Hayyim, Simon ha-Levi Inusburg of Frankfort, and
Moses Najjarah of Damascus. In 1586 trouble was
occasioned by the Moslems : the mufti declared that
the synagogue of Nahmanides had previously been
a mosque ; and it had to be vacated. The Sephar-
dim then built a synagogue, now the K. K. Talmud
Torah ; the Ashkenazim, one near the closed syna-
gogue, supposed to be the present Menahem Ziyyon.
In 1587 additional takkanot were issued, and after
seven months had to be reaffirmed. In 1594 and
1599 the community was further depleted by
plagues. In addition to the takkanah of 1596, herem
was placed upon all those who should reveal the
names of rich scholars to the authorities. Moses
Alshech, rabbi in Safed, intervened and secured aid
for tiie Jerusalem Jews from Venice and other places.

For a number of years no further complaints are
met with ; and in spite of the plague, which reap-
peared in 1618 (Azulai, "Hcsed le-Abraham," Intro-
duction), the Jews prospered. In 1621 Isaiah Horo-
witz (Sheloh) went to Jerusalem as head of the

135

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

Aslikenazim, who had become very important in the
community. Through him assistance came to Jeru-
salem from the Jews of Prague; but five years later
he and others were obliged to flee to Safed on ac-
count of the extortions of the pasha. In 1623 an
attempt was made to separate the Sephardic from
the Aslikcnazic halukkah; but it was vetoed by the
authorities, who reissued the takkanah referring to
it (Luncz, "Jerusalem," ii. 147). In' 1625 Moham-
med ibn Farukh became governor of Jerusalem ; and
he oppressed the people with such onerous taxes
that they tied to the rocks and caverns around
the city and had hardly sufficient clothing to cover

into a mill. In 1627 Ibn Farukli was deposed. He
extorted in all 50,000 piasters from the Jews.
An account of these persecutions, under the title
" Horbot Yerushalayim," was drawn up by the rabbis
of Jerusalem, and sent to Venice (printed in 1636;
see Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." No. 3547, who has
given a German translation in Pascheles, "Sippu-
rim." 1856, iv. 49). A special deputy was sent to
Europe to collect funds in aid of the community,
the Ashkenazic congregation having been practically
broken up by the flight of Horowitz, and the few
who were left having joined the Scphardim. A
letter was also sent to the Jews of Persia (Luncz,

Plax of Jerusalem, Circa looo.

1. Jewish Quarter. 2. Bethlehem. 3. Pool of Siloam. 4. Tomb of Rachel. 5. Tomb of the Klugs.

7. Mosque of Omar. 8. Tomb of Absalom.

(From Bernandino Aniico, " Trattato della Terra Santa," Florence, 1620.)

6. Palace of Herod.

themselves. His brother-in-law Ottoman Agha
took Ibn Farukh 's place for a short time while
the latter went on a pilgrimage. It was Ottoman
who imprisoned Horowitz, Isaac Habillo, Moses
Cordovero, and others (Luncz, I.e. iii. 38), and de-
manded heavy ransoms. Ibn Farukh returned and
did worse than before. Complaint was made to
the authorities in Damascus ; and a cadi was sent to
watch Ibn Farukh. Even this resulted in no change.
Some of the leaders were tortured, e.ff., Samuel Tar-
diulah, Moses Romano, and especially Abraham
Ustiral, brother of Isaac Aboab, who had laid the
complaint before the vali of Damascus. The cadi
of Jerusalem joined in the oppression. He extorted
money by threatening to turn one of the synagogues

I.e. v. 262) complaining that only 144 Jews were to
be allowed to reside in the city as poll-tax for only
that number was being paid.

A letter written about this time by an unknown
traveler from Carpi to his son (ib. v. 74) has been
preserved. He found in Jerusalem many members
of well-known Italian families, e.g., Moses Finzi,
David Moscato, Mattathias Rieti, and Benjamin b.
Moses of Orbino. The Jews were compelled to
wear the same clothing as the Turks, except that
they wore a bonnet resembling a "cappello." The
communitj' was deep in debt. Several times it
had had to pay a sum of 6,000 piasters. There were
two synagogues: a small one for the Ashkenazim,
at whose head was Horowitz ; another, a large one,

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

136

for the Sephardim, near to which was a bet lia-mid-
rash. There was also a small Karaite synagogue,
the congregation of which numbered 20. He esti-
mated the Jewish population at 2,000 souls. The city
had eight gates, the walls having been built 100
years before his time. He describes at length the
city and its monuments, especially the western wall
where the Jews were allowed to congregate in times
of peace. He speaks oi* the prayers prepared for
the visits to this wall — an early reference, since the
present prayers were arranged only at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century, by R. Samuel (author
of "Minhat Shemuel ") under the title "Sha'are
Dim'ah."

In 1635 Solomon al-Gazi came to Jerusalem from
Smyrna. He was the progenitor of a large and

Karaite, Moses b. Elijah lia-Levi (Gurland, I.e. p.
36), visited the city. He describes the same syna-
gogue as very beautiful, and has much to say of the
Avonderful cave under the sanctuary, mentioned
above in connection with David Reubeni. In 1645
the chief rabbi of Jerusalem was Jacob Haj-yim
Zcmal.i, a ph3'sician from Portugal. The important
rabbis of the time were Nathan Spira of Cracow,
Uri Sliraga Phoebus, and Meir Poppers. In 1650 ap-
peared tiie " Darke Ziyyon " of Moses b. Israel Naph-
tali Porges (Moses Priiger; transl. by Steinschneider
in "Z. D. P. V." iii. 225). At the gate of Jerusa-
lem Moses had to pay a tax of 2 loweuthaler (60
paras; see Gurland, I.e. p. 12). He mentions the
synagogue in the court of the Temple, which was
closed to the public after the evening prayer, and

Pool of Hezekiah, Jkrusalem.

(From a photograph by the American Colony, Jerusalem.)

Solomon
al-Gazi's
Descrip-
tion.

important family. Of the scholars of that time may
be mentioned Samuel Garmizon, Moses Galante, and
Jacob Hagiz. A special bet ha-midrash had been
founded for Hagiz by the Vega brothers of Leghorn ;
and among his pupils may be men-
tioned Moses ibn Habib and Joseph
Almosnino. In 1641 Samuel b. David,
the Karaite, visited Jerusalem (Gur-
land, I.e. pp. 12 et seg.). He gives an
account of the Karaite synagogue,
founded, he says, by Anan, which was built so low
down that it had to be reached by twenty steps; he
also states that there were fifteen houses provided for
the poor, in which twenty-seven persons (families?)
were maintained. He mentions six gates of the city,
and a hill near the Mount of Olives, where Abraham
had caused his attendants to wait, and where the
Jews were accustomed to pray. In 1654 another

the two yeshibot. The poll-tax amounted to 3 lo-
weuthaler for each householder. The community, he
found, had been in great want, especially since the
Chraielnicki disasters in Poland, from which country
much money had usually come. Near the Jewish
burial-ground were two holes in the earth popularly
supposed to lead to Gehenna (see Steinschneider,
"Hebr. Bibl." 1864, p. 105).

In 1665 the chief rabbi was Moses Galante, and
among his associates were Abraham Zemah, Joseph
Hagiz, and Aaron Padro (Pardo V). Shabbethai
Zebi, though in Palestine at this time, does not seem
to have visited Jerusalem. Galante was followed
by Moses ibn Habib in 1689; while the head of the
Ashkenazim was Moses ha-Kohen. In 1690 a large
number of Hasidim, at whose head was R. Judah
he-Hasid of Shidliz near Grodno, came to Jerusalem
and took up their abode in Dair Siknaji, which on

137

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

that account was afterward called " Hiirbat Rabbi
Judah lic-Hasid." Judah, liowever, died three days
after tlieir arrival. They were so poor that, in order
to meet the exactions of tlie autliorities, they had to
liypothccate all their buildings, and Moses ha-Kolien,
liead of the Ashkenazim, went, together with Isaac
of Slutsk, to Europe to gather money in their behalf.
Frankfort-on-the-Main alone sent 128,000 piasters
(25,600 gulden), and Metz 5,000 gulden. Especially
helpful were Samson Wertheinier and his son Wolf
of Vienna, who not only sent large sums, but through
court intluence exercised through the Austrian rep-
resentative at Constantinople tried to prevent the
Jews la Jerusalem from falling still further into
debt (see Kaufmann in " K. E. J." xxi. 140, and

in "Jerusalem," iv. 25 et seq.). In

In the 1695 Moses Hayyun was chief rabbi.

Eighteenth Among other prominent rabbis were

Century. Samuel Tanuji and Moses Hagiz, while

the head of the Ashkenazim was- Na-
than Nata of Mannheim. In 1715 the chief rabbi was
Abraham Yizhaki, whose successor for two years was
Benjamin ha-

Kohen j\Ia'ali.

In 1716 ap-
peared the" Sha-
'alu Shelom Ye-
rushalayim " of
Gedaliah of Se-
miecz (transl. by
Stein Schneider
i^i "Z. D. P. V."
iii. 226). Geda-
liah had come
with Judah he-
Hasid. He de-
scribes the
synagogue built
by the Ha si-
dim in a court-
yard in wliich
were forty
houses. When a
new pasha came,
the Jews paid him 500 loweuthaler for three years,
and an extra bakshish whenever any additional build-
ing was to be erected. To meet these requirements,
money had to be borrowed from the Turks at 10 per
cent. The Jews were forbidden to sell wine or other
liquor to the Turks. Few of them had shops; and
they were in general very poor. In 1703 the people
of the city had revolted against the pasha and had
shut the gates of the city upon him. His successor
was allowed to enter only for the purpose of receiv-
ing the taxes; but in 1705-6 he put down the rebel-
lion, and demanded much money from tlie richer
Jews. Another pasha forbade the Jews to wear
white garments on Sabbath or iron in the soles of
their shoes. Their turbans were to be large and
black ; and on the street Jews were always to pass on
the left of Moslems. In 1721 the Moslems fell upon
the synagogue of the Ashkenazim; burned all the
woodwork and the books; took the Jews prisoners;
and occupied all the dwelling-places in Dair Siknaji.

In 1730 the chief rabbi was Eleazar b. Jacob
Nahuni, and his associates were Isaac Zarhi, Israel

The Ashkenazic Synagogue, Jerusalem.

(From Schwarz, " Descriptive History of Palestine," 1850.)

Mizrahi, and Menahem Habib. In 1738 Emanuel
Hal Rfcci came to Jerusalem, and in 1742 Hayyim
ibn 'Attar, who became president of one of the yeshi-
bot. In 1745 Nissim Hayyim Mo.ses Mizrahi was
chief rabbi. lie was followed by Israel Jacob al-
Gazi, and in 1754 by Isaac ha-Kohenof the Rapoport
family in Lublin. Prominent in Isaac's day were
Hayyim Joseph Azulai. Jonah Nabon, and Jo.seph
b. Aaron Hason. Isaac was followed in 1762 by
Raphael Meyuhas Bekor Samuel, and in 1786 by
Yom-Tob al-Gazi, in whose day there lived the noted
cabalist Shalom Mizrahi (called 'ajTlK') of Yemen.

There is a short account of Jerusalem during this

period in Moses Hagiz "s "Parashat Ele JNIassa'ai "

(citedin"HibbatYerushalayim,"pp. 37af^se^.). The

taxes were paid from the sum gathered

Taxation by the congregation from those who

and had died in Jerusalem, which produced

Income, an income of 3,000 piasters. There

were then about 9,000 Mohammedans

and Christians in the city, and 1,000 Jews, most of

whom were Sephardim. In 1758 there were eight

Sephardic yeshi-
bot, each with
a definite in-
come: (1) that of
R. Jacob Ferrara
of Holland (1,200
pi. a year); (2)
Newe Shalom,
foimded by R.
Isaac Dimayo of
Constantinople
(700 pi.); (3)Pe-
'er 'Anawim,
founded by the
Franco family
of Leghorn (600
pi.); (4) Hesed
1 e - A b r a h a ra
(1,000 pi.); (5)
Uamesek Elie-
zer, founded by
Eliezer Ashke-
nazi(450 pi.); (6) Keneset Yisrael, founded by Hay-
yim ibn 'Attar (600 pi. ) ; (7) that of Mordecai Taluk of
the Maghreb (400 pi.); and (8) that of Abraham Me-
yuhas (1,000 pi.). In addition, there were a caba-
listic yeshibah, Bet-el, founded by R. Shalom, and
three private yeshibot. There were only a few Ash-
kenazim at this time; and these had no separate
congregation (see letter of the rabbis of Constan-
tinople in "Jerusalem," v. 45).

In 1782 .some trouble arose in regard to the burial-
ground on the Mount of Olives, the site of which
the Mohammedans wished to use. They were
bought off with a large sum of money ("Jerusalem,"
vi. 43). In 1785 Benjamin b. Elijah, the Karaite,
visited Jerusalem (Gurland, l.r. p. 48). He men-
tions six gates: theAVestern, David, Hebron, Damas-
cus, Pillar, and Lion. He speaks of two burial-
places: a new one under the wall near the Midrash
of Solomon, and the old one separated from this by
a valley.

When Napoleon came to Palestine in 1798, the
Jews were accused of assisting him, and were threat-

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

138

ened with death by the Moslems. Led by Mordecai
al-Gazi they assembled at the Wailing-Wall for
prayer. Napoleon, however, did not come near the
city. The condition of the Jews at this time was so
bad that the chief rabbi, Yom-Tob al-Gazi, w^eut to
Europe in their behalf, returning in 1801. He was
followed in office by Mordecai Joseph Meyuluis

(1802), who was succeeded by Jacob

In the Moses 'Ayish of the Maghreb (1806).

Nineteenth In his day lived Zechariah Zamiroand

Century. Solomon Isaac Meyuhas. On account

of the plague in Safcd a number of
Jews came thence to Jerusalem, at times clothing
themselves as Sephardim in order to escape the

and an attempt was made in 1816 to settle the mat-
ter in Constantinople. The chief rabbi of the com-
munity in 1807 was Jacob Koral ; in 1813, Joseph b.
Hayyim Hazzan of Smyrna; and in 1822, Yom-
Tob Danon. The position was vacant for a year,
when it was tilled by Moses Sozin, and iu 1826 by
Moses Jonah Nabon. In 1825 Syria and Palestine
revolted against Turkish rule, and in 1832 the coun-
try was taken by Mohammed Ali of Egypt. In 1840
Jerusalem was restored to the Turks. During this
time a number of Ashkenazim had come from Rus-
sia. Great distress prevailed among the learned
men ; messengers were sent out to all parts of
Europe and to the United States; and the Haluk-

The Great Asiikenazic Syxagogie at Jeuisalkm.

(From a photofjraph.)

hatred of the Mohammedans. Two of them, R.
Menahem Mendel and R. Abraham Solomon Zalmau,
founded the 'Adat Ashkenazim Perushim, consisting
of about twenty persons. They had a private syna-
gogue in the house which had been the yeshibah of
Hayyim ibn 'Attar, where they worshiped on week-
days. On other days they prayed in the synagogue
of the Sephardim, whose cemetery also they used.
By the year 1817 they had a yeshibah of their own
(see letter in "Jerusalem," v. 112); but they were
in continual dread that the taxes left unpaid by
former Ashkenazim would be demanded of them,

kuh was organized. In 1827 Moses Montefiore vis-
ited Jeru.salem for the first time. Occasional aid
came through tlie European powers; e.£?. ,in 1829,
through an Austrian representative, Prokesch Os-
ten, who had been sent from Vienna to look after
the Austrian subjects.

Ashkenazim continued to come in large numbers,
from Lithuania, White Russia, and other European
countries; often whole families arrived, e.g., Shem-
ariah Luria with forty persons. Luria did much
for the Ashkenazim ; but after a short while he re-
turned to Russia (1834). In order to establish a bet

139

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

ha-midrash, Akiba Leeren of Anisterdaiu gave a cer-
tain sum of money to be used for this i)urpose by
Rabbi Isaiah ^pNllX^- This was called " Sukkat
Shalom." or more popularly "Bet ha-Midrasii of R.
Isaiah." This produced a split in the Ashkeuazic
community ; but after ten years the Hurbah was
victorious. R. Abraliam Solomon Zoref went to
Egypt in order to obtain authority to rebuild the
"Hurbat R. Yehudah he-Hasid." He was helped
by the Russian and Austrian consuls, and received
the necessary permission. The new bet ha-midrash,

land was the first European power to send a consul
to Jerusalem (1839); by the year 1844 Austria, Sar-
dinia, Pru.ssia, France, and Ru.ssia were similarly
represented. The Damascus Affair of 1840, by bring-
ing Cremieux, Albert Cohn, and Montefiore to Pal-
estine, made the wretched condition of the Jerusalem
Jews known to their brethren. The idea had arisen
among the Ashkenazim and Sephardim of Jerusalem
that it was necessary to induce the Jews to till the
soil again. Montefiore took up this idea, and was
assisted by R. Aryeh b. Jerahmeel, who had taken

Tower of a. stoma, Jerusalem.

(From a photosraph by Bonfils.)

called "Menahem Ziyyon." or popularly "Bet ha-
Midrash ha-Yashen," was inaugurated in 1837.

The same year there was a slight earthquake in
Jerusalem, which, however, was very severely felt
in Safed and Tiberias. This caused many families
to remove from these places to Jerusalem, where tiie
anniversarj' of the event is still observed. The
plague appeared in Jerusalem in 1838 and 1839, as
many as fifteen persons dying in one day. Eng-

the place of Menahem Mendel (d. 1847) as head of
the Ashkenazic Jews.

Moses Nabon hud been followed in 1841 as chief
rabbi by Judah Bekor Raphael Nabon, and he in
1842 by Abraham Hayyim Gagin. He seems to have
been the first who was called "Hakam Bashi."
When he walked out a man holding a staff in his
hand preceded him ; and ten soldiers were allotted
to him to keep order and to protect him. There

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

140

ttf

??-

were at this time several assemblies: the general
assembly ('^i?3n Ijn) of eighty learned and lay
members, under the presidency of the vice-hakan\
bashi; the spiritual assembly (''jni"in Tyi) of seven
learned men, elected by the general assembly; and
the "material" assembly OOK'Jn "IJ?1) of eight mem-
bers, also elected by tlie general assembly (see tlie
firman, rules, and alist of the hakam bashis in "Jeru-
salem," V. 188 et seq.). In 1854 Albert Cohn was in
Jerusalem as almoner for the Rotiischilds and other
rich Jews of Europe. He gave liis attention espe-
' cially to the efforts of the missionaries and to tlie
Halukkali system. He founded a hospital, a society
of manual workers, a girls' school, and
Albert a loan society. In 1856 Montefiore, who
Cohn and visited Jerusalem in 1837, 1839, 1840,
liudwig' 1855, 1866, and 1875, made it possible
Frankl. for 500 Jews to take up agriculture;
he also laid the foundation for a hos-
pital, and founded a girls' school, against which,
however, a herem was issued. The Sephardic con-
gregation was now decreasing in numbers, and so
poor that in 1854 it had to sell its bet ha-midrash ;
while in 1857 the Ashkenazim received permission to
build a new synagogue (finished in 1864), which
was called "Bet Ya'akob." Some statistics of the
year 1856 are due to the visit of Ludwig August
Frankl, who went from Vienna to Jerusalem to
found the Frau Elise von Herz-Lamel School. A
section of tlie community was violently opposed to
this foundation, fearing that a modern school would
be inimical to Orthodox observance. Placards were
put on the houses, lamentations recited, and prayers
offered up at tiie Wailing-Wall. Frankl, however,
was successful, being assisted by the Austrian con-
sul, Pizzamano, and by Kiamil, the pasha of Jerusa-
lem. Of the 18,000 inhabitants of the city 5,137
were Jews; and of the latter 1,700 were under Aus-
trian protection. Frankl gives the following details:
Sephardim, 3,500; Ashkenazim Perushim, 770; Ha-
sidim, 430; Austrians, 145; Warsawers, 145; Ilabad,
90; Germans, 57; total, 5,137 (see "Monatsschrift,"
1856, p. 330; in his "Nach Jerusalem," ii. 11, Leip-
sic, 1858, he gives the number of Jews as 5,700).
The Sephardim were so well organized that at their
head was a hakam bashi. For worldly affairs, the
"hakamini" chose three "pekidim," under whom
there were three other chiefs. Three "mashgihim "
(observers) examined the accounts of the leaders.
The community had 36 yeshibot. The Perushim
had no head in Jerusalem, the seat of authoritj^ being
in Wilna. The Hasidim, mostly from Volhynia,
had at their head Nissim Bak, who with the aid of
Moses Montefiore {I.e. p. 23) was the finst to establish
a printing-press in the city. The Habad were Hasi-
dim who got their name from the initial letters of
the words "Hokmah," "Binah," and "De'ah." The
Warsawers were made up of Perusliimand Hasidim.
They had separated from the other Ashkenazim
about the year 1850. The Germans, or as they called
themselves" Anshe Hod "^ {i.e., men of H[olland and]
T)[eutschland]), had separated a year later. Zion,
the large synagogue of the Sephardim, was really
made up of four synagogues, which together occu-
pied considerable space. According to tradition it
had been built 460 years before Frankl's time. The

141

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

synagogue of the Ashkenazim (Hurbat R. Yehudah
he-Hasid; was rebuilt about 1856, a man named Eze-
kiel of Bagdad contributing 100,000 piasters for the
purpose ("Nach Jerusalem," p. 53). Frankl esti-
mates the money sent every year in charitable gifts
to Jerusalem at 800,000 piasters.

In 1856 the Turkish authorities gave permission to
all persons to visit the mosques; and this brought
more Europeans, who commenced to build churches
and hospices. The American Mission had been es-
tablished in the city in 1821 ; the Eng-
Fxirther lish, in 1826. In 1845 the seat of the
Benefac- Greek Orthodox Patriarch had been
tions. moved from Constantinople to Jerusa-
lem ; and in 1847 the Latin Patriarchate
had been renewed. In 1849 the Jerusalem Literary
and Scientific Societv had been formed, out of

system having ruined the Jewish Ijanking business
there, and the gifts of the charitable Europeans hav-
ing been in the hands of the Kolel ("Ben Chananja,"
1867, p. 45). In the same 3'ear the water-works were
rebuilt, and water was brought to the city from 'En
'Etam and from the Pools of Solomon. In this year
Montefiore made his fifth visit, and contributed
£300 on condition that the water should be led into
the Jewish quarter. A Jewish manual school was
founded by Baron Franchetti of Turin. In 1867 Al-
bert Cohn of Paris commenced the work later contin-
ued bj' the Paris Rothschilds and the Alliance Israe-
lite Universelle, and laid the foundation for a Jewish
library {ib. p. 174). A serious attempt was made to
provide better dwellings for the Jews, who lived in
miserable huts; this was largely due to the munifi-
cence of the brothers Hirsch in Halberstadt {ib. pp.

JERUSALE.M AS VIEWED FROM THE NORTH.
(From a photo^aph by the AmericaQ Colony, Jerusalem.)

which the Palestine E.xploration Fund developed.
The Jews also continued to increase in numbers. In
1854 the American Judah Touro gave $60,000 for
the purpose of founding hospices for them ; these
were built on the road to Hebron, and were called
D'JJXk^• niJS'J'D T\1, or "Montefiore Homes," because
the money was expended partly through that philan-
thropist and partly through the "North American
Relief Society for the Indigent Jews of Jerusalem."
In 1864 the Rothschilds of London established the
Evelyn de Rothschild School for Girls.

In 1865 there was an epidemic of cholera, and
many Jews were victims. The poverty in the city
was very great; flagrant abuses of the Halukkah

459, 659). In 1870 Prof. H. Griitz and M. Gottschalk
Lewy of Berlin were in Jerusalem, and, seeing the
sad plight of the orphans left by recent Jewish im-
migrants, founded the Verein zur Erziehung Jil-
discher VVaisen in Palastina, the seat of which was
in Frankfort-on-the-Main. The work was taken up
by M. Herzberg. Despite the strongest possible op-
position, a certain R. Kuttner having put the ban
on the learning of foreign languages, a school was
established in which Arabic, Hebrew, German,
Frencii, and English were taught. The Wttrttem-
berg Templars (a Christian sect) founded a colony
in Jerusalem in 1873 and introduced the soap-manu-
facturing industry. In 1878 the hospital Misgab

Jerusalem

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

142

la-Dak was founded for the Jews, without distinc-
tion of party. In 1879 the English Mission Society
founded, specifically for Jews, a hospital, a pilgrim-
house, and schools at an expense of £10,000 a year,
but the results of these missionary efforts were in-
considerable. In the same year the colony Petah
Tikwah w-as founded by Jerusalem Jews, as well as
an orphan asylum for the Ashkenazim, together
with a school which was afterward joined to the
Lamel School. In 1881 the number of Jews bad
grown to 13,920; in 1891, to 25,323. In 1882 the
London Society for the Assistance of Persecuted
Jews, founded by the Earl of Shaftesbury, bought
a piece of property called "Abraham's Vineyard,"
in which Jews were emplo3'ed. The colony of
Artuf was bought by Jews in 1896. The School for

and 15 houses on the Mount of Olives. Other
societies were founded to enable Jews to acquire
landed property, e.g., Elef She'arim, Nahalat Ya'a-
kgb (1886), Hibbatha-Arez, and Yishshub Erez Yis-
rael (1896). These were aided by similar societies in
Europe, among them the Lema'an Ziyyon, founded
by Israel Hildesheimer in Berlin, the Moses Montefiore
Testimonial Fund, and the Esra in Germany. In
addition to the Jews, the Russians and the French
Catholics have done a great deal to build up modern
Jerusalem. The Russian buildings are nearly all in
a walled quadrangle on the Jaffa road. They con-
tain an insane asylum, mission- and pilgrim-houses,
and a cathedral. On the Mount of Olives also the
Russians have built a church and a hospice for
pilgrims. A ^Irs. Spofford, who claimed prophetic

Towers of David and Hippicrs, Jerusalem.

(From a photograph by Bonfils.)

Boys (Bet Sefer), founded by the Alliance, dates
from 1882. The British Ophthalmic Hospital was
founded and is maintained by the Knights of St.
John.

A change for the better came with the Russian
Jews (1881-91), who brought with them more mod-
ern ideas of life. It was impossible to find room for
all in the old Jewish quarter between the traditional
Zion and the Temple mount. New
Spread, of portions were built up north and west
Modem of the city, especially by building so-
Jerusalem. cieties such as Mahaneh Yehudah, Sha-
'are Zedek, and Oholeb Mosheh. In
1891 there were eighteen such societies, owning 400
houses in front of the Jaffa and Damascus gates.

powers, came from America and formed a commu-
nity in Jerusalem. A few years later 117 Swedish-
Americans, mostly from Chicago, joined her. Vis-
itors commenced to come in larger numbers with the
opening on Sept. 26, 1892, of the narrow-gage rail-
way from Jaffa, which was built by a French com-
pany. Bokharian Jews commenced to settle in the
city in the year 1893.

On Nov. 1, 1898, the German emperor William
II. visited Jerusalem in state. One of the three
arches built on the Jaffa road was erected by the
Jews, a deputation of whom was received by the
emperor. On the following day a deputation of
Zionists, with Dr. Theodor Herzl at the head, had an
audience. In connection with the emperor's visit.

.-1
■< _

"-3 >»

P- 5.

6 s

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

144

many of the old roads had been repaired and new
ones built, especially up to the Mount of Olives;
and a portion of the city wall to the right of the
JafEa Gate had been torn down to make the entry
to the city commodious (" P. E. F. S." 1883, p. 117).
In order to assist the German colonists, the Deutsche
Palastina Bank was established. This was followed
in 1903 by the Anglo-Palestine Co., founded by the
Zionists in connection with the Jewish Colonial
Trust.

For some hundreds of years a small community of
Karaites existed in Jerusalem. According to their
own tradition, in 1586 they numbered 200; but on
account of the
plague most of
them wandered
away. An
anonymous Ital-
ian writer of
the }-ear 1635
(Luncz, I.e. V.
86) says that
their number in
his day was 20,
most of whom
were gold-
smiths. About
the year 1830
there were none
to be found in
the city ; their
dwellings had
been appropri-
ated by the other
Jews; but the
latter were
forced by the
Damascus Kara-
ites to give them
up again ("Jeru-
salem," vi. 239).
Their syna-
gogue, to which
anumberofsteps
led doAvn, is still
standing. The
oldest grave-
stone dates from
the year 1716.
In 1856 they
numbered 32
(Frankl, "Nach

Jerusalem," ii. 63; and see Fiirst, "Gesch. des Ka-
riierthums," iii. 129 et seq.).

Peculiarities in the customs of the Jerusalem Jews

are mentioned in various accounts; only a few can

be cited here. It was the custom to put on tallit and

tefillin during the afternoon ; to recite selihot also

in the afternoon ; and on Simhat Torah to deck the

synagogues with hangings ("Z. D. P.

Customs of V." iii. 225). Reference lias already

Jerusalem been made to the custom of reciting

Jews. Isa. Ixiv. 10 and of making a rent in

one's garments when approaching the

city (Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 561). Tlie

Sephardim were accustomed to have two wives;

I'itadel of Zioii, Jerusalem.

(From a ihotograph by the Ainericau <'olony, J<rrusaif m.)

Nathan Spira was the first German rabbi to follow
tills custom ("Gannat Weradim " ; Shulhan 'Aruk,
Eben ha-'Ezer, 9). Only very small tombstones,
with no inscriptions, are set over the graves, because
they are apt to be stolen by the non-Israelites
(Naphtali b. Jacob, "'Emek ha-Melek," p. 14a).
To-day the Jews are wont to throw rough bits of
stone, on which are written names and prayers, into
the Tombsof the Judges, the same as is done through
holes in the walls of the Haram of Hebron ("Jour.
Bib. Lit." xxii. 172). For further peculiarities, see
Luncz, I.e. V. 82; "Sammelband," Mekize Nirdamim,
1888, p. 26; Obadiah of Bertinoro, ed. Neubauer,

p. 61. Joseph
b. Mordecai ha-
Kohen wrote a
series of hymns
to be sung in
praise of Jerusa-
lem ("Sha'ar Ye-
rushalayim,"
Venice, 1707).

Archeological
research in Je-
rusalem was
really c o m -
menced in 1838
by the American
Edward Robin-
son, who was
followed by
Count deVogiie,
Sir Charles Wil-
son (1864-67),
and Lieutenant
Warren (1867),
the latter two
working in the
service of the
Palestine Explo-
ration Fund.
Of recent j^ears
much has been
done by Cler-
mont - Ganneau,
B a u r a t h C .
Schick, Fred-
erick J. Bliss,
and the Jesuit
fathers. In 1900
the " American
School of Ori-
ental Research in Palestine" was founded by the
Society of Biblical Literature in conjunction with
the "Archeological Institute of America." On
Nov. 15, 1903, the German Palestine Archeological
Institute was opened at Jerusalem. The English
Palestine Exploration Fund has a museum and
library in the Bishop's Buildings near the Tombs
of the Kings. The debris is sometimes 100 to
125 feet deep ; and excavations usually uncover
some antiquities. Among the more important may
be mentioned Robinson's Arch on the western
side of the Haram, 39 ft. from the southwestern
angle. Warren found the remains of the other end
of the arch, which had a span of 42 ft., and which

145

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

was probably part of an aqueduct carrying water to
the Temple area. Tiie remains called "Wilson's
Arch " were found in front of the present Gate of
the Chain. It also had a span of 42 ft. The south-
ern wall of Jerusalem, partly laid bare in 1875 by
Henry ]\Iaudslay, on the property of the Englisli
School, was accurately determined 1894-97 by F. J.
Bliss. In 1871 Clermont-Ganncau dis-
•Bemains covered a stone from Herod's Temple

and In- with an inscription in both Greek and
scriptions. Latin (comp. Acts xxi.). The l^loam
inscription Avas found in 1880 by the
Rev. 3Ir. Klein. An unfinished pillar, probably in-
tended for the Herodian Temple, is still to be seen
in the Russian
quarter. A sec-
ond pillar has
been discovered
1^ miles north-
west of the Jalt'a
Gate (" P. E. F.
S."1899, p. 213).
On a rock-cut
wine- and olive-
press found in
"Abraham's
Vineyard,"
northwest of Je-
rusalem, see ib.
1903, p. 398. A
number of He-
brew gravestone
inscriptions
have been
found, mostly in
the outskirts of
the city, and of
a period not
earlier than the
Roman. These
are mostly in-
scriptions upon
ossuaries (see
Chw Olson, "C.
I. H." p. 76;
Lidzbarski,
"Ephemeris filr
Sem. Epigr." i.
187, 312; "Re-
pet. d'Epigr.
Sem." i., Nos.
374, 382, 421,

422, 429-435). Special reference may be made to
that of the Bene Hazir at the entrance to the so-
called St. Jacob's grave (Chwolson, I.e. p. 64); the
inscription in Syriac and Hebrew of Queen Helena
in the Tombs of the Kings ("C. L S." ii. 156); the in-
scription upon a lintel ("' Repet. d'Epigr. Sem." I.e.
No. 373) ; and that of a somewhat later date found
below the Al-Aksa Mosque (Chwolson, I.e. p. 96).

Reference must be made also to the large subter-
ranean cjuarry called the " Quarry of Solomon " or
" The Cotton Grotto, " about 100 paces east of the Da-
mascus Gate and 19 ft. below the wall. It is about
100 ft. long and 150 ft. deep. From this quarry
was obtained much of the stone of which Jerusalem
VIL— 10

Exterior of the Golden Gate, Jerusalem.

(From a photofn'aph by BonfiU.)

was built. The cavern is supposed to represent the
" Royal Caverns " of Josephus ("B. J." iv. 2; see
Cyras Adler in "J. Q. R." viii. 384 et seq.). Re-
mains of an aqueduct have been found which formed
part of a remarkable system of waterworks extend-
ing about 15 kilometers south of Jerusalem. The
Arabs call it " Kanat al-Kuffar. " It contains a pecul-
iar siphon constructed partly, as the Roman in-
scriptions show, in 195 during the reign of Septimius
Severus("P. E. F. S." 1901, p. 118).

The valleys lying north and east of the city were
from the earliest times used as burial-places. A
number of the latter, hewn out of the rock, still
exist; though the assumption of their use for the

burial of judges
and prophets is
not founded on
•any real tradi-
tion. The Tombs
of the Judges,
north of Jerusa-
lem, were called
by the Jews the
"Tombs of the
Seventy " and
were connected
with the Sanhe-
drin (Carmoly,
I.e. pp. 387, 430,
443). They have
been accurately
described by
Robinson and
Tobler. For-
merly a court
existed, which
measured nearly
10m. X9m. The
tombs are made
up of a series of
rooms, the first
being 6 m .
square and 2.52
m. high. On
the northern
side there are
two tiers of loc-
uli ("kukim").
2 m. long, 0.81
to 0.90 m. high,
and 0.47 to 0.62
m. wide. Above
these are three arched recesses each with two loculi.
A door leads from this room to the second room,
which contains 21 niches, and to a
Tombs. third, with 9 niches. At the end
of the series of rooms is a small
chamber used for depositing bones removed from
the ossuaries in order to secure space for other
bodies. Another, similar tomb, south of the Tombs
of the Judges, on the road to Nabi Samwil,
was very finely conceived, but apparently was not
finished (see Barton in "Jour. Bib. Lit." xxii. 164 et
seq.). About 1,500 ft. northeast of the Tombs of the
Judges another series of tombs was found ; they have
been described in the " Mittheilungen " of the Ger-

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

146

man Palestine Assoc, 1898, p. 39; in the "Revue Bi-
blique," 1899, p. 297; and in the "P. E. F. S." 1900,
p. 54. They are like the Tombs of the Judges in
their internal decoration and elaborate workmanship.
They are said to date from the Hasmonean period,
though their use by Christians at a later time is evi-
denced by the crosses scratched on the walls. The
"Tombs of the Prophets" or the "Small Labyriutli"
on the Mount of
Olives is very
extensive and
very old. A few
steps lead under
a low arch into
a rotunda,
lighted from
above. From
this rotunda
passageways ra-
diate into rooms
cut farther into
the rocks, and
these again are
intersected by
semicircular
passages. In the
wall of the
outermost circu-
lar passage are

24 loculi (see "P. E. F. S." 1901, p. 309, and Bae-
deker, I.e. p. cxiii.). Other tombs are to be found
on Mt. Scopus, close to the road leading to Anata
("P. E. F. S." 1900, p. 75), and a few of the Roman
period opposite the southwestern corner of the city
wallC'Z. D. P. V." xvi. 202).

A series of tombs somewhat differently arranged
was found some
years ago on the
northern ex-
tremity of the
Mount of Olives,
now called
" Karm al-Say-
yid," but for-
merly " V i r i
Galilaei," be-
cause the Gali-
leans who came
to the festivals
spread their
tents here. The

general plan is that of a road with rooms lying
on either side; but there seems to be no defi-
nite architectural arrangement. The entrance was
originally closed by a stone; and in many of the
chambers the center was scooped out to catch the
rain that ran down the walls. Though many of the
rooms were used by Christians, the tombs are evi-
dently of Jewish origin. The Jewish graves are
farther apart from each other than the Christian
ones. This series is supposed by Schick to be the
"Peristereon " mentioned by Josephus ("B. J!" v. 12,
§ 2). Roman bricks with the mark of the 10th Le-
gion and Jewish coins have been found there (" Z.
D. P. V." xii. 193). The oldest Jewish gravestones
near and in Jerusalem date from about the year 1690

Plan of the Tombs of the Judges, Upper Level.

(From the " Jouroal of Biblical Literature.")

/rTnN fru^ /^i7^

Sectional View of the Tombs of the Judges.

(From the "Journal of Biblical Literature.")

("Jerusalem," v. 53). To be buried in Jerusalem
was always considered a special favcjr; see the pas-
sages cited in " Yalkut 'Erez Yisrael," pp. 78 et seq.
Among the prominent men supposed to be buried in
and around the city may be mentioned : the prophets
Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi ; Mordecai, Simon
the Just, Johanan b. Zakkai, Nahmanides, Obadiah
of Bertinoro. See " Yuhasin," p. 228b, ed. London ;

Conforte, "Ko-
re, " p. 19a;
Carmoly,"Itine-
raires, " pasdm ;
the list in Pin-
ner's Catal. p.
7 (Fragment,
1861 ?); and
Basset, " Nedro-
mah," pp. 158
et seq. , Paris,
1901.

The climate of
Jerusalem has
been carefully
studied since
1883 by Dr.
Thomas Chap-
lin. The mean
annual tempera-
ture is 62.8°;
maximum 112" ; minimum 25°. See the resume by
Kersten in "Z. D. P. V." xiv. 93 et seq. The mean
annual rainfall is 26.06 in. ; see the result of obser-
vations made from 1861 to 1892 by James Glaisher
in "P. E. F. S." 1894, p. 39.

The following chronological table gives a list of
the more important incidents that had a direct or

indirect bearing
on the history
of the Jews of
Jerusalem :

B.C.

15G0. Earliest histor-
ical mention
of Jerusalem,
found in the
El-Amarna
tablets.
1048. David takes
possession of
Jerusalem,
from the Je-
busites, call-
ing it "Ir
Dawid."
1007. Solomon's Temple completed after seven years' labor.
972. Shlshak of Egypt takes the city from Rehoboam.
713. Sennacherib advances toward Jerusalem.
700. Hezeklah perfects the water-supply.
586. (Ab 9.) Captured by Nebuzar-adan.
516. Rebuilt during reign of Darius.
350. Seized by the Persians.
332. Visited by Alexander the Great ?
320 or 305. Seized by Ptolemy Soter.
170. Plundered by Antiochus Epiphanes.
165. (Kislew 25.) Judas Maccabeus recaptures Jerusalem
and reconsecrates the Temple.
Pompey enters Jerusalem.
Besieged and taken by Herod the Great.
Restoration of the Temple begun by Herod the Great.

66.
37.
20.
C.E.
29.
70.

(April.) Jesus of Nazareth executed at Jerusalem.
(Nisan 14.) Siege commenced by Vespasian, lasting-
134 days.

Plan of the Catacombs on thk Mount of Olives, East of Jerusalem.

(After Schick.)

Cave Leading to the Traditional Tcmbs of the Judges, near Jerusalem.

(From a photograph of the FaleetiDe Exploration Fund.)

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

148

70. (Ab9.) Jerusalem destroyed by Titus.

135. Hadrian rebuilds the city.

1:36. Jerusalem called ^Elia Capitolina.

363. Restoration of the Temple undertaken by Julian the
Apostate.

614. Jews aid the Persian Chosroes II. in attack on Jerusalem.

628. Retaken by Heraclius; Jews forbidden to enter the city.

63". Omar puts Jerusalem under Moslem power.

688. 'Abd al-Malik builds the Dome of the Rock.
1046. Solomon ben Judah head of the yeshibah at Jerusalem.
1077. Seljuk Turks capture Jerusalem.

1099. (July 15.) Crusaders put 70,i>X) infidels to the sword,

and found a new Christian kingdom.

1100. "Assize of Jerusalem" established by Godfrey of Bouillon.
1140. Judah ba-Levi visits Jerusalem.

1173. Benjamin of Tudela visits Jerusalem.

1187. (Oct. 2.) Saladiu defeats the Franks and takes Jerusalem.

1211. Several hundred English and French rabbis settle in

Jerusalem.
1218. Al-Harizi visits Jerusalem.
1267. (Aug. 12.) Nahmanides visits Jerusalem.
1437. Elijah of Ferrara made chief rabbi.

1862.

1880.
1892.

1898.

1900.

(Sept. 5.) Treaty to preserve the Holy Sepulcher signed

by Russia, France, and Turkey.
Siloam Inscription discovered.
(Sept. 13.) Railway from Jerusalem to Jaffa, built by a

French company, opened.
(Nov. 1.) William II. of Germany visits Jerusalem in

state and receives a Jewish deputation.
Abarbanel Library founded.

Bibliography: Only the chief works of the very large litera-
ture on the subject can be mentioned. Numerous articles are
to be found in the publications of the Palestine Exploration
Fund, the Deutsche Verein zur Erforschung Palastinas, and the
Society de rOrient Latin. For the older literature : Rohricht,
BihlioUwca Geoaraphica Pnlcvstina\ Berlin, 1890 (see the
additions in Z. D. P. V. xiv. 113; xvi. 209. 269). For the
archeological material : Sunken of Western Palestine : Jeru-
salem, 1867-1870; C. W. Wilson, Ordnance Survey tif Jeru-
salem, Southampton, 1866 ; C.Warren, Underground Jerusa-
lem. London, 1S76 ; H. Guthe, Ausurahungen bet Jcmsalem.
Leipsic, 1883; Frederick J. Bliss, Excavations at Jerusalem,
London, 1898; W. Sanday, Sacred Sitex of the Gospels, Ox-
ford, 1903. For a general account: Edward Robinson, Re-
seaixhes, 1856; E. Starck, PaUtstina und Syrien . . . Lexi-
kalisches Hilfshuch, p. 86, Berlin, 1894; Buhl, Geographic

Grotto Lkading to the Traditional Tombs of the Kings, near Jerusalem.

(From s photograph by Bonfils.)

1492. Jews expelled from Spain settle in Jerusalem.

1517. Capture by Ottoman Turks.

1580. Nahmanides synagogue closed by the Moslems, claiming
that it had previously been a mosque.

1621. Isaiah Horowitz and a number of his friends settle in
Jerusalem.

1627. Ibn Farukh, governor of Jerusalem and persecutor of
the Jews, deposed.

1705. Jews subjected to certain vexatious restrictions In mat-
ters of attire.

1798. Napoleon visits Palestine ; Jewish community of Jerusa-
lem accused of assisting him and its members threat-
ened with death.

1827. First visit of Moses Monteflore.

1838. Edward Robinson commences archeological research In
Jerusalem.

1840. Crc^mieux, Monteflore, and Albert Cohn visit Jerusalem.

1841. (Nov. 7.) S. M. S. Alexander, convert to Christianity,

consecrated first Anglican Bishop of Jerusalem.
1854. Albert Cohn e.^itablishes many charitable institutions.

d€s Alien Paldstina, pp. 93 et scq., 132 et seq. For the
Mohammedan period : Guy le Strange, Palestine Under
the Moslems, London, 1890. For the Crusading period:
Besant and Palmer, The History of Jerusalem, London,
1888; J. R. Sepp, Jerusalem und das Heilige Land, 3d ed.,
1873; R. Rohricht, Gesch. des Konigreichs Jerusalem, Ber-
lin. 1898. For modem Jerusalem : Biideker's Palestine and
Syria^ (by Socin and Benzinger), 3d ed., Leipsic, 1898. For
the history of the Jews : Various articles by A. M. Luncz in
his Jerusalem, vols, i.-vi.; Schwartz, I'ehu'ot ha-Arez (best
edition by Luncz, Jerusalem, 1890); Steinschneider, Bihli-
ography of Hebrew Works, in Jerusalem, vols, iii., iv.; Sol-
omon b. Menahem (Mendel), Zikkaron bi-Yerushalayim
(on the synagogues, schools, graves, etc.), Jerusalem, 1876;
Joel Moses Solomon, Bet Ya'akob (on the Ashkenazic syna-
gogue), ib. 1877; Lob TJrenstein, Tal Yerushalayim (on
thecustomsof theJerusalem Jews), 'ib. 1877; Shibhe Yeru-
shalayim, ed. Jacob Baruch, Leghorn, 1785; Sefer Hibbat
Yerushalayim, pp. 3.5b et seq., Jerusalem. 1844; Farhi, Kaf-
tor wa-Fcrah, 2d ed., ib. 1902; Frumkin, Kben Shcmuel (on
Jewish men of learning in Jerusalem). Wilna. 1894; idem,
Massa' Eben Shemuel. Jerusalem. 1871.

JERUSALEM

MODERN

0 200 400 600 3U0 1000 Eeet

6 —

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

150

Modern : The modern city of Jerusalem (Ara-
bic, "Al-Kuds") practically covers the site of the an-
cient city. Excavations have shown, however, that
the old city extended farther to the south ; while to the
north, and particularly to the west, the modern city
far exceeds the ancient one, whole settlements lying
beyond the walls
of the medieval
city. The west-
ern city wall
coincides with
the line of the
original wall ;
the northern
wall is held by
some to be iden-
tical in its course
with the ancient
third wall, and
by others with
the second ; and
the eastern wall
follows the
course of the
eastern Temple
enclosure. The
present wall,
erected by the
Osman sultan.
Sulaiman the
Magnificent, is
thirty-eight and

one-half feet high, and forms an irregular quadrangu-
lar enceinte two and one-half miles in extent. It is
pierced by eight gates: Jaffa, Zion, Dung, St.
Stephen's, Herod, Damascus, New, and Golden, the
la.st-named being sealed. Parts of the old city wall
are still in situ, especially on the southern and east-
ern sides, and
much of the old
material was
used in the re-
construction,
evidences of
which are abun-
dant. On the
north an old
moat, separating
the Hill of Jere-
miah from Be-
zetha, is used as
part of the city's
defenses.

Within tlie
walls the city
is divided into
four quarters:

Square Outside tlie Jaffa Gate. Jerusalem

(From a photograph by Dr. \V. I'opper.)

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Daina-scus Gate, Jerusalem.

(From a photograph by the American Colony, Jerusalem.)

the Moslem, in the northeastern and eastern parts,
including the Temple place; the Jewish, in the
southern part, on the eastern slope of the tradi-
tional Mt. Zion; and the Armenian, in the south-
western part. In recent years the Moslem quarter
has been invaded by the Jews; and outside of the

walls, along the
Jaffa and Da-
mascus roads,
are numerous
colonies of
Jews. The
homes of many
of the better
classes of Chris-
tians and Mos-
lems, as well as
the foreign con-
sulates, the more
important con-
vents, monaster-
ies, hospitals,
schools, and
hotels, are also
iu this extra-
mural quarter.
Within the walls
the streets are
narrow, crooked,
and steep. Many
of them are cov-
ered over so that
sunlight never enters; and the sanitary conditions
are, on the whole, very poor. The style of the ar-
chitecture is typical, the houses consisting of a series
of low, square, flat-domed rooms, built about an
open court, which generally contains a cistern
for gathering water. An occasional latticed bal-
cony is seen ;
and almost all
roofs are pro-
vided with a bal-
ustrade. Out-
side the walls
the streets are
wider and better
cared for, and
the houses are
more European
in appearance.

The climate is
mild ; but the
extremes of heat
and cold are not
unknown. Snow
and frost are oc-
casionally expe-

the Christian,

the Moslem, the Jewish, and the Armenian. David

street, running east and west from the Jaffa gate

to the Tcmiile place, and Damascus
Divisions, street, with its continuation. Bazaar

street, which starts from the Da-
mascus gate and runs north and south, form the
boundary -lines for the.se quarters. The Christian
quarter is in the northwestern corner of the city;

rienced in the
winter, a season of long-protracted rains. The late
summer is very imcomfortable, owing to the heavy
dust and the hot eastern winds. The absence of
foliage and the glare of the bare stone seem to in-
tensify the natural heat of the sun.

With the exception of the Spring of Siloam ('Ain
Sitti Maryam), Jerusalem is without any natural
water-supply. Every house therefore is provided

151

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Jerusalem

with one or more cisterns for gatliering rain-water.
The well-being of the city is thus directly dependent

on the amount of the rainfall. The old

Weather aqueduct from Solomon's Pools has

and Water, recently been replaced by a modern

pipe-line. The amount of water thus
conducted is small ; and the Temple place is more di-
rectly benefited than the city proper. The increase
of private cisterns of late years has reduced the
amount of water formerly collected in the large
public pools, which are now used only in case of
necessity by the poorest of the population. Some
water is brought in by train and cart from Bittir

and damage. Without the walls modern carriages
are in use.

The present population of Jerusalem is about
46,500. Of this number 29,000 are Jews; 8,500,
Moslems; and the remaining 9,000,
.Popula- Christians of different sects. Each of
tion. the properly accredited confessions has
its representatives in the town council
(" Majlis Baladiyyah "), of which the mayor of the
city is president. Jerusalem forms an independent
sanjak, subject to the sultan, who appoints the
"mutasarrif." A regiment of infantry is main-
tained in the city, in the Tower of David.

The Golden Gatk from Within the City of Jerusalem.

(From a photograph by Bonfils.)

and 'Ain Karim, mostly for the use of the European
inhabitants. The large pools are all of ancient con-
struction : the Birkat Isra'in (Bethesda?), to the north
of the Temple place; the Birkat al-Sultan (upper
Gihon?), southwest of the Jaffa gate; the Birkat
al-Batrak (Hezekiah's Pool?), in the city, west of the
Muristan ; the Birkat Mamilla, in the Moslem ceme-
tery, west of the city; and the upper and lower
pools of Siloam, southeast of the city.

Jerusalem is now reached by rail from Jaffa. The
station is twenty minutes' ride southwest of the
city, in the plain of Rephaim, near the German col-
ony of the Templars. Transportation within the city
is by means of horse, camel, or donkey, only few
streets being practicable for wheeled conveyances.
Certain streets which are very much crowded have
low iron bars across them to prevent camels from
entering, their large loads causing much confusion

Up to 1837 the number of Jews in the Holy City

was very small; and of these the great majority

were Sephardim. In previous centu-

Jews of ries Ashkenazim had preferred to set-
Jerusalem, tie in the Galilean cities. The earth-
quake at Safed and Tiberias in 1837
caused many to move southward ; and this gave the
first impetus to the growth of the Jewish colony in
Jerusalem. The next great movement toward Jeru-
salem occurred in connection with the persecutions
in Russia ; and since then the growth of the commu-
nity has been extraordinary. From 3, 000 in 1837, the
Jews have, as stated above, increased to 29,000 in
1903. Rumania, Persia, Mesopotamia, ]\Iorocco, and
Yemen have each furnished a quota to the now
complex Jewish community of Jerusalem. The
Sephardim number about 15,000, and comprise, be-
sides the original Spanish-Portuguese stock, colonies

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

152

of Eastern Jews of various nationalities. The Ash-
kenazim are broadly divided into Hasidim and Pe-
rushim, which in turn are divided into numerous
small "halukkah " congregations. A few Karaites
still remain.

Modern Jerusalem is a city with no commerce
except the importation of the necessities of life,
the export of souvenirs, and the tour-
ist trade, and manufactures little
but olive-wood souvenirs and sacred
scrolls. Jerusalem is dependent upon
the tourist and upon charity. The Jew gets the least
from the former, and a large part of the latter. There
is but one good Jewish hotel (Hotel Jerusalem,
Kaminitz) where

Occupa-
tions.

Europeans are
accommodated,
though there are
several Jewish
inns. A small
number of Jews
is engaged in
the administra-
tion of the vari-
ous charitable
and educational
institutions es-
tablished in the
city by their
brethren abroad.
These include
the physicians,
chemists, teach-
ers, and other
paid officials.
About 2,000
Jews are crafts-
men, occupied in
carpentry, tai-
loring, capma-
king, shoema-
king, printing,
tin- and copper-
smithing, ba-
king, engineer-
ing, etc. These
trades are, how-
ever, all over-
crowded, and
regular employ-
ment is scarce.
A few Jews are

engaged in money-changing, and one is a banker;
writing sacred scrolls gives employment to a small
number; many drive cabs; and a great number are
engaged in petty trading. A store is a sign of
prosperity, no matter how mean it may be. A
large portion of the Jews exist on the charity that
pours in from abroad.

Much is done in aid of the Jew ; but so abject is
his poverty, and so limited are his chances for im-
provement, that even the best-directed efforts do not
suffice to relieve the situation. For the benefit of
the Jewish poor a number of dwellings have been
erected which are either let at a nominal rental or
occupied free. Free dispensaries are maintained in

Zion Gate, Jerusalem.

(From a photograph by Boniils.)

connection with the hospitals and by the Le-Ma'an
Ziyyon Society. There are four Jewish hospitals:
the Bikkur Holim, under the auspices of the Ash-
kenazim; the Misgab la-Dak, under the Sephar-
dim ; the Sha'are Zedek, under the Orthodox of
Germany ; and the Rotlischild. Two orphanages
for boys have been established. There are also an
institute for training blind children, an asylum for
incurables and the insane, and a home
Institu- for aged men and women. There are a
tions. large school for girls, the Evelina de
Rothschild School (founded 1864), at
present under the Anglo-Jewish Association of Lon-
don ; a German school for boys, the Edler von Laem-

mel School
(1856), under the
Frankfort Soci-
ety ; the elemen-
tary school
(1884) for boys;
and the technical
shops (1886) of
the Alliance Is-
raelite Univer-
selle. At the
schools many of
the children are
provided with
food and cloth-
ing. A library
(the Jewish Cen-
tral Library) has
been established,
and contains a
promising col-
lection of 20,000
books (see Abai{-
BANEL Li-
brary). There is
a large number
of Orthodox ha-
darim andyeshi-
bot scattel'ed
through the
city,' where stu-
dents are sup-
plied with an
education in the
traditional sense
of the term, and
with the neces-
saries of life.
The working men have organized for purposes of
mutual aid and the encouragement of industries in
the cit3^

The great majority of the Jews is, as stated
above, dependent on foreign charity. The Jewish
Colonization Association and several other societies
dispense doles through their agents; but the haluk-
kaii system reaches more people than all the others
combined. "Halukkah" is the term applied to the
funds sent by pious Jews from abroad for the support
of needy scholars in the Holy City, who in return
pray and study, at the holy sites, in memory of their
benefactors. While accomplishing a great deal of
good, the system is regarded by some as thoroughly

Jerusalem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

154

iniquitous because of its pauperizing tendencies and
of tlie inequality of the distribution of tlie funds.
See Halukkah.

Two weeklies ("Ha-Habazzelet," edited by A.
Frumkin; and "Hashkafha," by Ben Judah) as well
as an annual almanac ("Jerusalem," by Luncz) are
published by the Jews of Jerusalem. Besides the
Tahnudic works of the Orthodox rabbis, other works
of real importance and value appear from time to
time. The names of Griinhut, Ben Judah. Luncz,
Simeon Hakam, and Yellin are most prominent in
this connection.

The Sephardic community is recognized by the
government, its chief rabbi, the hakam bashi, when
installed being invested by the sultan with an official
robe and an order. Rabbi Abraham Hayyim Gagin
was the first to
receive an irade
as hakam bashi
of Palestine, in
1842. He died
in 1848, and was
succeeded by R.
Jacob Covo (d.
1854). Since the
latter's death the
following have
held the office:
Hayyim Nissim
Abulafia (d.
1860) ; Hayyim
David Hazan (d.
1869); Abraham
Ashkenazi (d.
1880); Meir Pa-
nisel (d. 1893);
and Saul Jacob
El Yashar, the
present incum-
bent (1904), who
lias a place on
the town coun-
cil, but, owing
to age, has dele-
gated this office
to his grand-
son. The hakam
bashi' is respon-
sible for the

taxes of the Jews and for their good behavior;
and has the right to collect for the communal treas-
ury the meat-tax ("gabella") and any fines he
may impose. Helms jurisdiction over his people;
and the Turkish authorities are at his service for
enforcing his decrees and tlio.se of his court ("bet
din"). The "shaikh al-Yahud " is an administra-
tive officer under the chief rabbi, whose duty it
is to police the JewLsli quarter and to collect the
taxes, etc. Formerly the military tax (" 'askariy-
yali") was paid out of the communal taxes, but
lecentl}' Baron Edmoud de Rothschild has defrayed
this expense for all the Jews of Palestine.

The Ashkenazim refuse to recognize the authority
of the hakam baslii, and have their own organiza-
tion. They have one head, Samuel Salant, to whose
administrative ability the present state of affairs is

A Typical Street

(From a photogra

attributable. An assistant was lately called from
Rus.sia, E. D. Rabbinowitz-Tummim. This organi-
zation is of course unofficial ; and these rabbis de-
pend on their moral and personal influence for the
enforcement of their decisions. Most of the Ashke-
nazim enjoy tbe protection of some foreign consu-
late.

There are about 350 places of prayer for the Jeru-
salem Jews, about seventy of which are in independ-
ent buildings. The Ashkenazim possess two large,
commodious synagogues, both in the city proper
— the Neu Schul of Salant and the synagogue of
the Hasidim. The other synagogues of the Ash-
kenazim are Bet Ya'akob, Sha'are Ziyyon, and Mena-
hem Ziyyon (all of which are built about the court-
yard of R. Judah he-Hasid, and are owned by the

members of the
Perushim com-
munity), and
Tif'eret Yisrael,
also known as
"the synagogue
of R. Nissim
Bak," Bak hav-
ing collected the
funds for its
building.

The principal
synagogues of
the Sephardic
Jews are the
Kehal Istambul,
the official syn-
agogue in which
the hakam bashi
is installed and
in which he
officiates on
holy days; the
Kehal Emza'i,
.so called because
it is in the midst
of the other syn-
agogues; Bet
ha-Keneset R.
Johanan b. Zak-
kai; Kehal Tal-
mud T o r a h .
All of these are
united and form one group. There is a small syn-
agogue. Bet El, used by the Cabalists, and an-
other, Kehal Ma'arabim, used by the
Syna- Moroccan Jews. The Karaites also
g-ogues and have an interesting place of worship;
Yeshibot. and the services of the Yemenite,
Persian, and Bokharian Jews are
worthy of notice because of the variations in the
forms of the ritual.

Besides the larger synagogues within the city,
there are several smaller ones. Outside the walls
each Jewish colony has a synagogue of its own;
the largest of these are Me'ahShe'arim, Bet Ya'akob,
Nahalat Shib'ah, Bet Yisrael, Yemin Mosheii,
]VIazkeret IMosheii, Olicl Mosiieh, and Rehobot, the
la.st-named belonging to the colony of the Bokharian
Jews.

in Jerusalem

ph by Bonfila.)

155

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem

Tlie famous Wailiug-Place (*' Kotel Ma'arabi ") is
iuteiestiug from every poiutof view. Every Friday
afternoon and aftermoruing service on Sabbaths and
holy days the Jews assemble in a i)icturesquc crowd
to bewail their departed glory. This is the gieat
show-place of tlie Jerusalem Jewry, as the Temple
place is for the Moslems, and the Church of the
Holy Sepulcher for the Christians.

Of the yeshibot those of the Sephardim are mostly
foundations in which the hakamim, who are bene-
ficiaries, liave to study and to offer prayers daily for
the souls of the deceased testators. Chief of these
yeshibot are: Hesed le-Abraham, an ancient trust
which benetits
ten rabbis, in-
cluding the ha-
le a m b a s h i ;
Ka'id Nissim
Shamama of Tu-
nis, which has
an annual in-
come of 6,000
francs, divided
among fifty ha-
kamim; Mazzal
Zomeah, sup-
ported by tlie
iSassoon family
of Bombay, at
which ten rabbis
each receive 200
francs annually ;
Menahem Elijah
of Vienna, which
grants 200 francs
a year to each of
ten rabbis; Ge-
daliah, presided
over by tlie
hakam bashi,
and founded and
maintained by
Hayj'im Gue-
dalla, a nephew
of the late Sir
Moses Monte-
fiore ; Bet Ya-
'akob, in which
ten rabbis re-
ceive each an an-
nual allowance
of 140 francs;
and Tif'eret Ye-

rushalayim, for young students, each of whom re-
ceives a small annual income.

The yeshibot of the Ashkenazim are more in the
nature of colleges, at which young men spend
their time in the study of the Talmud and the codes.
Each student receives a monthly allowance varying
from 10 to 80 francs. Their chief yeshibot are: 'Ez
Hayyim, attended by about 100 students, under the
supervision of B. Samuel Salant; Me'ah She'arim,
with 50 students, under B. Saul Hayyim Hur-
vitz; Torat Hayyim, managed by B. Hayyim
Weingrad; and Hayye 'Olam, a small yeshibah for
Hasidim.

Typography: The following books have been
printed in Jerusalem since 1842:

1842.

1843.

1843.
1843.

1846.
1855.

1863.

Street of Arches Leading

(From .1 photogra

1881.

1882

18a3.
1884.

1885.

1880.

Azharot (published by Israel Bak), selections read on

Shabu'ot night by the Moroccan Jews.
Be'er Sheba' (I. Bali), commentary on the Pentateuch, by

Moses David Ashkenazi.
Dibre Shalom (I. Bak), by Abraham Shalom Mizrahl.
Ohole Yehudah (I. Bak), commentary on Rambam, by

Judah ha-Kohen.
Be'er ba-Sadeh (I. Bak), by Menahem Danon.
Ge Hizzayon (I. Bak), a life of Sir Moses Monteflore, by

Jacob Sappir.
Sefer ha-Goralotof R. Hayyim Vital (Bril, Cohen, and Salo-
mon), published from a manuscript found in Yemen by
Jacob Sappir.

1864. I) i m ' a t h a -
'Ashukim (I.
Bak), on local
disputes, by
Salomon Bo-
jarsky.
1868. OholeYosef (I.
Bak), on the
ritual laws, by
Elias Joseph
Rivlin.

1871. EbenShelomoh
(J. M. Salo-
mon) , com-
mentary on
some difficult
passages In
the Talmud,
by Rabbi Salo-
mon of Tolot-
shin.

1871-76. Imre Binah
(J. M. Salo-
mon), respon-
sa, by Meir
Auerbach.

1872. Arzot ba-Hay-
ylm (Jos.
Schmer), by
Hayyim Pa-
laggl, chief
rabbi of
Smyrna.

1875. Darke Ish (Nis-
sim Bak), ser-
mons, by Ju-
dah Arewass.

1876. Em la-Masso-
ret (N. Bak).
by Aryeh Lob
Harlf.

1876-79. Or ha-Hok-
mah (J. M.
Salomon),
commentary
on the Zohar,
by Abraham
Azulai.

1877. Eleh Toledot
Yizhak (A. M.

Luncz), biog-
raphy of the French statesmati, Isaac Creraieux, by Luncz.

Ha-Yehudim bi-Sefarad we-Portugal (Frumkin), trans-
lated from the English of Frederick D. Mocatta by I. B.
Frumkin.

Ohel Abraham (J. M. Salomon), responsa and "dinim."
by Abraham Sohag.

Ohel Mo'ed (.\gan), commentary on passages from the
Pentateuch, the Five Scrolls, Joshua, Judges, and
Samuel, by Abrahairi Bick.

Erez Yisrael (J. M. Salomon), by E. Ben Judah.

Zeker 'Olam (Ooshzinl), a journey to Palestine, by Re-
becca Lippe.

Alfasi Zuta (A. M. Luncz). an outline of Alfasi, by Mena-
hem Azariah da Fano; edited by N. Nathan Coronel.

The life of Sir Moses and Lady Judith Monteflore (Zucker-
manii), by Ezra Benvenisti.

to the Palace of Herod.

ph by Bonfils.)

1878.

Jerusalem
Jeshua

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

156

18S6. Ohel Mo'ed (S. Zuckennanni, hy R. Samuel Yarundi.

1887. Eben Sheloinoh (Isaac Hirschensohn), commentary on
some difficult passages In the Talmud and tbe Tosafot,
by Salomon Epstein.

1887. Iggeret le-Dawld (J. M. Salomon), a letter by David Cohen,
containing some references to the events of the year
5648.

1891. Or le-Hayyim (I. B. Frumkin), by Hillel Gelbstein.

1893-94. Batte Midrashot (G. Lilienthal), old midrashlm, col-
lected and edited by S. A. Wertheimer.

1899. Haftarah for the eighth day of Pesah, with the Persian

(Luncz).
1899. Wa-Ye'esof Dawid, sermons, by David Kazin of Aleppo.
1901. Ben Ish Hayil (Frumkin), sermons, by David Hayyim of

Bagdad.
1901. Bet Hayil (Ben Judah), "Domestic Economy," a Hebrew

reader, by Joseph Meyuhas.
The present hakam bashi has published '"Olat Ish," "Ma'aseh
Ish," and "Simhah le-Ish (t:"N = the initials of Saul Jacob El
Yashar in inverted order) ; A. M. Luncz has issued six volumes

Daviu's Strekt, Jekisalkm.

(From a photograph by the Palestine ExpIoratioD Fund.)

1894. Ezor Eliyahu (J. M. Levy), commentary on Pirke Abot,

etc., by Elihu ha-Kohen Etmari.
1898-1900. Jehoiada on some passages of the Talmud ( Frumkin) .
1899. Agudah (Frumkin), ritual code, by Alexander Susslin
Cohen of Frankfort-on-the-Main.
Or Yekarot (I. N. Levy), a commentary on the Mishnaic

order Tohorot, by Asher Luria.
Ben Ish Hay (Salomon), on the Pentateuch, by Joseph
Hayyim, chief rabbi of Bagdad.

1899.

of his year-book "Jerusalem," as well as a new edition of Estori
Parhi's "Kaftor wa-Ferah," and Uabbi Joseph Schwarz's
" Tebu'ot ha-Eiez " ; L. (Jriinhut has published some midrashim,
"Kobez Midrashim"; David Jellin, a Hebrew reader ; Hayyim
Hirschensohn, the work '* Mosedot Torah She-be'al Peh " ; S. A.
Wertheimer, " Midrash Haserot we-Yeterot " ; Sliman Man!
of Hebron, "Siah Yizhak"; M. Baruch of Bokhara, a volume
of sermons, "Tebat Mosheh"; and I. M. Pines has edited the
" 'Emek Berakah " of David Friedman, chief rabbi of Karlin.

157

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jerusalem
Jeshua

liesides these tliere liave recently lieen puiilished in Jerusa-
lem for tlie Jews of Yemen and Bokhara various works in He-
brew, Arabic, and Persian. Aiiioug them may be mentioned a
Siddur of the Yemenite Jews ( 18'.)4); " Keter Torah," or " Taj,"
I'enlateucn witli Targum and Saadia's Arabic translation
(1895-liKlli; "Mikra Meforash," Pentateuch with modern Per-
sian translation (i'JOl-Oy).

D. M. A. M.

In addition to the annual contributions from abroad
there are the following permanent funds, the interest
of which is devoted to the same purpose as the ha-
lukkah:

Donor.

Residence.

Date.

Amount.

L. Lewenberp

(?)

6,300 francs.

Sir Moses Montetlore

(testimonial)

London

1877

£13,0IK).

Sir Moses Montellore..

London

1883

£;}U,000.

Jacob Nathanson

Plymouth ..

(?)

£30 (annual inter-
est).

Isaac Ratzesderfer . . .

.Antwerp...

188.5

3(),(K)0 florins.

Dr Sah t'ndi

Diirkheim ..

1895

1,000 francs.

Ka'id Nissim Shama-

Leghorn —
London

1884

(?)

178,000 francs.

Levi Solomon

£54 (annual Inter-

est).

Gedaliah Tiktin

Breslau

1887

30,()tlli marks.

Visotzki

Russia

1894

A second
deposit.

13,780 francs.

Visotzki

350 francs (annual

Interest) .

Nahman Moses Vol-

koviski

Russia

1900

10,000 rubles.

Samson Wertheimer..

Vienna

August 8,

1808....

53,6.57 florins.

Joshua Zeitlin

Dresden....

1887

;33,2o0 francs.

There are also several houses in Jerusalem erected
from charitable funds contributed from abroad.
These are either placed at the disposal of the same
persons as those for whom the halukkah is founded,
or the income is devoted to their use. These build-
ings are as follows :

Donor.

Residence.

Name of Terrace.

VI
3
O
W

•s

d
2

Moses Alexander..
Miss Davis

New York

America

Obole Mosheh

30
24

20
10
20
40
18
50

1901

Samuel PoUakofl..
David Reiss

St. Petersburg..
Yanov

[Income of 3,000

rubles]

Bet David

Hazer ha-Geberet
Bet Mishkenot...
Sha'are Mosheh . .

Ohel Yizhak

Nahalat Ya'akob.

3 'Ezrat Nidda-
1 him

18(53

1874

Mrs. Scheindel

Jassy

1899

Judah Touro

Moses Wittemberg.
Isaac Rotzesderfer.
Jacob Taninwurzel
Baron M. de Hirsch

New Orleans. . .

Diinaburg

Antwerp

Warsaw

Paris

1893

1897

and Dr. Arie Sal-

Diirkheim

1889

vendi

BiBMOGKAPH Y : Revuc dex Ecoleif dc VAUia nee Isi-aelitc, June,

li)03.

.1. M. Fu.

JERUSALEM. See Periodicals; Year-Books.

JESCHURUN: Periodical published in Frank -
fort-on-tiie-Main and subsequently in Hanover.
Founded in Oct., 1854, it was issued as a monthly by
Samson Raphael Hirsch up to 1870. From 1882
till 1886 his son Isaac Hirsch jiublished it as a
weekly. It was then merged into " Der Israelii." Its
tiieological position was ultra-Orthodox.

G. ' A. 51. F.

JESCHURUN (Zeitschrift fiir die Wissen-
schaft des Judenthums) : Periodical edited and
published by Josepli Isaac Kobak. Among its con-

tributors were S. L. Rapoport, S. D. Luzzatto,
A. H. Weiss, Halberstam, Dukes, Steinschneider,
Reifmann, and other well-known scholars. The first
two volumes are in Hebrew only, but the succeed-
ing volumes are iiurtly in Hebrew and imrtly in
Qerman (vols, i., ii., Leniberg, 1856-58; iii.. Bres-
lau, 1859; iv., v., Flirth, 1864-66; vi.-ix., Bamberg,
1868-78). Some of its Hebrew articles were pub-
lished separately in four vohnnes under the title
"Ginze Isistarot" (Bamberg, 1868-78).

Bibliocrai'HY : Harkavy, List of Jewish Periodical Publica-
tions and Literary Collections (Russian), in I'rvreixki Bihli-
otckii, vii.-viii.. St. Petersburg, 1879-80; ZeiUin, iJ(7j!. Hcbr.
Post-Memlels. p. 174.
G. P. Wl

JESHARELAH. See Asarelau.
JESHIBAH. See Yeshibah.

JESHUA BEN JUDAH (Arabic, Abu al-
Faraj Furkan ibn Asad) : Karaite exegete and
philosopher; tlourished, probably at Jerusalem, in
the second half of the eleventh century ; pupil of
Joseph ben Abraham ha-Ro'eh. Jeshua was con-
sidered one of the highest authorities among the
Karaites, by whom he is called " tlie great teacher "
("al-mu'allim"). Like all the Karaite leaders, he
was a very active propagandist; and his public lec-
tures on Karaism attracted many inquirers. Among
these was a Castilian Rabbinite named Al-Taras,
who, after having accepted the Karaite teachings,
returned to his native country, where he organized
a powerful propaganda by circulating Jeshua's wri-
tings. The greatest service, however, rendered by
Jeshua to Karaism was his accomplishment of the
reform of the laws concerning incest, a reform
which had been advocated by his master, Joseph ben
Abraham ha-Ro"eh.

Jeshua's activity in the domain of Bible exegesis

was very extensive. He translated the Pentateuch

into Arabic, and wrote thereon an

As Biblical exhaustive commentary, of which he

Exegete. made, in 1054, an abridged version.
In this commentary, Jeshua made use
of all the exegetical works of his Karaite predeces-
sors and of that of Saadia, often attacking the latter
most vigorously. Several passages of Jeshua's com-
mentary are quoted by Abraham ibn Ezra. Frag-
ments of the Pentateuch translation and of the ex-
haustive commentary on a part of Leviticus, with
almost the whole of the abridged version, are extant
in manuscript in the British Museum (MSS. Or.
2491; 2494, ii; 2544-46). Both commentaries were
eaily translated into Hebrew ; and parts of them are
in the Firkovich collection at St. Petersburg. Jeshua
wrote two other Biblical works, an Arabic com-
mentary on the Decalogue (which he reproduced in
an abridged form) ; and a pliilosophical midrash enti-
tled " Bereshit Rabbah," in which he discusses, in the
spirit of the Motazilite "kalam," creation, the exist-
ence and unity of God, the divine attributes, etc. A
fragment of a Hebre\v translation of the abridged
commentary on the Decalogue, made by Tobiah ben
Moses untlcr the title "Pitron 'Aseret ha-Debarim,"
is still extant in manu.script ("Cat. Leyden," Nos. 5
and 41, 2). The "Bereshit Rabbah" is no longer in
existence; but passages from it are frequently
(luoted by Aaron of Nicomedia in his " 'Ez Hayyim, "

Jeshua
Jesurun

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

158

and by Abraham ibn Daud, who in his "Sefer ha-
Kabbalah " (end) calls it a blasphemous work.

Jeshua was also the author of a work on the pre-
cepts, entitled "Sefer ha-Yashar," which has not
been preserved. From it was probably extracted
his treatise on the degrees of relation-
Rules of ship within which marriage is forbid-
Relation- den, quoted by him under tlie title " Al-
ship. Jawabat Aval-Masa'il fi al-'Arayot,"
and known in the Hebrew translation
made by Jacob ben Simon under the title " Sefer ha-
'Arayot." Fragments of both the Arabic text and
the Hebrew translation still exist in manuscript, the
former in the British Museum (H. Or. No. 2497, iii.),
and the latter in the libraries of Leyden (" Cat. Ley-
den," Nos. 25, 1; 41, 16) and St. Petersburg (MS.
No. 1614). In this treatise Jeshua discusses the
hermeneutic rules which are to be used in the inter-
pretation of these laws, gives a critical view of the
principles upon which the various prohibitions are
based, quotes Karaite authorities, such as Anan and
Al-Kirkisani, on the subject, and produces the views
of the Kabbinites Saadia and Simon Kahira (author
of the " Halakot Gedolot "). Another treatise by
Jeshua on the same subject was the "Teshubat
ha-'Ikkar," published at Goslow in 1834 under the
title "iggeret ha-Teshubah."

Jeshua was also the author of the following philo-
sophical treatises, probably translated from the
Arabic: "Marpe la-'Ezem," in twenty-five short
chapters, containing proofs of the creation of the
world, of the existence of God, and of His unity,
omniscience, and providence (MS. Paris No. 670;
MS. St. Petersburg No. 686); "Meshibot Nefesh,"
on revelation, prophecy, and the veracity of the
Law ; and three supplementary chapteYs to Joseph
ben Abraham ha-Ro'eh's "Sefer Ne'imot " ("Cat.
Leyden," No. 172), in which Jeshua treats of re-
ward and punishment and of penitence. The Arabic
original manuscript of the last of these three chap-
ters is in the British Museum. It bears the title
" Mas'alah Mufarridah," and the author shows there-
in tliat the repetition of a prohibition must neces-
sarily have a bearing on the punishment in case of
transgression.

BiBLiOGRAPnY : Pinsker. LUfkute Kadmoniyyot, p. 71 and In-
dex ; Furst, Oeach. des Kdrdert. li. 162 et seq.; Gottlober,
Bikkoret le-Tnledot ha-^era''im. p. 195; G. Margollouth, In
J. Q. R. xi. 187 et seq.; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp.
459, 942 ; Idem, Die Arahittche Literatur der Juden, § 51 ;
Schrelner, In Bericht der Lehranstalt, 1900; Neubauer, Ann
der Petershurger Bibliothek, pp. 19 et seq.
K. L Br.

JESHTJRUN : Poetical name for Israel, occur-
ring four times in the Bible (Deut. xxxii. 15, xxxiii.
5, 26 ; Isa. xliv. 2 ; in the last-cited place the A. V. has
"Jesurun "). All the commentators agree in apply-
ing this term to Israel. The Peshittaand the Targu-
mim render it by " Israel " ; only the Targum Yeru-
shalmi has in the first instance "Jeshurun." The
Septuagint invariably renders the word by yyan^fievog,
and Jerome once by "dilectus," probably taking
piK^^ as a diminutive of endearment. But in three
other places Jerome renders it by "rectissimus," in
which he seems to have followed the opinion of
Aquila, Symmachus, and Tlieodotion (comp. Jerome
on Isa. xliv. 2). Thus they derive this word from
•\lif> = " to be upright " ; and the same etymology is

given by Kimhi and Ibn Ezra. Obadiah Sforno
derives it from "ii^^ = "to behold," meaning a clear-
sighted people.

Some modern scliolars accept the etymology from
It^V the word being formed similarly to"Zebulun,"
from " zabal " (see W. Stark, " Studien zur Religions-
und Sprachgeschichte des Alt. Test." part ii., j). 74,
Berlin, 1899; see also Duhm, "Das Buch Jesaiah,"
p. 804, Gottingen, 1892; Hummelauer, "Deuterono-
mium," 1901, p. 522; W. Bacher, "Jeschunm," in
Stade's"Zeitschrift," v. 161 et seq.).

E. G. H. M. SEL.

JESI, SAMUEL : Italian engraver ; born at
Milan 1789 ; died at Florence Jan. 17, 1853. He was
a pupil of G. Longhi at the Academy of Milan. His
first work (1821) was " The Abandonment of Hagar,"
engraved after a painting by Guercino in the Pa-
lazzo di Brera at Milan ; this was followed (1834) by
"The Madonna with St. John and St. Stephen," from
a painting by Fra Bartolomeo in the Cathedral of
Lucca. He then devoted himself to the works of
Raphael, whom he ably interpreted. His master-
piece is the gro>ip representing Pope Leo X. with Car-
dinals Rossi and Giulio dei Medici (1834). While in
Paris for the purpose of having it printed he was
elected a corresponding member of the Academic des
Beaux-Arts, and received the ribbon of the Legion
of Honor. In 1846 he began to work on his engra-
ving of the " Coena Domini, " discovered in the Church
of S. Onofrio, Florence, and attributed to Raphael.
Meanwhile he engraved the "Madonna della Vite."
In 1849 he completed the drawing of the "Coena
Domini," but died before finishing the engraving.

Bibliography: Boccurdo, Encichypedia, p. 1079; Sulamith,
vii. 5, p. 341 ; Busch's Jahrbuch, 1846, p. 129; Meyers Kon-
versations-Lexikon.
s. U. C.

JESSE ( "'C'"' ): Father of David, son of Obed, and
grandson of Boaz and Ruth. He is called " the Beth-
lehemite " (I Sam. xvi. i, 18; xvii. 58) and "the Eph-
rathite of Bethlehem " (tb. xvii. 12). He had eight
sons {ib. xvi. 10, 11 ; xvii. 12), although in I Chron.
ii. 13-15 only seven are mentioned. He was a person
of wealth, his property being chiefly in sheep (I Sam.
xvi. 1, 11; xvii. 20; comp. Ps. Ixxviii. 71).

Jesse's name stands out preeminently as that of
the father of David, who is called " the son of Jesse " ;
and though this expression was used during David's
lifetime and even afterward as a term of contempt
—so by Saul (I Sam. xx. 27, 30, 31; xxii. 7, 8), by
Doeg {ib. xxii. 9), by Nabal (ib. xxv. 10), by Sheba
(II Sam. XX. 1), and by the Ten Tribes (I Kings xii.
16; II Chron. x. 16) — Isaiah the prophet connects
with the "stem of Jesse" (Isa. xi. 1) and "root of
Jesse " (ib. xi. 10) one of his sublimest Messianic
prophecies. As Jesse was " an old man in the days
of Saul " (I Sam. xvii. 12), it is doubtful whether he
lived to see his son king. The last historical men-
tion of Jesse is in I Sam. xxii. 3, where it is stated
that David entrusted his father and his mother to
the care of the King of Moab ; but, as may be in-
ferred from ib. xxxii. 4, this was only temporary.

E. G. n. B. P.

JESSEL, SIR GEORGE: English master of
the rolls; born in London 1824; died there March
21, 1883 ; youngest son of Zadok Aaron Jessel. Edu-

159

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jeehua
Jesurun

cated at University College, London, and London
University, he became M.A. and gold medalist in
mathematics in 1844. He entered Lincoln's Inn in
1842, was called to the bar in 1847, and became
queen's counsel eighteen years later. In 1868 he
was returned to Parliament for Dover in the Liberal
interest, and retained his seat until 1873. He won
the attention of Gladstone by a speech on the Bank-
ruptcy Bill in 1869; and in 1871 was made solicitor-
general. In 1872 he wag knighted. In Aug., 1873,
when Lord Romilly retired from the presidency of
the Rolls Court, Sir George Jessel was appointed in
his place. He was also sworn as a privy councilor,
and in Nov., 1875, became a judge of the Supreme
Court of Judicature.

It was when sitting as a judge of a court of first
instance that Jessel showed his marked capacity as
an equity judge. In a few
months the whole charac-
ter of the Rolls Court un-
derwent a marked change.
The prolixity of former
trials was done away with,
and the practise of the
master of the rolls perme-
ated the other courts. It
was Jessel 's distinction
that he was at the same
time one of the most eru-
dite of case lawyers and
also the most courageous
of judges in handling au-
thorities. He was a " law-
making judge " whose de-
cisions soon grew to be
taken as guiding dicta.
His judgments were rare-
ly appealed from and sel-
dom reversed. Being the
first master of the rolls
after the Judicature Act,
he had many important
and novel functions to
fulfil as chairman of the
chancery division of the
court of appeal and of
the committee for draft-
ing new rules of proce-
dure. He was besides,
from 1873 to 1883, practi-
cally the head of the Patent Office, and supervised the
important series of national historical publications
known as the Rolls Series.

In 1880 Jessel was unanimously elected by the
senate of the University of London as vice-chan-
cellor.

Jessel was a vice-president of the Anglo-Jewish
Association and served on the Rumanian Committee.
He was one of the last judges who had the right to
sit in the House of Commons.

Bibliography : Jew. Chrnn. and Jew. WnrhU March 23, 1883;

Law Time.s, March 31, 1883; Jcu'. World, March 30,1883;

Times (London). March 23. 1883; A. P. Peter, Decisions of

kir George Jessel, London, 1883 ; Diet. National Biography.

J- G. L.

JESURUN : A family whose members were
descendants of the Spanish exiles, and are found

Sir George Jessel.

mainly in Amsterdam and Hamburg. Tlie earli-
est known member appears to have been Reuel
Jesurun.

Daniel Jesurun : Preacher and president of an
educational institute at Amsterdam, founded in 1682
and annexed to the charitable institution Maskil el
Dal. " He sang verses of the Scripture for an hour
on feast-days and half an hour on the Sabbath."

Bibliography : De Barrios, yia.'<kil el Dal, p. H3; idem, Ar-
hol de las Vidas, p. 93.

David Jesurun (Jessurun, Jeshurun) : Span-
ish poet ; died at Ainsterduin at the beginning of the
seventeenth century. He wrote verses in early youth,
and hence was called "poeta niiio " (= "the little
poet"). His poems in manuscript were in the pos-
session of Benjamin Belmonte. Daniel Levi de Bar-
rios published a niimber of them, among others a

eulogy of the city of Am-
sterdam, in which place
Jesurun found a refuge
from the Spanish Inquisi-
tion ; also some verses on
his circumcision and a
Portuguese sonnet on the
death of the martyr Diego
de la Asum(;-a6.

Bibliography : De Barrios,
Triumpho del Govierno Po-
pular, pp. 74 et scq.; Kayser-
linp, Sephardim, p. 17";
Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., ix. 484.

Isaac Jesurun : Vic-
tim of a false accusation
in Ragusa in the seven-
teenth century ; died in
Jerusalem. Jesurun, an
old man, was accused by
a Christian Avoman, who
had robbed and killed the
daughter of a Christian
merchant of Ragusa, of
having persuaded her to
commit the crime in order
to provide blood for the
celebration of the Jewish
holy day. On Sept. 19,
1622, Isaac was taken pris-
oner and racked six times
in the most cruel manner.
Though he still insisted
that the accusation was
false, he was sentenced to twenty years' imprison-
ment in a cave. He was accordingly chained naked
in a very narrow room specially prepared, where he
was given as nourishment nothing but bread and
water, which were passed him through a hole.

When several of the judges who had sentenced
the innocent man died suddenly, the others regarded
this as a punishment from God, and released Jesurun
after three years' confinement. Jesurun, who sur-
vived all the tortures and hardships, traveled
throughout Ital}\ where those who had heard of his
sufferings looked on him with wonder. Several
years later he died, as stated above, in Jerusalem.

Isaac Jesurun 's brother Joseph, was president of
the Talmud Torah in Hamburg, and died there Oct.
7, 1660.

Jesurun
Jesus

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

160

Bibliography: Aaron ha-Kohen, Ma'aseh Yeshurun (ap-
pended to Shemeii Ita-Tob), Venice, 1&57; reprinted in Ma^
aseh Nissim (1798); Manasseh ben Israel, Vindlciw Judcv-
orum, p. 10 (German transl. In Mendelssohn, licttung clcr
Juden [Gemmmclte Schriftcii, ni. 215]); Mcmi»-ahlc Rcla-
cinn dc IsJuic Jesuruu, a Spanish translation of the Ma'asch
Yeshurun, still in MS.; Grunwald, Portuykscii-Gruber,
p. 113.

Isaac ben Abraham Hayyim Jesurun : Ha

ham of the Portuguese coiigregation in Hamburg;
died there March 19, 16.55. He was the author of
"Paniin Hadashot " (Veuice, 1651), a short compi-
lation of ritual ordinances according to the ritual
codices, containing also au index to the collection
of published decisions after Joseph Caro. The
"Seter ha-Zikrouot" of Samuel Aboab was falsely
ascribed to Jesurun. He wrote also, in Portuguese,
"Liuro da Providencia Divina" (Amsterdam, 1663),
wherein he makes philosophical reflections on the
nature and results of divine providence. He was
succeeded by Isaac Jesurun of Venice as haham
of the community on Aug. 16, 1656.

Bibliography: Wolf, BihJ. Hcbr. i., iii.. No. 1311; De Rossi-
Hamberger, Hint. Wurterh. p. 147; Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. li. 65;
KayserliDg, I3ibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 53.

Reuel (Rohel) Jesurun (alias Paul de Pina):

Portuguese poet ; born iu Lisbon ; died in Amster-
dam after 1630. He went to Rome in 1599 to become
a monk. His cousin Diego Gomez (Abraham Cohen)
Lobato, a Marano like himself, gave him a letter to
the physician Eliau Montalto, at that time living at
Leghorn, which, translated, runs as follows: "Our
cousin Paul de Pina is going to Rome to become a
monk. I would be much obliged to j'ou, sir, if you
would dissuade him therefrom." Montalto suc-
ceeded in doing so, and Paul de Pina, who as an
avowed believer in Judaism called himself Reuel
Jesurun, returned to Portugal. He went with Lo-
bato to Brazil in 1601, and thence to Amsterdam
(1604).

Jesurun became a very active member of the first
congregation in Amsterdam, and belonged to those
who drew up the earhest regulations (1614) for the
cemetery which the new congregation had bought.
In 1624 he composed songs which were recited by
seven youths at the Shabu'ot festival in the first
synagogue at Amsterdam. These were published
under the title " Wikkuah Shib'ah Harim : Dialogo
dos Montes," Amsterdam, 1767. The book was
dedicated by Aaron de Chaves, the editor, to the
" virtuous " David de Aaron Jesurun, president of the
congregation.

In the possession of the Portuguese congregation

in Amsterdam is Jesurun's manuscript "Liuro de

Beth Ahaim do K. K. de Beth Jahacob."

Bibliography : Kayserling, Sephardim, pp. 175 et seq., 340 et
neq., followed by Gr'a.tz, JGescli. ix. 520 et sec/., x. 4; Kayser-
ling, Bibl. Exp.-Pi)jt.-Jud. p. 89.

Samuel Jesurun : Physician at Amsterdam in
1650.
G. M. K.

JESUS OF NAZARETH.— In History:

Founder of Christianity ; born at Nazareth about
2 B.C. (according to Luke iii. 23); executed at Je
rusalem 14th of Nisau. 37<S9 (March or April, 29
C.E.). His life, though indirectly of so critical a
character, had very little direct influence on the
cour.se of Jewish histoiy or thouglit. In contempo-
rary Je^^'ish literature his career is referred to only

in the (interpolated) passage of Josephus, "Ant."
xviii. 8, § 3, while the references in the Talmud are
for the most part as legendary as those in the apocry-
phal gospels, though in an opposite direction (see
Jesus in Jewish Legend). Under these circum-
stances it is not necessary in this place to do more
than to give a sketch of the main historical events
in the public career of Jesus, with an attempt to
ascertain his personal relations to contemporary Ju-
daism ; for the theological superstructure based upon
his life and death, and certain mythological con-
ceptions associated with them, see Jew. Encyc. iv.
50a, s.v. Christianity.

In the New Testament there are four " Gospels "
professing to deal with the life of Jesus independ-
ently; but it is noAV almost universally agreed that
the first three of these, known by the
Sources of names of "Matthew," "Mark," and
Life. "Luke," are interdependent, corre-

sponding to the various forms of con-
temporary'Barai tot, while the fourth, the Gospel
of John, is what the Germans call a "Tendenz-Ro-
man," practically a work of religious imagination
intended to modify opinion in a certain direction.
The supernatural claims made on behalf of Jesus are
basedalmost exclusively on statements of the fourth
Gospel. Of the first three or synoptic Gospels the
consensus of contemporary opinion regards that of
Mark as the earliest and as being the main source of
the historic statements of the other two. This Gos-
pel will, therefore, be used in the following account
almost exclusively, references to chapter and verse,
when the name of the Gospel is not given, being to
this source. Beside the original of the Gospel of
Mark, there was another source used in common by
both Matthew and Luke, namely the "logia," or de-
tached sayings, of Matthew and Luke; and besides
these two documents tlie apocryphal " Gospel Ac-
cording to the Hebrews " has preserved, in the opinion
of the critics, a few statements of Jesus which often
throw vivid light upon his motives and opinions.
Much industry and ingenuity have been devoted
by A. Resch to the collection of extracanonical state-
ments of Jesus, known as "agrapha"(Leipsic,l889).
The earliest of all these sources, the oiiginal of
Mark's Gospel, contains references which show that
it was written shortly before or soon after the de-
struction of Jerusalem in the year 70; in other
words, forty years after the death of Jesus. Like
the other Gospels, it was originally written in Greek,
whereas the sayings of Jesus were uttered in Ara-
maic. It is therefore impossible to lay much stress
upon the perfect accuracy of the records of events
and statements written down forty years after they
occurred or were made, and then in a language other
than that in which such statements were originally
uttered (even the Lord's Prayer was retained in va-
riant versions; comp. Matt. vi. 10-13; Luke xi.
2-4) ; j'et it is upon this slender basis that some of
the most stupendous claims have been raised. For
the processes by which the traditions as to the life
of Jesus were converted into proofs of his super-
natural character, see Jew. Encyc. iv. 51-52, s.v.
Christianity. Many incidents were actually in-
vented (especially in Matthew) " iu order that there
might be fulfilled " iu him prophecies relating to a

161

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesurun
Jesus

Messiah of a character quite other than that of whicli
Jesus either claimed or was represented by his dis
ciples to be.

Yet the supernatural in the life of Jesus accord-
ing to the Gospels is restricted to the smallest di-
mensions, consisting mainly of incidents and charac-
teristics intended to support these prophecies and
the dogmatic positions of Christianity. This applies
especially to the story of the virgin-birth, a legend
which is common to almost all folk-heroes as in-
dicating their superiority to the rest of their people
(see E. S. Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," vol. i.).
Combined with this is the inconsistent claim of Da-
vidic descent through Joseph, two discrepant pedi-
grees being given (Matt, i., Luke iii.).

Perhaps the most remarkable thing about the life
of Jesus as presented in the Gospels is the utter
silence about its earlier phases. He was one of a
rather large family, having four brothers, Jacob,
Jose, Simon, Judah, besides sisters. It is known
that he earned his living by his father's trade, that
of a carpenter; according to Justin Martyr, plows
and yokes made by Jesus were still in existence at
his (Justin's) time, about the year 120 ("Dial, cum
Tryph." ^ 88). It is doubtful whether he received
any d^tinite intellectual training, the great system
of Jewish education not being carried into effect till
after the destruction of Jerusalem (see Education).
It is probable, however, that he could read ; he was
certainly acquainted, either by reading or by oral
instruction, with much of the Old Testament ; and
his mode of argumentation often resembles that of
the contemporary rabbis, implying that he had fre-
quented their society. In defending his infringe-
ment of the Sabbath he seems to have confused
Abiathar with Ahimelech (ii. 25; comp. I Sam. xxi.
1), if this is not merely a copyist's blunder. It
would appear from his interviews with the scribe
(xii. 29-31 ; comp. Luke x. 27) and with the rich
young man (x. 19) that he was acquainted with the
DiD.\CHE in its Jewish form, accepting its teachings
as summing up the whole of Jewish doctrine.
Only a single incident of his early days is recorded :
his behavior about the time of his bar mizwah (or
confirmation) in the Temple (Luke ii. 41-52). It
is strange that so masterful a character showed no
signs of its exceptional qualities before the turning-
point of Jesus' career.

The crisis in Jesus' life came with John the Bap-
tist's preaching of repentance and of the nearness
of the kingdom of God. At first Jesus refused to
submit to baptism by John. Accord-
Influence ing to a well-authenticated tradition
of John the of the "Gospel According to the He-
Baptist, brews," he asked wherein he had sinned
that it was necessary for him to be
baptized by John. Nevertheless the sight of the
marked influence exercised by the latter evidently
made a profound impression on the character of
Jesus: lie probably then experienced for the first
time the power of a great personality upon crowds
of people.

It is at this moment of his life that Christian

legend places what is known as the temptation,

information concei'ning which, from the very nature

of the case, could have been communicated only by

VII.— 11

Jesus himself. In the " Gospel According to the
Hebrews" account this is given in the form: "My
mother, the Holy Spirit, took me just now bj^ one
of my hairs and carried me up to the great Mount
Tabor" (which was in the neighborhood of his
home). As Jerome remarks (on Isa. xl. 9), the form
of this saying implies a Hebrew (or rather Aramaic)
original ("Ruha Kaddisha"); and for this reason,
among others, the saying may be regarded as a
genuine one. It is significant as implying two
things: (1) the belief of Jesus in a special divine
origin of his spirit, and (2) a tendency to ecstatic
abstraction. This tendency is found in other great
leaders of men, like Socrates, Mohanuned, and Napo-
leon, being accompanied in their cases by hallucina-
tions; auditory in the first case (the "demon" of
Socrates), and visual in the last two (Mohammed's
dove and Napoleon's star). These periods of ecstasy
would tend to confirm in Oriental minds the impres-
sion that the subject of them was inspired (comp.
the original meaning of " nabi " ; see Prophet), and
would add to the attractive force of a magnetic per-
sonality .

In Jesus' family and among his neighbors the
effect seems to have been different. His own people
regarded him even as being out of his mind (iii. 21 ).
and they do not appear to have been associated with
him or with the Christian movement until after his
death. Jesus himself seems to have been greatly
incensed at this (comp. vi. 4), refusing to recognize
any special relationship even to his mother (iii. 33,
comp. John ii. 4), and declaring that spiritual rela
tionship exceeded a natural one (iii. 85). He felt per-
force driven out into public activity ; and the fever-
ish excitement of the succeeding epoch-making ten
months implies a tension of spirit which must have
confirmed the impression of inspiration. On the
whole subject see O. Holtzman, "War Jesus Eksta-
tiker? " (Leipsic, 1902), who agrees that there must
have been abnormal mental processes involved in
the utterances and behavior of Jesus.

Instead, however, of remaining in the wilderness
like John, or like the Essenes, with whose tenden-
cies his own show some affinity, he returned to his
native district and sought out tiiosewhom he wished
to influence. Incidentally he developed a remark
able power of healing; one sick of a fever (i. 29-34),
a leper (i. 40-45), a paralytic (ii. 1-12), and an epi
leptic (ix. 15-29) being severally cured by him. But
his activity in this regard was devoted especially to
"casting out demons," i.e.. according to the folk-
medicine of the time, healing nervous and mental
diseases. It would appear that Jesus shared in the
current belief of the Jews in the noumenal existence
of demons or evil spirits: and most of his miracu
lous cures consisted in casting them out, which lie

did with "the finger of God" (Luke

His Belief xi. 20), or with "the Spirit of God"

in Demon- (Matt. xii. 28). It would seem also

ology. that he regarded diseases like fever to

be due to the existence of demons
(Luke iv. 39). One of the chief functions trans-
mitted to his disciples was the " power over unclean
spirits, to cast them out " (Matt. x. 1). and his supe-
riority to his followers was shown by his casting
out demons which they had failed to expel (ix. 14-

Jesus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

162

29). As regards the miracle in which Jesus cast out
a demon or several demons whose name was " Le-
gion " into some Gadarene swine (v. 1-21), it has re-
cently been ingeniously suggested by T. Reinach
that the name " Legion " given to the spirits was due
to the popular confusion between the Tenth Legion
(the sole Roman garrison of Palestine between the
years 70 and 135) and the wild boar which appeared
as the insignia on its standard (" R. E. J." xlvii. 177).
From this it would seem that the legend arose,
at any rate in its present form, after the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, at which time alone the confusion
between the title "legion" and the insignia could
have occurred. For a full account of the subject
see F. C. Conybeare in "J. Q. R." viii. 587-588, and
compare Demonology.

It is difficult to estimate what amount of truth
exists in the accounts of these cures, recorded about
forty years after tlieir occurrence ; but doubtless the
mental excitement due to the influence of Jesus was
often efficacious in at least partial or temporary
cures of mental illnesses. This would tend to con-
firm the impression, both among those who wit-
nessed the cures and among his d;sciples, of his
possession of supernatural powers. He himself
occasionally deprecated the exaggeration to which
such cures naturally led. Thus in the case of
Jairus' daughter (v. 35-43) he expressly declared:
"She is not dead, but sleepeth " (39). Notwith-
standing this, her resuscitation was regarded as a
miracle.

In essentials Jesus' teaching was that of John the
Baptist, and it laid emphasis on two points: (1) re-
pentance, and (3) the near approach of the kingdom
of God. One other point is noted by Christian the-
ologians as part of his essential teaching, namely,
insistence upon the fatherhood of God. This is such
a commonplace in the Jewish liturgy and in Jewish
thought that it is scarcely necessary to point out its
essentially Jewish character (see F.\TirER). As re-
gards repentance, its specifically Jewish note has
been recently emphasized by C. G. Montefiore ("J.
Q. R." Jan., 1904), who points out that Christianity
lays less stress upon tliis side of religious life than
Judaism ; so that in this direction Jesus was cer-
tainly more Jewish than Christian.

As regards the notion of the " kingdom of heaven,"
the title itself (" malkut shamayim") is specifically
Jewish ; and the content of the concept is equally
so (see KiNGDo.M op God). Jesus seems to have
shared in the belief of his contemporaries that some
world-catastrophe was at liand in which this king-
dom would be reinstated on the ruins of a fallen
world (ix. 1 ; comp. xiii. 35-37 and Matt. x. 23).

Almost at the beginning of his evangelical career
Jesus differentiated himself from John the Baptist
in two directions: (1) comparative neglect of the
Mosaic or rabbinic law; and (2) personal attitude
toward infractions of it. In many ways his attitude
was specifically Jewish, even in direc-

Jewish tions which are usually regarded as

Character- signs of Judaic narrowness. Jesus ap-

istics. pears to have preached regularly in the

synagogue, which would not have

been possible if his doctrines had been recognized as

being essentially different from the current Pharisaic

beliefs. In his preaching he adopted the popu-
lar method of " mashal," or Parable, of which about
thirty -one examples are instanced in the synoptic
Gospels, forming indeed the larger portion of his
recorded teachings. It is obvious that such a
method is liable to misunderstanding; and it is diffi-
cult in all cases to reconcile the various views that
seem to underlie the parables. One of these para-
bles deserves special mention here, as it has ob-
viously been changed, for dogmatic reasons, so as
to have an anti-Jewish application. There is little
doubt that J. Halevy is right ("R. E. J." iv. 249-
255) in suggesting that in the parable of the good
Samaritan (Luke x. 17-37) the original contrast was
between the priest, the Levite, and the ordinary
Israelite — representing the three great classes into
which Jews then and now were and are divided.
The point of the parable is against the sacerdotal
class, whose members indeed brought about the
death of Jesus. Later, "Israelite" or "Jew" was
changed into "Samaritan," which introduces an ele-
ment of inconsistency, since no Samaritan would
have been foimd on the road between Jericho and
Jerusalem {ib. 30).

While the aim of Jesus was to redeem those who
had strayed from the beaten path of morality, he
yet restricted his attention and that of his followers
to the lost sons of Israel (vii. 24). He particularly
forbade his disciples to seek heathens and Samari-
tans (x. 5), and for the same reason at first refused to
heal the Syrophenician woman (vii. 24). His choice
of twelve apostles had distinct reference to the tribes
of Israel (iii. 13-16). He regarded dogs and swine
as unholy (Matt. vii. 6). His special prayer is mere-
ly a shortened form of the third, fifth, sixth, nintli,
and fifteenth of the Eighteen Benedictions (see
Lord's Prayer). Jesus wore the Zizit (Matt. ix.
20) ; he went out of his way to pay the Temple tax
of two drachmas {ib. xvii. 24-27); and his disciples
offered sacrifice {ib. v. 23-24). In the Sermon on
the Mount he expressly declared that he had come
not to destroy the Law, but to fulfil it {ib. v. 17,
quoted in Siiab. 116b), and that not a jot or tittle of
the Law should ever pass away {ib. v. 18; comp.
Luke xvi. 17). It would even appear that later
tradition regarded liim as scrupulous in keeping the
whole Law (comp. John viii. 46).

Yet in several particulars Jesus declined to follow
the directions of the Law, at least as it was inter-
preted by the Rabbis. Where John's followers
fasted, he refused to do so (ii. 18).
Attitude He permitted his followers to gather
Toward. corn on the Sabbath (ii. 23-28), and
the Law. himself healed on that day (Iii. 1-6),
though the stricter rabbis allowed
only the saving of life to excuse the slightest cur-
tailment of the Sabbath rest (Shab. xxii. 6). In
minor points, such as the ablution after meals (vii.
2), he showed a freedom from traditional custom
which implied a break with the stricter rule of the
more rigorous adherents of the Law at that time.
His attitude toward the Law is perhaps best ex-
pressed in an incident which, though recorded in only
one manuscript of the Gospel of Luke (vi. 4, in the
Codex Bezae), bears internal signs of genuineness.
He is there reported to have met a man laboring on

163

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J-esus

the Sabbath-day — a sin deserving of deatli by sto-
ning, according to tlie Mosaic law. Jesus said to
the man: "Man, if thou knowest what thou doest,
blessed art thou; but if thou knowest not, itccursed
art thou, and a transgressor of the Law." Accord-
ing to this, the Law should be obeyed unless a higher
principle intervenes.

While claiming not to infringe or curtail the Law,
Jesus directed his followers to pay more attention to
the intention and motive with which any act was
done than to the deed itself. This was by no means
a novelty in Jewish religious development: the
Prophets and Rabbis had continuously and consist-
ently insisted upon the inner motive with which
pious deeds should be performed, as the well-known
passages in Isa. i. and Micah vi. sufficiently indi-
cate. Jesus contended that the application of this
principle was practically equivalent to a revolution
in spiritual life; and lie laid stress upon the contrast
between the old Law and the new one, especially in
his Sermon on the Mount. In making these pre-
tensions he was following a tendency which at
the period of his career was especially marked in the
H.\siD.EANS and Essenes, though they associated it
with views as to external purity and seclusion from
the world, which differentiated them from Jesus.
He does not appear, however, to have contended
that the new spirit would involve any particular
change in the application of the Law. He appears
to have suggested that marriages should be made
permanent, and that divorce should not be allowed
(.\. 2-12). In the Talmud it is even asserted that he
threatened to change the old law of primogeniture
into one by which sons and daughters should inherit
alike (Shab. 116a); but there is no evidence for this
utterance in Christian sources. Apart from these
points, no change in the T^aw was indicated by Jesus ;
indeed, he insisted that the Jewish multitude whom
he addressed should do what the Scribes and Phari-
sees commanded, even though they should not act
as the Scribes acted (Matt, xxiii. 3). Jesus, however,
does not appear to have taken into account the fact
that the Halakah was at this period just becoming
crystallized, and that much variation existed as to
its definite form ; the disputes of tlie Bet Hillel and
Bet Shammai were occurring about the time of his
maturity.

It is, however, exaggerated to regard these va-
riations from current practises as exceptionally ab-
normal at tlie beginning of the first century. The
existence of a whole class of 'Am ha-Arez, whom
Jesus may be taken to represent, shows that the
rigor of the Law liad not yet spread throughout the
people. It is stated (iii. 7) that, owing to the oppo-
sition aroused by his action on the Sabbath, Jesus
was obliged to flee into heathen parts with some of
his followers, including two or three women Avho
had attached themselves to his circle. This does not
seem at all probable, and is indeed contradicted by
the Gospel accounts, which describe him, even after
his seeming break with the rigid requirements of
the traditional law, as lodging and feasting with the
Pharisees (Luke xiv.), thevery class that would have
objected to his behavior.

Nothing in all this insistence upon the spirit of
the Law rather than upon the halakic development

of it was necessarily or essentially anti-Jewish ; but
the tone adopted in recommending these variations
was altogether novel in Jewish ex peri-
Tone of ence. The Prophets spoke with con-
Authority, fidence in the truth of their mes.sage,
but expressly on the ground thai they
were declaring the word of the Lord. Jesus adopted
equal confidejice; but he emphasized his own au-
thority apart from any vicarious or deputed power
from on high. Yet in doing so he did not — at any
rate publicly — ever lay claim to any authority as at-
taching to his position as Messiah. Indeed, the sole
evidence in later times of any such claim seems to
be based upon the statement of Peter, and was inti-
mately connected with the personal demand of that
apostle to be the head of the organization estab-
lished by or in the name of Jesus. It is expressly
stated (Matt. xvi. 20) that the disciples were admon-
ished not to make public the claim, if it ever was
made. Peter's own pretensions to succession in the
leadership appear to be based upon a half-humorous
paronomasia made by Jesus, which finds a parallel
in rabbinic literature (Matt. xvi. 18; comp. Yalk.,
Num. 766).

Indeed, the most striking characteristics of the ut-
terances of Jesus, regarded as a personality, were the
tone of authority adopted by him and the claim that
spiritual peace and salvation were to be found in the
mere acceptance of his leadership. Passages like:
"Take my yoke upon you . . . and ye shall find
rest unto your souls " (Matt. xi. 29) ; " whosoever
shall lose his life for my sake . . . shall save it "
(viii. 35); "Inasmuch asj'e have done it unto one of
the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto
me " (Matt. xxv. 40), indicate an assumption of power
which is certainly unique in Jewish history, and
indeed accounts for much of modern Jewish antip-
athy to Jesus, so far as it exists. On the other hand,
there is little in any of these utterances to show that
they were meant by the speaker to apply to anything
more than personal relations with him; and it might
well be that in his experience he found that spiritual
relief was often afforded by simple human trust in
his good-will and power of direction.

This, however, raises the question whether Jesus
regarded himself as in any sense a Messiah or spiri-
tual ruler; and there is singularly little evidence in
the synoptic Gospels to carr}'- out this claim. These
assert only that the claim was made to some of the
disciples, and then under a distinct pledge of se-
crecy. In the public utterances of Jesus there is
absolutely no trace of the claim (except possibly in
the use of the expression " Son of Man "). Yet it
would almost appear that in one sense of the word
Jesus regarded himself as fulfilling some of the
prophecies which were taken among contemporary
Jews as applying to the Messiah. It is doubtful
whether it was later tradition or his own statements
that identified him with the servant of Yhwh repre-
sented in Isa. liii. ; but there appears to be no evi-
dence of any Jewish conception of a Messiah suf-
fering through and for his people, though there pos-
sibly was a conception of one suffering together
with his people (see Messiah). Jesus himself never
used the term " Messiah." He chose for specific title
"Son of Man," which may possibly have been con-

Jesus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

164

nected in his mind with the reference in Dan. vii. 13,
but which, according to modern theologians, means
simply man in general. In his own mind, too, this
may have had some reference to his repudiation by
his family. In other words, Jesus regarded himself
as typically human, and claimed authority and re-
gard in that aspect. He certainly disclaimed any
application to himself of the ordinary conception of
the Messiah, the Davidic descent of whom he argues
against (xii. 35-57) entirely in the Talmudic manner.
It is difficult to decide the question whether Jesus
contemplated a permanent organization to carry out
his ideals. The whole tendency of his work was
against the very idea of organization. His practical
acceptance of the Law would seem to imply an ab-
sence of any rival mode of life ; and
No Ne-w his evident belief in an almost irame-
Organiza- diate reconstruction of the whole so-
tion Con- cial and religious order would tend to
templated. prevent any formal arrangements for
a new religious organization. The
opposition between his followers and the "world,"
or settled and organized conditions of societ}% would
also seem to imply that those who were to work in
his spirit could not make another " world " of their
own with the same tendency to conventionality and
spiritual red tape. On the whole, it may be said that
he did not make general plans, but dealt with each
spiritual problem as it arose. " It would almost
seem as if he had no consciousness of a mission of
any definite sort, so content had he been to let
things merely happen" (E. P. Gould, "St. Mark,"
p. Ixxv.): that is certainly how his career strikes an
outside observer. He was content to let the influ-
ence of his own character work upon the persons
immediately surrounding him, and that they should
transmit this infiuence silently and without organi-
zation; working by way of leaven, as his parable
puts it (Matt. xiii.). His chief work and that of his
disciples consisted in the conscious attempt at " sa-
ving souls. " Jesus was j ustified in thinking that this
new departure would tend to bring dissension rather
than peace into families, dividing sons and parents
{ib. X. 53).

On the character which, whether designedly or
otherwise, produced such momentous influence on
the world's history, it is unnecessary in this place
to dilate. The reverential admiration of the greater
part of the civilized world has for a millennium and
a half been directed toward the very human and
sympathetic figure of the Galilean Jew as presented
in the Gospels. For historic purposes, however, it
is important to note that this aspect of him was
shown only to his immediate circle. In almost all
of his public utterances he was harsh, severe, and
distinctly unjust in his attitude toward the ruling
and well-to-do classes. After reading his diatribes
against the Pharisees, the Scribes, and the rich, it
is scarcely to be wondered at that these were con-
cerned in helping to silence him. It must also be
remembered that in his public utterances he rarely
replied directly to any important question of prin-
ciple, but evaded queries by counter-queries. In
considering his public career, to which attention
must now be turned, these two qualities of his char-
acter have to be taken into account.

During the ten months which elapsed between the
ripening of the corn about June of the year 28 and
his death in March or April of the following year
Jesus appears to have wandered about the north-
west shore of Lake Gennesaret, making excursions
from time to time into the adjacent heathen territo-
ries, and devoting himself and his disciples to the
spread of John the Baptist's message of the nearness
of the kingdom of heaven and of the need of repent-
ance in order to enter it. The details of these wan-
derings are very obscure, and need not be discussed
here (see Briggs, "New Light on the Life of Jesus,"
New York, 1904).

The antinomianism of Jesus became more evident
to the rulers of the people ; and many of the more
religious classes avoided contact with him. He had
from the beginning laid stress upon the difficulty of
associating sanctity with riches; and in this he
adopted the quasi-socialistic views of the later
Psahns, Ps. ix., x., xxii., xxv., xxxv., xl., Ixix., cix.
(comp. I. Loeb, "La Litterature des Pauvres dans
la Bible," Paris. 1894). He insisted to the fullest
extent on the view implied in those Psalms and in
various utterances of the Prophets, that poverty and
piety, riches and antisocial greed, were practically
synonymous (comp. the form of the beatitudes given
in Luke vi. 20, 24-26). The parable of Lazarus and
Dives and the interview with the rich young man
show a distinct and one-sided tendency in this direc-
tion similar to that of the later Ebionites; though, on
the other hand, Jesus was willing to lodge with Zac-
chiEus, a rich publican (Luke xix. 2, 5). In the form
of the interview with the rich young man given in
the "Gospel According to the Hebrews," sympathy
seems to be restricted to the poor of the Holy Land :
"Behold, many of thy brethren, sons of Abraham,
are clothed but in dung, and die for hunger, while
thy house is full of many goods, and there goeth not
forth aught from it unto them."

As the Passover of the year 2'J approached, Jesus
determined to carry out the injunction of the Law
which made it incumbent to eat the sacrificial lamb
at Jerusalem. In the later tradition attempts were
made to convey the impression that
Jesus in Je- Jesus was aware of the fate that

rusalem. awaited him at Jerusalem: but in the
earliest forms (ix. 32, x. 32) it is rec-
ognized that the disciples did not imderstand the
vague hints, if they were at all given; and there is
little to show that his visit to Jerusalem was a case
of sublime suicide. At the last moment at Gethsem-
ane he made an attempt to avoid arrest (" Rise up,
let us go," xiv. 43). Jerusalem at this time appears
to have been in a very unsettled state. An at-
tempted revolution seems to have broken out under
one Jesus bar Abbas, who had been captured and
was in prison at the time (x v. 7). It appears to have
been the practise of Pontius Pilate to come up to
Jerusalem each year at Passover for the purpose of
checking any revolt that might break out at that
period recalling the redemption of Israel. It is in-
dicative of the temper of the people that during the
first half of the first century several risings occurred
against the Romans: against Varus, 4 B.C.; imder
Judas against the Census, 6 c.e. ; by the Samaritans
against Pilate in 38 ; and by Theudas against Fadus

165

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesus

in 45 — all indicating the continuously unsettk-d con-
dition of the people under Roman rule.

As far as can be judged, his reception was as
much a surprise to Jesus as it was to his followers
and to the leaders of the people. His reputation as
a miracle-worker had preceded him; and when the
little cavalcade of some twenty persons which
formed his escort approached the Fountain Gate of
Jerusalem he was greeted by many of the visitors
to the city as if he were the long-hoped-for deliverer
from bondage. This would appear to have been on
the first day of the week and on tlie 10th of Nisan,
when, according to tiie Law, it was necessary that
the paschal lamb should be purchased. It is there-
fore probable that the entry into Jerusalem was for
this purpose. In making the purchase of the lamb
a dispute appears to have arisen between Jesus' fol-
lowers and the money-changers who arranged for
such purchases ; and the latter were, at any rate
for that day, driven from the Temple precincts. It
would appear from Talmudic refer-
In the ences that this action had no lasting
Temple, effect, if any, for Simon ben Gama-
liel found much the same state of af-
fairs much later (Ker. i. 7) and effected some re-
forms (see Derenbourg in "Histoire de la Palestine,"
p. 537). The act drew public attention to Jesus,
who during the next few daj^s was asked to define
his position toward the conflicting parties in Jerusa-
lem. It seemed especially to attack the emoluments
of the priestly class, which accordingly asked him
to declare by what authority he had interfered with
the sacrosanct arrangements of the Temple. In a
somewhat enigmatic reply he placed his own claims
on a level with those of John the Baptist — in other
words, he based them on popular support. Other
searching questions put to him by the Sadducees
and the Scribes received somewhat more definite an-
swers. On the former asking what evidence for im-
mortality he derived from the Old Testament, he
quoted Ex. iii. 6, and deduced from it that as God
is God of the living, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob must
have been living after their death — a deduction quite
in the spirit of Talmudic Asmakta (comp. Sanh. 90b).
To a scribe asking him (in the spirit of Hillel) to
what single commandment the whole Law could be
reduced, he quoted the doctrine of the Didache,
which gives the two chief conimaL.dments as the
Shema' (Deut. vi. 4) and " Thou shalt love thy neigh-
bor as thyself " (Lev. xviii. 19), thus declaring the
essential solidarity of his own views with those of
the Old Testament and of current Judaism. But the
most crucial test was put to him by certain of the
adherents of Herod, who asked him whether it was
lawful to pay tribute to Ca2sar. Here again he
scarcely answered directly, but, asking for a dena-
rius of tribute, deduced from the image
The Test and superscription thereon the conclu-
of the sion that it ought to be returned unto
Tribute. Ctesar (Matt. xxii. 21). A very prob-
able tradition, retained in Tatian's
"Diatessaron," declares that the colloquy with Peter
recorded in Matt. xvii. 24-26 occurred on this occa-
sion. Neither the original answer nor his further
defense of it was satisfactory to the Zealots, who
were anxious for an uprising against the Romans.

He had made it clear that he had no sympathy with
the nationalistic aspirations of the common people,
though they had welcomed him under the impres-
sion that he was about to realize their hopes. It is
only this incident which accounts historically for
the contrast between the acclamations of Palm Sun-
day and the repudiation on the succeeding Friday.

This change of popular sentiment cleared tlie way
for action by the priestly class, which had been of-
fended in both pride and pocket by Jesus' action in
clearing the purlieus of the Temple. The)- may have
also genuinely feared a rising under Jesus, having
in view the manner in which he had been welcomed
on the previous Sunday, though this was possibly
brought forward merely as a pretext. It would ap-
pear that they determined to seize him before tlie
Feast of the Passover, when the danger of an out-
break would be at its greatest height and when
it would be impossible for them to hold a court
(Yom-Tob V. 2).

According to the synoptic Gospels, it would ap-
pear that on the Thursday evening of the last week
of his life Jesus with his disciples entered Jerusalem
in order to eat the Passover meal with them in the
sacred city; if so, the wafer and the wine of the
mass or the communion service then instituted by
him as a memorial would be the unleavened bread
and the unfermented wine of the Seder service (see
Bickell, "Messe und Pascha," Leipsic, 1872). On
the other hand, the Gospel of John, the authoi- of
which appears to have had access to some trust-
worthy traditions about the last days, represents ihe
priests as hurrying on the trial in order to avoid taking
action on the festival — which would, according to
this, have begun on Friday evening — though this
view may have been influenced by the desire to make
the death of Jesus symbolize the sacrifice of the
paschal lamb. Chwolson (*' Das Letzte Passahmal
Christi," St. Petersburg, 1893) has ingeniously sug-
gested that the priests were guided by the older
Halakah, according to which the law of the Pass-
over was regarded as superior to that
The Last of the Sabbath, so that the lamb could

Supper. be sacrificed even on Friday night ;
whereas Jesus and his disciples would
seem to have adopted the more rigorous view of the
Pharisees by which the paschal lamb ought to be
sacrificed on the eve of the 14th of Nisan when the
15th coincided with the Sabbath (see Bacher in *' J.
Q. R." V. 683-686).

It would seem that by this time Jesus had become
aware of the intention of the high priests to do iiim
harm; for after the Seder ceremony he secreted him-
self in the Garden of Gethsemane outside the city
walls, where, hoAvever, his hiding-place was betrayed
by one of his immediate followers, Judas, a man of Ke-
rioth (see Judas Iscauiot). On what grounds Jesus
was arrested is not quite clear. Even if he had
claimed to be the Messiah, he would have conunitted
no crime according to Jewish law. It appears
that he was taken first to the house of the high
priest, probably Anan's, which was without tlie
walls, and where in a hurried consultation the only
evidence against liim was apjiarently an assertion
that he could overthrow tl)e Temple and replace it
Avith one made without hands — in other words, with a

Jesus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

166

spiritual kingdom. This, according to Holtzmann
("Leben Jesu," p. 327), was equivalent to a claim to
the Messiahship. Jesus is reported to Jiave dis-
tinctly made this claim in answer to a direct ques-
tion by the high priest; but the synoptic Gospels
vary on this point, xiv. 32 making the claim, and
Matt. xxvi. 64 and Luke xxii. 69 representing an
evasion, which was more in accord with the usual
practise of Jesus when questioned by opponents.
The rending of his clothes by the high priest seems
rather to imply that the charge was one of " gidduf "
or blasphemy (Sanh. vii. 10, 11).

There could be no question of anything corre-
sponding to a trial taking place on this occasion be-
fore the Sanhedrin. Whatever inquest was made
must have occurred during the Thursday night and
outside Jerusalem (for on entering the city a prisoner
would have had to be given up to the Roman garri-
son), and can not have been held before a quorum
of the seventy-one members of the Sanhedrin. It is
more probable that the twenty-three members of the
priestly section of the latter, who had most reason
to be offended with Jesus' action in cleansing the
Temple, met informally after he had been seized,
and elicited sufficient to justify them in their own
opinion in delivering him over to the Romans as
likely to cause trouble by his claims or pretensions
to the Messiahship, which, of course, would be re-
garded by them as rebellion against Rome. Nothing
corresponding to a Jewish trial took place, though
it was by the action of the priests that Jesus was
sent before Pontius Pilate (see Crucifixion). The
Gospels speak in the plural of the high priests who
condemned him — a seeming contradiction to Jew-
ish law which might throw doubt upon their historic
character. Two, however, are mentioned, Joseph
Caiaphas and Annas (Hanan), his father-in-law.
Hanan had been deposed from the high-priesthood
by Valerius Gratus, but he clearlj' retained authority
and some prerogatives of the high priest, as most
of those who succeeded liini were relatives of his;
and he may well have intervened in a matter touch-
ing so nearly the power of the priests. According to
the Talmud, Hanan 's bazaars were on the Mount of
Olives, and probably therefore also his house; this
would thus have become the appropriate place for
the trial by the Sanhedrin, which indeed just about
this time had moved its place of session thither (see
Sanhedrin).

In handing over their prisoner to the procurator,
Pontius Pilate, the Jewish officials refused to enter
the pretorium as being ground forbidden to Jews.
They thereby at any rate showed their confidence

iu the condemnation of Jesus by the

The Cruel- Roman power. Before Pilate the sole

fixion. charge could be attempted rebellion

against the emperor. In some way,
it would appear, the claim to be king of the Jews
(or possibly of a kingdom of heaven) was made
before him by Jesus himself, as is shown by the
inscription nailed up in derision on the cross. To
Pilate the problem presented was somewhat simi-
lar to that which would present itself to an In-
dian official of to-day before whom a Mohammedan
should be accused of claiming to be the Mahdi. If
overt acts in a disturbed district had accompanied

the claim, the official could scarcely avoid passing
sentence of condemnation ; and Pilate took the same
course. But he seems to have hesitated : while con-
demning Jesus, he gave him a chance of life. It
appears to have been the practise to grant to the
Jewish populace the privilege of pardoning a pris-
oner on public holidays; and Pontius Pilate held
out to the rabble surrounding the pretorium (for
most responsible heads of families must have been at
this time engaged in searching for leaven in their own
homes) a choice between Jesus and the other Jesus
(bar Abbas), who also had been accused of rebellion.
The mob had naturally more sympathy for the
avowed rebel than for the person who had recom-
mended the payment of tribute. It chose Bar-
abbas ; and Jesus was left to undergo the Roman
punishment of Crucifixion in company with two
malefactors. He refused with some not overkindly
words (Luke xxiii. 28-31) the deadening drink of
frankincense, myrrh, and vinegar which the ladies
of Jerusalem were accustomed to offer to condemned
criminals in order that they might pass away in an
unconscious state (Sanh. 43a). Whatever had been
Jesus' anticipations, he bore the terrible tortures,
due to the strain and cramping of the internal
organs, with equanimity till almost the last, when
he uttered the despairing and pathetic cry "Eloi,
Eloi, lama sabachthani? " (the Aramaic form of Ps.
xxii. 1, "My God, my God, wliy hast thou forsaken
me?"), which showed that even his resolute spirit
had been daunted by the ordeal. This last utter-
ance was in all its implications itself a disproof of
the exaggerated claims made for him after his death
by his disciples. The very form of his punishment
would disprove those claims in Jewish ej'es. No Mes-
siah that Jews could recognize could suffer such a
death ; for " He that is hanged is accursed of God "
(Deut. xxi. 23), "an insult to God '' (Targum, Rashi).
How far in his own mind Jesus substituted another
conception of the Messiah, and how far he regarded
himself as fulfilling that ideal, still remain among the
most obscure of historical problems (see Messiah).

Bibliography : Of the enormous literature relating to Jesus it
is unnecessary to refer in tbis place to more than a few of the
more recent Works, which give in most cases references to
their predecessors. On the sources the best work, at any rate
in English, still remains K. A. Abbott's Gnspelx in Encyc.
Brit. On the parallels with rabbinic sources : Lightfoot, Ho-
rcc Talmudicce (best ed., Oxford, 1854); A. Wiinsche, ^ewe
Beitriige zur Erliluteruno der EvanQtlien aus Talmudund
Midrasch, Gottingen, 1878 ; G. H. Dalman, The Words of
Jesus, Edinburgh, 1!K)1. On the life of Jesus the best and
most critical recent work is that of O. Holtzmann, Leben
Jcsw, Leipsic, 1901 (Eng. transl. London, 1904). W. Sanday,
In Hastings, Diet. Bihle, s.v., presents a moderate and candid
estimate of the various aspects of the life from the orthodox
Christian standpoint, and gives a critical bibliography to each
section. A similar critical view, with a fuller account of the
literature attached to each section, is given by Zockler in
Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encnc . s.v. With regard to the relation
of the Law to Jesus, the Christian view is expressed by : Bous-
set, Jesu Prcdigt in Ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum, Got-
tingen, 1892; G. H. Dalman, Cliristianitij and Judaism,
London, 1901. Of Jewish writers on Jesus may be mentioned :
G. Solomon, Tlie Jesus of Hititorii. London. 1880; H. Wein-
stock, .Jesus the Jew, New York. 1902; J. Jacobs, As Others
Saic Him, London, 189.5. See also Pole.mics.

J.
In Theology: Because the Gospels, while con-
taining valuable material, are all written in a po-
lemical spirit and for the purpose of substantiating
the claim of the Messianic and superhuman charac-
ter of Jesus, it is difficult to present an impartial
story of his life. Nor is the composite picture of

167

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesus

Jesus drawn from the synoptic Gospels, such as
is presented by modern Cliristian writers and in
which the miraculous is reduced to the minimum,
an approximation to the real Jesus. The Jesus of
history was equally as remote from Paulinian anti-
nomiauism as from the antagonism to his own kins-
men which has been ascribed to him; the Pharisees
having had no cause to hate and persecute liim, nor
had they given any cause for being liated by him
even if their views differed from liis (see New
Testament).

It was not as the teacher of new religious prin-
ciples nor as a new lawgiver, but as a wonder-
worker, that Jesus won fame and influence among
the simple inhabitants of Galilee in his lifetime; and
it was due only to liis frequent apparitions after his
death to these Galilean followers that the belief in
his resurrection and in his Messianic and divine
character was accepted and spread. The thaumatur-
gic and eschatological views of the times must be
fully considered, and the legendary lives of saints
such as Onias, Hanina ben Dosa, Phinehas ben Jair,
and Simeon ben Yohai in the Talmud, as well as the
apocalyptic and other writings of the Essenes, must
be compared before a true estimate of Jesus can be
formed.

However, a great historic movement of the char-
acter and importance of Christianity can noi, have
arisen without a great personality to call it into ex-
istence and to give it shape and direction. Jesus of
Nazareth had a mission from God (see Maimonides,
"Yad," Melakim, xi. 4, and the other passages
quoted in Jew. Encyc. iv. 56 et seq., s.v. Chris-
tianity); and he must have had the spiritual power
and fitness to be chosen for it. The very legends
surrounding his life and his death furnish proofs
of the greatness of his character, and of the depth
of the impression wliich it left upon the people
among whom lie moved.

Some legends, however, are artificial rather than
the natural product of popular fancy. To this
category belong those concerning Jesus' birthplace.
The fact that Nazareth was his native town —
where as the oldest son he followed his father's
trade of carpenter (Mark i. 9, vi. 3; comp. Matt,
xiii. 55; John vii. 41) — seemed to be
Legends in conflict with the claim to the Mes-
Concerning siahship, which, according to Micah
His Birth, v. 1 (A. V. 2) (comp. John vii. 42 ;
Yer. Ber. ii. 5a; Lam. R. i. 15), called
for Beth-lehem of Judah as the place of his ori-
gin ; hence, the two different legends, one in Luke
i. 26, ii. 4, and the other in Matt. ii. 1-22, where
the parallel to Moses (comp. Ex. iv. 19) is char-
acteristic. In support of the Messianic claim,
also, the two different genealogies were compiled:
the one, in Matt. i. 1-16, tracing Joseph's pedigree
through forty-two generations back to Abraham,
with a singular emphasis upon sinners and heathen
ancestresses of the house of David (comp. Gen. R.
xxiii., Ii., Ixxxv. ; Ruth R. iv. 7; Naz. 23b; Hor.
10b; Meg. 14b); the other, in Luke iii. 23-38, tra-
cing it back to Adam as " the son of God " in order
to include also the non-Abrahamic world. Incom-
patible with these genealogies, and of pagan origin
(see Boeklen, "Die Verwandtschaft der Judisch-

Christlichen mit der Parsichen Eschatologie," 1902,
pp. 91-94; Holtzmann, •'Hand-Commentar zum
Neuen Testament," 1889, p. 32; Soltau, in "Vier-
teljahrschrift fur Bibelkunde," 1903, pp. 36-40), is
the story representing Jesus as the son of the Virgin
Mary and of the Holy Ghost (taken as masculine.
Matt. i. 20-23; Luke i. 27-35). So also the story of
the angels and 'shepherds hailing the babe in the
manger (Luke ii. 8-20) betrays the influence of the
Mithra legend (Cumont, " Die Mysterien des Milhra,"
1903, pp. 97, 147; "Zeitschrift fiir die Neutesta-
mentliche Wissenschaft," 1902, p. 190), whereas the
legend concerning the prophecy of the two Essene
saints, Simeon and Anna, and the bar mizwah story
(Luke ii. 22-39, 40-50) have a decidedly Jewish
character.

From the " Gospel According to the Hebrews "
(Jerome, commentary on Matt. iii. 13, 16), it seems
that Jesus was induced by his mother and brothers
to go to John to be baptized in order to obtain the
forgiveness of his sins ; his vision, too, is there de-
scribed differently (comp. Justin, " Dial, cum Tryph."
Ixxxviii., ciii. ; Usener, " Religionsgeschichtliche
Untersuchungen,"1889, pp.1, 47; and Holy Spirit).
Genuinely Jewish also is the legend which depicts
Jesus as spending forty days with God among the
holy "hayyot" (not "wild beasts," as rendered in
Mark i. 13) without eating and drinking (comp. Ex.
xxxiv. 28; Deut. ix. 9); and his encounter with
Satan is similar to the one which Moses had in
heaven (Pesik. R. xx., based upon Ps. Ixviii. 19;
comp. Zoroaster's encounter with Ahriman [Zend
Avesta, Vend., Fargard, xix. 1-9]) and to Buddha's
with Mara (Koppen, "Die Religion des Buddha,"
1857, i. 88, and R. Seydel, "Das Evangelium von
Jesu," 1882, p. 156).

When, after John's imprisonment, Jesus took up
the work of his master, preaching repentance in
view of the approach of the kingdom of God (Mark
i. 14; Luke i. 79; comp. Matt. iii. 2, iv. 16-17), he
chose as his field of operations the land
As Healer around the beautiful lake of Gennesa-
and ret, with Capernaum as center, rather

"Wonder- than the wilderness; and he had as
"Worker, followers Peter, Andrew, John, and
others, his former companions (John i.
35-51; comp. Matt. iv. 18; Mark i. 16 with Luke v.
1). His chief activity consisted in healing those
possessed with unclean spirits who gathered at the
synagogues at the close of the Sabbath (Mark i. 32-
34; Luke iv. 40). Wherever he came in his wander-
ings through Galilee and Syria the people followed
him (Matt. iv. 23-24; xii. 15; xiv. 14, 34; xv. 30;
xix. 1; Mark iii. 10; Luke vi. 17-19), bringing to
him the sick, the demoniacs, epileptics, lunatics,
and paralytics to be cured ; and he drove out the
unclean spirits, "rebuking" them (Matt. xvii. 18;
Luke iv. 35, 39, 41 ; ix. 42 ; comp. " ga'ar " in Zech. iii.
2; Isa. 1. 2 ; Ps. Ixviii. 31 [A. V. 30]) with some magic
"word" (Matt. viii. 8, 16; comp. "milla," Shab.
81b; Eccl. R. i. 8), even as he "rebuked" the wind
and told the sea to stand still (Mark iv. 35 and par-
allels). At times he cured the sufferers by the mere
touch of his hand (Mark i. 25; Matt. viii. 8, ix.
18-25), or by powers emanating from him through
the fringes of his garment (ib. ix. 20, xiv. 36). or

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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

168

by the use of spittle put upon the affected organ,
accompanying the operation with a whisper (Mark
vii. 32, viii. 23; John ix. 1-11; comp. Sanh. lOla;
Yer. Shab. xiv. 14d: Lohesh and Rok). By the
same exorcismal power he drove a whole legion of
evil spirits, 2,000 in number, out of a maniac living
in a cemetery (Josephus, "B. J." vii. 6, § 3; Sanh.
65b) and made them enter a herd of swine to be
drowned in the adjacent lake (Luke viii. 26-39 and
parallels; comp. Ta'an. 21b; Kid. 49b; B. K. vii.
7). It was exactly this Essenic practise which
gained for him the name of prophet (Matt. xxi. 11,
46; Luke vii. 16, 39;xxiv. 19; John iv. 19). In
fact, by these supernatural powers of his he himself
believed that Satan and his hosts would be subdued
and the kingdom of God would be brought about
(Luke ix. 3, x. 18, xi. 20); and these powers he is
said to have imparted to his disciples to be exercised
only in connection with the preaching of the king-
dom of God (Matt. ix. 35-x. 6; Mark vi. 7; Luke ix.
1-2). They are to him the chief proof of his Mes-
siahship (Matt. xi. 2-19; Luke vii. 21-22). It was
as the healer of physical pain that Jesus regarded
himself "sent to the lost sheep of the house of
Israel " ; and in the same spirit he sent forth his dis-
ciples to perform cures everywhere, yet always ex-
cluding the heathen from such benefits (Matt. x.
6-8, XV. 22-28). Other miracles ascribed to Jesus,
such as the feeding of the 5,000 and the 4,000 (Mark
vi. 30-46, viii. 1-9, and parallels), have probablj' been
suggested by the miracles of Moses, and the raising
of the dead (Luke vii. 11-17, viii. 40-56; John xi.
1-46) by those of Elijah.

While the Essenes in general were not only healers
and wonder-workers but also doers of "works of
charity, there was aroused in Jesus, owing to his
constant contact with suflfering humanity, a deep
compassion for the ailing and the forsaken (Matt.
xiv. 14, XV. 32). With this there caime to him the
consciousness of his mission to bring good tidings
to the poor (Luke iv. 16-30, vii. 22) and to break
down the barrier which Pharisaism had erected be-
tween the Pharisees as the better class
As Helper of society and the 'Am ha-Akez, the
of the Poor publicans and fallen ones (Matt. ix.
and 10-13, xi. 19, and parallels; Luke vii.

Forsaken, 36-50). This was a great departure
from Essenism, which, in order to at-
tain a higher degree of pharisaic sanctity, kept its
adherents entirely apart from the world, in order
that they might not be contaminated by it. Jesus,
on the contrary, sought the society of sinners and
fallen ones, saying, " They that are whole need not
a physician, but they that are sick. I came not to
call the righteous, but sinners to repentance" (Luke
V. 31-32; comp. parallels). No wonder that, when
performing his miracles, he was believed to be in
league with Satan or Beelzebub, the spirit of unclean-
ness, rather than to be tilled with tlie Holy Spirit
(Mark iii. 22 and parallels). This anti-Essenic prin-
ciple, once announced, emboldened him to allow
the very women lie had cured to accompany him
and his disciples— in sharp contrast to all tradition
(Luke viii. 1-3); and they repaid his regard with
profound adoration, and subsequently were promi-
nent at the grave and in the resurrection legend.

Another departure from pharisaic as well as Es-
senic practise was his permission to his disciples to
eat with unwashed hands. When rebuked he de-
clared: "Whatsoever from without entereth into the
man can not defile him, but that which proceedeth
out of the man [evil speech], that defileth the man "
(Mark vii. 15 and parallels) — a principle which
scarcely implied the Pauliuian abrogation of the
dietary laws, but was probably intended to convey
the idea that " the profane can not defile the word
of God " (Ber. 22a).

In another direction, also, Jesus in his practises as
a physician was led to oppose the rigorists of his
day. The old Hasidaean Sabbath laws were ex-
tremely severe, as may be seen from the last chap-
ter of the Book of Jubilees; to these the Shammaites
adhered, prohibiting healing on Sabbath. But there
were also the Hillelites, who accepted liberal max-
ims, such as "Where a life is at stake the Sabbath
law must give way" and "The Sabbath is handed
over to you, not you to the Sabbath" (Mek., Ki
Tissa). Jesus, following these latter, performed
cures on the Sabbath (Mark ii. 27, iii. 1-16, and par-
allels; Luke xiii. 10-21, xiv. 1-8); but that the
Pharisees should on this account have planned his
destruction, as the Gospels record, is absurd. In
fact, the compilers misunderstood the phrase " The
son of man is lord of the Sabbath " — as if this abro-
gation of the Sabbath were the privilege of the
Messiah — as well as the story of the plucking of
grain by the disciples, which Luke (vi. 1) alone has
preserved more correctly. It was not on the Sab-
bath, but on tlie first day of the second Passover
week (called dEvreporpurr/ from the Biblical expression
"the morrow of the Sabbath," Lev. xxiii. 11-14),
when no new corn was allowed to be eaten before
some had been ofl'ered on the altar, that the disciples
of Jesus passed through the field and plucked the
new corn, called "hadash" in rabbinical literature.
In defending their action Jesus correctly referred to
David, who ate of the holy bread because he was
hungry (I Sam. xxi. 5-7) — an argument which
would not at all apply to the Sabbath.

Jesus spoke with the power of the Haggadists
— compare, e.g., "the men of little faith" (Sotah
48b) ; " the eye that lusts, the hand that sins must be
cut off" (Nid. 13b); "no divorce except for fornica-
tion " (Git. 90b) ; " purity like that of a child "■ ( Yoma
22a) — and not like the men of the Halakah (Luke i v.
32; comp. Matt. vii. 29, "not like the
Man of the scribes"). He often opposed the legal-
People ; ism of the Halakists (Matt, xxiii. 9;
Not a Mark vii. 6-23), but he aflHrmed in
Reformer, forcible and unmistakable language
the immutability of the Law (Matt.
V. 17-19). The Sermon on the Mount, if this was
ever delivered by him, was never intended to sup-
plant the law of Moses, though the compiler of the
Gospel of Matthew seeks to create that impression.
Nor does any of the apostles or of the epistles
refer to the new code promulgated by Jesus. As a
matter of fact the entire New Testament teaching is
based upon the Jewish Didache (see Seeberg, " Ka-
techismus der Urchristenheit," 1903, pp. 1-44).

Only in order to be prepared for the kingdom of
God, which he expected to come in the immediate

169

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Jesus

future and during the lifetime of his hearers (Matt,
xvi. 28, xxiv. 42-44, xxv. 13), Jesus laid down espe-
cial rules of conduct for his disciples, demanding of
them a higher righteousness and purity and a greater
mutual love than the Pharisees prac-
Tlie tised (Matt. v. 20, xviii. 4-5). It was

Kingdom^ the Essenic spirit which dictated a life

of God. of voluntary poverty, of abstinence
from marriage and domestic life, and
of asceticism (Matt. xix. 12, 21-24, 29), as well as
that principle of non-resistance to evil which the
Talmud finds commendable in "the lovers of God"
who " take insult and resent not " and shall in the
life to come "shine like the sun " (Shab. 88b). The
kingdom of God of which Jesus spoke had a deci-
dedly political character, and all the apocalyptic wri-
ters so regard it. The Messiah with the twelve
judges of the twelve tribes was expected to rule
over the land (Matt. xvi. 27, xix. 28); the Judg-
ment Day was to have its tortures of Gehenna for
the wicked, and its banquet in Paradise for the
righteous, to precede the Messianic time (Matt. viii.
11-12, xviii. 8-9; Luke xiii. 28-29, xiv. 1.5-24); the
earth itself was to produce plenty of grapes and
other fruit of marvelous size for the benefit of the
righteous, according to Jesus' own statement to
John (Papias, in Irenseus, "Adversus Haereses," v.
33-34).

Often Jesus spoke of the " secrets " of the king-
dom of God in allegories and enigmas (not " para-
bles"; see Matt. xiii. 1-52; comp. ii. 35), "dark say-
ings" hidden from the foundation of the world
(Ps. Ixxviii. 2; John xvi. 25, 29), because the}' re-
ferred to the kingdom of Satan (Matt. xiii. 39) — that
is, Rome — whose end was nigh. Of course such
"secrets" were afterward turned into spiritual mys-
teries, too deep even for the disciples to compre-
hend, while simple words announcing the immediate
nearness of the end were changed into phrases such
as "The kingdom of God is within you" (Luke
X vii. 21, for " among you "). On the other hand, the
rabbinical phrase "the yoke of God's kingdom
which liberates from the yoke of the kingdom of
the worldly power" (Ab. iii. 5) is spoken of as "my
yoke " and declared to be "easy " (Matt. xi. 29) ; for
the allegory of the tares and the wheat (Matt, xiii.)
used for the heathen and the Jews in the Judgment
Day, comp. Midr. Teh. to Ps. ii. 12. Occasionally
political strife, as a means of bringing about the
catastrophe, is approved by Jesus (Luke xii. 51-53,
xxii. 36; comp. verses 49-50).

Like all the Essenes of his time (Tosef., Men. xiii.
21-23), Jesus was a sworn enemj' of the house of the
high priest Hanan. His indignation at seeing the
Temple hill turned into a poultry- and cattle-market
for the benefit of the arrogant hierarchy (Mark xi.
15-18) fired him into action again.st these " bazaars of
the Hananites " (Derenbourg, " Histoire de la Pales-
tine," p. 466), which he called with Jeremiah (vii. 1)
"a den of thieves"; he seized the tables of the
money-changers and drove their owners out of the
Temple. Whether he had then actually clainicd for
himself the title of Messiah in order to be empow-
ered to act thus, or whether he allowed the band of
his followers to call him thus, it is certain that he laid
no claim to the Messiahship before his entrance into

Jerusalem (see Jew. Encyc. iv. 51, s.t). Christian-
ity; Son of Man). According to the more au-
thentic older records (Mark viii. 31, x. 3^^ xi. 18, xiv.
43, and parallels), he was seized by the high priests
and the Sanhedrin, and was delivered over to the
Roman autliorities for execution. The
His Death, high priests feared the Roman prefect
(John xviii. 14); but the people clung
to Jesus (Matt. xxvi. 5; Luke xix. 48, xxi. 38,
xxiii. 27), and lamented over his death (Luke xxiii.
48). Later " the Pharisees " were added to the list
of the persecutors of Jesus (Matt. xxii. 15 ; Mark xii.
13; John xviii. 3; and elsewhere), and the guilt of
shedding his blood was laid upon the Jews, while
the bloodthirsty tyrant Pontius Pilate was repre-
sented as having asserted Jesus' innocence (Matt,
xxvii. 24; John xviii. 28-xix. 16). The term "hea-
then" or "Romans" was changed into "sinners" or
"men" (Mark ix. 31, xiv. 41, and parallels), and the
charge of rebellion against Rome with the implied
instigation to refuse the tribute (Luke xxiii. 2) was
put into the mouth of the Jewish authorities,
whereas Jesus is represented as having declared:
"My kingdom is not of this world " (John xviii. 36)
and "Render to Csesar the things that are Caesar's"
(Mark xii. 13-17 and parallels).

The story of the resurrection of Jesus is the natu-
ral consequence of the belief of his followers in his
miraculous powers as the subduer of Satan. In-
deed, it is stated that it was not he alone who arose
from the grave, but that many saints arose with him
(Matt, xxvii. 52) just as many saints in Jewish
folk-lore overcame death (Shab. 55b; Mas. Derek
Erez, i.); and resurrection is the proof of the work-
ing of the Holy Spirit (Sotah xv. 15; Cant. R., In-
troduction, 9; see Resuruection). The disciples
and the women who had been his constant compan-
ions when lie was alive beheld him in
The Resur- their entranced state as partaking of
rection. their meals and heard him address
to them instruction and argumenta-
tion (Matt. XX viii. 9, 18-20; Luke xxiv. 27^9;
John XX. 15-xxi. 23). Many apparitions of Jesus
after his death were in the course of time related as
having taken place during his lifetime. Thus the
strange stories of his walking at night as a spirit
upon a lake (Matt. xiv. 24-36; Luke ix. 28-36; and
parallels), of his transfiguration and conversation
with Moses and Elijah (Matt. xvii. 1-13), and others
became current in those credulous times when all
the Apostles had their visions and direct communi-
cations from their master, w-hom they beheld as "the
Son of Man in the clouds" waiting for "his return
with myriads of angels " to take possession of this
earth. And so it came about that, consciously or
unconsciously, the crystallized thought of genera-
tions of Essenes and entire chapters taken from their
apocalyptic literature (Matt, xxiv.-xxv.) were put
into the mouth of Jesus, the acme and the highest
type of Essenism.

It was not the living but the departed Jesus that
created the Church with Peter as the rock (Matt,
xvi. 18); while, according to the Jewish Haggadah,
Abraham was made the rock upon which God built
His kingdom (Yalk., Num. 766). See Lord's
Prayer; Lord's Supper; Sermon on the Mount.

Jesus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

170

Bibliography: Griitz, Gcsch. Uh ed., m. 281-314; F. Isork.
Rabbiniache Quellcn Ncn-TcstamentUcher SteUen, Leip-
sic,1839; August Wunsche.iVette Beitritue zur Eiifinteriuw
der Evangelien aus Talmud und Midrasch, Gbttinpen, \S,2.

In Jewish Legend: The Jewish legends iu

regard to Jesus are found in three sources, each in-
dependent of the others— (1) in New Testament apoc-
rypha and Christian polemical works, (2) in the Tal-
mud and the Mldrash, and (3) in the life; of Jesus
("Toledot Yeshu'") that originated in the Middle
Ages. It is the tendency of all these sources to be-
little the person of Jesus by ascribing to him ille-
gitimate birth, magic, and a shameful death. In
view of their general character they are called indis-
criminately legends. Some of the statements, as
that referring to magic, are found among pagan wri-
ters and Christian heretics; and as the Ebionites,
or Judffio-Christians, who for a long time lived to-
getlier with the Jews, are also classed as heretics,
conclusions may be drawn from this as to the origin
of these legends.

It ought also to be added that many of the legends
have a theological background. For polemical pur-
poses, it was necessary for the Jews to insist on the
illegitimacy of Jesus as against the Davidic descent
claimed by the Christian Church. Magic may have
been ascribed him over against the miracles recorded
in the Gospels; and the degrading fate both on earth
and hereafter of which the legends speak may be
simply directed against the ideas of the assumption
and the resurrection of Jesus. The Jewish legends
relating to Jesus appear less inimical in character
■when compared with the parallel passages which
are found in pagan authors and Christian sources,
more especially as such legends are fixed and fre-
quently occurring themes of folk-lore ; and imagina-
tions must have been especially excited by the his-
torical importance wliich the figure of Jesus came
to have for the Jews.

The earliest authenticated passage ascribing illegit-
imate birth to Jesus is that in Yeb. iv. 3. The mys-
terious phrase ("that man ") cited in this passage as
occurring in a family register which R. Simeon ben
Azza is said to have found seems to indicate that it
refers to Jesus (see Derenbourg in " R. E. J." i. 293),
and here occur also the two expressions so often ap-
plied to Jesus in later literature— ""^I^JD CK (= "that
anonymous one," the name of Jesus being avoided)
andlTOD (= "bastard " ; for which in later times iniN
tJ'''X was used). Such a family register may have
been preserved at Jerusalem in the Judaeo-Christian
community.

The Jews, who are represented as inimical to
Jesus in the canonical Gospels also, took him to be
legitimate and born in an entirely natural manner.
A contrary statement as to their attitude is ex-
pressed for the first time in the "Acts of Pilate"
(" Gospel of Nicodemus, " ed . Thilo, in " Codex Apoc.
Novi Testamenti," i. 526, Leipsic, 1832; comp. Ori-
gen, "Contra Celsum," i. 28). Celsus makes the same
statement in another passage, where he
Birth of refers even to a written source {iivaye-
Jesus. ypanrai), adding that the seducer was a
soldier by the name of Panthera {I.e.
1. 32). The name " Panthera " occurs here for tlie first
time; two centuries later it occurs in Epiphanius

("Hseres." Ixxviii. 7), who ascribes the surname
"Panther" to Jacob, an ancestor of Jesus; and John
of Damascus ("De Orthod. Fide." iv., ^lo) includes
the names "Panther " and " Barpanther " in the gen-
ealogy of Maiy. It is certain, in any case, that the
rabbinical sources also regard Jesus as the " son of
Pandera" (NITUS, NinJS, Ninja), although it is
noteworthy that he is called also "Ben Stada"
(SnODp) (Shab. 104b; Sanh. 6Ta).

It appears from this passage that, aside from Pan-
dera and Stada, the couple Pappus b. Judah and
Miriam the liairdresser were taken to be the parents
of Jesus. Pappus has nothing to do with the
story of Jesus, and was only connected with it
because his wife happened to be called "Miriam"
(= " Mary "), and was known to be an adulteress.

The one statement in which all these confused
legends agree is that relating to the birth of Jesus.
Although this is ascribed only to the Jews, even in
Celsus, the Jews need not necessarily be regarded
as its authors, for it is possible that it originated
among heretics inimical to Jesus, as the Ophites and
Cainites, of whom Origen says "they uttered such
hateful accusations against Jesus as Celsus himself
did " (" Contra Celsum," iii. 13). It is probable, fur-
thermore, that the accusation of illegitimacy was
not originally considered so serious; it was ascribed
to the most prominent personages, and is a stand-
ing motive in folk-lore (Krauss, "Leben Jesu," p.
214).

The incident of Jesus concerning the dispute with
the Scribes was copied by the rabbinical sources
(Kallah 18b [ed. Venice, 1528, fol. 41c] : comp. N.
Coronel, "Comment. Quinque," p. 3b, Vienna, 1864,
and " Batte Midrashot," ed. Wertheimer, iii. 23, Jeru-
salem, 1895). All the "Toledot" editions contain a
similar story of a dispute which Jesus carried on
with the Scribes, who, on the ground of that dispute,
declared him to be a bastard. Analogous to this story
are numerous tales of predictions by precocious
boj'S.

The sojourn of Jesus in Egypt is an essential part
of the story of his youth. According to the Gospels
he w^as in that country in his early
Sojourn in infancy, but Celsus says that he was
Egypt. in service there and learned magic;
hence he was there in early manhood.
This assumption may serve to throw more light on
the obscure history of Jesus than the account found
in the Gospels. The Talmud also says that Jesus
was in Egypt in early manhood. R. Joshua b.
Perahyah is said to have fled with his pupil Jesus
to Alexandria in order to escape the persecutions of
the Jewish king Yannai (103-76 B.C.); on their re-
turn Jesus made a remark on the not faultless beauty
of their hostess, whereupon R. Joshua excommuni-
cated him ; and when Jesus approached him again
and was not received he set up a brick for his god,
and led all Israel into apostasy (Sanh. 107b; Sotah
47a; Yer. Hag. 77d). This account is supplemented
by the statement, made on tlie assumption tliat Ben
Stada is identical with Ben Pandera, that Ben Stada
brought magic from Egypt (Shab. 104b). The
story that Joshua b. Perahyah, a contemporary of
Simeon b. Siietah, was the teacher of Jesus, is not
clearly stated in the various "Toledot"; it is said

171

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jesus

merely that Jesus was named after this brother of
his mother. The assumption that Joshua b. Perah-
yah was the uncle of Jesus is confirmed by Kirki-
sani, who wrote about 937 a history of Jewish sects
(ed. Ilarkavy, § 1, St. Petersburg, 1894; comp. "J.
Q. E." vii. 687). The references to Yannai, Salome
Alexandra, and Joshua b. Perahyah indicate that
according to tlie Jewish legends the advent of Jesus
took place just one century before the actual his-
torical date ; and some medieval apologists for Juda-
ism, as Nahmanides and Salman Zebi, based on this
fact their assertion that the " Yeshu' " mentioned in
tlie Talmud was not identical witii Jesus; this, how-
ever, is merely a subterfuge.

According toCelsus (inOrigen, "Contra Celsum,"

i. 28) and to the Talmud (Shab. 104b), Jesus learned

magic in Egypt and performed his miracles by

means of it ; the latter work, in addition, states that he

cut the magic formulas into his skin.

Jesus as It does not mention, however, the na-
Magician. ture of his magic performances (Tosef . ,
Shab. .xi. 4; Yer. Shab. 13d); but as
it states that the disciples of Jesus healed the sick
"in the name of Jesus Pandera "(Yer. Shab. 14d;
'Ab. Zarah 27b; Eccl. R. i. 8) it may be assumed
that its author held the miracles of Jesus also to
have been miraculous cures. Different in nature is
the witchcraft attributed to Jesus in the "Toledot."
When Jesus was expelled from the circle of scholars,
he is said to have returned secretly from Galilee to
Jerusalem, where he inserted a parchment contain-
ing the "declared name of God"("Shem ha-Mefo-
rash "), which was guarded in the Temple, into his
skin, carried it away, and then, taking it out of liis
skin, he performed his miracles by its means. This
magic formula then had to be recovered from him,
and Judah the Gardener (a personage of the "Tole-
dot " corresponding to Judas Iscariot) offered to do
it; he and Jesus then engaged in an aerial battle (bor-
rowed from the legend of Simon Magus), in which
Judah remained victor and Jesus fled.

The accusation of magic is frequently brought
against Jesus. Jerome mentions it, quoting the
Jews: *" Magum vocant et Judtei Dominum meum "
("Ep. Iv., ad Asccllam," i. 196, ed. Vallarsi); Mar-
cus, of the sect of the Valentiuians, Avas, according
to Jerome, a native of Egypt, and w^as accused of
being, like Jesus, a magician (Hilgenfeld, " Ketzer-
gesch." p. 370, Leipsic, 18S4). There w^ere even
Christian heretics who looked upon the founder of
their religion as a magician (Fabricius, in "Codex
Apocr. NoviTestamenti," iii. 396), and public opin-
ion at Rome accused all Christians of magic (W. M.
Ramsay, "The Church in the Roman Empire Before
A.D. 170," pp. 236, 392, London, 1897). The Apos-
tles were regarded in the same light ("Acta Petri et
Andrete," ed. Bonnet, § 8). Neither this accusation
nor that concerning the birth of Jesus is found in the
canonical Gospels, but it occurs in the apocryphal ac-
counts; e.fj., "Gesta Pilati," ii. 1; "Acta Pilati,"
version B, ii. 3, iii. 1; ib. i. 1 (/layeiai; comp. }6r/^
kariv = "he is a magician "); ib. in ed. Tischendorf,
2ded., p. 216, "maleficus est"; ib. p. 338("Zeit.
fin- die Neutest. Wissenschaft," 1901, iii. 94), with
which comp. " veneficus " = " poisoner " (" Evang. In-
fantile Arab." ed. Thilo, ^ 36). Somewhat different

is the accusation that Jesus imposed upon the people
and led them astray (comp. BLschoff, "Ein Judisch-
Deutsches Leben Jesu," p. 20, Leipsic, 1895: noiD,
often also nyno, and in the Greek texts TrAavor, '/.ao-
iT/.avuq ; comp. ■n'/.ava tuv d,\hjv = " he deceives the peo-
ple"; John vii. 12). As Balaam the magician and,
according to the derivation of his name, "destroj'er
of the people," was from both of these points of
view a good prototype of Jesus, the latter was also
called "Balaam."

Celsus (i. 62) says there were ten or eleven apos-
tles. A passage of the Talmud (Sanh. 43a) ascribes
five disciples to Jesus: "Matthai" (Matthew),
"Nakai " (Luke), "Xczer" (Nazarene,
The Disci- a general designation for Christian in
pies of antiquity), " Boni " (probably the Nico-
Jesus. dcmus mentioned bj^ John), and
"Thoda" (Thaddseus). The following
are mentioned in the "Toledot" (Huldricus, p. 85):
" Simeon " (Peter), " Matthia " (Matthew), " Ehkum "
(Luke), "Mordecai" (Mark), "Thoda" (Thaddsus),
and " Johannos "(John) — that is, the four evangelists
plus Peter and Thaddoeus. Paul is mentioned in an-
other connection, and (p. 48) Judas "the betrayer":
it is to be noted that the last-named does not occur at
all in Talmudic legends. The Twelve Apostles are
mentioned in other versions of the "Toledot" (ed.
Wagenseil, p. 19; ed. Bischoff, p. 21), while still
other versions frequently mention a following of
300, 310, 320, 330 men. It is especially striking that
all these disciples are described as eminently Avise
and learned, while according to Celsus (i. 63, ii. 46)
the disciples of Jesus were common men, toll-
keepers and seamen, an assumption that agrees to
some extent with the canonical Gospels.

In all the editions of the "Toledot" the doctrine
of Jesus is summed up in the statements that he was
the son of God, born of a virgin mother, a descend-
ant of David and the promised Messiah; this he
proved from passages of Scripture, in the rabbinic-
Talmudic manner. In connection with these state-
ments he is also represented as en-
The gaging in disputations with Jewish

Doctrines scholars. The only specifically Chris-
of Jesus, tian doctrine mentioned by the Talmud
is (Shab. 116a, b) that the law of Moses
has been annulled and the Gospels put in its place —
the well-known Christian doctrine of the abrogation
of the Law ; the saj'ing of Jesus, " I have not come
to take away the law of Moses, but to add to it," is
also cited (iVj.). In the "Toledot" the doctrine of
abrogation is put into the mouth of Peter, and the
latter, secretly intending to separate the Christians
from the community in the interest of the Jews,
promulgates the following tenets: Jesus suffered the
pain and punishment of death in order to redeem
from hell those that believe in him (comp. I Cor. xv.
26, 55) ; believers shall not hurt the Jews (comp.
Acts iii. 26) ; one who deserves to be accompanied
one mile only shall be accompanied two miles; both
cheeks shall be offered if one cheek has been struck
(comp. Matt. v. 39-41) ; instead of the Sabbath, Sun-
da}' shall be kept holy; Easter shall be celebrated
instead of the Passover, Pentecost instead of the
Feast of Weeks, etc. ; circumcision is abrogated,
and the dietary laws annulled. All these doctrines

JesuB
Jethro

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

172

are merely external, while the essential points of the
teachings of Jesus are hardly alluded to.

Jesus performed all his miracles by means of
magic, as stated above. These miracles are not
specified in the Talmud, but they are in the " Tole-
dot " ; they are partly such as are mentioned in the
Gospels, as the healing of the halt, blind, and lep-
rous, and are somewhat different in nature, thougli
based on the Gospels, as the story of Jesus walking
on the sea on a heavy millstone ("Toledot" — ed.
Wagenseil, p. 14; ed. Huldricus, p. 43; ed. Bischoff,
p. 25; MS. Adler, in Krauss, "Leben Jesu," p. 119;
comp. Matt. xiv. 25, xviii. 6). Other miracles are
derived from apocryphal accounts, as the story that
Jesus fashioned birds from clay or marble and put
life into them; this occurs also in the "Gospel of
Thomas," in "Evang. InfantiiE Arab." § 36 (Thilo,
ib. i. Ill), and in the Koran. These legends are much
amplified in the later "Toledot," although the sub-
stance remains the same.

The Talmudic account of the manner of executing
a person guilty of leading the people astray (Sanh.
67a) would be of signal historical importance if it
were certain that it referred to Jesus. The proceed-
ing against one who incites otliers to deny the re-
ligion of their fathers consists in con-
Trial and victing him of his guilt by means of

Death, of concealed witnesses, as follows: The
Jesus. accused is placed in an inner room
with a light, so that witnesses unknown
to him and watching him from an outer room can
see and hear him clearly. Then a companion says
to him: " Tell me again what you told me in confi-
dence [in regard to renouncing our religion]." If
he does so, the other replies : " How could we leave
our God in heaven and serve idols ? " If he recants
now, it is well ; but if he says, " It is our duty and
we must do it," then the witnesses outside take him
into court and he is stoned. " Thus they did with
Ben Stada at Lydda, who was hanged on the eve of
the Passover." This passage refers to Jesus only if
he is regarded as identical with Ben Stada ; this can
hardly be assumed in view of the reference to Lydda.
Tlie frequently repeated statement that Jesus was
condemned for inciting to apostasy (ri'llDI JTDO) is
based on Sanh. 43a; there is added the entirely im-
probable statement that forty days before the con-
demnation of Jesus a herald called \ipon any one
who could say anything in his favor to come for-
ward and testify, but that no one appeared.

The proceeding is related very differently in the
" Toledot" ; although the several editions of the same
differ in detail they agree in substance. The follow-
ing account is found in a ravher old edition (see
Krauss, I.e. pp. 43 et seg.). The scholars of Israel
took Jesus into the synagogue of Tiberias and bound
him to a pillar; when his followers came to liberate
lum, a battle occurred in which the Jewish party was
worsted and his disciples took him to Antiochia.
On the eve of Passover he entered Jerusalem riding
on an ass (comp. Matt. xxi. 4-17), disguised — ac-
cording to several editions — so that his former disciple
Judas had to betray him in order to secure his seizure.
He was executed on the eve of the Passover fes-
tival, which was also the eve of the Sabbath. The
executioners were not able to hang him upon a tree,

for he had conjured all trees, by means of the name
of God, not to receive him, and therefore they all
broke; he Avas finally received by a large cabbage-
stalk (comp. Targ. Sheni to Esth. vii. 9). He was
buried on the same day, in conformity with the
Law, and the apostates, his disciples, wept at his
tomb.

According to the " Toledot " his disciples sought,
for his body in the tomb, but being unable to find
it they used the incident as proof before Queen
Helena that he who had been slain had ascended
into heaven. It then appeared tliat a man — some-
times called "Judas the Gardener" (Judas Isca-
riot), sometimes, indefinitely, the "master of the
garden " — had taken the body out of the grave, used
it as a dam to keep the water out of his garden, and
had flooded the tomb. Then there was joy again in
Israel; the body was taken before the queen at
Jerusalem, and the Christians were shamed. Three
points deserve notice in this account: (1) The fact
that the body was stolen. According to Matt, xxvii.
64, the Pharisees asked Pilate to guard the tomb so
that the disciples might not steal the body and say
that Jesus had ascended into heaven ; but when the
report was nevertheless circulated that Jesus had
ascended, the Pharisees bribed the soldiers to say that
the body had been stolen by the disciples (Matt.
xxviii. 13). The "Gospel of Nikodemus," i^ 13
(Thilo, ib. i. 616), adds that the Jews still persisted in
this statement. A similar story is known to Justin
("Dial, cum Tryph." § 108; comp. § 17) and Euse-
bius("Hist. Eccl." ch. iv. 18), Avhile in the pseudo-
Clementine " Recognitiones " (i. , g 42) this assertion is
ascribed to "others" (proi)ably the Jews). (2) The
statement of the theft of the body and the statement
of the gardener who was afraid that the multitude
of disciples might destroy his lettuce-beds were both
known to Tertullian ("De Spectaculis," § 30). (3)
The insult offered to the body in the streets of Jeru-
salem is alluded to in the Koran (see below).

It is clear, therefore, that the Jewish legends deny
the resurrection of Jesus ; the halakic assertion that
Balaam (i.e., the prototype of Jesus) had no part in
the future life must also be especiallv noted (Sanh.
-X. 2). It is further said : " The pupils of the recreant
Balaam inherit hell " (Abot v. 19). Jesus is accord-
ingly, in the following curious Tal-
The Resur- mudic legend, thought to sojourn in

rection. hell. A certain Oukelos b. Kalonikos,
son of Titus' sister, desired to embrace
Judaism, and called up from hell by magic first
Titus, then Balaam, and finally Jesus, who are here
taken together as the worst enemies of Judaism.
He asked Jesus: "Who is esteemed in that world r "
Jesus said: "Israel." "Shallone join them? " Jesus
said to him: "Further their well-being; do nothing
to their detriment ; whoever touclies them touches
even the apple of His eye." Onkelos then asked
the nature of his punishment, and was told tliat it
was the degrading fate of those who niock the wise
(Git. 56b-57a). This most revolting passage was ap-
])lied in the Middle Ages to another Jesus (^.(7., by
R. Jehiel, in the Paris disputation; "Wikkuah," p.
4, Thorn, 1873). A parallel to the story is found in
the statement of the "Toledot" that when Judas
found he could not touch Jesus in any way in the

173

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

JesuB
Jethro

aerial battle, he defiled him. This feature naturally
especially angered Christians (see Wagenseil, " Tela
Ignea Satanse," p. 77). According to a passage in
the Zohar (Steinschneider, "Polemische Litteratur,"
p. 362) the same degrading fate is meted out to
both Jesus and Mohammed.

Legends regarding Jesus are found in Moham-
medan folk-lore. Although the innocence of Mary is
most emphatically asserted, there are such striking
parallels to Jewish legends that this material must
certainly have been taken from Judaism into the
Koran. In that work, also, it is stated that Jesus
formed birds out of clay and endowed them with
life (sura iii. 43); both the Koran and Jalal al-Din
(in Maracci, "Refutatio Alcorani," fol. 114b, Patavii,
1698) refer to the peculiar clothing worn by the dis-
ciples of Jesus; and in Ibn Said (Maracci, I.e. fol.
113b) is found the statement that the body of Jesus
was dragged witii ropes through the streets.

The cardinal point in the Jewish legends concerns
the birth of Jesus. This question is discussed by both

the Samaritans ("Chronique Samari-

Karaites taine," ed. Neubauer, p. 18, Paris,

and Sa- 1873) and the Karaites, as maj' be seen

maritans. in a recently published passage from

the work of the Karaite Judah Ha-
dassi("'J. Q. R." viii. 440). Other essential points
are that Jesus performed his miracles by conjuring
with the name of God {ib. viii. 436), and the leg-
end appended to the " Toledot " editions regarding
the finding of the cross {ib. viii. 438). The Karaites,
however, had their own "Toledot." Meswi al-
'Akkbari, the founder of a Karaite sect, engaged in
similar polemics against the Christian doctrines
("R. E. J." xxxiv. 182).

The Jewish legends referring to Jesus can not be
regarded as originally purely Jewish, because the
Christian Antichrist legends also make use of them.
The Antichrist is born of a wandering virgin, the

latter being, according to one version,

Antichrist a Danitic, hence Jewish, woman, while

Legends, the father belongs to the Latin race

(corresponding to the Roman soldier
Panthera). Similar details are found in the Ar-
MiLtjs legend (Bousset, "Der Antichrist," p. 99,
G&ttingen, 1895; Krauss, "Das Leben Jesu," p.
?16).

Bibliography: Mehlfuhrer, J'e,'«i« in Talmude, k\iort, 1699;
Andr. Conr. Werner, Jesus in Talmude. Stade, 1738; D'Her-
belot, Bihliotheque Orientnle, ii. 349; Wagenseil, Tela lanea
Satance. Altorf, 1681 (where the Confutatio of the Toledot is
separately paged); Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judent}mm,i.
105, 1*3, 249,}ja.^mn ; Vender Aim, Die ITitheile Heitinischer
nnd JUdischer Schriftstelhr ilber Jesus, Leipsic, 1864 ; Hoff-
mann, Das Leben Jesu nach den Apohryphen, lb. 1851 ; G.
Rosph, Jesuswythen, in Theologische Studicn und Kritiken,
1873, pp. 77-115 ; JUdische Sagen Uher das Leben Jesu, by
Conard, in Neue Kirchliche Zeitschnft, pp. 164-176, Erlangen
and Leipsic, 1901 ; Baring-Gould, Lost and Hostile Gos-
pe/8, 1875; Lalble, Jesus Ch7~ist%is im Talmud (with Appen-
dix—Die Talmtidi.'^chen Texte, by G. Dalman), Berlin, 1891
(has been transl. into English); Krauss, Das Leben Jesu
nach Jildischen Quellen, Berlin, 1902 ; R. Travers Herford,
Christianity in, Talmud and Midrash, pp. 1-96, London,
1903.

O. S. Kr.

JESUS B. PHABI: High piitst {e. 30 B.C.).
He was depo.sed by Herod the Great, his office being
given to Simon, the sou of Boethus, the king's father-
in-law (Josephus, " Ant." xv. 9, § 3). Jesus' father's
name in this passage of Josephus (ed. Niese) has the

form <f>ort/?< ; the same name was borne by the high
priests Ishmael b. Phabi I. (c. 15 c.e.) and II. (c. 60
C.E.), and is found in rabbinical works (also '35<D,
"•2K'D, ••3N1D).

The name is probably Egyptian (see Parthey,
"Aegyptische Personennamen," s.v. ^a^iq); hence
the many variants in Greek as well as in Hebrew
texts. It follows from this that Jesus b. Phabi was
a native of Egypt, like his predecessor Hananeel
(Parah iii. 5) and liis successor Simon, who was of
the family of the Boethusians.

Bibliography : Gratz, Gesch. 4th ed.. 111. 223; Schurer, Oesch.
3ded.. ii. 216 ; Krauss, LehnwOrter, il. 419 ; Wilcken, Oriech-
ische Ostraka aus Aegnpten und Nubien, Index, s.v. *afilv
and *o<<>t9, Leipsic and Berlin, 1899.

G. 8. Kr.

JESUS SIRACH. See Sirach.

JESUS BEN ZAPPHA (perhaps Zopha ; com-
pare I Chron. vii. 35) : General {a-paTJiy6g) of Idumsea
in the first century, appointed by the revolutionary
government of Jerusalem after Cestius Gallus had
been driven away. Jesus' companion was Eleazar
b. Neos; and both belonged to high-priestly fami-
lies (Josephus, " B. J." ii. 20, § 4). Niger of Peraea,
who had been until then governor of Idumaea, was
commanded to place himself under the orders of the
two generals {ib.). Jesus is perhaps identical with
a former high priest of the same name, who, to-
gether with other nobles, fled from Jerusalem to the
Romans shortly before the destruction of the Tem-
ple {ib. vi. 2, § 2).

G. S. Kr.

JETHRO (i-in'' ; Jether [-in""] in Ex. iv. 18).—
Biblical Data: Priest of Midian and father-in-law
of Moses (Ex. iii. 1 et al.). In the account of the
marriage of his daughter Zipporah to Moses (Ex. ii.
16-21), he is called "Reuel" (^Xiyi = "God is his
friend " ; see also Hobab). Happening one day to
be at the well where Jethro's daughters were draw-
ing water for their flocks, Moses had occasion to de-
fend them against some shepherds who attempted to
drive them away. Jethro, out of gratitude, gave
him his daughter Zipporah. After Moses and the
Israelites had crossed the Red Sea Jethro went to
Moses with the latter 's wife and two sons (Ex.
xviii. 1-5). When Moses told Jethro of all the mira-
cles done for the Israelites by Yhwh, Jethro, rejoi-
cing, exclaimed, "Now I know that the Lord is
greater than all gods," and offered burnt offerings
and sacrifices. Jethro advised Moses to appoint
deputies to assist him to judge the Israelites and
render his burdens lighter. After this Jethro re-
turned to his own country (Ex. xviii. 8-27).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature : The different

names of Jethro puzzled the Talmudists: some
thought that his real name was "Hobab," and that
Reuel was his father (see Hobab) ; others thought
that his name was "Reuel," interpreting it "the
friend of God " (see Jethro — Biblical Data, and
comp. the view of some modern scholars, who hold
that his name was "Reuel," and that "Jethro" was
a title, "his E.xcellency "). According to Simeon
b: Yohai, he had two names, " Hobab " and
"Jethro" (Sifre, Num. 78). It is, however, gen-

Jethro

Jewish Chronicle

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

174

erall.v accepted that he had seven names:

"Reuel," ^Jether." "Jethro." "Hobah." "Heber."

"Keni" (comp. Judges i. 16, iv. Ill

His and "Putiel"; Eleazar's father-in-

Names. law (Ex. vi. 25) being identified
with Jethro by interpreting his name
either as " he who abandoned idolatry " or as " who
fattened calves for the sake of sacrifices to the idol "
(Ex. R. xxvii. 7: Mek.. Yitro, 'Amalek. 1; Tan.,
Shemot. 11 : comp. Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Ex.
vi. 25 and Sotah 44a\

Jethro together with Balaam and Job was con-
sulted by Pharaoh as to the means for extermina-
ting the children of Israel: and as he dissuaded
Pharaoh from his design, he was recompensed in
that his descendants, the Rechabites, sat with the
Sanhedrin in the Temple (Sanh. 106a ; Ex. R. i. 12 ;
comp. I Chron. ii. 55). In Ex. R. xxvii. 5 it is said
that Jethro and Amalek were consulted by Pharaoh,
and that both advised him to throw the male chil-
dren into the river: but, seeing that Amalek was
excluded from both this and the future life (comp.
Ex. xvii. 14\ Jethro repented.

R. Joshua and R. Eleazar ha-Moda'i disagree as
to Jethro's position in Midian : according to one, the
words " kohen Midyan " mean that he was the priest
of Midian : according to the other, " prince of Mid-
ian" (Mek. I.e.; Ex. R. xxvii. 2). The opinion
that Jethro was a priest is met with in Ex. R. i. 35
and in Tan., Yitro, 5. It is further said (Ex. R. I.e.)
that Jethro. having remarked that the worship of an
idol was foolish, abandoned it. The Midianites there-
fore excommunicated him, and none would keep
his flocks ; so that his daughters were compelled to
tend them and were ill-treated by the shepherds.
This, however, is in conflict with another statement,
to the effect that Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah
to Moses on condition that their first son should be
br'^ught up in the worship of idols, and that Moses
swore to respect this condition (Mek. Lc. ; Yalk.. Ex.
169).

Whether Jethro went to the wilderness before or
after the Torah was given, and consequently what
it was that induced him to go to the wilderness, are
disputed points among the Rabbis (Zeb. 116a; Yer.
Meg. i. 11; Mek. I.e.). According to some, it was
the giving of the Torah ; according to others, the
crossing of the Red Sea dry-shod, or the falling of
the manna.

The manner in which Jethro announced his arrival
to Closes is also variously indicated. According to
R. Eliezer, Jethro sent a messenger; according to
R. Joshua, he wrote a letter and tied it to an arrow
which he shot into the camp. Moses did not go out
alone to meet his father-in-law ; but

Honored was accompanied by Aaron, Xadab,
by Moses. Abihu. and the seventy elders of Israel,
in order to honor Jethro. Some saj*
that even the Shekinah itself went out to meet him
(Mek. I.e.: Tan., Yitro, 6). The words "wa-yihad
Yitro" (Ex. xviii. 9), generally translated "and
Jethro rejoiced," are interpreted by the Talmudists
as "he circumcised himself" ; or "he felt a stinging
in his flesh " ; that is to s;iy, he was sorry for the loss
of the Egyptians, his former coreligionists. By an
interchange of the n with the n, the phrase would

read "wayihad," meaning "ho became a Jew"
(Tan.. Yitro, 5).

Jethro was the first to utter a benediction ("1^13)
to God for the wonders performed by Him for the
Israelites (comp. Ex. xviii. 10). Such a thing had
not been done either by Moses or by any of the
Israelites (Sanh. I.e. ; Mek. I.e. 2). Jethro knew that
Yhwh was greater than all the gods (comp. Ex.
xviii. 11\ because he had previoush' worshiped all
the idols of the world (Mek. I.e. ; Tan. I.e.); but at
the same time he did not deny to idols all divine
power (Yalk., Ex. 269). According to R. Joshua,
Moses purposely sent Jethro away in order that he
should not be present at the revelation of the Law
(comp. Ex. xviii. 27, Hebr.).

s. s. M. Sel.

JEW (The Word) : Up to the seventeenth cen-
tury this word was spelled in Middle English in
various wavs: "Gvu," "Giu," "Gyw," "lu," "luu,"
"luw," "ieu," "leuu," "leuz," "Iwe," "low."
"lewe," "leue," "lue" ("Ive"), "lew," "Jew."
All tliese forms were derived from the Old French
"Giu," which was earlier written "Juieu," derived
from the Latin accusative "JudfEum" with the eli-
sion of the letter "d." The Latin form " Judaeus"
was derived from the Greek 'lovSdiog; and this in
turn from the Aramaic *STin\ corresponding to the
Hebrew 'lin^, a gentilic adjective from the proper
name "Judah," seemingly never applied to mem-
bers of the tribe, however, but to members of the
nationality inhabiting the south of Palestine (Jer.
xliii. 9). It appears to have been afterward extended
to apply to Israelites (II Kings xvi. 3) in the north.
The English word is met with in the plural form as
early as 1175, in the Lambert " Homilies " ; in earlier
English the form "ludea," derived from the place-
name "ludea." is found in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels
(John xviii. 35) of about the year 1000. Ormin, about
1200, uses the form "Judeow," derived from Old
High German "Judeo," from which the modern
German " Jude" is also derived.

In the Old Testament the term " Jew " appears to
be applied to adherents of the worship of Yhwh as
conducted at Jerusalem after the Exile : it is thus
used in the late Book of Esther. In more modern
usage the word is often applied to any person of the
Hebrew race, apart from his religious creed. At one
time during the emancipation era there was a tend-
ency among Jews to avoid the application of the
term to themselves; and from 1860 onward the
words " Hebrew " and " Israelite " were employed to
represent persons of Jewish faith and race, as in the
titles "Alliance Israelite Universelle" and "United
Hebrew Charities." At the present time the name
"Jew " is being more commonly employed.

The word is sometimes used as an adjective, as in
"Jew Bill," "Jew boy," etc.; frequently in special
combinations, as in "Jew-baiting," corresponding to
the German " Juden Hetze," and in "Jew bail," in-
sufficient bail; but more often in the genitive, a»
"Jew's ej'e,"' a proverbial expression for something
very valuable, used by Shakespeare ("Merchant of
Venice," Act II., Scene V., line 43); " ''ews' houses."
remains of ancient smelting-furnaces in Cornwall;
"Jews' tin," lumps of tin found in the "Jews'
houses. " The term occurs in very many names of

175

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jethro

Jewish Chronicle

plants, as "Jews'-apple," the egg-plant (Solanum en
culentum) ; " Jevv-busli " {Fedilanthus tithymaloides) ;
" Jews'-myrtle," butchers'-broom; "Jews' frankin-
cense, " a plant of the genus Sfi/rax ; " Jews'-mallovv "
(Corchorus oliturius), a plant of the linden family;
" Jews'-thorn," the Christ's-thorn.

Of tlie several terms derived from tiie word " Jew "
the only derivations in common use are "Jewess,"
"Jewish," and Jewry; but there are several curi-
or.s more or less obsolete forms, as "Jewhead"
(1300), "Jew hood" (Carlyle), " Jewishuess," " Jew-
dom," " Jewism," and " Jewship," all used for the
religious system of the Jews, as well as " Jewling, "
used by Purchas (1613) for a small or young Jew.
As adverbs are used "Jewishly" and "Jewly"
(Wj'clif, 1382). In more modern English the adjec-
tival and adverbial derivations are from the original
Latin form — "Judaic," "Judaical" (rare), "Judaic-
ally," radically connected with the word "Judaism."
The chief derivations, however, "Judaizer," "Juda-
ist," and "Judaistic," with the verb "Judaize" and
the noun "Judaization," refer rather to Jewish tend-
encies in the Christian Church than to any specific-
ally Jewish characteristics.

Special clas.ses of Jews have often specific names;
thus, in the Caucasus, " Bergjuden " ; those in Maga,
near Shemachi, " Biki. " Those of Jamaica used to be
called " Sm'ouse Jews " (H. Adams, " History of the
Jews," p. 459) ; those of northwest Africa are termed
Daggatun and " Riff Jews " ; vvhile those who have
nominally left Judaism have often special names,
such as Maranos, "Chuetas," "Anusim," "Mai-
min," "Jedid al-Islam," and Crypto- Jews. Sym-
bolic epithets for the Jews are: "Chosen People,"
" People of the Book " (supposed to be derived from
Mohammed, who, however, used the term " Peoples
of a Book " (or Scripture) as applying equally to
Jews, Christians, and Sabeans), "Peculiar People"
(comp. M. K. 16b), "Israel," " Jeshurun," "Keneset
Yisrael," "Dove" (comp. D. Kohan, "Yonah," in
"Ha-xVsif," 1889, v.), "The Nation," "The Race,"
"The Lily" (comp. Cant. v. 13).

Slang names, given to the Jews by their oppo-
nents, also occur, as "Sheeny" in English, "Zit" in
Russian, " Youtre " in French. Among Russian
Jews a distinction is made between " Yehudi," a Jew
of German origin, and " Yid, " one of Russian or Lith-
uanian extraction.

Bibliography : Jellinek, JMltche Stamm, i. 10-19, ii. 97-98 ;
Alia. Zeit.Jud. ii. 341; Jewish Voice, Feb. 23, 1900; Mur-
ray's New English Diet.

JEW, THE : Jewish monthly whose avowed ob-
ject finds expression in its subtitle as "being a
defense of Judaism against all adversaries, and par-
ticularly against the insidious attacks of Israel's ad-
vocate." It was published in New York city and
edited by Solomon H. Jackson from March 1, 1823,
to March 1, 1825. " The Jew " was the first Jewish
periodical published in the United States, and was
aimed against Christian conversionists.

o. A. M. F.

JEW BILL. See England.

JEW OF MALTA. See Barabas.

JEWELL, JACOB : Owner of the largest trav-
eling circus in England; died Sept., 1884; tenant,

under W. Holland, of North Woolwich Gardens for
about fifteen years. Jewell attended the English
and Continental fairs for more than sixty years.
Bibliography: Boase, Modern Enolish Biographu, ii. 97.

JEWESSES: Anthropologically considered,
Jewesses present certain distinctive physiognomic
and epidermic characteristics marking them off from
the male members of their race. It has been ob-
served that as a rule they show the Jewish type of
feature and expression more markedly. Investiga-
tion appears to have developed the fact tliat their
skin is darker than that of the men, while their liair
is lighter (Fish berg, in " American Anthropologist,"
1903, pp. 92-93). Combining the two factors, it is
found that 58.39 per cent of Jewes.ses are brunettes
as against 66.82 per cent of male Jews. On the
other hand, Jewesses seem to be less afflicted with
color-blindness (see Eyes). They are superior in
keenness of sight (Jacobs and Spielman, in "Journal
of the Anthropological Institute," xix. 80), but in-
ferior in all other anthropological measurements.
It would also appear that the "custom of women"
(Gen. xxxi. 35) appears earlier among Jewesses than
among other European females (see Niddah).

Bibliography : Jacobs, Studies in Jewish Statistics, pp.
28-29.

JEWISH ABEND-POST : Yiddish newspaper,
issued daily except Saturday and Jewish holidays,
established in New York Feb. 3, 1899, by Jacob
Saphirstein and Joseph L. Rosenbaum ; now (1904)
published by the Jewish Press Publishing Company.
Its first editor was George Selikovich; and among
its chief collaborators have been Philip Krantz,
Hayyim Malitz, Jacob Magidoff, and M. Seifert.
N. M. Shaikevich, the Yiddish novelist, has writ- .
ten for it several long serial stories. Its weekly
edition, the "Jewish Journal," first appeared May
26. 1899.

G. P. Wi.

JEWISH ADVANCE. See Leeser, Isaac;
Periodicals.
JEWISH ADVOCATE. See Periodicals.

JEWISH CHRONICLE, THE: Oldest and
most influential Anglo-.lewish newspaper; published
in London, England ; next to the " Allgemeine Zei-
tungdes Judenthums," the oldest Jewish newspaper
in existence. It first appeared Nov. 12, 1841, under
the editorship of D. Meldola and M. Angel, in quarto,
which was soon changed to octavo. On Oct. 18,
1844, under the editorship of Joseph Mitchell, it
took the title of "The Jewish Chronicle (New
Series) and Working Man's Friend"; it appeared
only fortnightly till July 9, 1847, when it became
a weekly; from Aug. 18, 1854, it was edited by M.
H. Bresslau, who changed the title to "The Jewish
Chronicle and Hebrew Observer." From Jan. 12,
1855, A. Benisch assumed the editorship, which he
retained till April 2, 1869, when Michael Henry took
charge of the paper until his death. Benisch then
resumed the editorship (June 18, 1875), whicli he re-
tained till July 21, 1878. He bequeathed the paper
to the Anglo-Jewish Association, which, however,

Jevdsh Chronicle
Je^sh Colonial Trust

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

176

sold the proprietary rights to Asher I. Myers, Syd-
ney ]\I. Samuel, aud Israel Davis.

Asher I. IVIyers was the managing editor till his
death in 1903. Under his editorship the paper ob-
tained a very influential position in the London
community by its prompt publication of news, its
reports of important public meetings, its corre-
spondence from leading members of the community,
and by the growing practise of publishing all family
notices in, its advertising columns. "The Jewish
Chronicle," under his direction, was also one of the
earliest Jewish newspapers to resort frequently to
illustration. On his death the managing editorship
was assumed by M. Duparc, and the newspaper
itself became the property of Israel Davis, who had
survived his two associate owners.

The newspaper throughout has been conservative
in tendency, though admitting correspondence on
various reforms. A special feature has been made of
book-reviews, a running column of which is (1904)
contributed by Israel Abrahams under the caption
"Books and Bookmen." On the occasion of the
paper's jubilee in 1891 a separate jubilee number was
issued, to which most of the prominent writers and
authorities in the Anglo-Jewish world contributed.

Bibliography : Jacobs and Wolf, BibliothecaAnglo-Judaica,
pp. 148-149; The Jewish Chronicle, Nov. 13, 1891 (Jubilee
Number).

G. J.

JEWISH CHRONICLE (Baltimore ; Boston ;
Mobile). See Periodicals.

JEWISH COLONIAL TRUST, THE (Jii-
dische Colonialbank) : The financial instrument
of the Zionist movement. Its establishment was
suggested at the First Zionist Congress, held at
Basel in 1897 ; the first definite steps toward its in-
stitution were taken at Cologne, May, 1898. It was
conceived by the political Zionists as a financial in-
strument which should hold in trust the moneys of
the Zionists for the direct purposes of the move-
ment, and, at the same time, should act as a bank
and carry on business according to the methods of
the commercial world. These slightly conflicting
ideas rested on a basic principle of the Zionist move-
ment, namely, that it must not serve as a charity,
but must teach and foster independence. On the
other hand, it was recognized by the Zionists that
financial power is needed to support diplomatic
negotiations.

The idea of founding the trust met with Zionist
sympathy from the start, and in Maj-, 1898, the pre-
liminary committee, consisting of Da-

Origina- vid Wolfsolm and Dr. M. Boden-
tion. heimer of Cologne, and Dr. Rudolph
Schauer of Mayence, issued the first
statement of the proposed institution and the first
call for subscriptions. The purposes of the trust
were described as the economic development and
strengthening of the Jewish colonies in Palestine
and Syria, the purchase of land for new settlements
on a " publicly and legally recognized " basis, the
development of trade, industry, and commerce in
the colonies, the loaning of money on bond and
mortgage and the making of advances for coloni-
zation, and the establishment of savings-banks
or banking-offices in the colonies. The statement

also referred to the purchase of concessions, etc.,
in Asia Minor, especially in Syria and Palestine, par-
ticular consideration being given to railway conces-
sions and the building of harbors. Other points
mentioned were the administration of the National
Fund (see Zionism) and the carrying on of ordinary
banking and exchange business.

It was decided that the principal office of the bank
should be in London, that it should be registered
under the English Companies Acts, and that the
capital stock should be two millions sterhng, issued
in one-pound shares. Prospective shareholders
were permitted to secure shares by a payment of
10 per cent per share, the balance to be subscribed
within a stated period. These preliminaries were
terminated on July 15, 1898, and the chairman of
the committee was able to submit so gratifying a
report to the Second Zionist Congress that the estab-
lishment of the bank was immediately decided upon.
A numerous financial committee was appointed to
represent Zionist interests in every country, aud the
institution was incorporated as a limited company
under the English Companies Acts on March 20,
1899. The sum of £2,051 5s. was paid in stamp-
duties.

At an extraordinary general meeting held in Aug.,
1899, the shareholders revised the first paragraph of
the memorandum of the articles of agreement as
follows: "To promote, develop, work, and carry on
colonization schemes in the East, by preference in
Palestine and Syria, and further to promote, develop,
work, and carry on industries and undertakings in
Palestine, Syria, or in any other part of the world."

The predominance of the council of administration
was assured by the allocation of the first hundred
shares as "founders' shares," which are entitled, at
any general meeting of the companj', or at any poll,
to as many votes as there are ordinary shares rep-
resented at that meeting or poll.

The first governors of the trust were Dr. Schauer
of Ma5'ence, Leib Schalit of Riga, and Abraham
Hornstein of Kiev.

The prospectus, which stipulated that the com-
pany should not make an allotment until 250,000
shares had been subscribed, was issued April 29, 1899,
from the offices in Broad street, London. The largest
number of applications were for single shares, from
applicants who undoj-took to pay for their holdings in
five instalments, at a premium of 2i percent, within
one year. Even the single shares were divided,
especially in Galicia, between from four to eight
persons. The applica.tions, which, by the end of
the following month, had made the establishment
of the trust certain, represented over 100,000 share-
holders; and si)ecial accommodations for the register
at Somerset House, London, were necessary. The
application for shares, above the necessary minimum,
di(i not proceed very rapidl}', until, in 1900, a sys-
tem of share clubs was invented by an independent
organization to facilitate tlie purchase of holdings on
a still smaller allotment scheme. At the Zionist
Congress of 1900 the deposits from various coun-
tries having been drawn into the central office, the
trust was declared ready to transact l)usiness, and
it was decided to devote part of the capital to the
eventual founding of branches in Russia and Pales-

177

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jewish Chronicle
Jewish Colonial Trust

tine. This plan was taken in hand in 1902, and a
subsidiary corporation, the Anglo-Palestine Com-
pany, was formed and a branch opened in Jaffa.
At the 1903 annual general meetinfj, held in Basel,

resolution relating to the Russian branch. The
trust is made directly responsible to the Zionist
movement by the fact that the council of adminis-
tration is selected from among the members of the

S^^^A^

•;3 ■■':: -hz'Ti 31:: no in* a •'^i •■A«ordinit.

%m\ti

se«ou Low good it ».*• Proverbs, chap. ia. vm. 2 3.

Ko. I.]

•■PSV ^3"in pC'nn^ 'HD NovLMBER 12tK. 5G02.-\^*l^

[Pric2 2J.

TO OCR HEADERS.
\\ % have alwaN-s anlidpaled the appeannce of a tnilr Jewiih jajwr, wiib tlie j
mwl lively saiirfiiciioo ; for we knew, i}i;ii tbe existence amonu us 'rf an orc:*o of j
mutual comnumculion, was a desidnatum of nich ir.asnUndp, lUat Hie j.fiSOil j
stpflyiog ll "ot:M V»c emitletl to the thanks of tin hrelhrvi, tiu<l bt ft man W be j
enweJ. Oor ^coliinepts, Uierefo», , on this occAsiou^ wIku we c-.rselvts arc j
< r^I>1r<l tr. lav b-fure j*ou the required medium, are of ihp roost ijraicful kuij. \\ t
fotl ihai we Iiave done a somel'iine that mav rescue us from the comroon fate of i
mjinkmd— obloiirn;— ihat wc hare projected (and it remains wilh you to suy,
^tieihcr our intentions fchali be carried out to ihelr fullest evtei.l) a work, whicli,
ttljilc ii will make even Jew faroiliwwiu the condition of his fellow KncHtcs
ui'.! al*4» supply him wilh llie mexns of becoming bttlcr v»t sfiL-d with hi^ own, bv
ti^aching him to render it subscrv-ien-. to a better lot; one tb^t aU)nt; ta:i i*-curc
Vipptor^hcre, i^d ttisyrtr btilitude hereafter: — for *itU God's blt-ssing, "C would
initnict him Kow to loow himself, to loTe maokiad, and to s^ek hi> Creator.

Wc enter oo our ta»t then wiih alic-ity, cheered to our pro<(H-ctir* raidntglit
JaT.iur and cnc<a*injt aieutal toil, by the bright, the glorious iboughf, that we
Hiiy. under Divine Proviilcncc, bts the huiublt instruments of regeneratinj;, at
IcaT, a p.ir!iyn of our hrcthren ; and like the '• otb of aiffht/' while dj-spensing a
;r?ntlc lij;)it to i^iose aronrid, rejoice io our ywn hcavco -borrowed brilliancy, for
linlijaul imift-d will be onr cirect. can we bu'. effect o^i' objrtl.

Oar prv3]«c'.us has already made you acquainted with oor purpose; we wiU
herr advfit U) it a^aiii. Wc propose lo divide our ir-altcr lulo four distinct parts :
l^^— Ucligiojs and rooi^l inslr\jtt:<in. 2ndly. — Loca) inlellii;ence, Uutorical
ihf. rniAliim, and iacU, excUisjveW Jc" isb. 3rdly. — Oritjioal arliiles, 4lld} —
Text books.

Jst. TltO sd»antaces to be deri\-cd from our first division, " reIi,;lous and mom!
iti>incU<in" in»->.ini once pr(^»^t themselves; for wltal can Confer greater bene&l
on man, than ihc kncwlcdye of hi?; duty imvarils God and his fellott-creatuics —
•rhai can leud vt much li>bi) sjiiiiinal welfare as the former? «hat contribute so
nmtli tp iin)tn<v« hl^ social condition as the latlf r ? ll&w can Jus happiness be
bitter conuiiicd. than hy pointing out to him,, that in gratitude for the numl»cr.
If»> l>c"C'il3 he receii-es at the hands ofa gfacious and merciful Provrieoce, lie is
required to love l;i9 nci^iKbour ai? himself, aiid (o setk iVie prew^nt* of his Maker
thn>u<;li iho If nets of our hcly rclijon ;— a religion, ih' basis of all other?, standing
on: III kU It* viiginal purity, after the !ap<e of a^e*; while other crtt-ds, since
fumel, hot of man's deviMnp. have crumbled into nought, and left no trace to
tell lliat (Ikv have been. Time has breathed liis wSihenr*? Wa*t o'er their notbin<i>
ue»', *\A like the day that made them, they fajne Tamslied fi>r ever

2ndly. By li-c*! iotclligence, wc mean the ptoceedine^ of our many congrec;?-
Tioos Mt home and a'-road ; ihelr cxcfliansin the cause of religit>n and charily, and
their projrre«» in knowledf^e. What can belter stimulate ihem to renewed effbrU,
tiwn the (h*iuplii, that what iKcy hare done is appreciated ? and what promote the
desire of dpfopgood among us, w much as ibeir esampic » Facu exclusively
Jevitih, will coiuist cvf anecdL-lc"! of eminent men, reports of poblic meetings,
exi'acu from R>rcign and d'tmeslic journals, end a caleoder of current feitirala,
*»«la. kc. Our hmoricat information will be denred from autLeotic records.

atdly. Kjf orijlcal a'ticlM. we trust partially, to the kindaesf of contnbulois ;
bat we are assured, that we are corr^-ri in oai aaticipaiions of numerous cone*-
poBdcQCTi; f..r «p kno« (oiir^elfesj of maDy— aod there must be oibert, with
whom w* aft 001 acqua.oied, who wdl be bat loo anaimw to ?i*e publicity to
•htf.r opiaioBi -)» wbjecu c^nnaiied iiuh jMrbh weltre ; ud wUlia« to -ommil

Vi our puhlicatioo. the Ie« matter of f«l, but not le« honorable prx)ductv>as of
tl^eir well stored Oiuds; indeed, wc have already rtce.vetl a luW. which «c
purpose commencing at ibe earliest opportunity.

4thl». Our Text Btwks viill not, we dare Tcntore lb assert, form the lewt
attr^ctire part of our information ;— nay. they wUl perbap*. be the mwt essentially
uscfnt/ ^Thc rn:)3 ; I'-^^^Er service, though it docs not possess the chirm of
uoveltv'Vin at Ita^t be acceptable, ns it will contiin the forms of Ceroun,
Si^n.Jh,and Ponu-u.-sc Jews with the Hebrew frota the Hidcnheim ediUons, ind
w.U Lc ortfoUv tra1.sla'.e.l. To our DicUoaary, ihc first Kn-liih one that ba»
appeared, we invite moi* parlicuUr attention. Itisdcrivt-d from a source, wlncU
nc^ds but tr. be ic:ncd, to be appreciated by e^cry lU-bww schobr nod rtudeol r
thc"m rOS; a«fik, whKh for contciness, copiou-^nr-s, and e»udiuon, lunds
uuriv-aUed; but whitl,, ui.r.,rtunatcly. has haherto, froiu its scxiciiy nnd pnct
been a Mra»«r to mo:.t of our biethn^ii— wlw have thereby been dcpri^td ofa
roost valuable assisiautc in the p^t^sccu^ioo of the study of our sacred lan^aje
This obftaclo we propose to rejoovc. by presenting the Lexicon, in a form at oncw
useful and avaiUble to the resources of the most l.cmble: and to render Uu
possession of it still more deslmble. we shall give tU rabinical, as well as Iht
biblical hebrevT, with trdinblal.ons and explanations of both.

Otir creed is peace to all raanlcin J— opposition to none, ^nd the love of {j%A\
worihipin? Him liiTr.ugh the mediu>ft of our affections and hope^, and not oof
fear*. We ha*e now poin'ed out our inlentiotis in U.e conduct of this work ; a«re
ha^ ODly further to add. that it shall be our constant endeavour lo render it wortbj
ofyour most liberal patron-g., and to endow it with a character, at ooce leligioui.
moTAl and iDStrucilve.

A seed is planted, and .> ..n^ioj-ly watched ly ll.c g^idener; weed-, th*: may
obstruct its growtli, nre carefully pluckwl from aroand,— it ii watered when
tarn comes not. and «i.ielded from the loo suHry beat of the summer jun .—all h,
attended to that can secure its flouriihiug: and what is tltc ri-mll f The gar-
dener ices the little seed expand and spread, and eventually produce sweet
floners, wooing his 5are by Uieir beautiful hue*. ^^ offering the grateful inctmst^
of their perfumes, to b« wafted by every gale to his delighted senses ; or he beboUs
the luxuriant fruit tree, homing beneath the act-muiattfd wer^ht of its onn pr.*-
ducltoiis, and proffering its golden harvest, in blushes, for his accepum-e. lie
percc-ves in (his llie return for his labours, aud be adores the Providence lliait
has blessed liis work.

Keaden, will yoo be the gaiuji.er, nnd :..akc us \.uz fruit tree ?
An infant is ushered mto life, and its fiail form seems >»;j:c<!y slrony «m>q^
to coiitwn its atom of txi«eoce ; but the child i5 nortured from a , kindly and a
genial source— the rital power dilates wjiKio him. and l^e becomes a man, in the
image of his Divioe Creator. His Acuities ar« developed, bis etier^tea exi>aiided.
knowledge adds her giant strength, and 1^ gives to ihetn, bis first supporters, the
recompense for their loUsand cares, in il^accompb^bmenl of t'leir dearest wohes-
nay, more, h« htouctf, learning his task from them, becomes what Ihey wer« ccv
him, the fountain of new existcnccf. Readers, ihe inference t> obvious — we arr
the chdd — we ictwM &ecoM# the roan, a breath may raise us to aaturiiy, a breatU
destroy n< m our birth— but we feel yoa will decree us life; and further, we con-
fidently hope, that the day is not £ar distant, wkcn our little unpretending paiodinl
will ha»e Ibuod its way. alike, to the cheerful Are-«ide of ibe *a«.*!?bt*— tli)
lutunoui drawing room »( lite afflucot— ihc cl^Kt of the student — and tbe appro.
. atioQ of Uit world.

.-j

First Page of the First Issue of "the Jewish Chro.mcle" (London).

the directors recommended, and the shareholders
approved, the payment of a dividend of five pence
per sliare; and it was decided to found branches of
the trust in the East End of London and in New
York, and to take steps for carrying into effect the
VII— 1-2

Grosses Actions Comite, and that one of them must
report to each Zionist Congress. The council thus
directs the policy of the trust in accordance with
the resolutions of the Zionist congresses.

J. J. DE H.

Jewish Colonization
Association

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

178

JEWISH COLONIZATION ASSOCIATION

(known colloquially as the ICA or IKA) : Society
founded by Baron de Hirsch Sept., 1891, and incor-
porated at London under the Companies' Acts of
1862-90, with a capital of £3,000,000, divided into
20,000 non-divideud-drawiug shares of £100 each;
Baron de Hirsch subscribed for 19,993 shares; and
Lord Rothschild, Sir Julian Goldsmid, E. Cassel,
F. D. Mocatta, and Benjamin S. Cohen of Loudon,
and S. H. Goldsciimidt and Solomon Reinach of
Paris for one share each. Before his death Baron
de Hirsch divided his shares among the following
corporations: the sj'nagogue of Brussels and the
Jewish communities of Berlin and Frankforton-the-
Main, 3,600 shares each; the Anglo-Jewish Associa-
tion of London and the Alliance Israelite Univer-
selle of Paris, 4,595 shares each. The purpose of
the association is stated in article 3 of its charter as
follows : " To assist and promote the emigration of
Jews from any parts of Europe or Asia, and princi-
pally from countries in which they may for the time
being be subjected to any special taxes or political
or other disabilities, to any other parts of the world,
and to form and establish colonies in
Objects. various parts of North and South
America and other countries for agri-
cultural, commercial, and other purposes." "To es-
tablish and maintain or contribute to the establish-
ment and maintenance in any part of the world of
educational and training institutions, model farms,
loan-banks, industries, factories, and any other insti-
tutions or associations which in the judgment of the
council may be calculated to ht Jews for emigration
and assist their settlement in various parts of the
world, except in Europe, with power to contribute
to the funds of any association or society already
existing or hereafter formed and having objects
which in the opinion of the council may assist or
promote the carrying out of the objects of the asso-
ciation."

Originally, the association was to be governed by
an administrative council of six members, but this
provision was modified by the general assembly of
1896. The administrative council now numbers
eleven members: five are appointed directly, one
each by the five corporations each holding, approx-
imately, one-fifth of the capital ; the other six are
elected for a period of five years by a vote of the
general assembly of the stockholders, convened once
a year. Baron de Hirsch was really the sole di-
rector of the association; only after his death,
April, 1896, did the council of administration enter
upon its duties.

After the death of his only son, Lucien, Baron
de Hirsch conceived the idea of creating a num-
ber of foundations for the purpose of raising
the moral and material status of the Jews of east-
ern Europe ; one of these was destined
History, for the Russian Jews. Statutes were
drawn up and submitted to the Russian
government, which was at finst favorably disposed;
but it soon changed its attitude, and Baron de llirsch
decided to devote the money to philanthropic work
outside Europe for the benefit of the oppressed Eu-
ropean Jews.
It was at this time (1889) that Dr. W. LOwenthal,

on his return from a trip to Argentina, suggested to
Baron de Hirsch the idea of founding a colony in
that country. On Aug. 20, 1890, a conference was
held in Paris at the residence of Baron de Hirsch,
those present including Isidore Loeb, Michel Er-
langer. Dr. W. Lowenthal, C. E. Cullen, Colonel
Vanvinkeroy, and Dr. E. Schwarzfeld. C. E.
Cullen, Dr. Lowenthal, and Colonel Vanvinkeroy
were appointed as a commission to visit that country ;
six months later they submitted a favorable report,
and Dr. Lowenthal was sent to the Argentine Re-
p\iblic as director, with full powers to make the
necessary preparations for the future Jewish colo-
nists. He was allowed a year's time;
Argentine but he had hardly landed at Buenos
Colonies. Ayres when the persecutions in Rus-
sia forced masses of Jews to leave that
country (May, 1891). Then, at the instance of Jew-
ish relief committees, Baron de Hirsch decided to
send a certain number of families U> the Argentine
Republic at once. But the land acquired in the
provinces of Santa Fe (the Moiseville colony) and
Buenos Ayres (the Mauricio cokmy) was insufficient
for all the immigrants. ]\[any of them gave up
agricultural life, and a change of management be-
came necessary (Dec, 1891). The new provisional
director, A. Roth, had acquired land in the province
of Entre Rios (the colony Clara), where the overflow
from the Mauricio and Moiseville colonies was sent;
but neither Roth nor his successor, Colonel Gold-
smid, appointed in 1892, could overcome the numer-
ous difficulties, especially as the large and costly staff
did not understand the manners and cu.stoms of the
immigrants; and the temporary relief which had
necessarily been given to the colonists had demoral-
ized many families.

Colonel Goldsmid was succeeded March, 1893, by
Maxim Kogan, and the latter bj' Samuel Hirsch and
David Cazfes; the undesirable elements were elimi-
nated, and the monthly relief was cut olf . The coun-
cil now decided to select colonists in Russia only
from such families as desired to be sent to Argentina.
Ten groups, of fifty families each, were accordingly
designated in the province of Bcssara-
Process of bia ; someof their members went ahead
Selection, to examine the new country and pre-
pare for the remainder: these families
constituted several groups in the Clara colony. At
the same time another group of forty families was
selected in the government of Grodno, and was es-
tablished at Moiseville, which had been reduced to
fifty families in 1893 through the elimination of the
undesirable elements. The colonists were subjected
to many trials, losing all tiieir crops through locusts,
heavy rains, drought, and their own inexperience.
Hence Baron de Hirsch decided not to send out any
more colonists until those already in the country
were on a firm footing.

Through the death of Baron de Hirsch the Jewish
Colonization Association came into possession of t,
fund amounting to £6,000,000 (830,000,000). The
council then decided to extend the work ; colonies
were successively founded in North America, the
island of Cyprus, Asia ]\rinor, Palestine, Russia,
Rumania, and Galicia, the Jewish Colonization As-
sociation also aiding the Alliance Israelite Uni-

2 • ■ «" a t

Jew^ish Colonization Association
Jewish Herald

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

180

verselle and other institutions whose aims were the
same as its own. By an agreement Avith Baron
Edmond de Rothschild the Jewisli Colonization
Association, since 1899, has also assumed the man-
agement of the colonies founded by him in Palestine.
The history of the colonies will be found in Jew-
En'cyc. i. 241, ft.v. AGHicri.TruAL Colonies in the
Argentine Republic ; the latest statistics are here
added :

Mo'iseville.

Number of \

colonists (

Schools

Pupils.

Synagogues

Hospitals

Baths

Dairies

Bakeries .

Shops

Warehouses

Barns

HoiLses

Live stock :

oxen

cows

bulls

bul'ocks

heifers

breeding cattle

sheep

hoi-ses

mares

colts

mules

2U0 artisans \
6
430
1
1
1
2

5&J

1,498

2.609

0,26:')

50
la.il

l.:J2.'.
2.168

110

Mauricio.

1.338

1.128 (.

210 artisans >
2

231

1
1

2 (+ 1 mill)

12.1

2:0

1,170

2,55.5

157

510

1.216

3,000

1.329

1,485

(+ 56 stallions)

30!

5;j

Clara.

3.307

522

) 7 (+2
I mills)
3
512

4.404

5,887

108

7,715

4,U)0

In the United States the ICA assists the Baron de
Hirsch Fund principally in aiding the agricultural
school at Woodbine. N. J., and the trade-school at
New York, N. Y. It has been instrumental in con-
solidating the colonies of Alliance. Car
North mel, and Rosenhayn. and has aided
America, individual farmers in various paits of
the country. It has founded, in con-
juuctiiMi with the Baron de Hirsch Fund, the Jewish
Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, whose
object is to aid Jewish farmers and subvention
the Removal Committee created by this society.
Since 1S9"2 the ICA has contributed to the founding
of the Hirsch colony near Assa, Northwest Terri-
tories; it has aided the Baron de Hirsch Institute of
Montreal in building and maintaining a school for
the children of Jewish immigrants; and it contrib-
utes to a fund for the aid of immigrants settling in
Canada. Since 1901 the Jewish Colonization Asso-
ciation has contributed to the foundation of a new
colony near Qu'Appelle, Assiniboia. X. W. Ter..
on land granted by the Canadian government to
families of Rumanian Jews.

In Brazil the association has acquired 3.V square
miles of territory in the province of Rio Grande do
Sul. where it proposes to start a colony. Since 1897
it has contributed to the foundation of a colony
(33 persons) in Cyprus — Margo Tchiflik, near Ni-
cosia, which it at present owns. The places of the
former Russian colonists have been taken almost
wholly by former pupils of the agricultural schoql
of Jaffa (see Cyprus). In 1899 it acquired, near
Smyrna, a tract of land covering 2. -587 hectares, na-
ming it " Or Yehudah." An agricultural school was

founded there in Nov., 19i)0. which has now about
fifty pupils. Si.v Jewish farmers are also estab-
lished there, and seventy six additional persons take
part in the agricultural labors. Aside from the old
colonies of Baron Edmond de Rotli.schild, of which
it has assumed the management, the Jewish Coloni-
zation A.ssociation has contributed to
Asia Minor the consolidation of the colonies Wadi
and el-Haiiin. Rchoboth, Katra (Gadara),

Palestine. Hederali, and Mishmar ha-Yarden, and
in the district of Tiberias it has ex-
ploited an agricultural tract, known as ''Sajara,"
which is cultivated exclusively by Jewish laborers.
Several of these laborers have also been estab-
lished as petty farmers. In order to increase the
number of merchants and artisans in Jerusalem
the as.sociation has established the following: a
silk- and woolen-mill for purposes of instruction,
employing about one hundred persons; a knitting
machine establi:^linient. furnishing machines to
poor families, wjiicli pay in monthly instalments;
a dyeing establishment, the complement of the
weaving-mill; a working men's quarter, in which
artisans, laborers, anil small traders ma}' purchase
small houses for a moderate sum; a bank that loans
money on security, with moderate interest, to ar-
tisans, laborers, manufacturers, and small shop-
keepers; schools for teaching girls to make lace
and also nets for the hair.

The loan-banks, founded since 1899, constitute the
chief work of the Jewish Colonization Association
in Galicia. There are now six of these in operation
— at Brody. Kolomea, Rzeszow. Stanislawow, Tar-
now, and Zalesczyki; and others are contemplated.
Each of these institutions is managed by a council,
in conformity with the Austrian laws.
Galicia and By the end of 1902 these banks hadalto-

Russia. gether 3,912 shareholders with 7,929
shares of 10 kronen each ; the loans
range from 25 to 400 kronen, lepaid in small monthly
instalments. Since their foundation these banks
have loaned altogether 1,197,554.96 kronen. The
industrial work of the association includes: the oper-
ation of knitting-mills, furnishing work for about
sixty working women; the doll-factory at Tarnow,
which employs one hundred men and women, and is
intended to introduce the manufacture of dolls
among the Galician Jews; the carpenter-shops at
Stanislawow and Tarnow, for instructing boj's in
trades. In 1899 the association acquired the estate
of Slobodka Lesna, near Kolomea, where it has estab-
lished an agricultural school, with seventy pupils
and eight carpenter's apprentices (1903). In Russia
the association subventions agricultural, profes-
sional, and primary schools. It aids the Jewish
farmers in the different governments, contributes to
the loan-banks, and has established at Dubrovna a
spinning-mill and a society for providing cheap
lodging-houses. It has six agricultural and horti-
cultural schools, with 210 pupils, at Czestoniew,
Minsk, Moghilef-on-the- Dnieper. Novopoltawka,
Orgejew. and Orsha. It supports twenty trade-
schools for boys (1.91G pupils), seven trade-schools
for girls (1.547 pupils), and two mixed schools, these
schools being distributed in twenty-seven different
localities. Tlie association trains voung men to as-

181

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA y^Zi^^ Herald

Jewish Colonization Association

sunie positions as directors and instructors in its
schools. In the interest of primary instruction it
aids the Hebrat Marbeh Haslialali (Society for tlie
Spread of Enligiitenment) of St. Petersburg, wliich
subventions sevcnly-five schools having a total roll
of more than 5,500 pupils. It aids Jewish farmers
b\^ instructing and encouraging them in employing
improved methods in agriculture and fruit-growing;
it plants model gardens, introduces bee-culture and
mutual loan-banks, and distributes farmers' alma-
nacs and pamphlets on agriculture. This work also
extends to Bessarabia and the colonies of the North-
western Zone and of "Ivherson. The association has
furthermore been instrumental in forming coopera-
tive societies among the Jewish artisans at Akker-
man, Bairamtcha, Romanowka, and Tarutino, and
advances funds to the loan-banks founded in the
cities for the purpose of aiding especially artisans
and small dealers. The thirteen banks which thus
have received funds are situated in localities having
a total Jewish population of 240,000 persons. The
banks have altogether 7,600 shareholders; the aver-
age sum loaned is 40 rubles, and in 1902 more than
half a million rubles were loaned. Beginning with
1898 the association lias instituted a statistical in-
quiry into the Jewish population of Russia in order
the better to study its needs; this census is now com-
pleted, and the results have been published.

In order to counteract the disastrous results of the
laws of 1893. by Avhich most of the public schools
were closed to Jewish children in Rumania, the Jew-
ish Colonization Association subventions communi-
ties and societies which have estab-
Rumania. lished schools. There are thirty -five
such schools : eighteen primary schools
for boys, thirteen for girls, two mixed schools, and
two commercial schools, with a total attendance of
4,953 boj's and 2,945 girls. It also supports at
Bucharest a school for the preparation of boys for
the professions (130 pupils) and another of the same
kind for girls (96 pupils), and has loaned mouej' to
about twenty communities for building school-
houses. Since the end of 1 899, when the economic
crisis, added to the restrictive laws, forced the Jews
to leave Rumania, the association has systematically
organized emigration. It has a representative at
Bucharest and correspondents in all the centers of
emigration. It has aided about 20,000 persons in
leaving Rumania, a number of whom have been set-
tled as colonists in Argentina and Canada.

In addition to the work mentioned above, the as-
sociation has assisted a large number of Jewish in-
stitutions and societies in various countries, espe-
cially such as aid emigrants and provide schools.
It has also contributed large sums for colonization
in Asia Minor.

The council of administration is in charge of the
■work. After the death of Baron de Hirsch, S. H.
Goldschmidt became president; in
Organiza- Oct., 1896, he was followed by Nar-
tion. cisse Leven ; Franz Philippson is vice-

president. The other members of the
first council were: Alfred L. Cohen of London (suc-
ceeded by Leonard Cohen), Chief Rabbi Zadoc Kahn
of Paris, Charles Hallgarten of Frankfort-on-the-
Main, Georges Kolm of Paris (succeeded by Paul

Errera of Brussels), Dr. Edmond Lachmaun of Ber-
lin, Herbert G. Lousada and Claude G. Montefiore
of London, Julius Plotke of Frankfort-on-the-Main
(succeeded Ijy Dr. Julius Elau), and Solomon Rei-
uacli of Paris.

The council is assisted by the directorate in Paris
(tliree members and a general secretary), where the
work of the association is concentrated. In Russia
there is a central committee of ten members under
the presidency of Baron Horace de Gl'inzburg; it is
appointed by the council of administration and ap-
proved by the Ru.ssian government. There is a gen-
eral directorate at Buenos Ayres, with two directors
who are in charge of its affairs in the Argentine
Republic. Similarly, in Palestine tlie work is in the
hands of a general directorate, under one chief di-
rector. The work in Galicia is in the hands of an
agency.

Bibliography : Since 1894 the Jewish Colonization Association
has published annual reports, under the title Bappoit de
rAdmini)<t7atioti Centrale au Conaeil d''AdminMration;
reports for 1893-96 have appeared in English. There is also
published a Bericht de.s C^iratDriums der Baron Hirxch-
Stiftung . . . in Oalizien, . . . Lodomerien, . . . Krakau,
. . . iind . . . Buhnwina, Vienna.

G. E. Sd.

JEWISH COMMENT : A weekly published at
Baltimore, Md., since May 29, 1895. Its first ed-
itor was Max Myers; he was succeeded bj' Louis H.
Levin. The "Comment's" theological position is
conservative, but it welcomes free interchange of
opinions between Radical and Orthodox. It has
made a special feature of regular correspondence
from England, New York city, France, Germany,
Italy, Australia, and Austria. It also publishes
from time to time articles of a scholarly character
dealing with Jewish history and literature. As an
organ it has been friendly to the Zionist propa-
ganda.

G. A. M. F.

JEWISH CBITEmON, THE: American
weekly newspaper; established at Pittsburg, Pa.,
Feb. 8, 1895, by S. Steinfirst and Joseph Mayer.
Rabbi Samuel Greenfield was its first editor. In 1899
Charles H. Joseph succeeded him, and in 1900 be-
came owner of the paper. In 1901 J. Leonard Levy
was appointed editor-in-chief, Charles H. Joseph as-
suming the position of associate editor. The paper
is published in the interest of Reformed Judaism.

G. S.

JEWISH EXPONENT, THE : A weekly pub
lished in Philadelphia and Baltimore since 1887,
when it was founded by the Jewish Exponent Pub-
lishing CompanJ^ Charles Hoffman is the editor,
and Ephraim Lederer associate editor. It represents
American Judaism in its broadest sense, and is also
the organ of the Jewish Chautauqua Society of
America. Its theological position is conservative.
It is very svmpathetic toward the Zionist movement.

G. A. M. F.

JEWISH EXPOSITOR. See Periodicals.
JEWISH FREE PRESS. See Periodicals.
JEWISH GAZETTE. See Periodicals.
JEWISH HERALD. See Periodicals.

Jewish Historical Society
Jewish Theolog-ical Seminary

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

182

JEWISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF
ENGLAND : After the Anglo-Jewish Historical
Exhibition in 1887, it was proposed b}' Lucien Wolf
to form a historical society to continue the researches
begun by that exhibition, but nothing Avas done
until six years later, when a meeting was held in
London, at the club of the Maccabttans (June 3,
1893), and the Jewish Historical Society of Eng-
land was constituted for the purpose of "conduct-
ing researches into the history of the Jews of the
British empire, transcribing and publishing docu-
ments, forming a library and museum, and organi-
zing a course of lectures on general Jewish history."
Lucien Wolf was the lirst president, and he was suc-
ceeded by Hermann Adler, Joseph Jacobs, F. D.
Mocatta, and Isidore Spielmann, the present (1904)
bolder of the presidency. Israel Abrahams is, and
has been throughout, its honorary secretary. Be-
sides four volumes of transactions, the society has
published Menasseh ben Israel's pamphlets on the
Resettlement, with introduction and notes by Lu-
cien Wolf; and, together with the Selden Society, a
volume of " Select Pleas from the Jewish Exchequer,"
edited by J. M. Rigg. The society has undertaken,
also, in conjunction with the Ameiican Jewish Pub-
lication Societ}', a series of "Jewish Worthies," of
which the first volume, on "Maimonides," has ap-
peared. Under the presidency of Isidore Spielmann
steps have been taken to arrange for a museum of
historical relics in connection with the society.

JEWISH LADS' BRIGADE : Military asso-
ciation of English Jewish boys, formed, organized,
and directed by Col. Albert E. W. Goldsmid " to in-
stil into tiie rising generation from their earliest
years habits of orderliness, cleanliness, and honor,
so that in learning to respect themselves they will
do credit to their community." It is the first asso-
ciation of its kind. Jewish lads are eligible for mem-
bership between the ages of twelve and sixteen, and
may remain, up to the rank of sergeant, until the age
of eighteen. There is no limit to the age of superior
officers. There are at present three regiments in ex-
istence: the Loudon Regiment, consisting of all the
battalions and companies in the London district; the
Northern Regiment, consisting of similar units in
the north and center of England ; and the Co-
lonial Regiment, consisting of companies in Canada
and South Africa. In addition to the infantry train-
ing there are al.so signaling and ambulance organi-
zations. Stress is laid upon the athletic clubs in
connection with the organization.

The brigade was founded, after a lecture by Colo-
nel Goldsmid before the Maccaboeans, at a meeting
held at the Jews' Free School in Feb., 1895, when the
first company of boys was enrolled; and six weeks
later the first weekly drill was held. In 1896 the
first summer camp, of nineteen boys, was held at
Deal, and .social and athletic clubs were organized.

The idea speedily became popular, and by March,
1898, there were thirteen companies in England,
while a company was also established at Montreal,
Canada. Four of these, con.sisting of five oflicers
and ninety boys, had been represented at the sea-
side camp at Deal, England, during the preceding
summer. A labor bureau was then established with

a view to obtaining employment for the boys; and
provincial companies rapidly sprang into existence.
In 1898 the summer encampment consisted of 400
bo}S; and a year later the number of companies in
existence rose to twenty-three, including one at
Johannesburg, South xVfrica.

In Aug., 1899, a second summer camp was formed
in the north of England for the benefit of the mem-
bers of the northern contingent, while the Deal camp
was inspected by Lieut. -Gen. Sir Charles Warren,
who highly praised the efficiency of the lads. In
1900 a public display was given in London, which
was attended by Maj.-Gen. Sir Henry Trotter, the
general officer commanding the home district. The
following year the number of companies had in-
creased to thirty, while the muster-roll show'ed a
total strength of between 3,000 and 4,000 members.
Seventeen officers and members of the brigade took
part in the Soulh-African war, including Colonel
Goldsmid, his place as commandant being occupied
by Lieut. -Col. E. Moutefiore. Of the seventeen, two
lost their lives, one of them being Lieut. F. M. Ra-
phael, who was killed at Spiou Kop while attempt-
ing to rescue a wounded soldier.

In 1901 there were 540 boys at the Deal camp, and
about 250 at the camp at Lytham. The member-
ship is now (1904) about 3,500, and there are com-
panies existing, in addition to those in London, at
Newcastle, Bradford, Leeds, Sheffield, Hull, Bir-
mingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Johannesburg,
and Montreal. That in the last-named city has
already become a popular institution. A somewhat
similar movement in New Yoi-k has resulted in the
formation of the Manhattan Rifles.

BiBLior.R.\PHV: Arvuial Reports and Pocket Book of the
Jewish Lads' Brigade.
J. V. E.

JEWISH LEDGER, THE: Weekly journal;
founded in New Orleans, La., Jan. 4, 1895, by A.
Steeg, who is still (1904) its publisher. Its first edi-
tor was Alexander Harris, who was succeeded by
Maurice Switzer, afterward editor of " The Owl "
(absorbed by the " Ledger " March, 1903). Rev. Dr.
Max Heller was editor of the " Ledger " during the
years 1896-97, and was succeeded by its present edi-
tor, Dr. M. J. Lehman, formerly editor of the " Jewish
Times." Its tendency is toward moderate Reform.

fi. " P. Wi.

JEWISH MESSENGER, THE : AVeekly ; pub-
lished in New York city; founded and edited by R.
Samuel M. Isaacs (Jan., 1857). Upon his death his
son Abram S. Isaacs became editor (May 19, 1878).
Its editorial and theological po.sition Avas conserva-
tive. Under its first editor the paper took a con-
spicuous abolitionist position prior to and during
the Civil war.

From Jan. to Dec. 1879, a literary supplement,
"Hebraica," was issued, to which such scholars as
Bacher, Kaufmanu, Rosin, Neubauer, and Gaster
contributed.

On Dec. 19, 1902, "The JewLsh Messenger" was
sold to the proprietor of " The Jewish Gazette " (New
York city), and subsequently by him to the owners
of "The American Hebrew," into which it Avas
merged Jan. 1, 1903.

«• A. M. F.

183

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jewish Historical Society
Jew^ish Theolog-ical Seminary

JEWISH MORNING JOURNAL (MOR-
GEN JOURNAL) : The first Yiddisli daily moin-
iug uewspuper; established in New York July 2,
1901, by Jacob Saphirstein, wlin is still (1004) its
managing editor; now publislied by the Jewish
Press Publishing Company. lis staff of writers
includes Jacob iMagidolI (city editor), Ilayyim
Malitz, A. M. Sharkauskj\ ^l. Seifert, I. Eriedman,
and Peter Wiernik. While professedly Orthodox
and Zionistic, it is the most secular of the Yiddisli
papers in America, and is an ardent advocate of tlie
Americanization of tlie Russian immigrants ^vho
form tlie bulk of its readers.

G. P. Wl.

JEWISH NEWS. See Periodicals.

JEWISH PROGRESS. See Periodicals.

JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF
AMERICA: Society for "tlie publication and dis-
semination of Hterary, scientific, and religious works
giving instruction in the principles of the Jewish
religion " ; the third of its kind in the United States
(see Jew. Encyc. i. 519). Its headciuarters are at
Philadelphia. It was founded June 3, 1888, at a
convention held iu Philadelphia. At the end of the
first fiscal year the membership was 1,071 ; by 1903
it had reached 4,700. Every member of the society
receives a copy of each publication ; since the so-
ciety has been in existence over two hundred thou-
sand volumes have been distributed and sold. The
society is supported by the income derived from a
permanent fund and from membership dues.

As a rule, four, sometimes five, publications a
year are issued ; the first, " Outlines of Jewish His-
tory," by Lady Magnus, appeared in 1890. The
society issues two series, a " Special Series " (seven
numbers), appearing occasionally, and including
short works of a miscellaneous character, and " The
American Jewish Year Book," published since 1899-
1900 (5660). Besides the twelve volumes of these
two series, the society has brought out thirty-one
works (thirty-eight volumes), among them transla-
tions from German, French, and Hebrew. They in-
clude histories, literary, religious, and ethical essays,
poems, biographies, proceedings of societies, repub-
lications of older classics, and fiction. The most
important undertakings of the society are the pub-
lication of the English edition of Graetz's " History
of the Jews " (six volumes), and a new translation of
the Bible into English, first suggested at the second
biennial meeting, June 5, 1892; only the Book of
Psalms has appeared (1903). Other notable publi-
cations of the society are : " Children of the Ghetto "
(Israel Zangwill); "Studies in Judaism" (Solomon
Schecliter) ; " The Ethics of Judaism " (M. Lazarus) ;
and "Idyls of the Gass" (Martha Wolfenstein).

Bibliography: Reports, Jeicish P^^hUcatilnl Society of
America, 1888-1903; Tlie Jcicish Exponent, 1888, vol. iii.

A. II. S.

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW: Jour
nal of Jewish science; founded in London Oct., 1888;
edited by Israel Abrahams and C. G. Montefiore.
While containing for the most part scientific arti-
cles on Jewish literature and history, it has also
from time to time dealt with current topics, espe-
cially of a tlieological nature. Many of Professor
Sehechter's discoveries from the geuizah at Cairo,

including parts of p]cclesiasticus, have appeared
first in its pages, often in facsimile. Among those
who have contributed series of articles have been (in
addition to the editors): E. N. Adler (Karaitica and
Judu.'o-Persian), W. Bacher (all branches), L. Blau
(Masorah), A. Biichler (history of Hellenistic period),
T. K. Cheyne (Biblical criticism), H. Hirschfeld
(Arabica), D. Kaufmann (history and rabbinics), A.
Neubauer (all branches), M. Steinschneider (intro-
duction to Arabic literature), S. Schechter (rabbinic
theology), I. Zangwill (poems and analyses of tend-
encies in modern Judaism).

G. J.

JEWISH RECORD (LONDON). See Peri-
odicals.

JEWISH RECORD, THE : Weekly ; published
in Philadelphia, Pa., from 1874 until the spring of
1887. Alfred T. Jones was the editor, and later
Henry S. Morals became associate editor. Its theo-
logical position was conservative.

G. A. M. F.

JEWISH REFORMER. See Periodicals.

JEWISH REVIEW, THE. See Periodicals.

JEWISH REVIEW AND OBSERVER,
THE : American weekly newspaper; founded under
the name "The Jewish Review " in Nov., 1893, by
M. Machol and his son Jacob Machol at Cleve-
land, Ohio, and continued under their management
until Nov. 4, 1896, when it Avas purchased by Daniel
S. Wertheimer. In Oct., 1899, Wertheimer purchased
" The Hebrew Observer " ; and the two papers were
then merged under the title "The Jewish Review
and Observer." Jessie Cohen is editor.

G. S.

JEWISH SABBATH JOURNAL. See Pe-
riodicals.

JEWISH SCHOOLFELLOW. See Period-
icals.

JEWISH SOUTH. See Periodicals.

JEWISH SPECTATOR, THE: The first
Jewish weekly journal in the southern United States ;
founded in Memphis, Tenn., Oct. 19, 1885, by M.
Samfield and edited and published by him until 1904.
In 1892 his sou Joseph M. Samfield assumed the jjosi-
tion of business manager. Its tendency is toward
moderate Reform.

G. P. Wi.

JEWISH THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY OF
AMERICA : Rabbinic seminary established in
New York city under the auspices of the Jewish
Theological Seminary Association; founded in 1886
mainly by the exertions of Dr. Sabato Morais of
Philadelphia, and conducted by him till his death,
he serving as president of its facultj', and the Hon.
Joseph Blumeuthal being president of its board of
trustees. Dr. A. Kohut was its professor of Talmud,
and it issued seven reports containing scholarly pa-
pers. The position of the association having become
precarious after their death, a new organization was
projected in Oct., 1901, entitled "Jewish Theological
Seminar}' of America," with which the association
was invited to incorporate. This arrangement was
carried into effect April 14, 1902. The new organi-
zation was endowed with a fund of over 8500,000, and
was presented with a suitable building on University

Jewish Theological Seminary
Jews" Walk

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

184

Heights by Jacob H. Schiff. It obtained a charter
from the state of New York (approved Feb. 20,
1902), -'for the perpetuation of the tenets of the
Jewish religion, the cultivation of Hebrew litera-
ture, the pursuit of Biblical and archeological re-
search, the advancement of Jewish scholarship, the
establishment of a library, and the education and
training of Jewish rabbis and teachers. It is em-
powered to grant and confer the degrees of Rabbi,
Hazan, Master and Doctor of Hebrew Literature,
and Doctor of Divinity, and also to award certifi-
cates of proficiency to persons qualified to teach in
Hebrew schools." The reorganized seminary was
opened on Sept. 15, 1902, in the old building of the
Theological Seminary Association, 736 Lexington
avenue, but it has since moved into more commo-
dious quarters at 531-535 West 123d street. A syna^
gogue is attached which contains an Ark discovered
in the Cairo Genizah by Prof. Schechter and pre-
sented by him.

A valuable library comprising about 7,500 printed
volumes and 750 manuscripts, including part of the
Halberstam Library, was presented by Maj^er Sulz-
berger, raising the number of printed books in the
possession of the seminary to more than 14,500 vol-
umes. It already had the library of David Cassel,
numbering about 3,000 volumes.

The course of study extends over a period of four
years, and includes training in Bible, Talmud, Jew-
ish history and literature, theology and homiletics,
and Semitics. The students are in most cases re-
quired to be graduates of a university or college be-
fore entering the seminary. In 1904, classes were
established for the training of teachers of religious
schools.

The affairs of the seminary are conducted by a
board of directors, the president of which is Dr.
Cyrus Adler. The faculty is composed of the fol-
lowing members : Solomon Schechter, M. A. , Litt. D. ,
president, and professor of Jewish theology; Louis
Ginzberg, Ph.D., professor of Talmud; A. Marx,
Ph.D., professor of history and rabbinical literature
and librarian; I. Friedlander, Ph.D., professor of
Biblical literature and exegesis; J. M. Asher, M.A.,
professor of homiletics; Rev. Dr. B. Drachman, in-
structor in Hebrew and acting reader of codes;
Joshua A. Joft'e, instructor in Talmud. In 190-1
there were 37 students in the theological depart-
ment, and 120 took the teachers' course. Twenty-
five students have thus far been graduated, and are
occupying pulpits in various parts of the United
States, Canada, and South Africa.

Bibliography: Biennial Refjorts of the seminary; Jewish
Year Book. 566:i-<U (190.3-4).
A. J.

JEWISH TIDINGS. See Periodicals.

JEWISH TIMES, LONDON. See Period-
icals.

JEWISH TIMES, THE ; A Journal of Re-
form and Progress : A weekly published in New
York city. The first number appeared on March 5,
1869, Moritz Ellinger being the publisher, and from
Nov. 10. 1871, to Feb. 23, 1872, also the editor. On
Oct. 4. 1878, Harry H. Marks became the occupant
of that position. The last number was issued Feb.
21, 1879. During the last two years of publication

(vols. ix. and x.) the periodical was entitled "The
Reformer and Jewish Times; A Journal of Progress
in Religion, Literature, Science, and Art." It con-
tained an English and a German part in which liter-
ary, biographical, Talmudic, and rabbinical articles
were published, reprinted, and translated. Jewish
news, correspondence, and sometimes sermons ap-
peared in its pages. The journal, throughout its
existence, was the exponent of Progressive and Re-
form Judaism.
G. A. M. F.

JEWISH TIMES AND OBSERVER. See

Periodicals.

JEWISH TRIBUNE. See Periodicals.

JEWISH VOICE : American weekly newspa-
per; published in St. Louis, Mo., since Jan. 1, 1888.
The present editor, M. Spitz, founded on Aug. 29,
1879, the "Jewish Tribune," which title was changed
to the "Jewish Free Press," and later to the "Jewish
Voice."

The "Jewish Voice " is a Reform paper with con-
servative tendencies. Jointly with S. H. Sonne-
schein the editor issued for a time, as a supplement,
a German monthly entitled "Sulamith."

G. S.

JEWISH WEEKLY REVIEW. See Peri-

ODKALS.

JEWISH WOMEN.

See Periodicals.

JEWISH WORLD, THE (Die Yiddische

Welt): Yiddish daily paper; founded in New York
city June 27, 1902, by the Lebanon Printing and
Publishing Company (president, H. Masliansky),
with the purpose of furthering the Americanization
of Russian immigrants. In each issue one page is
printed in English; this page has been edited succes-
sively by Joseph Jacobs, J. de Haas. I. L. Brill, B. G.
Richards, and Samuel Mason. The general editor
(1904) is D. M. Hermalin. One of the principal col-
laborators is the Yiddish poet Morris Rosenfeld.
J. S.

JEWISH WORLD, THE : The fourth Jewish
newspaper published in London, immediately on the
passing of the "Jewish Record." Its first number
was issued Feb. 14, 1873, the founders being George
Lewis Lyon, who remained the proprietor and gen-
eral editor up to 1897, and Myer D. Davis, Jewish
teacher and antiquarv, who was the first editor, and
who resigned soon after the founding of the jour-
nal. The editorship passed successively to P. B.
Benny, Lucien Wolf, Edwin Collins, J. de Haas, and
S. H. Herschkowitch. Since a change in proprietor-
ship in Sept., 1897, the editors have been Samuel L.
Bensusan, and John Raphael, the present editor.

From its foundation to 1881 the paper pursued
the policy of presenting a trenchant criticism of
Christian doctrine and belief. On the outbreak of
the Balta riots it sent a commissioner to Russia, and
until after the outbreak in 1892 earnestly championed
the cause of the Russian and Rumanian .Jews.

Its criticism of Christianity brought it into contact
with W. E. Gladstone ; and its doubt of the utility of
the forty-second clause of the Berlin Treaty brought
it correspondence from the Marquis of Salisbury.

Until 1897 " The Jewish World " advocated Ortho-
dox Judaism, and was a sharp critic of Anglo-Jew-

185

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Je\wish Theological Seminary
Jews' Walk

isli institutions. From 1893 to 1900 it consistently
advocated, in one form or another, the Zionist idea.
Till 1897 it was a quarto of eight pages, with occa-
sional supplements; from 1897 it has liad sixteen
pages with cover, and regular illustrations appro-
priate to the events of the week.

G. J. DE H.

JEWNIN, ABRAHAM JONAH B. ISAIAH:

Russian Talmudist; a native of Paritz, government
of Minsk; died at Grodno June 12, 1848, while still
young. He was the author of novellae on the works
of Maimonides, part of which appeared in the edi-
tion of the" Seferha-Miz wot " known as "Mahshebet
Mosheh" (Wilna, 1866), and other parts in the War-
saw edition of the "Yad ha-Hazakah" (1882). His
son Samuel Jewnin (b. e. 1830) lives at Wilna (1904);
be is the author of "Dibre Hefez," a collection of
essays on Scriptural texts (Odessa, 1872); "Nahalat
'Olamim," a collection of the important inscriptions
on the tombstones in the Jewish cemetery of War-
saw (Warsaw, 1882); and of several lesser works.
A second son, Nate Jewnin (b. c. 1835), who now
resides in Grodno, is the author of a work entitled
"Nit'e Or." A third son, Bezalel Jewnin, born
about 1840, is a well-known itinerant preacher in
the United States.

BiBLiofiRAPHY : Eisenstadt. Dor Rahhanaw we-Sofermc, ii. 22,
Wiliia. 1900; Friedenstein, ^Ir Gibborim, p. 85, Wilna, 1880.
H. R. P. Wl.

JEWRY (Old French, "Juierie"): Originally
a designation for Judea and sometimes for the
entire Holy Land. The term was afterward ap-
plied to any special district inhabited by Jews;
hence the name of "Old Jewry" in London. The
following reference to a Jewry occurs in Chaucer
("Prioress' Tale," lines 37-38):

" Ther was in Asye in a great cltee
Amonges cristehe folk a lewerve."

In Old and Middle English the term was used also

to express the belief of the Jews. In more modern

times it has been extended to include the Jewish

people, nation, race, or community in a collective

sense, as in the proem to Zangwill's "Children of

the Ghetto " (1893) : " That long cruel night in Jewry

which coincides with the Christian era."

Bibliography : Murray's Eng. Diet.

G. ' J.

JEWS' COLLEGE: Rabbinical seminary in
London, England ; it owes its existence to the chief
rabbi Dr. N. ]\I. Adler; the first stone was laid Jan. 4,
1852, at a 4i)ublic meeting presided over by Sir Closes
Moutefiore. The original design of the institution
was threefold : the training of ministers, readers,
and teachers; the formation of a day-school; the
establishment of a bet ba-midrash. Tlie third part of
the scheme, however, was soon abandoned as im-
practicable. On Nov. 10, 1856, the college and col-
lege school were opened at 10 Finsbury Square,
with Dr. L. Lowe as head master. Dr. L5we, how-
ever, soon resigned (Sept., 1858), and was succeeded
by the Rev. Barnett Abrahams. B.A., as principal
(d. 1863). At his death the Rev. Dr. H. Adler ac-
cepted the post provisionally, and held it until tlie
appointment of the present principal. Dr. M. Fried-
lander. The constitution of Jews' College provides
that the chief rabbi of England shall be the presi-

dent of the council (which is annually elected by the
subscribers), and the Orthodox principle is thus,
though indirectly, maintained. After having re-
mained in Finsbury Square for twenty-five years,
it removed, for the benefit of those of its students
that attended University College, to Tavistock
House, Tavistock Square, formerly the residence of
Charles Dickens; after eighteen years there it re-
moved to Queen's S(iuare House, bought for tlie
college by Charles Samuel.

Of the two departments, the day-school and the
college, the former was not popular. For twenty-
five years it struggled on, but ultimately it Avas
closed (1880). Its place was taken by " the prepara-
tory class" for young men intending to devote them-
selves to the study of theology. In this class pupils
are prepared for the college in both theological and
secular subjects, to enable them to pass the uni-
versity matriculation examination and an examina-
tion of a similar standard in Hebrew and religion.
There are three examinations, which correspond to
the university matriculation, intermediate, and final
examinations; successful candidates receive certifi-
cates entitling them to be styled "Probationers,"
"Associates," and "Fellows" of Jews' College.
The " Third Certificate " precedes the obtaining of
the Hattarat Hora'ah from the chief rabbi. The
last provision, that the chief rabbi and not Jews' Col-
lege should grant the highest certificate, gave rise
to a prolonged agitation led by Prof. Israel Gollancz.
Ultimately (Feb. 11, 1903) it was decided that ar-
rangements should be made for the granting by the
college of the diploma of rabbi, with which should
be combined the hattarat hora'ah.

The college possesses a large library, the most in-
teresting and important part of it being the collec-
tion of the Rev. A. L. Green, a zealous and intelligent
collector of Hebrew and Anglo-Jewish literature.
Part of the Ramsgate College Librarj- also is depos-
ited in Jews' College, including a valuable collec-
tion of Hebrew manuscripts acquired for it by Dr. M.
Gaster. The general pul)lic is allowed to read in the
library and to borrow books. In connection with
the college there exist a Jews' College Literary So-
ciety and a Jews' College Union for past and pres-
ent pupils.

The "Jews' College Journal" was started by some
of the pupils and students of Jews' College April,
1875; only three numbers were published, the last
in 1888.

J. M. F.

JEWS' WALK : Name given to the southeast
corner of the colonnade in the Royal Exchange,
London, owing to the fact that the Jewish brokers
w'ere accustomed to assemble there for business
when on 'Change. It was customary at the end of
the eighteenth century for each section of the Ex-
change to have its special position ; and to the pres-
ent day the dealers in foreign bills meet in the old
Jews' Walk.

Another Jews' Walk existed opposite the court
of Hustings at Guildhall. The name was attached
to the wall there, but was removed in 1838 at the
request of Sir Moses ]\Iontefiore.
Bibliography : Jewish Chronicle, Jan. 18, 1901.

Jezdegrerd
Joab

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

186

JEZDEGERD. See Persia.

JEZEBEL ; Daughter of Etlibaal, King of Sidon,
and wife of Aliab, second king of the fourtli dynasty
of Israel, founded by Omri (I Kings xvi. 31). This
marriage was the culmination of the friendly rela-
tions existing between Israel and Phenicia during
Omri"s reign, and possibly cemented important po-
litical designs of Ahab. Jezebel, like the foreign
wives of Solomon {ib. xi. 7, 8), required facilities
for carrying on her form of worship. So Ahab
"reared up an altar for Baal in the house of Baal,
which he had built in Samaiia, and Ahab made the
Asherah" {ib. xvi. 32, 3;3, R. V.).

The aggressive character of Jezebel went so far
as to require that her religion should be the national
religion of Israel. She organized and maintained
gilds of prophets, 450 of Baal, and 400 of Asherah
{ib. xviii. 19\ She also destroyed such prophets of
Yhwh as she could reach. Obadiah, the faithful
overseer of Ahab's house, rescued one hundred of
these, hid them, and secretly fed them in a cave {ib.
xviii. 3).

The violence, bloodshed, and idolatry occasioned
by, Jezebel, and apparently assented to by Ahab,
aroused the indignation of the prophet Elijah.
Ahab was charged directly with the sin of follow-
ing the Baalim (ib. xviii. 18). The superiority of
Elijah and of his God in the test at Carmel, and" the
slaughter of the 450 prophets of Baal, tired the venge-
ance of Jezebel. Elijah fled for his life to the
v\ilderness, where he mourned the devotion of Israel
to Baal and the lack of worshipers of Israel's God.
He was sharply rebuked with the words, "Yet will
1 leave me seven thou.sand in Israel, all the knees
which have not bowed unto Baal, and every mouth
which hath not kissed him " {ib. xix. 18).

The determination and unscrupulousness of Jeze-
bel are best illustrated by her false charges against
and her murder of Naboth and his sons {ib. xxi. 7-
16; II Kings ix. 26) to satisfy the whim of Ahab.
For this base deed Elijah pronounced upon Ahab
and Jezebel and their house a ghoulish prophecy
(I Kings xxi. 21-24) which was promptly fulfilled
{ib. xxii. 38; II Kings ix. 26, 35, 36). Jezebel's in-
fluence and religion took root in and brought dis-
aster upon the kingdom of Judah through her
daughter Athaliah, who became the wife of Jeho-
ram, son of Jehoshaphat; so that Phenieian idolatry,
introduced by Jezebel, poisoned both tiie northern
and the southern kingdom of Israel ; and its results
stretched far down into Israel's history.

Jezebel survived Ahab, who was slain at the
battle of Ramoth-gilead. and saw two of her sons,
Ahaziah and Jehoram, sit on the throne of their
father. In the insurrection of Jehu she lost her life
in a horrible manner (see Jeiiu).

E- G. H. I. M. P.

JEZELTJS: 1. Father of Sechenias, the chief of
a family that returned with Ezra from captivity (I
Esd. viii. 32). In Ezra viii. 5 he is called "Jaha-
ziel." 2. Father of Obadiah (Ab.\dias), who was
also one of the chiefs on tiie return from captiv-
ity (I Esd. viii. 35). In Ezra viii. 9 he is called
"Jehiel."

f- «• "• M. Sel.

JEZREEL (i?Ny-)r, '-God sows"). 1. See Es-

DRAELOX.

2. A city of Issachar, mentioned with ChesuUoth
and Shunem (Josh. xix. 18). Owing to its impor-
tance, Jezreel gave its name to the whole district
which was subsequently included in the kingdom of
Isii-BosHETii (II Sam. ii. 8). But Jezreel acquired
its greatest fame in the reign of Ahab, who chose
it for his residence (I Kings xviii. 45). Ahab liad a
palace there {ib. xxi. 1). Tiie harem was near the
gate, forming a part of the city wall (II Kings ix.
30, 33). Close by was a watch-tower, which per-
haps also formed a part of the royal building {ib. ix.
17). It may be that Ahab's ivory palace (I Kings
xxii. 39) and Jezebel's establishment for idolatrous
priests (/d. xvi. 33, xviii. 39; II Kings x. 11) were
also at Jezreel.

Close to Ahab's palace was the vineyard of Naboth
the Jezreelite, so much coveted by Ahab (I Kings
xxi. 1 et seq.). It would seem, from a comparison of
I Kings xxi. 19 and xxii. 38, that the assassination
of iS'aboth took place at Samaria. But with refer-
ence to the latter passage Josephus C'Ant." viii.
15, i^ 6) says that Ahab's chariot was washed in the
fountain of Jezreel. Besides, a confusion between
Samaria and Jezreel is .seen in I Kings xxi. 18 and II
Kings X. 1. In front of Ahab's palace was an open
space where dogs roamed. It was there that they
devoured Jezebel's body (II Kings ix. 35-37).

Jezreel was also the residence of Joram, son of
Ahab {ib. viii. 29, ix. 15) ; there he met his death at
the hands of Jehu {ib. ix. 24, 25). The heads of
Ahab's seventy sons were sent by command of Jehu
from Samaria to Jezreel, by the gateway of which
city they were piled till the following morning {ib.
X. 7, 8). Jezreel was also the scene of the massacre
of Ahab's family and of all who were suspected of
sympathy Avith his dynasty {ib. x. 11-14).

Jezreel was known to tlie Crusaders as "Parvum
Gerinum " ; and in 1183 a skirmish with Saladin took
place near the city (William of Tyre. xxii. 26). It
was called even as late as that time "Zar'in," which
is almost the equivalent of the Hebrew "Yizre'el."
The same identification was made by Benjamin of
Tudela, who describes it as being di.s'tant a day and
a half from Lod, and three miles from Sepphoris, and
having a large fountain. He found there one Jew-
ish inhabitant, a dyer ("Itinerary," ed. Asher, i. 44,
Hebr. ). It was near this fountain that Saul and his
army encamped during their war with the Philis-
tines (I Sam. xxix. 1); it is called "Tubania" by
William of Tyre (xxii. 20).

Zar'in is now a small village ; it is situated at the
foot of Mount Gilboa on the western side and has
twenty to thirty houses (see Robinson, " Researches, "
iii. 163-167; Guerin, "Samarie," i. 311-312; Fried.
Wilken, "Gesch. der Kreuzziige," II. ii. 144, Leip-
sic, 1808; George Adam Smith, "Historical Geog-
raphy," etc., 1894, pp. 356, 381).

3. A town in the hill country of Judah not far
from the Judean Carmel (Josh. xv. 56). Ahinoam,
one of David's first two wives, was a native of this
town (I Sam. xxv. 43).

4. A Judean; son of Etam, according to the Sep-
tuagint (I Chron. iv. 3).

5. Hosea's eldest son, being so called by com-

187

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jezdegrerd
Joab

niand of God in token of tlie divine vengeance
wliich would overtake Jehu for massacring Aliab's
family in Jczreel (Hosea i. 4).

6. Name used for Israel in Ilosea ii. 24.

E. G. II. M. Sei..

JHIRATKAR, SOLOMON BALLAJCE :

Bcni-lsrael soldier; enlisted in the 14lh Reginieut
Bombay N. L. I. in 1818; promoted jeniidar Jan. 10,
1839; subahdar Jan. 1, 1843: subalidar-major Jan. 1,
1856; served as a native adjutant for five years and
ultimately became sirdar bahadur; was present at
the siege of ]\Iahadewghur in 1832; in the field
service at Kolhap\ir in 1836; and at the operations
of Dwarka and Burda Hills against the Waghers
1859-60. He received the first and second stars of
the Order of British India.
J. J. Hy.

JICHUS. See Yihus.

JID. See Periodicals.

JIDISCHE ILLUSTRIRTE ZEITTJNG.
See PmuoDiCALs.

JIDISCHE VOLKSBIBLIOTHEK. See

PeUK)UIC.\I-S.

JIDISCHER PUCK. See Periodicals.

JOAB (3xr -"YiiwH is Father"). — !. Bib-
lical Data: Son of Zeruiah, David's sister (II
Chron. ii. 16), and commander-in-chief of David's
army. Joab first appears after David's accession to
the throne on the occasion of the engagement at the
pool of Gibeon between Joab and David's servants
on one side and Abner with the servants of Ish-
BOSHETH on the other (II Sam. ii. 13 et seq. ; see also
Helkath Hazzurim). Abner, defeated, on the re-
treat kills Joab's youngest brother, Asahel. Vol-
untarily giving up the pursuit, Joab marches to
Hebron {ib. ii. 17-32). Still minded to avenge his
brother's death, Joab, upon learning of Abner's
visit to and reception by David during his (Joab's)
absence from Hebron, manages to lure his unsus-
pecting enemy to return to Hebron, where, meeting
him in the gateway, he smites him under the fifth
rib. David compels Joab to attend iu penitent garb
the obsequies of Ids victim.

The great opportunity for Joab to distinguish
himself came with the siege of Jebus or Jerusalem.
David had promised the office of chief to the one
who should first smite the Jebusites. Joab, accom-
plishing this, obtained the position (I Chron. xi. 6).
The vague designation of " chief " or " head " (" rosh ")
is supplemented by the more explicit title of "prince
of the army " (II Sam. viii. 16). Joab's strategic
skill was immediately shown in his

Becomes fortification of the conquered city (I
" Prince of Chron. xi. 8). After that event, Joab
the Army." is throughout represented as a most
skilful general and as a model of fidel-
ity. David liimself was conscious of Joab's merits
in these respects, though he somewhat feared him
(comp. II Sam. iii. 39). Owing to his rank, Joab
had an armor-bearer of his own {ib. xxiii. 37; I
Chron. xi. 39) and ten servants to carry his equip-
ment (II Sam. xviii. 15). His usual residence was
at Jertisalem {ib. xiv. 30), but he had also a house in
the wilderness (I Kings ii. 34). Joab was active iu

all the wars of David. The most important was
first in Edom, where Joal) remained six months till
he had exterminated all the males {ib. xi. 15-16).
So great was the terror of his name in Edom that
Hadad ventured to return to his native country
only after Joab's death {ib. xi. 21). The second im-
portant war in which Joab was engaged was that
with the Ammonites in two campaigns. In one of
these the Ammonites, allied with Syrians, com-
pelled Joab to leave a part of the army with Ids
brother Abishai, who made an attack on the Ammon-
ites while Joab himself attacked and defeated the
Syrians (II Sam. x. 7-14). In the other, in the fol-
lowing year, Joab devastated Ammon and besieged
Kabbah {ih. xi. 1). So great was Joab's devotion to
David that after he had conquered the royal city or
"the city of waters," he sent messengers to David
asking him to come and complete the conquest him-
self {ib. xii. 26-28). It was during this expedition
that David had recourse to the services of Joab in
his designs on Uriah {ib. xi. 6-25). Joab used his in-
fluence over David to effect the rehabilitation of Ab-
salom in lus father's favor. Knowing that David
longed to see Absalom, Joab instructed a " wise
Woman from Tekoa " to induce David by a parable
to recall Ins son, and finally brought about a rec-
onciliation between them (II Sam. xiv.). At the
time of Absalom's revolt, though Absalom's party
was the stronger, Joab remained with David, ac-
companying him in his flight. David entrusted to
Joab oxAy one-third of his men, while the other two-
thirds were led by Abishai and Ittal the Gittite {ib.
xviii. 2). The battle terminated adversely for Absa-
lom's party, and Joab took upon himself the re-
sponsibility of killing Absalom, despite David's
repeated injunction to spare the young man's life.
Afterward lie had the courage to rouse David from
his grief for his son's death (ib. xviii. 5-15, xix.
6-8).

Joab's loyalty was still more striking when David,
yielding to his resentment against him, imprudently

transferred the office of commander-

His in-chief from Joab to Amasa. At the

Devotion to revolt of Sheba, Amasa proved him-

David. self incapable, and David appointed

Abishai to take the lead iu the attack,
in which Joab of his own accord nevertheless took
part (ib. xx. 1, 4-7). Joab treacherously killed his
rival, but as Amasa had previously been commander-
in-chief of the rebels {ib. xvii. 25), Joab iu slaying
him was inspired not by private but by political
motives. Joab, having effected the defeat of Sheba,
was reinstated in the office of commander-in-chief
(ib. XX. 15-23). Wlien, later, he was commissioned
by David to number the people of Israel, he tried,
but in vain, to dissuade the king from his design
{ib. xxiv. 2-4; I Chron. xxi. 2-4). Even when the
king insisted in his purpose Joab's scruples were
such that he did not number the tribes of Levi and
Benjamin (II Chron. xxi. 6)

Joab's last act, which proved his undoing, was
his espou.sal of the cause of Adonijah (I Kings i. 7.
19), probably because Adonijah was the elder son
after Absalom {ib. i. 6), and on the death of Adoni-
jah the succession rightfully belonged to him. It
seems that David understood that the affair of

Joab

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

188

Adonijah was not sufficient to convict Joab of trea-
son; for he recommended Solomon to kill Joab
out of revenge for Abner and Amasa {ib. ii. 5-6).
Joab, unaware of David's special recommendation,
thought Solomon would probably condemn him as
a traitor, and, having heard of Adonijah's death,
he fled to the Tabernacle and took hold of the altar.
Solomon, however, had no scruples with regard to
the defilement of the altar; and Benaiah slew him
there, by the king's command. Joab was buried in
his own house in the wilderness {ib. ii. 28-34).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature: Joab appears in

the Mishnah as the ideal general (Mak. lib). He
and David supplemented each other; he would not
have succeeded in his wars without David's contin-
uous study of the Torah, and David would not have
been able to apply himself to his ideal pursuits
without such a reliable general as Joab (Sanh. 49a).
His generosity is indicated by the words "his house
in the wilderness" (I Kings ii. 34), which are taken
to mean that his hou.se was as free as the wilderness;
that it was open to everybody ; that everybody could
find there food of all kinds; that, like a wilderness,
it was free from robbery (Sanh. 49a). K. Johanan
even declared that Joab was not guilty of Abner's
death, but that he brought him before the Sanhe-
drin, which, in the gate of the city (comp. Deut. xvi.
18 et al.), condemned Abner for killing Asahel (Sanh.
49a). When Joab had smitten the male children of
Edom, David inquired why he had done so ; Joab
answered, " It is written, ' Thou shalt blot out the
males ["zakar"] of Amalek ' " (Deut. xxv. 19).
David retorted, "But it is ' zeker ' [remembrance],
not 'zakar' ! " Joab replied that his teacher had made
him read "zakar" (B. B. 21a, b). Joab struggled
hard but vainly to dissuade David from numbering
the people. Joab made two numberings, a com-
plete and an incomplete one. He intended to ren-
der the incomplete numbering; if David became
angry, he would give him the complete one (Pesik.
R. 11 [ed. Friedmann, p. 43b]). After Joab had
fled to the Tabernacle, he was brought before the
judges for trial. Declared not guilty of the murder
of Abner, as he had only avenged the blood of his
brother Asahel, he was condemned for the murder
of Amasa; to Joab's defense that Amasa was a trai-
tor because he had failed to execute David's order
(comp. II Sam. xx. 4-5), the judges objected that
Amasa, being occupied with the study of the Law,
was not bound to execute the king's order (Sanh.
49a). When Bensiiah went to execute Joab the latter
said: "Let not Solomon condemn me to a double
ptmishment; let him cither kill me and take on him-
self the curses which his father uttered against me
[II Sam. iii. 29] or let me live and suffer from the
curses only." Solomon took on himself the curses,
all of which were fulfilled in his descendants (Sanh.
48b). TheTalmudists do not agree as to whether
Joab left a son or not, as some identify the Joab of
Ezra viii. 9 (.see Joab, No. 3) with the general of
David (B. B. 116a).

In various midrashim Joab is the subject of a
number of hero-tales. Once, hearing David repeat,
" Like as a father pitieth his children" (Ps. ciii. 13),
Joab objected that a mother had more pity for her

children than a father. David suggested that he
should more carefully observe the dispositions of
parents toward their children, and
midrashim. to do this, Joab undertook a jour-
ney. He arrived at the house of a
poor old laborer who had twelve sons and who
worked very hard to support his family. In the
evening the old man divided the bread which he had
won by his day's labor into fourteen equal pieces,
for his twelve sons, his wife, and himself.

On the following day Joab said to the old man:
" You are old and feeble ; why do you work for your
young sons? Take my advice and sell one of them;
and with the money you will be able to live with
your famil}' in comfort." The old man rebuked
him for such advice and went on to his work ; from
the mother, however, he succeeded, after meeting
many objections, in buying one son for one hun-
dred pieces of gold. In the evening Joab, himself
unseen, observed what passed between the father
and the mother. The former, having noticed that
one of the fourteen pieces of bread remained un-
touched, asked after his son. His wife at first gave
various reasons for his absence, but her husband re-
mained unsatisfied, and she was obliged to tell him
the truth. The man took the money, and, having
found Joab, demanded the return of his son. As
Joab resisted, the man threatened to kill him unless
he restored his son to liim, which Joab gladly did,
and acknowledged that David was right (Midr. Rab-
botenu, in Jellinek, " B. H." v. 52-53).

At the head of 12,000 warriors Joab besieged Kin-
sali, or Kinsari, the capital of the Amalekites. After
a fruitless siege of six months Joab's men despaired
and desired to return to their homes. But Joab,
having supplied himself with money, and taking his
sword, ordered them to hurl him over the wall from
a sling and wait forty days; if at the end of that
time they saw blood flowing under the gates they
would know that he was alive. His order was exe-
cuted, and he fell in the yard of a house where lived
a widow and her married daughter. Joab was taken
and revived by its inmates, meeting their questions
by telling them " I am an Amalekite ; the Israelites
captured me and threw me over the wall ; now let
me stay with you and I will pay you." At the end
of ten days Joab went into one of the 140 streets of
the city, entered a smith's shop, and ordered the
smith to make a sword like the one which he had,
but which was broken. The first two which the smith
made Joab shook and broke, but the thi^d one stood
the test. Joab asked the blacksmith who should be
killed Avith such a sword, and the an-
Siege of swer w'as "Joab." With the words
Kinsali. '" Suppose I am Joab " he slew the
smith. Then Joab went into the princi-
pal street, killed 500 mercenaries whom he met, and
returned to the house. In the city it was rumored
that Asmodeus had killed the mercenaries; when
Joab was asked whether he had heard of it he said
he had not. Joab paid his hostess for ten more days,
and at the end of that time went to the gate of the
city, where he slew 1,500 men. This time his hand
stuck to the sword, and he returned to the house
and asked the young woman for warm water. But
she said to him, " You eat and drink in our house

189

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joab

and go out to kill ourjjcople! " Joab thereupon ran
her through with his sword, after which his hand
was healed. He then went into the street, killed
every one he met on his way to the gates, slew the
guard and threw open the gates. The Israelites
had seen the blood flowing under the gates and
shouted for joy. After ordering them to send for
David, Joab climbed on to a tower in order that all
might see him, and then saw the twentieth Psalm
written on his right foot. Joab slew all the people
of the city except the king, whom he left for David
himself to kill. Then Joab put the slain king's
crown on David's head wliile his troops were en-
gaged in carrying off the spoils of the city (Jellinek,
"B. H," v. 14G-148).

s. s. M. Sel.

Critical View : In the Biblical account of

Joab's life the endeavor is palpable to shield David
and Solomon, and to paint Joab as a man moved by
motives of private revenge, and unscrupulous in the
methods of accomplishing his designs. It is he
who, contrary to the intentions of the king, assas-
sinates Abner, though David must have had an
equally strong reason for the removal of this parti-
zan of Saul's son and a possible rival to the throne.
In llie narrative of Absalom's death, the same tend-
ency is clearly visible. It is Joab who, contrar}'
to David's instructions, ends the crown prince's life.
II Sam. xix. reveals the true situation. Amasa was
probably under the suspicion of playing into the
Jiands of Sheba (II Sam. xix. 14, xx. 18 et seq.), and
as a loyal adherent of David, Joab may have deemed
it justifiable to put the lukewarm commander effec-
tuall}' out of the way.

In the narrative as now extant private jealousy is
suggested as the motive; and this is later consist-
ently adduced to shield Solomon for having sacri-
legiously ignored the right of asylum in the sanctu-
ary (1 Kings ii. 28). It was in execution of David's
last will, to avenge the assassination of Abner and
Amasa — that of Absalom, though logically it should
also have been included, is of course omitted, for
it would not do to represent Solomon as requi-
ting the death of his rival's brother, who, had he
lived, would have been the legitimate heir — that this
outrage upon the right of asylum is represented as
having been perpetrated. Joab was a loj^al and will-
ing tool in the hands of his master David; a sturdy,
unscrupulous military chieftain, such as surround
Asiatic despots and leaders of freebooters.

E. G. H.

2. Son of Seraiah, and descendant of Kenaz (I
Chron. iv. 14); prince of Ge-Harasiiim.

3. Head of an important family that returned
■with Zerubbabel from captivity, the number of
whose descendants together with those of Jeshua is
given as 2,812 (Ezra ii. 6; Neh. vii. 11). A Joab is
also mentioned in Ezra viii. 9 whose descendants
numbered 218; but this may be a different person
from the preceding.

E. G. II. M. Sel.

JOAB : Jewish family to which belonged Aaron
B. Samuel ha-Nasi, who lived for some time at
Oria in Apulia in the second half of the ninth cen-
tury. The name "Joab" has been especially fre-
quent since the tenth century in the Komau family

of Anaw, within which it is characteristic of the
branch that calls itself "Beth-el," "Min ha-Kene.sel,"
or "De Synagoga" (see Jew. Encvc. i. 566, s.v.
Anaw). In the Anaw family the name occurs as
follows:

(1) Joab, great-great-grandfather of Nathan, the
author of the 'Aruk (.second half of lOth cent.).

(2) Joab b. Solomon b. Abraham (1166), great-
great-grand.son of No. 1.

(3) Joab, grandfather of Paola, descendant of
No. 1.

(4) Joab b. Benjamin b. Solomon (1280-1304),
grammarian and Biblical exegete in iiome.

(5) Joab b. Solomon b. Shabbethai b. Mattithiah,
father of Menahem, in Rome (about 1340). In the
fourteenth century a synagogue of R. Joab in Rome
is mentioned.

The following is a genealogical table of the Joab

family :

Abraham

I
Jehiel

I
Benjamin Rofe

Jekuthiel

I
Jehiel, 1260-89. author of !;^'i-\'z^ mVjJD

Jekuthiel. 1280

Joab of Bethel, 1309

Jekuthiel of Bethel

I
Jehiel Rofe of Bethel, 1377

Joab of Bethel, 1399-1404

Jehiel Hai, 1419-45

Jekuthiel of Bethel,
1390-1437

II.

Joab PDjon ra

I
Benjamin Nakdan, 1284^92

Joab PDJ^n p

I
Abraham

Meshullam Rofe

Nathan, 1399

Meshullam Nehemiah,

Perugia, 1428-30

Isaac

I
Meshullam

Joab, i;i71-1417

Abraham Rofe,

Perugia, 1396

I
Joab Finzi, 1436

Abraham Finzi,
b. in Recanatl ;
lived in Anco-
na, 1456.

III.

Jehiel

I
Moses irnpn

I
Benjamin

I
Joab

I
Benjamin

I
Joab, b. 1351

1
Benjamin, Montalcino, 1403

Joab
Joachimsthal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

190

Most of the persons named in the genealogical
table are known merel}' as copiers of Hebrew man-
uscripts. Only the following are more important :

Benjamin b. Joab : A writer of religious poems
(Paris MS. 814; Zunz, " Literaturgesch." p. 365).

Benjamin b. Joab Nakdan : Grammarian and
Biblical commentator in Rome. He is the author of
a mauu.script work dating from 1284, and is men-
tioned in another manuscript dated 1292. He was
probably the teacher of the poet Immanuel b. Sol-
omon.

Jekuthiel b. Jehiel (^x JT'nD D\SD'nn T^X) :
Ko less than twelve manuscripts of his have been
preserved.

Joab of Bethel : Synagogal poet of the four-
teenth century. Whether he is identical with the
religious poet attacked by Immanuel b. Solomon
can not be determined. Zunz mentions three poets
of this name.

Bibliography : Berliner, Ge-^cft. deiJuden in Rnm, ii. 1, p.
.50, Frankfort-on-the-Main. 189:5; Landshuth, 'Ainmudc ha-
\-ibndah, p. 81, Berlin, 18.57; I^uzzatto, ^cn Tirns Vx NOC,
p. Zi, 3'j-j''£3-i r.i^, p. 35; Sleinschneider, Polemischc nnd
ApnInQeti.fche Literahir, p. 284; idem, Hchr. Bibl. vii. 115,
xi. 104, .\iv. 61 ; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Jiiden in
Ronu i. Sii, 426, 44(i, Berlin, 1896; Zunz, G. S. iii. 169, 171;
Idem, Literaturgesch. pp. 501, 709.

The following persons are known as belonging to
the Beth-El family:

Baruch b. Solomon b. Joab : Lived in Lar-
ricia 14ol.

Bezaleel b. Baruch in Larricia : Son of pre-
ceding; flourislied 14.")7-63.

Ishmael Rofe b. Moses : Judge in Rome
1562.

Jehiel (Hiel) of Bethel : Contemporary of Im-
manuel b. Solomon, who speaks of him as "one
wiio is in Hades" C'Mahberot," x.wiii., ed. Berlin,
p. 256).

Joab b. Abraham b. Joab (nDJ3n p) : Writer
in Tivoli 1333.

Joab b. Nathan b. Daniel : Writer of sj-na-
gogal poetry.

Joab Raphael b. Benjamin, of Montesanto,
president of the synagogue Quattro Capi in Rome,
1539-50, doubtless belongs to this family.

Mattathiah b. Jehiel, of Pisa {14th cent. ; see
Schorr in " lle-Haluz," i.\. 50).

Mordecai da Pisa b. Solomon da Camerino
(1483).

Shelumiel b. Jehiel, of Tivoli: Lived in Rome
1578.

It is probable that the following persons also be-
longed to the Bctli-El family:

Abraham b. Joab Eliashib (1438).

Baruch b. Joab : Member of the rabbinical
bf)ard in Home 1538-42.

Benjamin b. Joab : Lived in Ravenna 1579.

David b. Joab (1468).

Eliezer Moses b. Joab (1463).

Elijah b. Joab : Banker in Rome 1536.

Elijah Melammed b. Joab : Lived in Rome
1524.

Ephraim b. Joab b. Moses, of Modena: Writer
and poet (1462); lived at Abruzzo 1481.

Jehiel b, Joab: Pupil of Shabbethai b. Solo-
mon in Rome 1290.

Jekuthiel, of TivoH (1416).

Joab : Teacher of Benjamin b. Abraham Anaw
at Rome in the lirst half of the thirteenth century.

Joab : Lived in San Miniato in the sixteenth cen-
tury.

Joab b. Abraham Finzi (c 1660).

Joab b. Baruch Lampronti : Lived in Ferrara
about 1730.

Joab (Dattilo) b. Baruch degli Piatelli :
Teaciier in Rome; supported Joshua Menaggen's
efforts and defended Jacob Zahalon's writings. He
wrote introductions to two works by the latter
which appeared in Venice in 1665. Joab was rabbi
of Sienna at the time of his death.

Joab b. Benjamin : Lived in Rome 1555.

Joab b. David : Copyist and writer of syna-
gogal poems (c. 1426).

Joab Elijah b. Joab (1483; see R. Judah Minz,
Responsa, Nos. 2, 3).

Joab Hazzan : Writer of synagogal poems.

Joab Immanuel Finzi (1466-77).

Joab b. Jehiel, of Modena.

Joab b. Jekuthiel, of Tivoli (1414).

Joab b. Joseph, of Modena (1495).

Joab b. Mazliah de Ceprano : Son of ]\Iazliah
b. Menahem Ceprano; lived in Rome 1575.

Joab Melammed: Lived in Rome 1539; per-
haps identical witli Joab Fattore in Rome (1539)
and with Joab Melammed de Recanati, who
lived in Rome 1553.

Joab b. Menahem Joseph (1460).

Joab b. Mordecai Trioufo : Lived in Rome
1539.

Joab b. Moses.

Joab b. Moses : Lived in Rome 1584.

Joab b. Obadiah, of Tivoli: Lived in Rome
1599.

Joab della Ripa (or of Larricia ?). His widow,
Fresca Rosa, died in Rome 1565 (Berliner, "Aus
Schweren Tagen," No. 32).

Joab b. Shabbethai : Lived in Rome 1499.

Joab Shemariah, of Corregio (1503).

Joab Valencin : Lived in Venice 1594.

Joseph b. Joab Elijah (1461).

Joshua b. Joab (1405).

Mazliah b. Menahem Ceprano : Lived la
Rome 1562.

Menahem b. Joab, of Ascoli (1479).

Menahem b. Joab : Lived in Ferrara 1745.

Mordecai b. Joab, nDJOD : Banker in Rome;
"fattore" of the Roman congregation 1536-38.

Mordecai b. Joab.

Obadiah b. Joab : Presidcr in Rome 1554.

Shabbethai b. Joab Calabrese : Presider and
rabbi in Rome 1539-58.

Jacob b. .loab Elijah ha-Kohen de Fano, author
of "Shilte ha-Gibborim," certainly does not belong
to this family, nor does Joab of Salerno (about 1300).

Bibliography : Berliner, Gesch. der Juden in Rnm, vol. ii.,
part 1, pp. 114 ft seq., Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1893: Slein-
schneider, Hehr. BihI. xi. im et seq.; Vogelstein and Rieger,
Gesch. der Juden in Rmn, i. 332 et seq., ii. 417-422 et pa.><sim,
Berlin, 189.Vi)6; Zunz, G. S. iii. 162 et s.;(/.; idem. Literatur-
(lesch.. passim.
o. H. V.

191

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

Joab
Joachimstbal

JOAB BEN JEHIEL: Liturgical poet; lived
at Koine in the fourteenth century. He belonged to
the Beth-El family, and was the author of live piy-
yutim (inserted in the Roman Mahzor) for Passover,
having for their subject tiie Canticles, and piyyu-
tim for Shabu'ot and the New-Year (before "Nish-
mat"), and for the Day of Atonement (before "Kad-
dish "). In the Roman Mahzor, also, a prayer en-
titled " Ashmurot ha-Boker" forTliursdays on which
the " Tahanun " is not recited, is signed " Joab " ; and
a selihah bearing the same signature is found in
the selihot collection at Tripoli. Joab is believed
to be identical with the young poet whom Imman-
uel satirized (*'Mahberot," viii. 66).

Bibliograpijy: Luzzatto, Meho, pp. 23. 26; Zunz, G. S. iii.
171 ; idem. Literaturoesch. p. ,5()1 ; Landshuth, 'Ammude ha-
'Aboiiali, p. 81; Vogelstein and Rieger. Gcscli. der Juden in
Jionu i- 446.

G. I. Br.

JOACHIM, JOSEPH : Hungarian violinist ; born
at Kiltsee, near Presburg, Hungary, June 28, 1831.
He began to study the violin when he was five years
old, and was placed under Szervaczinski, leader of
the orchestra at the Budapest opera-house. He ad-
vanced so rapidly that after two years he was able
to make his first appearance in a public concert
given at the Adels Casino, Budapest, March 17,
1839.

At the age of nine he was sent to .study with Joseph
Bohm at the Vienna Conservatorium, whence, after a
course of three j'ears, he went to Leipsic. There
he met Mendelssohn and played at a concert of
Madame Viardot's. A few months later he played
Ernst's "Otello Fantasia " at a Gewandhaus concert,
and achieved such success that in the following
year — that is, at the age of twelve — he was invited
to play in a violin quartet Avith Ernst, Bazzini,
and Ferdinand David.

Joachim remained in Leipsic until 1849, studying
with Ferdinand David (violin) and Moritz Haupt-
mann (composition), and making occasional concert
tours through Germany and elsewhere. In 1844 he
"was taken by Mendelssohn to England, where he
made his debut at a benefit concert given at Drury
Lane in March, 1844. He revisited England in
1847, and thereafter played annually at the Monday
Popular, the Crj-stal Palace, and other concerts. In
1849 he spent two months at Paris, where he achieved
his first success in an orchestral concert given by
Hector Berlioz. Shortly afterward he accepted the
position of concert-master at Weimar. In 1852 he
accepted a call as solo violinist to the King of Han-
over; and it was here, in 1863, that he married
Amalie Weiss, the well-known contralto.

After a residence of sixteen 3'ears at Hanover,
Joachim, in 1868, removed to Berlin, where he was
appointed director of the newlj' established Konig-
liche Hochschule filr Musik, and member of the
Academy of Fine Arts (musical section). His fa-
mous quartet, originally established in 1869, and later
consisting of Joachim, De Ahna, Wirth (followed
by Kruse and Halir), and Hausmann, has, by reason
of its artistic character and perfect ensemble, set
the standard for high-class chamber-music perform-
ances.

Among the compositions of Joachim, most of
which are somewhat tinged by the influence of

Schumann, the Hungarian concerto in D minor is
generally regarded as the most perfect as to both
form ami content, (^ther important compositions
are: overture to "Hamlet," for orchestra, op. 4;
"Hebrew Melodies," for viola and piano, op. 9;
nocturne in A for violin and small orchestra, op. 12;
"Dem Andenken Kleists," op. 14; "Szene der
Marta" (from Schiller's "Demetrius"), for contralto
solo and orchestra, op. 14; 3 cadenzas to Beethoven's
violin-concertos, etc.
Joachim has embraced Christianity.

Bibliography: Moser, Joseph Joachim, 1900; Lahee, Famous
Violinists, pp. 214-260; Grove, Diet. Music and Musicians.
S. J. So.

JOACHIMSEN, PHILIP J. : American jurist
and communal worker; born in Breslau Nov., 1817;
died in New York city Jan. 6, 1890. He emigrated
to New York in 1827, and was admitted to the bar
there in 1840. During the Civil war, he organized
and commanded the Fifty-ninth New York Yoliuiteer
Regiment, and was injured at New Orleans. For his
services l>e was made brigadier-general by brevet.
After having assiduously practised law, he was
elected judge of the New York Marine Court in 1870
and acted as such up to 1877. He then resumed
practise.

Joachimsen was the first president of the Hebrew
Orphan A.sylum (1859). In 1879 he organized the
Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society for Children
in New York.

Bibliography: Isaac Markens, The Hebrews in America, p.

228, New York, 18aS; Tlie New York Times, Jan. 7, 1890;
Simon Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, ami
Citizen, p. 262, Philadelphia, 1895.

A. A. M. F.

JOACHIMSTHAL, FERDINAND J. : Ger-
man mathematician ; born ^lay 9, 1818, at Goldberg,
Silesia; died April 5, 1861, at Breslau. In the year
of his graduation (Ph.D. Berlin, 1842) he was ap-
pointed teacher at a "Realschule " in Berlin, and in
1846 was admitted to the philosophical faculty of
the university as privat-docent. In 1856 lie was
appointed professor of mathematics at Halle, and
in 1858 at Breslau.

Joachimsthal contributed essays to Crelle's
"Journal," 1846, 1850, 1854, 1861, and to Torquera's
" Nouvelles Annales des Mathematiques."

Bibliography : AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic.
s. F. T. H.

JOACHIMSTHAL, GEORG : German physi-
cian; born at Stargard, Pomerania, May 8, 1863,
He graduated as doctor of medicine from the Uni-
versity of Berlin in 1887 and established himself at
the German capital the following year. In 1890 he
became assistant in orthopedic surgerv at the uni-
versity dispensarj', where in 1898 he was appointed
privat-docent in the medical facultJ^ In 1897 he
received the Pourat prize of the French Institute
for his essay "Etude des Changements Morpholo-
giques et Fonctionels qu'on Pent Produire E.xperi-
mentalemcnt sur I'Appareil Locomoteur."

Joachimsthal has contributed several essays to the
medical journals, and since 1897 has been collabora-
tor with J. Wolff in the orthopedic section of Vir-
chow's " Jahresbericht liber die Leistungen und

Joash
Job

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

192

Foitsnhritte in der Gesammtcu Medizin." He is the

author of "Die Angeborenen Verbildungen der

Oberen Extremitaten," Hamburg, 1900.

Bibliography: Pagel, JBiog. iea;. s.v. ^ ^ ,^

s. F. T. H.

JOASH (t;>xr, contraction of :;'Xin' = "given by
Yiiwii"). 1. (Called also Jehoash.)— Biblical
Data: Son of Ahaziah and Zibiah of Beer-shcba;
eighth king of Judah (II Kings xii. 1, 2). Joash was
the only descendant of the house of David living at
the time of Ahaziah's death that escaped slaughter
at the hand of Iiis grandmother Atiiamaii. Only a
year old when the royal family was exterminated,
he with his nurse was concealed by his paternal
aunt Jehosheba in "the bedchamber," where he re-
mained six years (II Kings xi. 1-3; II Chron. xxii.
10-12). When he was seven years old he was
brought out from his hiding-place by Jeiioiada and
placed on the throne of his ancestors. As Joash was
the only living member of David's line his corona-
tion is ])articularly narrated; after he was crowned
the covenant was renewed between God, the king,
and the nation, and after having destroyed the altars
of Baal and killed Mattan, the priest of Baal, the
king was conducted with great ceremony to the
throne (II Kings xi. 4-19; II Chron. xxiii. 11-20).
Jehoiada, desiring to secure the permanence of the
throne of David, chose two wives for Joash, who
begat sons and daughters (II Chron. xxiv. 3).
Under the guidance of Jehoiada the young king es-
tablished the worship of Yhwh, though the "high
places" continued to be used for w^orship (II Kings
xii. 3^).

The first public religiousact of Joash was to order
the repair of the Temple, which had been despoiled
by Athallah (II Chron. xxiv. 7). To this end the
king entrusted to the priests the duty of setting
aside all the money resulting from the sale of dedi-
cated things and the money offered by the people.
But the twenty-third year of Joash's reign .saw the
Temple still unrepaired, so the king took awaj- from
the priests the charge of the money (II Kings xii.
5-8). In II Chron. xxiv. 5 it is stated that the king
ordered the priests and Levites to travel through the
cities of Judah and collect money, but that the
Levites were slow in their mission. A chest was
therefore placed by Jehoiada beside the altar (ac-
cording to II Chron. xxiv. 8, without the gate and
at the command of Joash), in which the princes
and all the people placed contributions, and when
enough had been collected the money was given to
the artisans that restored the Temple (II Kings xii.
10-17; II Chron. xxiv. 8-14). After the death of
Jehoiada, Joash proved weak enough to permit
himself to be worsiiiped by the princes of Judah,
and this turned the people from the worship of
Yiiwd. Joash showed his ingratitude toward Je-
hoiada by slaying the latter's son Zechariah for
censuring his (the king's) acts (II Chron. xxiv. 17-22).

An important event in Joash's life is differently
stated in II Kings and II Chronicles; according to
the former (xii. 18-19 [A. V. 17-18]) when Ilazael,
the Syrian king, marched against Jerusalem, Joash
bribed him with the gold of the royal and sacred
treasuries to turn back ; in the latter (xxiv. 23-2.i) it
is said that after the Syrian army had destroyed all

the princes of Judah the soldiers "executed judg-
ment agaiuat Joash," so that they "left him in great
diseases." Joash was assassinated by his own serv-
ants at Beth-milo, after a reign of forty years, and
his as.sassination is recorded as an act of revenge for
the blood of the son of Jehoiada (II Kings xii. 1, 21 ;
II Chron. xxiv. 1, 2o). II Kings and II Chronicles
differ also with regard to the burial of Joash: ac-
cording to the former (xii. 22), Joash was buried witli
his fathers in the citj* of David, while in the latter
(xxiv. 25) it is expressly said that he was buried in
the city of David, but " not in the sepulchers of the

kmgs.
E. G. ir.

M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature :

As the exter

minationof tlie mule descendants of David was a di-
vine retribution for the extermination of the priests
by David (comp. I Sam. xxii. 17-21), Joash escaped
death because in the latter case one priest, Abiathar,
survived (Sanh. 95b). The hiding-place of Joash
was, according to R. Eleazar, one of the chambers
behind the Holy of Holies ; according to R. Samuel
b. Xuhiuan, one of the upper chambers of the Tem-
ple (Cant. R. i. 66).

Although a king who is the son of a king need not
be anointed, exception was made in the case of
Joash, as well as of Solonumand Zedekiah, the suc-
cession of each of whom was contested (Lev. R. x.
8). Particular mention is made of the crown placed
on Joash's head (II Kings xi. 12), because it fitted
exactly, showing that he was qualified for king-
ship ("Ab. Zarah44a)

Joash was one of the four men who pretended to
be gods. He was persuaded thereto particularly by
the princes, who said to him . " AVert thou not a god
thou couldst not come out alive from the Holy of
Holies" (Ex R. viii. 3). He was assassinated b\'' two
of his servants, one of whom was a son of an
Ammonite woman and the other the offspring of a
Moabite (II Chron. xxiv. 26); for God said: "Let
the descendants of the two ungrateful families chas-
tise the ungrateful Joash " (Yalk., Ex. 262).

s. s. M. Set..

2. (Called also Jehoash.) King of Israel 798-
782 B.C. He was the son and successor of Jehoahaz,
and one of the greatest of the Israelitish kings. In
three signal and successive victories he overcame the
Syrians, and retook from them the towns which
Hazael had captured from Israel. He was also in-
volved in a war with Ama/.iah, King of Judah. In
the battle at Beth-shemesh Jehoash defeated Ama-
ziah, advanced to Jerusalem, broke down the wall
of that city for a distance of 400 cubits, and carried
away to Samaria the treasures of the Temple and of
the palace (II Kings xiv. 11-14). Although Jehoash,
like his predecessors, worshiped the golden calves,
he held the prophet Elisha in high honor, looking
up to him as a father. When Elisha was about to
die, Jehoash repaired to the bedside of the prophet,
" wept over his face, and said, O my father, the
chariot of Israel and the horsemen thereof " (ib. xiii.
14). Jehoash died soon after his victory over Ama-
ziah, and was buried in Samaria (ib. xiv. 16; comp.
II Chron. xxv. 17-24).

3. Father of Gideon (Judges vi. 32; II Sam. xi.
21). Joash belonged to the tribe of Manasseh and

193

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joash
Job

lived at Ophrali, where he was buried. He must have
been a man of importance, because an altar of Baal
was in his house, and he had more than ten servants
(Judges vi. 25, 27); and he alone was able to check
the fury of the people against his son (ib. 30-31).
See Gideon. M. Sel.

4, Son of Ahab. Wlien the latter was about to
set out to meet the Syrians in battle at Kamoth-
gilead, he entrusted the prophet Micaiah, whose
prophecy had been against him, to Anion, the gov-
ernor of Samaria, and to Joash, the king's son,
saying, "Put this fellow in the prison, and feed
him with bread of affliction and with water of afflic-
tion, until I come in peace " (I Kings xxii. 26, 27).
It may be that Joash was an under-officer of
Samaria; or, as Rawlinson suggests, the word trans-
lated " king's sou " may refer to a state officer, such
as is found in Jer. xxxvi. 26. There is no other
mention of this Joash. I. M. P.

6. A descendant of Shelah, thesonof Judah ; one of
the men " who had the dominion in Moab " (I Chron.
iv. 22). 6. Son of Shemaah the Gibeathite; one of
David's warriors {ib. xii. 3). 7. (tJ'yV) Son of
Becher, the son of Benjamin {ib. vii. 8). 8. Over-
seer of David's cellars of oil {ib. xxvii. 28).

E. G. 11. M. Sel.

JOB (nVN).— Biblical Data: Titular hero of
the Book of Job. He was a native of Uz, rich, very
pious, and upright, and he had seven sons and three
daughters. His sons used to make a feast in their
houses, one each day; and at the end of the week
Job would bring seven holocausts, according to the
number of his sons, thinking perhaps that the latter,
while feasting, had committed sins (Job i. 1-5).

One day in the heavenly council, in consequence
of a question asked by God, Job's piety was dis-
cussed by the accuser Satan, who maintained that
if Job should be stricken with calamity he would
certainly sin. Satan, having received permission to
deal with Job as he pleased, first brought poverty
on him by causing all his cattle to be stolen; then he
caused the death of all Job's children. But Job did
not sin. On the contrary, he declared God's act to
be just, saying, "The Lord gave, and the Lord hath
taken away " {ib. i. 6-22).

At a second gathering of the " sons of God " Satan
obtained permission to afflict Job's own person. He
accordingly smote him with a most painful dis-
ease (elephantiasis ?); still Job did not complain.
Even when his wife advised him to curse God and
die, he replied that he had to accept evil at His
hands, just as he had received good {ib. ii. 1-10).
Three friends came to condole with him, and stayed
with him seven days and seven nights in silence {ib.
ii. 11-13), after which began the colloquies between
him and his friends that form the text of the Book
of Job.

Finally, God restored Job to his former state, giv-
ing him twice as much as he had before, even four-
teen sons. The daughters, however, born to him
after his restoration were only three in number.
Job lived 140 years after this and saw four genera-
tions {ib. xlii. 10-17). He is mentioned by Ezekicl
(Ezek. xiv. 14, 20) with Noah and Daniel as among
the three most righteous men. See Job, Book of.

E. G. H. M. Sel.

VIL— 13

In Rabbinical Literature : Owing to the

importance of the Book of Job, the Talmudists occu-
pied themselves frequently with its chief character.
One of the amoraim expressed his opinion in the
presence of Samuel b. Nahinani that Job never ex-
isted and that the whole stor}' was a fable (B. B.
15a). An opinion couched in similar words and
pronounced by Simeon ben Lakish was interpreted
to mean that such a person as Job existed, but that
the narratives in the drama are inventions (Gen. R.
Ivii.). Apart from these utterances all of the rabbis
took it for granted that Job existed, but they dif-
fered widely as to the epoch in which he lived and
as to his nationality, two points of discussion closely
connected. Every one of the Talmudists inferred
Job's epoch and nationality from an analogy be-
tween two Biblical words or sentences. Accord-
ing to Bar Kappara, Job lived in the time of Abra-
ham; according to Abba b. Kahana, in the time of
Jacob, he having married Dinah, Jacobs daughter
{ib.; B. B. 15b; comp. additions in Targ. Yer. to
Job ii. 9). R. Levi said that Job lived in the time
of Jacob's sons; and he also said, in the name of
Jose b. Halafta, that Job was born when Jacob and
his children entered Egypt and that he died when
the Israelites left that country. Job consequently
lived 210 years (comp. Rashi on Ex. xii. 40). When
Satan came to accuse the Israelites of being idola-
ters, God set hira against Job, whence Job's mis-
fortunes (Gen. R. I.e.). This opinion
Opinions is supported by the statement that Job
as to Date. Avith Jethro and Balaam was consulted
by Pharaoh as to the means of reducing
thenumberof the children of Israel and that Job was
stricken with calamity because he had remained
silent (Sanh. 106a; Sotahlla). It may be mentioned
that this legend is narrated differently in the " Sefer
ha-Yashar " (section " Shemot," p. 110a, ed. Leghorn,
1870) as follows: At first Job, who was one of
Pharaoh's eunuchs and counselors, advised Pharaoh
to have every male child murdered (Ex. i. 16).
Afterward Pharaoh, having had a dream which prog-
nosticated the birth of a helper, again consulted Job.
The latter answered evasively: "Let the king do as
he pleases" ("Sefer ha Yashar," I.e. p. Ilia). Levi
b. Lahma also held that Job lived in the time of
Moses, by whom the Book of Job was written. Some
of the rabbis even declare that the one servant of
Pharaoh who feared the word of God (Ex. ix. 20) was
Job (Ex. R. xii. 3). Raba, specifying the time more
accurately, said Job lived in the time of the spies who
were sent by Moses to explore the land of Canaan (B.
B. 15a). According to these rabbis. Job was a Gen-
tile— an opinion which is elsewhere expressed more
fully, in that Job is said to have been a pious
Gentile or one of the prophets of the Gentiles {ib.
15b; Seder '01am R. xxi.). Other tannaim place
Job variously in the reign of Saba, in that of the
Chaldees, and in that of Ahasuerus. R. Johanan
and R. Eleazar both declared that Job was one of
those who returned from the Captivity and that his
l)et ha-midrash was at Tiberias (Yer. Sotah v. 8; B.
B. l.c.\ Gen. R. I.e.). It is said in B. B. {ib.) that
these tannaim necessarily considered Job an Israel-
ite; but R. Hanancel (rtr? /r>c.) has in his text, "All
the Tannaim and Amoraim, with the exception of

Job

Job, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

194

the one wlio placed Job in the time of Jacob, were
of opinion that Job was an Israelite " (comp. also
Gen. R. I.e.).

Job is prominent in haggadic legends. His pros-
perity is thus described : Samuel b. Isaac said: "He
who received a ' perutah' from Job prospered in
his affairs. " Jose b. Hanina inferred from Job i. 10
that Job's goats could kill wolves; and R. Johanan
inferred from Job i. 14 that God gave Job a fore-
taste of the bliss of paradise (B. B. 15b). Satan, see-
ing Job's extraordinary prosperity, was filled with
envy and therefore began in the councils of heaven
to disparage Job's piety.

According to the Targum Yerushalmi (Job i. 6,
ii. 1) the two councils of heaven took place respect-
ively on Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur. When
the messenger told Job that the Sabeans had seized
his oxen, he armed his men and prepared to make
war upon them. But the second messenger came,
telling him that a tire from heaven had destroyed
his sheep, and he then said : " Now I can do nothing "
(Lev. R. xvii. 4). The wind that blew down his
house was one of the three great winds whose
power was sufficient to destroy tlie world (Gen.
R. xxiv. 4). Job was stricken by Satan with fifty
different plagues (Ex. R. xxiii. 10). His house was
filled with a bad smell, and Job sat down on a
dunghill. His flesh was filled vvilh worms which
made holes in his body and began to quarrel with
one another. Job thereupon placed every worm in
a hole, saying : " It is my flesh, yet you quarrel about
it ' (Ab. R. N., ed. Schechter, p. 164; comp. Kohler,
Testament of Job, v. 6-8, in Kohut Memorial Vol-
ume, pp. 264-295). Job's sufferings lasted twelve
months ('Eduy. ii. 10; comp. Testament of Job, v.
9. where the number of years is given as seven);
then God, yielding to the prayer of the angels,
healed him and restored to him twofold what he had
before (Ab. R. N. I.e.). Only the number of Job's
daughters was not doubled. Nevertheless their
beauty was doubled, and therefore their names
(Job xlii. 14), indicating their extraordinary charms,
are given (B. B. 16b). The legendary accounts of
Job extend also to his three friends. These entered
his house simultaneously, though they lived 300
miles apart. Each had a crown or, according to
another statement, a tree on which the images of
the three friends were carved; and when a misfor-
tune befell any one of them his image was altered
{ib.\ comp. Targ. to Job ii. 11). It has been said
that Job lived 210 years; this is inferred from Job
xlii. 16, where it is said that he lived 140 years
after his recovery (Gen. R. Iviii. 3, Ixi. 4; comp.
Yalk., Kings, 243, and Testament of Job, xii. 8).
It is said also that the whole world mourned Job"s
death (Sotah 35a).

But it was chiefly Job's character and pietj' that
concerned the Talmudists. He is particidarly rep-
resented as a most generous man. Like Abraham,
lie built an inn at the cross-roads, with four doors
opening respectively to the four car-
Job's dinal points, in order that wayfarers
Generosity, might have no trouble in finding an
entrance, and his name was praised by
all who knew iiim. His time was entirely occupied
with works of charity, as visiting the sick and the

like (Ab. R. N., ed. Schechter, pp. 33-34, 164;
Midrash Ma'yan Gannim, ed. Buber, p. 93; comp.
Gen. R. xxx. 9). Still more characteristic is the
conclusion of Raba that Job used to take away,
ostensibly by force, a field which belonged to
orphans, and after making it ready for sowing
would return it to the owners (B. B. I.e.). Job
was also of exemplary piety. Like Abraham he
recognized God by intuition (Num. R. xiv. 7).
Nothing in his possession had been acquired by
rapacity, and therefore his prayer was pure (Ex. R.
xii. 4). He, Melchizedek, and Enoch were as spot-
less as Abraham (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxxvii.). He
took the greatest care to keep himself aloof from
every unseemly deed (Ab. R. N. ch. ii.. Recension
B, ed. Schechter, p. 8). According to Targ. Sheni
to Esth. i. Job's name was one of the seven en-
graved on the seven branches of the golden candle-
stick.

But these features of Job's character made the
Rabbis apprehend that he might eclipse Abraham;
and some of them therefore depreciated Job's piety.
Johanan b. Zakkai used to say that Job's piety
was only the result of his fear of punishment (Sotah
27a; Yer. Sotah v. 5). In Ab. R. N., Recension A,
p. 34,- where the generosity of Job is so much
praised, it is concluded that when he, after having
been aftlicted, complained that he was inadequately
rewarded, God said to liim: "Thy generosity has
not yet attained to the half of that of Abraham."
R. Levi even went as far as to exculpate Satan,
declaring that he liad the same apprehension that
God might forget the piety of Abraham (B. B. 16a).
Still even among the Tannaim Job had his de-
fenders, e.fi., Joshua b. Hyrcanus, whose opinion
was that Job worshiped God out of pure love
(Sotah I.e.). This difference of opinion existed
with regard to Job's attitude at the time of his mis-
fortune. R. Eliezer said that Job blasphemed God
(the Talmudic expression being "he desired to up-
set the dish "), but R. Joshua considered that Job
spoke harsh words against Satan only (B. B. 16a).
This discussion was continued by Abaye and Raba,
of whom the former pleaded for Job, while Raba
followed R. Eliezer's opinion. Raba's (according to
another text, Rab's) expression was "dust into the
mouth of Job." He inferred from the passage
"and yet Job sinned not with his lips" (Job ii. 10)
that Job sinned in his heart (ib.).

In the Talmudic literature it is generally assumed
that Job sinned or, as the expression is, "he re-
belled" ("ba'at"; Midr. Teh. xxvi.). It is further
said that if Job had not sinned people would recite
in prayer "and the God of Job," just as they recite
" the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob," but he re-
belled (Pesik. R. Ahare Mot, ed. Friedmann. p.
190a; comp. Ex. R. xxx. 8). Job's chief complaint
was, according to Raba, that although man is driven
to sin by the seducer (" yezer ha-ra' "), whom God
Himself has created, yet he is punished (comp. Job
X. 7). But Eliphaz answered him: "Thou castest
off fear"(t6. xv. 4), meaning, if God created the
seducer. He also created the Torah, by which a man
can subdue the seducer (B. B. I.e.). Raba con-
cluded also that Job denied resurrection {ib.).

A more picturesque treatment of Job's bitterness

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Job

Job, Book of

against God is recorded by Rabbah (according to B.
B. 16a), or Raba (according to Niddah 52a) : Job
blasphemed God by using the term "tempest"
when he said, " For he breaketh me with a tempest "
(Job ix. 17), which passage is interpreted by tiie
Rabbis to mean, " Perhaps a tempest passed before
Tliee whicii caused the confusion between 3VX [=
" Job "] and TIK [= " enemy "J " (comp. also Eccius.
[Sirach] xlix. 9, the Hebrew, Greek, and Syriac ver-
sions, and tlie commentaries ad loc). God therefore
answered him out of the tempest (ib. xxxviii.-
xxxix., wliich are interpreted as a refutation of
Job's charge). Still, Rabbi's opinion was that Job
spoke in praise of God more than Elihu did (Ex. R.
xxxiv. 1).

It has already been said that the Book of Job was
ascribed by the Rabbis to ]\Ioses. Its place in the
canon is between Psalms and Proverbs (B. B. 14b).
The high priest read the Book of Job for diversion
before Yom Kippur (Yoma i. 4 [18b]). According
to the Talmudists, he who sees the Book of Job in
a dream may anticipate a misfortune (Ber. 57b).
There was an ancient Targum to Job which was re-
garded by the Talmudists as a dangerous work
(comp. Tosef. , Shab. xiv.).

Bibliography: Israel Schwarz. Tikwat Enn>ih, Berlin, 1868;
Wiernikowsky, Das Buch Hiob, Breslau, 1902.
6. s. M. Sel.

Critical View: The hero whose name has

furnished the title of the Book of Job appears only
as a legendary figure. It is idle to inquire whether
the story has any historical basis, since nothing
definite relating to Job can be ascertained. The
story originated in the land of Edom— a background
that has been retained in the Hebrew poem. The
names of Job and his three friends have been partly
Hebraized. "lyyob, " the Hebrew form of "Job,"
is either passive, meaning "the person attacked
[by Satan]" (comp. "yillod" = "the born one" ;
Ex. i. 22 ; Josh. v. 5 ; " shilloah" in Job ix. 7= aireara?,-
(jlevoq), or active, meaning "the attacker [i.e., of the
ancient doctrine of retribution] " (comp. Merx, " Das
Gedicht von Hiob," 1871, pp. xvii., xxxv.), like
"yissor," Job xl. 2 = "the reprover"; the Arabic
etymologies given in Ewald, "Das Buch Ijob" (2d
ed., 1854, pp. 19 et seq. : " the returning, repenting "),
and in Hitzig, "Das Buch Hiob" (1874, pp. xix. et
seq. : from the Arabic tribe " banu Awwab " = " sons
of the evening star," i.e., "of the returning one "),
are doubtful.

Eliphaz the Temanite (Job ii. 11) appears also in
Gen. XXX vi. 4, 11, 15, as Esau's eldest son. Bildad
the Shuhite is mentioned only in the Book of Job.
According to Noldeke (in "Z. D. M. G." xlii. 479),
the name means " Bel has loved " (comp. " Eldad ").
In Gen. xxv. 2 "Shuah " is the name of a tribe, not
of a place. " Zophar " also occurs only in the Book of
Job. His home, Naamah, is mentioned in Josh. xv.
41 as a city within the Judaic "shefelah." Job's
home, Uz {X(l)pa AhairiQ in the Septuagint), is men-
tioned in Lam. iv. 21 as being in Edom; according
to Wetzstein (in Delitzsch, "Hiob," pp. 576 e< seq.)
it was in Hauran, east of the Jordan. For other
opinions see Budde, "Das Buch Hiob," 1896, pp. x.
et seq.

The poem of Job as found in the Old Testament

is a combination from two sources. The earlier of
these, a folk-book, comprises the prologue (Job i.
and ii.) and the epilogue (i6. xlii. 7-17).
Composite According to this source Job was a
Nature of rich Edomite sheik, of irreproachable
Book of Job. piety {ib. i. 1, 3, 8), as is shown espe-
cially bj' his punctiliousness in ritual
observances (ib. i. 5) according to the customs of
the time. The accusing angel Satan (ib. i. 6) in the
presence of God casts reflections on the causes of
Job's piety (ib. i. 9-11), and, in agreement with the
conceit that the evil upon earth is not caused by God
directly, but is brought by one or many interme-
diary angels, receives permission to test Job by mis-
fortune (Gen. xix.; II Sam. xxiv. IQetseq.; Ezek.
ix. 4 et seq. ; comp. KolaariKfj dhvafuqm Philo, "Quis
Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," ti 34 [ed. Mangey, i.
496] ; " middat ha-din " in the Jewish midrash, Gen.
R. xii.).

The first trial consists in the destruction of Job's
possessions (Job i. 12-19), in which he is the victor
through his resignation (ib. i. 20-22). Satan de-
clares this trial to have been insuflScient, and de-
mands another to consist in personal bodily suffer-
ing. This also is granted, and Job is again victorious
(ib. ii. 1-10). Job's wife (ib. ii. 9, 10) here shows
how great in such cases is the temptation to do
wrong. That the friends of Job, who come to com-
fort him (ib. ii. 11-13), also sin on this occasion is
evidenced in Job xlii. 7-lOa, where Job, who alone
remains guiltless, has to intercede for them when
they bring the burnt offerings. The nature of their
sin does not appear, since the folk-book is inter-
rupted at this point by the interpolation of the
poem of Job (ib. iil. 1-xlii. 6).

The folk-book is further differentiated from the
poem by its employment of the name of Yiiwh,
which it naively puts into the mouth of the Edom-
ites (ib. i. 7, 21b; xlii. 7). Here again Job refrains
from sinning with his lips (ib. ii. 10), even in his
deepest suffering, and says to Y^'hwh only what is
just ("nekonah"; ib. xlii. 7b, 8b), whereas in the
poem he utters the most offensive sentiments against
God, beginning by cursing the day of his birth.

In the folk-book the sins consist mainly in un-
seemly speeches to and about God (ib. i. 10; xlii. 7,
8; comp. ib. i. 22, "natan tiflah "). He who refrains,
like Job, is "sar me-ra'" (=:"one who escheweth
evil ") and "yere Elohim " (= "who feareth God ")
(ib. i. 1). In other respects piety here, as among the
Patriarchs (Gen. xxii. 3), is a matter of ritual, con-
sisting in burnt offerings (Job i. 5). Job's dress
is that worn by the Patriarchs ; his flocks are remi-
niscent of Gen. xii. 16, xxxii. 5; his servants
(" 'abuddah "), of Gen. xxvi. 14. According to
Duhm ("Das Buch Hiob," 1897, p. viii.) Ezek. xiv.
14 et seq. indicates that the writer of that passage
knew the folk-book.

E. G. H. C. S.

JOB, THE BOOK OF.— Biblical Data: A

dramatic poem in forty-two chapters, the characters
in which are Job, his wife (mentioned only once, ii. 9),
his three friends— Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar —
Elihu, and God (see Dr.\m.\, Hebrew). Ch. i.-ii. :
Prologue, describing Job's prosperity, its disap-

Job, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

196

pearance, and the calamities sent upon him at the
suggestion of Satan. Ch. iii. : Job's complaint.
He curses the day he was born; wishes he had died
immediately after birth ; thinks death preferable to
a life of misfortune. Ch. iv.-v. : Reply of Eliphaz.
He declares that a truly righteous man is never
afflicted; that a man sometimes thinks himself just,
though he is unjust; lience his complaint. He ex-
horts Job to turn to God in sincerity, who will surely
restore him to well-being. Ch, vi.-vii. : Job re-
sumes his complaint. His afflictions are greater
than he can bear; his sole desire is to die at once, all
liis friends having deserted him. He relates his suf-
ferings, and reproaches God, M'ho takes delight in
torturing him. Ch. viii. : Reply of Bildad. He
reproaches Job for his injustice toward God, declar-
ing that if he were really upright, God would not
have so afflicted him, and that the prosperity of the
wicked, of which Job complains, is unstable. Ch.
ix.-x. : Job represents God as a capricious tyrant,
who lets His hand fall on both the
Complaint just and the unjust. He maintains
and that God knows that he is not wicked,

Rejoinders, and yet tortures him. Ch. xi. : Zo-
phar, in reply, accuses Job of wicked-
ness, for which he is being punished, and exhorts
him to repent. Ch. xii.-xiv. : Job declares that
he is as wise as his friends and that he needs not
their counsel. God is ruler, and therefore he com-
plains directly to Him of the prosperity of the
wicked and of the suffering of the righteous. God,
the Omnipotent, ought not to bring under judgment
so frail a creature as man. Ch. xv, : Eliphaz re-
plies; Job's own words prove his guilt. He repeats
the assertion that the prosperity of the wicked is not
of long duration.

Ch. xvi.-xvii. : Job again accuses God of injus-
tice. Ch. xviii. : Bildad confirms his friends' as-
sertion that the wicked, in spite of present prosper-
ity, will come to a bad end. Ch. xix. : Job accuses
his friends of being unjust toward him, laments
that now he has none to wliom he may go for com-
fort: God persecutes him, his friends and acquaint-
ances have abandoned him, even his wife turns
against him. Ch. xx. : Zophar makes the same re-
ply as Bildad in ch. xviii., but in other words. Ch.
xxi. : Job refutes his friends' assertions, maintain-
ing that only the wicked prosper, that they spend
their lives in pleasure and pass swiftly to the grave.
Even if misfortune overtakes their children, the
wicked have departed, and will know it not. Ch.
xxii. : Eliphaz asserts that God has no profit in man 's
righteousness, only man himself profits by it; that
Job is being punished for his manifold sins. He
again exhorts Job to repentance, telling him that
therein he will prosper at last.

Ch. xxiii.-xxiv. : Job complains that, not know-
ing the abode of God, he can not bring his case di-
rectly before Him. Then, changing his theme, he
describes the perversencss of the wicked and mar-
vels that God, who sees everything, does not check
them. Ch. xxv. : Bildad rejoins that man has no
right to complain, as he can not be perfect. Ch.
xxvi.-xxxi. : Job, after declaring to Bildad that
he knows well that God is omnipotent and omnis-
cient, cites a parable, maintaining that he is up-

right and a stranger to wickedness. The wicked
are destined to destruction, and will not profit in
their great wealth. In ch. xxviii. he exalts wisdom,
and contrasts, in the two following chapters, his pres-
ent condition with his former prosperity. Formerly,
he was respected and beloved by all for his generosity
and his charitable deeds, and the wicked feared his
power. Now, he is mocked by the meanest, by the
outlawed; he again speaks harshly against God. He
describes his generosity and his uprightness, calling
upon God to witness it.

Ch. xxxii.-xxxvii. : Elihu's speeches. Seeing
that Job's three friends remained silent, unable to
answer him, Elihu takes their place. He had re-
mained silent because the others were
Speeches of older; but being now convinced that
Elihu. wisdom is not in j'ears, he assumed
the duty of replying to Job. The
chief points of Elihu's speeches are that God is
never wrong, that calamity is a warning from God
to man to repent, that God, who neither profits in
man's righteousness nor suffers in his sins, always
chastises the wicked and rewards the righteous.

Ch. xxxviii.-xxxix. are theophanous; they pre-
sent a cosmographical sketch and take the form of
questions addressed to Job by God, who speaks to
him out of the whirlwind. They tell of the creation
of earth, seas, light, darkness, snow, hail, rain, the
heavens, and the celestial bodies ; the habits of the
wild goat, the unicorn, the peacock, the ostrich, the
horse, and the eagle are spoken of in passages of
great beauty. Ch. xl.-xli. : Continuation of God's
address with a brief reply from Job. These two
chapters describe the nature and habits of the hip-
popotamus (" behemoth ") and the whale (" levia-
than "). Ch. xlii. : Epilogue; after a short speech
from Job declaring his repentance, an account of
his restoration to his former state of prosperity is
given. The sublime grandeur of the final theoph-
any, the simple directness of the narrative portions,
and the imaginative coloring of the soul-problems
raised in the book make it, regarded merely as liter-
ature, the most striking production of the Hebraic
genius. See Job, Biblical Data.

E. c. M. Sel.

-Critical Vie"w : The poem which is contained

in Job iii. 1-xlii. 6, exclusive of later interpolations,
discusses a religious problem which could scarcely
have been formulated in the early period of the
Israelitic people; for it presupposes a high spiritual
development and a maturity of judgment which
are acquired by a people only after great trials and
sore tribulations. This view excludes all the earlier
opinions which assign the date of the composition
of the poem either to the patriarchal age (so Eich-
horn, Jahn, Bertholdt, Haneberg, and others), or to
the time of Moses (B. B. 15a), of David (Herder), of
Solomon (Schlottmann, Haevernick, and Hahn), and
even of Hezekiah (Ewald).

The special problem discussed in Job concerns
the justice of the divine government of the world.
It could have been formulated only after the prin-
ciples of that justice had been announced in Deute-
ronomy; according to which earthly happiness was
promised as a reward to the faithful followers of the
Law and of Ynwn, and earthly misfortune was held

197

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Job, Book of

up asa punishment to the recalcitrant (Deut. xxviii.-
XXX.). Hence the poem must liave been composed
after tlie promulgation of tiie Deuteronomic code.
And the question as to God's dealings with His
world must have become paramount at a timcAvhen
experience directly contradicted the princii)les laid
down in that code. After the reforms of Josiah
(623 B.C.) Israel undoubtedly had a right to unal-
loyed happiness. Instead there came a succession
of catastrophes: the defeat of Megiddo (609), and
the Babylonian exile (oST), by which the congrega-
tion of the Lord in Israel in particular was most
deeply smitten.

Merx, Stickel, Reuss, Dillmann, Hirzel, Hitzig,
and Ley (in"Studienuud Kritiken," 1898, pp. 34-7U)
assume the seventh century b.c. as the date of com-
position; Gesenius, Vatke (" Biblische Theologie,"
i. 563), and Duhm ("Das Buch Hiob," p. ix.) place
it as late as the fifth century; while Budde ("Das
Buch Hiob," p. xiv.) assigns it even to the year 400.
But the que.stion involved in tho poem must have
become imperative, not when righteous Israel was
pitted against the heathen evil-doers (as in Hab. i.
3-5, ii. 4), but when the oppressed Israelitic congre-
gation presented a violent contrast to its wicked op-
pressors who were joined by traitors to their own
religion and people. This contrast is found in the
Exile, but still more markedly perhaps at the time
of the Maccabees, when Israel was persecuted by
Antiochus Epiphanes (2d cent. B.C.). The same
designations are applied to him in the Book of Job
as are found, according to advanced critical views,
in the Psalms. On the one hand there are the
"resha'im" (Jobxx. 5etseq., xxi. 7 etseq., \Qetseq.);
the "po'aleawen" (xxxi. 3); the "'arizim" (xxvii.
13) ; the " hanef " (xxvii. 8) ; the " 'awwal " (xxix. 17) ;
the "'ashir" (xxvii. 19), etc.; on the other, the
" zaddikim " (xxii. 19) ; the " ebyonim " (xxiv. 4) ; and
the " 'aniyye arez " (xxiv. 4b) ; comp. " 'ani we-
ebyon" (xxiv. 14 et seq.); "yashar" (xxiii. 7);
"naki" (xxvii. 17), etc. Many catastrophes had
been recently witnessed falling upon great nations
(xii. 23); e.g., when the Assyrians were vanquished
by the Babj'lonians, and the latter in turn by the
Persians. It had indeed become a matter of daily
occurrence to witness countries given into the hands
of evil-doers, and to see Yhwh mock at the despair
of the innocent (ix. 23, 24) and to behold the triumph
of the wicked (xxi. 7 et seq.). The doom of the evil-
doer (xv. 20 etseq.) is described in terms which seem
to allude to the fate of Alexander Jannaeus. The
language of the speeches in the Book of Job, the
late Hebraic words recurring in it (comp. Barth,
"Beitragezur Erklarung des Buches Hiob," 1876,
p. 4; Stade, " Lehrbuch der Hebr. Grammatik,"
1879, p. 12), and the many Aramaisms (comp.
Budde, "Beitrilge zur Kritik des Buches Hiob,"
1876, p. 141) and Arabisms (comp. Stade, I.e. pp.
12 ct seq.) all point to a comparatively late time.

From the references to many Egyptian matters,
Hitzig has assumed that Egypt was the home
of the poet; but the passages referring to the hip-
popotamus and crocodile may be suspected to be
later interpolations. The Egyptian mines (xxviii.
1-11) were known in Palestine, as were also the
swift ships of the J^ile (ix. 26), the papyrus-rolls

(xxxi. 36; comp. viii. 11), the war-horse (xxxix. 19),
and the pyramids (A. V. "desolate places"; iii. 14).
Fr()m"tliem that go by the way" (xxi. 29), also,
much may have been learned of foreign countries.
The poet himself may have joined caravans (vi. 15-
19); the descrijjtions of the sulferings of the pious
in Israel indicate that he also had suffered (xi. 15,
19a; vii. 1-3). He wrote his poem with his heart's
blood (Duhm).

It had become necessary to assail the popular doc-
trine that obedience to tiie Law would be rewarded,
and its transgression punished. For both of these
I)rinciples were interpreted in an entirely external
way: reward meaning a long and pleasant life (Ex.
XX. 12; Lev. xxvi. 3 et seq.), and punishment misfor-
tune and an early death (Deut. xxviii. 20 et seq. ; Lev.
xxvi. 15 et seq. ; Gen. ii. 17 et seq.). The leper espe-
cially was considered to be smitten by God ; hence
the term"nega'" (="blow"; Lev.
The xiii. 22) for leprosy. The sufferings

Doctrine of of the law-abiding Israelite or of the

Retribu- righteous seemed therefore irreconci-
tion. lable with Yhwh's justice and truth-

fulness; for He smote him who de-
served praise, and punished where He had promised
a reward.

The ancient doctrine of retribution is developed
at great length by Job's three friends. According to
it God shows His anger by inflicting suffering; He
turns from man as from an enemy (xiii. 24, xix.
11); looks at him angrily (vii. 19a, xiv. 6a, xvi. 9);
smites him with His hand (xiii. 21b, xix. 21); makes
him afraid by His terrors (ix. 34, xiii. 21b, xxiii. 16);
covers him with darkness (xix. 8b) ; stands in his
way (iii. 23); overwhelms him with His power (ix.
12, 13, 19a; xxiii. 6); pierces him with His arrows
(vi. 4, xvi. 14); punishes him with His scourge (ix.
23). The poet introduces also the imagery of the
prison (vii. 12, xiii. 27, xiv. 16), the net (xix. 6), tl>e
storm (ix. 17, xxx. 22), and an army assailing an un-
fortunate captive (x. 17, xvi. 13, xix. 12), who in the
end succumbs (xxx. 12 et seq.). He vainly questions
how he may have incurred the inscrutable anger of
God (x. 2, xiii. 23). The burning pain will not let
him rest (xxx. 17). Imagery from the animal world
is also used (x. 16). God's hostility calls up fear of
further visitatiop (ix. 18, x. 13-15, xxx. 23) and de-
spair because of the unending misery (ix. 11 et seq.,
xxiii. Iii et seq.), so that the prayer for a short res-
pite (vii. 16-19, X. 20, xiv. 6) is interwoven with the
cry for death (vi. 9, 10; vii. 15).

Added to all these sufferings of the stricken one
is the bitterness of seeing tiiat his enemies as well
as his friends heartlessly consider him to be a sinner
branded by God (xvii. 6). His enemies snatch at the
opportunity to vent their malice on liim (xvi. 10 et
seq., xxx. 1-14); his servants and followers refuse
him obedience (xix. 15, 16); his wife and children,
as well as relatives and friends, abandon him (xii.
4; xix. 13-14, 17-19, 21 ei seq.). His guilt is assumed
as a matter of course, and no one thinks of doubting
it; otherwise God would have to be accused of in-
ju.stice — an accusation that would be the most griev-
ous blasphemy (iv. 7, viii. 3). Hence it becomes the
imperative duty of the sufferer to find out, by a
frank examination of his past life and thoughts, in

Job, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

198

what way he has sinned. For there must be some
guilt (iv. 18-19, XV. 14-lG, xxv. 4-6)— this must
be assumed a priori in order to explain the suffering
(viii 11, xxii. 5etseq.). If the sufferer admits his
guilt God will forgive him (v. 17-27. viii. 5-7. xi.
13-19. xxii. 21-30); but if he obstinately persists in
declaring tliat lie is innocent he adds another griev-
ous sin to his former guilt, and his punishment will
increase accordingly (xi. 4, xv. 18, xxii. 3-4).

In answer to all these arguments of his friends

Job insists, in the fir -t place, that the sufferer has

the right to complain (vi. 5-7). He

Job's points out the heartlessness to which

Replies, their doctrine leads: for instead of
comforting the sufferer in his pain,
they reprove him for his alleged sins (vi. 14-22),
But it is cheap wisdom to repeat the ancient doctrine
of divine retribution in all sorts of variations and to
apply these to an unfortunate man (xii. 2-3, xiii.
2, xix. 2-5). Although the supreme power of God
makes it impossible to rebel against His blows, the
justice of His decrees is not thereby proved (ix. 2-
21, 30-35; x. 15-17; xii. 14; xiii. 3: xix. Q et se(j. ;
xxi. 31). Experience shows that in the catastrophes
of nature the perfect and the wicked are alike smit-
ten by God (ix. 22-23); and it often happens that
the wicked live prosperously to the end of their
days (xii. 6; xxi. 7-15, 82 ct set].), being made the
judges of right and wrong (ix. 24), although occa-
sionally the ancient doctrine of retribution brought
them to the bar of justice (xix. 29).

But no power on earth can take away the feeling
of innocence from the si.iless sufferer, or force him
to declare himself guilty against his better convic-
tions (x. 6, 7: xiii. 18 et neq.; xvi. 17; xxvii. 5, 6;
xxx.i. 1 et »eq.). He has the right to appeal to God's
judgment, as being superior to the condemnation
his friends pretend to see in his present misfortunes
(xii. 4, xiii. 7-10. xvi. 18-20, xix. 17). It is useless
to say that no man is clean in the eyes of God (xiv.
4), for even according to that argument it is in-
comprehensible why the comparatively just person
should be most heavily stricken and the worst evil-
doers go unpunished (vii. 21, xiii. 26, xiv. 17).

The negative result reached by these arguments
of the Book of .Job may be stated as follows: What
hitherto has been called divine justice is merely the
display of the omnipotence of God. His decisions
are devoid of all moial qualities, and are pronounced
indifferently, as blessings or as curses, ui)on all men,
upon the good and the bad alike. In the same way
men are prosperous or unhappy according to the
fortuitous events of their lives, quite independently
of their ethical qualities. The gifts of fortune and
the strokes of calamity are in no wise connected
either with God's justice or with man's moral
nature.

But as these arguments deprived the divine om-
nipotence, as manifested in the world, of all ethical
quality the danger arose of excluding this quality al-
together from the divine nature, and of actually des-
troying the attribute of justice in God. Hence the
poet attempted to rehabilitate the latter in a round-
about way, succeeding, however, only by means of a
postulate He declares that many of the phenomena
of nature are indeed the manifestations of an om-

nipotence that overwhelms man by the terrors of its
sublimity (xxvi. 6-14), but that this is not the only
thing that nature declares of God. The marvelous
law and order of those phenomena, of nature and
the multiplicity and curious modes of life of her
creatures, are also the manifestations of a hidden
wisdom, to which man simply must submit

The author of the Book of Job incorporated the
folk book into his work in a manner still showing
traces of the component parts. The use of this pre-
existing material very cleverly placed the problem
outside of Palestine, thereby excluding the possible
objection of orthodox theology that such a case— a
perfectly righteous man persecuted by

Compo- Yhwh — could not occur in Israel.

sition of Ynwii, moreover, did not inflict the
the Book, suffering; it was inflicted by Satan
with Yhwh's permission. The prob-
lem is discussed in a disputation between Job — who
like a leper sits on the dust heap (Ar. "mazbalah")
outside the nomad village (on the separation of lepers
see II Chron. xxvi. 21) — and his three friends who,
according to the folk-book, come to comfort him (ii.
11). In the body of the book, however, they bring
no comfort, but heap the bitterest accusations upon
Job.

Job opens the discussion with the ancient cry of
all sufferers (iii., Hebr. ): "O, that I liad never been
born! and since I was brought into the world, whj^
could I not, even in the hour of birth, have found
the eternal rest of Sheol " (comp Sophocles, " Oedi-
pus Coloneus," line 1225; to //y (^rvai tov anavra vlku
/.6}ov. Eccl. iv. 2-3); and in his questionings at the end
of this monologue (iii. 26 et seq.) he formulates the
problem as to the cause of this inexplicable suffering.
The friends defend the views of the orthodox doc-
trine of retribution, according to which all suffering
is a punishment for some sin; while Job defends the
views of the clear conscience, which knows it.self to
be free from sin, and declares his suffering to be in-
explainable from the Old Testament point of view.
The di-scussion is held in a threefold series of dia-
logues (iv.-xxxi. ), in each of which Job alternates
once with each of the three friends. Hence arises
the following scheme, aside from the additions to be
di.scussed later on: First series of dialogues: Eliphaz
(iv.-v.); Job (vi.-vii.); Bildad (viii. ); Job (ix.-x.);
Zophar (xi.); Job (xii. -xiv.). Second series: Eli-
phaz (xv.); Job (xvi.-xvii.); Bildad (xviii.); Job
(xix.); Zophar (xx.); Job (xxi.). Thirdseries: Eli-
phaz (xxii.); Job (xxiii.-xxiv.); Bildad (xxv. -xxvi.
5-14); Job (xxvL 1-4. xxvii. 2-23, xxviii.-xxxi.);
Zophar; Job (not in Hebrew text in the Masoretic
arrangement). The third series of dialogues especially
has been altered by interpolations. The beginning of
Bildad's speecli (xxv. 1-6) has been .separated from
the portion continuing it (xxvi, 5-14). It is followed
by Job's answer (xxvi. 1-4; xxvii. 2-6; xxix. 1-6,
19, 20, 7-11, 21-23, 12, 13, 15-17, 24, 25, 14, 18;
XXX. 1-24,26-81; xxxi. 1-20; xxx. 25; xxxi. 21-28,
38-40, 24-37, 40; for this arrangement see C. Sieg-
fried,''The Book of Job," critical ed., especially pp.
42 et seq.. Leipsic and Baltimore, 1898).

These speeches do not present a direct, continuous
train of thought developingor elaborating some cen-
tral idea. The art and power of Semitic rhetoric con-

199

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Job, Book of

sist ratlipi- in the rich elaboration of a single thouglit
expressing the same idea in a varied profusion of
imagery (comp. Ecclus [Siracii] i. .VIO; Franz
Delitzsch, " Gesch. der Judischeu Poesie," pp. 21 et
seq., Leipsic, 1836). In general it may be .said that
Elipliaz repre.sents on the whole the proof of author-
ity, basing his arguments on a vision (iv. 12-21).
Bildad appeals chielly to experience, which proves
the truth of the doctrine of divine retribution (viii.
8 et scq., xviii. 5-21). Zophar argues -with all the
fervor of religious conviction and appeals to the
divine decision (xi. 5 et seq.).

It appears from Job's speeches that, overawed by
the veneration clinging to the old sacred doctrine of
retribution (xii. 12), he at tirst does not dare to pro-
claim his innocence, of which he is so firmly con-
vinced. He begs liis friends to grant him the right
to complain (vi. 2-13); not to refuse him the comfort
he had expected from them (vi. 14-21), nor to attack
him so mercilessly (vi. 24-27). He points out that
experience sliows only that the misfortunes befalling
men are manifestations of God's omnipotence, and
that because His decisions are strong enough to over-
come all resistance it does not necessarily follow that
they are just (ix., xii. 7-25). He therefore boldly
asks the reason for ins suffefing (xiii. 18-23).

In the second dialogue Job develops the thought
that while in some cases God's judgment is in ac-
cordance with the old doctrine of retribution (xxi.
16-21), very frequently just the oppo-

Second site happens, as appears in the undis-
and Third turbed good fortune of the wicked
Dialogues, (xxi. 7-15, 22-34). He persists, more-
over, even more strongly in declaring
his innocence, appealing to the judgment of God,
who apparently is so hostile to him, but who.se jus-
tice will ultimately induce Him to become the
avenger (go'el) of that innocence (xvi. 17-19, xix.
25-27).

In the third dialogue, as the friends begin to
weaken in their attacks. Job emphasizes the impossi-
bility of contending witii such an opponent as God.
Of cour.se Job must outwardly succumb; but even
against God he will maintain his right, and is willing
to prove it, if God will appear and answer (xxvii.
1-6, xxxi.). Tiie discussion is ended by Yhwh's
appearance in the storm (xxxviii.-xxxix. 30, xl. 1-
5). Yhwh reminds Job of the limitations of human
nature, and Job, humbly admitting them, no longer
seeks an answer to his question.

In the course of time various interpolations were
made in the text of the poem. These comprise: (1)
a number of passages that have been placed among
the foot-notes in the edition by Siegfried mentioned
above; (2) the parallel texts, so called because they
are parallel developments of the corresponding pas-
.sages in the genuine text; e.g., as vii.
Later Ad- 1-10; x. 18-22; xii. 4-6; xiv. 1. 2;
ditions and xiii. 28; xiv. 5, 7-12, 14, 18-22; xvii.
Changes in 11-16; xl. 6-32; xii. 1-26; xlil 1-6;
the Text. (3) corrections and revisions of Job's
speeches made for the purpose of har-
monizing them with the orthodox doctrine of retri-
bution (these revisions include xii. 7-10 [11, 12 as
glosses], 13-25; xiii. 11; xxi. 16-18; xxiv. 13-24;
xxvii. 7-23); (4) passages containing a polemic

against the ideas expressed in i he poem (xxviii. 1-28
and the so-called speeches of Elihu, xxxii -xxxvii.),
Ch. xxviii. rejects the effort to fathom the di-
vine wisdom and to discover the rule of its work-
ings, these being regions into wliich human under-
standing and empiric knowledge can not penetrate.
Speculation here must give way to faith. The fear
of Ynwn ("yir'at Adonai "; xxviii. 28), that is, relig-
ion, and the departure from evil ("sur me-ra' "), that
is, morality, take tlic place of science, which here
has reached the end of its resources.

The speeches of Elihu contradict the fundamental
teachings of the genuine poem of Job, according to
which it is impossible that the righteous should suf-
fer, all pain being a punishment for some sin. Elihu,
however, assumes that suffering may be decreed for
the righteous for pedagogic reasons, as a protection
against greater sin, and for moral betterment (xxxiii.
17 etseq.. 28-30). How little these Elihu speeches
come into the general scheme of the poem is shown
by the fact that Elihu is not mentioned either in
the prologue or in the epilogue, being entirely
ignored by Yhwh in the latter. They have been
defended as genuine by Umbreit, Stickel, Schlott-
mann, and Budde (1876; and in his commentary
[1896], especially pp. xxxv.-xxxviii.). On Studer's
criticism in "Jahrb. fiir Protestantische Theologie "
(1875, pp. 688 et seq.\ 1877, pp. 545 et seq.) and in
" Das Buch Hiob f i'lr Geistliche und Gebildete
Laien " (1881) comp. Budde, "Beitrage zur Kritik
des Buches Hiob," pp. 77 et seq.
The textual criticism of Job must rest on the Maso-
retic text (see Baer, "Liber Jobi," 1875). As La-
garde has pointed out (" Anmerkungen zur Griech-
ischen Uebersetzung der Proverbien," 1863. pp. 1 et
seq.), that text goes back to a single original manu-
script, so that nothing in regard to textual correc-
tions is gained by a collation of manuscripts. The
recently discovered Babylonian Bible manuscripts

are important only for the history of

Textual the vocalization and accentuation of

Criticism, the Biblical text (comp. Harkavy and

Strack, " KaTalog der Hebrilischen
Bibelhandschriften der K. Bibliothek in St. Peters-
burg," 2 parts, 1875). Jerome, who in his version
of Job closely followed the Hebrew, calls for little
notice (comp. Hupfeld, "Beleuchtung Dunkler
Stellen in der Alttestamentlichen Textgesch." in
"Studien und Kritiken," 1830, pp. 1571 et seq. ; No-
wack, " Die Bedeutung des Hieronymus f iir die Alt-
testamentliche Textkritik," Gottingen, 1875).

The Septuagint version, being a very free render-
ing of the Book of Job (comp. Bickell, " De Indole ac
Ratione Versionis Alexandrinae in Interpretando
Libro Jobi," 1862), must be used very cautiously;

yet it can not be denied tliat it con-

Transla- tains many traces of the correct read-

tions. ing (comp. A. Merx, "Das Gedicht

von Hiob," 1891: C. Siegfried. "The
Book of Job," 1893). For the Targum of Job see
W. Bacher in "Monatsschrift," xx, 208-223. The
Syriac translation ("Peshitta") may also be con-
sulted, but as it was corrected after tlie Septuagint,
its agreement with the latter does not mean much
textually. For the Arabic translation of the poem
by Saadia Gaon see I. Cohn, Altona, 1889; '*CEuv-

Job, Testament of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

200

res Completes de R. Saadia Gaon," v. (ed. Bacher),

Paris, 1899. Emendations of tlie poem must often

be based on conjecture.

Bibliography : Commentaries : For the earlier exegesis, Eo-
senmuUer, Scholia in Vetm Tcsfamoitum. v.; and the com-
mentaries and introductions to tlie O. T. For modern views
compare especially H. Ewald, iam ; M ed. 1854 ; L. Hirzel,
183fi ; 2^^ ed. bv I. Olstiausen, 18.52 ; 3d ed. 1869 ; 4th ed. by A.
Dillmann, 1891; Ferdinand HitziR, 1874; A. Klostermann,
Htob, in Herzog-Hauck. i?fa?-/<;;((i/c. viii. 97-12b; K. Budde,
1896; B. Duhm, 1897. Translations with commentaries: A. Merx,
1871; G. Studer, 1881; E. Reiiss, Da^s AUe Testament, 1892-
1894; idem, Vortraq ilber das Buch Hioh, 1888; G. Hoff-
mann. 1891; F. Baet'hgen, in Kautzsch. Die Heilige Schrift
desAlten Testaments, 2d ed.; idem, Hiott : Deutsch wit An-
merkungen filr Unqelehrte, 1898; Friedrich Delitzsch, Das
Buch Hiob, Leipsic, 1903. For problems in the Book of Job,
J. Meinhold, Das Problem da< Biiches Hiob, in Neue Jalirb.
filr Deutsche Theohme, 1892, pp. 63 et seq. ; I. Ley, Die
Probleme im Buche Hiob. in Neue Jahrb. filr PhHoh)gie
UTid PCklagogik, 1896, pp. 125 et seq. For special questions on
composition, I. Grill, Zur Kritik der Composition des Buches
Hiob, TUbingen, 1890; T. K. Cheyne, Job and Solomon, 1887 ;
Duhm, as above ; L. Laue, Die Composition des Buches Hiob,
1895. For textual criticism, G. Bickell, Kritische Bearbei-
tung des Jobdialogs, in Wiener Zeitschrift filr Kunde des
Morgenlandes, vi. 137-147, 241-257, 327-334; vii. 1-20, L53-168;
idem, Dichtungen der Hehrtter, ii., 1882; idem. Das Buch
Job nach Aideitimg der Strophik und der SeptuagUita,
Vienna, 1894; P. Vetter, Die Metrik des Buches Hiob, in
BiblUsche Studien, ed. Bardenhewer, ii. 4, Freiburg, 1897 ; H.
Grimme, Metrisch-Kritviche Emendationcn zum Buche
Hiob, in Theol. Quartalschrift, Ixxx. 295-304, 421-432; Ixxxi.
112-118, 259-277 ; O. Voigt, Einige Stellen des Buches Hiob,
1895 ; I. Ley, in Strullen und Kritiken, 1895, pp. 635 et seq. ;
G. Bar, Der Text des Buches Hiob, 1895; idem, in Stade's
Zeitschrift, 1896, pp. 297 et seq.
E. G. H. C. S.

JOB, TESTAMENT OF: Greek apocryphal
book, containing a liaggadic story of Job. It was
first published by Angelo Mai in the seventh volume
of the "Scriptorum Veterum JMova Collectio " (pp.
180-191, Rome, 1833), and was translated in Migne's
" Dictionnaire des Apocryphes " (ii. 403), but re-
mained unnoticed by critics until Montague Rhodes
James, in his notes to the "Testament of Abraham "
(in "Te.xts and Studies," p. 155. Cambridge, 1892),
called attention to it. Kohler, in the " Kohut Me-
morial Volume" (1897, pp. 264-338), republished
and translated Mai's text, with introduction and
notes, and about the same time M. R. James reedited
the work, after a Paris manuscript (which gives a
text by no means superior in value to Mai's), in
"Apocrypha Anecdota " (pp. 104-137, Cambridge,
1897, with an introduction). The book was con-
demned as apocryphal by Pope Gelasius I., about
496, in his decree concerning canonical and non-
canonical books. In Mai's version it has a double
title: "Testament of Job the Blameless, the Con-
queror in Many Contests, the Sainted " (which seems
to be the olde'r title) and " The Book of Job Called
Jobab, and His Life, and the Transcript of His Tes-
tament." For the identification of Job with Jobab
(Gen. xxxvi. 33) see Septuagint, Job xlii. ; also
^risteas, in Eusehius, "Pneparatio Evaugelica," ix.
25; comp. Kohler, I.e. pp. 267 et seq., and James,
I.e. p. Ixxxv.).

Like the Patriarchs (>"omp. Test. Patr., Adam, 14,
and Tan., Wayehi, 8, ed. Buber, and Bo, 2), Job in
a farewell address to his children re-
Contents of views his life, telling them that he is
the Book, of the generation of Abraham, a de-
scendant of Esau (Gen. I.e.), and was
known as "Jobab," a rich ruler of the land of Uz
(Ausitis), before God called him "Job" because of
his martyrdom (see Job, Critical Vikw); that his
second wife, their mother, was Dinah, the daughter

of Jacob (comp. B. B. 15b). Like Abraham, he
had changed from idolatry to the worship of the
true God, the Maker of heaven and earth (comp.
Num. R. xiv.); yet as he had set out to destroy the
idols of the land, the work of Satan, he had been
told by the archangel of God to prepare for a life-
long battle with Satan, but at the same time he had
been promised lasting renown as a great spiritual
athlete and a crown of amaranth in the world to
come, after the resurrection. "I shall from love
of God endure until the end," Job said, and received
from the angel the seal of life (comp. Sotah v. 5,
and Kohler, I.e. pp. 271, 316). Satan, after having
first attempted, in the guise of a beggar, to get Job
into his power, but without success, secured from
God permission (comp. Targ. Job i. 12) to take away
all his possessions (ch. i.-ii., ed. Kohler; ch. i.-viii.,
ed. James). Job then relates how he used his great
wealth for the benefit of the poor; how of the 130,-

000 sheep he owned he separated 7,000

His Wealth for the clothing of orphans and wid-

and. ows, of poor and sick ; 800 dogs

Charity, watched his sheep (comp. Job xxx. 1),

and 200 his house. Of his 9,000 camels
he caused 3,000 to work for the poor; and he sent
out ships laden with goods for the feeble, sick, and
unfortunate. Of the 130,000 (340.000, Mai's text)
wild asses in his possession he set 500 aside, and the
offspring and all the proceeds therefrom were given
to the needy.

The four doors of his house Avere opened to the
poor, who came from all parts of the country to en-
joy his hospitality (comp. Gen. R. xlviii., Ixix. ;
Ab. R. N., ed. Schechter, i. 7, ii. 14). Thirty tables
loaded with all kinds of food were set for the
strangers, twelve of them for widows, and none
were turned away hungry. Of his 3,500 yokes of
oxen, 500 were for the use of the poor. He em-
ployed fifty bakeries for the bread of the poor
(comp. Ber. 58b; Hana b. Hanilai) and assigned
special slaves to serve them at the tables. Some
poor persons were hired for that purpose, so that
they might support themselves; he released many
poor from their indebtedness. The milk of his cows
and ewes flowed in such plenty that passers-by were
invited to take a share (comp. Job xxix. 6), and the
servants that distributed the meat among the wid-
ows and the poor were so overburdened with their
task that they broke out into cursings (comp. Job
xxxi. 31). At the table slaves played on harps and
on other musical instruments, and he himself took
the cithara, intoning a song of thanksgiving and
prai.se to God (comp. Gen. R. xlix., liv., and Ab.
R. N., ed. Schechter, Text A, vii.; Text B, xiv.
33-34). After each feast held by his children in
turn, to atone for any possible offenses committed
by them through pride, he not only offered sacrifices
(Job i. 5) but also gave gifts of charity to the poor.
These things, however, Satan begrudged Job,
so he destroyed his sheep and camels and herds by

fire, or had them taken by marauders.

Satan's Finding that Job in his piety still gave

Mischief, praise to God, instead of blaspheming,

he came in the guise of the King of
Persia and besieged his city, capturing all the goods
thereof; then he overthrew the house of Job and

201

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Job, Testament of

killed all his children, and everything he possessed
Avas taken. Yet under all these sad happenings Job
bravely spoke the words : " The Lord gave, and the
Lord hath taken away ; blessed be tlio name of the
Lord" (Job i. 21). While Job sat on his throne
mourning over his children, Satan came in the
form of a great hurricane (comp. "ruah kozmi-
kon," Gen. R. xxiv. ; Yer. Ber. i.x. 13d; Mek.,
Beshallah, to Ex. xiv. 24), threw him upon the
ground, and smote him from head to toot with lep-
rosy, so that his whole body was covered with sores
and worms (comp. Ab. R. N. I.e. ; Tischendorf,
" Apocalypses, Apocrypha," p. 67). For .seven years
(48 years; Paris MS.) he sat on a dunghill outside
of the city, while his wife, Sitis, who had been
brought up in royal luxury, served as water-carrier
to win broad for herself and him. Afterward (after
15 years; Paris MS.), when she was no longer al-
lowed to take him bread, Satan, disguised as a bread-
seller, went to meet her, asking, as the price of three
loaves of bread for her starving husband, for the
hair on her head ; to save her husband from famish-
ing, she consented (comp. Shab. 59a; Akiba's wife).
At last, when under the influence of Satan, her pa-
tience gave way, and in an impassioned appeal, full
of pathos (contrasting her former riches and glory
with her present state of gloom and poverty) and
poetic grandeur, she called upon Job to curse God
and die (comp. LXX. Job ii. 9). Job, however, in-
dignantly rebuked her, and challenged Satan, who
had been hidden behind her all this while, saying:
" Only a coward fights with frail woman ; come forth
and wage war with me! " Then Satan broke forth
into tears, and said, "I yield to thee who art the
great wrestler," and left him, abashed (ch. iii.-vi.,
ed. Kohler; ix.-xxvii., ed. James; comp. B. B. 16a:
"The grief of Satan was greater than that of Job ").
As to Job, the great "athlete" or "wrestler," see
IV Mace. vi. 10. xvii. 15-16; and Philo [where Job
is frequently characterized as such] ; comp. Heb.
x. 32.

The three friends of Job, kings like himself Eli-

phaz, King of Teman (comp. Targ. to Gen. xxxvi.

12; "Ma'yan Gannim," ed. Buber, p. 9), Bildad of

Shuah (Gen. xxv. 2), and Zophar (B.

The Three B. 15b; Yalk. i. 766), who had come

Friends with their body-guards to seehim, were

of Job, dumfoimded at finding Job, who had
excelled them all in wealth, in such a
state; Eliphaz offered a song of lamentation, in
which all joined, recalling all Job's former splendor,
each strophe ending with the refrain "Whither has
thy glory gone ? " Job in his reply pointed to " the
splendor and glory that will be mine at the right
hand of the Savior in heaven among the Holy Ones
in the imperishable world. Kings perish and their
glory vanishes like the shadow in a mirror, but God's
kingdom lasts forever, and its glory is in the chariot
of my Father" (ch. vii., ed. Kohler; xxviii.-xxxiii.,
ed. James). The whole chapter is a most powerful
effusion of Hasidean sentiment, and has its exact
parallel in the penitential prayer of Asenath (see
Jew. Encyc. ii. 173, ."<.(•. Asen.xtii).

Eliphaz, on hearing Job in his abject state speak
thus contemptuously of his friends and their glory,
became furious, and said. "Let us go hence! " but Bil-

dad, pacifying him, said, "Instead ofc upbraiding
a man thus afflicted, let us see whether his mind has
not given way under liis great ordeal." Bildad ac-
cordingly began arguing with Job concerning God
and destiny. Job, however, proved to be his su-
perior in wisdom, and showed that he was initiated
into the mysteriesof God which he (like the Es,senes)
would not betray. Finally, Zophar, stepping forth,
said: "We have brought our physicians with us to
cure you"; but Job declined, .saying, "My cure
Cometh from God, the Maker of physicians." Here
follows a remarkable scene. While
" The the friends were thus conversing
Dead Shall Sitis appeared, dressed in rags, and
Live." prostrated herself before the kings, ask-
ing them for the sake of their former
friendship to have the bodies of her children taken
out from the ruins of her house in order that they
might be given decent burial. But Job interfered,
saying, "My children will not be found; they have
been taken up to their Master in heaven. " " Behold,
he raves! " the kings exclaimed; but instantly Job
spelled the Ineffable Name, and all beheld the chil-
dren of Job, with crowns on their heads, near the
throne of God. Sitis, overcome with emotion, went
back to her master, lay down in the manger of his
cattle, and died. The animals and afterward all the
people of the city wept and mourned for her, and
the dirge that was sung (says the writer) "is found
in the Chronicles " (ch. ix., ed. Kohler; xxxiii.-
xl., ed. James).

These marvelous things, however, did not pre-
vent the friends of Job from contending that he
must have sinned terribly to have brought upon
himself so much suffering, and when he resented these
insinuations, Elihu came forward, imbued with the
spirit of Satan, and spoke hard words to Job. God
showed Job afterward that Elihu was a wild beast
("serpent"), not a man (comp. Elihu
Elihu, the asidentified withBaalamin Yer. Sotah
Satanic v. 20d). The three friends finally con-
Beast, fessed their error, brought to Job ani-
mals to be offered as sin-offerings to
the Lord, and obtained pardon througli Job ; Elihu,
however, was not pardoned. A peculiar lyric song
closes this episode, in which the three friends offer
praise that their sin is taken away, while Elihu,
" the evil one, the son of darkness, the lover of the
Serpent, the Northern One ["Zephoni "], and the
hater of the saints," is cast into Sheol.

The story of Job's restoration to health is missing
in the narrative. It continues with Job's return to
the city, where he held a feast of thanksgiving, ask-
ing the people each to give him a lamb for the cloth-
ing of the poor and four drachmas of gold or silver
for their support. Thus taking up again his former
work of charity, he sown became rich, married
Dinah, and became the father of ten children, as
before. Job finally admonishes his sons, summing
up his ethics and his religion in the following pre-
cepts: "Forsake not the Lord! Be charitable to
the poor and do not disregard the feeble. Take not
unto yourselves wives from strangers." This last
command proves beyond the possibility of doubt
that the book is Jewish in character and concep-
tion.

Job, Testament of
Jochelsou

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

202

After having distributed his property among his
seven sons, Job gave to each of liis three daughters,
out of a hidden treasure-box, three-stringed girdles
which God had given liim that by their
Job's Three magic power he might be cured of his
Daughters, leprosy and be endowed with new
physical and spiritual strength, so that
he might forecast all the secrets of the future. As
soon as his daughters put these girdles around their
bodies they were transfigured, and, in the voices of
angels, archangels (heavenly archons), and cheru-
bim, sang hymns echoing the mysteries of heaven,
all. of which were written down by Nahor, the
brother of Job.

Job, on seeing
death approach,
gave a cithara
to his first
daughter, Day
("Yemimah"), a
censer to his
second, Kassiah
(" Perfume"),
and a timbrel
to his third,
Amaltheas Horn
("Keren h a -
Puk"), that
they might wel-
come the holy
angels who
came to take
his soul ; and
while they
played and glo-
rified God in
the holy dia-
lect. He who
sitteth upon the
Great Chariot
came and took
the soul of Job
away with a
kiss and carried
it eastward,
where the Heav-
enly Throne is
erected. Amid
the singing of
his daughters
and the great
mourning of
the people, par-
ticularly the poor and tiie fatherless, his body
was taken to the grave. The dirge is given at the
close of the book (ch. xi.-xii., ed. Kohler; xli.-lii.,
ed. James).

James (/ c. Introduction) hesitates to assign the
whole book to Jewisli sources, but the Midrashic
parallels in Kohler (I.e.) sufficiently prove that the
work is one of the most remarkable productions of
the pre-Christian era, explicable only when viewed
in the light of ancient Ha.sidean practise

T. K.

JOB, WELL OF ahe modern Bir Ayyub and
the Biblical En-rog-el [Josh. xv. 7, Ixviii. 26; II

Job's Well, South of Jerusalem.

(From a photograph by the American Colony, Jerusalem.)

Sam. xvii. 17; I Kings i. 9]): A deep well, situated
just below the junction of the valley of Hinnom
with that of Jehoshaphat, the channel of the Kidron
being at this point 345 feet lower than the level of
the Temple plateau. Tlie well is of an irregular
quadrilateral form, walled up with large square
stones — according to Al-Kasini, five yards in length
and two in height (Mujir al-Din, "History of Jeru-
salem," anno 1495 p.c, published in "Fundgruben
des Orients," ii. 130). Titus Tobler (in " Das Aus-
land," 1866, jSTo. 12) reports its depth to be 38
meters. When Robinson ("Bibl. Researches," i. 832)
visited it, he found 50 feet of water, which he de-
scribes as sweet
but not very
cold. In the
rainy seasoo the
well fills up and
sometimes over-
flows at the
mouth, the over-
flow being con-
sidered by the
inhabitants of
the adjacent
villageof Silwan
to be the augury
of a fertile year.
Usually, how-
ever, the water
runs off under
the surface, find-
ing an outlet 40
yards below.

Besides in
Mujir al-Din's
history, " Well
of Job " occurs
for "En-rogel"
in the Arabic
version of
.Joshua in the
Paris and Lon-
don polyglots
(Josh. XV. 7).
The well is not
mentioned by
the earlier his-
torians of the
Crusades; but
later it is desig-
nated the " Well
of Nehemiah,"
of Fire," on the
well that Nehe-

and is identified
supposition that

with the "Well
it was in this
miah hid the sacred fire during the Captivity (II
Mace. i. 19-22; Robinson, I.e. p. 331, note 5). It
is designated also the " Well of Jeremiah " (Tobler,
"Die Topographic von Jerusalem," etc., ii. 50,
note 3).

The Jewisli itinerary published by Hottinger in
his "Cippi Hebraici " gives it the name "Well of
Joab," supposedly on the strength of I Kings i. 7, 9
(.see Schwarz, "Palilstina," pp. 288 et seq.). But
as this designation occurs only after the sixteenth
century, "Job " in this connection can not be, as has

203

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Job, Testament of
Jocnelson

been suggested, a corruption of " Joab," the reverse
being true. The identification given by Brocardus
with the En-rogel of the Old Testament admits of
no doubt, Josephus notwithstanding ("Ant." vii. 14,
§ 4, wliere En-rogel is described as situated in the
royal gardens). E. G. H.

JOBAB: 1. Sonof Joktan the Shemite (Gen. x.
29; I Chron. i. 23).

2. Son of Zerah of Bozrah; second king of Edom
(Gen. .\.\xvi. 33, 34; I Chron. i. 44-45). In the
Greek version of the Book of Job, at the end, there
is rlie following addition: "This man is described
in the Syriac book as living in the land of Ausis, on
the borders of Idumaea and Arabia ; and his name
before was Jobab : and he, having taken an Arabian
wife, begot a son whose name was Ennon. And he
himself was the son of Zare, who was one of the
sons of Esau, and Bosorrha; so that he was the
fifth in descent from Abraham. And these were
the kings who reigned in Edom, which country he
als'o ruled over: first Balak, the son of Beor, and the
name of his city was Dennaba; and after Balak
Jobab," etc. From this it has been supposed that
this Jobab was identical with Job.

3. Canaanitish king of Madon (LXX. "Maron "),
whose aid Jabin, King of Hazor, invoked in the
struggle with the Israelites (Josh. xi. 1).

4. Son of Shaharaim by his wife Hodesh (LXX.
"Ada"); of the tribe of Benjamin, although appar-
ently born in Moab (I Chron. viii. 8-9). In the Sep-
tuagint this Jobab is called " Jolab."

5. A Benjamite, son of Elpaal (I Chron. viii. 18).
E. G. H. B. P.

JOCEUS (JOCE) OF YORK: English Jew
of the preexpulsion period; leader of the York com-
munity at the time of the massacre in 1190. He is
mentioned in the first English shetar, of 1176 (Ja-
cobs, "Jews of Angevin England," p. 58). He was
one of those who attended the coronation of Richard
I., doubtless as the representative of the York con-
gregation, and escaped the massacre {ib. p. 101). On
his return to Y'ork, where he had a house which
rivaled a citadel in the scale and magnificence of its
construction, he was attacked by the mob, and with
his wife and children joined other fugitives wlio
sought refuge in Clifford's Tower. When the de-
cision was reached to put one another to death rather
than fall into the hands of tlie enemy, Joceus was the
first to 'act, slaying his wife, Anna, and his children ;
he himself was slain last by Yom-Tob of Joigny
{ib. p. 127).

It is probable that Joceus and Samuel Hoppecole
held the land in London on which the chief syna-
gogue was built {ib. p. 234). J.

JOCHANAN, See Joh.\x.\n-.

JOCHEBED (n33V).- Biblical Data: Wife
and aunt of Amram, and mother of Aaron, Moses,
and Miriam (Ex. vi. 20). She was the daughter of
Levi, and was born in Egypt (Num. xxvi. 59). In
the account of Moses' birth, Jochebed is indicated
merely as being the daughter of Levi, her name not
being given (Ex. ii. 1).

E. G. H. M. Sel.
In Rabbinical Literature : Jochebed is iden-
tified by the Talmudists with Shiphrah, one of the

midwives ordered by Pharaoh to kill the new-born
male children (Ex. i. 15 etserj.); the name is given
various interpretations (Sotah lib; Ex. R. i. 17).
The "houses" with which God recompensed the
midwives (Ex. i. 21) were those of priesthood and
royalty, realized, in the case of Jochebed, in the
peisons of her two sons Aaron and Moses (Ex. R.
xlviii. 5). She is further identified with Jehudijah
(I Chron. iv. 18), this name, interpreted as "the
Jewess," being given to her because, by di.sobey-
ing Pharaoh's order, she founded the Jewish nation
(Lev. R. i. 3). To elucidate Gen. xlvi. 15, where
the children of Leah are said to be thirty three, >\hile
only thirty-two are enumerated, the Midrash names
Jochebed as the thirty-third. But as this would ap-
pear to conflict with Num. xxvi. 59, where Jochebed
is said to have been born in Egypt, it is further ex-
plained that she was born when her parents were
entering Egypt, in the "gateway of the city " (Gen.
R. xciv. 8; Ex. R. i. 23).

Moses was eight}' years old when the Israelites
went out from Egypt (comp. Ex. vii. 7), and the
Israelites were in Egypt 210 years; Jochebed there-
fore was 130 years old when she bore Moses. An
allusion to this is found in the weight (130 shekels)
of the silver chargers offered by the princes for the
dedication of the altar (Ex. R. i. 23; Num. R. xiii. 19).

The Midrash also explains why Jochebed could
hide Moses no longer than three months. When
Pharaoh had given the order to throw the male chil-
dren into the river, Amram repudiated Jochebed,
who had been pregnant three months. But, urged
by Miriam, he immediately remarried her, and the
Egyptians calculated the time for Moses' birth from
that day (Ex. R. i. 17). The second wedding was
as splendid as the first; Jochebed sat in her nuptial
chamber, and Miriam and Aaron danced before her
(ib. i. 23). The story of Jochebed was used by
Rabbi (R. Judah ha-Nasi) to divert his audience
when they became sleepy. There was once a woman
in Egypt, he told them, who gave birth to 600,000
children at once; on being asked who that woman
was, he said she was Jochebed, whose sou Moses was
worth 600,000 Israelites (Cant. R. iv. 2).

In the Mahzor Romi (p. 79a, Mantua, 1718) there
is a piyyut for Simhat Torah, beginning " Azlat Yo-
kebed," the subject of which is Jochebed's lamen-
tation over Moses' death (comp. Epstein, "Mi-Kad-
moniyyot ha-Yehudim," pp. 128 and xlv.).

s. s. M. Sel.

JOCHELSON, WALDEMAR: Russian ex-
plorer and ethnologist; born in Wilna Jan. 1, 1856.
He graduated from the gymnasium of Wilna, and
became identified with the revolutionary movement.
Compelled to leave Russia (1880), he went to Swit-
zerland, where he remained four years, studying at
Zurich and Bern, and keeping in touch with the
revolutionary movement as editor of the "Vyestnik
Narodnoi Voli," which had a clandestine circulation
in Russia. On his return to Russia in 1884 he was
arrested and confined for three years in the Petro-Pav-
lovsk fortress in St. Petersburg, and in 1887 was sen-
tenced by order of the czar to exile for ten years in
northern Siberia, in the province of Yakutsk.

In Siberia Jochelson made a special study of the
language, manners, and folk-lore of the aboriginal

Jod

Joel, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

204

inhabitants, especially tliat of the Tungus, Yakuts,
and tlie fast-disappearing Yuliaghirs. His articles
on those subjects began to attract attention, and in
1894 he and a fellow exile, Bogoras (Tan, also of
Jewish descent), were by special permission attached
to the first expedition of the Imperial Russian Geo-
graphical Society (1894r-97), which had been sent to
that part of Siberia at the expense of a wealthy
Russian promoter of art and science named Sibiry-
akov. On that expedition Jochelson discovered
among the natives in the outlying regions two Yuka-
ghir dialects then considered as extinct. The Impe-
rial Geographical Society published his discoveries in
the field of ethaology, while the linguistic reports of
his investigation were acquired for publication by
the Imperial Academy of Science.

When the Jessup expedition to north Asia was be-
ing fitted out by the American Museum of Natural
History (New York), the Russian Imperial Academy
of Science, in answer to a request, recommended
Jochelson and the above named Bogoras as the men
best fitted to contribute to its success by knowledge
of the country and of the native dialects. After
another two years and a half in the distant north,
Jochelsonreturned with the expedition to the United
States, and is now (1904) studying there the ma-
terial which he and his wife, who accompanied him
in the last journey, have collected. Jochelson 's
chief work on his special subject is " Materyaly po
Izucheniyu Yukagirskavo Yazyka i Folklora " (Ma-
terial for the Study of the Language and Folk-
Lore of the Yukaghirs), published by the Imperial
Academy of Science (vol. i., St. Petersburg, 1900).
He wrote also "Ueber die Sprache und Schrift
der Jukagiren " (Bern, 1900). He has contributed
largelv to scientific journals in various languages.

H. I!. P. Wl.

JOD. See Alphabet, Hebrew ; Yod.

JOEL. — 1. Biblical Data: The superscription
of the second book of the so-called Minor Prophets
names as the author of the book "Joel, the son of
Pethuel." Further historical record is wanting. It
is even impossible to get an idea of the prophet's
personality from the contents of his book, because,
in correspondence with its partly oratorical, partly
visionary style, all personal traits have been omitted.
Only this can be concluded from his writing, that
he was a Judean and that at the time of his pro-
phetical activity he lived in Jerusalem. On the
other hand, imaginative suppo.sitions try to prove
from passages like Joel i. 9, 13; ii. 17 that he be-
longe(l to the tribe of Levi.

Critical View: The name "Joel" was quite

common, being borne by the first-born son of Samuel
(I Sam. viii. 2), and by prominent Levitesof the time
of David (I Chron. vi. 18 et seq.) and of Hezekiah
(II Chron. xxix. 12). "Joel " means " Yhwh is God "
(comp. Ps. I. 1; Jer. xxii. 24); it is, therefore, the
transposed form of in^^S- In the face of this clearly
recognizable and wholly appropriate meaning of the
name, it is not necessary to suppose (with Baudissin)
that it is the jussive of p'^Kin (= " may He [i.e., God]
prove"); nor (with Nestle) that it is the participle of
7XV which, corresponding to the proper names y^ or
PKKArabic," wa'il") occurring often in the Sinaitic

inscriptions, is supposed to mean "strong-willed."
The fact that7i<> is found also as a Phenician proper
name (see " C. I. S." 132), proves nothing against the
most natural interpretation of the name.

What non-Biblical sources tell of the prophet be-
longs to the realm of fable. According to pseudo-
Epiphanius (ii. 245), Joel was from the town Bethor
of the tribe of Reuben ; but according to the Syr-
ian pseudo-Epiphanius, the true reading is "Bet
Me'on" (to be read instead of \\yi2 n''3), the place
mentioned in the Mesha inscription (line 9) as ]\Ioa-
bitic, but which, according to Josh. xiii. 17, orig-
inally belonged to Reuben.
Bibliography : See bibliography under Joel, Book of.

V. Ry.

2. Eldest son of Samuel and father of Heman the
singer (I Sam. viii. 2; I Chron. vi. 18 [A. V. vi. 33]).
His name is omitted in I Chron. vi. 13 (A. V. vi.
28); the word ^Jt^ni (= "and the second one"), cor-
rupted into ^JtJ'l, is erroneously supposed to be the
name given by the chronicler to the eldest son of
Samuel. Joel and his younger brother Abiah, or
Abijah, were made judges in Beer-sheba when Sam-
uel was old and could no longer make his usual cir-
cuit (comp. I Sam. vii. 16, 17). They disgraced
their office by taking bribes and perverting judg-
ment; and their misdeeds provoked the people to
ask for a king {ib. viii. 5 et seq.). For the different
opinions of the Talmudists with respect to tlie
sins of these two judges see Abijah inRabbinic.\l

LiTERATUUE.

3. An ancestor of Samuel who is mentioned in I
Chron. vi. 21 (A. V. 36), and who in verse 9 (A. V. 24)
is called "Shaul." 4. A Simeonite prince («7». i v.
35). 5. A Reubenite; father of Shemaiah (ib. v.
4, 8). 6. A Gadite chief {ib. v. 12). 7. A chief of
Issachar {ib. vii. 3). 8. One of David's mighty
men, indicated as the brother of Nathan {ib. xi. 38).
In the parallel list of II Sam. xxiii. 36 he is called
"Igal, the son of Nathan." 9. A Gershonite Le-
vite, a prince in the time of David (I Chron. xv. 7,
xxiii. 8, xxvi. 22). 10. Son of Pedaiah; a Manas-
site chief in the time of David {ib. xxvii. 20). 11.
A Kohathite Levite in the time of Hezekiah (II
Chron. xxix. 12; comp. No. 2, above). 12. One of
those who married foreign wives (Ezra x. 43). 13.
Son of Zichri; a Benjamite overseer after the Exile
(Neh. xi. 9).

E. G. H. M. SeL.

JOEL, BOOK OF.— Biblical Data: The

prophecies of the Book of Joel are divided into two
parts, comprising respectively (1) ch. i. 2-ii. 17 and
(2) ch. ii. 18-iv. 21. The contents of the first part
may be summarized as follows:

The prophet at the beginning calls the attention
of the elders and of all the inhabitants of the land to
a coming event the like of which has never been seen,
a terrible visitation by locusts (i 2-7), which will be
coincident with a famine, and which will together
reduce the entire land to the bitterest misery (i.lO-
12, 16-20). The prophet exhorts the people to fast,
to pray, and to mourn (i. 13 et seq., ii. 1-12 et seq.).
In this double visitation the prophet perceives the
approach of the "day of the Lord" (i. 15), which
is to be ushered in by a terrible aflSiction (ii. 2-11)
unless the people become truly repentant (ii. 12-17).

205

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jod

Joel, Book of

In tlie sc'coud part it is tirst related how the peo-
ple did actually' bring about a gracious cliange in
God's plans by obeying the prophet's injuneli(Mis
(ii. 18); this is followed by Yinvu's answer to the
prayer of the people (ii. 19 et seq.)\ then there is the
promise of relief from famine through abundant
rains and through a marvelous fruit fulness, after
which the spirit of prophecy is to be poured out
overall tlcsh, and the day of the J.ord will draw near,
accompanied by terrifying signs in heaven and earth.
These terrors, however, are not for the Jews, who
will be rescued in the day of judgment because they
called on the Lord, but for their enemies (iii. 1-5).
At the time of the change in the fate of Judali and
Jerusalem the Lord will gather all nations into the
valley of Jehoshaphat (see Jehoshapiiat, Vali,ey
of), there to be destroyed through the fulfilment of
the divine judgment of wrath (iv. 11-13), because
they have plundered the treasuries of the Lord and
have sold the sons of Judah and of Jerusalem to the
sons of the Grecians (iv. 5-8). God will be a refuge
for His people (iv. 16); strangers will no longer
pass through Jerusalem (iv. 17); the soil of Judah
■will become exceedingly fruitful, and a fountain
will even water the valley of Shittim (i.e., the un-
fruitful Jordan valley), whereas Egypt and Edom
will be changed into a wilderness on account of the
evil they have done to Judah (iv. 18-19).

Critical View: § 1. That Joel consists of two

parts appears from ii. 18, which, if the rules of He-
brew synta.K are applied, must be con-
Duplicate strued as a narrative reporting the
Character, change of God's attitude subsequent to
the exhortation to repentance. Only
through a misunderstanding of the method of He-
brew narrative will the demand be urged, in oppo-
sition to this construction, that such a report should
necessarily include the story of the actual accom-
plishment of penitence. Stylistic carelessness is
very usual in Hebrew narrative; and the act of peni-
tence is left to be supplied by the reader from the
context — i.e., in this instance from the prophetical
exhortation to repentance (the accomplished peni-
tence must be supplied between verses 17 and 18).
On the other hand, neither the interpretation of the
imperfects in verse 17 as jussives nor even the read-
ing of the consecutive imperfects (KJp>V etc.) as

simple historical imperfects (Kjp>V etc.) justifies the

following translation approved by De Wette, Baudis-
sin, and others: "Then will Yhwh be jealous for
His land and will protect His people; and Yhwh
will speak and say to His people," etc. In this ren-
dering, which is inadmissible on linguistic grounds,
the words following verse 17 appear as a promise
connected with the foregoing petition for a return
to favor, and the prophecy of Joel would then form
a consecutive whole. But even the acceptance of
this theory would not remove the difficulties in the
way of fixing the time of Joel's prophecy.

§ 2. Date of the Book : Theory of a Pre-Exilic
Period : (a) According to the formerly generally ac-
cepted opinion, Joel wrote in the beginning of the
reign of King Joash (836-797 ts.c), and was there-
fore the oldest prophet to leave a book of proph-
ecies. This theory of an early date of composition

was, above all, strongly supported by the fact that
no mention is made of the Assyrians.

The beginning of the reign of Joash was urged in
view of the failure of the book to refer to or to name
the Damascus Syrians, who, according to II Kings
xii. \Hetseq., seriously threatened Jerusalem under
Joash (eomp. Hazael).

In further support of this theory stress was laid on
the absence of any reference to the king, which
Avould point to the period of the mi-
Reasons for nority of Joash. while the predomi-
the Time nance of the priestly influence led to
of Joash. the conclusion that Joash, at the be-
ginning of his reign, was under the in-
fluence of the high priest Jehoiada. Another point
of agreement in favor of this date was the hostility
shown to the Israelites by the nations, mentioned
in iv. (A. V. iii.) 4, 19, which was made to refer to
the rebellion of the Edomites under King Jehoram
of Judah (849-842 B.C.), on which occasion the
Arabs and the Philistines plundered Jerusalem (II
Chron. xxi. 8 et seq., 16 et seq. ; comp. k^ 3, below).

{h) KSnig places the composition of the book at a
much later date, but still in the pre-exilic period;
namely, in the time of King Josiah, or in the period
immediately .following. His reasons are these:
The form of the prophecies is too finished to date
from the beginning of the prophetic style of wri-
ting; Indeed, the linguistic character is that of about
the seventh century b.c. Moreover, the contents
reflect the time of Josiah, because it was then that
the great famine occurred which Jeremiah (Jer. xiv.
2-6) describes in a similar way to Joel. Finally, the
mention of the Egyptians points to the last years
of Josiah (or else those immediately
Reasons for following), referring to Josiah's cam-
the Time paign against the Egyptians. The
of Josiah. fact that neither the Assyrians nor the
Babylonians are alluded to militates
against Kbnig's dating, since all the other pre-exilic
prophets, from Amos to Jeremiah, recognize God's
judgment, which is to fall on His people precisely
in the extension of the Assyrian and, later, of the
Babylonian empire.

Theory of a Post-Exilic Period : This theory was
first, and in the beginning* rather hesitatingly,
brought forward by Vatke ; since then it has been
adopted by Merx (who takes the book for a midrash
written after 445 B.C.), by Stade, Kuenen, Well-
hausen,Wildeboer. Nowack, Kautzsch, Duhm, Oort,
Cornill, and others. The last named scholar, hold-
ing the book to be a compendium of late Jewish
eschatology, places it in the year 400 B.C., because
Jerusalem at that time not only was inhabited, but
had a temple (i 14, ii 15), as well as a wall (ii. 9),
which would indicate a period after Nehemiah
But he overlooks the fact that the walls mentioned
in the text are certainly those of the houses within
the city.

Of all that has been adduced in support of the
post-exilic theory, only passages like iv. (A. V. iii.)
17 really have any weight. The statement, "Then
shall Jerusalem be holy, and there shall no strangers
pass through her any more," indicates a city that
had been destroyed — a fate that befell Jerusalem
only under Nebuchadnezzar (see further § 3, below).

Joel, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

206

On the other hand, iv. (A.V. iii.) 1 can not be ap-
pealed to, since the words nUC:' QltJ' do not mean,
as was formerly believed, "to htin^- back the cap-
tivity "—which would indeed lead to the presup-
position tliat deportation of the inhabitants of Judea
and Jerusalem had preceded— but more correctly " to
turn the fate."

The other reasons advanced for the post-exilic the-
ory are not very plausible. Thus the fact that the
king is not mentioned is not remarkable, since the
king is likewise not mentioned in Nahum and Habak-
kuk. If silence of this sort is of weight, it ought to
be considered just as decisive against a post-exilic
dating if the governor and high priest were not
mentioned in a work. Neither is the absence of any
mention of the high places and their cult beside the
Temple at Jerusalem remarkable, since Isaiah and,
before him, Amos recognize only the Temple at Jeru-
salem as the habitation of God ; and Isaiah, unlike
Amos and Hosea, even polemizes against other
places of worship. When, however, Joel in i. 9 speaks
of the discontinuance of the meat- and
Objections drink-offerings as a calamity, and in i.
to Post-Ex- 13 et seq. calls on the priests to fast in
ilic Date, consequence, this should not be con-
sidered as proof of any high regard
for the ritual, an attitude so utterly foreign to the
pre-exilic period. Isaiah also mentions the meat-
offering (Lsa. i. 13), and Amos emphasizes the ob-
servance of the Sabbath (Amos viii. 5); and wjicn
the pre-exilic prophets reject the external worship of
God, they do so only in so far as it tends to represent
the whole of man's religious life and to displace en-
tirely the true inner relationship to God (obedience).

On the other hand, tlie appointment of a fast on
the occasion of exceptional afflictions is found in the
narratives of the Book of Kings (I Kings xxi. 9;
comp. II Chron. xx. 3). It has justly been pointed
out that the way in which Joel, by dint of his pro-
phetic office, gives, as it were, higher commands to
the priests, does not at all agree with the position
which the priesthood occupied during the time of
the Persians and later. The post-exilic composition
of the book can least of all be proved from the men-
tion of the "elders" (see especially i. 14, where,
liowever, D''JpI is accusative, not vocative), since Joel
does not speak of them as official persons, but con-
notes by " old men " only the most respected of the
people.

The post-exilic theory, moreover, far from remov-
ing difficulties, gives rise to various additional ones
of a serious nature. In the first place, the accept-
ance of the post-exilic theory of composition neces-
sitates the wholly improbable hypothesis that the
prophet in i. 1 et seq. places himself at the end of
time and speaks to the generation of tiie last day.
Since there is no announcement of the final day,
the conclusion is natural that the opening ad-
dress of the book was intended for the contem-
poraries of the speaker; but, if so, the apocalyptic
interpretation of the opening words becomes impos-
sible, and this negatives one of tlie most weighty
arguments in favor of the late date of composition.
It must be noticed, moreover, that no mention of
a future judgment is made until after iii. 1 (A. V. ii.
28). for which reason the nations hostile to Israel

in IV,

[A. V.

are not mentioned until then (e.y.
iii.] 2).

Another difficulty arises when, for the sake of

the post-exilic theory, the locusts are taken to mean

not real but "apocalyptic locusts";

The that is, such as the fantasy of the

Plague of prophet has invented to illustrate the

Locusts, final judgment. But the plague of
locusts is represented as actually hav-
ing begun ; the prophet describes it without indica-
ting that it is to be expected in the future; and he
therefore exhorts his coimtrymen, who have suf-
fered this afffiction with him, to lamentation and re
pentance. Moreover, by "locusts" is not meant, as
some have held, the mounted army of a human en-
emy, for there is nothing in the description to indi-
cate anything else than a real plague of locusts. If
it were true that by them the prophet intended
horsemen of the enemy, there would result the in-
congruity of comparing an army of horses and riders
to heroes and warriors (ii. 4. et aeq.). When the
swarms of locusts are called "northern " ('J1EV) in ii.
20, it is indeed most natural to think of an army com-
ing from the north, because locusts in Palestine al-
ways come from the south. Whereas it is not unrea-
sonable to argue that the locusts here described
might have been driven into Palestine by a north-
east wind from the Syrian desert (so Volck). this
theory, in face of the more natural explanation of
'J1DV, appears only a makeshift. But the difficulty
disappears with the hypothesis next to be con-
sidered.

§ 3. Theory of the Origin of Joel in Two
Dififerent Parts Written at DifiFerent Times :
The theory that ch. iii.-iv. (A. V. ii. 28-iii.) are to be
separated from i.-ii. was first brought forward by
Rothstein in the German translation of Driver's
"Introduction to the Old Testament," Berlin, 1896
(p. 333). He starts out with the fact that tlie gen-
eral assumptions in the two parts are wholly dif-
ferent: inch. 1. etseq. people and state (Judah) appear
in unimpaired integrity; the evil of the day is a ter-
rible plague of locusts together with an all devour-
ing drought; in the passages where the relation to
other nations is characterized, there is no trace of a
distressing condition brouglit about, in a political
sense, by the enemy (ii. 17; comp. ib. 19b). On
the other hand, in iii. et scq. (A V. ii 28 et seq.) the
whole historical background is a political one; a
reference to the time of need indicated in i. 1 et seq.
is not to be discovered (no more so in ii.
DifiFerence 18) ; moreover, the people, at least a
of Back- very large part of tliem, are in exile;

ground. the judgment from which they are to
be saved according to i. et seq. has long
since come to pass; and Jerusalem is already trodden
down and desecrated by Gentiles.

Finall}', it must be added that a large number of
passages in iii. (ii. 28 et seq.) are wholly lacking in
originality (witii the exception of iv. [iii.] d et seq.,
where probably fragments of a vigorous original
have been preserved). Rothstein concludes from
this that ch. i. and ii. were written by Joel during
the minority of King Joash ; that, on the other liand,
ch. iii. (ii. 28 et seq.) a,nd iv. (iii.) date from a post-
exilic period, and were written by an author who

207

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joel, Book of

was lacking iu originality, so that he connected liis
elabonitiou with the older prophecy in ch. i. and ii.,
as is tnc recognized case with Obadiah, verses 10-21
(with which section many parallels are found in Joel
iii. et aeq. [ii. 28 eti<ieq.\j and 1-9. This author, how-
ever, who for his part regards the plague of locusts
announced in ch. ii. as a symbolic reference to the
inroad of hostile hordes, also wrote ii. 20, in which
place he expressly chose expressions which would
lead one to think of the "northern" army {i.e., the
army of heathen which had already entered the
country) together with the swarms of locusts which
lie interprets symbolically. In the same way ii. 10-
11 (or else only 11a) originated from the same hand,
since these verses give the impression that the au-
thor meant powerful armies rather than locusts.

When, on the otiier hand, it is objected (by Bau-
dissin, in "Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Tes-
taments," 1901, p. 499) that in this way the difficul-
ties attendant on the time determination are by no
means removed, since the reasons for and against a
pre-exilic date apply to both halves of the book, it
must still be recognized (as Baudissin himself admits)
that the difficulties of the pre-exilic theory are
greater in the second part. Moreover, it can not be
admitted that the reasons which could justify the
acceptance of the pre-exilic theory are found almost
eutirel}'^ in the second part only. The placing of the
prophecy in the opening period of King Joash's
reign, which rested on the identification of the hos-
tilities mentioned in iv, (iii.) 4 et seq. with the re-
volt of the Edomites under Jehoram, will, how-
ever, have to be abandoned. The difficulty arises
that these descriptions apply even less
Reasons to a post-exilic period than to the time

for the of King Joash (see below). At any
Division, rate the prophetic character of ch. i.
and ii., in contrast to the apocalyptic
character, which actually begins with iii. 1 (ii. 28),
is alone sufficient (as is also emphasized by Baudis-
sin) to justify the chronological determination of the
two parts. Furthermore, the oratorical attitude,
the vigorous language, and the originality of ex-
pression and of illustrations — of which the picture of
being spread out like the morning upon the moun-
tain is found only in Joel (ii. 3)— speak for the older
date of composition of the first part.

It is wrong to suppose that the perfection of form
of this prophecy indicates that it was not written in
the first period of prophetical composition, because,
in the face of the song of Deborah and of the elegies
on Saul and Jonathan, the possibility of perfection
of form in the period in which Joel wrote can not
be denied; just as in other literatures also the first
poetical writings have always been preceded by a
longer stage of poetic development. Whether or
not Joel really prophesied \inder Joash, or is to be
placed only shortly before Amos, is irrelevant, if
one separates ch. iii. and iv. and at the same time ii.
4, 11, which are based on *he early theory. In favor
of the time shortly before Amos, Baudissin has sug-
gested, not without justice, that also in Amos a
plague of locusts together with a drought is men-
tioned as a divine punishment (Amos iv. 6-9; comp.
vii. 1-6), and that in this book, as also in Joel iv.
(iii.) A et seq. (if this passage as well as iv. [iii.] 9

et seq. also dates from an older prophec}'). there is a
complaint concerning the delivery of captured slaves
(Amos i. 6, 9) which, in spite of single variations,
makes it easy to suppose that the same event is liere
meant, namely, the killing of the Judeans at the
time of the revolt of Edom against Judah under
Jehoram (comp. Amos i. 11 and Joel iv, [iii ] 19).
The mention of the "sons of the Grecians " (in i v.
[iii.] 6, if this still belongs to the older part) can
hardly be taken as a proof against this theory (al-
though it has been brought forward to prove a very
late date of composition), since there is no reason
why Greeks should not have been mentioned in an
early pre-exilic period.

On the other hand, the fact that most of the data
pointing to a post-exilic composition are found in
the second half of the book, after ch.
Reasons iii. (ii. 28), speaks for the later compo-
for Later sition of ch. iii. and iv. (ii. 28-iii.).
Composi- This is assumed on the following
tion. grounds. Only Judah is expressly
mentioned, whereas the idea seems to
be to connote both Judah and Israel (thus ch. iv.
[iii.] 2; but not so in ii. 27); also because in the de-
scription of the approaching day of judgment for
the nations and the glorification of God's people
there is no reference to Ephraim ; finally, above all,
because in iv. (iii.) 17, as has already been remarked,
not only the destruction of Jerusalem is presup
posed, but also the dispersion of God's people,
Israel, among the nations, and the division of Israel's
land.

As to the question concerning the prophetic sources
of the respective passages, it is probably easier
to derive the passages iii. 5 (ii, 32) from Obadiah,
verse 17; iv. (iii.) 18 from Ezek. xlvii. 1 et seq. ; and
iv. (iii.) 16 from Amos i. 2— all of them in a part
which gives the impression of a dull and barren
style of writing — than to suppose these passages in
Joel to have been original. For these reasons the
supposition that iii. and iv. (ii. 28-iii.) were written
in a post-exilic period seems to offer the easiest solu-
tion of the difficulty,

§ 4. Theory of the Revision of an Older Book
in a Later Period : The division of the book into
two parts convinces Baudissin (I.e. p. 499) that such
a revision must have taken place. He considers the
description of the judgment of the nations Avith its
reference to the scattering of Israel, the division of
the land of Yhwii, and the passing of strangers
through Jerusalem as additions of the reviser. But
the theory leaves open the possibility that single
parts of the second half of the book may have be-
longed to the original composition and were incor-
pomted in the compilation of the later writer, di-
rectly or else with certain changes to suit the times
In view of this, and of the further sui)position, first
suggested by Rothstein, that the second author made
changes and additions also in the first part, there is
little difference between the two theories. Moreover,
it is possible to agree with Baudissin that the original
writing does not need to have originated in the Persian
period. It is indeed advisable to place its composi-
tion as late as the time of the Ptolemies, since then
the mention of Egj'^pt might refer to the war in
Egypt.

Joel, David
Joel, Manuel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

208

Bibliography: Commentaries: Hitzig, mKommentar^^t den
Kleinen Proplietcn, 18;% (new ed. by J. Steiner, 1881 in
Kurzgefa^stes E.rey<:ti!<ches HandUuch); Keil, in BMixcher
Kommcntar, 3d ed., 1888; Orelli, in Strack and Zueckler, Kiirz-
gcfcuister K<>mmentar,2d ed., 1888; J. Wellhausen, DieKlei-
nen Prouhcten (transl. with notes in Skizzen und \ or-
arheiten, part v.), 1893; W. Nowack, in Haudkommentar,
1897- B Pusey, The Minor Prophets, 1888; F. W. Farrar,
The Mi)ior Prophets, Their Liven and Times, in Men of
the Bible series, 1890; K. A. Credner, Dcr Prophet Joel,
Uebersctzt und Erklart, 183L ; E. Meier, Der Prophet Joel,
Ncu Ucbersetzt und Erklilrt ; Aug. Wunsehe, Die Wevma-
aung des Propheten Joel, 1872 (gives a complete bibliography
on Joel to 1872); Adalbert Merx, Die Proplietie dets Joel und
Ihre Amleger, 1879; Beck, Die Propheten Micha \md Joel,
Erkiart, ed. Lindemeyer, 1898; Ant. Scholz, Commentar
zum Buchedes Propheten Joel, 188.5; Eugene le Savoureux,
Le Prophete Joel: Introduction, Critique, Traduction, et
Commentaire, 1888; W. W. L. Pearson, The Prophccii of
Joel : Its Unit]!, Its Aim, and the Age of Its Composit ion, i.
885;"Gratz, Joel, Breslau, 1872; E. G. Hirsch, The Age of
Joel, in Hehraica, New York, 1879; Kessner, Das Zeitalter
des Propheten JoeZ, 1888; G. Preuss, Die Prophetie Joels,
1889; H. Holzlnger, Sprachcharakter und Abfassungszeit
des Buches Joe/.iik Stade's Zeitschrift, ix. 89-131; G. B.
Gray, The Parallel Passages in Joel in Their Bearing on
the QuestUm uif Date, In TIte Expositor, 1893, Supplement,
pp. 208 et seq. ; J. C. Matthes, in Theologisch Tijdschrift, xix.
34-66. 129-160; xxi. 357-381; A. B. Davidson, in The Ex-
positor, March, 1888; Volck, Der Prophet Joel, in Herzog-
Plitt, Real-Encm- ix. 234-237; Robertson Smith and Driver,
Joel, in Encyc. Brit.
E. G. H. V Ry. .

JOEL, DAVID: German rabbi and author;
born Jan. 12, 1815, at Inowrazlavv, Posen , died
Sept. 7, 1882, at Breslau ; brother of Manuel Joel.
His father, who went in 1832 as chief rabbi to
Schwerin-a-W., as well as R. Akiba Eger of Posen,
instructed him in the Talmud. In 1886, in order to
complete his education, he went to Berlin, where
he attended the Talmudic lectures of Rabbis
Oettinger and Landsberg, and, at the same time,
the secular courses of Friedrich von Raumer, H.
Steffens, and Neander at the university. After
being ordained rabbi (1843) he accepted (1843) a call
to Scliwersenz, Posen. There lie wrote "Midrash
ha Zohar," or "Die Religionsphilosophie des Sohar
und Ihr Verhilltniss zur Allgemeineu Theologie "
(Leipsic, 1849). This book, which is at the same
time a criticism of Adolphe Franck's "La Cabale,"
is indispensable to every student of the Zohar. A
year after the publication of his work lie received
his degree as Ph.D. From 1859 to 1879 he acted as
rabbi at Krotoschin, Posen. In the latter year he ac-
cepted a call to tiie Jewish Theological Seminary at
Breslau, and entered upon his duties with the be-
ginning of the year 1880.

During the period that he remained at Breslau —
somewhat less than three years — he wrote his book
" Der Aberglaube und die Stellung des Judcnthums
zu Demselben," only two parts of which appeared:
part i., accompanying the annual report of the semi-
nary at Breslau for 1881; part ii., published after
the death of the author by his brother Manuel Joel,
and accompanying the annual report of the semi-
nary for 1883.

Bibliography: Jahresbtricht des JUdisch-Theologischen
Seminars zu Breslau, 1881, pp. il. et seq.
8. B. Z.

JOEL B. ISAAC HA-LEVI : German tosatist
of the twelfth century; born probably at Bonn;
died at Cologne about 1200. Joel studied in his
youth at Ratisbon under Epiiiiaim h. Isaac, Isaac b.
Mordecai, and Moses b. Joel, with whom he later
kept up a learned correspondence. It is not known
whether he also studied under Isaac b. Asher ha-

Levi of Speyer; but as Isaac b. Mordecai and
Moses b. Joel were pupils of this great tosatist, tiiey
would naturally have communicated to their own
pupils the doctrines of their master. Joel studied
also at Wiirzburg and Mayence, where he was the
pupil of Eliezeh b. Nathan, who speaks of him
with much affection, and whose son-in law he be-
came. Joel taught chiefly at Bonn and Cologne,
and at his death was succeeded by his son Eliezek
B. Joel as rabbi and teacher in the latter city.
Another son, Uri, died as a martyr at the stake in
1216; and his friend Mokdecai b. Eliezek wrote
a dirge on his death.

Joel, who was among the most eminent Talmudic
authorities of his time, wrote tosafot to various
treatises of the Talmud. They have not, however,
been preserved; though they are quoted in the man-
uscript of the " Mordekai, " where Joel's " Yesod " and
" Perisliah " are also mentioned. It is difficult to de-
termine the nature of these two works, but they were
probably sljort commentaries to the Talmud. Many
of Joel's responsa and decisions are found in the
works of his son Eliezer; in the "Mordekai," whose
author was Eliezer's great-grandson ; as well as in
Isaac b. Moses' " Or Zarua' " and in Asher b.
Jehiel's halakot.

Joel's relation to Ephraim b. Isaac is noteworthy.
Although he was originally a pupil of this pecu-
liar man, he subsequently became his persistent an-
tagonist, the teacher assuming an attitude of exas-
peration toward his former pupil. Joel attempted
to uphold the authority of later tradition against
Ephraim's excessive independence; his manner was
very decisive, though he never forgot the respect
due to his old master.

Joel also wrote liturgical poems, of which six

have been preserved, and which all deal with the

bloody persecutions of the Jews of Germany.

Though simple in language and not very artistic in

form, they are touching dirges on the sorrows of

Israel.

Bibliography: Gross, in MnnatsschiHft, xxxiv. 314-316;
Brisch, Gesch. derjnden in Coin, pp. 48-49; Kohn, Mardo-
chai b. Ht!/e?, pp. 113-114, 132; Landshuth, 'Ammude ha-
"Abodah, pp. 81-82; Michael, Or ha-Hamiira, No. 1036; Zunz,
Literaturgesch. pp. 269-270 ; idem, S. P. pp. 251-252 (contains
a German transl. of a selihah by Joel) ; idem, Z. G. Index.

s. s. L. G.

JOEL B. JTJDAE SELKI HA-LEVI (LAM-
IVIEL ?) : Author of " Dibre halggeret." a descrip-
tion of the sufferings of the Jews of Glogau when
that town was besieged by the Prussians in the
winter of 1740-41. It was published at an un-
known place in 1741, but became so rare that many
of the bibliographers did not know of it. It was re-
cently reprinted by Joseph Fischer (Cracow, 1895)
together with Nathan Hannover's " Yewen Mezu-
lah,"' under the title "Shene Sefarim Niftahim."
In the "Dibre ha-Iggeret," which is written in the
style of piyyutim common to that period, the name
of the author occurs several times, but the surname
" Liimmel " is never added. At the end there is a
song by his brother Asher Lammel, who was a
(layyan in Glogau ; and this is probably the rea-
son why the name "Lammel " was added by Stein-
schneider to Joel's name.

s. s. P. Wi.

209

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joel, David
Joel, Manuel

JOEL, EARL: Gennaii philosophical writer;
born March 27, 1864, at Hirschberg, Silesia; son
of Rabbi II. JoOl of that city and nephew of David
and Manuel JoOl. Educated at the gymnasium of
his native town and the universities of Breslau
and Leipsic, he graduated as Ph.D. in 1886. The
following year he went to Basel, where he was
admitted to the philosophical faculty as privat-
docent in 1893, becoming assistant professor in 1897,
and professor in 1902.

Joiil lias written many philosopliical and philo-
sophico historical essays in specialist journals, as
the "Zeitschrift fiir Philosophie und Philosophisclie
Kritik " (vols, xcvii., cix. et seq.); "Archiv fur die
Gesch. der Philosophie " (vols, viii et seq.); " Woch-
enschrift fiir Clas.sische Pliilologie"; etc. He is
also the author of ; "Zur Erkenntnis der Geistigen
Entwicklung und der Schriftstellerischen Motive
Platos," Berlin, 1887; "Der Echte und der Xeuo-
phontische Sokrates, " vol. i. , ib. 1893; vol. ii., ib.
1901; "Philosophenwege," i^. 1901.

s. F. T. H.

JOEL, LEWIS : British consul-general to
Chile; born in Dublin 1824; died in London Feb.
28, 1899. lie was educated at Bristol ; in May, 1861,
was appointed unpaid British vice consul at Cobija;
and from Sept., 1863, to June, 1866, was acting
French consul there. In 1867 lie was for a short
time acting charge d'affaires at Caracas, and in the
following 3'ear was named commissioner in the
mi.xed British and Venezuelan commission for the
settlement of British claims against the government
of Venezuela. In 1869 Joel was again acting cliarge
d'aflaires as well as consul-general at Caracas, and
in the following year was promoted to be consul at
Rosario, a position which he occupied for seven
years. Subsequently he became consul successively
at Brindisi, Italy ; Georgia, U. S. ; and Cadiz, Spain ;
and he was then promoted to be consul general for
the departments of Panama, Bolivar, Magdalena,
and Cauca. Later on Joel became consul-general
to Chile, and had charge of the legation of Santi-
ago, from which he retired on a pension in Jan.",
1894.

Joel was the author of "A Consul's Manual."
London, 1879.

Bibliography: Jew. Hu-on. March 17. 1899; Times and other
London daily newspapers of same date.

J. G. L.

JOEL, MANUEL : German rabbi ; born Oct.
19, 1826, at Birnbaum, province of Posen; died at
Breslau Nov. 8, 1890; son of Rabbi Heimann Joel
of Birnbaum. In 1849 he went to the University
of Berlin to study classical philology and philosophy.
In 1852 JoCl passed his examination as "Oberlchrer,"
and took the Ph.D. degree at Halle in 1854. In that
year he accepted a call to the Jewisli Theological
Seminary of Breslau, where he tauglit for nine years.
In 1864 he was appointed successor to Abraham
Geiger, rabbi of the Breslau congregation.

Joel's first literary work consisted of biographies
of the most prominent followers of R. Akiba — R.
Mei'r, R. Simeon ben Yohai, R. Jose ben Halafta, and
R. Judah ben 'Ilai ("Monatsschrifr," 1855-57). His
preference, however, was for religious phflosopliv,
VII. — 14

Manuel Joel.

in which he was to do pioneer work. His series of
essays on Ibn Gabirol (" Mouatsschrift," 1857-59;
reprinted in his " Beitriige zur Gesch. der Philoso-
phic," 1876) was intended as a critical review of
Solomon ]VIuiik's "Melar.ges." He shows Ibn Gabi-
rol's "Mekor Hayyim " to be nothing but a text-book
of Neoplatonic philosophy, and that its author liad
no claim whatever to
originality. Joel then
turned his attention to
Maimonides, devoting
two papers to him, one
being a comprehensive
account of Maimon-
ides' system (" Die Re-
ligionsphiiosophie des
Moses ben Maimon,"
in the Breslau Jew.
Theol. Seminary Pro-
gram of 1859; re-
printed in "Beitrage,"
i.), the other proving
him to be one of the
sources of Albertus
Magnus (" Verhaltniss
Albert des Grossen zu

Maimonides," in the Breslau Jew. Theol. Seminary
Program of 1863 ; reprinted in his "Beitrage," i.).

After this Joel devoted himself to the exposition
of the systems of two almost forgotten Jewish phi-
losophers, Levi ben Gershon ("Levi b. Gerslion als
Religionsphilosoph," in "Beitrage," i.) and Hasdai
Crescas ("Don Chasdai Crescas' Religionsphilo-
sophische Lehren in Ihrem Geschichtlicheu Ein-
flusse Dargestellt,"iu "Beitrage," ii.). Inquiry into
the philosophy of the latter led Joel to the discov-
ery of Spinoza's dependence on Jewish thinkers
("Spinoza's Theologisch-Politischer Tractat auf
Seine Quellen Geprlift; zur Genesis der Lelire Spi-
noza's," in "Beitrage," ii.). Joel'sobject in his pub-
lications was twofold : first, he wished to make possi-
ble a better comprehension of the Jewish philosophy
of the Middle Ages; secondly, he desired to show the
iutluence which had been exerted by Jewish philos-
ophy on the Christian scholastics ("Etwas fiber den
Einfluss der Judischen Philosophie auf die Christ-
liche Scholastik," in "Beitrage," i.) and on the non-
Jewish world in general ("Ueber den Wissenschaft-
lichen Einfluss des Judenthums auf die Nicht-Jii-
dische Welt," in "Beitrage," ii.).

Of Joel's other publications the following may be
mentioned: "Zur Orientirung in der Cultusfrage "
(1867); " Festpredigten " (1867); "Notizen zum
Buche Daniel"; "Etwas fiber Sifra und Sifre"
( 1873) ; " Religiousphilosopliische Zeitf ragen" (1876) ;
"Gutachten iiber den Talmud" (1877); "Die An-
griffe des Ileidentliums Gegen Juden und Christen
in den Ersten Jahrhunderten der Romischen Ctcsa-
r.ii " (1879) ; " Blicke in die Religionsgesch. " (3 vols. ,
1880-83), a work of profoiuid research and of great
value for the student of Jewish and Christian lit-
erature of the first and second Christian and pre-
Christian centuries; "Gegen Gildemeister " (1884);
" Predigten aus dem Nachlasse von Dr. M. Joel "
(3 vols.. 1892-98). The "Jahrbuch fiir Jiidische
Geschichte und Litteratur," pp. 25-90, Berlin, 1904,

Joel ibn Shu'aib
Johanan b. Nappaha

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

210

contains a posthumous essay by Jo6l entitled " Der
Mosaismus und das Heidenthum."

Bibliography : GedenkbldlterzurErinnerung an Dr. Man-
uel Jiii'l, Breslau, 1890; J. Freudenthal, Ueher die Winsen-
gchaftUche Thatigkeit Dr. M. Jo'eVs, in AUg. Zeit. des Jud.
1890, pp. 589 et seq.; Eckstein, Zu Dr. M. JniTifJahrzeits-
tage, ib. 1891, p. 558; Meyerx Konversations-Lexikon.
s. B. Z.

JOEL IBN SHU'AIB. See Ibn Shu'aib,
Joel

JOHANAN B. BAROKA: Teacher of the sec-
ond century (second and third tannaitic periods);
disciple of Joshua b. Hananiah and colleague of
Eleazar b. Hisma (Tosef., Sotah, vii. 9; Hag. 3a).
He maintained a scholarly intercourse with Johanan
b. Nuri. Quite a considerable number of halakot
has been handed down in his name, and many of
them, particularly those concerning marital and
civil affairs, were adopted as law ('Er. viii. 2; B. K.
X. 2 ; B. B. viii. 5 ; Kelim, xvii. 11). He is also cited in
the Haggadah. According to him, the saying (Gen.
i. 28), "Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the
earth," implies that the duty of racial propagation
devolves upon woman as well as upon man (Yeb.
vi. 6). He taught that whoever profanes the name
of God, even secretly, is punished publicly, whether
the deed is committed intentionally or unintention-
ally (Ab. iv. 4; Ab. R. N., cd. Schechter, p. 35a).

Bibliography: Bacher. Ag. Tan. i. 448; Briill, Meho ha-
MiJihnah, i. 137 ; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 131; Weiss,
Dor, ii. 122.
S. s. S. M.

JOHANAN GADI (Greek, Ta66ii) ; Eldest of
the five sons of Mattathias the Maccabee (I Mace,
ii. 2; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 6, § 1), though the least
important. When Jonathan took the leadership
and was being hard pressed in the country east of
the Jordan, he sent Johanan with the baggage to
the friendly Nabataeans ; but another tribe, the sons
of Jambri, seized it and killed Johanan. His death
was avenged by his brothers Jonathan and Simeon
(I Mace. ix. 35-42; Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 1, §§ 2-3;
"B. J." 1. 1, g 6). This tragic end is in strong con-
trast to the surname "Gadi " (nj, meaning probably
" the Lucky "). The rabbinical sources ascribe more
importance to .lohanan, but these accounts are con-
fused (see "R. E. J." xxx. 215).

G. S. Kr.

JOHANAN B. GUDGADA: Scholar and
chief gatekeeper at the Temple in the last years of
its existence (Tosef., Shek. ii. 14); senior of Joshua
b. Hananiah. He survived the destruction of Jeru-
salem, and was present at the memorable sessions of
the Jabneh (.Jamnia) Sanhedrin that laid the founda-
tion of the Talmudic treatise ' Eduyot, and before
wliich he gave certain "evidences" (Yeb. xiv. 2;
Git. V. 5; comp. 'Eduy. vii. 9). One rabbinical
source makes of him a disciple of Gamaliel II. and
an expert mathematician (Ilor. 10a): but this evi-
dently rests on an error, j nn (= R. Joh.\nan b.
NuRi) having been mistaken for J't") (= R. Johanan
b. Gudgada). As it reads, the story is anachronis-
tic, since Johanan was older than Joshua, who was
the senior of Gamaliel. Of Johanan's life and work
nothing more is known than that he gave the above-
mentioned evidences (see also Hul. 55b), and that
he was a Habeu (Hag. ii. 7).

Two of Johanan's grandsons, or nephews, are
said to have lived in the days of Rabbi. They were
deaf-mutes, but regularly attended Rabbi's lec-
tures, and by the motions of their heads and lips
appeared to follow and understand him (Hag. 3a).
Now, as Johanan had reached the age of manhood
prior to the destruction of the Temple (70 c.e.), it
is chronologically incredible that his nephews, or
even his grandsons, should have attended Rabbi's
lectures in the last decades of the second century.
It might therefore be assumed that here also j' 3'-)
was misread y'3'~l, were it not that another, more
reliable source precludes that assumption. There
it is said: "The sons of Johanan b. Gudgada were
deaf-mutes; still they were entrusted with the direc-
tion of ritualistic matters in Jerusalem" (Tosef.,
Ter. i. 1 ; Yer. Ter. i. 40b). They were therefore
contemporaries of Joshua; and accordingly it maj
be conjectured that in the Babylonian version the
initial sign in "'""i (= R. Joshua) was converted into
the letter 2 ; hence the erroneous name '3"| (" Rabbi ").

Bibliography: BruU, Mebn ha-Mishnah, i. 93; Frankel,
Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 99 ; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dornt, ii., s.v.;
Weiss, Dor, ii. 122.
s. s. S. M.

JOHANAN BEN HA-HORANIT : Palestin-
ian tanna of the first generation ; disciple of Hillel
(according to Frankel, "Darke ha-Mishnah," p. 53,
note 8, a disciple of Shammai) and teacher of Eleazar
b. Zadok. Once, during a famine, his pupil Eleazar
found him eating dry bread with salt and told his
father thereof, whereupon the latter, a disciple of
Shammai, sent Johanan some olives. But Johanan,
noticing that the olives were wet, and therefore, ac-
cording to Hillel, liable to be unclean, refused to
eat them (Tosef., Suk. ii. 3; Yeb. 15b). It is also
recorded that a visit was paid to him, on the Feast
of Tabernacles, by the elders of both Hillel's and
Shammai 's schools (Suk. 28a; 'Er. 13b).

Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. ; Weiss, Dor,
i. 177.
S. S. M. Sel.

JOHANAN BEN ISAAC OF HOLLE-
SCHATJ : Rabbi of the German community of
London at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
He edited "Teshubot ha-Geonim," responsa of con-
temporary rabbis on the pronunciation of the divine
names, with additions of his own (Amsterdam, 1707),
and wrote "Ma'aseh Rab," in which he sharply crit-
icized the action of a certain London rabbi in regard
to a divorce and an excommunication (published
together with the preceding work). See Hambro'
Synagogue.

Bibliography: Fiirst, Bihi. Jud. s.v. HoJleschau, i. 405;
Steinsclineider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1397.
J. S. Man.

JOHANAN BEN JEHOIADA : High priest
under Artaxerxes Oclius (359-338 B.C.); perhaps
identical with the one mentioned in Neh. xii. 11
("Johanan " being read instead of "Jonathan") and
'22. He murdered his younger brother Jesus in the
Temple, probably fearing that, supported by the Per-
sian general Bagoas, whose favor he enjoyed, Jesus
would deprive him of the dignity of high priest
(Josephus, "Ant." xi. 7, ^ 1 ; see Artaxerxes III. ;
Bagoas). The incident is not historically authen-

211

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joel ibn Shi^'aib
Johanan b. Nappaha

ticati'd, the account being i)eihaps based upon events
that happened in the reign of Autiochus Epiphanes.
A similar story is narrated in Tosef., Yoma, i. 12;
Two brotiiers, both priests, attempted to ascend to
the altar at the same time, wJieu one stabbed the
other to the heart with a dagger. The high priest
Jaddua was the son of Johanan.
G. S. Kh.

JOHANAN BEN KAREAH (mp) : General
of the Israelites at the time of Nebuchadnezzar {c.
586 B.C.). After the kingdom of Judea had been des-
troyed by the Chaldeans, the Babylonian king ap-
pointed Gedaliah b. Ahikam governor, with resi-
dence at Mizpah, over the renmant of the people that
had remained in the country. Before him, as tlie rep-
resentative of the government, appeared the Israel-
itish generals Ishmael b. Nethaniah, Johanan and
Jonathan, the sons of Kareah, and others. This is
the reading of the Masoretic text (Jer. xl. 8), but
the name of Jonathan seems incorrect, and is omit-
ted in the Septuagint, in Josephus ("Ant." x. 9,
§ 2, where, furthermore, tlie name 'Ic^aSr/g, hence
"Joiada," replaces "Johanan" in Niese's text), and
also in II Kings xxv. 23.

The generals noticed that Ishmaelintended to kill
Gedaliah; and Johanan, who seems to liave had an
especial feeling of friendship for Gedaliah, volun-
teered secretly to kill Ishmael before it might be too
late; Gedaliah, however, would not con.sent (Jer. xl.
1.5-16). Ishmael carried out his intention, and Jo-
hanan b. Kareah, at the head of the other generals,
fought with Ishmael " by the great water in Glbeon."
The people who had been imprisoned by Ishmael at
once went over to Johanan, and Ishmael had to flee
(Jer. xli. 11-15). Johanan then gathered about him
the generals and all the people he had saved in the
hamlet of Chimham (Jer. xli. 17; Josephus, "Ant."
X. 9, § 5, has MdvSpa — "hamlet," the name appar-
ently having been lost), intending to lead them into
Egypt, beyond the reach of the Chaldeans. The
people sought counsel of Jeremiah, who advised
them, addressing himself chiefly to Johanan (Jer.
xlii. 8), to stay in the country. But the generals
and the much-tried people rejected the prophet's
advice, and emigrated to Egypt under Johanan's
leadership (Jer. xliii. 1-7). Here all trace of him is
lost.

G. S. Kr.

JOHANAN BEN MERITA: Palestinian
amora of the tifth or sixth generation (4th and 5th
cent.). Johanan is frequently mentioned in the Tal-
mud of Jerusalem in connection with both halakic and
haggadic subjects, instances of the latter, however,
predominating. In a controversy between R. Mana
and R. Hananiah as to whether any high place may
temporarily be used by a prophet as an altar, Jo-
hanan used Josh, viii. 30 and I Sam. vii. 9 to support
the affirmative opinion of Hananiah (Yer. Meg. i.
14; Lev. R. xxii. 6; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxvii. 6,
where tlie name "Jacob " occurs). He also trans-
mitted a haggadah of Johanan b. Nappaha (Yer.
Peah i. 1).

Bibliography: Baoher, Aq. Pal. Amor. iii. 722; Frankel,
Mcljo ha-Ycruslialmi. p. 97b.

S. S. M. Sel.

JOHANAN B. NAPPAHA (HA-NAPPAH):

Palestinian .scholar; born at Sejjphoris in the last
quarter of the second century ; died at Tiberias 279.
He is generally cited as "Johanan." but sometimes
by his cognomen only (Yer. R. II. ii. 58b; Sanh.
96a), which he himself uses once (Mak. 5b); but he
is never cited by both together. He traced his de-
scent from the tribe of Jo.seph (Ber. 20a), but he knew
neither of his parents, his father having died before,
and his mother at, his birth ; he was brought up by
his grandfather. His first teachers were the last
Tannaites or semi-Tannaites Yannai, Hanina b.
Hama, and Hoshaiah Ral)baii. For a short time he
also attended the lectures of Judali I. (Rabbi); but,
as he himself said, his acquaintance with Rabbi
was only slight (see Yer. Bezah v.
His 63a.) He mentions again his pupil-

Teachers, age under Rabbi in a reference to an
occasion when he sat seventeen rows
behind Rab (Abba Arika), and could not compre-
hend the discussions (Pes. 3b; Hul. 137b). But in
the short time he sat under him he is said to have
manifested such aptness as to convince Rabbi that
great things might reasonably be expected of him
(Yoma 82b). By Hanina he was instructed in the
homiletic interpretation of the Bible — except the
books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes (Yer. Hor. iii.
48b) — and probably in medicine, in which he be-
came skilled ('Ab. Zarah 28a).

Johanan liad an agreeable presence and a pleas-
ing disposition ; he was kind and considerate to the
stranger as well as to liis brethren ; to the non-ob-
servant as to the pious ; to the 'am ha-arez as to the
haber ; wherefore he was beloved by his teachers
and honored by all (B. M. 84a; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah iii.
42c; Meg. 10b, 16a; 'Ab. Zarah 26b; Yer. Dem. ii.
23a; Bek. 31a). For a time he subsisted on the pro-
ceeds of some arable laud, a vineyard, and an olive-
orchard, which he had inherited, and which he sold
one after another in order to obtain an education.
As he expressed it, he exchanged the things that
God created in six days for the things the delivery
of which required forty days (Ex. xx. 11, xxxiv.
28; Deut. ix. 10; Cant. R. viii. 7). But all his re-
sources having been at last exhausted, he was com-
pelled to follow some bread-winning occupation.
After a short time, however, he felt impelled to return
to his school, where he earned, not without a strug-
gle, the encomiums of his masters (Ta'an. 21a; Yeb.
57a ; Yer. Yeb. viii. 9b ; Yer. R. H. ii. 58a et seq. ; Shab.
ir2b; 'Er. 24a). At last, owing to the universal
homage paid to the young master, the patriarch ac-
corded him a pension, and soon a lecturer's place
was found for him.

Johanan began teaching at his native place, Sep-
phoris, and cjuickly became very popular there.
One day his former teacher Hanina noticed unusu-
ally large crowds hurrying toward one
His place. Inquiring the reason of his at-

Teaching'. tendant, he was told that Johanan was
to lecture at the college lately presided
over by R. Banna'ah, and that the people were
flocking to hear him. Hanina thereupon thanked
God for permitting him to see his life's work bear-
ing such blessed fruit (.see H.^nina b. Hama). How
long Johanan continued to act as teacher at Sepphoris

Johanan b. Nappaha
Johanan ha-Sandalar

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

212

can not be ascertained ; but he removed some time
before Hanina's death. They had disagreed on two
points of ritual, and Johanan, not wishing to oppose
ills master at his home, removed to Tiberias (Yer.
Bezah i. 60a; Yer. Sheb. ix. 38c, where the text is
mutilated). It is doubtful whether the two ever
met again. With his other teachers he maintained
intimate relations to the end of their days. This
was particularly the case with Hoshaiah. He, too,
removed from Sepphoris and settled at Csesarea,
where he opened a college and whither Johanan
often went from Tiberias to consult him on difticult
problems (Yer. Ter. x. 47a; Yer. Hal. i. 58b).
These visits to his aged teacher Johanan continued
during the last thirteen j'earsof Hoshaiah's life, but
they were merely social visits, Johanan no longer
needing Hoshaiah's help : " He that pays his respects
to his teacher is considered as one waiting on the
Divine Presence" (Yer. Sanh. xi. 30b).

At Tiberias Johanan opened an academy, which
soon drew large numbers of gifted students, native

and foreign, among whom were the

His great scholars Abbahu, Ammi, Assi

Pupils. II., Eleazar ben Pedath, Hiyya ben

Abba, Jose ben Hanina, and Simon ben
Abba; as many scores of his disciples accepted
and taught his decisions, and as he himself did not
confine his labors to the precincts of the college, but
visited and lectured at other places (Yeb. 64b; Ket.
7a), his fame spread far and wide, and his name more
than that of any other teacher was on the lips of
scholars. In the Diaspora, whither his teachings
were carried by his disciples, his authority was al-
most as great as in his native land, and few contem
porary scholars in Babylonia opposed him. As for
Johanan himself, he recognized no foreign authority
except that of Rab (Abba Aiuka). his senior school-
mate under Judah I. With Rab, Johanan kept up a
correspondence, and addressed him as "our master
in Babylonia." After Rab's death Johanan wrote to
Rab's colleague Samuel, but addressed him as "our
colleague in Babylonia." Samuel sent him a com-
plete calendar covering the intercalations for a
period of sixty years; Jolianan, however, admit-
ted merely that Samuel was a good mathematician.
But when Samuel transmitted to him a mass of dis
quisitions on tJie dietary laws, Johanan exclaimed,
"I still have a master in Babylonia! " He even re-
solved to pay him a visit, but rumor made him be-
lieve that Samuel had in the meantime died (Hul.
95 b).

Johanan pursued a strictly analytical method in
his studies of the Halakah. Penetrating deeply into
the sense of the Mishnah, and subjecting every part

toathorougli examination and careful
Halakic comparison witii more or less related
Method. laws, ho soon perceived that Rabbi's

compilation contained contradictory
decisions, based in many cases on the opinions of
individuals. These lie endeavored to reconcile; but
as that could not always be done, he jn-rforce re-
jected many halakot adopted in the Mi.^hnah, pre-
ferring the authority of baraitas taught l)y his
ff)rmer masters Hiyya and Hoshaiah. To carry out
liis line of thought systematically and consistently
be laid down certain rules for the final decision of

cases where two or more tannaim were found to
have entertained opposite opinions, or where hala-
kot are ascribed to recognized authorities, but
are in conflict with anonymous opinions given else-
where (see CoNFiJCT OF Opixion). Somc rules of
this kind had been devised before his, but had
proved insufficient. Johanan therefore elaborated
and supplemented them (see Yer. Ter. iii. 42a ; Shab.
39b; 'Er. iG&etseq. ; Yeb. 42b; Git. 75a), and most
of liis rules are to this day authoritative for the stu-
dent of Talmud. All of them were collected in the
geonic period and embodied in the so-called " Order of
the Tannaim and Amoraim " (D'K■)1D^<1 D'KJD "IID;
abridged, X IDD), which is ascribed to Naashon b.
Zadok of the ninth century (see Gratz, "Einleitung
in den Talmud von Ibn-Akuin," p. vii.). Later
Talmudists, seeing that Johanan was so prolific an
amora tliat his name is more frequently mentioned
in the Gemara than any other, ascribed to him the
compilation of the Palestinian Gemara (see IVIaimon-
ides, "Hakdamah," ed. Hamburger, p. 58, Berlin,
1902). Modern scholars for obvious reasons deny
this, but admit that he projected the compilation,
wliich, however, was not completed till over a cen-
tury after him (see Talmud Yerushalmi). The
Midrash to the Book of Psalms also has been errone-
ously ascribed to Johanan (see Buber, "Midrash
Tehillim," Introduction, p. 2a). He was one of the
most prolific haggadists.

In his religious decisions Johanan was compara-
tively liberal. He aided Judah II. in the repeal of
the prohibition against using oil made by pagans
('Ab. Zarah 36a) ; he permitted Greek to be studied
by men, because it enabled them to defend them-
selves against informers, and by women because
familiarity with that language is an
His attractive accomplishment in their sex

Decisions. (Yer. Peah i. 15c) ; he allowed the
painting of decorative figures on the
walls (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah iii. 42d). Under certain cir-
cumstances he permitted emigration from Palestine:
" If thou art mentioned [nominated by the Romans]
for office make the Jordan thy boundary friend [es-
cape over the Jordan], even on a semiholiday "
(Yer. M. K. ii. 81b).

Johanan is the subject of many legends (Ber. 5b;
Yer. Ber. v. 9a; Hag. 15b; B. K. 117a et seq.; B.
M. 84a; B. B. 75a), in which some further traits of
his are preserved. His servants he treated Avith
great kindness: "Did not he that made me in tlie
womb make him?" (Job xxxi 15; Yer. B. K. viii.
6c). He was blessed with many children, but lost
ten sous. The last one is said to have died by fall-
ing into a caldron of boiling water. The bereft
father preserved a joint of tlie victim's little finger,
which lie exhibited to mourners in order to inspire
resignation. " This is a bone from the body of my
tenth son," he would say (Ber. 5b; see Hiddushe
Geonim ad loc). However, he himself was not
I'esigned at the death of his brother-in-law Resh
Lakish, his fellow amora, whom he affectionatelj'
called " my counterpart " (njJ3Ci'— Ket. 54b, 84b).
He mourned for him longand deeply, weeping often
and crying, "Bar Lakish, where art thou? O Bar
Lakish ! " At last lie became melancholy, and for
three years and a half could not attend his college;

213

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Johanan b. Nappaha
Johanau ha-Sandalar

but it seems that he finally recovered his health and

resumed his labors (Yer. Meg. i. 72b; B. M. 84a).

On his deathbed he ordered tliat he should be

dressed neither in white nor in black, but in scarlet,

so that on awaking after death he would not feel

out of place in the company either of the pious or

of the wicked (Yer. Ket. xii. 35a; Gen. R. xcvi. 5).

Bibliography: Bacher, Aii. Pal Amor. i. 20.5-3:>9 ; Fran-
kel, Mcliii, iip. O.jh-lCl) ; (iriltz, (Jisch. 2d ed., iv. 2-'i~ ct seq. ;
Halevv. Durat }ia-Iiislii>iii>n, ii. 14i»b ct st'(i.: Hamburtrer, li.
B. T.: Heilprin. Seder )ia~D(ir< it. ii.; Jost, Gesch. ilcs Juden-
ttiums iinil Seiner Sekteit, ii. 149, pas.-iim: Weiss, Dar, iii.
69 ctscQ.
s. s. b. M.

JOHANAN B. HA-NAZUF : Friend of Ga-
maliel n. (first and second centuries). It is relatt'd
that H.vL.VFTA once went to Tiberias and found Ga-
maliel at the house of Johanan b. ha-Nazuf (= "the
e.xeonnnuuicated "), reading a targum of the Book
of Job. Halafta informed the patriarch that he had
been present at Jerusalem when a targum of the
same book was laid before his grandfather Gamaliel
I., and that that patriarch had ordered it entombed
in a wall. Thereupon the second Gamaliel also
ordered that the targum be suppressed (Tosef., Shab.
xiii. [xiv.] 2; Shab. 115a). This Johanan has been
identified by Levy ("Worterbuch," i. 470) and Ber-
liner ("Onkelos," ii. 90) with Johanan Sofer, scribe
or secretary to Gamaliel II. J. Derenbourg, how-
ever, thinks that he was the son of Eliezer b. Hyr-
canus, and, consequently, the nephew of Gamaliel II.
(" Magyar Zsido-Szemle," iii. [1885] 434 ;comp. Sanh.
68a). "

BiBi.ior,R.APHY : Grafz, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 373; Frankel, DfT?ff6
Iin-Mish))a}i. p. 57; Joel Miiller, Brief e und Respiin.ieii in
dcr Vonjadiu'ii.fclicii Literatur, pp. 7, 21, Note 29.
S. S. S. M.

JOHANAN B. NURI : Tanna of the first and
second centuries; junior of Gamaliel II. and senior
of Akiba (Sifra, Kedoshim, iv. 9; 'Ar. 16b; comp.
Sifre, Deut. 1). A great halakist, always provided
Avith satisfactory answers to all questions, he was
familiarly called " pedler's basket " or " bundle of
lialakot" (Ab. R. N. xviii. ; Git. 67a); the number
and diversity of lialakot cited under his name in the
Mishnah alone, about forty, justify those appella-
tions. Besides exhaustive rabbinical knowledge, he
acquired familiarity with the general science of his
time, especially geometry. It was said of him, as
of his colleague Eleazar b. Hisma, that he could ap-
proximately state tlie number of drops contained
in the sea; like Eleazar, also, he was very poor.
Through the influence of Joshua b. Hananiah both
Mere appointed by Gamaliel to remunerative ofilces
(see Ele.-vzau B. Hism.\; comp. Sifre, Deut.' 16).

Johanan showed himself grateful to Gamaliel.
When, after that patriarch's death, Joshua proposed
a change in a rule established by Gamaliel, Johanan
opposed him : " I have observed that the head is
always followed by the trunk; as long as Gamaliel
lived we observed the rule laid down by him, and
now you propose to veto his directions. Joshua, we
shall not barken to thee'' ('Er. 41a). Between him
and Halafta also intimate scholarly relations existed
(comp. Tosef., B. B. ii. 10 with B. B. 56b and
parallels).

In his discvissions of lialakot Johanan considered
expediency and economy as well as law and author

ity. When Tarfon declared that only olive-oil
was appropriate for tlie Sabbath-lamp, Johanan be-
came impatient: "And what shall the Babylonians
do where none but sesame oil is to be had; and
what shall the ^ledians do, who have nothing but
nut-oil; and the Alexandrians, who have nothing
but radish-oil; or the Cappadocians, who have only
naphtha?" (Shab. 26a). On another occasion, when
Akiba suggested that a married woman who has be-
come the common talk of tiie "spinsters by the
moon " ought to be divorced, Johanan remarked,
"In that case there is no chance for a daughter of
Judah to live with a husband! Only where infidel-
ity is fully established by legal evidence may a
divorce be imposed" (Git. 89a; see Deut. xix. 15,
xxiv. 1). In the Ilaggadah he is not often cited.
He was very pious, and therefore later rabbis said
that when one dreams of Johanan b. Nuri one may
hope to develop a wholesome fear of sin (Ab. R. N.
xl. [ed. Schechter, p. 64b]).

BiBi.ioGRAFHY : Bachef, ^y. Tan. i. 372; Briill, Mebu ha-
Mi^-ihiiah. i. 122; Frankel, Darhc het^Mishnah, p. 133; Ham-
burger, R. B. T.: Weiss, Dor., ii. 118.
s. S. S. M.

JOHANAN HA-SANDALAR ("the sandal-
maker"): Tanna of the second century; one of
Akiba's disciples that survived the Hadrianic perse-
cutions and transmitted the traditional law (Gen. R.
Ixi. 3; Eccl. R. xi. 6; comp. Yeb. 62b). With sev-
eral colleagues he repaired to the Valley of Rimmon
to institute a leap-year, and in the course of the dis-
cussions that ensued he betrayed considerable pas
sion. Mei'r had just cited an opinion which he
ascribed to Akiba, but the authenticity of which
Johanan denied, adding, " I have waited on R.
Akiba standing [by his side as an advanced student]
longer than thou didst sitting [as a mere hearer]."
The learned company took umbrage at this deroga-
tory remark, and murmured, "Johanan ha-Sandalar
is a true Alexandrian [given to gasconade]." The
incident, however, ended in reconciliation, and the
disputants did not leave the session without kiss-
ing each other (Yer. Hag. iii. 78d ; see Rapoport,
" 'Erek Millin," p. 102a). Because he is called here
"a true Alexandrian," it is assumed that he was a
native of Alexandria.

As a halakist he is sometimes cited in the Mishnah
(Yeb. xii. 5; Ket. v. 4; Kelim v. 5), and Simon b.
Gamaliel II. reports two lialakot from him (Tosef.,
Kelim, B. K. iv. 2, 5). To obtain an authoritative de-
cision in a doubtful case he once exposed himself to
great danger; it was during the Hadrianic persecu-
tions, when many rabbis had been put to death for
teaching Judaism, and Akiba was imprisoned and
awaiting his doom at the command of Ruf us. A mar-
ital question agitated the collegians, and Johanan
undertook to procure the closely guarded master's
advice upon it. Disguised as a pedler, he offered
some trifle for sale near the prison : " Who wants
needles? Who wants hooks? How about private
H.\Liz.\n?" Akiba, looking out through an aper
ture, said in reply, " Hast thou spindles? Hast thou
kasher? " (= " valid ! "—Yer. Yeb. xii. 12d). At one
time during the ])ersecutions, Johanan and Eleazar
I. (b. Shammua) left Palestine, intending to betake
themselves to Judah b. Bathyra in Nisibis; but they

Johanan b. Torta
Johanan b. Zakkai

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

214

did not carry out their intention. By the time they
arrived at Sidon they felt too lioniesick to proceed
any farther, and returned (Sifre, Deut. 80).

In the Haggadah Johanan is not mentioned, ex-
cept as author of the following maxim : •' Au assem-
bly that aims to glorify tlie name of the Omni-
present will have permanence, but one that does not
so aim will not endure" (Ab. iv. 11; comp. Ab. R.
N. xl. [ed. Schechter, pp. 64b, 65a]).
Bibliography : Bacher, Ao. Tan. ii. 365; Brull, Mebn ha-

MLshnah, i. 198; FrankeU Darke ha-Mifihnah, p. 175; Gratz,

Gc.sc/). 2d ed., iv. 17", 186; Weiss, Dur, ii. 166; Zacuto^ Yu-

hasin, p. 47a.

's. s. S. M.

JOHANAN B. TORTA : Scholar of the first
and second centuries; contemporary of Akiba.
When Akiba hailed Bar Kokba as the Messiah, the
latter exclaimed, "Akiba, grass will have grown out
of thy jaws ere the Son of David appears " (Yer.
Ta'an. viii. 68d; Lam. R. ii. 2). To a legend of a
cow that refused to work on a Sabbath, and thereby
caused the conversion of Johanan, who had been
a pagan, is referred Johanan's by-name "ben
Torta" (son of a cow; Pesik. R. xiv. 56b et seq.).
No halakot ai'e ascribed to him, and only one
haggadah bears his name: "Shiloh was destroj'ed
because there sacred things were treated contemp-
tuously " (see I Sam. ii. 17); "the first Jerusalem
Temple was destroyed because at the time people
perpetrated the sins of idolatry, incest, and blood-
shed. But we know that in the age of the later
Temple people studied the Law and carefully tithed
their produce : why then were they exiled ? Because
they loved Mammon and hated one another ! From
this we may learn that to hate man is grievous in
the eyes of the Omnipresent, and that it is para-
mount to idolatry, Incest, and bloodshed" (Tosef. ,
Men. xiii. 22; comp. Yoma 9a f< ser?.).

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 557 ; Gratz, Gesch. 2d ed.,
iv. 150; Heilprin, Seder ha-Doi'ot, ii. (see ib. s.v. Hanina h.
T(yrta).
6. s. S. M.

JOHANAN B. ZAKKAI : The most impor-
tant tanna in the last decade of the Second Temple,
and, after the destruction of Jerusalem, the founder
and first president of the academy at Jabneh. Ac-
cording to the theory formulated in the Mishnah
(Ab. ii. 8), that traditions were handed down
through an unbroken chain of scholars, Johanan, in
receiving the teachings of Hillel and Shammai,
formed the last link in that chain. But it is rather as
a pupil of Ilillel than of Shammai that he is known
(Suk. 28a). Before his death Hillel is said to have
prophetically designated Johanan, his youngest
pupil, as "the father of wisdom " and "the father of
coming generations " (Yer. Ned. v., end, 39b). Like
that of Hillel, Johanan's life was divided into
periods of forty years each. In the first of these
he followed a mercantile pursuit; in the second he
studied; and in the third he taught (R. H. 30b).
Another version has it (Sifre, Deut. 357) that in the
last forty years of his life he was a leader of Israel.
If the last statement be accepted as approximately
correct, and it is assumed that Jolianan lived at the
latest one decade after the destruction of Jerusa-
lem, his public activity as the recognized leader of
the phari.saic scribes must have begun between the
years 30 ^nd 40 of the common era.

Some data have been preserved concerning Jo-
hanan's public activity in Jerusalem before the de-
struction of the Temple. Together
Activity with Simon b. Gamaliel I. he sent

Before De- orders to the different districts of Pal-
struction estine concerning the delivery of the

of Temple, tithe (statement of his pupil Joshua
b. Nehunya in the Mekilta of Simeon
b. Yohai ; Midr. ha-Gadol to Deut. xxvi. 13). He re-
futed the objections of the Sadducees to the Pharisees
(Yad. iv. 5), and opposed the halakah of the Sad-
ducees (Men. 65a; B. B. 115b). He prevented a Sad-
ducean high priest from following the Sadducean
regulations at the burning of the red heifer (Tosef.,
Parah, iii. 8; comp. Parali iii. 7, 8). It was Johanan's
activity as a teacher in Jerusalem which was espe-
cially extolled by tradition. His school was called
the "great house," after the expression in II Kings
XXV. 9 (Yer. Meg. 73d). It was the scene of many
incidents that formed the subjects of anecdote and
legend (Lam. R. i. 12, passim; Gen. R. iv.). The
oft-repeated story concerning Johanan's most im-
portant pupil, Eliezer b. Hyrcanus, shows Johanan's
bet ha-midrash (academj-) as the scene of a pathetic
meeting between son and father (Tan., ed. Buber,
to Gen. xiv. 1). An old tradition (Pes. 26a) relates
that Johanan sat in the shadow of the Temple and
lectured the whole day ; but that of course was not
the permanent place for his teaching. The state-
ments regarding five of his pupils, his verdict con-
cerning them, and the question he put to them as to
the best road for a person to pursue through life
(Ab. ii. 8) are reminiscences of the period before the
destruction. Johanan's residence in 'Arab, a place
in Galilee, which was perhaps his home, belongs to
this period. Two questions of a legal

Residence nature (regarding the observance of
in the Sabbath) which he answered while

Galilee. there (Shab. xvi. 7, xxii. 3) gave rise
to the statement that he lived there
for eighteen years (probably a round number) and
that he was moved by the religious indifference of
the inhabitants to exclaim: "O Galilee, Galilee, thou
hatest the Torah; hence wilt thou fall into the
hands of robbers!" Another prophetical exclama-
tion of a similar nature is ascribed to Jolianan. The
gates of the Temple had ominously opened of them-
selves, whereupon he apostrophized the sanctuary:
"O Temple, Temple, why dost thou frighten thy-
self? I know of thee that thou shalt be destroyed;
Zechariah the son of Iddo [Zech. xi. 1] has already
prophesied concerning thee: 'Open thy doors, O
Lebanon, that the fire may devour thy cedars ' "
(Yoma39b; comp. Ab. R. N., Recension B, vii., ed.
Schechter, p. 21).

Johanan's part in the last struggle of Jerusalem
against Rome has been immortalized in the legends
concerning the destruction of that city, which, how-
ever, have a historical kernel (Git. 56b; Lam. R. i.
5; Ab. R. N. iv.). He counseled peace; and when
the strife of parties in the besieged city became un-
bearable he had himself carried to the Roman camp
in a coflin. Like Josephus, Johanan prophesied
imperial honors for the general Vespasian, quoting
the words of the prophet Isaiah : " Lebanon [that
is, the sanctuary] shall fall by a mighty one " (Isa.

215

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Johanan b. Torta
Johanan b. Zakkai

X. 34). He sought and obtained permission to settle
in Jabneh (Jamuia) and to exercise his profession of
teaclier there. In Jabneh, surrounded by his pupils,
Johanan received tlie terrible news that the Temple
was burned to ashes. They tore their garments,
wept, and made lamentation as for the dead (Ab. R.
N. iv.). But the aged master in the catastrophe
which had befallen the Jewish people
After the kept his vigor unimpaired. He con-
Destruc- verted the school at Jabneh into a
tion. center for Judaism in Palestine. The

college, of which he was president,
exercised the functions of the great law court (Sau-
hedrin) of Jerusalem, and by this institution of an
authorized board the continuity of spiritual leader-
ship was maintained uninterrupted. Johanan saw
to it that Jabneh took the place of Jerusalem as the
Jewish religious center. He ordained that certain
privileges peculiar to Jerusalem and the sanctuary
should be transferred to Jabneh (R. H. iv. 1, 3).
Other regulations of his dealt with the determina-
tion of the exact time when the new month begins
— a matter then
very important
— and with the
acceptance of
the testimony on
which such de-
termination is
based {ib. iv. 41 ;
Baraita, R. H.
21b). His order
that, as had been
customary in the
Temple, the
trumpets should
sound in Jabneh
on New-Year's
Day even when
it fell on the
Sabbath, was
opposed, but

unsuccessfully, bj^ some of the members of the
council (Baraita, R. H. 29b).

It is not known how long Johanan remained at
the head of the bet ha-midrash and of the legal
council. It may be accepted as certain that Johanan
was succeeded by Gamaliel II. while the former was
still living, inasmuch as he did not die in Jabneh ; for
it is related (Eccl. R. vii. 7; comp. Ab. R. N. xiv.)
that his pupils went to Jabneh after his death. And
furthermore, since a place, Bcrur Hayil, is mentioned
as the seat of a legal council over which Johanan
presided (Sanh. 32b; Sifre, Deut. 144), and at an-
other time it is related that Joshua b. Hananiah
visited his teacher in Berur Hayil (Tosef. , Ma'aser
al-Rishon, i. 1), it may be concluded tliat Johanan
spent the last years of his life and died at this place,
which was near Jabneh (concerning the name comp.
Krauss's conjecture in Berliner's "Magazin," xx.
119; Derenbourg, in "Monatsschrift," xxxvii. 304).
His pupils were present at his death. The solemn
conversation between the dying master and his dis-
ciples (Ber. 28b) begins with a question from tiie
latter: "Light of Israel, pillar of the sanctuary,
strong hammer, why dost thou weep?" These re-

Traditional Tomb of Johanan ben Zakkai, near Tiberias, witb tbe
Grave of Maimonides to the Right.

(From a photograph b}- Dr. W. Popper.)

markable epithets characterize the work of Johanan
and his importance for his period. The blessing
which just before his death he pronounced upon his
pupils at their desire consisted of the prayer: "May
it be God's will that the fear of heaven be as strong
in you as the fear of flesh and blood" (ib.). His
last words were; " Put tlie vessels out of the house,
that they may not become unclean, and prepare a
throne for Hezekiah, the King of Judah, who is
coming" {ih.). By this puzzling reference to Heze-
kiah, Johanan plainly meant the coming of the Mes-
siah, of which he was thinking in his last moments.
A son of Johanan died before him (Ab. R. N. xiv.,
end). In one anecdote (B. B. 10b) his sister's sons
are mentioned. One of these nephews, Ben Batiah,
is named as one of the Zealot leaders (Lam. R. to i.
4; Jew. Encyc. ii. 673).

Johanan ben Zakkai's motto was, "If thou hast
learned much of the Torah, do not take credit for it;
for this was the purpose of thy creation " (Ab. ii. 8).
He found his real calling in the study of the Law.
The following description of him was handed down

by tradition
(Suk. 28a): "He
never spoke an
idle word ; he
did not go four
yards without
reflecting on the
Torah and with-
out the phylac-
teries ; no one
ever preceded
him in entering
the bet ha-mid-
rash ; he never
slept in the bet
ha-midrash, and
was always the
last to leave it;
no one ever
found him en-
gaged in anything but study." His knowledge
was spoken of as though it included the whole of
Jewish learning (Ab. R. N. xiv., end;
His Suk. 28a; B. B. 134a; Masseket Sofe-

Teaching. rim xvi. 8). He advises a priestly fam-
ily in Jerusalem, the members of which
died young, to occupy itself with tiic study of the
Torah so as to ward oft' the curse of dying in the
prime of life, which is laid upon the descendants of
Eli (from whom they may have descended) in I Sam.
ii. 23 (R. H. 18a). He, however, warned against a
one-sided devotion to study, as in his verdict con-
cerning scholars and those free of sin: "Whoever
possesses both these characteristics at the same time
is like an artist who has his tools in his hands " (Ab.
R. N. xxii.).

In the halakic tradition .Fohanan is but seldom re-
ferred to as an originator of maxims. His halakah
is doubtless to be found in that of Hillel's school
and in the sayings of his pupils, especially of Elie-
zer and Joshua. The haggadic tradition, on the
other hand, connects numerous and varied sayings
with his name. Mention may first be made of con-
versations between him and his pupils, or between

Johanan b. Zakkai
Joblsou

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

216

him and unbelievers who were versed in the Bible,
in which questions of textual interpretation were
discussed. At one time he asked his pupils what
the words in Prov. xiv. 34 meant (Pesik., ed. Buber,

12b; comp. B. B. 10b, where the ac-

His counts of two conversations have been

Exegesis, confused). He himself interpreted

them as follows : " Benevolence [hesed]
on the part of a nation has the atoning power of a
sin-offering " (B. B. I.e.). In the same sense he inter-
preted the words of the prophet (Hosea vi. 6), "I de-
sired mercy [hesed], and not sacrifice," with which
he comforted his pupils for the destruction of the
Temple and the discontinuance of the sacrifice of
atonement (Ab. R. N. iv.). He answered several
questions of a polemical tendency put by a Roman
commander (vjf/x(Ji'). who can not be identified owing
to the different ways in which his name is writ-
ten. These questions referred to the contradiction
between the figures in Num. ill. 22, 28, 34 and the
total sum in verse 39 of the same chapter (Bek. 5b),
between Ex. xxxviii. 26 and 27 (I'b.), and between
Gen. 1. 20 and ii. 19 (Hul. 27b); also to the legal
regulation in Ex. xxi. 29 (Yer. Sanh. 19b), and to
the law concerning the red heifer (Pesik. 40a). In
connection with the last-mentioned question Jolianan
refers the Gentile to a Gentile analogy : Just as the
evil spirit is driven out of a person possessed through
burning certain roots and by other means, so the
process of purification drives out the "unclean
spirit " (Zech. xiii. 2). To his pupils, however, wiio
were not satisfied with this answer, he said: "By
your lives, death does not make Impure, nor water
clean; but it [the law concerning the red heifer] is
a decree of the All Holy, whose reasons we must not
question " (comp. Lazarus, "DieEthik des Juden-
thums," i. 189, 246).

A special group of Johanan's haggadic text inter-
pretations is given the name "homer," which term
is related to the designation " doreshe
The hamurot," applied to the ancient ex-

Homer. positors of the Bible. In this group
the interpretations are symbolic, seek-
ing to penetrate into the spirit of the Bible text.

One source (Tosef., B. K. vii. 3 et seq.) puts five such explana-
tions of Jolianan together. They answer the following ques-
tions: "Why is the ear of a Hebrew slave bored who volun-
tarily refuses to be made free?" (Ex. xxi. 6; comp. Kid. 22b).
" Why is iron excluded from the building material of the altar ? "
(Ex. XX. 25; Deut. xxvii. 5; comp. Mek., Yitro, Bahodesh, 11).
" What does the remarkable word 'asher' in Lev. iv. 23 mean ? "
(comp. Hor. 10b). "Why was Israel exiled specially to Bab-
ylon ? " (comp. Pes. 87b). " Why were only the first tables of
the testimony, and not the second, considered to be the work of
God?" (Ex. xxxii. 16).

Besides the explanations to these questions, Johanan gave
others of a similar character. He explained why a thief is
punished more severely than a robber (B. K. 79b), and by ex-
plaining the Biblical numbers symbolically he answered the
question : " Why does the Ccrlpture [Ex. xxii. 1] ordain fivefold
restitution for an ox and only fourfold for a sheep?" (ih.).
The forty days of rain during the Flood which destroyed sinful
man ((Jen. vii. 12) corresponded, he said, to the forty days of
the formation of the human embryo (Gen. R. xxxii.). The ten
gerah (= a half-shekel) of the atonement money (Ex. xxx. 13)
corresponded to the Ten Commandments, for the transgression
for which atonement is to be made (I'esik. 19b).
Among other things Johanan explained the following :
The exhortation to those who are freed from military service
to return home (Deut. xx. 5-7):— this, he said, wns given in
order that the cities of Israel might not become depopulated in
times of war (Slfre, Deut. 192). The passage Gen. ii. 19:— he

does not find that the account of the creation of the animals Is
here repeated but that their subiection to man is described
(Gen. R. xvii). The words "And the eyes of them both were
opened " ((ien. iii. 7) :— this means that God opened their eyes to
the evil they had brought upon future generations (Gen. R.
xix.). Abraham's vision of the future (Gen. xv. 18):- this
showed Abraham the present world only, not the future one
(Gen. R. xliv.).

Johanan's views on piety (comp. his motto given
above) correspond to his teaching that Job's piety
was not based on tlie love of God, but on the fear of
Him (Job i. 1 ; Sotah v. 5, reported by Joshua b.
Hananiah). He explains the exhortation in Eccl. ix.
8 allegorically: "White garments and costly oils
are not meant here," he says (Eccl. R. ix. 6), "for
the Gentile peoples have these in plenty: it is rather
an exhortation to fulfil the Law, to do good deeds,
and to study the Scriptures."

In a tradition concerning the knowledge of eso-
teric doctrines ("Ma'aseh Bereshit " and "Ma'aseh
Merkabah"), related by Jose b. Judah, a tanna of
the second half of the second century, it is said that
Joshua b. Hananiah, the pupil of Johanan, under
the eye of his master occupied himself with eso-
teric doctrines and that Akiba learned them from
him (Hag. 14b). According to another tradition (i6.),
it was Eleazar b. 'Arak with whom
Esoteric Johanan studied the mystic doctrines.
Doctrines. A remarkable saying of Johanan's has
been preserved, which is in accord
with his study of mystic doctrines (Hag. 13a; comp.
Pes. 94b). In this saying man is advised to bring
the infinity of God, the Creator of the world, nearer
to his own conception by imagining the space of the
cosmos extended to unthinkable distances.

In conclusion may be mentioned the historical
meaning which Johanan, on a certain sad occurrence,
gave to a verse of the Song of Solomon (Yitro,
Bahodesh, 1). In Ma'on, a town of southern Judea,
Johanan saw, probably not long after the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, a young Jewess picking out
grains of barley from the ordure of an Arab's horse,
in order to still her hunger. Johanan said to his
pupils who were with him: "My whole life long I
have tried to understand that sentence in the Song of
Solomon [i. 8] : 'If thou know not, O thou fairest
among women,' etc. Now for the first time I catch
its meaning: 'You did not wish '—so goes the word
reproving Israel—' to submit to God ; hence you are
made subject to foreign peoples. You did not wish
to pay God a half -shekel for each person ; now you
pay 15 shekels to the government of your enemies.
You did not wish to repair the roads and streets for
the holiday pilgrims; you must now repair the
road-houses and watch-towers for your oppressors.
And in you is fulfilled the prophecy [Deut. xviii.
47-48, R. V.]: Because thou servedst not the Lord
thy God witli joyfulness, and with gladness of heart,
by reason of the abundance of all things, therefore
shalt thou serve thine enemies, which the Lord shall
send against thee, in hunger and in thirst, and in
nakedness, and in want of all things.' "

Johanan felt the fall of liis people more deeply
than any one else, but— and in this lies his historical
importance— he did more than any one else to pre-
pare the way for Israel to rise again.
BiBi.ior.RAPHY : Frankel, Mcho; Griitz, Gesc^i. ill.; Weiss. Oor,
1.; BruU, Einleituiig ; Derenbourg, HMoire ; Bacher, Ag. Pal.

217

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Johanan b. Zakkai
Johlson

Tannaiten, 2d ed., i. 22 42; W. Landau, in Monatsschrift. i.
1()3; Joseph Spitz, R. Jodianan b. Zakkai. 1883; ScJilatter,
Jochanan b. Zakkai, der Zeitgenosse tier Apostel, 1899.
s. s. W. B.

JOHANNES DE CAPUA. See John of
Capua.

JOHANNES HISPALENSIS : Baptized Jew
who nourished between 1135 and 1153; his Jewish
name is unknown and has been corrupted into
"Avendeut,""Avendehut" = "AvenDaud," "Aven-
dar." He was a native of Toledo, and hence is
called also Johannes (David) Toletanus. He was
one of the earliest translators from the Arabic. As
Steinschneider— who was the first to determine his
identity— has shown, he was for a time associated
with the archdeacon Dominieus Gundisalvi, for
whom he probably interpreted the few translations
ascribed to that cleric.

Johannes translated principally astrological and
astronomical, likewise some philosophical and a few
medical works. Witli Gundisalvi's assistance he
translated Gabirol's " Fons Vitoe " from the Arabic
into Latin. In 1142 Johannes compiled from Arabic
sources his "Epitome Totius Astrologiae," Nurem-
berg, 1548. Johannes Hispalensis must be distin-
guished from the archbishop John of Seville, who
corresponded with Hugo a St. Victor.

Bibliography : Steinschneider. Cat. Bndl. col. 1402 ; Idem,
Hebr. Uebers. pp. 281 et seq., 380. 582, 981 et seq.
G. M. K.

JOHANNES PAULI: German humorist and
convert to Christianity; born about 1455; died at
Thann 1530. He became a distinguished preacher
of the Franciscan Order at Oppenheim and Stras-
burg, at which latter place he took notes of Geiler's
sermons, which he edited at Schlettstadt 1517. He
is known chiefly, however, for his collection of jests
under the title " Schimpf und Ernst " (Thann, 1519),
which W'Cnt through innumerable editions, imita-
tions, and explanations, making it the "Joe Miller"
of Germany. Some of his stories were taken over
into the " Hundred Merry Tales " used by Shake-
speare.

Bibliography : Veith, Ueber deii Barf Usser Johannes Patdi,
Vienna, 1839; H. Oesterley, introduction to Schimpf und
Ernst, 1863; idem, in AUg. Deutsche Biographic.
G. J.

JOHANNES (DAVID) TOLETANUS. See

Johannes Hispalensis.

JOHANNESBURG : Largest city in the Trans-
vaal and principal center of Jewish life in South
Africa. The Jewish community there is estimated
at 12,000 in a total population of 120,000— the largest
relative number, outside of Aden and Gibraltar, in
the entire British empire. From its foundation,
immediately upon the discovery of the Witwaters-
rand gold-fields at the end of 1885, Jews have
formed about 10 per cent of the white population.
The first attempts at religious organization took
place July 10, 1887, when about eighty -eight pio-
neers, mostly from the Barberton gold-fields, the
Kimberley diamond-fields, the coast towns, Eng-
land, and Australia, formed the Witwatersraud Gold-
Fields' Jewish Association. A death having occurred
as early as May 12, 1887, the Boer government made
a grant of the present .lewish cemetery, in which,
up to the end of 1903, 829 burials had taken place.

During the greater festivals of 1887 tiie Rev. Joel
Rabbiiiowitz of Cape Town conducted the services.
On Jan. 29, 1888, the association bought two build-
ing-plots on President street for a synagogue, and
at the same time changed its name to " Witwaters-
raud Hebrew Congregation." The Rev. Mark L.
Harris of Kimberley, who preached at tiie laying of
the foundation-stone (Nov. 9, 1888), was elected
rabbi, retaining that post till March 31, 1898. He
was succeeded by the Rev. W. Wolf (reader) and
Dr. J. H. Hertz (rabbi).

In 1891 two secessions occurred: a small Russian
section formed the Bet ha-Midrash, with mikweh,
synagogue, and dayyan (Rabbi Dagutzky, succeeded
by Rev. M. Friedman) ; and a larger Anglo-German-
Polish section constituted the Johannesburg Hebrew
Congregation. The senior body in consequence in-
serted the word " Old " in its name. The new con-
gregation obtained from the government a free grant
of valuable ground on which it erected a .synagogue,
which President Kruger, delivering bareheaded a
speech in Dutch, declared open "in the name of our
Lord Jesus Christ." The Rev. P. AVolfers became
its rabbi, and was succeeded by the Revs. H. Isaacs,
David Wasserzug, S. Manne (reader since 1899), and
Dr. J. L. Landau (since 1903). The membership
of the two larger synagogues is about 450 each.
There is also a synagogue in the suburb of Jeppes-
town (1903), as well as various "hebrot" in Fereiras
Township and in the suburb of Fordsburg. A Re-
form congregation — the Rand Modern Hebrew con-
gregation— formed on semi-American lines, dissolved
after a few months' existence in 1898-99.

Johannesburg has a ladies' benevolent society ; a
flourishing Gemilut Hasadim society for free loans
to deserving poor; the Jewish Ladies' Communal
League (maintains the South -African Jewish Orphan-
age) ; the Jewish Guild, a young people's charitable
and literary society; a Talmud Torah; religious
classes in connection with the English congregations ;
a Jewish social club; several Yiddish newspapers;
and, intermittently, a Yiddish theater. The Wit-
watersraud Jewish Helping Hand and Burial Soci-
ety, founded in 1887, combines the functions of a
hebra kaddisha with those of a "United Hebrew
Charities," has a membership of two thousand, and an
income (July, 1902-Juue, 1903) of £4,801, with an
expenditure of £3,972. The Jewish Scliool, with
an attendance of 400, is subsidized by the British
government. Johannesburg is the seat of the exec-
utive of the JewLsh Board of Deputies for the Trans-
vaal and Natal, of the South-African Zionist Feder-
ation, and of the Transvaal Zionist Association.
The Jewish population has always formed an integral
portion of the business, intellectual, social, and polit-
ical life of the city. Since the British occupation,
Johannesburg Jews have sat in the Legislative
Council of the Transvaal. See South Africa.

Bibliography: Souvenir of the Decennial Celebrntion of
the Witxratersrand Old Hebreiv Conqregation, 1898 : Joel
Rabbinowitz, Earlii Hi.Morn of the Witu-atcr^rand Old He-
brew Congregation. Cape Town, 1899; Jew. Chron. (various
dates).
.1. J. H. H.

JOHLSON, JOSEPH (Asher ben Joseph
Fulda) : German Bible translator and writer on
educational topics; born in 1777 at Fulda; died at

John

John Casimir

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

218

Frankfort-on-the-Main June 13, 1851. He -svas
sometimes called "Fulda," after his native place,
where his father was acting rabbi. In 1813 he was
called to Frankfort as teacher at the Philanthropin,
the recenth' founded Jewish school. He introduced
systematic religious instruction, and in 1814, devo-
tional exercises in connection with the school. He
published the Twelve Minor Prophets, Carlsruhe,
1827, and "Die Heiligen Schriften der Israeliten:
Nach dem ^lasoretischen Texte Wortgetreu Ueber-
setzt" (Genesis to Kings, 1831-36). Johlson's chief
work was "Alume Yosef," an elementary book for
Jewish schools, consisting of : (a) " Shoroshe ha-Dat, "
lessoHS in the Mosaic religion, 1814 (4th ed. 1840) ; (b)
" Shire Yeshurun, " Hebrew hymn-book, 1816 (4th ed. ,
containing 600 hymns, 1840)'; (c) "Toledot Abot,"a
chronologically arranged Bible history, 1820 (2d ed.,
1839). He wrote also : '' Yesod ha-Lashon, " a Hebrew
grammar for schools (1833); " 'Erek Millin," a Bib-
lical Hebrew dictionary, with the corresponding syn-
onyms, 1840; and, under the pen-name " Bar Amit-
tai,""Ueber die Beschneidung in Hi-storischer und
Dogmatischer Hinsicht " (1843). Several letters ad-
dressed by him to L. Zunz have been published by
S. Maybaum in the twelfth report of the " Lehran-
stalt f llr die Wissenschaft des Judenthums in Berlin. "

Bibliography: Allg. Zeit. de.<! Jiid. xv. .3.57; Jost, Neitere
Gesch. iler Israeliten, iii. 17, 47 et seq. ; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ii.
99 et seq.
s. M. K.

JOHN. See New Testament.

JOHN ALBERT (Jan Albrecht or 01-
bracht) : King of Poland (1492-1501). He ascended
the throne of Poland in the same j'ear in which his
brother Alexander Jagellon became grand duke of
Lithuania. The one-sided training received by John
Albert .showed itself in his attitude toward the
Jews. He placed Buonocorsi Callimachus at the
head of his advisers, who were as unpopular as
the king himself. The hatred of the Jews instilled
into him in his boyhood and youth by his teachers
Buonocorsi and John Dlugosz led him to adopt re-
pressive measures toward the Jews, although he had
at first confirmed the privileges granted them b}' his
father, Casimir IV. He ratified at the general diet
of Petrokov (1496) the Nyeshav statute limiting
the rights of the Jews. To him is also ascribed the
creation of the first ghetto in Poland. In 1494 a
conflagration destroyed the greater part of Cracow,
and the mob availed itself of the opportunity to
plunder the Jewish houses. In consequence of this
the king ordered that the Jews, who were then scat-
tered throughout the city, should move to Kazi-
mierz, a suburb of Cracow, and there live alone.
From that time Kaziniierz became an isolated Jew-
ish town, which had for centuries a life of its own,
connected with the outer world only by economic
interests. On the expulsion of the Jews from Lith-
uania (1495) by Alexander Jagellon, John Albert
allowed them to settle in Ratno and its vicinity;
later he extended their right of residence to all
Polish towns already inhabited by Jews.

Bibliography: Cromer, De OHoine. etc., p. 439; M. Blelski,
Kinnika Pulskn,p. 893; Volumina Legum. I.; Sternberij.
Gesch. der Ju<Un in Polen, p. 106, Lelpslc, 1878; Dubnow,
1 evreiskaya latoriya, I. 240, Odessa, 1896.

«• R- J. G. L.

JOHN THE BAPTIST: Essene saint and
preacher; flourished between 20and30c.E. ; fore-
runner of Jesus of Nazareth and originator of the
Christian movement. Of his life and character Jo-
sephus ("Ant." xviii. 5, § 2) says:

" He was a good man [comp. ib. 1, § 5], who admonished the
Jews to practise abstinence [aperriv = " Pharisaic virtue " = " pe-
rishut " : comp. " B. J." ii. 8, § 2], lead a life of righteousness
toward one another and of piety [euo-e^eiai- = " religious devo-
tion"] toward God, and then join him in the rite of bathing
[baptism] ; for, said he, thus would baptism be acceptable to
Him [God] if they would use it not simply for the putting away
of certain sins [comp. II. Sam. .xi. 4] or in the case of proselytes
[see Sotah 12b; comp. Gen. R. i.], but for the sanctiflcation of
the body after the soul had beforehand been thoroughly purified
by righteousness. The people flocked in crowds to him, being
stirred by his addresses. King Herod Antipas. fearing lest the
great influence John had over the people might be used by him
to raise a rebellion, sent him to the fortress of Macherus as a
prisoner, and had him put to death.

"The people in their indignation over this atrocious act beheld
in the destruction which came soon afterward upon the army of
Herod a divine punishment."

John the Baptist was made the subject of a legend-
ary narrative embodied in Luke i. 5-25, 57-80, and iii.
1-20, according to which he was the sou of Zacha-
rias, a priest of the section of Abia, and of Elisa-
beth, also of priestly descent, and was born in their
old age. The angel Gabriel announced John's
birth to Zacharias while that priest stood at the
altar offering incense, and told him that this child
would be a Nazarite for life ("nezir 'olam"; Na-
zir i. 2); filled with the Holy Spirit from his
mother's womb, he would be called upon to con-
vert the children of Israel to God, and with the
power of Ehjah would turn the hearts of the
fathers to the children while preparing the people
for the Lord (Mai. iii. 24 [A. V. iv. 6]). Zacharias,
hesitating to believe the message, was struck dumb,
and his mouth was opened again only after the
birth of the child, when at the circumcision a name
was to be given him; then he answered simultane-
ously with his wife that he should be called "John,"
as the angel had foretold. Zacharias, filled with the
Holy Spirit, blessed God for the redemption of the
people of Israel from the hand of their enemies (the
Romans) through the house of David (a Messianic
view altogether at variance with the New Testa-
ment conception), and prophesied that the child
John should be called " Prophet of the

Legend Highest," one that would show how
of Birth, salvation should be obtained by remis-
sion of sins (through baptism ; comp.
Midr. Teh. to Ps. cxix. 76), so that through him a
light from on high would be brought to "those that
sit in darkness."

John remained hidden in the desert until, in the
fifteenth year of Tiberius, the word of God came to
him, and he stepped forth, saying in the words of Isa.
xl. 2-5: "Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is
at hand " (Matt. iii. 2), and preaching to the people to
undergo baptism in repentance for the remission of
their sins, and instead of relying on the merit of
their father Abraham like hypocrites ("many-col-
ored vipers"; see Hypocrisy), to prepare for the
coming day of judgment and its fiery wrath by fruits
of righteousness, sharing their coats and their meat
with those that had none. To the publicans also
he preached the same, telling them to exact no more

219

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

John

John Casimir

taxes than those prescribed; to the soldiers he de-
clared that they should avoid violence and calumny
(as informers) and be content with their wages.
(The sermon of John the Baptist given here
is obviously original with him, and the similar
one of Jesus, Matt. xii. 33-34, xxiii. 33, is based
thereon.) When asked whether he was the Messiah,
he answered that with his baptism of repentance
he would only prepare the people for the time
when the Messiah would come as judge to baptize
them with fire, to winnow them and burn the chaff
with fire unquenchable (the fire of Gehenna ; comp.
Sibyllines, iii. 286; Enoch, xlv. 3, Iv. 4, Ixi. 8)— a
conception of the Messiah which is widely different
from the one which saw the Messiah in Jesus.

Among the many that came to the Jordan to
■undergo the rite of baptism in response to the call
of John, was Jesus of Nazareth, and the influence
wrought through him created a new epoch in those
circles among which Christianity arose, so that
henceforth the whole life-work of John the Baptist
was given a new meaning — as if in his Messianic ex-
pectations he had Jesus in view as the true Messiah
(see Matt. iii. 14; John i. 26-36).

John the Baptist was regarded by the multitude

as a great prophet (Matt. xiv. 5; Mark xi. 32).

His powerful appeal (see Matt. xi. 12)

His Ap- and his whole appearance reminded
pearance. the people forcibly of Elijah the
prophet; "he wore raiment of camel's
hair, and a leathern girdle about his loins ; and his
meat was locusts and wild honey " (Matt. iii. 4 ;
comp. xi. 7-8). He stationed himself near some
water-fountain to baptize the people, at Bethabara
(John i. 28) or ^non (John iii. 23). While he
*' preached good tidings unto the people" (Luke iii.
18), that is, announced to them that the redemption
"was at hand, he made his disciples prepare for it by
fasting (Matt. ix. 14, xi. 18, and parallel passages).
The prayer he taught his disciples was probably
similar to the so-called Lord's Prayer (Luke xi. 1).
John, however, provoked the wrath of King Herod
because in his addresses he reproached the king for
having married Herodias, his brother Philip's wife,
and for all the evil things he had done. Herod there-
fore sent for him and put him in prison. It was
while in prison that John heard of the work of
preaching or healing done by Jesus (Matt. xi. 2-19;
Luke vii. 18-35). Herod was afraid of the multi-
tude and would not put John to death ; but Herodias,
says the legend (Matt. xiv. 6; Mark vi. Id et seq.),
had plotted revenge, and when on Herod's birthday
a feast was given at which Herodias' daughter in-
gratiated herself into his favor by her dancing, she,
at the instigation of her mother, asked that the head
of John the Baptist be given heron a charger, and the
cruel petition was granted. John's disciples came
and buried his body.

The influence and power of John continued after
his death, and his fame was not obscured by that of
Jesus, who was taken by Herod to be John risen
from the dead (Matt. xiv. 1-2 and parallel pas-
sages). His teaching of righteousness (Matt. xxi. 32)
and his baptism (Luke vii. 29) created a movement
which by no means ended with the appearance of
Jesus. There were many who, like Apollos of Al-

exandria in Ephesus, preached only the baptism of
John, and their little band gradually merged into
Christianity (Acts xviii. 25, xix. 1-7). Some of the
disciples of John placed their master above Jesus.
John had thirty apostles, of whom Simon Magus
claimed to be the chief (Clementine, Recognitions,
i. 60, ii. 8; ib. Homilies, ii. 23).

No doubt along the Jordan the work begun by
John the Baptist was continued by his disciples, and
later the Mandanans, called also "Sabians" (from
" zaba' " = " to baptize ") and " Christians according
to John," retained many traditions about him (see
Brandt," Die Mandaische Religion," pp. 137, 218, 228 ;
"Mandaer," in Herzog-Hauck, "Real-Encyc").

BiBLioCtRAPHY : Hefzog-Haiick, Real-Encyc. s.v. Johannes
der Ttttifer (where tbe whole literature is^iven); Soltau, in
Vierteljahrschriftfilr Bihelkunde, 190:3, pp. 37 ct sea.

JOHN OF CAPUA: Italian convert to Chris-
tianity, and translator; flourished between 1262 and
1269. He translated Rabbi Joel's Hebrew version
of " Kalilah wa-Dimnah " into Latin under the title
" Directorium Vite Humane " ; and his translation was
the source from which that work became so widely
spread in almost all European tongues (see Jacobs,
"Fables of Bidpai," Table of Versions, 1887). It
was edited by Joseph Derenbourg (Paris, 1887).
John of Capua translated also Maimonides' " Diet-
ary " (Steinschneider, "Hebr. Bibl." xi. 76), and Ibn
Zuhr's (Avenzoar's) "Al-Taisir," on diseases.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 748, 772,

875.

E. C. J.

JOHN CASIMIR: King of Poland (1648-68).
He was elected to the throne with the aid of Chniiel-
nicki, who after the election returned to the Ukraine.
To the commission sent to him by the king he dic-
tated that no Jew should be allowed on the Cos-
s.\CKS' lands. When the Jews who had escaped the
Cossack massacres returned to the country John Casi-
mir allowed those who had been baptized by the
Cossacks under fear of death to return to Ju-
daism. He could do that without conscientious
scruples, for, although he w'as a Jesuit, he did
not recognize the validity of the Greek Orthodox
faith, to which the Jews had been converted by
force during the Cossack uprising. This privi-
lege was especially sought by the Jewish women
who had been compelled to marry Zaporogians.
Hundreds of Jewish children who had lost their
parents and relatives were brought back to Juda-
ism ; and in order to prevent marriage between near
relatives, the Jews took pains to ascertain the de-
scent of such children, and supplied them with
parchment-rolls containing records thereof, which
they hung around their necks. In 1651 Chmiel-
NiCKi renewed the war on the Jews.

John Casimir confirmed, Feb. 17, 1649, the privi-
leges conferred by his predecessors on the Jews
of Wilna, Brest, Moghilef, Minsk, Grodno, Pinsk,
Orsha, and other places. He rcaftirmed the Magde-
burg rights for Kremenetz Jan. 20, 1650; for Pinsk,
Dec. 31, 1650; he confirmed the privileges of the
Jews of Kremenetz Jan. 26, 1650, and of the Jews
of Pruzhany Dec. 31, 1650. On Feb. 22. 1653. he is-
sued a decree forbidding the Jews of Wilna to keep
Christian servants. They were given a period of

John Casimir
John of Giscala

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

220

six weeks within wliich to discharge anj^ such
servants, and they were to pay a tine on their fail-
ure to do so. If Christian servants should again be
hired after the payment of the tine, Jews employing
them were to pay a second tine, and the third time
the community was to be deprived of its synagogue,
which was to be removed to a place assigned for it
outside of the city gates.

By a decree dated June 23, 1655, it was ordered
that no infringement of the rights of the leasehold-
ers of Brest should be allowed. A decree dated
June 16, 1661, granted privileges to the Jews of
Kamcnetz, permitting them to have, besides the
regular market-day on Saturday, a special market-
day on Tuesday. Casimir also permitted them to
build a synagogue, provided it was inferior in its
dimensions and ornamentation to the Catholic and
Greek Orthodox churches; and also to build a bath-
house and to lay out a cemetery. Besides these privi-
leges he also gi-anted them special rights in trading
and in industrial occupations, in the purchase of
lands, houses, etc.

In July of the same year he ordered that the Jews

of Brest be relieved for three years from the ])ay-

ment of excise duties because of the ruin of their

houses, stores, and other buildings, and reaffirmed

the rights given to them by the law of

Enact- the land. By a decree of June 20,
ments. 1662, Casimir ordered that the Jews
of Lithuania, in consideration of their
great poverty, be relieved from the payment of that
portion of the 12,000 gold ducats levied upon them
by the Diet which was still unpaid. On Feb. 21,
1663, he issued anothei" decree in reference to the
employment of Christian servants by the Jews,
and ordered the discharge of servants within four
weeks, under heavy penalties in cases of disobe-
dience.

On April 18, 1664, he decreed that the Jewish
but(;hers of Moghilef be forbidden to sell meat in
any other place than that adjoining the synagogue;
and on June 8 of the same year he prohibited the
Jews of Wilna from dealing in non-Hebrew books.
On March 16, 1666, he decreed that the Jews of
Brest be relieved from all military duties, in order
to avert their entire ruin, and he further ordered the
commander of the garrison not to require from the
Jews of Brest either the quartering of soldiers or
the supply of provisions, nor to burden them with
any other requisitions.

The same exemption from taxation of the Jews of
Brest was reaffirmed by a decree dated Warsaw, May
23, 1667. For in spite of the explicit orders of the
king, the Jews of Brest had been compelled to pay
the exactions of the military commanders, as appears
from the order of Iletman Patz, who also ordered the
military not to make aiiy levies on the Jews, and in-
formed the officers that they would be held responsi-
ble for any injury inflicted.

Bini.iOGRAPHY: Kostomarov, ii. 17.5,372; Gratz, Oexch. x. 67,
«9; Aktii Yuzhiuii i Zapndmn Rossii, ill. 27H-3()7. o69 ; Akin
VUcnttkoi Arkhivnoi KDmmLssii. 1. 220: ill. ;J74 ; v. ]9;i,
20H, 247, 2))7; Soliratiij/f Goxudarxtvciiukh (iramot i Do-
flowroi), part ill., p. 4.5.'?; (7i^fi/i(;/c Monk. OhKclnst. IMorii
i Dreim. lK.-)9, I., division Iv., pp. 1-16; Arkhiv l'w(/. Znpad.
RoHnil, I., part .■>, p. ;i8; Akt]i VUenx. Arkhiv. Komww.
vols, i.-x.; iKtor.Yurid. Mnterialu, ad. Sazonov, xtl. 275;
Akty Vilemkoi Arkhivnoi Komrn. ix. 57.

H. R.

JOHN OF GISCALA (Johanan ben Levi) :

Native of the small Galilean city of Giscala (K^li
3^ri), who took an important part in the great war
against Rome (66-70). He was originally poor,
weak in body, and not at all eager for battle ; but
the vices that Josephus ascribes to him, saying that
he was covetous and bloodthirsty a cunning and
ready liar, and greedy for glory ("B. J." ii. 21, j^ 1;
iv. 2, § 1 ; comp. ib. vii. 8, t^ 1), may have been
strongly colored by that writer, his mortal enemy.
Josephus says also that John was so unwarlike and
unambitious that he endeavored to persuade his na-
tive city to remain loyal to the Romans ; but when the
city was attacked and burned by the Gadarenes, the
Baraganeans, and the Tyrians he called together his
fellow citizens, armed them, conquered the invaders,
and rebuilt Giscala so that it was more beautiful
than before. He also built walls for future protection
(Josephus, "Vita," § 10; comp. ib. % 38), but not at
Josephus' command, as the latter says in another
passage ("B. J." ii. 20, §6).

Four hundred fugitives from Tyrian districts

gathered about John {ib. ii. 21, § 1), their number

quickly increasing to between 4,500 and 5,000 {ib.

§ 7 ; " Vita," § 66). He realized large sums of money

from the sale of his oil to Jewish cus-

Gathers tomers in Caesarea Philippi; and this

Troops. money he used in paying his soldiers
(" Vita," i^ 13). He asked permission
of Josephus, at that time governor of Galilee, to
seize the grain stored for the emperor; and when
Josephus, unwilling to break with the Romans, re-
fused, John took the grain with the permission of
Josephus' fellow ambassadors, and built the walls
of Giscala with the proceeds. These coambassadors,
therefore, who were very prominent men and loyal
patriots, had confidence in John. This was the be-
ginning of the conflict between John and Josephus,
which grew still more serious.

Josephus takes false credit for having refrained

from injuring John when the latter was in his power

{ib. % 15) : for at first the enmity between the two

men was not deep enough to call

Conflict for any act of violence ; and later on
with John was always on his guard. Among
Josephus. the cities of Galilee, Tiberias and,
later, TarichecP were especially de-
voted to Josephus, while Giscala and Gabara sided
with John {ib. %% 25, 45). When John asked Jose-
phus' permission to use the Avarm baths of Tiberias,
Josephus not only granted the request, but also
provided lodgings and ample food for John and his
companions {ib. § 16). This happened after the
affair of Josephus with the youths of Dabekatii {ib.
i^ 26; "B. J." ii. 21, § 3); for it was then that .John
first became suspicious of him. As Josephus was at
that time absent, John seized the opportunity to
persuade the people of Tiberias to secede from
Rome, and was much alarmed at Josephus' unex-
pected return. The latter now began to exhort the
people; but when he heard that John had picked
out, for the purpose of killing him, the most reli-
able men from among the 1,000 that he (John) had
with him, he immediately fled to Tarichea? ("Vita,"
§t^ 17-18). John, seeing his scheme frustrated, re-
turned to Giscala, and wrote to Josephus, with

221

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

John Casimir
John of Giscala

many protestations, that he had not instigated the
attack.

John now began an agitation against Josephus in
Jerusalem itself. He sent his brother ISinion and
Jonathan, son of Sisenna, with 100 armed men to
that city to demand the recall of Josephus. Simon
b. Gamaliel, tiie leader of the Pharisees, was John's
friend ; Josephus, on the other hand, was supported
by the high-priestly families. The priests, however,
decided to recall Josephus. The lat-

Measures ter had intercepted letters in which

Against John had attempted to incite the peo-
Josephus. pie of Galilee against him ("'Vita,"
^ 46). John and the envoys of the gov-
ernment of Jerusalem had assembled at Tiberias in
the house of Jesus b. Sapphia, which was strongly
fortified, hoping to take Josephus prisoner there;
but this attempt also failed ; and John finally returned
to Giscala. According to Josephus' account, the
Galileans desired to seize John and turn him over
to his enemy ; but Josephus prevented them, as they
would thereby have occasioned a civil war.

Josephus, however, was again in great danger, as
John marched against him at Tiberias with an army,
obliging him once more to flj^ to Taricheae {ib. § 59),
whereupon John returned to Giscala. The latter,
however, had succeeded in inciting the people of
Tiberias against Josephus, sending them a detach-
ment of his men. Josephus was compelled to subdue
Tiberias with an armed force {ib. § 63), John's 4,000
followers (3,000 according to "B. J.") surrendering,
and he himself retaining only 1,500 men (2,000 ac-
cording to " B. J."). Thenceforward he remained at
Giscala ("Vita," § 66; "B. J." ii. 21, §§ 7, 8).

John showed himself a true patriot and hero in
open war with the Romans much more than in the
petty strife with Josephus. When Josephus had
been conquered and Galilee was in the hands of the
Romans, Giscala still held out ("B. J." iv. 2, § 1).
Titus, commissioned by his father, Vespasian, to re-
duce the city, attacked it with 1,000 horse. John
did not dare to engage in battle, having probably
only his countrymen, peaceful tillers of the soil,
about liim. On the pretext that the Sabbath was
ajiproaching he asked for a truce of one day, which
Titus granted. But John left the city secretly in
the night; and the ne.xt day the citizens opened the
gates. Titus was so angry at this deception that
he sent men in pursuit; but John found refuge in
Jerusalem ("B. J." iv. 2, §§ 2-5).

The second stage of John's activity began at Jeru-
salem. Here he persuaded the people that it was
better to repulse the Romans from behind strong
walls than to die to no purpose in the

John at small towns of Galilee. His followers,
Jerusalem, several thousand strong, who passed
in Jerusalem under the name of "Gali-
leans," distinguished themselves by wild bravery;
more than 2,000 men from Tiberias alone were in the
city ("Vita," ^ 65). Josephus accuses them of
plunder and rape. John made himself the tyrant of
Jerusalem, then rent by parties; and to the end he
remained a chief personage of the war. His head-
quarters were at first on Ophel ("B. J." iv. 9, ^ 11);
and from this position he forced the Zealots back
into the Temple. He was joined by the Idumeans

that had remained at Jerusalem. The peace party
of Jerusalem now called Simon bak Giora and his
armjf into the city; but this was to tlieir detriment,
as they now had two tyrants over them {ib. g 12;
comp. ib. V. 13, § 1). Another party now arose,
Eleazar b. Simon seceding from John's command
and occupying the inner court of tlie Temple {ib. v.
1, § 2; Tacitus, "Hist." v. 12). This step must have
materially weakened John's power, esj)ecia]ly as the
Idumeans he had called to liis aid were no longer
in the city. The latter had murdered the liigh priest
Anan b. Anan, a deed for permitting which John
must be blamed; and Eleazar's defection proves that
likewise after that event he did not hesitate to com-
mit acts of violence. Circumstances almost justified
John in seizing the dictatorship ("B. J." iv. 7, § 1 ;
comp. 9, § 10).

The three parties in Jerusalem now fell upon one
another. John fought both with Bar Giora and
with Eleazar. He repulsed the followers of the
former from the colonnades of the Temple ; and the
missiles that the Eleazarites hurled from tlie Temple
he stopped by machines, in the construction of which
he used even the timber that had been provided for
alterations to the holy house {ib. v. 1, § 5; comp. vi.
3, § 2). On the occasion of the last Passover that
the Jews ever celebrated in the Temple Eleazar ad-
mitted the countr}' people into the building; but
John's followers pressed in among them with con-
cealed weapons and attacked them {ib. v. 3, g 1).
When Eleazar disappeared from the scene, John
took possession of the Temple. He now had 8,400
followers, including 2,400 Zealots. They burned
the part of the city lying between the forces of
John and those of Simon that they might be better
able to fight ; and John and Simon bar Giora did
not unite until the Romans were at the gate. Then
they so arranged matters that the followers of John
defended the part of the wall at Antonia and the
northern stoa of the Temple, while the followers of
Simon defended the rest {ib. 7, § 3 ; comp. 9, § 2).

When the engines were brought, John had from
within undermined the space that was over against
the tower of Antonia, as far as the
John's banks themselves, and had supported
End. the ground over the mine with beams
laid across one another, whereby the
Roman works stood upon an uncertain foundation.
Then he ordered such materials to be brought in
as were daubed over with pitch and bitumen and set
them on fire; and as the cross-beams that supported
the banks were burning, the ditch yielded on the sud-
den, and the banks Avere shaken down and fell into
the ditch with a prodigious noise {ib. v. 11, § 4).

As the people had nothing more of which they
could be robbed, John laid hands upon the vessels
of the Temple. All being ncarh' lost, John was
asked to surrender ; but even now he reviled Jose-
phus— who had been commissioned by Titus to make
the demand — still lioping that the city would not
be conquered. After the Temple fell John suc-
ceeded in escaping to the upper city, and when
again asked to surrender he demanded free retreat
with his arms. As this request was not granted
the fighting was continued. In Elul, 70, the upper
city also fell into the hands of the Romans: the

John, the Gospel of
Joint Owners

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

222

leaders, however, did not surrender, but liid in
subterranean passages. John was finall}' forced by
hunger to give himself up to the Romans. Con-
demned to lifelong fetters, he was reserved for the
Eoman triumph of Titus, and he probably died in
a prison at Rome {ih. vii. 5, i^ 3).

Bibliography : In adilition to the sources cited in the article.
Gratz, Gesch. 4th ed., lii. 478-546: Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i,
608 ct passim ; Wellhauseu, I. J. G. 4th ed., pp. 370 ct seq.

6. S. Kk.

JOHN, THE GOSPEL OF. See New Testa-
ment.
JOHN HYROANUS. See Hyrcanus.

JOHN SOBIESKI : King of Poland (1674-96).
During his reign Poland had already lost its promi-
nent position among European peoples, and, except
during a few years, her lost prestige was never re-
gained. With the loss of Poland's power came also
the waning prosperity and influence of her Jewish
communities. The poverty of the Polish Jews at
that time increased to such an extent that many
sought work in Prussia, where they hired themselves
out as common laborers in the fields of Catholic
landlords (Konig, " Annalender Juden in den Preus-
sischen Staaten," p. 85).

During the reign of Sobieski, King Charles XI.
of Sweden, who was actuated by the desire to con-
vert the Jews to Christianity, commissioned Prof.
Gustavus Perringer of Lillienblad (c. 1690) to go to
Poland in order to study the manners

Commis- of the Karaite Jews and to purchase

sion to copies of tlieir writings at any cost.

Polish Perringer first went to Lithuania,
Karaites, where there were a number of Karaite
communities. He probably failed to
get much information or to secure many books,
for the Lithuanian Karaites had become ignorant,
and were of less intelligence than their brethren in
Constantinople, in the Crimea, and in Egypt; and
they knew little of their own origin and history.
About this time the Polish Karaites were ordered by
King Sobieski to leave their most populous commu-
nities, such as Troki, Lutsk, and Halicz, and to dis-
perse in the smaller towns. The Karaite judge
Abraham ben Samuel of Troki, who was a favorite
of Sobieski, transmitted this order, and the Karaites
thus became distributed (Easter, 1688) as far as the
northern province of Samogitia. In this manner
the Polish Karaites were made to mingle more inti-
mately with their neighbors, and gradually assumed
the manners and customs of the Polish peasants.

Sobieski always showed himself to be a stanch
friend of the Jews. He granted them many privi-
leges in Lithuania and Poland, endeavored to coun-
teract the agitation of the priests against them, and
sought to discredit the false accusations brought
forward by their enemies. At the same
His time he often found himself unable to

Stanch intervene effectually in their behalf.
Friendship since the royal power had become to a

for the great extent nominal. The Jesuits

Jews. had already succeeded in imbuing the

lords and the minor nobility ("schly-

akhta ") with a spirit of intolerance and suspicion,

as is shown by the charge of host-desecration made

in 1670 against the Jews of Mlava. The increase of

the influence of the clergy was favored also by the
frequent absences of Sobieski in times of war. Still,
the Jews found in him a powerful protector. Dur-
ing his reign the Jewish communities partly re-
gained their former prosperity, and their organiza-
tion, including that of the Council of the Four
Lands, was strengthened.

Besides the special privileges granted to the Jew-
ish community of Zolkiev situated on his personal
estate, Sobieski also issued about twenty decrees iu
favor of the Jews of Lemberg, which edicts included
warnings to the magistrates and priests not to op-
press the Jews (" Acta Grodzkie i Ziemskie Miasta
Lwowa," vol. X.). When the four districts of the
Lithuanian council — Wilna, Grodno, Brest, and
Pinsk — could not agree as to spheres of influence,
Sobieski ordered (Feb. 8, 1682) that the question be
settled within twelve weeks (Bershadski, "Litov-
skiye Yevrei," p. 19). In 1682 he ordered, in re-
sponse to a petition of the Jews of Wilna, that they
be relieved from the supervision of the magistrates
(Bershadski, I.e. pp. 18-19). He also renewed the
old edicts by a decree dated May 6, 1672.

Bibliography: Kluczucki, ActaJohanni^ Sobieski, Cracow,
1880-82; Gratz, Gesch. Hebrew transl., vlli., passim; Neu-
bauer, Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek, p. 139 ; Mordecai,
Dod Mordechai, ch. vii.

H. R.
JOHN OF VALLADOLID: Jewish convert to
Christianity; born 1335. An able speaker, and pos-
sessed of some knowledge of rabbinical literature,
he persuaded King Henry of Castile that he could
convince the Jews of the truth of Christianity if
they were obliged to listen to him and to answer his
questions. An order was accordingly issued, com-
pelling the .Tews to attend John's lectures in their
synagogues and to discuss them with him. In com-
pany with another Jewish convert, John traveled
throughout the Castilian provinces and lectured and
debated in the synagogues, but with a signal lack
of success.

At Avila he assembled the Jews four times and
discussed with them the tenets of Christianity be-
fore numerous Christian and Moslem audiences. At
Burgos he summoned Moses ha-Kohen of Tordesil-
las to a religious controversy in the presence of
Archbishop Gomez of Toledo. John endeavored to
demonstrate from the Bible the Messianic claims
and the divinity of Jesus, and the truth of the dogma
of the Trinity and of other Christian doctrines.
Thus, for instance, he claimed that the final closed
"mem" used in the word naio!? (Isa. ix. 6) is an
allusion to the immaculate conception. Moses ha-
Kohen had no difficulty in refuting arguments of
this kind, and the controversy was broken off in the
middle of the fourth sitting.

Bibliography: Moses ha-Kohen of Tordesillas, 'Ezcr ha-
Emunah. Introduction; Gratz, Gesch. viii. 30; Isidore Loeb,
in R. E. J. xviii. 228.
K. I. Br.

JOHNSON : American family, members of
which have attained distinction in Ohio, Texas, and
New York. The family is from England, the most
important members being:

David Israel Johnson : The earliest known
member of the family ; married Eliza Davis May 16,
1816. Before leaving England one son was born to
them— Edward I. Johnson, Feb. 14, 1817. This

223

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

John, the Gospel of
Joint Owners

son enlisted in the Texan War of Independence,
became lieutenant of artillery, and lost Lis life at
the Alamo, in 1836, at the age of nineteen.

Edgar M. Johnson : Youngest child of David
Israel Johnson ; born Nov. 5, 1836 ; admitted to the
Cincinnati bar in 1854, at the age of eighteen. lie
became prosecuting attornej' of the police court of
Cincinnati by appointment in 1857, and was elected
to the oflice in 1859, serving one full term. Johnson
was a member of the school board of Cincinnati
from 1867 to 1871, and was mainly instrumental in
bringing into the courts the famous controversy as
to the reading of the Bible in the public schools,
the controversy resulting in the discontinuance of
the reading.

In 1864 Johnson, with John P. Jackson and the
Honorable George Hoadly, then a judge of the su-
perior court of Cincinnati, formed a partnership
under the name of "Hoadly, Jackson & Johnson."
In 1877 Johnson and Hoadly went to New York city
and associated themselves with Edward Lauterbach
under the firm name of " Hoadly, Lauterbach &
Johnson," which partnership continued until the
death of Johnson on Dec. 8, 1893. In 1881 Johnson
was nominated as lieutenant-governor of Ohio, but
failed of election-.

Frederic A. Johnson : Third son of David
Israel Johnson; the first Jewish child bom in Ohio;
born in Cincinnati, Ohio, June 2, 1821 ; died Jan.
20, 1893. He was elected justice of the peace of
Cincinnati township, Hamilton county, Ohio, in
1869, and served continuously until 1884. In 1885
he was elected to the General Assembly of Ohio as
a member of the House of Representatives. In 1889
he was again elected to a justiceship, and served
until 1892.

Henry D. Johnson : Second son of David Israel
Johnson; born at Connersville, Ind., Feb. 21, 1819.
He was the first Jewish child born in Indiana — in
fact, the first, so far as known, born west of the
Alleghanies. Henry served in the Mexican war and
died in California.

James W. Johnson : Sixth child of David Israel
Johnson; born April 23, 1830; died Oct., 1889. He
wrote the music and words of the following songs,
which were very popular for a time : " At home thou
art remembered still " ; " Wipe away each dripping
tear"; "Awake from thy slumber." He wrote also
"Affinity," a novel, published in the "Cincinnati
Times " about 1867. He served as deputy treasurer
of Hamilton county, Ohio, from 1874 to 1880.

Selina Emma Johnson : Fourth child of David
Israel Johnson; born Sept. 13, 1823; still living
(1904); the first Jewish female child born in Ohio.
She married Eleazar Ezekiel Dec. 8, 1841, became a
teacher in the public schools of Cincinnati, and was
for a time acting principal of the girls' department
of the Center street school. Eleazar Ezekiel having
died, she married Abraham Abraham Sept. 24, 1851.

A. D. P.

JOIADA (yn^V; in LXX. once 'Iwc^ae): Son of
Eliashib, high priest about 450 u.c. (Neh. xii. 10-11,
22). One of his children became a son-in-law of
Sanballat the Horonitc, and was removed from the
Temple bv Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 28).

G. ' S. Kk.

JOIGNY : Chief town in the department of the

YoniR- (the ancient Champagne), France, situated
on the River Yonne. It had an important Jewish
community, which flourished especially in the
twelfth century. The "notables of Joigny " are
mentioned in the Mahzor Vitry (No. 244). The
rabbis of this place were reckoned among the most
important of France; e.g., Menahem ben Perez (died
toward the end of the twelfth century) and Yom-
Tob ben Isaac, surnamed "the Holy," i.e., the
martyr, who died at York, England, in 1190.

Bibliography: Gross, Gallia Judaicn, p. 250.

D. I. S.

JOINT OWNERS: In the Mishnah joint own-
ers are known as "shuttatin." When the joint own-
ers are coheirs the Mishnah speaks of them as " the
brothers " ; but the relation arises apart from com-
mon descent, as when two or more people make a
purchase in common, or when a sole owner sells
shares in his land or chattels to another.

I. For cases in which some of the joint owners
desire a division, against the wish of the others,
the Mishnah (B. B. i. 6) lays down this principle:
" Whenever the several parts, after division, are
great enough, so that each of them can bear the name
of the whole, any part-owner is entitled to claim
a division ; otherwise not ; but a sacred book can
not be divided, though all the owners be willing."
Thus a courtyard for two or more houses should not
be divided unless large enough to leave four cubits
square for each part. The smallest field deserving
of the name would be sown with nine cabs of grain,
which, according to the commentators, would mean
an area of 3,750 square cubits, or 6, 666 J square feet;
a garden must have for each share an area enough
for half a cab of seed; similarly a dining-hall,
or a dove-cot, or a bath-house, or an irrigation
sluice, or an oil-press, or a shawl. In the Gemara
(B. B. 12a) the minimum of an orchard (" pardes ")
is fixed at the area for three cabs of
Limits of seed. But all these measurements are
Division, meant for Palestine; in Babylonia a
field for each part-owner must be large
enough for one day's plowing, and an orchard or
vineyard must be sufficient for thirty-six trees or
vines — as many as one man can dress in a day; and
these greater limits were generally recognized in the
countries of the Diaspora (Shulhan 'Aruk, Hoshen
Mishpat, 171, 3).

It is the opinion of some rabbis {ib. 171, 4-5) that
if a part-owner has land adjoining the land held in
common, he can be compelled to divide, though his
share of the latter by itself would be below the min-
imum; also that the part-owner can not be com-
pelled to take a share which has no other outlet than
over the share of a companion. AVhen the rule of
partition applies as above any joint owner can call
for its enforcement, no mutter how tlie joint owner-
ship arose. Where the land is all of the same qual-
ity and can be partitioned by measurement alone, a
part-owner who has an adjoining field may ask that
his share be laid off next to tliat field, and it must
be done; but if there are countervailing qualities
{c.f/., one part being nearer to the river, another
having better soil) each owner must be satisfied with
what the lot gives him, and none lias a right to

Joint Owners
Jonah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

224

choose. According to later authorities, in case of
need a division in which the quality of the land is
taken into account may be made by three unlearned
men, provided they are known to be men of integ-
rity and well acquainted with land-values.

The first-born son gets his double share in one
continuous tract, and so does one of several pur-
chasers of land who has a share twice as large as
any of the others. But one who has

Assig-n- bought out another part-owner must

ment by be satisfied to have the old and the
Lot. newly bought share both assigned by

lot, and take the chance of their being
together or apart. So the "yabam " (a brother who
has taken his childless brother's widow to wife, and
whose eldest son bj' her is heir to the dead brother's
share) must draw separately for his own and for his
son's share.

When the land is flanked on two sides by a river,
and on the other sides by roads, it should be cut
diagonallj' so as to give, as far as possible, to each
part-owner access to the river as well as to the roads
(Maimonides, "'Yad," Shekenim, xii. 1-3, following
B. B. i. 6). Where there are two parcels, such as
two houses, of like uses and of nearly the same
value, held jointly by two owners, the court should
rather listen to him who proposes to assign one to
each part-owner than to divide each separately ; but
where two things jointly owned have different uses,
such as two women slaves, one being a spinner and
the other a cook, or two pieces of land, one a vine-
yard and the other a corn-field, neither of the owners
can demand a division by assignment of one to
each.

II. Where, by the above principles, a partition in
kind can not be adjudged, the next alternative,
when there are only two part-owners, is for either

of them to say "gud o agud " (buj-, or

Division I shall buy ; B. B. 13b), of course at

by Com- the same price. The price so named

pulsory may be far above the appraisement or

Pvirchase. true value. But one who is unwilling

to buy can not compel his companions
to buy, even at the lowest price. However, if of
the two owners, say the two coheirs, of something in-
divisible, as a bath-house or a winepress, one is
too poor to buy out his companion and is unable to
borrow the money for the purpose, he may sell his
half with the incident right of saying " gud o agud,"
to a third person. It is the better opinion that this
offer must always be made on a cash basis. " Buy
thou on time payments or I will buy on time pay-
ments! " might be very unfair where one part-owner
is amply solvent and the other is irresponsible. In
tlie case of two articles used for different purposes,
instanced above, the "gud o agud " proposition may
be made for both jointly. Where one of the joint
owners is an infant the proposition can not be made,
for the guardian appointed for tlie infant has no
power to sell real estate.

III. When neither a division in kind nor the "buy
or sell" alternative is po.ssible, the jiarties can, of
course, sell the land, or whatever thing is held in
common, to others; or the court can order such a
sale on the application of any one of tiicin ( Hoshen
Mishpat, 171, 7); in such a case the law of Ap-

praisement, of valuation and advertisement, ap-
plies, and the proceeds in money can be divided.

IV. But when for any reason none of the parties
will ask for a settlement b}^ sale, they must enjoy

the thing in common; and this com-
Common mon enjoyment is also regulated by
User. law. When they are coheirs of a
former owner who has leased the prop-
erty, they divide the rent as it comes in.

K. Moses Isserles (on Hoshen Mishpat, 171, 8)
thinks that in lea.sing the plan of " gud o agud "
should be tried before a lease is made to a stranger ;
that is, each of the two part-owners can offer to buy
or sell half of the rights foraj'ear. But if the place
is not intended for renting, and the owners can not
or do not wish to occupy it jointly, tliey Should
alternate in occupation by years; and if one owns
two-thirds and the other one-third, the former should
occupy for two years and the other for one year at
a time. A bath-house, however, can be used bj' two
or more owners successively every day ; and so in
the case of other indivisible things.

V. When a division in kind has been made, new
duties between the former joint owners arise.
Where a courtyard is divided, and each part-owner
takes a house and part of the yard, each can claim

the right of privacy {i.e., that his new

Results of neighbor shall not look over into his

Division, ground), and insist on the building,

at the common expense, of a partition
wall four cubits in height, to be placed in the middle
{i.e., one-half on the ground of each). The Mishnah
(B. B. i. 1, 4) prescribes the thickness of the wall ac-
cording to the material, which, after the custom of
the several parts of Palestine, was either of rubble-
stone, or cut stone, or half-baked brick, or full-baked
brick — a wall of the last-named material having at
least the thickness of three palms' breadth {ib. i. 2).
In dividing a garden a stone fence can be required,
unless the custom is to the contrary ; and custom
may require such a fence in a divided field also (B.
B. 4a). Should the wall or fence fall the place and
stones belong to both in common. In that case each
must contribute one-half to rebuild it to the heiglit
of four cubits. So in any division of a court for
which a watchman is kept, each of the new owners
must contribute toward building a gate-house.

VI. What the Talmud in this connection (B. B.
13b et seq.) says about the division of sacred books
is not a matter of jurisprudence but of ritual, for
a bodily division is unlawful with or without the
consent of the owners. The duties of part-owners
often run into communal duties toward their fel-
low citizens, in a town, a community, or among the
dwellers of some court or alloy.

The term "shutlafin," which in the Talmud stands
for "part-owner," is in the later law literature ap-
plied also to " partners" (see Partnership). For
other aspects of joint ownership see Bkrerah.

Bibliography: Maimonides, Yad, Shehenim; Shulhan 'Aruk,
HdkIioi Mishpat. SS 15.H-174.
s. L. N. D.

JOINVILLE (Old French, Joanville) : French

town in the department of IIaute-]\Iarnc; in the

Tosafot occur ^aJV. ^^3rV S^'33V, N^'3"JD. and
other variants (Yoma 81; 'Er. 24 ; Ber. 8; Bek.

225

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joint Owners
Jonah

32; etc.). The counts of Champagne drew abundunt
revenue from the Jews of Joinville, who were prac-
tically their serfs. In 1384, when Philip the Fair
took po.ssession of Champagne, the}' had to contrib-
ute 25,00U livres as a gilt "ou his happy advent."

Among the Jewish scholars of Joinville were the
following: R. Bonet or Benoit (t3"J3) of N^^a^X
(Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 255); Samuel ben Aaron,
the tosafist; Simeon ben Samuel, son of the prece-
ding and himself an eminent tosafist and Bible com-
mentator.

Bibliography : Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabhins Fi'an^U, p.
447; Zunz, Z. G. p. 93; Brussel, Usage General ties Juifs en
France^ vol. i., book ii., ch. 39; Depping. Les Juifx dans le
Moypi Age, p. 116; (iross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 354-255.

G. S. K.

JOKTAN (pp^). — Biblical Data: Younger
son of Eber and progenitor of thirteen Arabic tribes
(Gen. X. 25-29; I Chrou. i. 19-23), many of which
— as Hazarmaveth, Shebah, Ophir, and Havilah —
have been identified. The name seems to mean " the
younger" or "the smaller," but in Gen. R. xxxvii.
10 it is interpreted as "'he who humbles himself,"
and for his humility Joktan was rewarded by being
made the ancestor of thirteen tribes. The place of
settlement of Joktan 's descendants is given as "from
Mesha, as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount of the
east" (Gen. x. 30). The district indicated is in Ara-
bia, but Targum pseudo-Jonatjian identifies Sephar
with Sepharvaim. Josephus ("Ant." i. 6, ^ 4) as-
serts that their dwelling was "from Cophen, an
Indian river, and in part of Asia adjoining it."

M. Sel.
■ In Arabic Literature : Joktan in Arabic lit-
erature bears the name "Kahtan." In Gen. x.
Joktan is described as the ancestor of several south-
Arabian tribes. In accordance with this statement
Arab genealogists hold Kahtan to be the first king
of Yemen, and his son and successor Ya'rub the first
person who spoke Arabic. This is but the legendary
form of the tradition that Kahtan was the progeni-
tor of the southern Arabs, or Arabs proper, while
the Ishmaelite Arabs were originally of non-Arab
stock ; but, pretending to be Arabs, they adopted
Arab customs and intermarried with genuine Arabs,
being therefore called "Musta'rabs. " Another son
of Kahtan, who was called Juihum, emigrated to
northwest Arabia, and founded a kingdom in the
Hijaz. This tradition was probably invented at a
later date in order to establish a close relationship
between the northern and southern Arabs, because
it is added that I.shmael married a woman of the tribe
of Jurhum and became a member thereof.

K. G. H. H. HlR.

JOLLES, ZECHARIAH ISAIAH B. MOR-
DECAI : Rabbinical scholar and author; born at
Lemberg about 1814; died at Minsk, Russia, May
14, 1852. In 1834, after having married the daugh-
ter of Jacob Dokshitzer, one of the wealthiest Jews
of ]Minsk, he settled in that city. Jolles sympa-
thized with the Haskalah or progressive movement,
and is said to have sided with Lilienthal when the
latter visited ]\Iinsk in 1844 for the purpose of in-
ducing the Jews to establish schools in accordance
with the governmental program.

Jolles' published works are: " Dober Mesharim "
VII.— 15

(Lemberg, 1831), on the emendations of the Tal-
mudical text by Mordecai" Jaffe, surnamed "Le-
bush"; "'Et le-Dabber" {ib. 1834), an epistle to
candidates for the rabbinate, in which various
pha.ses of contemporary Jewish life; are discussed in
the spirit then prevailing among the progres.sists ;
" Zeker Yeshayahu " (Wilna, 1883), novell* on the
code of Maimonides, and responsa, published pos-
thumously by his son Sussman Jolles. He is said to
have written more than twenty-five other works on
rabbinical and scientific subjects. It is understood
that R. Akiba Eger'sresponsum No. 176 is addressed
to Jolles.

Bibliography : Eisenstadt. Rahhane Minsk wa-Hakameha,
pp. 29-30, 46, Wilna, 1898; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-MciideU. p. 161.
K. P. Wl.

JOLOWICZ, HEYMANN (HAYYIM BEN
ABRAHAM): German preacher and author; born
Aug. 23, 1816, at Santomischl, province of Posen;
died at Konigsberg, Prussia, Jan. 31, 1875. He at-
tended the University of Berlin and then filled the
position of preacher in Marienwerder, Kulm, and
finally in Koslin. He belonged to the ultra-Reform
party and always expressed his views fearlessly.
After he retired from his oflBce, he settled at Konigs-
berg, where he delivered a series of lectures (1864-
1865) on the history and development of Judaism
and on the history of the Synagogue service. He
established a radical Reform congregation, with
Sunday services and German liturgy, which, how-
ever, was of short duration.

Jolowicz was very active as an author, beginning
in his student years. The following is a list of his
publications:

Die Fortschreitende Entwickelung der Kultur der Juden.
Reprinted from "Orient, Lit." Berlin, 1841.

Das Buch Kusari Uebersetzt and Commentirt (together with
D. Cassel, parts i. and ii.). Leipsic, 1841-43.

Rationalisnms und Supranaturalismus, Ihr Verhaltnis und
Ihre Beziehung zur Auslegung der Bibel. Konigsberg, 1844.

Harfenklange der Heiligen Vorzeit. Leipsic. 1846.

Geist und VVesen der Israelitischen Religion. Koslin, 1847.

Moses Mendelssohn's AUgemeine Einleitung in die Fiinf
BUchern Moses. Koslin, 1847.

Zwei Biicher Rabbinischer Weisheit, 2d ed. Thorn, 1849.

Polyglotte der Orientalischen Poesie. Leipsic, 18o,S.

Die Hiinmelfalirt und Vision des Propheten Jesaias (trans-
lated from the Ethiopian) . Ib. 1854.

Die Gerinanisehe Welt in Ihrer Beriihrung mit dem Christen-
thume. Ih. 1854.

The First Epistle of Baruch (translated from the Syriac).
London, 1855.

Sharpe's Hist<iry of Egypt, German transl. Leipsic, 1857.

Bibliotheea Aegyptiaca. Leipsic, 1858; supplement, ib. 1861.

BliJthenkranz Morgenlandischer Dichtung. Breslau, 1860.

Gesch. der Juden in Konigsberg. Posen, 1867.

German translation of Lecky's " History of the Rise and In-
fluence of the Spirit of Rationalism." Leipsic and Heidelberg,
1868.

Bibliography: Jolowicz, Gescli.der Juden in KOnigaberg,
pp. 180 cl ,seq. : Allg. Zeit. des Jud. xxxix. 153.
s. M. K.

JONADAB. See Jehonadab.

JONAH.— Biblical Data: Prophet in the days
of Jeroboam II. ; sou of Amittai of Gath-hepher.
He is a historical personage; for, according to II
Kings xiv. 25, he predicted in Yhwh's name the
extent to which Jerobf)am II. would restore the
boundaries of the Northern Kingdom, "from the en-
tering of Hamath unto the sea of the plain." The

Jonah

Jonah, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

226

wording of the passage may also imply that Jonah's
prophecy was uttered even before Jeroboam II.,
perliaps in the time of Jehoaliaz (thus Klostermann
to II Kings xiii. 4). In any case Jonah is one of tlie
prop bets who advised the house of Jehu, and it is
not unlikely that with him the series of prophets
that began with Elijah came to a close. The next
succeeding prophet, Amos of Tekoa, whose activity
fell in the reign of Jeroboam II., begins an entirely
new series, as regards not only his position toward
the king and the people, but also his method of
communication, in that he resorted to writing in-
stead of the spoken word.

Jonah belongs only seemingly to the prophets who
were also writers; for the book bearing his name
does not afford the least evidence of having been writ-
ten by the prophet himself. It merely tells his his-
tory, as the Books of the Kings tell of Elijah, Elisha,
Micaiah, or Yimlah ben Zimlah. The book, however,
doubtless refers to the same prophet Jonah as is
mentioned in II Kings xiv. 25; for the name of both
is Jonah ben Amittai. This identity has recently
been denied by Hugo Winckler (" Altorientalische
Forscliungen," 1900, il. 260 etseq.; see also Cheyne
in"Encyc. Bibl." ii. 2570), but Winckler's reasoning,
however ingenious, does not suffice to make his the-
ory more than possible. It is one and the same
prophet that is mentioned in both places: in the
superscription to the Book of Jonah, with the name
of his father; in the historical narrative, with the
name of his home also. Indeed, the account in
the Book of Jonah depends on that in the Book
of Kings; nor has it been proved, as some have held,
that the Book of Jonah was written to account for
the non-fulfilment of the predictions against Nine-
veh contained in the prophecy of Naiium, and that
the Jonah of Kings and the Jonah of the prophet-
ical book can consequently not be identical. Winck-
ler retracted his opinion in " Allgemeine Evange-
lisch-Lutherische Kirchenzeitung," 1903, p. 1224.

E. G. H. K. B.

In Rabbinical Literature : The tribal affini-
ties of Jonah constitute a point of controversy ;
generally assigned to Asher, he is claimed for Zebu-
lun by R. Johanan on the strength of his place of
residence (II Kings xiv. 24); these opinions were
harmonized by the assumption that his mother was of
Asher while his father was of Zebulun (Yer. Suk. v.
1 ; Gen. R. xcviii. 11 ; Yalk., Jonah, 550; Abravanel's
commentary to Jonah). According to another au-
thority Ids mother was the woman of Zarephath that
entertained Elijah {ib. ; Pirke R. El. xxxiii.). As
this prophet, who was also of priestly descent,
would have profaned himself if he had touched the
corpse of a Jew, it was concluded that this woman,
whose son (Jonah) he " took to his bosom " and re-
vived, was a non-Jew (Gen. R. I.e.). He received
his prophetic appointment from Elisha, under whose
orders he anointed Jehu (II Kings ix. ; Kimhi, ad
loc. ; and Zemah Dawid). He is said to have attained
a very advanced age (more than 120 years accord-
ing to Seder 'Olam; 130 according to Sefer Yuhasin),
while Ecclesiastes Rabbah viii.^10 holds that the
son (Jonah) of the Zarepliath widow never died.
The "holy spirit" descended on iiitn while he par-
ticipated-in the festivities of the last day of Sukkot

(Yer. Suk. v. 1, 55a). His wife is adduced as an ex-
ample of a woman voluntarily assuming duties not
incumbent on her, for she is remembered as having
made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem on the " regel "
(holiday ; Yer. 'Erubin x. 1, 26a; " Seder ha-Dorot " ;
and "Shalshelet ha-Kabbaiah ").

Jonah was induced to flee because, after having

won his reputation as a true prophet (*nDN — " one

whose words always came true") by

Reason for the fulfilment of his prediction in the

riig-ht. days of Jeroboam II. (II Kings xiv.),
he had come to be distrusted and to be
called a false prophet, the reason being that when
sent to Jerusalem to foretell its doom its inhabitants
repented and the disaster did not come. Knowing
that the Ninevites also were on the point of re-
penting ("kerobe teshubah"), he anticipated that
among them, too, he would earn the reputation of
being a false prophet; he therefore resolved to flee
to a place where the glory of God, or His Shekinah,
could not be found (Pirke R. El. x. ; but comp. Ibn
Ezra's commentary). The plirase in Jonah iii. 1, "and
the word of God came unto Jonah the second time,"
is interpreted by Akiba, however, to imply that
God spoke only twice to him; therefore the "word
of Yhwh " to hiiu in II Kings xiv. 25 has no refer-
ence to a prophecy which Jonah delivered in the
days of Jeroboam II., but must be taken in the sense
that as at Nineveh Jonah's words changed evil
to good, so under Jeroboam Israel experienced a
change of fortune (Yeb. 98a).

When Jonah wentto Joppa he found no ship, for
the vessel on which he had intended taking passage
had sailed two days before ; but God caused a con-
trary wind to arise and the ship was driven back tc
port (Zohar, Hayye Sarah). At this Jonah rejoiced,
regarding it as indicating that his plan would suc-
ceed, and in his joy he paid his passage-money in ad-
vance, contrary to the usual custom, which did not
require its payment until the conclusion of the voy-
age. According to some he even paid the full value
of the ship, amounting to 4,000 gold denarii (Yalk.,
I.e. ; Ned. 38a). But all this happened to teach him
the fallacy of his conclusion that God could be evaded
(Yalk., I.e. ; and Rashi, ad loc), for the contrary wind
affected his ship only ; all others on the sea at that
time proceeded uninterruptedly on their courses.

The storm which overtook Jonah is quoted as one
of three most noteworthy storms (Eccl. R. i. 6).
After the sailors' prayers to their idols, as well as
their efforts to turn about and lighten the ship, had
proved futile, the crew finally was
The Ship, compelled to believe Jonah's state-
ment that this calamity had befallen
their craft on his account, and assented to his peti-
tion to be thrown overboard. Praying that they
might not be held accountable for his death, they
first lowered him far enough for the waters to
touch his knees. Seeing that the storm subsided,
they drew him back into the ship, whereupon the
sea at once rose again. They repeated this experi-
ment several times, each time lowering him deeper,
but taking him out again, and each time with the
same result, until finally they threw him into the
sea (Yalk., I.e.).

The fish whicli swallowed Jonah liad been created

227

THE JEWISH £^XYCLOPEDIA

Jonah
Joiiah,

Book of

in the very beginning of the world in order to per-
form tliis \vork(Zoliiir, Wayakhel ; Pirke R. El. x. ;
see also Gen. R. v. 5). Therefore this fish had so
large a mouth and throat that Jonah found it as
easy to pass into its beily as he would have found it
to enter the portals of a very large synagogue (ib.).
It had eyes which were as large as windows, and
lamps lit up its interior. According to another opin-
ion, a great pearl suspended in the en-
The Fish, trails of the fish enabled Jonah to see all
that was in the sea and in the abyss.
The fish informed Jonah that he was to be devoured
by Leviathan. Jonah asked to be taken to the mon-
ster, when he would save both his own life and that
of the fish. Meeting Leviathan, he exhibited the
"seal of Abraham," whereupon the monster shot
away a distance of two days. To reward him for
this service the fish showed Jonah all the wondrous
things in the ocean (e.g., the path of the Israelites
across the Red Sea; the pillars upon which the earth
rests). Thus he spent three days and three nights
in the belly of the fish, but would not pray. God
then resolved to put him into another fish where he
would be less comfortable. A female fish quick
with young approached the male fish in which
Jonah was, threatening to devour both unless Jonali
were transferred to her, and announcing her di-
vine orders to that effect. Leviathan confirmed her
story at the request of both fishes, and then Jonah
was ejected from one fish into the over-filled belly of
the other. Cramped for room and otherwise made
miserable, Jonah finally prayed, acknowledging the
futility of his efforts to escape from God (Ps.
cxxxix.). But he was not answered until he had
promised to redeem his pledge to capture Leviathan.
As soon as God had his promise, He beckoned to the
fish and it spat out Jonah upon the dry land, a dis-
tance of 968 parasangs. When the crew of the ship
saw this they immediately threw away their idols,
sailed back to Joppa, went to Jerusalem, and sub-
mitted to circumcision, becoming Jews (Yalk., I.e. ;
Tan., Wayikra, ed. Stettin, 1865, pp. 370 et seq. ; see
also Pirke" R. £1. x.).

In the Zohar (Wayakhel) it is related that the fish
died as soon as Jonah entered, but was revived after
three days. When Jonah was thrown into the sea his
soul immediately left his body and soared up to God's
throne, where it was judged and sent back. As soon
as it touched the mouth of the fish on its way back
to the body, the fish died, but was later restored
to life. The fish's name is given in " Shalshelet ha-
Kabbalah " as it^'V {ie., '" cetos " = " whale "). The
fate of Jonah is allegorized in the Zohar (Wayakhel) as
illustrative of the soul's relation to the body and to
death. In the assumption that Jonah is identical
with the Messiah, the son of Joseph, the influence
of Christian thought is discernible (comp. Matt. xii.
39-41).

The gourd of Jonah was enormous. Before its ap-
pearance Jonah was tortured by the heat and by in-
sects of all kinds, his clothes having been burned by
the heat of the belly of the fish : he was tortured again
after the worm had caused the gourd to wither. This
brought Jonah to pray that God should be a merciful
ruler, not a strict judge (Pirke R. El. x. : Yalk. ool).

s. s. E. G. H.

JONAH, BOOK OF. — Biblical Data : The
Book of Jonah .stands unique in the prophetical
canon, in that it does not contain any predictions,
but simply relates the story of its hero, beginning
for that reason with "wa-yehi," like a pa-ssage
taken from historj'. The contents may be summa-
rized as follows:

Ch. i. : Jonah is commanded bf Ybwh to pro|>besr >saiiist
NineTeb. Hoping to esca(« from tbis oommisBioo by fligbt into
another country, be goes down to Joppa to take sbip for Tar-
sbisb 'Tartessus in ^siaini. Tuwh then sends a terrible stonn,
and tbe pious beatben mariners, after all tbeir labors to UtEbten
the ship and all tbeir prayers prove rain, cast lots to find outOD
wbose account this mi^fonane bas come upon tbem Ccomp.
Acban in Josta. tIL and Jonatban in I Sam. xir.). Tbe lot
falls upon Jonab, and upon being questioned be an^^rers tbat be
is a Hebrew and worships Yuwh, tbe God of Heaven ; be ad-
mits bis guilt and requests that be be thrown into tbe sea.
After ha\-ing prayed to Thwh tbe mariners comply with bts
wisb, and when tbe storm bas subsided tbey give tbanks to
Yhwh with sacrifices and vows.

Cb. iL : Yuwh prepares a great Osb to swallow Jonab. who
remains for three days and three nigbts in tbe monster's belly :
after baring tbere i»aised Yhwh, JcMiab is cast ap by tbe fisb
upon the dry land.

Cb. itL : Yhwh's command being repeated, Jonah goes to
Nineveh, and anixMmces to the city tbat it Aall be d^troyed
within forty days. Then all tbe inhabitants, followii^ tbe
example of tbe king and tbe noMes, repent in aackcloib and
asbes : even tbe flocks and berds fast and are eoreied with sack-
cloth. Yhwh. repenting of tbe punisbmoit He bad intended
for them, permits tbe Xinerites to go free.

Cb. ir. : Yhwb's action displeases Jooab exceedingly: be
prays Yhwh to let him die. Yhwh comforts him by prqnr-
ing a "kikayon" (castor-4A plant?; to spring np beside Iris
booth, which gives Jonah great pieasore. But Yhwh prepares
a worm to smite tbe plant, so tbat it witbeis : tbe sun beating
upon the bead of Jonah causes liim to faint : and again be begs
for death. Yhwh then says that if Jonab is sorry for tbe
gourd, which sprang up of itself in one night, and witbered also
in one night, how much more must Yhwh fed sorrow for the
mighty city which contains more than twelve myriads of inno-
cent people besides much cattle.

E. G. H. K. B.

Critical "View : The text on the whole has

been fairly weU preserved. The following variants
of the Septuagint deserve notice: L 2: DHjn npJTS.
probably a combination of two variants, DTIpPY
being placed side by side with QHin (comp. Gen,
xviii. 21, xis. 13); 1. 4: n^JTIJ is lacking and not
needed; verse 16: D*n3T instead of n2f : iii. 2: Kara
TO Kjjp\r>fia TO ifi~poadtv b h/iJ k/d/.j;ca. equivalent to
"m2T '2:j< -W» njB'jnn rsX'-ips, probably correct,
since only absolute obedience to the first command
would agree with the context; iii. 4: r\y?V instead
of 2';'21^{■ but proljably only an error following
verse 3, end ; iii. 7 : CJ7D instead of DyCC : iii. 9 : 3i5r»
is lacking, probably correctly so in view of the fol-
lowing aen; iv. 2: '?H is lacking; iv. 6: Btn^ hvo
njl*: iv. 11: l3Ef» instead of c** — hardly the original
reading, but a possible one.

H. Winckler (- Altorientalische Forschungen," n.
260 et seq. ), especially, has proposed imjwrtant emen-
dations of the text that are all worthy of careful ex-
amination. He transposes i. 13 to come directly
after i. 4, which makes a better connection at both
places. Again, he transposes i. 10 to follow imme-
diately i. 7._at the same time striking out in verse 8
the words vbx nTX*! and (like many other emenda-
tors and critics; IC'Xi to ^:^. besides 10b entirely.
This will not do, however, as verse 10a, depicting
the fright of the men, with their exclamation, ~ Why
hast thou done this? " is intelligible onlv after Jonah

Jonah, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

228

has told the men why he was on the ship. Still this
explanation should not have been given in 10b, but
rather either in 9ba (which would then read ""JSPCI
n"l2 ''J^< D^roCJ'n \n^X nirr') or as an addition to verse
9 {i.e., rr\2 ^JN VJQ^DI)- If this phrase be inserted
here it is necessary merely to delete the corresponding
phrase in verse 10 (i.e., 10b), and to omit also 8a/3,
which disturbs the context. Winckler also transposes
iv. 5 to follow iii. 4, which is at the first glance a sim-
ple and entirely obvious emendation. The verse
could follow ch. iii. only with the introduction HJVI
XX\ and even then would have to precede iv. 1. Ch.
iv. 4 must be stricken out (as Bohme has proposed),
being a poor repetition of iv. 9, which probably came
in with the erroneous interpolation of iv. 5. Ch. iv. 3
connects closely with iv. 6. In the latter verse Well-
hausen, and after him Nowack, strike out 1"5 y)ir6
inyiD ; Winckler strikes out instead itTKI ^J? ^V nvnh
because Jonah was protected by the booth (iv. 5).
Winckler furthermore says that the sun could not
have stricken Jonah if he had been protected by the
booth ; he therefore proposes to insert the statement
in verse 8 that the east wind blew down the booth.
This is a happy conjecture; for inDDTlN Dinni
could have easily been corrupted to form the enig-
matical TT'tJ'nn (even Cheyne'snnEJ'n, "Encyc. Bibl."
ii. 2566, is unsatisfactory). It must be remarked,
however, that this would duplicate the motive,
while verse 9 mentions the gourd only. It may be
questioned therefore whether the rtiention of the
booth is not a later interpolation, in which case iv.
5 should not be transposed after iii. 4, but should
be simply stricken out together with iv. 4 and
the mention of the east wind in iv. 8, so that tlie
text would read simply: -jm K'Ot^'n HID "•H"''!
'131 t^'OK'n. Verse 6 would then remain unchanged.
The last-named considerations, which were touched
upon by Hitzig and Bohme, lead to the question
whether B5hme (in Stade's "Zeitschrift," vii. 224 et
seq. ; for earlier attempts see Cheyne, I.e. p. 2565,
note) is correct in attempting to trace the Book of
Jonah to various sources. Since his attempt the
question has been answered everywhere in the nega-
tive, probably correctly. This popular story, in its
present state, rather creates the impression that ex-
traneous matter has been added here and there, as in
the cases of the Book of Daniel and that of Esther,
or that such additions were transferred to tiie Maso-
retic text from manuscripts going more into detail.
To this might be due the grotesque detail in ch. iii.
that even the flocks and herds should take part in
Nineveh's general penitence, by fasting in sack-
cloth, and perhaps also by uttering loud cries (verse
8). Yet the words nonam plXH (iii. 8) must not be
simply stricken out as an addition, as Bohme, Well-
hausen, and Nowack propose; for they now fit in
admirably with the legendary tone of the whole.
Cheyne rightly refers to what Herodotus (ix. 24) re-
counts of tlio Persians. The psalm (ii. B-10) was in
any case added to the original composition later
(comp. Stade's "Zeitschrift," 1892, p. 42). As a
prayer of tlianks it is undeniably in tlie wrong place,
since Jonah is still in the belly of the fish. That it
was added at this point is probably due to the fact

that the words njnn '•yDD nin''-f'K r\:V hhZin") (verse

2) offered a convenient connection, the interpolator
wishing to give the exact words of the prayer.
Originally verse 2 was immediately followed by
verse 11 thus: "Then Jonah prayed to the Lord his
God out of the fish's belly ; and the Lord spake unto
the fish, and it vomited out Jonah upon the dry
laud. " The p-salm certainly .seemed appropriate, be-
cause it speaks, even if only metaphorically, of
Jonah being cast into the midst of the seas, and of
the salvation which is of the Lord. And it was per-
haps added also partly because the book contained
no connected speech of the prophet. The time at
which this interpolation was added can be conjec-
turally fixed only after the sources and the origin
of the book have been discussed.

The book does not bear the least evidence of hav-
ing been written by the prophet or even during his
time ; and its age must be gathered from different
indications. It has long since been held that it is
one of the latest books of the Hebrew canon. This
is proved in the first place by the language, as con-
sidered lexically, grammatically, and stylistically
(comp. on this point the commentaries,
Age and and books like S. R. Driver's " Intro-
Origin, duction "). Only Esther, Chronicles,
and Daniel are of later date. Again,
the way in which Nineveh is referred to shows that
the city had long since vanished from the face of the
earth and had faded into legend (comp. iii. 3). The
King of Nineveh, also (iii. 6), could have been referred
to only in a late myth; and the legendary atmos-
phere of the whole story, from beginning to end, is
in accord with the length of time that had elapsed
since the events recounted took place. This be-
comes evident both in the episode of the fish which
swallows a man and then casts him up alive after
three days, and in that of the plant which in one
night grows high enough to overshadow Jonah.
These things might, it is true, be considered as
divine miracles; but such an explanation can not be
offered for the three days' time that it takes to
pass through Nineveh (iii. 3), nor for the fasting,
sackcloth, and penitent cries of the animals (iii. 7 ei
seq.), much less for the conception that an Israelitish
prophet could preach penitence to the city of Nine-
veh, and that the king and the citizens would listen
to him. Everything about the story is, and was
intended to be, miraculous and legendary.

The Book of Jonah is a midrash. The book must
undoubtedly be placed in this class; and it remains
onlj- to see whether a more definite position can be
assigned to it in the Midrashic Htcrature. The writer
of this article has attempted to do this (in Stade's
"Zeitschrift," 1892, pp. 40 et seq.), suggesting that
the Book of Jonah is a section from the Midrash of
the Book of the Kings mentioned in II Chron. xxiv.
27, which in all probability was the chief source used
by the author of the Clironicles. The suggestion is
supported by the simple fact that the prophet Jonah
ben Amittai is referred to in no other place except in
II Kings xiv. 25. Furthermore, it is highly improba-
ble that at the time of the earliest Midrashic literature
any other notice of him could have existed; and,
finally, since the Book of Jonah begins without any
superscription — it begins not simply with the word
" wayehi," which introduces a period of time (comp.

229

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jonah, Book of

Ruth i. 1; Esth. i. 1), but with the phrase nm TI'I
K'2 njV PK r\'\i'\'^', which certainly assumes a pre-
vious mention of Jonah — the suggestion proposed
is the most natural one. If this be correct, then
Chronicles of course omitted the passage found in
its source and mentioning the prophet, a circum-
stance that is explained by the fact that the scene is
laid in the Northern Kingdom, with which Chroni-
cles has nothing to do.

The suggestion would be invalid if Winckler (see,
however, Jonah, Biblical Data, end) and Cheyna
were correct in maintaining that the Jonah of the
story is a different person from that mentioned in the
Book of Kings. It is impossible, however, to refute
the suggestion by referring to the distinctive char-
acter of that rnidrash, as KOnig (Introduction, p. 379)
and Smend (" Alttestamentliche Religionsgesch." 1st
ed., p. 409) have done. If extensive stories of per-
sonal events happening to Elijah have been included
in the Book of Kings(e.^., I Kings xvii., xix.), why
should not the same have occurred (against Kiinig)
in the case of Jonah? And Smend 's assertion that,
compared with the Book of Jonah the Midrash of the
Book of the Kings was "a work of such a different
character that its (Jonah's) author would not have
buried his book therein," can not be substantiated.

On the contrary, just the passage in the mid-
rash referring to Jonah seems to be closely related
to the Book of Jonah as regards the contents. The
author of the Book of Kings puts into Yhwh's
mouth warm words of mercy toward the sinful
Northern Kingdom (II Kings xiv. 26 et aeq.). It is
easy to see how a midrash could be added show-
ing that this mercy was extended even to an alien,
heathen empire. If there were any reasons for as-
suming the existence of another Midrash of the Book
of the Kings than the one mentioned in Chronicles,
the Book of Jonah might have been taken from the
latter ; but at present the writer of this article does
not see what reasons could be brought forward in
support of such a theory. In any case the connection
of the book with II Kings xiv. 35 must be insisted
upon. In agreement with the view here expressed,
the date of the book would fall some time toward
the end of the fourth or in the fifth century ; such a
date is supported by other considerations.

The inclusion of the Book of Jonah among the
Minor Prophets is paralleled by the inclusion of II
Kings xviii.-xx. in the Book of Isaiah (ch. xxxvi.-
xxxix.), but with this exception that
Inclusion in the latter (as also in Jer. lii.) his-
in Canon, torical passages are added to an al-
ready existing prophetical book, while
an entirely new personality and an entirely new
book are added to the canon of the Prophets with
the Book of Jonah. How may this have happened?
Smend 's assumption {I.e.), that the author wrote the
book with the intention of adding it to the "Twelve
Minor Prophets," may be set aside, for the styles of
the two differ too widely, as noted above; nor, if
that had been the intention, would it have been nec-
essary to introduce a psalm in order to make the
book fit into its surroundings: there are numerous
examples to show that the writers of later periods
knew how to reproduce the style of the Prophets
when they desired to do so. On the other hand, it

can not have been the intention of inserting stories
of the Prophets in the books of the Prophets; for if
it had been, the "Earlier Prophets" would have of-
fered the right place therefor. This is proved in the
case of I Kings xiii., a story, relating to a prophet,
which has many points of similarity to the story of
Jonah and is of about the same length. It likewise
is probably derived from the Midrash of the Book
of the Kings (comp. Stade's "Zeitschrift," 1892. xii.
49 et seq.) and was added later to the canonical Book
of Kings. The reasons for the inclusion of Jonah in
the " Twelve Minor Prophets " must be sought in the
book itself. The fixing of the number of the " Minor
Prophets" at twelve was certainly intentional, and
the Book of Jonah must have been included in order
to make up that number, although it does not harmo-
nize with the other books, and originally belonged
elsewhere. The necessity for including it arose,
perhaps, only in later times; for the enumeration
(without Jonah) of precisely eleven books in the
canon is not entirely self-evident. It need only be
pointed out thatZech. ix.-xi. and xii. -xiv. are added
very loosely to Zechariah, and may equally well
have been regarded as independent books ; that Mala-
chi, on the contrary, at first probably had no super-
scription (comp. Mai. iii. 1), and might have been
added as an appendix to Zechariah. According as
these matters were arranged, it might occur that
there were only eleven books found where formerly
twelve had been counted. The passage in Num. R.
XV iii. seems in fact to refer to a time when the Book
of Jonah was not included in the twelve Prophets.

It becomes necessary to inquire into the purpose
and teaching of the book, because of the fact that it
is not a historical narrative, but a midrash, and also
because of its conclusion. The whole story ends
with the lesson received by Jonah, the purpose of
the book having thus been accomplished; and as
one can not follow the effects of this
Purpose lesson on Jonah's further career (un-
and like the story of Elijah in I Kings

Teachings, xix.), the lesson itself is in reality ad-
dressed to the reader, i.e., to the Jew-
ish congregation. It is not probable that the story
was carried on further in its original place in the
Midrash of the Book of the Kings.

This short story, as WcUhausen has best expressed
it, is directed "against the impatience of the Jewish
believers, who are fretting because, notwithstanding
all predictions, the antitheocratic world-empire has
not yet been destroyed ; — because Yhwh is still post-
poning His judgment of the heathen, giving them
further time for repentance. Yhwh, it is hinted, is
hoping that they will turn from their sins in the
eleventh hour; and He has compassion for the inno-
cent ones, who would perish with the guilty." In
agreement with this synopsis of the purpose, the
book is closely akin to and emphasizes the basic
passage, II Kings xiv. 26 et seq., which also shows,
and as it were explains, how it is possibh; that
Yhwh can grant a prophecy of good things to come
to the disloyal Northern Kingdom and to a king
who, according to verse 24, persists in all the sins of
all his predecessors, and can then fulfil what He has
promised. This purpose harmonizes perfectly with
the idealized description of the piety of the heathen

Jonah, Book of
Jonas, Emile

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

230

mariners (ch. i.) and of the king and the inhabitants
of Nineveh (ch. iii.). The book is therefore in a
•way the negative pole to tlie positive pole in the
Book of Ruth. The first shows why Yhwh does
not destroy the heathen ; the second, why and how
He can even accept them among His people and
bring them to high honor. Both these tendencies
became apparent in Israel after the puristic reforms
of Ezra and Nehemiah, which rigorously drew a
sharp line between Israel and the pagan world. The
opposition to this dominating doctrine was clothed
in the unassuming but all the more effective garb
of poetry and of story, as has happened time and
again in similar cases. Cheyue rightly points to the
parable of the good Samaritan in the New Testa-
ment and to the story of tlie three rings in Lessing's
"Nathan der Weise."

All the details of tiie book are subordinated and
made subservient to this one purpose ; and there is
every probability that it was invented only for that
purpose, whereby of course appeal to other, well-
known motives also is not excluded. The story of
Elijah on Horeb (I Kings xi.x.) fur-
Details of nished the model for the general out-
the Story, line, and for the lesson taught tiie
prophet, who was filled with doubts
and was weary of his office. No search was neces-
sary for tlie name of the hero, which was given in
I Kings xiv. 25. The fact that "Jonah" means
"dove "is a coincidence which must not be inter-
preted allegorically, as Cheyne has done. Nor must
tiie fact that Israel is spoken of as a prophet in
Deutero-Isaiah and is called " Servant of Yhwh "
be used in order to attenuate the pensonality of
Jonah to an allegory of the people of Israel; nor
that he was swallowed by the sea, to an allegory
of the Exile. All these are comparisons, it is true,
whicli may easily be made and which are fully justi-
fied as secondary considerations, but they must not
be allowed to confuse the simplicity of tlie original
story.

Nor must mythological motives, although they
may easily be deduced from the story, be regarded
as constitutive elements tliat were introduced con-
sciously. This applies to the Andromeda myth as
well as to that of Oannes, of Nineveh as the
"Fish City " ("nun "), etc., and to the chaotic dragon
Tiamat, which has recently become a favorite myth
with scholars (comp. Cheyne, I.e., s.v. "Jonah," for
details). The author of the story was of course famil-
iar with all the current conceptions regarding the
sea ; and he probably had in mind, whether conscious-
ly or not, the myths and sagas clinging to it (comp.
the rich collection of material relating to these
myths in Hermann Usener, "Die Sintfluthsagen,"
1899). It was probably the intention of the author,
however, to confine himself to the narration of a
story wiiich, dealing with the prophet Jonah known
to tradition, should be a vehicle for the lesson he
meant to teach.

In the New Testament Jesus (Luke xi. 29-32)
makes use of the book in its original sense, referring
to the people of Nineveh as examples of tlie faith
and repentance that he mi.ssed among his contempo-
raries, while refusing them tlie niiracle that they
wereaskingat Ids liands. Thr en<lcjiv()r to tind more

tlian this simple reference in the "sign of Jonas,"
which is akin to tlie tendency of the artificial inter-
pretations mentioned above, has led in
Later Uses tlie parallel passage (Matt. xii. 39-41)
and Inter- to tlie interpolation (verse 40), accord-
pretation. ing to which Jonah's three days in the
belly of the fish are a prophecy of the
three days that Jesus would spend in the grave.
The early Christian Church more correctly elevates
Jonah's rescue from the belly of the fish into the
standing type of the resurrection from the grave,
a type which is found in all the plastic representa-
tions that decorate the early Christian sarcophagi
and other monuments.

As far as can be seen, the canonicity of the book
has never been seriously doubted. One might rather
find in the Midrash ba-Midbar and perhaps also in
Ta'an. ii. a vague reference to a time when the book
was classed, not with the "Nebi'im," but Avith the
"Ketubim." In tiiat place it would at least find a
sufficient counterpart in Rutii. This, however, is
only a remote probability, and does not touch the
question of the origin of the work.

BiBLiOGRAPiiv : The commentaries contained in Lange's Bt-
bclnrrk (Kleinerti and in the Kitrzijefasstes Exeoetisches
Haii(U)nc)t : Hitzig, 4th ed., 1904, by H. Steiner ; those of G.
A.Smith in his Ticelve Pr<))))irts; of J. Wellhausen, Die
Kleiiiot Prophcteu, lHi)2, ;3d ed. 1898; and of Nowack in his
Kleine Prophctev, 1897, 2d ed. 1904; Kalisch, Bible Studies,
ii. : T. K. Cheyne, in Theolnaical Review, 1877, pp. 211-217 ; C.
H. H. Wright. Biblical Studien, 1886 ; J. S. Bloch, Studien ztir
Geach. der Sammlung der AUhebrUischcn Litteratur. 1875.
E. G. H. K. B.

JONAH : Palestinian amora of the fourth cen-
tuiy; leading rabbinical authority in the fourth
amoraic generation. With Jose II., his early school-
mate and lifelong colleague and business partner,
he studied under Ze'era I. and Ela (Bek. 30a; Yer.
Ter. ii. 41(1); and when, as young men, they called
on Abbahu to express their sympathy with him
in his bereavement, he treated them as prominent
scholars (Yer. Sanh. vi. 23d). But Jonah's special
master was Jeremiah (Yer. Hal. i. 57c, ii. 58b).
From these masters and others the j'ouths acquired
a thorough familiarity with the traditions, and
gradually rose from pupils to fellows. Thus, it
is said, "Haggai opened the discourse and Jonah
and Jose closed it " (Yer. R. H. ii. 58b). Finally
they succeeded to the rectorate of the academy at
Tiberias. In his ofl3ce Jonah was distinguished by
his paternal care for his pupils, to whom he gave
both advice and material support (Yer. Bezah i.
60c). According to the Biblical and rabbinical re-
quirement he gave away the tithe of his income,
but to those wiio studied the Law, not to priests or
Levites, deriving his authority from II Chron. xxxi.
4 (Yer. Ma'as. Sh. v. 56b). When he discovered a
worthy man who was poor, he would aid him in
such a way as not to hurt his self-respect. " I un-
derstand," he would say to him, "that you have
fallen heir to an estate " or " that your debtors
will soon pay you ; borrow some money of me, which
you may repay when you come into possession of
your fortune." As soon as the proffered loan had
been accepted lie would relieve tlie borrower from
his promise by telling him, "This money is tiiine
as a gift." Tliis jirocedure he regarded as suggested
bv tlic Psalmist: " r.lessed is he tliat consiilereth

231

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jonah, Book of
Jonac:, Smile

[Hebr. is^SK'D = "dealeth prudently with"] the
poor" (Ps. xli. 2 [A. V. 1]; Yer. Peah viii. 21b;
Midr. Teh. to passage).

Jonah also enjoyed a certain respect among the
Komans (Yer. Ber. v. 9a; Ta'an. 23b). He was in-
cluded among those styled ^NIK^n KyiNT •'D"'pn
("the mighty ones of the land of Israel"), because,
the Rabbis explained, of the efficacy of his prayers
in times of drought. The following miracle is re-
lated of him: Once, on a Sabbath, fire broke out on
his premises. A Nabattean whose property ad-
joined Jonah's attempted to extinguish it, but Jonah
would not permit him thus to profane the Sabbath.
'"Dost thou rely on thy good luck?" mockingly
asked the Nabattean; to which Jonah replied,
"Yes"; whereupon the fire was quenched (Yer.
Yoma viii. 45b). As rectors of the academy at Ti-
berias, Jonah and Jose had many disciples, some
of whom became leaders in the next generation,
and spread and perpetuated their master's doc-
trines. Jonah left a worthy son and successor in
the person of Mani II.

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amnr. iil. 220-231 ; Frankel,
Mebu, p. 98a ; Halevy, Dorot Jia^Rishonim, ii. 183b ; Weiss,
Diir, ill. 110.
s. s. S. M.

JONAH (ABU AL-WALID MERWAN IBN

JANAH). See Ibn Janah.

JONAH BEN JUDAH GERSHON : Rabbi
and author; died in Wilna 1808. He was dayyan
of that city, and devoted his time to the study of
the Tosefta, which he considered indispensable to a
better understanding of the Mishnah and Gemara.
But, finding the text corrupt, he undertook the
work of preparing a critical edition of it and of
providing it with a commentary by the aid of the
citations from the Tosefta in the Babylonian and
Jerusalem Talmuds and their early commentaries.
Ho made use also of the annotations of Elijah Wilna,
in manuscript. Only the first part of Jonah's work,
on "Zera'im," was published (Wilna, 1799). Thecom-
mentarj' on the part " Mo'ed " is still in manuscript,
in the possession of his grandson Jonah Gerstein.

Bibliography: Fuenu, Kiryah Ne'emanah, p. 206; idem,
Keneset Yisrael, p. 449.
s. s. N. T. L.

JONAH LANDSOPHER. See Lanusopher,
Jonah.

JONAS, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN: Amer-
ican lawyer, soldier, and statesman; born in Will-
iamstown. Grant county, Kentuckj', July 19, 1834.
In early youth he removed to Adams county, Illi-
nois, where he received his education. In 1853 he
went to New Orleans, where he took up the study
of law, receiving his diploma from the law depart-
ment of the University of Louisiana in 1855.
Throughout the Civil war Jonas fought on the
Confederate side, as a private of artillery, and subse-
quently as acting adjutant of artillery, in Hood's
corps of the Army of Tennessee.

From 1865 until the consummation of reconstruc-
tion Jonas was a member of the Louisiana legisla-
ture; and in the Democratic National Convention
of iy68 he was chairman of the Louisiana delega-
tion. Jonas was the Democratic candidate in 1872
for the office of lieutenant-governor of Louisiana,

but resigned in favor of the Fusion nominee. The
same year he was elected state senator.

In 1874 Jonas was elected to the oflace of city at-
torney of New Orleans, and was reelected in 1876.
In the latter year he became a member of the
National House of Representatives, serving up to
the end of the session of 1877. In Congress Jonas
was chairman of the judiciary committee. During
this period he was the Democratic national com-
mitteeman from his own state. From March 18, 1879,
to March 3, 1885, Jonas was United States senator
from Louisiana in succession to James B. Eustis.
On the expiration of his term of office President
Cleveland appointed him surveyor of the port of
New Orleans.

Bibliography: The American Jewish Year Book, pp. 518,
519, Philadelphia, 1900; Pacific Jeunnh Annual, p. 141, San
Francisco, 1898.

A. A. M. F.

JONAS, EMIL (JACOB ; pseudonym, Graf
Lowenbalk v. Hohenthal) : German writer and
publicist; born July 14, 1824, at Schwerin, Meck-
lenburg; educated at the gymnasium of his native
city and at Heidelberg. In 1845 he became editor
of the " Flensburger Zeitung." This paper took the
part of the Danish government, which had emanci-
pated the Jews in Denmark as early as 1836, while
in the duchies of Sleswick and Holstein Jews were
merely tolerated. Weary of the lengthy political
struggles, Jonas went to Copenhagen in 1847, where
he engaged in teaching. A pamphlet that he wrote
on the political conditions in Denmark and in the
two duchies attracted the attention of the crown
prince, who on his accession to the throne in 1848 as
King Frederick VII. called Jonas to the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, and entrusted him with several im-
portant missions. In 1849, when a liberal con-
stitution was under discussion, Jonas published a
pamphlet entitled " Das Ein- und Zweikammersys-
tem," which met with the approval of the king, who
in 1851 appointed Jonas " Kammer- Assessor " and
private secretary. In 1852 he was transferred as
" Kammer-Rath " to the ministry of Holstein. He
resigned in 1854 for political reasons, although he
remained connected with the court down to the
king's death.

After the war of 1863-64 Jonas went to Berlin,
where he engaged in literature, devoting himself
chiefly to the translation of Scandinavian works and
to the publishing of travelers' guide-books, among
which may be mentioned: "Reise-und Skizzenbuch
fiir Schweden," 1875; " lUustrirtes Reisebuch fiir
Norwegen," 1876; " Reisehandbuch fiir Kopenha-
gen." 10 editions, 1886. His works include also a
history of the Franco-Prussian war, a text-book for
self-instruction in Swedish according to the Tous-
saint Langenscheidt system, a German-Danish lex-
icon, and also " KOnig Oscars Gedichte und Prosa-
Schriften," 1872-94, and "Anthologie Hervorragen-
der Skandinawischer Dichter," 1903. S.

JONAS, EMILE: French musician; born at
Paris March 5, 1827. He entered the Conservatoire
in 1841, where he took the first prize in harmony in
1847 and the Grand Prix de Rome in 1848. Two
overtures by him were played in the Conservatoire in
1851 and 1852 respectively. He later devoted him-

Jonas. Moses
Jonathan

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

232

self principally to the composition of comic oper-
ettas in the style of Offenbach's, his principal pro-
ductions being: "Le Duel de Benjamin " (Bouffes
Parisiens, 1855) ; " La Parade " (1856) ; " Le Roi Boit "
and " Les Petits Prodiges " (1857) ; " Job et Son Chien "
(1863); "AvantlaNoce" (1865); "Deux Arlequins"
(1865); " Le Canard a Trois Bees " (1869) ; "Javotte"
(1871; afterward given in London as "Cinderella");
"Le Premier Baiser" (1883).

From 1847 to 1866 Jonas was professor of sol-
feggio at the Conservatoire, where he also conducted
a class in harmony for students of military music. He
was musical director at the Portuguese synagogue
of Paris, and has published a work entitled " Recueil
de Chants Hebraiques " (1854).

Bibliography : Baker, Biog. Diet, of Musicians, s.v.
8. J. So.

JONAS, MOSES. See Bonn, Jonas ben

Moses.

JONATHAN, JEHONATHAN (jnJV, IDJin^) :
1. Son or descendant of Gershom, son of Moses.
He officiated as a priest to the idol of Micah — a
service continued in his family till the Israelites were
driven from their country (Judges xviii. 30). In the
passage in which Jonathan's parentage is mentioned
"Moses "is written with a suspended j, so that it
may be read " Manasseh " ; and this reading is given by
the Septuagint. On the other hand, the only son of
Gershom, son of Moses, is called " Shebuel " in I
Chron. xxiii. 16. Still, according to the Talmudists
and to Jerome, Jonathan was the descendant of
Moses. The Talmudists declare (B. B. 109b) that
the " nun " was inserted in the name of this Moses out
of respect to the great lawgiver, and that the former's
name was changed to "Manasseh " because the wick-
edness of Jonathan resembled that of King Manasseh.
They identify Jonathan with the above-mentioned
Shebuel (ib. 110a), saying that he was so named be-
cause he repented (^N UK' = " he returned to God ").
The same interpretation is given by the Targum to
I Chron. xxiii. 16.

The adventure of Jonathan is narrated as follows:
A young Levite of Beth-lehem-judah, in search of
a home, happened to come to the house of Micah,
and he was appointed by the latter to be his private
priest. He was afterward recognized by the five
Danite spies who were sent by their tribe to select
a territory. When, later, the spies came that way
with the warriors of their tribe, they attacked
Micah 's house, and carried off the gods and the young
Levite. The Danites conquered Laish, established
there the idol of Micah, and appointed Jonathan to
be their priest (Judges xvii. 7-xviii. 30).

E. o. H. M. Sel.

2. Biblical Data: Eldest son of Saul (I Chron.
viii. 33). Soon after his father's accession (I Sam.
xiii. 2) Jonathan is represented as sharing his
father's perils and enterprises, as the leader of a thou-
sand men— one-third of the force kept under arms by
Saul. Like Saul, Jonathan possessed great strength
and agility, and, as becoming in a Benjamite, was a
clever archer (II Sam. i. 22-23; I Chron. xii. 2). It
was Jonathan who put to the sword the garrison of
the Philistines in Geba, and thereby gave the signal
for a general rising of the Israelites (I Sam. xiii. 3).
This led to the complete overrunning of the land by

the Philistines. The two armies, Israelitish and
Philistine, met at the passage of Michmash, and
took up positions on opposite sides of the ravine (I
Sam. xiii. 16, 23). Jonathan, accompanied by his
armor-bearer, scaled the opposite rock and surprised
the Philistines, having previously decided to take an
omen from the conduct of the enemy: if the enemy,
on seeing him, should make a move as though about
to attack him, he would wait in the ravine ; but if the
enemy dared him to ascend, he would do so. The lat-
ter took place, and the daring act of Jonathan put
the Philistines to flight (I Sam. xiv. 6-23). On that
occasion Jonathan narrowly escaped death at the
hands of his father. Before pursuing the Philistines
Saul had pronounced a curse upon any one who
should eat before the evening; Jonathan, unaware
of this, ate some honey, and Saul sentenced him to
death; the people, however, interfered on his behalf
and saved him (I Sam. xiv. 24-45).

Jonathan's attachment to David began soon after
the latter's victory over Goliath ; " the soul of Jona-
than was knit with the soul of David, and Jonathan
loved him as his own soul" (I Sam. xviii. 1). The
latter expression is repeated in I Sam.
Jonathan xx. 17, their love being further de-
and David, scribed in II Sam. i. 26 as "passing
the love of women." The friendship
was confirmed by a covenant, Jonathan giving David
his garments, sword, and bow, and on several occa-
sions David escaped death at the hands of Saul
through the intervention of Jonathan. Their part-
ing was full of pathos, and was marked by passion-
ate embraces and tears (I Sam. xviii. 3-4; xix. 1-7;
XX. 1-34, 41-42).

The disinterestedness of .Jonathan's affection for
David is emphasized in the fact that Saul himself
reminded him that while he had nothing to gain
through David he had much to lose. It seems that
Jonathan fully understood that popular feeling was
running toward David, and that his father's insan-
ity was weakening the probability that the throne
would remain with his family. .Jonathan himself
said to David at their last meeting, "Thou wilt reign
over Israel and I will be thy second " (I Sam. xx.
30-31, xxiii. 17; comp. xviii. 5). In fact, their cov-
enant stipulated that David should not exterminate
Jonathan's posterity (I Sam. xx. 15, 42).

The greatest affection is said to have existed be-
tween Jonathan and Saul; and when Jonathan un-
dertook the dangerous attack on the enemy he had
to gonceal his intention from his father (I Sam. xiv.
1). Saul's words, "though it be . . . Jonathan my
son, he shall surely die " (I Sam. xiv. 39), show the
father's love for his son. When Saul decided on
the death of David he consulted Jonathan, who in-
duced him to abandon his intention (I Sam. xix. 1,
4-6). Jonathan was incredulous when told that his
father, without revealing to him his decision, had
again decided to slay David (I Sam. xx. 2). Dur-
ing Saul's growing insanity the mutual attachment
of father and son seems to have weakened. Saul
on one occasion rebuked Jonathan, and cast his spear
at him, whereupon Jonathan left the table (I Sam.
XX. 30-34). Jonathan fell with his father and two
younger brothers on Mount Gilboa (I Sam. xxxi. 2, 6).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

233

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jonas, Hoses
Jonathan

In Rabbinical Literature: Jonathan's omen

(see Biblical Data, above) is considered by Rab to
be the typical omen (Hul. 95b). When it became
known that Jonathan had transgressed Saul's vow
(comp. I Sam. xiv. 45), Saul would have slain him
with the sword, but the people argued that Jona-
than did it through ignorance, and redeemed him
with a burnt offering (Pirke R. El. xxxviii.). In
Midrash Shemuel (xvii. 3) the incident is stated
differently. According to R. Eleazar, the people
gave to the sacred treasury Jonathan's weight iu
gold; according to R. Johanan, the people merely
argued that Saul cursed only him who would eat
bread, whereas Jonathan ate honey ; R. Simeon b.
Lakisli assumed that Jonathan tasted, but did not
eat.

According to the Rabbis, when the virtues of
David were enumerated before Saul (I Sam. xvi.
18), the latter in his jealousy exclaimed, " My son
Jonathan possesses them too" (Sanh. 93b). The
battle between Jonathan and the Philistines (I Sam.
xiv. 13) was one of the three in which the heathen
combined against the children of Israel, but were
hindered by God from achieving their evil intentions
(Gen. R. Ixxxi. 4). Jonathan's love for David is
considered the type of disinterestedness (Ab. v. 17).
Jonathan is ranked by R. Judah the Saint among
the great self-denying characters of Jewish history,
though one of the rabbis remarked that his love for
David may have been a result of his conviction that
David's great popularity was certain to place him
on the throne in the end (B. M. 85a). Jonathan is
declared guilty of the destruction of Nob (I Sam.
xxii. 18-19), and of its consequences, which he
could have prevented by lending David two loaves
of bread (Sanh. 104a).

s. s. M. Sel.

3. Son of Shimeah and nephew of David, who
slew a giant of Gath (II Sam. xxi. 20-21 ; I Chron.
XX. 6-7); perhaps identical with the Jonathan, uncle
of David, who is styled "a wise man, and a scribe "
(I Chron. xxvii. 32). 4. Son of Abiathar the priest,
and last descendant of Eli. As a courier, he ren-
dered great services to David during Absalom's re-
bellion (II Sam. XV. 27, 36; xvii. 17, 20). He also
brought to Adonijah the news of Solomon's acces-
sion (I Kings i. 42 et seq.). 5. Son of Shage the
Hararite; one of David's mighty men (I Chron. xi.
34). The parallel list gives "Shammah the Hara-
rite" (II Sam. xxiii. 33). 6 (Jehonathan). Son
of Uzziah ; one of David's treasurers (I Chron. xx vli.
25). 7 (Jehonathan). Scribe in whose house Jere-
miah was imprisoned (Jer. xxxvii. 15, 20). 8. Son
of Kareah and brother of Johanan ; one of the cap-
tains after the fall of Jerusalem (Jer. xl. 8). In the
Septuagint his name is omitted. 9. Father of
Ebed, who returned from captivity at the head of
fifty males of the children of Adin (Ezra viii. 6).

10. Son of Joiada. See Johanan ben Jehoiada.

1 1 . Son of Asahel ; he opposed (R. V. ) or assisted (A.
V.) Ezra in regard to marriage with foreign women
(Ezra X. 15). 12. FatherofZechariah the priest, who
was one of the musicians in the time of Neheraiah
(Neh. xii. 35).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

JONATHAN (NATHAN) : Tanna of the sec-
ond century; schoolfellow of Josiah, apart from
whom he ia rarely quoted. Jonathan is generally so
cited without further designation ; but there is ample
reason for identifying him with the less frequently
occurring Jonathan (or Nathan) b. Joseph (or Jose;
comp. Mek., Yitro, Bahodesh, 10, with Sifre, Deut.
32; Mek., Ki Tissa, 1, with Yoma 85b; Tosef., Nid-
dah, ii. 2. Ket. 60b, and Yer. Sotah vii. 19c). In con-
sequence of the Hadrianic religious persecutions he
determined to emigrate from Palestine, and with
several other scholars started on a journey to for-
eign parts. But his patriotism and innate love for
the Holy Land would not permit him to remain
abroad (Sifre, Deut. 80). Jonathan and Josiah were
educated together at the academy of Ishmael b.
Elisha (Men. 57b), whose dialectic system, as op-
posed to that of Akiba, tliey acquired. It is even
reported that Jonathan all but converted Ben 'Azzai,
a "fellow student" of Akiba, to Ishmael's system,
and made him deeply regret his failure to study it
more closely. Ben 'Azzai then exclaimed, "AVo is
me that I have not waited on Ishmael " (Hul. 70b
et seq.). Nevertheless, in later years, probably after
Ishmael's death, both Jonathan and Josiah adopted
some of Akiba's principles. Of Jonathan it is ex-
pressly stated that "he followed the system of his
teacher Akiba " (Yer. Ma'as. v. 51d).

Together, Jonathan and Josiah devoted their an-
alytical minds to halakic midrashim, interpreting
laws as they understood them from the correspond-
ing Scriptural texts, but not suggesting them. Only
one halakah unconnected with a Scriptural text
bears their names. Their argumentations are mostly
embodied in the Mekilta (about thirty) and in the
Sifre to Numbers (over forty; see Hoffmann, "Zur
Einleitung in die Halachischen Midraschim," p. 38).
Neither Jonathan nor Josiah appears in Rabbi's
compilation of the Mishnah, with the exception of
a single sentence, in the name of Jonathan, in Abot
iv. 9: " Whoso observes the Law in poverty shall
live to observe it in affluence; and whoso neglects
the Law in affluence shall at last be compelled to
neglect it because of poverty " (comp. Ab. R. N.
XXX. 1 [ed. Schechter, pp. 41b, 45a]). Of other an-
cient compilations, the Tosefta cites these scholars
once (Tosef., Sheb. 1. 7: the text has "Nathan," but
the context shows unmistakably that " Jonathan "
is meant), while the Sifra mentions them twice
(Sifra, Kedoshim, ix. 5, 11) by their names; once
(Sifra, Behar, i. 9; comp. Ket. 60b) "Jonathan b.
Joseph" occurs; and some of Josiah's midrashim
are cited, but anonymously (comp. Sifra, Wayikra,
Hobah, XX. 8. with" B. M. 54a; Sifra, Ahare, iv. 9,
with Yoma 57b).

Jonathan was the author of many aphorisms,
among which is the following: "Consoling the
mourner, visiting the sick, and practical beneficence
bring heavenly grace into the world " (Ab. R. N.
XXX. 1). Contrary to the astrological views of his
times, Jonathan taught the Scriptural idea of nat-
ural phenomena; quoting Jer. x. 2, he added:
"Eclipses may frighten Gentiles, but they have no
significance for Jews" (Mek., Bo, 1; comp. Yalk.,
Ex. 188). To the question as to the' permissibility
of profaning the Sabbath to save human life he an-

Jonathan ben Absalom
Jonathan Levi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

234

swered, " The Law says (Ex. xxxi. 16), ' The chil-
dren of Israel shall keep the Sabbath, to observe the
Sabbath throughout their generations ' ; but one
may profane one Sabbath in order to preserve a man
that he may observe many Sabbaths" (Mek., Ki
Tissa; comp. Yoma 85b). According to him an 'Am
H.\-AuEz is one who has children and does not train
them in the knowledge of the Law (Sotah 22a;
comp. Ber. 47b). Jonathan contradicted the gen-
eral opinion of earlier and of contemporaneous rabbis
that a "rebellious son " as defined by the teachers of
traditional law never was and never will be exe-
cuted, and that communal apostasy never did and
never will occur (see Capital Punishment); he de-
clared that he himself iiad sat on the grave of an
executed prodigal and had seen the ruins of a city
which had been razed to the ground for general
apostasy (Sanh. 71a).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 3.51 ct seq. ; Briill, Mcbn
ha-Mishnali, 1.1.53; Frankel, Darke ha-Mii^fuiah, p. 146;
Heilprin, Seder hOrDoroU ii. ; Weiss, Dor, ii. 126.

s. s. S. M.

JONATHAN BEN ABSALOM: General of
Simon Maccabeus. At the command of the latter
he took possession of Joppa, and drove out the in-
habitants in order that tiiey might not be able to
surrender the city to Tarfon (I Mace. xiii. 11; Jo-
sephus, "Ant." xiii. 6, § 4).

G. S. Kr.

JONATHAN B. 'AKMAI : Palestinian amora
of the third generation. According to Yer. Ter. xi.
he was one of the teachers of Abbahu. It is proba-
ble that he was a descendant of the 'Akmai family of
Jerusalem, in which there were many high priests
(Yeb. 15b).

Bibliography : Frankel, Mebo, p. 09.

s. s. A. H. R.

JONATHAN (NATHAN) B. AMBAM :

Semitanna of the second and third centuries; disci-
ple of Judah I. and senior of Jannai, who consulted
him concerning ritual questions (Hag. 20a; 'Ab.
Zarah 26b). Reluctance to make the possession of
learning a means of material gain, so insistently in-
culcated by the Rabbis (Ab. iv. 5 et al.), was charac-
teristic of him. When there was a famine in the
land, Judah I. offered food to any needy ones wlio
were possessed of some learning. Jonathan, forced
by want, applied for aid, but not on the ground of
scholarship. He denied his identity, and when asked
what entitled him. to Judah's bounties, he replied,
"Nothing more than being an animal and feeling
the want of sustenance." His plea was admitted;
and when Judah's son discovered the dissimulation
and brought it to the notice of the patriarch, the
condition was removed, and relief was thereafter
granted to all applicants indiscriminately (B. B. 8a).
8- s. S. M.

JONATHAN B. AN AN : Son of the high priest
Anan; was appointed by Vitellius high priest in the
place of Joseph Caiaphas, at the time of the Pass-
over in the year 36 (Josephus, "Ant." xviii. 4, § 3).
For reasons unknown he was deposed by Vitellius
when tiie latter was in Jerusalem tlie second time,
and liis brotlier Theophilus was appointed in his place
(ib. 5, i; 3). When King Agrippa I. deposed Simon

Cantheras (c. 43) he wished to appoint Jonathan
again as high priest ; but the latter refused the office,
saying he was satisfied to have once worn the high-
priestly garments. He recommended his brother
Matthias for the office ; and the latter was appointed
{ib. xix. 6, § 4).

During the sanguinary conflict between the
Judeans and the Samaritans, under the procurator
CuMANUS, Jonathan together with several nobles
represented the cause of the Judeans before the
Syrian legate at Tyre, and he also went in the same
capacity to the emperor Claudius at Rome. He
brought about the appointment of Felix as procura-
tor in the year 52 (Josephus, "B. J." ii. 12, §§ 5, 6;
comp. "Ant." xx. 8, § 5). Jonathan often exhorted
Felix to mend his ways, in order that the people
might not reproach him (Jonathan) for having
brought the procurator into the country. As Jona-
than was hated by the Sicarii also, this just and
peaceable man was treacherously assassinated at the
instigation of Felix ("B. J." ii. 'l3, § 3; "Ant" xx.
8, ^ 5).

G. S. Kr.

JONATHAN (NATHAN) OF BET GUB-
RIN (-Eleutheropolis ; Rapoport, " 'Erek Mil-
liu," pp. 53 et seq.): Palestinian scholar of the third
century; junior of Joshua b. Levi and senior of
Simon b. Pazzi (Cant. R. i. 1). He confined his
labors to the Haggadah, and contributed to the Mid-
rash several homilies, some of which, however, are
given under different names in other compilations.
One of his sayings was: "Four great languages
have been given to the world : Greek for song, Ara-
maic for dirges, Hebrew for conversation, Latin for
war" (Yer. Meg. i. 71b; comp. Esth. R. iv. 6; Midr.
Teh. xxxi. 21).

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iil. 592.

s. s. S. M.

JONATHAN BEN DAVID HA-KOHEN
OF LUNEL : French philosopher; flourished in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. He defended
Maimonides against the severe attacks of Abraham
ben David of Posqui^res (RABaD), and at Jona-
than's instance Maimonides sent to Lunel his " Moreh
Nebukim, " which Samuel ibn Tibbon translated into
Hebrew. Jonathan is the author of a commentary
on a work by Alfasi. About 1210, shortly before
his departure for Palestine, whither he went with
Tobiah and Samuel ben Simson, he corresponded
witji Isaac ben Abraliam of Dampierre, who had
sent him a Taimudic responsum on a subject con-
cerning the Holy Land.

Bibliography : I. Lattes, Sha'are Ziyyon, p. 74 ; Gross, in
Mniiatssclirift, 1874, p. 21 ; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers.
p. 416; R.E.J.vi.m.
G. S. K.

JONATHAN BEN ELEAZAR: Palestinian
scholar of the third century ; contemporary of Ha-
nina b. Hama (Shab. 49a et seq.) ; disciple of Simon b.
Jose b. Lakonya. Rabbah b. Hana twice reports com-
munications which he had with Jonathan in which
the latter speaks of his intercourse with Simon (Pes.
5a; see Rabbinowicz, "Dikduke Soferim," art loc;
Bek. 38b). It is also related tliat Jonatlian once
propounded to Simon a liluiilistic (luestioii, and tliat

235

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jonathan ben Absalom
Jonathan Levi

the teacher misunderstood it and ciiided liim. But
jvhen Jonathan respectfully corrected his teacher,
explaining his problem more clearly, Simon found
it toodillicult for him to solve, and invited his pupil
to follow him to another school in quest of the
needed solution, which tliey obtained from a baraita
tauglit by Hezekiah (Yer. Hor. ii. 45d; comp. Sheb.
18b). Sometimes he is cited as "Jonathan b. Elea-
zar Sar [Ish] iia-Birah [Castellan]," or as " Jonatlian
Ish ha Birah" (Tan.,Wayiggash, 12, ed. Buber; Gen.
R. xcv. 3). Generally, however, he is cited without
either patronymic or cognomen, and his name ap-
pears in this form quite frequently in both Talmuds.

Jonathan was a Babylonian by birth, and his first
associates in Palestine were the foremost Babylonian
immigrants, Hiyya Rabbah and Hanina b. Hama
<Hul. 45a; Yer. Ber. v. 9a; Yer. Pes. vi. 33b). In
company with the latter and Joshua b. Levi he once
made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (Yer. Ma'as. Sh. iii.
54b). He was very charitable ; when a prominent
official came to his city he would make him costly
presents, in order, as he said, to pave the way for
eventual intercession on behalf of a widow or an
orphan whose suit might be subject to tlie deci-sion
of that official (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah ii. 41d). To him is
also ascribed the lialakah that a son may be com-
pelled to support liis parent; and it is related that
once, while he was in the company of Yaunai, he
Avas humbly kissed by a stranger. Yaunai asked
whether he knew the man, and Jonathan informed
him tliat the man had once appealed to him against
his hard-hearted son, who would not support him,
and that he had forced the son to do liis duty toward
his father (Yer. Peah i. 15d ; comp.Ket. 49b).

As a halakist he paid due regard to expediency.
According to him, one may do anything or use any-
thing (otherwise forbidden) as a remedy against dis-
ease— idolatrous objects, lawless cohabitation, and
bloodshed excepted (Yer. Shab. xiv. 14d ; comp. Pes.
25a). He taught that " One must appear justified be-
fore men as well as before God." He based this doc-
trineon dicta in the Prophets and Hagiographa(Josh.
xxii. 22; Prov. iii. 4), but mainly on Num. xxxii. 22:
"Ye shall ... be guiltless before the Lord, and be-
fore Israel " (Yer. Shek. iii. 47c).

Bibliography: Bacher, Aii. Pal. Amnr. i. 58-88; Frankel,

Meho, p. 99a; Halevy, Dorof /io-Ris/ionim, ii. 149a; Weiss,
Dor, iii. 53.
s. s. S. M.

JONATHAN BEN HORKINAS (ARCHI-

NAS) : Palestinian scholar of the first century;
contemporary of Eleazar b. Azariah and a disciple
of the school of Shammai. He was reputed for his
acuteness, in recognition of which he was stj^led
"bekor satan" (= "first-born as adversary," i.e., a
fierce disputant; Yer. Yeb. i. 6; Yeb. 16a; comp.
Rashi ad loc, and rabbinic dictionaries, s.v. "Be-
kor"). R. Zemah, however, amends the reading to
"bekor shoteh" (lit. "foolish first-born son "; applied
to a son first-born to the mother — but not to the
father; Zacuto, "Yuhasin," ed. Filipowski, p. 11).
Altliough the school of Hillelwas the standard au-
thority in halakic matters, Jonathan prevailed upon
some of the Rabbis to permit, in accordance witli the
school of Shammai, marriage between a man and his
brother's widow, where she was the co-wife of his

daughter. The Jerusalem Talmud (Yeb. Z.c.) relates
concerning this the following incident : The disciples
of Hillel, liaving heard that a son of Horkinas liad
granted this permission, credited it to Dosa b. Horki-
nas, Jonathan 'solder brother, of the school of Hillel,
and consequently went to Dosa for an explanation.
Dosa referred them to his brother Jonathan, who,
he said, had three hundred arguments in favor of
such a marriage. The Rabbis tlien went to Jona-
than, whom Dosa had warned by letter to prepare
for a visit from the wise men of Israel. Jonathan,
accordingly, explained to the Rabbis his arguments,
but they could not understand them. Becoming
impatient, he cast clods of earth at them and drove
them out through three different doors. Then he
wrote to his brother: "Thou hast informed me of
the visit of the wise men of Israel, but those that
came to me are in need of learning." Meeting
Akiba, Jonathan said to him: "Thou art lucky to
have acquired such renown while thou hast not yet
acquired the knowledge of a cov/herd " (Yeb. I.e.).

Bibliography: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., iv. 20; Heilprln, Seder
lia-Dorot, ii.

J. M. Sel.

JONATHAN BEN JACOB: Hungarian Tal-
mudist and author; flourished at Buda (Ofen) toward
the end of the seventeenth century. In 1688, when
Buda was taken by the imperial troops, Jonathan
was among the captives, but he was ransomed by
the Jews of Nikolsburg. Jonathan wrote: "Re-
set Yehonatan " (Dyhernfurth, 1797), a treatise on
morals and asceticism taken from the "Shene Lu-
hot ha-Berit"; "Sefer Hasidim," and other caba-
listic works; "Neu Ma'aseh-Buch " (ib. 1797), a col-
lection of Judico-German stories. He had previously
edited the "jMa'amar ha-'Ittim" of Menahem Aza-
riah di Fano {ib. 1693).

Bibliography : Fiirst, Bibl. Jiid. ii. 105 ; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodl. col. 1433.
G. M. Sel.

JONATHAN BEN JOSEPH: Lithuanian
rabbi and astronomer; lived at Risenoi, government
of Grodno, in the seventeenth and eighteentii cen-
turies. In addition to his Talmudical acquirements
Jonathan was proficient in astronomy and mathe-
matics. In 1710 a terrible plague visited the town
of Risenoi, and Jonathan and his family lived an
entire year in the fields. He then vowed that,
should he be spared, he would disseminate astro-
nomical knowledge among his coreligionists. To
fulfil this vow Jonathan, although he became blind,
went to Germany, where the bibliographer Wolf
met him in 1725. Jonathan was the author of
" Yeshu'ah be-Yisrael," an astronomical commentary
on Maimonides' law-s on the neomenia (Frankfort-
on the-Main, 1720), and "Bi'ur,"a commentary on
Abraham ben Hivya's astronomical work "Zurat
ha-Arez " (Oflfenbach, 1720).

Bibliography: Wolf, Bihlintheca Hebrcea, iii.. No. 844o;
Nepi-(ihirondi. Toledot Gednle Yisraeh p. 184; Steinschneider.
Cat. Bodl. col. 1433; Fuenn, Keneset Yisraeh p. 438.
G. L Br.

JONATHAN LEVI ZION: Representative
of the Jewish community of Frankfort-on-the-Main
in its defense against the attacks of John PfelTer-
korn. When the latter had obtained from Emperor

Jonathan Maccabeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

236

Maximilian I. an edict ordering the confiscation of
all Hebrew books (Aug. 19, 1509), Jonathan Levi
Zion went to Worms to obtain its suspension by
the imperial court. Failing in this, he was sent to
Italy to plead before the emperor personally. When
he reached the emperor's headquarters at Verona,
he met there Isaac of Triest, through whose influ-
ence he obtained an audience with the emperor, who
promised that he would send them his decision. A
week later the Margrave of Baden, whom the em-
peror appointed procurator, promised Jonathan to
do everything in his power in favor of the Jews.
But Pfefferkorn's arrival (Oct. 29, 1509) frustrated
the hopes of the Jewish delegate. Whenever he
met Jonathan in the streets of Verona he intimi-
dated him by threats and insults. Fearing for his
personal safety, Jonathan threw himself at the feet
of the emperor and asked for protection. For a
time Maximilian was inclined to submit the affair to
a committee of princes. But the two Jewish dele-
gates asked for a postponement in the hope of find-
ing substitutes more able to plead their cause against
their opponent.

A letter from Archbishop U"iel of Mayence, ex-
posing Pfefferkorn's ignorance, and a renewed ap-
peal of the Jews made some impression upon the
emperor. At the beginning of November he issued
a decree authorizing the archbishop to examine the
confiscated books ; in a second decree he enjoined
the magistrate of Frankfort to submit to the deci-
sion of the archbishop. Through Erwin Hutten,
Jonathan had knowledge of these decrees before
they were sent, and reported to Frankfort this favor-
able turn of affairs. But on Nov. 10 the emperor
modified the first decree and ordered the continu-
ance of the confiscation. After vainly protesting
Jonathan returned to Frankfort.

Bibliography : Gratz, Oesch. Ix. 93-94, 523 et Keq.i Kraeauer,
In Zeitschrift fUr die Oesch. der Juden in DeutschJand, i.
170 et acq.

D. S. Man.

JONATHAN MACCABEUS: Son of Matta-
thias; leader of the Jews in the Maccabean wars
from 161 to 143 b.c. He is called also Apphus
('An<pov^ [Syriac, uncn] = "the dissembler," "the
diplomat," in allusion to a trait prominent in him;
I Mace. ii. 5). With his brother Judah, Jonatlian
had taken an active part in the battles against the
Syrians, and although he displayed less bravery
than Judah. his courage had been frequently tried,
and he gave brilliant proof of it on many occasions
in his career. After Judah 's death the Syrian gen-
eral Bacchides proceeded with crushing rigor against
the Maccabean party ; and at the same time a famine
broke out in the land. In this ex-
Leader of tremity the Jews chose Jonathan for
the Jews, their leader. Noticing that Bacchides
was trying to entrap him, he retired
with his brother Simeon and his followers to a desert
region in the country east of the Jordan, camping
near a morass by the name of Asphar. As Bacchides
followed him even there, overtaking him on a Sab-
bath, Jonathan gave all the baggage into the hands
of his brother Johanan. Johanan went to the
Tiendly Nabataeans: but a hostile tribe, the sons of
.'ambri of Medaba, killed him and his companions

and seized the baggage (I Mace. ix. 32-36 ; Josephus,
" Ant. " xiii. 1, § 2). Jonatlian subsequently avenged
this treacher}-.

On that Sabbath Jonathan and his companions
were forced to engage in battle with Bacchides.
Jonathan had encountered and had raised his hand
to slay Bacchides, when the latter evaded the blow ;
the Jews, defeated, sought refuge by swimming
through the Jordan to the western bank. In this
first encounter Bacchides lost about 1,000 men. Soon
after this event, informed that one of the sons of
Jambri was leading home a noble bride in great
pomp, the Maccabean brothers proceeded to Medaba,
ambushed the bridal procession, killed the entire
party, to the number of 300, and seized all the treas-
ure (I Mace. ix. 37-49; Josephus, I.e. xiii. 1, §§ 3-4).
They remained, however, in the swamp in the coun-
try east of the Jordan, and Bacchides thought them
so insignificant that, after the death of the high
priest Alcimus, his creature, he left the country.
Two years afterwards the Hellenistic Jews in the
Agra, whom Jonathan had certainly endeavored to
injure, went, as in the time of Judah, to King
Demetrius and asked to have Bacchides sent back,
thinking that Jonathan and his followers could be
destroyed in a night. But this proved impossible,
as Jonathan was on his guard, and Bacchides in his
anger killed fifty of the leaders of the Hellenists.
Jonathan and Simeon thought it well to retreat far-
ther, and accordingly fortified in the desert a place
called Beth-hogla (" Bet Hoglah " for Btj^a?iayd in
Josephus ; I Mace, has Baiifiaal, perhaps = Bet
Bosem or Bet Bassim f " spice-house "], near Jericho) ;
there they were besieged several days by Bacchides.
Jonathan left his brother Simeon in charge of the
defense, while he himself made inroads into the
neighboring country, fought with a certain Odares
and his brothers, and with the sons of Phasiron, and
attacked the rear of the army of Bacchides, who,
compelled to retire, again punished the Hellenists at
Jerusalem.

When Jonathan perceived that Bacchides re-
gretted having set out, he asked for peace and an
exchange of prisoners. Bacchides readily consented,
swore that he would nevermore make war upon
Jonathan, and then returned home. Jonathan now
took up his residence in the old city of Michmash,
and cleared the land of the godless and the apostate
(I Mace. ix. 55-73; Josephus, I.e. xiii. 1, §§5-6).
The chief source, the First Book of the Maccabees,
says that with this " the sword ceased in Israel " ; and
in fact nothing is reported for the five following
years (158-153).

But Jonathan must have used this period to good
advantage, for he was soon in possession of great
power. An important event brought the design of
the Maccabeans to fruition. Demetrius I. , Soter, lost
the friendship of the kings of Pergamus and Egypt,
who set up against him an adventurer, Alexander
Balas, as rival king. Demetrius was now forced to
recall the garrisons of Judea, except those in the
Acra and at Beth-zur; he also made a bid for the
loyalty of Jonathan, whom he permitted to recruit
an army and to take the hostages kept in the Acra.
Jonathan gladly accepted these terms, and took
up his residence at Jerusalem, which he began to

237

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jonathan Maccabeus

fortify (153). Balas, however, offered Jouatlian still
more favorable terras, eveu appointing liim high
priest; Jonathan tliereby became the
Jonathan official leader of his people, and the
High Hellenistic party could no longer at-
Priest. tack him. On the Feast of Taber-
nacles in 153 Jonathan put on the high
priest's garments and ofHciated for the first time.
He had determined to side with Balas, not trusting
Demetrius, who in a second letter made promises
that he could hardly have kept and conceded pre-
rogatives that were almost impossible (I Mace. x.
1-46; Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 2, S§ 1-4). The events
justified Jonathan's action; Demetrius lost his
throne and life, and Balas became King of Syria.
The Egyptian king, Ptolemy Philometor, gave
Balas his daughter Cleopatra to wife, taking her as
far as Ptolemais to meet him. After the wedding,
Jonathan was invited to that city. He appeared
with presents for both kings, and was permitted to
sit between them as their equal ; Balas even clothed
him with his own royal garment and otherwise ac-
corded him high honor. He would not listen to the
Hellenistic party that still accused Jonathan, but
appointed Jonathan as strategus and "meridarch"
{i.e., civil governor of a province; details not found
in Josephus), and sent him back with honors to Jeru-
salem (I Mace. X. 51-66; Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 4,

Jonathan proved grateful. Demetrius II. tried
to win back his father's throne (147), and Apollonius
Taos, governor of Coele-S3'ria, wlio
Victory probably had joined Demetrius, chal-
over Ap- lenged Jonathan to battle, saying that
ollonius. tlie Jews might for once leave the
mountains and venture -out into the
plain. Thereupon Jonathan and Simeon appeared,
with 10,000 men, before Joppa, where the forces of
Apollonius lay, and the gates of which were opened
to them out of fear. But reenforced from Azotus,
Apollonius appeared with 3,000 men in the plain,
relying on his cavalry, and forced Jonathan to en-
gage in battle. The missiles of the horsemen re-
bounded from the shields of Simeon's men, who suc-
cessfully resisted the enemy's onslaughts. Jonathan
in the meantime vanquished the infantry, scattered
it in wild flight, and pursued it to Azotus, which
city he took by assault, burning it and its villages,
including the Temple of Dagon. In reward, Balas
gave him the city of Ekron with the outlying terri-
tory. The people of Azotus vainly complained to
King Ptolemy Philometor, who had come to make
war upon his son-in-law Balas, that Jonathan had
destroyed their city and temple. Jonathan met
Ptolemy at Joppa, accompanied him as far as the
River Eleutherus, and then returned to Jerusalem (I
Mace. X. 67-89, xi. 1-7; Josephus, I.e. xiii. 4, g§
3-5).

Balas was vanquished by Ptolemy, and Demetrius
II. ascended the throne of theSeleucids (145). Jon-
athan took this opportunity to conquer the Acra,
still garrisoned by a Syrian force and inhabited by
the Jewish Hellenists (I Mace. xi. 20; Josephus, I.e.
xiii. 4, § 9). The king was greatly incensed; he ap-
peared with an army at Ptolemais and ordered Jon-
athan to come before him. Without raising the siege

Jonathan, accompanied by the elders and priests,
went to the king, and pacified him with presents,

so that the king not only confirmed
Under De- him in his office of high priest, but
metrius II. gave to him the three Samaritan topar-

chies of Ephraim, Lydda, and Rama-
thaim. In consideration of a present of 300 talents
the entire country was exempted from taxes, the ex-
emption being confirmed in writing. Jonathan in
return left the Acra in Syrian hands. A new pre-
tender to the throne appeared in the person of the
young Antiochus VI., son of Balas, in the care of a
certain Trypho, who himself had designs on the
throne. In face of this new enemy, Demetrius not
only promised to withdraw the garrison from the
Acra, but also called Jonathan his ally and requested
him to send troops. The 3,000 men of Jonathan
protected Demetrius in his capital, Antioch, against
his own subjects (I Mace. xi. 21-52; Josephus, I.e.
xiii. 4, § 9; 5, §§ 2-3; "R. E. J." xlv. 34).

As Demetrius did not keep his promise, Jonathan
thought it better to support the new king when Try-
pho and Antiochus seized the capital, especially as
the last-named confirmed all his rights and appointed
his brother Simeon strategus of the seacoast, from
the " Ladder of Tyre " to the frontier of Egypt. Jon-
athan and Simeon were now entitled to make con-
quests; Ashkelon submitted voluntarily, and Gaza
was forcibly taken. Jonathan vanquished even the
strategi of Demetrius far to the north, in the plain
of Hazar, and Simeon at the same time took the
strong fortress of Beth-zuron the pretext that it har-
bored Demetrians (I Mace. xi. 53-74; Josephus, I.e.

xiii. 5, §§ 3-7). Like Judahin former

Friendship years, Jonathan sought alliances with

■with Rome foreign peoples. He renewed the

and treaty with Rome, and exchanged

Sparta. friendly messages with Sparta and

other places. (It should be added
that this point and the documents referring to it
are open to question.) The followers of Demetrius
collected at Hamath, but scattered again at the ap-
proach of Jonathan. The latter vanquished an Ara-
bian tribe, the Zabadeans, entered Damascus, and
went through the whole country. On his return to
Jerusalem he had a conference with the elders, for-
tified the city, and cut ofE all intercourse with the

Acra (I Mace. xii. 1-22, 24-37; Jose-
Trypho. phus. I.e. xiii. 5, §§ 8, 10-11). Even

before this, Simeon had sent a Jewish
garrison to Joppa and fortified the city of Hadid in
the west of Judea. This made Trypho suspicious;
he went with an army to Judea, invited Jonathan
to Scythopolis for a friendly conference, and per-
suaded him to dismiss his army of 40,000 men,
promising to give him Ptolemais and other fortresses.
Jonathan fell into the trap; he took with him to
Ptolemais 1,000 men, all of w^hom were slain; he
himself was taken prisoner (I Mace. xii. 33-38, 41-
53; Josephus, I.e. xiii. 5, § 10; 6, g§ 1-3).

When Trypho was about to enter Judea at Hadid,
he was confronted by the new Jewish leader, Simeon,
ready for battle. Trypho, avoiding an engage-
ment, demanded one hundred talents and Jonathan's
two sons as hostages, in return for which he
promised to liberate Jonathan Although Simeon

Jonathan the Sadducee
Jose, Abba

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

238

did not trust Trypho, he complied witli the request
in order tliat he might not be accused of the death of
his brother. But Trypho did not liberate his pris-
oner; angry that Simeon blocked his way every-
where and that he could accomplish nothing, he
killed Jonathan at Baskama, in the country east of the
Jordan (143; I Mace. xiii. 12-30; Josephus, I.e. xiii.
6, § 5). Jonathan was buried by Simeon at Modin.
Nothing is known of his two captive sons. One of
his daughters was the ancestress of Flavius Jose-
phus (Josephus, "Vita," § 1). See Judas Macca-
beus.
G. S. Kr.

JONATHAN THE SADDUCEE: Friend of

the Hasmonean prince John Hyrcanus (135-104 B.C.).

As the Pharisees belittled the prince's fitness for the

office of high priest, Jonathan incited the prince

against them, with the intention of driving them

out of office. He succeeded in doing so, for toward

the end of his life John Hyrcanus turned from the

Pharisees and favored the Sadducees (Josephus,

"Ant." xiii. 10, § 6). Josephus calls Jonathan

'luvddTic. In the corresponding Talmudic account

(Kid. 66a) Eleazar b. Po'era is mentioned as having

worked for the same object.

Bibliography: Derenbourij, Hist. p. 79, Paris, 1867; Gratz,
Gexch. 4th ed., iii. 116,684; Schiirer, Gesc?t. 3d ed., i. 272 ;
I. L^vl, in R. E. J. XXXV. 220.
C4. S. Kr.

JONATHAN SAR HA-BIRAH. See Jona-
TH.\N I5EN Eleazar.

JONATHAN BEN XJZZIEL : Hillel's most dis-
tinguished pupil (Suk. 28a; B. B. 134a). No hala-
kot of his have been preserved, though a tradition
makes him the author of a halakah which, if au-
thentic, proves him to have posse.ssed the quality of
unselfishness in a marked degree. A man whose
children had misconducted themselves had be-
queathed to Jonathan the whole of his property.
Jonathan, however, kept only one-third, giving one-
third to the sanctuary, and one-third to the chil-
dren of the deceased (B. B. 134a). According to
another version, Jonathan's father, Uzziel, disin-
herited him and left his estate to Shammai, who,
however, declined to receive it (Yer. Ned. v. 6). Ac-
cording to Meg. 3a, Jonathan wrote a targum to the
Prophets to remove all impediments to the under-
standing of the Scriptures. It is, however, gener-
ally conceded to be doubtful whether the targum
to the Prophets that has been preserved is his. He
is said to have desired to translate the Ketubim also.

Bibliography : Weiss, Dor, i. 177.

8. J. Z. L.

JONATHANSON, AARON B. ZEBI : Rus-
sian IIel)rai.st and poet; born about 1815; died in
Kovno July 27, 1868. His father, a great-grandson
of Jonathan EybeschlUz, settled in Wilna, and there
Aaron followed the profession of teacher until about
1859, when he removed to Yanova, near Kovno.
He corresponded with Isaac Erter; and Judah LOb
Gordon, who was one of his pupils, remembered him
with great aCfection and thought well of his poetry.
Jonathanson was the author of "Kele Shir" (Wilna,
1864), a collection of jioenis and epigrams.

His son Zebi Jonathanson (born in Wilna 1841)
is the author of "Shire Ziyyon" (Warsaw, 1893), a

volume of poetry. Another son, Jonathan Jona-
thanson (born in Wilna July 5, 1858), now (1904)
residing in New York, is a contributor to the Yid-
dish periodical press under the nom de plume "Kal
wa-Homer."

Bibliography : Ha-Karmel. vii.. No. 22 ; Ha-Meliz, viii., No.
34: ELsenstadt, Hakme YUrael be-Amerika, p. 55, New-
York, 1903.

H. R. P. Wl.

JONES, ALFRED T. : American editor and
communal worker; born in Boston July 4, 1822;
died at Philadelphia Oct. 3, 1888. In 1842 he be-
came a resident of Philadelphia, and was succes-
sively engaged in the wholesale clothing and print-
ing businesses. In 1875 he established the "Jewish
Record," a newspaper which remained in existence
until 1886.

Jones was the secretary of the first Jewish Publi-
cation Society (organized 1845), president of the
Jewish Benevolent Society and of the Hebrew Soci-
ety for the Visitation of the Sick and Mutual As-
sistance, manager of the Hebrew Relief Society, sec-
retary of the Fuel Society, director of the United
Hebrew Charities, member of the advisory board
of the Jewish Foster Home, secretary and vice-
president of the Hebrew Education Society, past
master of the Shekinah Lodge of Masons, and for
over thirty years its secretary, besides being promi-
nent in other lodges. Jones was first president of
the Jewish Hospital Association, first president of
the Jewish Immigrants' Aid Society, and president
of the Congregation Beth-El-Erneth, all of Phila-
delphia.

A. D. Su.

JONES, THOMAS: English publisher; con-
vert to Judaism; born in 1791; died in London
May 25, 1882. By birth a Roman Catholic, his
change of faith was the result of deep study and
conviction. Jones, who for many years pursued the
business of publisher and bookseller in Paternoster
row, was well versed in Biblical literature, and was
a frequent attendant at the Spanish and Portuguese
synagogue, being specially scrupulous in his ob-
servance of the sacred festivals. Later, by reason
of ill health and reduced circumstances, he resided
with his daughter, who was a Sister of Mercy at the
Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem. Here he re-
mained steadfast to his adopted faith.

Bibliography : Jew. Chroii. June 2, 1882.
J. G. L.

JOPPA. See Jaffa.

JORAM. See Jehoram.

JORDAN, THE(p-i>): Principal river of Pales-
tine, formed by the confluence of three streams ri-
sing respectively at (1) Bauiyas (Paneas), (2) Tell al-
Kadi (Dan), and (3) Hasbeyah (Baal Gad) at the foot
of Mt. Herinon. The Jordan flows south through
the Bahr al-Hulah (Lake Merom) and Bahr alTa-
bariyyah (Lake of Tiberias or Gennesaret) and emp-
ties into the Dead Sea at its northernmost point,
137 miles in a straight line from the river's source.
The Jordan's course is so winding that between Ti-
berias and the Dead Sea, a direct distance of 65
miles, it measures 200. At Tiberias the water is

239

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jonathan the Sadducee
Jose, Abba

clear, but farther down it becomes yellow. The
stream is very rapid, for it has a fall of 3,000 feet
from its source to its mouth. The Jordan valley
(in Arabic " Al-Ghor ") is geologically remarkable as
compared with the remainder of Palestine. The
lower portion lies far below the level of the sea,
and it is furthermore lined on both sides by cliffs
which rise precipitously above it in abrupt terraces
and shut it off from all breezes. Its climate is there-
fore tropical, the temperature being rarely below
77° and sometimes as high as 130°. In flora and
fauna it is to a corresponding degree distinct : plants
characteristic of Nubia, Abyssinia, and the Sahara
grow in rank luxuriance; fishes proper to Lake
Tanganyika are found in the Sea of Galilee; and
birds which belong naturally in Ceylon and India
are seen throughout the valley.

Biblical Data : Except in Ps. xlii. 7 (A. V.

6) and Job xl. 23, ''Jordan" occurs with the defi-
nite article, its meaning being "the descender."
The Jordan is pointed out as the source of fertility
to a large plain ("Kikkar ha-Yarden"), called on
account of its luxuriant vegetation "the garden of
God" (Gen. xiii. 10). There is no regular descrip-
tion of the Jordan in the Bible; onlj^ scattered and
indefinite references to it are given. Jacob crossed
it and its tributary, the Jabbok (the modern Al-
Zarka), in order to reach Haran (Gen. xxxii. 11, 23-
24). It is particularly noted as the line of demarca-
tion between the "two tribes and the half tribe" set-
tled to the east (Num. xxxiv. 15) and the "nine
tribes and the half tribe of Manasseh " that, led by
Joshua, settled to the west (Josh. xiii. 7, pmsim).

The sources of the Jordan are not mentioned; and
only in the short description of the eastern boundary
of the latter tribes (Num. xxxiv. .10-13) is the Jor-
dan mentioned in connection with Chinnereth (Gen-
nesaret) and the Dead Sea, the latter being the
southern end of the boundary-line. Opposite Jeri-
cho it was called "the Jordan of Jericho" (Num.
xxxiv. 15, XXXV. 1, passim). The Jordan in gen-
eral is very deep (comp. I Mace. ix. 48), but it has
a number of fords, and one of them is famous as the
place where 42,000 Ephraimites were slain by Jeph-
thah (Judges xii. 5-6). It seems that these are the
same fords mentioned as being near Beth-barah,
where Gideon lay in wait for the Midianites (Judges
vii. 24). In the plain of the Jordan, between Suc-
coth and Zarthan, is the clay ground where Solomon
had his brass-foundries (I Kings vii. 46).

In Biblical history the Jordan appears as the scene
of several miracles, the first taking place when the
Jordan, near Jericho, was crossed by the Israelites
imder Joshua (Josh. iii. 15-17). Later the two tribes
and the half tribe that settled east of the Jordan
built a large altar on its banks as "a witness" be-
tween them and the other tribes (Josh. xxii. 10. 26 et
seq.). The Jordan was crossed dry-shod by Elijah
and Elisha, each of whom divided the waters with a
stroke of the mantle (II Kings ii. 8, 14). Elisha
performed two other miracles at the Jordan : he
healed Naaman by having him bathe seven times in
its waters, and he made the ax of one of the children
of the prophets float by throwing a piece of wood
into the water (II Kings v. 14, vi. 6). The Jordan
was crossed by Judas Maccabeus and liis brother

Jonathan during their war with the Nabatoeans
(I Mace. V. 24). A little later the Jordan was the
scene of the battle between Jonathan and Bacchides,
in which the latter was defeated (I Mace. ix. 42-49).
K. o. H. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature : According to the

Talmud p-|^ is a compound, p Ti^ ( = "wliich de-
scended from Dan"), and the river was called thus
because it takes its source in the grotto of Paneas,
in the city of Dan (the Biblical Leshem; Bek. 55a;
comp. Josephus, " B. J." iii. 10, § 7). The Jordan
is one day's march from Jerusalem (Ma'as. Sh. v. 2).
It traverses lakes Samko (Samachonitis) and Tibe-
rias, the Dead Sea, falls into the Mediterranean, and
there flows into the mouth of Leviathan (Bek. 55a;
B. B. 74b). However, by a miracle, the water of
the Jordan, the use of which in the Temple w-as
prohibited on account of its impurity (Parah viii.
9), does not mingle with the waters of the Lake of
Tiberias (Gen. R. iv.). The river bears the name
"•Jordan " only below Bet Jericho (Bet Jerah, ac-
cording to the reading proposed by Neubauer, "G.
T." p. 30), on the Lake of Tiberias (Bek. 55a). Its
current is so strong that boats can not ascend it, but
can only cross from one shore to the other (Yer.
Shab. iv. 2).

AVhen the Israelites came to the Jordan the water
piled itself into a pillar twelve miles in height, leav-
ing dry a space equivalent to that occupied by the
Israelitish camp, so that the whole people could
cross together. According to Eleazar ben Simeon
the water formed itself into arches more than three
hundred miles in height, which were seen by all the
kings of the East and West (Sotah 34a ; Yer. Sotali
vii. 31b). The hornet which fought for the Jews
stopped at the Jordan, but did not cross it (Sotah
36a).

Bibliography : Neubauer, La Geographic du Talmud, pp. 29

etseq.
S. 8. I. Bu.

JOSE (Joseph), ABBA, BEN DOSITAI (Do-
sai ; Derosai ; Dosa) : Palestinian tanna of the
second century ; mentioned as both halakist and
haggadist. He transmitted a halakah of R. Jose the
Galilean (Tosef., Ta'an. ii. 6). His haggadot con-
sist chiefly of reconciliations between contradictory
Biblical passages, almost all of them being trans-
mitted by Rabbi (Judah I.). A series of them is in
the Sifre to Num. 42; they are reproduced in Num.
R. xi. 19, and single haggadot occur in Sanh. 52a,
Yoma 22a, Zeb. 116b, and elsewhere. Lev. R. xxiv.
3 and Tan., Kedoshim, 9, preserve a demon-story
the hero of which is called Jose of Zitor; while
according to Midr. Teh. toPs. xx. 7, where the same
story occurs, the hero is Abba Jose b. Dositai.

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 388; idem, Ag. Pal.
Amor. ii. 450; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.
s. s. M. Sel.

JOSE, ABBA, BEN HANIN : Palestinian
tanna of the last decades before the destruction of
the Temple; contemporary of Eliezer b. J.\cob
and of Hanin.\ b. Antigonus, with both of whom
he is mentioned in a halakic discussion (Tosef., Suk.
iv. 15). His name occurs also as "Abba Jose b.
Hanan," or "b. Johanan " (which is erroneously fol-
lowed by " ish Yerushalayim "), " Abba Joseph," and

Jose, Abba

Jose ben Halafta

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

240

"Abba Issi." Jose's balakot are also meutioned in
Sifre, Num. 8, Mid. ii. 6, and Sotah 20b. He trans-
mitted a haggadah of Abba Cohen Bardela (Sifre,
Deut. 2) and one of Samuel ha-Katon (Derek Erez
Zuta ix.). A sentence of Jose's, rebuking the
priestl}' families that acted violently toward the
people, transmitted by Abba Saul b. Botnit, reads
as follows: "Wo unto me for the house of Baithus
and its rods; wo unto me for the house of Haniu
and its calumnious whispering; wo unto me for the
house of Katros and its pens; wo unto me for the
house of IsHMAEL B. Phabi and its fists " (Pes. 57a,
where he is called "Abba Joseph ").

In Yeb. 53b an "'Abba Jose b. Johanan " ("b.
Hanan " in Rashi) is mentioned as having transmitted
a halakah of R. Meir, who lived a century later.
Bacher(" Ag Tan." i. 46, note 2) therefore supposes
that the author of the sentence quoted above was
Abba Saul b. Botnit, and that it was transmitted by
the Abba Jose of Yebamot (conip. Blichler, " Die
Priester und der Cultus," p. 30).

Bibliography : Bacher, in R. E. J. xxxvii. 299; Heilprin, Se-
der ha-Dorot, ii.

S. S. M. Sel.

JOSE, ABBA, OF MAHTJZA : Scholar of the
third (?) century; mentioned once only (Mek., Be-
shallah, Wayehi, 3), a haggadah of his being trans-
mitted by R. Nathan. In Mek., Bo, 17, there is
mentioned an Abba Jose together with R. Jonathan;
and as the above-mentioned haggadah of Abba Jose
is ascribed in Men. (37a) to R. Jose ha-Horem, Weiss
(introduction to his edition of the Mekilta, p. xxix.)
conjectures that "ha-Horem" may be amended to
"ha-Mahuzi."

s. M. Sel.

JOSE B. ABIN (called also Jose b. Abun
and Jose b. R. Bun) : Palestinian amora of the
fifth generation (4th cent.); son of R. Abin I.
(Bacher, " Ag. Pal. Amor." iii. 724) and the teacher
of R. Abin II. (Yer. Ned. 3b). He was at first the
pupil of R. Jose of Yodkart, but the latter's indif-
ference to his own family caused Jose to leave him
and follow R. Assi or Jose II. (Ta'an. 23b; Weiss,
"Dor," iii. 117). Jose was the most important
among the last halakists of the Palestinian amo-
raim. He had a thorough knowledge not only of
the Palestinian customs and halakot, but of the
Babylonian, a fact that has led some scholars to
maintain that Jose must have resided at some time
in Babylonia. It is probable, however, that he de-
rived his knowledge of Babylonian teaching from
his father, who had traveled in Babylonia.

Jose's chief work in the field of the Halakah was
the expounding of the Mishnah and the halakot of
the Amoraim, though some halakot arc credited to
him. In Haggadah he excelled in the transmission
and elucidation of the sayings of his predecessors,
especially those of R. Hiyya, Joshua b. Levi, R.
Johanan, and R. Simeon b. Lakish.

His chief halakic opponents were R. Mana and
Jose b. Zebida.

Bibliography : Bacher. Aq. Pal. Amnr. iii. 724 et neq.: Weiss,
Dor, iii. 117 et neq.; Heilprin. Seder ha-Darnt, 11. 224; Fran-
kel, Mebu, 102a ; Halevy, Dorot JM-Rishonim, iii. 122 et neq.

S- 8- A. S. W.

JOSE (ISI, ISSI) BEN AKABYA ( AKIEA) :

Tauna of the beginning of the third century. The
name "Issi" or "Assa" is derived from "Jose," and
was borne by many tannaim and amoraim ; hence the
confusion that prevails in the Talmud concerning
the identity of each of them, the same halakic or
haggadic saying being attributed sometimes to one
and sometimes to another of that name. Thus the
prohibition against riding on a mule is reported in
the Yerushalmi (Kil. 31c) in the name of Issi ben
Akabya, while in the Tosefta (Kil. v. 6) it is attrib-
uted to Issi ha-Babli, who is undoubtedly identical
with Issi ben Judah. Bacher supposes that Issi ben
Akabya was the brother of Hananiah ben Akabya,
the interpreter (" meturgeman ") of R. Judah. Issi
was a diligent student of the Bible, and some of his
interpretations have been preserved in the midrashic
literatu'-e. From I Kings viii. 64 he infers that the
expression nmx n3TD (Ex. xx. 24) means an altar of
copper filled with earth (Mekilta to Ex. xx. 24). In
reference to Ex. xxi. 14 he says that though the
murderer of a heathen can not be convicted by a
Jewish tribunal, he must answer for his crime to God
(Mekilta, ad loc. 80b). The permission expressed in
Deut. xxiii. 25 is, according to Issi, extended to
everybody and not only to the workers in the field ;
but the permission applies only to the harvest-time
(Yer. Ma'as. 50a).

Bibliography: Heilprin, Seder ha-DoroMi. 225; Bacher, ^g.
Tan. ii. 371.
s. 8. I. Br.

JOSE THE GALILEAN: Tanna; lived in the

first and second centuries of the common era. Jose
was a contemporary and colleague of R. Akiba, R.
Tarfon, and R. Eleazar b. Azariah. Neither the
name of his father nor the circumstances of his youth
are known, though his name ("ha-Gelili ") indicates
that he was a native of Galilee. He sufTered from
the prejudice commonly held against the Galileans
by the Judeans; on one occasion a woman whom he
had met on the street and had requested to direct
him to Lydda called him a "stupid Galilean"
(" Gclili shote " ; 'Er. 53b). When he entered the
academy at Jabneh, he was entirely unknown. It
is also noted that he was extremely modest and ad-
dressed R. Tarfon as "my master" ("rabbi"; Zeb.
57a). He was, nevertheless, a thorough scholar
even then, and his arguments nonplused both R.
Tarfon and R. Akiba. His first appearance at Jabneh
thus obtained for him general recognition, and the
twp rabbis considered him not as a pupil, but as
a colleague. Akiba was obliged to endure more
than one sharp criticism from Jose, who once said
to him: "Though thou expound the whole day I
shall not listen to thee " (Zeb. 82a). R. Tarfon ex-
pressed his high esteem of Jose by interpreting Dan.
viii. 4-7 as though it contained an allusion to him:
"I saw the ram, that is, R. Akiba, and saw that no
beast might stand before him ; and I beheld the he-
goat, that is, Jose the Galilean, come, and cast him
down to the ground" (Tosef., Mik. vii. 11; Sifre,
Num. [ed. Friedmann, p. 44a]). As a matter of fact,
Jose was the only one who opposed Akiba success-
fully, and the latter frequently abandoned his own
interpretation in favor of his opponent's (Hag. 14a
Pes. 36b).

241

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jose, Abba

Jose ben Halafta

Jose frequently showed a tendency to revert to the
older Halakah (see Midkash Halakah), explaining
the text according to its literal meaning (Mek., Bo
[ed. Weiss, pp. 4b, 9b]; Mek., Beshallah [ed. Weiss,
p. 44a] ; Sifre, Deut. [ed. Friedmann, p. 97b] ; 'Ab.
Zarah 45a ; et al. ). But generally his halakic exegesis
differed little from that of Akiba, and both often em-
ployed the same rules of interpretation (comp. Ket.
44a; Kid. 32b; Pes. 23a, 86a; Bezah 21a, b). Only
two of his halakot need be cited here. He taught that
poultry may be cooked in milk and eaten (Hul. 113a),
as was done in liis own native town {ib. 116a); also
that at the Passover one may enjoy anything that is
leavened, except as food (Pes. 28b). Of his hag-
gadic opinions the two following may be mentioned:
The command of the Torah that the " face of the
old man " shall be honored (Lev. xix. 33) includes,
by implication, the young man who has acquired
wisdom (Kid. 82b). The words " He shall rule over
thee " (Gen. iii. 16) do not refer to power of every
description (Gen. R. xx.).

Jose's married life was unhappj\ His wife was
malicious and quarrelsome, and frequently insulted
him in the presence of his pupils and friends; on the
advice of the latter he divorced her. When she mar-
ried again and was in straitened circumstances, he
was magnanimous enough to support her and her
husband (Gen. R. xvii.).

Jose was famed, moreover, for his piety. An
amora of the third century says : " When, for their
sins, there is drought in Israel, and such a one as
Jose the Galilean prays for rain, the rain cometh
straightway " (Yer. Ber. 9b). The popular invo-
cation, "O Jose ha-Gelili, heal me! " survived even
to the tenth century. This invocation is justly con-
demned by the Karaite Sahal b. Ma?liah (comp.
Pinsker, "Likkute Kadmouiyyot," p. 32).

Bibliggrafhy: Frankel, Hndegetica in Mischnnm, pp. 125-
127, Leipsic, 1859; Brull, Einleitung in die Afi.sc/ina, pp.
12,")-l;i0, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1876; Bacher, A(f. Tan. i.
252-265 ; Weiss, Dor, ii. 119-130.

s. J. Z. L.

JOSE BEN HALAFTA (called also simply
Jose) : Palestinian tanna of the fourth generation
(2d cent.). Of his life only the following few de-
tails are known: He Avas born at Sepphoris; but
liis family was of Babylonian origin (Yoma 66b).
According to a genealogical chart found at Jeru-
salem, he was a descendant of Jonadab b. Rechab
(Yer. Ta'an. iv. 2; Gen. R. xcviii. 13). He was one
of Akiba'sfive principal pupils, called " the restorers
of the Law " (Yeb. 63b), who were afterward or-
dained by Judah b. Baba (Sanh. 14a). He was, be-
sides, a pupil of Johanan b. Nuri, whose halakot he
transmitted (Tosef.. Kclim, B. K. Ixxxii. 7; B. B.
Ixxxvii.), and of Eutolemus ("Er. 35a; R. H. 15a).
It is very likely that he studied much under his
father, Halafta, whose authority he invokes in sev-
eral instances (B. K. 70a ; Me'i. 17b). But his princi-
pal teacher was Akiba, whose system he followed
in his interpretation of the Law (Pes. 18a: Yeb.
62b). After having been ordained in violation of
a Roman edict (Sanh. I.e.), Jose fled to Asia Minor
(B. M. 84b), where he stayed till the edict v.-as abro-
gated. Later he settled at Usha, then the seat of
the Sanhedrin. As he reniaiued silent when his
VII.— 16

fellow pupil Simeon b. Yohai once attacked the
Roman government in his presence, he was forced
by the Romans to return to Sepphoris (Shab. 88b),
which he found in a decaying state (B. B. 75b). He
established there a flourisliing school; and it seems
that he died there (Sanh. 109a; comp. Yer. 'Ab.
Zarah iii. 1). Jose's great learning attracted so many
pupils that the words "that which is altogether just
shalt thou follow " (Deut. xvi. 20) were interpreted
to mean in part "follow Jose to Sepphoris" (Sanh.
82b). He was highly extolled after his death. His
pupil Judah ha-Nasi I. said : " The difference between
Jose's generation and ours is like the difference be-
tween the Holy of Holies and the most profane "
(Yer. Git. vi. 9).

His halakot are mentioned throughout the greater
part of the Mishnah, as well as in the Baraita and
Sifra. His teaching was very system-
His atic. He was opposed to controversy,

Halakot. declaring that the antagonism be-
tween the schools of Shammai and
Hillel made it seem as if there were two Torahs
(Sanh. 88b). For the most part, Jose adopted a
compromise between two contending halakists
(comp. Ter. x. 3; 'Er. viii. 5 [= 86a] ; Yoma iv.
3 [= 43b]). Like his master Akiba, Jose occupied
himself with the dots which sometimes accompany
the words in the Bible, occasionally basing his halakot
on such dots (Pes. ix. 2 [= 98b] ; Men. 87b). He
was generally liberal in his halakic decisions, espe-
cially in interpreting the laws concerning fasts
(Ta'an. 22b) and vows (Ned. 21b, 28a). In those
cases where there was a difference of opinion be-
tween Jose and his contemporaries, it was Jose's
decision that was adopted as the norm for the prac-
tise (Yer. Ter. iii. 1 ; 'Er. 51a).

Jose was also a prominent haggadist ; and the con-
versation which he had with a Roman matron, re-
sulting in her conviction of the superiority of the
Jewish religion (Gen. R. Ixviii. 4), shows his great
skill in interpreting Biblical verses.
Bible Chro- Jose is considered to be the author of
nology. the Seder '01am Rabbah, a chronicle
from the Creation to the time of Ha-
drian, for w4iich reason it is called also "'Baraita de
R. Jose b. Halafta " (Yeb. 82b ; Niddah 46b ; comp.
Shab. 88a). This work, though incomplete and too
concise, shows Jose's system of arranging material
in chronological order.

Jose is known for his ethical dicta, which are char-
acteristic, and in which he laid special stress on the
study of the Torah (comp. Ab. iv. 6). He exem-
plitied Abtalion's dictum, "Love the handicrafts"
(ib. i. 9); for he was a tanner by trade (Shab. 49a),
and followed a craft then commonly held in con-
tempt (Pes. 65a). A series of Jose's ethical sayings
in Shab. 118b shows his tendency toward Essenism.
As has been said above, Jose was opposed to dis-
putation. When his companion Judah desired to
exclude Meir's disciples from his school, Jose dis-
suaded him (Kid. 52a; Nazir oOa). One of his char-
acteristic sayings is, "He who indicates the coming
of the Messiah [ypn nS |nijn]. he who hates scholars
and their disciples, and the false prophet and the
slanderer, v^^ill liave no part in the future world "
(Derek Erez R. xi.). According to Bacher, in

Jose b. Jacob
Jose ha-Kohen

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

242

"Monatsschrift," xlii. 505-507, this was directed
against the Hebrew Christians.

Owing to Jose's fame as a saint, legend describes
him as having met Elijah (Ber. 3a; Sanh. 113b).
Jose, complying with the Law, married the wife of
his brother who had died childless; she bore him
five sons: Ishmael, Eleazar, Menaheni, Halafta(who
died in his lifetime), and Eudemus (Yer. Yeb. i. 1).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 1.50-190; idem, Ag.
Pal. Amor. ii. 158 et passim; Brull, Mebo ha-Mu>hnah,
pp. 156-160, 178-1&5, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1876; Frankel,
Darke ha-Mishnah, pp. 164-168 ; idem, in Monatsschrift,
iv. 306-309; Joel, ih. vi. 81-91 ; Weiss, Dor, ii. 161-164.

s. s. M. Sel.

JOSE B. JACOB B. IDI : Palestinian amora of
the fourth generation (4th cent.). He was the col-
league of R. Judan of Magdala (Yer. Ta'au. i. 3),
and one of the expounders of the haggadot of R.
Aha the Lydian. He has also some original sayings,
in one of which he makes the statement — based on
I Kings xii. 27, and with reference to Deut. xxxi.
11 — that Jeroboam was elected king in the Sabbat-
ical year, when the head of the nation was required
to read publicly in the Temple at Jerusalem the pre-
scribed portion of the Law ; and that, in order to
avoid celebrating the festival in the Holy City, where
he would have had the mortification of seeing the
King of Judea read the Law, he (Jeroboam) set up
another place of worship with the golden calves
(Yer. 'Ab. Zarah 39b). Only one halakah of Jose's
has been preserved (Yer. Yeb. lOd).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 739; Frankel,
Mebi), p. 95a.
8. s. A. S. W.

JOSE BEN JOEZER OF ZEREDAH : Rabbi
of the eai'iy Maccabean period ; possibly a disciple of
Antigonus of Soko, though this is not certain. He
belonged to a priestly family. With him and Jose
ben Johanan of Jerusalem, his colleague, begins the
period known in Jewish history as that of the "zu-
got " (duumvirate), which ends with Hillel and Sham-
mai. According to an old tradition, the member of
the " zugot " mentioned first occupied the office of
president of the Sanhedrin, while the one mentioned
second served in the capacity of vice-president. Jose
belonged to the party of the Hasidiin, and was a de-
cided adversary of Hellenism. To prevent Jews
from settling bej'ond Palestine he declared all hea-
then countries " unclean " (Shab. 46a). He declared
also glass utensils "unclean," probably because
they were manufactured in heathen countries. In
other respects, however, he was very liberal, and re-
ceived the surname " Shaiaya " (" one who permits ")
for having rendered three liberal decisions on certain
ritual questions ('Eduy. viii. 4; Pes. 15a).

The first halakic controversy known in the Tal-
mud was that between Jose ben Joezer and his col-
league Jose ben Johanan. It arose over the question
whether the laying of hands on the heads of the
sacrifices is permitted on feast days (Hag. ii. 2).
Jose ben Joezer was distinguished for his piety, and
is called "the pious of the priesthood " ("hasid she-
bi-kehunnah "; Hag. ii. 7). He professed great ven-
eration for scholars, one of his sayings being: "Let
thy house be a meeting-place for the wise ; powder
thyself in the dust of their feet, and drink their

words with eagerness" (Abot iv. 4). Jose was
probably among the sixty pious men who, at the
instigation of the high priest Alcimus, the son of his
sister, were crucified by the Syrian general Bac-
chides (I Mace. vii. 16).

The Midrash reports the following dialogue be-
tween Alcimus and Jose ben Joezer while the latter
was on the way to execution :

Alcimus: " See the profit and honors that have fallen to my
lot in consequence of what I have done, whilst thou, for thy ob-
stinacy, hast the misfortune to die as a criminal." Jose, quietly :
" If such is the lot of those who anger God, what shall be the lot
of those who accomplish His will ? " Alcimus : " Is there any
one who accomplished His will more than thou ? " Jose : " If
this is the end of those who accomplish His will, what awaits
those who anger Him ? "

On this Alcimus was seized with remorse and

committed suicide (Gen. R. i. 65; comp. Alcimus).

Jose ben Joezer left a son whom he had disinherited

for bad conduct (B. B. 133b). See Alcimus.

Bibliography: Tuha»in, p. 60a, ed. Konigsberg; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot, p. 311, ed. Warsaw; Weiss, Dor, i. 98;
Braunschweiger. Die Lehrer der Mishnnh, p. 16.5, Frankfort^
on-the-Main, 1903; Z. Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, pp.31,
33; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 3; Schiirer, Oesch. Ii. 303, 352,
357, 407.

s. s. I. Br.

JOSE (JOSEPH) BEN JOHANAN: Presi-
dent of the Sanhedrin in tiie second century B.C. ; a
native of Jerusalem. He and Jose b. Joezer were
the successors and, it is said, the disciples of Antigo-
nus of Soko (Ab. i. 4-5), and the two together formed
the first of a series of duumvirates that transmitted
the traditional law ; in each pair one, according to
tradition, was prince-president ("nasi"), and the
other vice-president, of the Sanhedrin (" ab bet din " ;
Hag. ii. 2 [16a]). One of Jose's sayings was: "Let
thy house be opened wide; and let the needy be thy
household ; and prolong not converse with woman "
(Abot i. 5). A disagreement between the two col-
leagues in regard to halakic decisions gave rise to
the formation of two different schools (see Jose b.
Joezer). Both men were opposed to Hellenism,
and both belonged to the Hasidim. Jose b. Joezer
and Jose b. Johanan were the last of the " eshkolot "
(derived by some from cxo^ ; Rapoport, " 'Erek
Millin," p. 237) (Sotah ix. 9 [47a] ; comp.ToseL.B. K.
viii. 13; Yer. Sotah ix. 10).

Bibliography : Frankel, Darke ha-Mi^hnah, pp. 39 et seq. ;
Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 374, iii. 3; idem, in Monatsschrift,
xviil. 30 et seq. ; Heilprin. Seder hn-Dorot, ii. ; Schiirer,
Gesch. 3d ed., U. 203, 353, 357 ; Weiss, Dor, i. 103 et seq.

s. s. M. Sel.

JOSE BEN JOSE: The earliest payyetan
known by name ; flourished, at the latest, about the
end of the sixth century in Palestine. He is called
"ha-yatom" (the orphan), probably because, bearing
his father's name, it was assumed that the latter
died either before his son's birth or before his cir-
cumcision. Earlier sources state that Jose was a
priest, even a high priest, but this assertion is not
supported. As a poet Jose deserves the recognition
and appreciation which have been accorded him.
His style is raised above the level of mere prose by
his use of new though not difficult words and para-
phrases, and by frequent archaic expressions. He
employs no rime, nor is lie conversant with the
otlier self-imposed restrictions of payyetanic poetry.
The use of acrostics constitutes the only external

243

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jose b. Jacob
Jose ha-Kohen

orniuncntation of liis compositions, -wiiicli arc dis-
tinguished by depth of thought, conciseness of ex-
pression, imagination, and tenderness. The paral-
lelism characteristic of his verse lends it additional
charm. In one of his poems (No. 2, below) he em-
plojs the refrain.

The following poems of his are known: (1)
Ity m't^'X ''Tiha ri'^bi^H- an intercalation in the Musaf
prayer for New-Years Day designated by the term
"teki'ata," a term which is found already in the
Talmud. The "teki'ata" is recited on the second
day of tlie New-Year in the Polish and German rit-
uals. (2) iDVy "IJ''0:;'X DJCJK. a sort of confession of
sins (" witldui ") for the evening of the Day of Atone-
ment (Kol Nidre), with quadruple alphabet and two
alternating refrains, included in the Polish and Ger-
man rituals, although in most communities only
a part of it is recited. (3) niSx nnUJ 1'3TK, an
" 'abodah " for the Day of Atonement, including the
alphabet ten times in acrostics, while the letter n
occurs eighteen times. Saadia has included the poem
in his Siddur (Oxford MSS.), and Rosenberg has re-
printed it in " Kobez 3Ia'ase Yede Ge'onim Kad "
(Berlin, 1856). (4) nDn'aia D^iy njjn nns, an-
other "abodah that has been assigned to Jose. Zunz
quotes many passages to show that it frequent-
ly corresponds in phraseology with the "Azkir."
The initial letters of its verses form a quadruple
alphabet, which is follow'ed by a second quadruple
alphabet. It was formerlj^ recited in Burgundy
and France, and is still used in the communities of
Asti, Fossano, and Moncalvo, in Piedmont. Luz-
zatto has printed it in Rosenberg's "Kobe?" (pp.
Ill ct seq.), and as an appendix to the Italian Mah-
zor (ed. Leghorn, 1861, ii. 213 et seq.); it is also
printed in the separate edition of Luzzatto's " Mebo. "
The introduction n^nn |nX (reprinted in Zimz's
"Literaturgesch." p. 646) by an unknown author —
said to be the apostle Peter — belongs to this 'abo-
dah. The 'abodah ^^'KIO th'W nJJ13 nnX. included
in Spanish rituals, was written before Jose's time,
and has been ascribed to him only through being
confounded with his poem dealing with the same
subject and beginning in the same way. (5) A
piyyut, of which only one verse has been preserved.

th'\V "lIN has also been ascribed to him, though its
authorship is doubtful. It is a short fragment of
the earliest known "Yozer," which originally con-
tained probably the entire alphabet quadrupled in
acrostics. In the Polish and German rituals it pre-
cedes the " Yozer " on feast-days ; in the Roman
ritual it precedes the Sabbath prayers also.

BiBi.ior.RAPHY: Rapoport, Bikkure ha-"Ittim, 1829, p. lid;
Sachs, in Rosenberg's Kohrz, ii. 85; Luzzatto, ih. p. 107 ;
idem, Meho, pp. it, 13; Landshuth, "Ammude ha-'Ahndah.
p. 8.5; Zunz, in (ieiger's J\id. Zeit. ii. 306; idem, Literntnr-
afxrh. pp. 26, 643; Harkavy, Studien und Miltheihiiigen,
V. 10.5.
o. H. B.

JOSE B. JTJDAH: Tanna of the end of the

second century. He is principally known through
his controversies with R. Judah I. As specimens
of his exegeses, the following may be given here.
On the expression piV pn (Lev. xix. 36) he com-
ments, " Let thy yea be yea and thy nay nay " (Sifre
to the verse; B. M. 49a; comp. Matt. v. 37). Deut.
viii. T) he explains thus: " Dear to God are the afflic-

tions destinetl for man, for on whomsoever they
come, the glory of God reposes, as it is said, ' It is
the Lord thy God who chastiseth thee ' " (Sifre,
Deut. vi. 5). As characteristic of his poetical mind,
the following may be cited as his view on the re-
pose and peacefulness of the Sabbath : " Two angels,
a good and a bad one, accompany man on the Sab-
bath eve from the synagogue into his house. When
the man finds the lamp lit, the table laid, and tiie
bed made, the good angel i>rays, ' May it be Thy
will, O Lord, that it be the same next Sabbath I'
to which the evil angel, against his will, responds
'Amen! ' If, however, the man finds his house in
disorder, the wicked angel says, ' Maj' it be the same
next Sabbath 1 ' to which the good angel is forced to
respond 'Amen!'" (Shab. 119b).

Of a controversial nature is probabl}' the saying
in which Jose insists that the proselyte must show his
readiness to accept even the precepts of the sages in
their capacity as interpreters of the Law (seeTosef.,
Demai, ii. 5; Sifra, Lev. xix. 34). Jose, like his
father, Judah b. 'Ilai, and through the teachings of
his father,, was thedepo.sitary of many old traditions,
which appear in his name.
Bibliography: Weiss, Dor; Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 417-421.

s. s. S. Lev.

JOSE B. KAZRATA (Kuzira; Kazra) :

Palestinian amora of the first amoraic generation ;
son-in-law of R. Jose. Kohut is of the opinion that
the surname is derived from "Kazzara" (washer);
but in Tan., Wayehi, the name "Kazra" is found.
Two other amoraim with this patronymic are men-
tioned in the Talmud — R. Johanan b. Kazrata and
R. Isaac b. Kazrata; but as both of them cite R.
Jona, an amora of the third generation, they can not
have been Jose's brothers. Jose b. Kazrata taught
that the Creator chose the finest earth with which
to make the first man (Gen.R. xiv.). In Yer. B. B.
X. 17 Jose discusses a halakah concerning marriage in
which he maintains the interests of woman.

Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, s.v. ; Frankel,
Mehn; Kohut, Aruch Completum ; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor.
iii. 596.
s. s. A. H. R.

JOSE HA-KOHEN (''the Pious") : Tanna
of the second generation ; flourished in the first and
second centuries; pupil of Johanan ben Zakkai. It
is said of him that he never allowed anv writing of
his to remain in the hands of a heatlieu, lest he
should carry it on Sabbath (Tosef., Shab. xvii. 13;
Shab. 19a). Jose valued friendship above all worldly
goods. "The good a man should cleave to is a
good friend, and the evil a man shoidd shun is an
evil neighbor" (Ab. ii. 12). His maxim was: "Let
the propertj' of thy friend be precious unto thee as
thine own ; set thyself to learn the Torah, for it is not
an heirloom unto thee, and let all thj^ actions be
taken in the name of Heaven " (ib). Jose's name is
associated in the Halakah with that of Zechariah ha-
Kazzab (Ket. 27a). The Ilaggadah has preserved
two sayings of Jose. One is connected with the
death of the son of Johanan ben Zakkai. Jose en-
deavored to console the father by reminding him
that the high priest Aaron lost two sons in one day
and yet he continued his serAices in the Tabernacle
without interruption (Ab. R. N. xiv.). The other

Jose of Mallahaya
Josel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

244

was in answer to a question addressed by a female

proselyte to the patriarch concerning the seeming

contradiction between Deut. x. 17 and Num. vi. 26.

Illustrating his answer by a parable, Jose said that

Deut. X. 17 refers to offenses against man that can

not be forgiven, while Num. vi. 26 refers lo offenses

against God that are always forgiven (R. H. 17b).

Jose is said to have been devoted to mystical studies

(Yer. Hag. ii.).

Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, li. 211 ; Weiss, Dor,
i. 193, li. 73 ; Bacher, Ag. Tan. 1. 67 et xeq.

8. s. I- Br.

JOSE OF MALLAHAYA : Palestinian amora
of the fourth generation. According to his explana-
tion of Ps. Ivii. 5 the disasters that overtook the
Jews were caused by their inclination to slander, com-
mon among them even in the time of David (Lev.
R. xxvi.). There are two halakot emanating from
him, one referring to the transfer of land (Yer. Kid.
60c), the other prescribing the rules governing the
purification of utensils that have been used by Gen-
tiles (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah 41c).

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 724 ; Heilprin,
Secler iia-Dorot ; Kohut, Aruch Completum.
s. s. A. H. R.

JOSE OF MAON : Popular preacher of the be-
ginning of the third century: dehvered his ad-
dresses in a synagogue at Tiberias which bore the
name of the locality— " Maon " (nXJiyO), whence
probably his surname HWiyD (= "of Maon "). He
is said to have been aggressive in his speeches and
to have been no respecter of persons; he attacked
even the house of the patriarch (Yer. Sanh. ii. ; Gen.
R. Ixxx. 1). See Judah II.

Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 221 ; Frankel,
Meho, p. 101b; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Anuir. ii. 114, note 5; iii.
595 ct seq.
s. s. I. Br.

JOSE B. NEHORAI : Palestinian amora of the
first generation ; halakot are transmitted in his name
by Johanan (Rashi, B. M. 41a). Of his haggadic
explanations the following may be cited: With
reference to Eccl. iii. 15 he explains the word f)l"i3
to mean "the persecuted," "the hunted," and gives
the passage the meaning that God will always assist
the persecuted, and that even when a righteous man
persecutes a wicked man God will assist the latter.
Jose gives various Scriptural instances in support
of this view (Lev. R. xxvii. 5). As to the religious
rites which children are required to perform R. Jose
thought that they have an educational purpose, but
are not obligatory (Yer. Ber. iii. 6b). He taught also
that, except in the case of taxes for maintaining
schools, the tax-collectors must not be harsh in their
dealings (Lev. R. xxx. 1).

BinLiOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 597; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot ; Franke!. Meho.
8. 8. A. H. R.

JOSE B, SAUL : Palestinian amora of the first
generation (3d cent.), He is known chiefly as a
transmitter of the .sayings and traditions of the
patriarch Judah I., whose disciple he was. These
as well as his own sayings are further transmitted
by R. Joshua b. Levi and by Hiyya ben Gamda.
In one place the following order is given : Simon b.
Pazzi says in the name of R. Joshua b. Levi in tlii

name of R. Jose 1). Saul in the name of R. Judah
ha-Nasi in the name of the holy assembly of Jeru-
salem (Bezah 141). 27a ; Tamid 27b). The Palestin-
ian Talmud has preserved only one anecaote of his
in the Aramaic ('Ab. Zarah ii. 3). His brothers were
Johanan and Halafta, with tlic former of whom he
used to hold halakic controversies (Shab. 125b').

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 598; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 221, Warsaw, 1882.

s. 8. A. S. W.

JOSEFFY, RAFAEL : American piano virtu-
oso; born in 1852 in Hunfalu, Hungaiy. In the
following year the family moved to Miskolcz, where
he spent his childhood and received his first musical
instruction. At the age of ten he made his first
public appearance at a concert in Budapest; and
such was its promise that in 1864 his father took
him to the ConservatoriumatLeipsic, where he stud-
ied under Wenzel and Moscheles. Thence he went
in 1866 to the Berlin Conservatorium, vv'here for three
years he was taught by Carl Tausig. After two
summers (1869-70) with Liszt in Weimar, and con-
siderable practise and study, he made successful
concert tours through Europe, making Vienna his
home until 1879, when Herman Colell took him to
America. His New York debut at Chickering Hall
was successful. He became domiciled in the United
States, and in 1900 took the oath of citizenship.

Joseffy lives at Tarrytown-on-the-Hudson, and
devotes himself to music, occasionally giving pub-
lic concerts. He has written a " Schule des Hoheren
Clavierspieles " for advanced players, in addition to
a great number of compositions for the piano. He
is the head of the department of piano in the
National Conservatory of Music in New York.

A. B. L.

JOSEL (JOSELMANN, JOSELIN) OF
ROSHEIM (JOSEPH BEN GERSHON
LOANZ) : The great advocate ("shtadlan ") of the
German Jews during the reigns of the emperors
Maximilian I. and Charles V.; born about 1480;
died March, 1554, at Rosheim, Alsace.

While still young he worked for the welfare of
his coreligionists, and probably was instrumental
in thwarting the hostile plans of Pfefferkorn. In
1510 he was made by the Jewish communities of
Lower Alsace their " parnas u-man-
hig " (sworn guide and leader). As
such he had " to keep his eyes open
in special care of the community,"
and possessed the right to issue
enactments for the Jews of his dis-
trict and to put under the ban
(" herem ") refractory members. On
the other hand, he had to defend in-
dividuals and communities against
oppression, and, if necessary, to appeal to the gov-
ernment and to the emperor. During the first
years of his public activity Josel lived in the town
of Mittelbergheim. In 1514 he with other Jews of
this place was accused of having profaned the con-
secrated host, and was put in prison for several
months, until his innocence was established. Soon
afterward Josel moved to Rosheim, in which place
he remained until liis death.

Seal of Josel of
Rosheim.

245

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jose of Mallahaya
Josel

In 1515-16 he aided his oppressed brethren in
Oberehnheim by bringing tlieir complaints person-
ally before the emperor Maximilian I. and obtaining
a special imperial safe-conduct for them. During
the peasants' war in 1525 Josel succeeded in protect-
ing the Alsatian Jews against oppression and in in-
ducing the army of the peasants, already drawn up
at the gates of Rosheim, to leave the town in peace.
Josel was the advocate of all the Jews in the Ger-
man empire. Soon after Charles V. had ascended
the throne (1520) Josel procured a letter of protec-
tion from him for the whole German
Advocate Jewry ; ten years later he obtained
of the its renewal. Several times lie inter-
German ceded successfully with King Ferdi-
Jews. nand, brother of the emperor, in favor
of the Jews of Bohemia and Mora-
via. In 1530, in presence of the emperor and his
court at Augsburg, Josel had a public disputa-
tion with the baptized Jew Antonius Margarita,
who had published a pamphlet full of libelous ac-
cusations against Judaism. The disputation ter-
minated in a decided victory for Josel, who obtained
Margarita's expulsion fi'om Augsburg. At this
same Reichstag Josel defended the Jews against
the strange accusation that they had been the cause
of the apostasy of the Lutherans. Josel 's most im-
portant action at the Reichstag of Augsburg was
the settlement of rules for business transactions of
the Jews. They were forbidden to exact too high a
rate of interest, to call a negligent debtor before a
foreign court of justice, etc. Josel announced these
articles to the German Jews as "governor of the
Jewish community in Germany."

While still occupied with the Augsburg articles
Josel had to hurry to the court of Charles V. of Bra-
bant and Flanders in order to defend the calumniated
German Jews there (1531). In this to him most
inhospitable country — for no Jews were living there
then — he spent three months, occupying himself,
when he was not ofHcially engaged, with Hebrew
studies. Though his life was once in danger, he suc-
ceeded in attaining the object of his journey. At
the Reichstag of Regensburg (1532) he tried in vain
to dissuade the proselyte Solomon Molko from
carrying out his fantastic plan to arm the German
Jews and to otter them as a help to the emperor in
his wars with the Turks. Molko did not follow
Josel's advice, and soon after was burned as a here-
tic. In 1534 Josel went to Bohemia
In to make peace between the Jews of

Bohemia. Prague and those of the small Bohe-
mian town of Horowitz. He suc-
ceeded in his mission, but the Jews of Horowitz
plotted against his life, and he had to seek refuge
in the castle of Prague.

In 1535 Josel traveled to Brandenburg-Ansbach
to intercede with the margrave Georg in favor of
the Jews of Jagerndorf, who liad been falsely ac-
cused and thrown into prison ; and he obtained their
freedom. Two years later Josel tried to help the
Saxon Jews, who were threatened with expulsion
by the elector John Frederick. He went to Saxony
with letters of high recommendation to that prince
from the magistrate of Strasburg, and to Luther
from Capito, the Alsatian reformer. But Luther

had become embittered against the Jews on account
of their faithfulness to their creed, and he refused
every intercession, so that Josel did not obtain even
an audience with the electoi'. But at a meeting in
Frankfort (1539) he found occa.sion to speak to the
prince, wliose attention he attracted by refuting, in
a public dispute with the reformer Butzer, some
spiteful assertions about the Jews. In the same
Reichstag Melanchthon proved the innocence of the
thirty-eight Jews who had been l)urned in Berlin in
1510, and this helped to induce Kurfilrst Joacliim of
Brandenburg to grant Josel's request. The Elector
of Saxony tJien also repealed his order of expulsion.
The same year Josel heard that the Hessian Jews
had to suffer many persecutions because of a pam-
plilet by Butzer. He therefore wrote a defense of
Judaism in Hebrew, to be read in synagogue every
Sabbath for the comfort of bis coreligionists. The
magistrate of Strasburg liaving expressed the belief
that attacks on Christianity were contained in the
defense, Josel had a verbatim translation made and
sent to him. Soon Josel had to defend the Jews
against the attacks of Lutlier himself, who in 1543 had
published a very spiteful pamphlet
Refutes entitled "Von den Juden und Ihren
Luther's Liigen," Avhich had led to harsh treat-
Charges, ment of Jews in different Protestant
districts. Josel refuted Luther's asser-
tions in a voluminous petition to the magistrate of
Strasburg, and the latter thereupon inhibited a new
edition of Luther's book. In 1541 Josel appeared as
■' chief of the Jews in the German lands " at the Reichs-
tag of Regensburg, and succeeded in averting a dan-
gerous edict which would have forbidden the Jews
to engage in any monetary transaction. He succeeded
at the Reichstag of Speyer in 1544 in obtaining a
new letter of protection for the German Jews from
the emperor, wherein they were expressly allowed
to charge a much higher rate of interest than the
Christians, on the ground that they had to pay much
higher taxes than the latter, though all handicrafts
and the cultivation of land were prohibited to them.
At the same time Josel paid to the emperor in the'
name of the German Jews a contribution of 3,000
florins toward the expenses of the French war. la
the Speyer letter of protection, referred to above,
the emperor disapproved of the accusation of rit-
ual murder, and he ordained that no Jew should be
put in prison or sentenced for this crime without
sufficient proof. Josel was anxious to obtain this
order because in 1543 at Wurzburg five Jews ac-
cused of ritual murder had been imprisoned and tor-
tured. After liaving personally interceded in favor
of these prisoners Josel at length obtained their par-
don from the emperor.

In 1546 Josel was called upon to interfere in be-
half of the whole body of German Jews, who suf-
fered much during the Smalkaldic war. Through
Granvella, the influential counselor of the emperor,
Josel obtained an imi)erial order to the army and a
mandate to the Christian population in favor of the
Jews, so that they were not molested in the course
of the war. As a proof of their gratitude Josel
caused the Jews to provide the imperial army with
victuals wherever it passed. In recognition of the
great services rendered by Josel to the emperor on

Josel
Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

246

this occasion and previously, Cliarles Y. renewed at
Augsburg in 1548 the safe-conduct for Josel and his
family, which thereby received the right of free pas-
sage throughout the German empire and free resi-
dence wherever Jews were allowed to live. Josel's
life as well as all of his lielongiugs Avas thus pro-
tected by a special imperial order. Even iu the last
years of his life Josel was able to make himself use-
ful to Charles Y. In 1552 he sent to the emperor at
Innsbruck by a special messenger a Avarning that
Elector Moritz of Saxony intended to invade Tyrol,
and the emperor was thus enabled at the last mo-
ment to effect his escape.

Josel worked for the welfare of his people to the

last, dying suddenly in March, 1554. In his active

life he always found time to study

Literary religious literature, and besides his

Activity, apologetic pamphlets he wrote several

religious and ethical works, which in

part are still extant. His most important books are :

(1) " Derek ha-Kodesh," written 1531 in Brabant, con-
taining rules

for a pious life,
especially in
cases where a
Jew has to bear
martyrdom.
Two frag-
ments of this
Avork, other-
Avise lost, are re-
tained in the
book "Yosif
Omez," by Jo-
seph H a h n ,
Frankfort - on -
the-Main, 1723.

(2) "Sefer ha-
Miknah," fin-
ished 1546, the
first part of
Avhich contains
Avords of admo-
nition against traitors in the midst of Israel, the
second part being cabalistic. A manuscript iu the
Bodleian Library, Oxford (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl.
Hebr. MSS." No. 2240), contains the greater part
of this Avork. Josel's memoirs (printed in the He-
brcAv original Avith a French translation in " Rev.
Etudes Juives," xvi. 84) contain reports (incom-
plete) of some important events in his life until
1547, especially .some relating to his public activity.
They seem to have been written doAvn soon after
that year.

Bmi.ionRAPHY: H.Bresslau, in Geiger's Zeitschrift filr Gei^ch.
(Itr Juden in DndschUmd, \»9i,v.'Mfr-3M; M. Stern, ih.
in. 66-74 ; Kracauer, in Rev. EUidcs Juives, xvi. 84, xix. 282;
S<'heid, i/). xlii. 02,248; Gratz, Gesch. ix., passim; M. Leh-
inann. Rahhi JoseUimun von Rnsheim. Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1879 ; Ludwig Feilchenfeld, Rabbi Josel von Rosheim :
Ein Beitraa zur Gesch. derDeutschen Juden imReforma-
tuinszeitalter, Strasburg. 1898, where the earlier bibliogra-
phy is to be found.

I). A. Fe.

JOSEPH (FiDV; ^^Dl.T in Ps. Ixxxi. 6).— Bib-
lical Data : Eleventh son of Jacob and the elder of
the two sons of Rachel; born at Haran (Gen. xxx.
24). The meaning given to the name {I.e.) is " shall

Traditional Tomb of Joseph near Nablus (Shechem).

(From a photograph by Bonfils.)

add " : " The Lord shall add to me another son. " It
seems probable, however, f rom Ps. Ixxxi. 6, that, like
all other Hebrew names beginning Avith the syllable
"Jo," it has YuAVH as its first element, and is a con-
traction, the original form being" Jehoscph," while in
Gen. xxx. 23 there is an allusion to the connection of
•• Joseph " Avith f)DN (" to take aAvay "). Upon Joseph
centered the love of his father, Jacob, Avho .showered
upon " the S(m of his old age " many tokens of special
favor and arrayed him in a "coat of many colors."
This favoritism, however, excited the envy of his
older brothers, and Joseph increased their envy by
telling them of two dreams which prognosticated
his ruling over them (Gen. xxxvii. 2-11). AVhen a
lad of seventeen, Joseph was sent by his father to
inquire after his brothers, Avho Avere pasturing the
flocks iu Shechem. He found them at Dothan, and
Avhen his brothers saw him approaching they planned
to kill him. Reuben, hoAvever, took his part, and,
iu order to remove him from the fury of the others,
advised them to throw Joseph into a pit (Gen.

xxxvii. 13-24).
Different ac-
counts are giv-
en of the sale of
Joseph, Avliich
immediately
folloAved ; ac-
cording to one,
the brothers,
while eating at
some distance
from the pit,
sighted a cara-
van of Ishmael-
ites, to Avhoni
they decided, at
Judah's advice,
to sell Joseph.
In the mean-
time some Mid-
iauite mer-
chants passing
the pit drew Joseph out and sold him for tAventy
pieces of silver to the Ishmaelites, Avho took Joseph
to Egypt (Gen. xxxvii. 25-28). The
Sold as last statement is repeated in Gen.
Slave. xxxix. 1, while in Gen. xxxvii. 86 it
is .said that the Midianites (Hebr.
" Medanites ") sold him to Potiphar in Egypt.

In Potiphar's house Joseph fared Avell, for, see-
ing that he prospered in all that he did, his master
appointed him superintendent of his household.
But Joseph Avas" a goodl\^ person and well favored."
and his master's wife conceived a passion for him.
Her repeated advances being repulsed, she finally
attempted compulsion; still failing, she brought
a false accusation against Jiim before her husband,
and Joseph was thrown into prison. There, too,
Yhwh Avas with Joseph; the keeper of the prison,
seeing that he could place confidence
Cast into in him, committed the other prisoners
Prison. to his charge (Gen. xxxix.). Soon
afterward two of Pharaoh's officers,
the chief cupbearer and the chief baker, having
offended the king, were thrown into the prison where

247

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Josel
Joseph

Joseph was, and Joseph was appointed to serve them.
One morning both officers told Joseph their dreams of
the previous niglit, which they themselves were
unable to interpret. Joseph concluded from their
dreams tliat the chief cupbearer would be reinstated
within three days and that tlie chief baker would be
hanged. Joseph requested the chief cupbearer to
mention him to Pharaoh and secure his release from
prison, but that officer, reinstalled in office, forgot
Joseph (Gen. xl.).

Josepli remained two years longer in prison, at
the end of which period Pharaoh had a dream of
seven lean kine devouring seven fat kine and of
seven withered ears devouring seven full ears. Great
importance was attached to dreams in Egypt, and
Pharaoh was much troubled when his magicians
proved unable to interpret them satisfactorily. Tlien
the chief cupbearer remembered Joseph and spoke
of his skill to Pharaoh. Accordingly he was sent for,
and he interpret-
ed Pharaoh's
■dream as fore-
telling that
seven years of
abundance
would be fol-
lowed by seven
years of famine
and advised the
king to appoint
some able man
to store the sur-
plus grain dur-
ing the period
of abundance.
Pleased with his
interpretation,
Pharaoh made
Lim viceroy over
Egypt, giving
him the Egyp-
tian name of
Zaphnath - paa-
neah and con-
ferring on him

other marks of royal favor. Joseph was then thirtj^
years of age. Pharaoh married him to Asenath, the
daughter of Potiphera, priest of On, through whom
he had two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim (Gen. xli.
1-53).

During the seven years of abundance Joseph

amassed for the king a great supplj- of corn, which

he sold to both Egyptians and foreigners (Gen. xli.

48-49, 54-57). The famine having ex-

As tended to all the neighboring coun-

Viceroy tries, Joseph's brothers, with the ex-
of Eg-ypt. ception of Benjamin, went to Egypt
to buy corn. Joseph recognized his
brothers, who prostrated themselves before him and
therein fulfilled, in part, his dreams. He received
them roughly and accused them of being spies,
thereby compelling them to give him information
about their family. Desiring to see Benjamin, Jo-
seph demanded that they substantiate their state-
ments by sending one of their number fcr Benjamin

He accordingly

Joseph and His Brothers.

(From the Sarajevo Haggadah, 14th century.)

"While the others remained behind.

imprisoned them for three days, and then sent tliem
away with corn, retaining Simeon as a hostage
(Gen. xlii. 1-25). The famine in Canaan continuing,
Jacob was again obliged to send his sons to Egypt
for corn. As Joseph had commanded them not to
appear before him again without Benjamin, Jacob
was compelled to let Benjamin go with them. He
sent also a present to Josei)h in order to win his
favor, together with the money which had been, by
Joseph's orders, put into their sacks.

The second time Joseph received them very
kindly and prepared a feast for them, but paid spe-
cial attention to Benjamin (Gen. xliii.). Desiring to
know what his brothers would do if under some
pretext he retained Benjamin, Joseph gave orders
to fill their sacks with corn, put their money into
their sacks, and put his silver goblet in Benjamin's.
On the following morning the brothers departed,
but before they had gone far a messenger overtook

them, accusing
them of stealing
the goblet.
The messenger
searched their
sacks and found
the goblet in
Benjamin's
sack ; this com-
pelled them to
return. Joseph
reproached them
for what they
had done, and
Judah, speaking
on behalf of his
brothers, ex-
pressed their
willingness to
remain as slaves
to Joseph. The
latter, however,
declined their
offer, declaring
that he Avould
retain Benjamin
only (Gen. xliv. 1-17). Overcome by Judah 's elo-
quent appeal (Gen. xliv. 18-34) and convinced of his
brothers' repentance, Joseph disclosed
Makes himself to them. He inquired after
Himself his father, but as they were too much
Known amazed and startled to ansAver him,
to His he assured them that in treating him
Brothers, as they did they had been carrying out
the will of God. He then urged them
to return home quickly, loaded them with presents
for his father, and supplied them with vehicles for
the transportation of the whole family (Gen. xlv.).
Joseph met his father in the land of Goshen. He
recommended his brothers to represent themselves as
shepherds so that they might remain in Goshen un-
molested. Then he presented live of his brothers to
Pharaoh, Avho granted them a domain in Goshen;
and, after having introduced Jacob to Pliaraoh, Jo-
seph domiciled the whole family, at Pharaoh's com-
mand, "in the land of Rameses," where he supplied
them with all they needed (Gen. xlvi. '.29-xlvii. 12).

Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

248

As a ruler, Joseph changed tlie system of hind-
tenure iu Egypt. The faiiiiue beiug severe, the
people first expended all their money in the pur-
chase of corn, tlien they sold their cattle, and finally
gave up their land. Thus all the cultivated land in
Egypt, except that of the priests, became the prop-
erty of the crown, and the people farmed it for the
king, giving him one-fifth of the produce (Gen.
xlvii. 14-26). Hearing of his father"s sickness, Jo-
seph went to him with his two sons, -whom Jacob
blessed, conferring upon Joseph at the same time
one portion more than the portions of his brothers
(Gen. xlviii.). Joseph carried Jacob's remains to
the land of Canaan, wliere he gave them stately
burial. His brothers, fearing that he would avenge
himself upon
them, then sent
to implore liis
forgiveness. Jo-
seph allayed
their fears and
promised that
he would con-
tinue to provide
for their wants.
He lived to the
age of one hun-
dred and ten,
and saw his
great-grandcliil-
dren grow u]).
Before his de;ith
he made thecliil-
dren of Isiael
take an oath that
when they left
the land of
Egypt they
would take his
bones with

them. His body was embalmed and placed tem-
porarily in a coffin. At the Exodus his bones
accompanied Moses, and were finally buried in
Shechem (Gen. 1. ; Ex. xiii. 19: Josh. xxiv. 32).

J. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature : Joseph occupies

a very im])ortant place iu the Haggadah, and no
patriarch was the subject of so many Midrashic leg-
ends. As Rachel was visited by the Lord on Rosh
ha-Shanah (R. H. 10b), Joseph was born in due
course on the 1st of Tammuz, 2199 (Book of Jubi-
lees, xxviii. 32). He is represented as a perfectly
righteous man (-'zaddik gamur")and as the coun-
terpart of his father; not only did Joseph resemble
his father in appearance and in having been born
circumcised, but the main incidents of
Like His their lives were parallel. Both were

Father. born after their mothers had been bar-
ren for a long time; both were hated
by their brothers ; both were met by angels at vari-
ous times (Gen. R. Ixxxiv. 6; Num. R. xiv. 16).
Joseph is extolled by the Rabbis for being well
versed in the Torah, for being a prophet, and for
supporting his brothers (Tan., Wayesheb, 20). Ac-
cording to R. Fhinehas, the Holy Spirit dwelt in
Joseph from his childhood until his death (Pirke R.

Joseph Sold by His Brothers.

(From the Sarajevo Haggadah, 14th century.)

El. xxxviii.). Jacob's other children came into the
world only for Joseph's sake; the Red Sea and the
Jordan were passed drj'-shod by the children of Israel
through the virtue of Joseph (Gen. R. Ixxxiv. 4;
Lekah Tob to Gen. xxxvii. 2). When Joseph and
his mother bowed to Esau (Gen. xxxiii. 7), Joseph
shielded his mother with his figure (Targ. pseudo-
Jonathan, ad loc), protecting her from the lascivious
eyes of Esau, for which he was rewarded through
the exemption of his descendants from the spell
of the evil eye (Gen. R. Ixxviii. 13; comp. Ber. 20a;
Sotah 36b).

"When Joseph reported to his father the evil do-
ings of his brothers (Gen. xxxvii. 2), his design was
merely that his father might correct them (Lekah

Tob, ad loc).
The nature of
the "evil report"
is variously giv-
en by the Rab-
bis. According
to Pirke R. El.
xxxviii., Joseph
spoke only
against the sons
of Bilhah and
Zilpah, that they
ate meat whicli
they had not.
slaughtered in
accordance with
the Law (comp.
Targ. pseudo-
Jonathan, ad
loc). According
to R. Judah, Jo-
seph reported
that the sons of
Leah slighted
the sons of the
concubines by calling them slaves. R. Simeon's
opinion was that Joseph spoke against them all, ac-
cusing them of "looking at the daughters of the
land " (Gen. R. Ixxxiv. 7). The reason for Jacob's
special love toward Joseph Avas, according to R.
Judah, that Joseph resembled Jacob in appear-
ance; but according to R. Nehemiah it was that he
transmitted to Joseph all the halakot he had studied
in tiie school of Shem and Eber {ib. Ixxxiv. 8).

Joseph is represented as an exemplar of filial re-
spect, for when his father requested him to go and
see how his brothers fared, he went promptly and
with gladness of heart, although he knew that they
hated him (Mek., Beshallah, Wayehi, 1; Gen. R.
Ixxxiv. 12, 15). When he went to his brothens, he
was accompanied to Dothan by three angels {ib.
Ixxxiv. 13; comp. Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Gen.
xxxvii. 15, and "Sefer ha-Yashar," section "Waye-
sheb "). W^hen the brothers saw Joseph
approaching from a distance, they de-
cided to set the dogs upon him (I.e.).
After being beaten by his brethren,
Joseph was thrown by Simeon into a pit, among
serpents and scorpions ; but Joseph prayed to God
and the reptiles retired to their holes (ib. Ixxxiv. 15;
Targ. pseudo- Jonathan, adloc). Afterward, Simeon

Sent to
Brothers.

249

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph

ordered stones thrown into the pit (Tan., Wayesheb,
13; Talk., Gen. 142). The brothers encamped at a
distance from the pit that they niiglit not hear Jo-
seph's cries, and while they were eating a company
of Midianites passed by the pit, heard Joseph call-
ing for help, and drew liim np. A struggle then
ensued between the brothers and the Midianites.
The former declared that Joseph was tlieir rebel-
lious slave; the latter regarded their statements with
suspicion ; but the difference was settled by the sale
of Joseph to the Midianites ("Seferha-Yashar," ^.c).
The brothers then divided among themselves the
purchase-money — twenty pieces of .silver (Gen.
xxxvii. 28), each taking two pieces, with wliich they
bought shoes (Pirke R. El. xxxviii.). As Joseph
had been thrown naked into the pit, the Midianites
would have compelled him to acoompanj'^ them so,
but God, not willing that so righteous a man should
travel in an unseemly manner, sent Gabriel to trans-
form into a long garment the amulet Josepli wore
on his neck. The brothers, however, on seeing the
garment, demanded it of the Midianites, saying that
they had sold them a naked slave, but, after some
altercation, consented to take four pairs of shoes in
exchange. Joseph wore the same garment when he
was Potiphar's slave, when he was in prison, and
when he became the viceroy of Egypt (Jellinek, "B.
H." V. 157, vi. 120).

When the Midianites noticed the nobility of Jo-
seph's countenance, they understood that he was not
a slave and regretted having bought him. They
would have taken him back to his father had not the
distance been too great; but when they met, soon
after, a company of Ishmaelites they sold Joseph to
them. Passing his mother's grave, Josepli pros-
trated himself upon it, weeping bit-
Joseph in terly and imploring her assistance;
Captivity, from her grave she answered that she
was aiflicted by his troubles, but that
he must hope and await the intervention of God.
The Ishmaelites violently dragged Joseph away, beat
him cruelly, and continued their journey . They final-
ly metfourmerchants, desceudantsof Medan, to whom
they sold Joseph ; and the Medanites in turn sold Jo-
seph to Potiphar for four hundred pieces of silver
C'Sefer ha-Yashar," I.e. ; comp. Gen. R. Ixxxiv. 20.)

Joseph was sold by his brothers on Yom Kippur
(Book of Jubilees, xxxiv. 15). In reward for his
righteousness, the Ishmaelites, who generally dealt
in ill-smelling articles, were on that occasion intlu-
cnced by Providence to carry fragrant spices in order
that Joseph's journey to Egj^pt might be more
agreeable (Gen. R. Ixxxiv. 16). When Jacob's sons
reached home, affirming that Joseph had been de-
voured by a wild beast (comp. Gen. xxxvii. 33),
Jacob ordered them to arm themselves and capture
the beast. They accordingly went forth and re-
turned with a wolf; but when Jacob began to re-
proach the beast for its crueltj', the wolf answered,
in human language, that it had not committed the
crime of devouring Joseph, and that it was itself
searching for its lost cub ; Jacob therefore let the wolf
go (" Sefer ha-Yashar," I.e.).

Jacob did not wholly believe that Joseph was
dead, because he could not forget him, while the
dead are soon forgotten. He therefore hewed out

twelve stones and placed them in a row, after wri-
ting on them the names of his twelve sous with their
conesponding months and zodiacal signs. Then he
commanded them to bow to the stone of Reuben,
but no stone moved ; then he connnanded them to
bow to Simeon's stone, with the same result; but
when he came to the stone of Joseph, all the other
stones bowed to it. Even then Jacob was not sure
that Jo.seph was alive, and repeated the same ex-
periment with ^heavts, getting the same result, with-
out, however, reaching a conviction. He was finally
convinced by a vision which he had of the future
priestly organization, interpreting the names of
Eliashib, chief of a division of the sons of Aaron
(I Chron. xxiv. 12), and Elkanah, a noted Levite
(I Sam. i. 1), as signifying respectively "God will
bring him back " and " he was bought by Potiphar "
(Soferim xxi. 9).

The prosperity of Joseph in Potiphar's house
is described by the Rabbis as follows: "The wishes
of Potiphar were executed in an instant; when
he desired that the cup which Joseph handed him
should be warm, it was warm ; and if he desired
that it should be cold, it was cold " (Tan., Waye-
.sheb, 16; Gen. R. Ixxxvi. 6). At first Potiphar
was of the opinion that Joseph was a magician,
and he wondered, saying, "Is there a lack of
magicians in Egypt?" but afterward he saw that
the Shekinah dwelt in Joseph (Gen. R. I.e. ; Lekah
Tob to Gen. xxxix. 3). Joseph's character was anti-
thetical to the characters of all the other slaves ; the
latter were rapacious, while Joseph never enjoj'ed
anything that was not his (Zeb. 118b); the other
slaves were given over to lust, while Joseph was
chaste; the others ate the priestly portions because
they were slavesof the priests (see Lev. xxii. 11), while
Joseph, through his righteousness, caused the de-
scendants of his master, who were his own descend-
ants as well, to eat those portions; this identifies
Joseph with Putiel, Eleazar's father-in-law (Gen. R.
Ixxxvi. 3; comp. Mek., I.e.; Sotah 43a). Like all
other righteous men, Joseph was tried by God (Gen.
R. Ixxxvii. 3; comp. Test. Patr., Joseph, 2). He
was one of the three men who successfully resisted
temptation ; for this he was rewarded by having the
letter n (one of the letters composing the Tetragram-
maton) added to his name (Lev. R.
Joseph's xxiii. 10; comp. Ps. Ixxxi. 6). The
Tempta- day on which Joseph " went into the
tion. house to do his work " (Gen. xxxix. 11-

12) was the Sabbath day, and the work
consisted in repeating the Torah, which he had
learned from his father (Mid rash Abkir, quoted in
Yalk., Gen. 146). Some rabbis, however, charged
Joseph with vanity, saying that, even before being
sold, he took too much pains with his personal ap-
pearance(Gen.R. Ixxxiv. 7), and that he continued to
do so as ruler over Potiphar's house, forgetting his
father, who was mourning over his disappearance.
God punished him, therefore, by setting against him
Potiphar's wife (Gen. R. Ixxxvii. 3). Certain rabbis
declared even that Joseph was ready to yield to his
mistress, but that his father's image suddenly ap-
peared to him and called him to his duty (Sotah 36b ;
Gen. R. Ixxxvii. 9; comp. Pirke R. El. xxxix.).
The story of Joseph and Zelikah (Zulaikha), the

Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

250

wife of Potipliar, is narrated in the "Sefer ha-
Yasliar" {I.e., following Arabic sources, as the very
name "Zclikah" shows) as follows: Zelikah at first
attempted to seduce Joseph by arraying him in line
garments, putting before him the most delicious
viands, and speaking to him in amorous terms.
These means failing, she used threats, but without
effect, for Joseph remained inflexible (com p. Test.
Patr., Joseph, 3). The vehemence of her unrequited
passion soon impaired her health. On one occasion,
wlien some noble ladies of Egypt had come to see
her, she told her maid to give them oranges and sent
Joseph in to wait upon them ; the women, unable
to turn their eyes from Joseph, cut their fingers
while peeling the oranges, and when Zelikah asked
them the cause, they answered that they could not
help looking at Joseph. She then said : " What
would you do if, like myself, you had him every-
day before your eyes?" According to Gen. R.
Ixxxvii. 5 and Test. Patr., Joseph, 4-5, Zelikah told
Joseph that she was ready to kill her husband so
that he might marry her legallj'. But Joseph ex-
claimed: "After inducing nie to commit adulter}',
thou desirest me to become a murderer ! " Zelikah
promised that, if he would yield to her, she would
embrace his religion and induce all the Egyptians to
do the same. Joseph answered that the God of the
Hebrews does not desire unchaste Avorshipers. She
next brought Joseph into her chamber in the inner
part of the house and placed him on her bed, over
which was the image of her Egyptian god. Then
she covered her face witli a veil, and Joseph said:
" Thou art afraid of an idol ; shall I not fear Ynwir,
who sees all things?" (Gen. R. I.e.).

It happened that, at the Nile festival, all the peo-
ple of the house except Joseph and Zelikah had gone
to see the ceremonies; Zelikah feigned illness as her
reason for not attending the festival (comp. Sotah
36b). With one hand she grasped a sword and with
the other caught Joseph's garment, and when lie
attempted to release himself a rent was made in the
garment. Afterward, when Joseph was brought be-
fore the priests for judgment, and while they were
deliberating, Zelikah's child of eleven mouths sud-
denly began to speak, accusing its mother and de-
claring Joseph's innocence. The priests then ordered
the garment to be brought in order that they might
see on which side it had been rent; seeing that it
was rent in the back, they declared Joseph innocent.
Joseph was nevertheless thrown into prison by Poti-
phar, who was anxious thus to save his wife a pub-
lic exposure ("Sefer ha-Yashar," I.e.; comp. Gen.
R. Ixxxvii. 10). According to Midrash Abkir

(Yalk., Gen. 146), Zelikah requested
Joseph. her female friends to testify that Jo-
in Prison, seph had assailed them also. Potiphar

was going to kill him, but his wife
prevailed on him to imprison him and tlien sell him,
so as to recover the money he had paid for Joseph.
According to the same Midrash, it was Asenath who
told Potiphar of her mother's false accusation.

Josepli's duties took him everj'day to his master's
house, and this gave Zelikah opportunities to renew
her entreaties and threats. As Joseph continued to
look downward, she put an iron spear under his
chin to force him to look at her, but still Joseph

averted his gaze (Gen. R. Ixxxvii. 11 ; comp. "Sefer
ha-Yashar," I.e.). There is a disagreement among
rabbinical writers as to the length of time Joseph
spent in Potiphar's house and in prison. According
to Seder '01am (Neubauer, "M. J. C." ii. 28) and
Gen. R. (Ixxxvi. 7, after the correction of " Mattenot
Kehunuah "), Joseph was one year in Potiphar's
house and twelve years in prison ; according to Pirke
R. El. {I.e.), he was in prison ten years; according to
the Book of Jubilees (xlvi. 7), he was ten years in
the house and three j'ears in prison. The last
opinion seems to be supported by Gen. R. Ixxxix.
2 and Tan., Mikkez, 2, Avhere it is said that Joseph
remained two years longer in prison as a punish-
ment for having trusted in the promises of man
(comp. Gen. xl. 14-15). W^hen the chief butler told
Pharaoh of Joseph's skill in interpreting dreams
(Gen. xli. 13-13). he endeavored at the same time to
discredit Joseph, but an angel baffled the chief but-
ler's design (Gen. R. Ixxxviii. 6, Ixxxix. 9). Ac-
cording to Sotah 86b, Gabriel taught

Joseph Joseph the seventy languages which
as Ruler, a ruler of Egypt was obliged to know,
and it was then that he added the let-
ter n to Joseph's name (comp. Num. R. xiv. 16).
Jose]5h was released from prison on Rosh ha-Shanah
(R. H. 10b).

When Joseph interpreted Pharaoh's dreams, the
king asked him for a sign by which he might know
that his interpretation was true. Joseph then told
him that the queen, who was about to be delivered
of a child, would give birth to a son, but that at the
same time another son, two years of age, Avould die ;
and it so happened. As a viceroy, Joseph built
himself a magnificent palace, placing in it a great
number of slaves. He equipped also a considerable
army, with which he marched to help the Ishmaelites
against the Tarshishites, winning a great victory
("Sefer ha-Yashar," section "Mikkez ").

Joseph showed great discernment in preserving
the grain which he gathered, by storing in each dis-
trict only the amount which had grown there (Gen. R.
xc. 5). Later, when the famine waxed sore and the
Egj'ptians went to Joseph for grain, he compelled
them to undergo circumcision, refusing food to un-
circumcised people {ib. xc. 6, xci. 5). He stored up
in Egypt all the gold and silver of the world, and it
was carried away by the Israelites when they left
Egypt. According to another opinion, Joseph placed
the gold and silver in three hidden treasuries, of
which one was discovered by Korah, one by Anto-
ninus, son of Severus, and one is being kept for the
righteous in the future world (Pes. 119a; comp.
"Sefer ha-Yashar," section " Wayiggash ").

Joseph always kept in mind his father and broth-
ers, and during the twenty-two years he was away
from home he drank no wine (Shab. 139a; Gen. R.
xciv. 25; Test. Patr., Joseph, 3). It is said also that
Joseph wore sackcloth and fasted much (Gen. R.
Ixxxv. 2; Test. Patr. I.e.). He is represented as
very modest, .so that though viceroy of Egypt he
was not vain of his power (Ex. R. i. 7). Knowing
that his brothers would come to buy grain, Joseph
gave orders that nobody should be permitted to
enter until he had given in writing his own and his
father's names. His brothers, fearing the evil eye,

251

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Joseph

entered the city at ten different gates, and in the
evening the gatekeepers brought their names to
Joseph. Three days passed, and tlie brotliers liad
not appeared before Joseph; so Joseph sent seventy
strong men to search for them. The brothers were
found in tlie street of the liarlols, whither they had
gone witli the object of looking for Joseph. When
they were brought into Joseph's liouse, Joseph,
feigning divination through liis goblet, enumerated
all their deeds, how they had destroyed Shechem,
how they liad sold their brother; and the fact of
being found in the street of the harlots proved, he
said, that they were spies. A struggle ensued be-
tween Joseph's men and his brothers,
Joseph who were on the point of destroying
and His Egypt, but they were subdued by
Brethren. Mauasseh, who imprisoned Simeon
(Gen. R. xci. 6; comp. "Scferha-Ya-
shar," I.e.). Later, when, under the pretext of his
having stolen the goblet, Benjamin was detained b}'
Joseph (Gen. xliv.), another violent struggle ensued
between Joseph and his brothers, who would have
carried Benjamin off by force. Seeing that his
brothers, especially Judah, were again becoming
furious, Joseph, with his foot, struck a marble pil-
lar on which he was sitting, shattering it into frag-
ments (Gen. II. xciii. 7).

According to the "Sefer ha-Yashar" (section
" Wayiggash "), where the whole struggle is nar-
rated at great length, Manasseh was the hero of that
exploit (see Targ. Yer. to Gen. xliv. 19). Joseph
allowed himself to be recognized by his brothers for
fear thej^ might destroy Egypt (Gen. H. I.e.). Cer-
tain rabbis underrated Joseph's meiit by declaring
that he died before his brothers because he had made
them feel his authority (Ber. 55a; comp. Tan.,
Wayiggash, 3). According to other
Why opinions, Joseph died before them be-
He Died cause he embalmed his father's body
Before His instead of relying on God to keep the
Brothers, body from decay ; or because he heard
Judah say " thy servant m}^ father "
several times without correcting him (Pirke R. El.
xxxix. ; Gen. R. c. 4). Joseph's solicitude on behalf
of his brothers is pointed out by Pesik. R. 3 (ed.
Friedmann, p. 10b) as follows: Although he honored
his father greatly, he always avoided meeting him,
so that he would not have known that his father was
sick had not a messenger been sent to him (Gen. xlviii.
1); Joseph apprehended, perhaps, that his father
would ask him how he came to be sold by his
brothers, and would curse them. When Jacob pre-
pared himself to bless Joseph's two sons, the Holy
Spirit had left him, but it returned to him through
Joseph's prayer (Pesik. I.e. p. 12a). Joseph is said to
have himself superintended his father's burial, al-
though he had so many slaves ; he was rewarded in
that Moses himself carried his bones (Sotah 9b ; comp.
Ex. xiii. 19), and in that his coffin was carried in
the wilderness side by side with the Ark of the Cov-
enant (Mek., I.e.).

According to most rabbinical authorities, Joseph's
coffin was sunk in the Nile (Tavg. pseudo-Jonathan
to Gen. 1. 26; Mek., Beshallah, Wayyehi, 1; Ex. R.
XX. 17); but according to R. Nathan. Joseph was
buried in the royal palace. In the time of the Exo-

dus, Serah, daughter of Asher, showed Moses where
the coffin was sunk. Moses threw a pebble into the
water there and cried out: ".loseph! Joseph! the
time has come for the Israelites to be rescued from
their oppressors; come up and do not cause us any
fiulher delay!" Tlie coffin thereupon floated up
(Mek., I.e. ; Ex. R. I.e.). It may be added that the
piyyut beginning "Arze ha-Lebanon" and recited
on Yom Kippur is based on the legend that Joseph
was bartered for shoes (comp. Amos ii. 6).

Bibliography: Adolf Kurreln, Traum und Wahrheit, Le-
henfbild Josephs nach der Ayada, Regensburg, 1887.
s. s. M. Sel.

Critical View : The narratives concerning

Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. and xxxix. -1.) are composed
of two principal strata: a Jahvistic stratum and an
Elohistic one, with a few details here and there fiom
the compiler of the Priestly Code (for details see
J. E. Carpenter and G. Ilarford-Battersby, "Hexa-
tcuch," pp. 58-79). According to the Jahvistic nar-
rative, Joseph is rescued by Judah when his breth-
ren plot against him, and is afterward sold to
Ishmaelites, who in turn sell him to an Egyptian of
high position whose name is not given. The wife
of this Eg3'ptian brings an accusation against Joseph,
and he is cast into prison ; but the jailer makes him
overseer of the other prisoners. The Jahvistic ac-
count of his escape from prison has been omitted ;
and in the sequel nothing is said about Simeon's be-
coming a hostage. The brethren open their sacks
at a halting-place and find their money ; Judah offers
to become surety to his father for Benjamin's re-
turn ; the Israelites settle in the land of Goshen ; and
Jacob's life closes with his poetic blessing.

In the Elohistic portions Joseph is rescued from
his other brethren by Reuben and thrown into a pit,
from which he is taken and sold to the Midianites;
they in turn sell him to Potiphar, captain of the
guard, who makes him ruler over the prisoners con-
fiued in his house. Afterward, when his brethren
are accused of being spies, they volunteer the infor-
mation about the younger brother. Simeon is left
in Egypt as a hostage; the others open their sacks
at the end of their homeward journey ; Reuben offers
to become security for Benjamin's return; and there
is no mention of Goshen. In other respects the nar-
ratives seem to have been closely parallel. The
Priestly Code adds a few statistics and gives a list
of the people who went down to Egypt.

Modern critics have made various estimates of the
historical worth of these narratives of Joseph. As
the reputed ancestor of the tribes of Ephraim and
Manas eh, he is regarded by some as altogether
legendary or even mythical. Thus Winckler held
the story of Joseph to be a sun-myth ("Gesch.
Israels," partii., pp. 73-77; see, however, his "Abra-
ham der Babylonier, Joseph der Egypter," 1903);
while the fact that "Jacob-el " and "Joseph-el " ap-
pear in a list of Thothmes III. as the names of places
in Palestine (W. Max Miiller, "Asien und Europa,"
pp. IQS etscg.), lends to the legendary view some prob-
ability. Still, even if these narratives should prove
to be legendary, not every legend is a sun-myth.

On the other hand, archeological evidence has
been urged in favor of the historical character of
Joseph. Two of the El-Amarna tablets (Schrader,

Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

252

"K. B. " v., Nos. 44, 45) show that a Semite held a
position in Egypt quite analogous to that attributed
to Joseph. The Egyptian " Tale of Two Brothers ''
shows that such situations as that in which Joseph
found himself with the wife of his master were not
unknown in Egypt (comp. Sayce, "Verdict of the
Monuments," pp" 209-211).

The Egyptians attached great significance to
dreams, as they are said to have done in tlie Biblical
narrative (comp. Brugsch, "History of Egypt," pp.
200, 314, 406); faminesof long duration were also not
infrequent, being produced by the failure of the Nile
overflow. One such, from 1064 to 1071, is attested
by the Arabic historian Al-Makrizi (comp. Stanley,
"Jewish Church," i. 79). Such instances of the cor-
rectness of the portraiture from an Egjptian stand-
point might be greatly multiplied. At the most,
howevc-r, they do not prove tlie historical character
of the narrative, but that, if it is fiction, it is very
realistic fiction. In either case the narratives were
not written till after the ninth century B.C. ; for
such names as "Potiphar" (Gen. xxxi.x. 1) and
"Zaphenath-paneah " (Gen. xli. 45) do not occur in
Egyptian before that century (comp. Brugsch in
"Old Testament Student," xi. 481).

Those who regard the Joseph stories as historical
generally hold that the Pharaoh by whom Joseph
was made the practical ruler of Egypt was one of
the Hyksos kmgs. This result is reached partly by
reckoning back from Rameses II., who is regarded
as the Pharaoh of the oppression, and partly by as-
suming that the Hyksos were Semitic or Asiatic, and
that such a situation was more possible under
tliem. The El-Amarna tablets cited above make it
clear, however, that it would have been equally
possible under the kings of the eighteenth dynasty,
such as Amenophis III. or Amenophis IV. (about
1400 B.C.).

Bibliography: In addition to the literature cited above, see
the commentaries of Dillmann and Gunkel on Genesis, and
Driver in Hogarth, Authority and Archceologu, pp. 46-54.
E G H. G. A. B.

-In Arabic Literature : The story of Joseph

or Yusuf as it is told in Arabic literature lias the
same general outlines as the Biblical narrative; but
in the Arabic account there is a wealth of accessory
detail and incident. Some of these amplifications
have been borrow-ed by Jewish writers (as in the
" Sefer ha-Yashar " ; see Grlinbaum, "Zu ' Yussuf
und Suleicha,'" in "Z. D. M. G." xliii. 1 et seg.).
Joseph is regarded by the Arabs as a prophet
(Koran, suras vi. 84, xl. 36). He is also a type of
manly beauty; so that one often finds the expression
"a .second Joseph," meaning one extraordinarily
beautiful. He is likewise called the "Moon of Ca-
naan." A great many public works in Egypt have
been attributed to him. Some believe that he built
the city of Memphis, and that he was instrumental
in building the obelisks and pyramids. He also in-
structed the Egyptians in science. In the Koran a
whole chapter (sura xii.) is devoted to Joseph; and
the commentators add many details to this " best of
stories," as Mohammed calls it (sura xii. 3).

The story of Yusuf and Zulaikha is a favorite love-
song in the East, and the Persian poet Firdusi has
written on the subject an epic which begins with

Jacob's suit for Rachel (published by Schlechta-
VVssehrd, Vienna, 1889). The narrative, however,
among the Mohammedans is more than
Joseph and a simple love-tale. Their theologians
Zuleikah. use it to symbolize the spiritual love
between God and the soul (D'Herbel(jt,
" Bibliotheque Orientale," iii. 371). Zulaikha or Ra'il
is the wife of Kilfir or Itfir (the Biblical Potiphar),
through whose accusations, although they are
proved to be false, Joseph is thrown into pri.son.
After his phenomenal rise to power, as he is passing
through the street one day his attention is attracted
by a beggar woman whose bearing shows traces of
former greatness. Upon stopping to speak to her
he discovers Zulaikha, wiio has been left in misery at
the death of her husband. Joseph causes her to be
taken to the house of a relative of the king, and soon
obtains permission to marry her, she having lost none
of her former beauty nor any of her first love for him.

Other features in the Arabic history of Joseph
which are lacking in the Old Testament narrative,
are the stories of Jacob and the wolf and of Joseph
at his mother's tomb (contained in a mauu.script at
Madrid). After Joseph's brothers had returned to
their father with the coat dipped in blood, Jacob
was so prostrated that for several days he was as
one dead. Then he began to wonder that the gar-
ment had no rents or marks of claws and teeth, and
suspicions of the truth arose in his mind. To allay
his doubts the brothers scoured the countiy and
caught in a net a wolf, which they brought alive to
their father. Jacob, after reproaching the wolf for
its cruelt}', asked it to relate how it came to com-
mit so wicked a deed : whereupon Allah opened the
mouth of the dumb beast and it talked, disclaiming
any connection with the death of Joseph. It even
expressed sympathy for the grieving father, saying
that it had itself lost its own dear child. The pa-
triarch was much affected by this tale, and enter-
tained the wolf hospitably before sending it on its
way with his blessing.

The story of Joseph at his mother's tomb shows
the boy's piety and forgiving nature. As the cara-
van bearing him to Egypt passed near his mother's
grave Joseph slipped away unnoticed and fell upon
the tomb in an agony of tears and praj'er. For this
he was severely abused, whereupon a storm sud-
denly arose, making further progress impossible.
Only when Joseph had forgiven the offender did the
storm disappear (Ticknor, "Hist, of Spanish Litera-
ture," 3d American ed., i. 85^^ seg., Bo.ston, 1864).
This " Poema de Jose " was written in Spanish with
Arabic characters by a Morisco, who had forgotten
the language of his forefathers, but still remem-
bered their traditions. These stories are found in
the " Sefer ha-Yashar " also ; but their origin is cer-
tainly Arabic (see Grtinbauin, I.e.).

There are certain minor points in which the Arabic
story differs from the Biblical. In the Koran the
brothers ask Jacob to let Joseph go
Differences with them. In the Arabic story the
of pit into which Joseph is thrown is a

Tradition, well with water in it, and Joseph es-
capes by climbing upon a rock. Jo-
seph's face possessed such a peculiar brilliancy that
his brothers noticed the different light in the sky as

253

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph

soou as he appeared above the edge of the w-ell, and
they came back to claim him as their slave. This
same peculiarity was noticeable when they went to
Egypt: although it was evening when they entered
the city, his face diffused such a light that the aston-
ished inhabitants came out to see the cause of it.
In the Bible Joseph discloses himself to liis brethren
before they return to their father tlie second time
after buying corn. In the Arabic story they are
compelled to return to Jacob without Benjamin,
and the former weeps himself blind. He remains so
until the sons have returned from Egypt a third
time, bringing with them Joseph's garment which
Gabriel had given him in the well, and which, hav-
ing come from paradise, healed the patriarch's eyes
as soon as he put it to his face.

Joseph was buried in the Nile, as there was some
dispute as to which province should be honored
by having his tomb within its boundaries. Moses
was able by a miracle to raise the sarcophagus
and to take it with him at the time of the Exodus.

Bibliography: Koran, sura xii., and its commentators,
Bai(,lawi, Zamakhshari, Tabari, and others; D'Herbelot,
BihUothiQUC Orientale,' iii. 368 et seq., Paris, 1789; A.
Geijrer, Was Hat Moliammed arts dem Judenthiime Auf-
genommenl Bonn, 18;iJ ; Schleehta-Wssehrd, Aus FirdusVs
'^' Ymsuf tmd Sulcicha," in Z. D. M. G. xli.; G. Weil,
Bihlical Legends of the Miismdmans, Eng. transl.. New
York, 1846.

G. M. W. M.

JOSEPH (High Priest): 1. Son of Ellem
(DP'X) of Sepphoris; installed by ilerod for one day
(Yom Kippur) as a substitute for the high priest,
who had become unclean (Tosef., Yoma i. 4; Y'er.
Yoma i. 1; Yer. Hor. iii. 3; Hor. 12b; et al.). Jo-
sephus, who tells the same story ("Ant." xvii. 6,
§ 4), says that " Mattathias, son of Theophilus " (4
B.C.) was the name of the priest for whom he sub-
stituted. The Rabbis forbade him afterward to offi-
ciate, even as a common priest (Yoma 12b; Hor.
12b). 2. Son of Kimhit (Kamhit); he became a
substitute for his brother Ishmael, or Simeon, when
the latter had become unclean (Yoma 47a). Jose-
phus ("Ant." XX. 5, § 2), calling him "Joseph, son
of Kamythus" {Kdfildog), speaks of him as having
been removed from the high-priesthood by Herod
II. 3. Son of Simeon Kabi (61-62 c.e. ; Josephus,
"Ant." XX. 8, § 11); installed in the high-priesthood
byAgrippa II. Gratz C'Gesch." 4th ed., iii. 739)
concludes that this Joseph was the son of Simeon
Kamithus. See Ishmael ben Kimhit.

Biblio(;rapht: Derenbourp. Hist. p. 160; Gratz. in Monats-
schrift, XXX. 51 et set/. ; Schiirer, Ge-sch. ii. 316 et seq.

G. M. Sel.

JOSEPH II.: German emperor ; born March 13,
1741 ; died Feb. 20, 1790, at Vienna. As German
emperor his sovereignty was one in name only, but
as ruler of Austria in succession to his mother, Maria
Theresa (d. Nov. 29, 1780), his activities were as
manifold as thej^ were beneficent. Joseph was a
believer in the principles of humanitarianism as
taught by t;lie philosophers of his time, and while he
remained a strict Romanist in matters of dogma,
be opposed the Church strongly in its policy toward
the adherents of other creeds. This change of pol-
icy affected the Jews almost from the moment that
he ascended the throne. He abolished the poll-tax
and the Jew's badge (1781) and issued the "Tole-

ranzpatent " (Jan. 2, 1782), in which the principles
were laid down that the restrictions on the Jews
should be gradually removed and that the Jews
should be encouraged in taking uj) handicrafts and
agriculture; the scliools were expressly declared to
be open to them, and special Jewish schools were to
be established. In individual questions, such as the
frequent cases of baptism of infants b}- midvvives
contrary to the will of the parents, he strongly de-
manded that justice should be done, that the chil-
dren should be returned to their parents, and that
midwives should not be permitted to baptize Jew-
ish children (Wolf, " Judentaufen," p. 97, Vienna,
1863). When a Jew made a bid for the renting of a
brewery on the imperial family estate at Goding,
and the administration rejected the bid on the
ground that Jews had been expelled from that town,
the emperor said : " The only reason for the ex-
pulsion of the Jews is that they are not Christians;
to me they are human beings, consumers, and tax-
payers, and consequently useful, if properly kept in
check" ("Allg. Zeit. des Jud." 1844, p. 655).

Of great importance was the law of 1787 requir-
ing the Jews to serve in the array, the first enact-
ment to that effect in history. Man}- Jews objected,
and sent petitions to the emperor, but he would not
repeal it. Upon the request of the community of
Presburg he repealed the law demanding that the
Jews should shave off their beards, the object of
which was to oblige them to relinquish a distinction
that marked them off from their Christian fellow
subjects. Consistently with his principles he abol-
ished the annual collective ta.x upon the Jews, and
substituted for it the "Familientaxe," which the
community paid for every member who had con-
tracted a legal marriage (see Familianten Gesetz),
and a tax on every article of food, the object of the
change being to abolish the use of the invidious word
"Schutzgeld," implying that the Jews were merely
tolerated. From the surplus of these taxes over the
amount of the former " Toleranzsteuer " the Jewish
fund in Moravia (" Landemassafonds ") was accumu-
lated. However, most of the disabilities remained,
as the restriction upon marriage, the confinement to
ghettos, and the inability to hold office. See Aus-
tria.

Bibliography: Adam Wo\t, Oesterreich Unter Maria Tlie-
leMa und Josef II., Berlin, 1884; Fournier, Josef II.,
PraRue, 1885; Mandl, Da.s J Vuiittche Schid ursen in Vngarti
Unter Josef II., Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1903. A dipest of
the laws issued by Joseph II. concerning the Jews of Hungary
is given in AUi]. Zeit. dcs Jud. 1840, p. 607.

.D.

JOSEPH : Prominent Jewish family which set-
tled in Canada toward the close of the eighteenth
century. It was descended from Naphtali Joseph,
of an Anglo-Jewish family which had come from the
Netherlands.

1. Abraham Joseph: A brother of Heniy Jo
seph (No. 4); followed the latter to Canada some
years after he had settled in the country. He be-
came prominent in public affairs.

2. Abraham Joseph : Born in Berthier, Can-
ada, in 1815; died in Quebec in 1886; son of Henry
Joseph (No. 4). He removed to the latter cit}^ in
1833, and became a member of the city council. He
was a candidate for the mayoralty. During the re-

Josepn

Joseph ben Abraham

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

254

bellion of 1887-1838 he served in the Quebec Light
Infantry, attaining the rank of major.

Joseph was president of the Dominion and tlie
Quebec boards of trade, president of the Stadacona
Bank, one of the founders of the Banque Nationale,
and a director of the Quebec and Gulf Ports Steam-
ship Company.

3. Gershom Joseph : Born in 1821 ; youngest
son of Henry Joseph (No. 4); studied jurisprudence
at Toronto University (M.A. and B.C.L.). He prac-
tised law in Montreal, but abandoned the profes-
sion in 1849 to embark in gold-mining in Califor-
nia. In 1863 he returned to Montreal, and resumed
his law practise. In 1893 Joseph was appointed a
queen's counsel, being the first Canadian Israelite
to attain that distinction. At the time of his death
Joseph was president of the Spanish and Portuguese
synjigogue.

4. Henry Joseph. : Born in London, England,
in 1775 ; son of Naphtali Joseph. His mother was a
sister of Commissary Aaron Hakt, seignior of Becan-
court. Joseph moved to Canada in 1790, being the
first member of the family to settle there, and be-
came connected Avith the commissariat of the garri-
son at Fort William Henry, at the mouth of tlie
Richelieu River. Afterward he established a chain
of trading-posts from Hudson's Bay to Berthier, Mon-
treal, and Quebec, and lie gradually became an im-
portant factor in the development of Canadian
commerce. He was the first to build and charter
Canadian ships for the transatlantic trade, and was
one of the founders of Canada's merchant marine.

During the war between Great Britain and the
United States (1812-14) Joseph took part in several
engagements. After the war his business interests
centered in Montreal, where he eventually took up
his residence. Here he became deeply interested in
Hebrew communal affairs, and was one of the most
active members of the Spanish and Portuguese
synagogue. He also generously aided a number of
non-sectarian institutions. In 1832 he and his eldest
son, Samuel, fell victims on the same day to the
cholera epidemic. Joseph was married to Rachel
Solomons and was the father of a very large famil}^
including four sons, Jacob Henry, Abraham,
Jesse, and Gershom, and four daughters, Cath-
erine, Rebekah, Sarah, and Esther. Catherine
married Dr. Aaron Hart David, and Esther became
tlie wife of Dr. Abraham de Sola.

5. Jacob Henry Joseph : Born in Berthier in
1814; eldest son of Henry Joseph (No. 4); mar-
ried Sara Gratz Moses, a niece of Rebekah Gratz of
Philadelphia. He took up his residence in Montreal
in 1830. He was prominent in the establishment of
the first telegraph-line between Canada and the
United States, and was associated with the New-
foundland Telegraph Company. He also took an act-
ive interest in Canadian railways and was prominent
in financial circles, helping to found the Union Bank,
the Ontario Bank, and the Provident Savings Bank,
besides being for many years the president and con-
trolling stockholder of the Montreal Elevator Com-
pany.

During the Canadian rebellion of 1837-38 Joseph
served as an officer in a loyalist regiment sent to
oppose the rebels advanring fmm Larnlle.

Joseph was for some years treasurer of the Span-
ish and Portuguese synagogue in Montreal.

6. Jesse Joseph: Born in Berthier in 1817; died
in Montreal Feb. 24, 1904; son of Henry Joseph
(No. 4). He was the first to establish a direct line
of ships between Antwerp and Montreal. In 1850
he was appointed consul for Belgium at Montreal,
and in recognition of his eminent services in estab-
lishing trade relations between Belgium and Canada
was twice decorated by the King of the Belgians.
He also maintained very extensive commercial rela-
tions between England and Canada.

In 1864 Joseph retired from business and became
identified with the promotion of many public un-
dertakings. He was for thirty years president or
director of the Montreal Gas Company, afterward the
Light and Heat Power Company. Ho was elected
president of the Montreal Street Railway Company in
1884, and was also for many years a director of dif-
ferent telegraph companies and financial institutions.

In 1893 Joseph became president of the Corpora-
tion of Spani.sh and Portuguese Jews of Montreal.
He was also a governor of the Montreal General
Hospital, and was an active supporter of many
other charities.

7. Judah Joseph : A son of Naphtali Joseph.
With his brother Abraham (No. 1) he joined Henry
Joseph some j'ears after the latter had settled in
Canada. He was a member of the board of the
Montreal synagogue, and an active communal
worker. After acquiring considerable weath he re-
turned to England.

Bibliography: Records of the Joseph Familii : Minutes of
tlie Corporatinn of Spanwh and Pirrtunuese Jews, Shcarith
Israel, Montreal; Cyclo}tcedia of Canadian Biographi/,
Toronto, 1888 ; Clarence I. de Sola, contributions to J. D. Borth-
vvick's Hisitory and Biographical Gazetteer of Montreal,
Montreal, 1892.
A. C. I. DE S.

JOSEPH BEN ABBA : Gaon of Pumbedita for
a period of two years ; died in 816 (Sherira Gaon ;
Neubauer, "M. J. C." i. 37). Abraham ibn Daud
("Sefer ha-Kabbalah," ib. i. 64) calls him Joseph b.
Judah and places his death in 824. After the death
of the preceding gaon (R. Abumai, or, according to
Abraham ibn Daud, Ahinai) in 814 or 822, Jo.'cph
was preferred to Alar Aaron, who, though a greater
Talmudist, did not possess the former's miraculous
powers. Joseph was believed to have conversed
with Elijah, and once, when he was on the point of
beginning a lecture before a numerous audience, he
exclaimed : " Make room for the old man who is now
entering!" Tlie old man, who was invisible to all
save Joseph, was believed to be Elijah. On the day
of Joseph's death there was an earthquake (Sherira
Gaon, I.e.). Judah Gaon, Sherira's grandfather, was
Joseph's secretary, according to Sherira Gaon and
Abraham ibn Daud (I.e.). These two authorities
mention further that Joseph as a boy diligently
studied the Talmud, and that his teacher. Mar Shinai
Gaon, blessed him, declaring that he would become
the head of the people. See Gaon.

Bibliooraphy: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., v. 19fi, 388.
s. s. M. SEii

JOSEPH IBN ABITTJR. See Abitur,
Jnsr.iMi.

255

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph

Joseph ben Abraham

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM : Liturgical poet.
Seveu prayers beariug tlie name "Joseph ben
Abraham " are found in the Siddur of Avignon.
Zunz identifles this Joseph with Joseph of Mon-
selice, whose selihah for the seventeenth of Tam-
muz is inserted in the ritual of Carpentras (Amster-
dam ed., 1762). It is possible that the liturgical
poet Saul ben Joseph, whose poem is found in the
same ritual, was a son of this Joseph.

Bibliography: Zunz,Z. G. p.469; Landshutb, 'Ammudeha-
'Abodali, p. 89.
A. I. Br.

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM ISSACHAR
BARMAN MINKDAM: Dutch scholar of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He trans-
lated into Judoeo-German the Targum to Canticles
(Amsterdam, 1711); the translation was inserted
in Jacob b. Isaac's "Ze'enah u-Re'enah," the well-
known homiletic paraphrase of the Pentateuch.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1439; Zedner,
Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 544.
s. s. M. Sei..

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM HA-KOHEN
HA-RO'EH (Arabic, Abu Ya'kub al-Basir) :
Karaite philosopher and theologian ; flourished in
Babylonia or Persia in the first half of the eleventh
century ; teacher of Joshua ben Judah (Abu al-Faraj
Furkan ibn Asad). By way of euphemism he
was surnamed "ha-Ro'eh" (="the seer"), on ac-
count of his blindness. This infirmity, however,
did not prevent him from undertaking long jour-
neys, probably as a Karaite missionary. In the
course of his travels he frequented the religio-philo-
sophical schools of the Motazilites, whose teachings
he defended in his works. Of these the most im-
portant is the "Muijtawi," translated from the
Arabic into Hebrew, jierhaps by Tobiah ben Moses,
under the title "Sefer ha-Ne'imot," or
His <'Muh- "Zikron ha-Datot." It is divided into

tawi." forty chapters, in which all the main
principles of the Motazilite "kalam"
are applied to the Karaite dogmas: the five principles
of the unity of God ; the necessity of admitting atoms
and accidents; the existence of a Creator; the neces-
sity of admitting certain attributes and rejecting
others; God's justice and its relation to free will;
reward and punishment; etc. The author often
argues against the Christians, the Dualists, the
Magians, the Epicureans, and various other sects,
with whose tenets he shows himself well acquainted.
He cites the founders of the Motazilite sects of Al-
Jabaij'ah and Al-Bahshamiyyah, Abu 'Ali Mo-
hammed ben 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Jabai, and his son
Hashim 'Abd al-Salam, wliose teachings he closely
follows. The "Muhtawi" is still extant in manu-
script, both in the Arabic original and in its Hebrew
translation ; the former in the David Kaufmann
Library, the latter in the libraries of Leyden, Paris,
and St. Petersburg.

Another extant work of his is "Al-Tamyiz,"
called also " Al-Mansuri " (Brit. Mus. Or. No. 2568).
It was translated into Hebrew, with some additions,
by Tobiah ben Moses under the title "Mahkimat
Peti" (Oxford, Leyden, Paris, St. Petersburg). It is
divided into thirty-three chapters, and treats in
abridged form all the non-polemical subjects con-

tained in the "Muhtawi." In the fourteenth chap-
ter the author criticizes the "Shi'ur Komah," and

refutes the theory of Benjamin ben Mo-
His "Al- ses Nahawandi, who, holding God too
Tamyiz." sublime to concern Himself directly

with the material world, believed that
it was created by an angel acting as God's represent-
ative. From the similarity between some passages
of the "Mahkimat Peti" and of the "Emunot vve-
De'ot"itmay be inferred that Joseph knew Saadia's
work and often used it. The "Mahkimat Peti"
(xxiii.)is quoted, under its Arabic title "Al-Man-
suri," by Joseph ibn Zaddik in reference to God's
sufficiency ; Ibn Zaddik criticizes also the Motazilite
theory adopted by Joseph ben Abraham (xxvii.) con-
cerning the reward reserved in the next world for
animals and children in return for the sufferings in-
flicted upon them in this world (" 'Olara Katan," ed.
Jellinek, pp. 46, 70).

Joseph quotes in the " Muhtawi " and " Al-Tamyiz "
the following works of his, which are no longer in
existence: "Sihat al-Istidlal bi-al-Shahd (Shahr) 'ala
al-Ghaib," probably on the proofs of the existence of
a Creator; "Ahwal al-Fa'il" ; "Al-Muhit," in He-
brew, "Shefot ha-Shofetim " ; a writing on, perhaps
against, Abu Ghalib Thabit; "Melizat Ikre al-
Lubad"(?); " Al-Isti'anah"; " Al-Istibsar, " on ths
precepts (" Sefer ha-Mizwot "), a fragment of which,
comprising the laws of inheritance and purity, is
still extant (Brit. Mus. Or. 2567). The laws con-
cerning the festivals were translated into Hebrew by
Tobiah ben Moses, under the title " Sefer ha-Mo'a-
dim." They are divided into eight chapters, in
which Joseph discusses the arguments used by Sam-
uel ben Hofni against the Karaites in regard to the
neomenia and the celebration of the Feast of the
First Fruits. Harkavy supposes that these argu-
ments were discussed also in another work of Joseph's
entitled "Kitab al-Hidayah." Joseph is supposed
to have been the author also of: "Zidduk ha-Din,"
on cschatology ; "She'elot u-Teshubot " (Arabic,
"Mas'ail wa-Jawa'ib "), containing thirteen philo-
sophical questions addressed to Jewish and non-Jew-
ish scholars; "Peri Zaddik," a chapter on theodicy.

Joseph was considered one of the greatest authori-
ties among the Karaites. To him was due the re-
form introduced in the laws of incest (" 'arayot "), he

having been the first to protest against

His In- exaggerations of the scope of the her-

fluence on meneutic rule of analogy ("hekesh ")

Karaism. by which the successors of Anan had

prohibited intermarriage between the
most distant relatives. His philosophical sj'stem
was adopted by all his Karaite successors down to
Aaron ben Elijah of Nicomedia, who, in his " 'Ez
Hayyim," cites him often. In this field, however,
Joseph has no claim to originality, for he only re-
produced the " kalam " of the Motazilites, and his
main work, the "Muhtawi," but for the few Biblical
quotations contained therein, might have been signed
by any Moslem.

Joseph discussed only the general questions of
monotheism, which are the common ground of both
Jews and Moliammedans, and carefully avoided
those on which Jews and Mohammedans are divided,
as, for instance, the question whether the Mosaic

Joseph ben Ahmad
Joseph of Chinon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

256

law has been abrogated. The value of his works
lies only in the information they furnish concerning
the " Kalam " of the Motazilites. It is probable that
in representing the Karaite theologians as Muta-
kallamin ("Morch," Ixxi.) Maimonides alluded to
Joseph.

BiBLioGRAPHy : Dukes, in Orient, lAt. x. 350; Geiger, Wl>^.
Zeit.JUd. Theol. v. 2o7; Pinsker, Lilfkiite Kadinoidyyot,
ii. 193 (and see Index) ; Fiirst, Gesch. den Karuert. ii. 50 et
seq. ; Jost, Gesch. des JudeiithumK iind Seiner Sekten, ii. ;
Neubauer, Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek, p. 7 ; P. F.
Frankl, in Mu)iatsschrift, xx.114 ; idem, Ei7i MutazalUischer
Kalam im 10. Jahrhundert, in' Sitzuiigshericlite der Wie-
ner Akademis der Wisnetischaften, Philoliigisch-Philo-
sophische Klasse, 1873, vol. Ixxi. ; Harkavy, in Berliner's
Magazin, v. 33; idem, Zikkaron la-Rii<Jionim. i., part 3, p.
45 ; idem, in Rahmer's JUd. Lit.-Blatt, 1878, No. 9 ; idem,
in Stade's Zeitsdirift, 1881, p. 156; Steinschneider, Leuden
Catalogue, pp. 169 et seq. ; idem, Hehr. Uehera. pp. 450 et
geq. ; idem. Die Ai'abische Literatur der Juden, § 50.

K. I. Br.

JOSEPH BEN AHMAD IBN HASDAI :

Egyptian physician and medical writer; lived in
Cairo at the beginning of the twelfth centurj'. Al-
though his biographer, Ibn Abi Usaibi'ah, does not
affirm his Jewish descent, there is no doubt that
Joseph belonged to the Judaeo-Spanish family of
Hasdai. Early in life he went to Egypt, where he
found a protector in the vizier Ma'mun Abu 'Abd
Allah ibn Nur al-Daulah al-'Amiri. Joseph carried
on a scientific correspondence with the Arabic philos-
opher Avempace (Ibn Baja). He was the author
of the following works: "Al-Sharh al-Ma'muni,"
commentary on Hippocrates' work on the oath
("Kilab al-Iman"); "Sharh al-Fusul," commentary
on the first book of Hippocrates' " Aphorisms " ;
"Ta'alik"; " Fa wa'id," extracts from Ali ibn Rid-
wan's commentarj' on Galen's work on nature;
"Al-Kaul 'ala Awwal al-Sina'ah al-Saghirah," on
Galen's first book of " Ars Parva " ; " Al-Ajmal, " on
logic, with notes.

Bibliography : Ibn AM U^aibl'ab, ii. 51 ; Hammer-Purgstal,
Literaturgesch. der Araber, vi. 481, No. 615; vii 505; Stein-
schneider, Die Arabische Literatur der Juden, S 100.

G. I. Br.

JOSEPH THE APOSTATE: Jewish convert
to Christianity in the first half of the fourth cen-
tury. He was one of the assessors of the rabbinical
school of the patriarch Judah III. at Tiberias, and
in this capacity was sent as delegate to the Jewish
communities of Cilicia. There be associated with
the Christian bishop, by whom he was induced to
read the New Testament. While engaged in read-
ing he was surprised by some Cilician Jews who
suspected liis orthodoxy. Joseph then publicly ac-
knowledged his conversion to Christianity. On his
return to Palestine his zeal for his new faith took the
form of persecuting his former coreligionists. He
thereby won the favor of the ecclesiastical dignitaries,
such as Epiphaniusand Eusebius. They were espe-
cially impressed by the wonderful tales he related
concerning the progress Christianity was making
among the Jews. According to him, all the enlight-
ened Jews nourished a secret predilection for Chris-
tianity; the patriarch himself, under the pretext of
obtaining medical advice, had invited to his house a
bishop of the neighborhood of Tiberius. Joseph's
zeal (lid not remain witliout reward. At the recom-
mendation of Eusebius the emperor Constantine ele-
vated Joseph to tlie rank of comes, a dignity which

conferred upon its holder an immunity from pun-
ishment for any violation of the law.

BiiiLiOGRAPHY : Epiphanius, Hteres, book i., t. ii. 4, 16; Griitz,
Gesch. iv. 'd&iet seq.

0. I. Bu.

JOSEPH BEN ARDUT. See Nasi, Joseph.

JOSEPH OF ARIMATH-ffiA: Wealthy Jew
(probably a member of the Essene fraternity) who,
out of sympathy with Jesus, gave him burial in
one of the tombs cut in the rocks near the city of
Jerusalem. The story is told with some variations
in all the Gospels, but in the simplest form in Mark
(xv. 42 et seq.). According to Mark, Joseph was a
member of the Sanhedrin, of noble birth, and be-
longed to those who " waited for the kingdom of
God " (or for the Messiah) : that is to say, he was
one of the Essenes (comp. Luke ii. 25, 38; Pesik.
R. xxxiv.-xxxvii.). He asked Pilate for the body
of Jesus, which he placed in a tomb newly hewn in
the rocks near the city of Jerusalem. Luke xxiii.
50 et seq. represents him as having been a member of
the Sanhedrin which, under the presidency of Caia-
phas, condemned Jesus, but as not having given his
consent to the conviction. In Matt, xxvii. 57 et seq.
his (Essene) hope for the Messiah is transformed
into a discipleship of Jesus, and the tomb in which
he buries Jesus is represented as having been his
own new tomb, hewn out for himself. In John
xix. 38 Joseph is represented as acting in conjunc-
tion with NicoDE.vius, another prominent and pious
Jew, and called "a ruler of the Jews," the two to-
gether burying Jesus in a tomb just hewn out in the
place where Jesus had been crucified.

Arimathaea, tlie birthplace of Joseph (called
" Ramathem " in I Mace. xi. 34), is the same as the
Ramathaim-zophim of I Sam. i. 1, spoken of in Tar-
gum Yerushalmi: "Ramata, where the pupils of
the prophets [seersj reside " (comp. Meg. 14a). In
fact, Ramah, or Bet Ramata, was, according to Ab.
R. N. xii. (see ed. Schechter, p. 56), the seat of a
Hasidfean colony. Like Simeon and Anna (Luke ii.
25, 36), Joseph (perhaps the leader of an Essene col-
ony near Jerusalem) was claimed for nascent Chris-
tianity, as was Nicodemus (comp. "Nicodemus" in
Cheyne and Black, "Encyc. Bibl."). Possibly the
well-known passage Isa. liii. 9 — " He made his grave
with the wicked, and with the rich in his death " —
led to Matthew's story of Jesus' burial in the tomb
of the wealthy Joseph (see Weiss, "Das Leben
Jesu," ii. 592).

According to the later Gospel of Nicodemus (xii.),
Joseph was imprisoned by the Jews on Friday eve-
ning shortly before the Sabbath ; but when they went
to release him, he was gone, though the gate had
been sealed and the key was ^n the possession of
Caiaphas. Another legend sends him to Great Brit-
ain as one of the Seventy Apostles, to erect there the
first oratory; and out of the staff which stuck in the
ground as he stopi)ed to rest himself on the hilltop
there grew, they say, a miraculous thorn, said still
to grow and bud every Christmas-Day. Out of
these legends grew another, connecting Joseph of
Arimathaea with the legend of the Holy Grail. Tiie
vessel from which Jesus had eaten at the Last Sup-
per Joseph is said to have held in his hand when he

257

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph ben Ahmad
Joseph of Chinon

took dowu Jesus' body ; and drops of tlie blood that
was still runuiug from his wouuds fell iuto the ves-
sel and endowed it with transcendent thaumaturgic
properties. It sustained Joseph's life in prison dur-
ing forty-two years and instructed him in heavenly
knowledge.

Bibliography: Winer, B. R.; Smith, Diet, of the Bible;
Heliuaut's Chroitides, in Migne's PatnilDOie. ccxii.
T. K.

JOSEPH OF ABLES : French Talmudist and
cabalist of the sixteenth century. A letter signed
"Joseph '^n " (= "of Aries ") is found among the ha-
lakic decisions of Menahem Carmi, written in 1584
(Almanzi collection). Joseph is identical with Jo-
seph ^^"IXO, who, in a letter addressed about 1560 to
Immanuel di Cropulo, complains of the publication
of the Zohar, on the ground that those Avho are
hardly able to explain a Biblical verse allow them-
selves to draw conclusions wliich are harmful to re-
ligion. According to him the Zohar made its ap-
pearance in the eleventh century. Joseph's letter
was included by Judah Modena in his " Ari Nohem "
(ch. XXX.). Joseph was the author of a work on
^ematriot, fragments of which are found in the
Almanzi collection (No. 140, 4).

Bibliography: Luzzatto, in Hebr.Bihl. v. 45: Zunz, Litera-
turgesch. p. 422; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 74.
K. I. Br.

JOSEPH THE ASTRONOMER. See Ve-

ciNHO, Joseph.

JOSEPH DE AVILA. See Zohar.

JOSEPH BEN BARUCH: Tosafist of the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Gross identifies
him with Joseph of Clisson. Joseph resided for
some time in Paris, where he associated with Judah
Sir Leon and Instructed Samuel of Falaise in spe-
cial subjects.

In 1211 he emigrated with his brother Meir to
Palestine by way of Egypt. It was probably Jo-
seph who took to England the Hebrew translation
of the " Cuzari " which had been made by Judah
Cardinal. Judah al-Harizi met Joseph and his
brother as heads of the new congregation of Jeru-
salem ("Tahkemoni," xlvi.). Joseph is cited in the
Tosafot as "Joseph of Jerusalem" (Pes. 15a), "Jo-
seph, inhabitant of Jerusalem " (Meg. 4a), and "R.
Joseph of Palestine " (Kid. 34a). Explanations
of his are quoted by Bezaleel Ashkenazi in his
" Shittah Mekubbezet, " and in various commentaries
on the Pentateuch. To Joseph of Clisson are at-
tributed consultations ("Maimoniyyot," |"Jp, No. 31)
and divers ritual decisions (Mordecai on Hul. iii.,
No. 635; idem on Git. iv.. No. 465). Joseph was
also the author of liturgical poems; a confession of
sins for the Da}'' of Atonement written by him, be-
ginning with pjnn2 nxnK, has been preserved in
the ritual.

He is referred to as "Joseph pj'Np" in a manu-
script tosafist commentary to the Pentateuch be-
longing to E. N. Adler ; but in the parallel passages
in "Minhat Yehudah," 21b, "Da'at Zekenim," 20b,
and "Hadar Zekenim," 18a, he is cited as "the man
of Jerusalem." Berliner ("Zeit. fur Hcbr. Bibl."
iv. 148) identified him with Joseph b. Johanan the
Jerusalemite (see Gross in "Monatsschrift," xlv.
370).

VIL-17

Bibliography : Zunz, Z. G. p. 52; idem, to Asher's 7ienjamm
(if 2'udelu, ii. 25t); idMu, Litei-aturyegch. p. 324; (iross, in
li. E. J. iv. 178 ; idem, Gallia J udaica, p. 595 ; Fuenn, Kene-
set YivraeU p. 495.

G. I. Br.

JOSEPH AL-BASIR. See Joseph ben Abra-
ham HA KOHEN.

JOSEPH BEKOR SHOR. See Joseph ben
Isaac Bkkor Siioi'..

JOSEPH BEx. UERECHIAH : Rabbi of Kair-
wan and a i)upil oi oacob bar Nissim; flourished in
the tenth century. He carried on a scientific corre-
spondence with Hai Gaon, whom he consulted on
lialakic decisions, among Avhich was that on the
Tetragrammatou published among the Gaon's re-
sponsa by Eliezer of Tunis in the " Ta'am Zekenim "
(p. 54b). Joseph is mentioned in the letter of
Hushiel ben Hananeel published by S. Schechter in
the "Jewish Quarterly Review " (1899, p. 643).
Bibliography: Harkavy, in Gratz, Gesch. Hebr. transl. 111.

323, note 1.

s. s.

I. Br.

JOSEPH CASPI. See Caspi, Joseph.

JOSEPH OF CHARTRES (called also Joseph
b. Asher) : French elegiac poet ; born in the second
half of the twelfth century (Zunz ["Literaturgesch."
p. 470] says that he flourished about 1200-10);
brother-in-law of Joseph b. Nathan of Etampes, and
great-uncle of the author of "Joseph le Zelateur."
'The latter reports in that work (No. 24) a discussion
which Joseph had with an ecclesiastic. "A monk
asked R. Joseph of Chartres why God had mani-
fested Himself in a bush rather than in a tree. Joseph
answered : ' Because it is impossible to make an
image [crucifix] thereof.'"

Joseph was a disciple of R. Tam and of Rashbam.
He is cited in the " Semag " of Moses of Coucy
(Prohibition 113) in connection with the ordinance
forbidding the descendants of Ammon and of Moab
to enter the Jewish community. He composed an
elegy commencing with the words IJIpy^ D'H^K, on
the massacre of the Jews of York, England, in 1191.
He is doubtless identical with the Bible commen-
tator Joseph me-Kartesh, erroneouslj^ called "Joseph
me-Karpentras " (of Carpentras) in the " Semag "
(lb.) and the " Minhat Yehudah " (p. 78b). Accord-
ing to a happy conjecture by Gross ("Gallia Ju-
daica," p. 604), the mathematician Joseph p"i^''po,
mentioned in the "Minhat Yehudah " (p. 4a), is iden-
tical with Joseph of Chartres; p~l'''p designating not
the locality of Charon, as Zunz ("Z. G." p. 98) and
Renan ("Les Rabbins Fran^ais," p. 441) believe,
but that of Chartres, being a corruption which
should be changed to c*nt2'1p, or rather po-ip, i.e.,
"Chartrain," the ancient name of the county of
Chartres.

Bibliography: Zadoc Kalin, in R. E. J. i. 238-246; Zunz,
Literatnivcfich. p. 470; Griitz, Gesch. vi. 439; Geiger's Jild.
Zeit. ix. 217-218; Gross, Gallia Jiulaica, pp. 603-604.

G. S. K.

JOSEPH OF CHINON: French Talmudist;
lived about the middle of the thirteenth century.
According to Zunz, Joseph was a son of Nathanael
the Holy, but Gross points out that this was not the
case. He is quoted in " Minhat Yehudah " (Renan-
Neubauer,"Les Rabbins Fran^ais," p. 441) and in
the responsa of Solomon ben Adret.

Joseph of Clisson
Joseph ben Gorion

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

258

Joseph is bettor known throiigli the rei)ut!ition of
liis three sons tlian tlnough his own. These three,
Eliezer, Nathauael, and Jacob, it has been supposed,
suffered martyrdom at the same time in Chiuou ;
but this, according to Gross, is not probable, be-
cause Nathauael did not live in Chinouat that time.

BiBi.ioGRAPnY: Zunz, Litcraturufxch. p. ;?6:5 ; idem, Z. G. p.
54; carnioly, Lebanun, iii. 330; Gross, OalUa Judaaa, p.

S. S.

A. Pe.

JOSEPH OF CLISSON. See Joseph ben
B.\Hrcn.

JOSEPH, DAVID: German arcliitect; born
July 4, 1863, at Konigsberg, eastern Prussia; edu-
cated at the gymnasium of his native town and at
Gnesen, at the Technische Hochschule and the Uni-
versity of Berlin, and at the University of Heidel-
ber'^ passing his examination as architect in 1888.
In the same year he establisiied himself as architect
in Berlin. In 1894 he received the degree of doctor
of philosophy from Heidelberg University, and was
admitted to the Humboklt Akademie in Berlin as
privat-docent. Two years later he received the
" venia legend! " at the University of Ghent, and be-
came professor of archeology and the history of art
at the New University and Polytechnic School at
Brussels. He resigned his chair in 1898, and, return-
ing to Berlin, resumed the profession of architect.
He also became chief editor of the " Internationale
Revue f iir Kunst, Kuustgewerbe und Technik " in
Berlin.

Joseph is a prolitic writer. He has contributed
many essays to " Literarischer Merkur" (1885 and
1886); "Der Bau " (vols. ii. et seq.)\ "Deutsche
Bauzeitung" (vols. xxix. et seq.); -'Der Bar" (vols.
xx\.et seq.); "Repertorium fiir Kunstwissenschaft "
(vols, xviii. et seq.); " Centralblatt der Bauverwal-
tung" (vols. XV. et seq.). He is the author also of:
"Die Palaste des Homerischen Epos, mit Riicksicht
auf die Ausgrabungen Heinrich Schliemanns," Ber-
lin, 189 J (2d ed. 1895); " Architektonische Meister-
werke in Deutschland, Belgien, Holland, und der
Schweiz," i&. 1896; "Bibliographic de ITIistoire de
I'Art de la Premit^-e Renaissance (Trecento et Quat-
trocento) en Italic," Brussels, 1898; " Stiftshutte,
Tempel- und Synagogen-Bauten," Berlin, 1902;
"Geschichte der Baukunst vom Altertum bis zur
Neuzeit," 2 vols., Berlin, 1902; " Architekturdenk-
maler von Rom, Florenz, Venedig," Leipsic, 1904.

8. F. T. H.

JOSEPH DAVID: Rabbi of Salonica; flour-
ished in the first half of the eighteenth century;
contemporary of Solomon Amarillo and Joseph
Covo I. According to Azulai ("Shem ha-Gedolim,"
i.), Joseph David, "the Saint," was the chief rabbi
of Salonica; if so, he must have officiated between
Amarillo and Covo. He was the author of: "Bet
Dawid," halakic novellaj on the four Turim (Salo-
nica, 1740-^16); "Yekara de-Shikbe," sermons (ib.
1774); "Zemah Dawid," a homiletic commentary on
the Pentateuch, with rules for preaching {ih. 1785-
1811); "Batte Abot," a commentary on Abot (ib.
1825).

Bibliography : Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mns. p. 354.
s. 8. M. Sel.

JOSEPH BEN DAVID HEILBRONN OF

ESCHAU: German Masorite; lived at The Hague
in the eighteenth century. He was the autiior of
"Sefer Mebin Hidot " (Amsterdam, 1765), an impor-
tant work on the INIasorah, with an appendix con-
taining a reply to a criticism of Asher Worms. Jo-
seph edited, under the title "Seder Telillot li-Yeme
Simhat Torah " {ib. 1769), prayers for the feast of
Sindiat Torah and other occasional prayers.

BinMOfiRAHHY: Steinschneider, Cat.Bodl. col. 14r>"); Zedner,
('(It. Hclii: Books Brit. Mud. p. '<i83; Fuenn, Kciietict Yis-
md, p. 491.
D. I- Bu.

JOSEPH BEN DAVID HA-YEWANI ( =

"the Greek"): Greek grammarian and lexicogra-
pher ; flourished at the end of the thirteenth or about
the middle of the fourteenth century. He was the
author of a still unpul)lished work entitled "Meno-
rat ha-Ma'or," a Hebrew lexicon preceded by a
short grammar, the latter being dedicated to a cer-
tain Elijah b. Hananeel ha-Levi. The lexicon reached
no further than the root 3:;'n. Joseph often quotes
Judah Hayyuj, Ibu Janah, Rashi, Kimhi, Abraham
ibu Ezra, and others; but Saadia, Sherira, and Hai
are quoted less frequently. He quotes also the
poets, as Moses ibu Ezra and Judah ha-Levi, giving
occasionally some of their verse. In his grammar
Joseph explains allegorically the forms of the He-
brew letters, using chiefly Judah ibn Matkah's
" Midrash ha-Hokmah " ; and he complains of the in-
difference with which Hebrew grammar was regarded
by the Jews. Extracts from the lexicon were pub-
lished by Dukes in "Orient, Lit."(xi. 173, 183, 215),
but Dukes erroneously placed Joseph at the begin-
ning of the thirteenth century, though the "Mid-
rash ha-Hokmah " quoted by Joseph was first writ-
ten in Arabic in the middle of the thirteenth century
(see Ibn M.\.tkah). The sale-contract at the head of
the manuscript (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS."
No. 1485) is dated 1649 Seleucidan era ( = 1337 c.e.).
Both Ben Jacob ("Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 338, No.
1442) and Fiirst ("Bibl. Jud." ii. 168) confounded
the author of the "Menorat ha-Ma'or" with Joseph
b. Moses Kalti, a Greek of the second half of the
fifteenth century, and author of a treatise on logic
entitled "Minhat Yehudah" (still unpublished;
comp. Zunz, Notes to Benjamin of Tudela, ed.
Asher, ii. 29).

Bibliography : Dukes, in Orient, Lit. x. 705, 727, 745; Stein-
schneider, Jewish Literature, p. 140; Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. iii..
No. 875b.

T. M. Sel.

JOSEPH DAVID BEN ZEBI : Russian rabbi
and author; born in Zetil, government of Grodno,
1767; died in Mir, government of Minsk, 1846. He
was the grandson of the rabbi of Zetil and son-in-
law of R. Moses of Kletzk. At an early age he was
appointed rabbi of his native city, and at twenty -
six he received a call to the rabbinate of Mir. Young
men came from many places to attend his yeshibah,
and hundreds of them were ordained by him as
rabbis.

Joseph David wrote novellae, some of which are
incorporated in the book " Nir Dawid " by his pupil
R. Mordecai Rabinowitz, while a responsumby him
is to be found in "Galya Masseket" by R. David of
Novogrodek.

259

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph of Clisson
Joseph ben Gorion

BntLioCrRAriiv: F-isensia(lt-\Vk'in.T, DnVif Kith»i)iini. p. 2:?: M.
UabiiKiwiiz, TiihiUit Zwldili, in Gan I'traliiiii, part i.,
Wilna, 18ti2.
^. s. X. T. L.

JOSEPH OF DREUX: French Talimulist of
the lirst lialf of the tliiitcciith coutury. Ilis name
occurs in a manuscript iu tiie British Museum collec-
tion of commentaries on the Fentateucli(MS. Brit.
Mus. Add. No. 22,092; seeGeiger's "J lid. Zeit." ix.
231). Gross takes him to be a son of iSolomon of
Dreux, in the present department of Eure-et-Loire,
and identical with the Bible commentator Joseph of
Dm (which is a misspelling of DIIT = "' Di'tux "),
Avho is mentioned iu a manuscript of " .Minhat Yelui-
dah" (Renan-Neubauer, "Les Rabbins Fran(;ais,"
p. 441). Gross states also that this Joseph ben Sol-
omou corresponded witli Isaac ben Abraham of
Dreux.

Bibliography : Gross, Gallia JiuJaica, p. 173.

s. s. A. Pe.

JOSEPH BEN ELIMELECH OF TORBIN :

Polish scholar of the seventeenth century. He was
tlie author of ''Ben Ziyyon " (Amsterdam, 1690),
containing mnemonic terms for the precepts, formu-
las of headings of letters, explanations of the accent
"zarka," ethical dissertations, and liyinns for sea-
farers, merchants, etc.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. BotU. col. 1457; Zedner,
Cat. Hchr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 332.

K. I. "Br.

JOSEPH OF GAMALA: Son of a midwife

(Josephus, "Vita," § 37). With Chares he incited

the inhabitants of Gamala to revolt against Agrippa,

and hence also against the Romans, in 66 c.e. (Jose-

phus, "B. J." iv. 1, § 4). When the Romans took

the city, Joseph was killed (66 c.e.).

Bibliography : Gratz, Gesch. 4th ed., iii. 481, 500.

G. S. Kr.

JOSEPH BEN GORION (JOSEPHTJS GO-
RIONIDES ; referred to also as Yosippon and
Pseudo-Josephus) : Author of the "Sefer Yosip-
pon," a history of the Jews from the time of the de-
struction of Babylon (539 B.C.) to the downfall of
the Jewish state (70 c.e.), with historical accounts
of Babylonia, Greece, Rome, and other countries.
In the current text the author professes to be the old
Greek historian Flavins Josephus, giving to the
name " Joseph " the Greek ending " on " (" Josephon,"
"Joseppon," or "Josippon" [ps''DV]. His Arabic
name "Yusibus" is, according to Wellhausen, iden-
tical with "Egesippus"). A gloss gives the form
t^Q''C*'lJ- from the Italian "Giuseppe." Down to
the eighteenth century, his work was
Date of the universall}'^ knoAvn as the "Hebrew,"

" Yosip- or the "smaller, Josephus" as con-
pon." trasted with the work now commonly
known under the name of Josephus
and written in Greek. It is generally held that the
work was composed by a Jew living in southern
Italy. Scaliger and Zunz believed that he lived in
the middle of the ninth century; but Zunz later
modified his view, placing the date at 940. The
Mohammedan writer Ibn Hazm (d. 1063) was ac-
quainted with the Arabic translation of the " Yosip-
pon " made by a Yemen Jew, and Chwolson believes

therefore that the author of the " Yosippon " lived at
the beginning of the ninth century. No Jewish
author mentions this chronicle before Dunash ibn
Tamim (10th cent.), and even the passage in Dunash
supposed to refer to the " Yosippon " does not cer-
tainly do so. Trieber holds the singular view that
the author lived in the fourth century.

Commencing with Adam and the geographical
conditions of the first millennium, the author passes
to the legendary history of Rome and Babylon, to
the accounts of Daniel, Zcrubbabel (according to the
Aiiocrypha), the Second Temple, and Cyrus, and to
the histories of Alexander the Great and his suc-
cessors. He then gives the history of the Jews
down to the destruction of the Temple. The last
part contains, among other things, a brief history of
Hannibal and an account of the coronation of an
emperor, which, according to Basnage("Histoiredes
Juifs," vii. 89, Paris, 1710), refers to that of Otto the
Great (crowned 962) ; this Avould be the only and a
most valuable source of information concerning this
event. If Basnage's conjecture is correct, the date
of the composition of the " Yosippon " may be placed
at the end of the tenth century. The " Yosippon "
is written in comparatively pure Biblical Hebrew,
shows a predilection for certain Biblical phrases and
archaisms, and is rich in poetical passages and in
maxims and philosophical speculations.

By the Jews of the Middle Ages the " Yosippon "
was much read and was highly respected as a his-
torical source. Scaliger in his " Eleuchus Trihoeresii
Nicolai Serarii " was the first to doubt its worth ;
Jan Drusius (d. 1609) held it to be historically val-
ueless on account of its many chronological mis-
takes; Zunz and Delitzsch have branded the author
as an impostor. In fact, both the manuscripts and
printed editions are full of historical errors, miscon-
ceptions of its sources, and extravagant outbursts
of vanity on the part of the author. But there is
scarcely any book in Jewish literature that has under-
gone more changes at the hands of copj'ists and com-
pilers; JudahMosconi knew ofno less than four differ-
ent compilations or abridgments. The later printed
editions are one-third larger than the editio princeps
of Mantua.

It was perhaps due to Jerahmeel ben Solomon
that the work leceived its traditional title "Yosip-
pon." He supplemented his copy from Josephus,
whom he designates as "the great Joseph," or, ac-
cording to a gloss, " the Gentile Joseph " (JID'DV
DnVU^CJ': WoltV'Bibl. Hebr." i. 521 ; Neubauer, "M.
J. C." i. 20); a copyist, however, considered the He-
brew work (n^yn }1D^DV)from which he copied to be
an abridged Josephus ("lU'D pCDV). The original
title of the work, according to Trieber, was probably
"History of Jerusalem " (as in ed. Mantua, p. 133a),
or, as a manuscript suggests, " History and Wars of
the Jews." It is quoted in the Hebrew-Persian
dictionary of Solomon ben Samuel (14th cent.), im-
der the title " History of the Second Temple " (n^T
'JIJ* n''2 D^D^n ; see Bacher in Stade's "Zeitschrift,"
xvi. 242; zVf^m in "R. E. J." xxxvii. 143 et seq.;
Frilnkelin "Monatsschrift," xliii. 523).

Sebastian Miinster's edition (Basel, 1541) omits as
not genuine the legendary introduction (ch. i.-iii.)
with its genealogical list (which addition, however,

Joseph ben Gorion
Joseph Hazzau

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

260

was made as early as the twelfth century ; see Abra-
ham ibn Ezra on Psalm ex. 5 ; David Kimhl, " Safer
ha-Shorashim," s.v. •jK'O), and also ch.
Literary Ixvii. to the end, narrating the expe-
Criticism. dition of Vespasian and Titus against
of the Jerusalem. Azariah dei Rossi also
Work. recognized that the Alexander romance
of Pseudokallisthenes in a Hebrew
translation had been smuggled into the first edition ;
and, following David Kimhi, Rapoport showed that
the last chapter belonged to Abraham ibn Daud(see
Kimhi on Zech. xi. 14; also."Sefer ha-Shorashim,"
».». ^3n). Zunz has shown many other portions of
the work to be Spanish additions, made in the
twelfth century. Almost the whole account of Al-
exander and his successors has been proved by
Trieber to be of later origin. According to that
critic, the part of the work original with its author
ended with ch. Iv. (the dedication of Herod's Tem-
ple), more or less of the remainder being taken from
Hegesippus, and perhaps added as early as the fifth
century. This would explain the numerous contra-
dictious and style-differences between these two
parts. There remains, as the nucleus of the whole
chronicle, a history of the Second Temple, beginning
with the apocryphal stories concerning Daniel, Ze-
rubbabel, etc., and finishing with the restoration of
the Temple under Herod. A copyist of Hegesip-
pus, however, identified the "Joseph ben Gorion"
(Josephum Gorione Genitum), a prefect of Jerusa-
lem, mentioned in iii. 3, 2 et seq., with the historian
Josephus ben Mattithiah, at this time governor of
the troops in Galilee. This may account for the fact
that the chronicle was ascribed to Joseph b. Gorion.
Wellhausen, agreeing with Trieber, denies that the
genuine part has any historical value whatever.
Trieber contends that the author did not draw his
information directly from Josephus or from the Sec-
ond Book of Maccabees, as is usually believed, and
as Wellhau.sen still maintains. He believes that
both II Maccabees and the " Yosippon " used the
work of Jason of Cyrene, and Josephus and the
"Yosippon" that of Nicholas of Damascus. A
study of the '' Yosippon " would reveal the manner
in which Josephus and II Maccabees used their
sources. Apart from the Chronicle of Panodorus,
which was largely used by the interpolators, the
work in its original, as well as in its later form,
stjems to have been influenced by other sources,
hitherto unascertained. Further light may in the
future be thrown upon the subject by a more ex-
tended criticism of the text.

Editions : (1) The first edition of the " Yosippon " was pub-
lished In Mantua by Abraham Conat (1476-79), who also wrote a
preface to It. Other editions are: (2) Constantinople, 1.510;
arranged and enlarged, with a preface by Tam ibn Yahya ben
David. It is borrowed to a great extent from that of' Judah
Leon ben Moses Mosconi (b. 1328), published in "Ozar Tob,"
1878, 1. 017 et seq. (see Berliner's "Magazin," 1876. p.'l.53).
The text in this edition is divided into ninety-seven chapters.
(3) Basel, 1.541 ; with a Latin preface, and a translation from the
text of the editio princeps, by Sebastian Miinster. The edition,
however, contains only chapters iv. to Ixiii.; the remaining
chapters have been translated into Latin by David Kyberus
(" Hlstoria Belli Judalci," In De la Bigne's "Bibliotheca Pa-
tronl," Paris). (4) Venice. 1.544 ; reprinted from the Constanti-
nople edition, as were all the following editions. (5) Cracow.
1.588 and 1599. (6) Frankfort-cm-the-Main. 1689. (7) Gotha"
1707 and 1710 ; with Miinster's preface and a Latin translation

and notes by Friedrich Breithaupt. Other editions appeared at
Amsterdam (1723), Prague (1784), Warsaw (1845 and 1871). Jit-
omir (1851), and Lemberg (1855; see Steinschneider, "Hebr.
Bibl." xi. 62).

.Translations and Compilations : A Judaeo-German trans-
lation, with excellent illustrations, was published by Michael
Adam (Zurich, 1546; Prague, 1607; Amsterdam, 1661) ; it was
later revised by Menahem ben Solomon ha-Levi, and published
under the title "Keter Torah" (Amsterdam, 1743). Another
Latin translation, with Tarn ibn Yahya's preface, was published
by Joseph Gagnier (Oxford, 1706) ; a French translation of Ky-
berus' Latin supplement by F. de Belleforest was published in
Genebrard's French translation of Fl. Josephus (Paris, 1609).
The oldest extant abstract was made in southern Italy, about
1150, by Jerahmeel ben Solomon (see the fragments published by
Neubauer— "M. J. C." 1. 190; "J. Q.R." xi. 364— and the trans-
lation of a portion by M. Gaster— " The Chronicles of Jerah-
meel," London, 1899). Another abstract, made in 1161 by Abra-
ham ibn Daud and used as the third book of his " Sefer Seder
ha-Kabbalah," was published (Mantua, 1513; Venice, 1545;
Basel, 1580, etc.), with Munster's Latin translation, at Worms
(1529) and Basel (1559). An English translation of this abstract
was made by Peter Morvyn (London, 1558, 1561, 1575, 1608). A
Judaso-German compendium by Edel bat Moses was published
in Cracow in 1670; the oldest German extract, under the title
" Joseppi Jiidische Historien " (author not known) is described
in Wolf, " Bibl. Hebr." (in. 389). Some short extracts, in
German, are given in Zedner, "Auswahl aus Hebraischen
Schriftstellem " (pp. 16 cf seq.), and in Winter and Wiinsche,
" Die Jiidische Litteratur " (iii. 310 et seq.). For the Arabic and
Yemenite translations, in which the author is called " Yusuf
ibn Karyun," see Zechariah ibn Said.

Bibliography : Buber, Midrasli Lekah Tab, Introduction, p.
xxiia; Carmoly, in Jost's A.mialen, i. 149; Chwolson, in the
Meki^e Nirdamim Sammelband, 1897, p. 5 ; Franz Delitzsch,
Zur Gesch. der JUdischen Poesie, pp. 39 et seq.; Dukes,
Ehreim'iulen, p. 7: Frankel, in Z. D. M. G. 1. 418 etseq.;
Gratz, Gesch. v. 235, 295 ; Gudemann, Gesch. ii. 41 ; David de
Gunzbourg, in R. E. J. xxxi. 283 et seq.; Harkavy. Skuza-
iiiya Yei^eiskihh Pisatelei o Khozarakh de, St. Petersburg,
1874; D. Kaufmann, in J. Q. R. iii. 512, note; P. H. Kiilb,
in Ersch and Gruber, Encyc. section ii., part 23, p. 134 ; I.
Levi, in R. E. J. xxviii. 147 et seq.; I. B. Levinsohn. Bet Yc-
hudah, p. 156, Warsaw, 1878; Lilienblum, in Ha-Meliz, xx.
366 : J. Q. R. xi. 355 et seq.; Azariah dei Rossi. Me'or 'Ena-
yim, p. 866, Mantua, 1574 ; Rapoport, Saadia Gaon, note 39;
idem, Kalir, p. 102, note 7, and Supplement, p. 13 ; idem,
Natan hen Yehiel, p. 44; idem, in Farhnn's Anich, p. x.;
De Rossi, Ann'ales Hebrceo-Typographici, pp. 114 et seq.,
Parma, 1795; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 77,835;
idem. Cat. Bodl. col. 1547 et seq.; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 898 ;
idem, Hebr. Bibl. ix. 18 et seq.; idem, LUe Gesclnchtslittera-
tur der Juden, pp. 28 etseq.; idem, in .7. Q. R. xvi. 393;
Trieber, in Nachrichtender Ki'migUchcn Gesellschaft der
Wisseiischaften zii GOttingen, 1895. pp. 381 et seq.; F. Vogel,
De Hegesippo Qui Dicitur Josephi Interprete, Erlangen,
1881; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, 1.
185 et seq.; Weiss, Dor, iv. 224, note 5; Winter and Wiin-
sche, Die Jiidische Litteratur, iii. 292 et seq.; J. Wellhau-
sen, Der ArabischeJosippus, in Abhandlunqcn der K6nig-
lichen Gesellschaft der Wisse7ischaft zu G6ttingen, vol.
i.. Berlin, 1897 ; Zunz, Zcitschrift filr die Wissenschaft des
Judenthums, pp. 304 et seq.; idem, G. V. pp. 1.54 ci seq.;
idem, Z. G. p. 62, passim ; idem. In Benjamin of Tudela's
Itinerary, ed. Asher, ii. 246.
G. M. So.

JOSEPH IBN HASAN : Arabic author of the

fifteentli century or earlier. In 1467 he wrote " Muh-

sinal-Adab," on culture, in fifty kasidahs. It was

adapted from the " Sefer ha-Musar " of Isaac ibn

Crispin, according to Steinschneider (Neubauer,

"Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 1220, 4).

Bibliography : Steinschneider, Die Arabische Literatur, p.
203.

M. So.

JOSEPH HAZZAN BEN JUDAH OF
TROYES : French Talmudist and hazzan ; flour-
ished at Troyes about the middle of the thirteenth
century. From quotations in "Minhat Yehudah"
(pp. lb, 19b, 24a, 28a, 38a) it is known that he wrote
a commentary on Ecclesiastes and a grammar, " Sefer
Yedidot." In a Pentateuch manuscript (Neubauer,
" Cat. Bodl." No. 25) are contained a few of his Mas-
oretic notes. He wrote also a treatise on the calen-

213 r:^" rJil^" omSot *ji:::3 ^'^''.,
y^T ^s •o^2'i7)zny^ "S^i Ti^-* h^n

f^ TiVT'i n-'rp'iiS 'i^iT tjrs'513
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3*rs 023^0M'ii^^ '•Tr;^c'2S?i

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T^rvj?l r;ji 3r? -^rr'-.^rc 'i "n

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pis-iji :mpS "^S r^ i%wS iTxn

Page from the First EniTioN ok the " Yosippox," Mantua, 1475-80.

(Id the Library uf Columbia University, New York.)

-- _i

Joseph, Henry
Joseph ben Isaac

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

262

dar (Halberstam MS. No. 321). Anotlier, similar

treatise on tlie calendar, uuder tlie title " Mozne Ze-

dek " (Hamburg MS. No. 246), written by a " gaon of

Troyes," may perhaps also be ascribed to Josepli.

Zunz furthermore ascribes to him the anonymous

grammar DnB' (so the title is given; probably an

error for D'£i'"lk^ orDriEJ'; comp. "Minhat Yehudah,"

p. 23b).

Bibliography : Zunz, Z. G. pp. 84, 112 ; Steinschneider, Ilchr.
BibJ. xviii. 67; idem, in Berliner's Maijazin, xii. 213; idPin,
Cat. der Hebrai)<chcn HnniU'chriftenin Hamhuro, p. 125,
note; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 231.
s. s. A. Pe.

JOSEPH, HENRY SAMUEL: English con-
vert to Christianity ; born in 1801 ; died at Strasburg,
Alsace, Jan. 28, 1864. At first a preacher in the
synagogue at Bedford, he became converted to
Christianity and was ordained in 1839 as a literate in
the Church of England, and afterward he became
traveling secretary to the London Society for Pro-
moting Christianity Among the Jews. From 1847 to
1856 he acted as chaplain to Chester Castle.

Joseph was the autlior of "Reasons for Embra-
cing Christianity " (1834) and " Memoirs of Convicted
Prisoners " (Chester, 1853).

Bibliography: De le Roi, Judeti-.l/i.wio/i, 2d ed., ii. "1; F.
Boase, Modern Englisli BiDoraphy, s.v.
J. G. L.

JOSEPH BAR HIYYA : Gaon of Pumbedita
from 828 to 833. In the controversy between Daniel
and the exilarch David ben Judah, the gaon Abra-
ham ben Sherira seems to have been deposed by one
party and Joseph bar Hiy3'a, the "ab bet din," ap-
pointed gaon of Pumbedita. Abraham, however,
by means of influential friends, regained his posi-
tion, and Joseph was compelled to recognize Abra-
ham's authority. Both nevertheless continued as
geonim of the same school until, on the occasion of
an annual meeting at Bagdad in the synagogue of
Bar Nasla, Joseph, moved by the weeping of the
congregation because of the dissensions between the
beads of the school, rose and declared : " I herewith
voluntarily renounce the office of gaon and resume
that of ab bet din." Thereupon Abraham rose and
blessed liim, saying: "May God give you a share in
the world to come." After Abraham's death (828)
Joseph bar Hiyya became his legal successor and
retained the office until his death in 833 (Letter
of Sherira, in Neubauer, "M. J. C." i. 38). See
Gaon.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. v. 197; Halevy, Dorot ha-Ri-
shonim, iti. ch. 21 ; Weiss, Dor, iv. 28.
8. S. M. Sc.

JOSEPH BEN IBRAHIM IBN WAKAR.

See Ibx W.\k.\k, Joseph ben Abraham.

JOSEPH BEN ISAAC BEEOR SHOR OF
ORLEANS : French tosafist, exegete, and poet ;
flourished in the second half of the twelfth century ;
pupil of Jacob Tarn, Joseph Caro, and Samuel ben
Meir (RaSHBaM). Tlie identity of Joseph Bekor
Slior and the tosafist Joseph ben Isaac of Orleans
has been sufficiently demonstrated by Gro.ss, who
showed that the .same explanations given in the Tosa-
fot (Hul. 112b; Yeb. 25b, 36b) in the name of Jo-
seph ben Isaac, are quoted in the " Semak" (No.
205) and in Meir of Rothenburg's Responsa (ed.
Prague, No. 863) as those of Joseph Bekor Shor.

Joseph was on veiy friendly terms with his teacher
Jacob Tam, with whom he carried on a learned cor-
respondence (''Sefer lia-Yashar," p. 71a). Besides
tosafot on the greater part of the Talmud, he wrote
a Biblical commentary marked by considerable acu-
men. Even more than Rashi, to whose exegetical
school he belonged, he confined himself to literal in-
terpretations (" peshat "). Anticipating later Biblical
criticism, he assumed the presence of duplicate nar-
ratives in the Bible ; and he strove to give rational
explanations to the miraculous stories. Thus he in-
terprets "tree of life " (Gen. ii. 9) as "tree of heal-
ing," explaining that the fruit of the tree possessed
the virtue of healing the sick, without, however,
bestowing eternal life. In regard to the transfor-
mation of Lot's wife into a pillar of salt (Gen. xix.
26) he explains that, disbelieving in the destruction
of Sodom and Gomorrah, she lingered on the road,
and was overtaken by the rain of brimstone and tire,
which are usually mixed Avith salt.

Well acquainted with the Vulgate and Christian
Biblical exegesis, Jo.seph, in commenting on Psalm
ii., cites Jerome, whose explanation of the word ~i2
he criticizes. His commentar}^ on the Pentateuch is
still extant in manuscript in the libraries of Le}'den
and Munich. Part of it, on Genesis and Exodus,
was published by Jellinek (Leipsic, 1855). Ex-
tracts from the remaining books were published by
Berliner in " Peletat Soferim " (1872).

Joseph was the author also of a number of litur-
gical poems. Besides the short hymns in the style
of Ibn Ezra with which he concludes each section of
the commentary, he wrote the following selihot:
'\-\2li''' ''yV T^a "I. believed by Zunz to have been
written on the martyrs of Bloisand Bray ; npJlD JITK
"lyiD (fourteen strophes); n!?'^yn 3T |nN (with two
refrains— aK'ni and 3'1E^'1) : "lyn n ]):2b px (fifteen
strophes, ending with mn'^Dni D"'On-in irn^K H^) ;
"'jnXI D"'nf3Nn ""hSn ha (fourteen strophes); n^n^sX
"inatr |"IDOD (twenty-six strophes).

Bibliography : Carmoly, in Univers Israelite, 18.52, p. 36.5 ; Gei-
ger, Parschandath a, pp. 37 et seq.; Zunz, Literaturge)<ch.
pp. 282, 2a5; idem. Z. G. p. 74; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.
col. 1146; Zadoc Kahn, in R. E. J. iii. 6; Gross, in Berliner's
Magazin, i. 93; idem, Gallia Judaica, p. 34.

K. L Br.

JOSEPH B. ISAAC OF CHINON : French
tosafist; lived in the second half of the twelfth and
at the beginning of the thirteenth century. He is
mentioned as a prominent Talmudist in "Ha-Te-
rumah " (ed. Zolkiev, No. 44) and in " Rokeah "
(ed. Lemberg, p. 475). He is quoted in the Tosafot un-
der the name of " Joseph " (' Ab. Zarah 67b). Joseph
corresponded with the somewhat younger Judah Sir
Leon of Paris. Some of his Talmudic decisions are
quoted in "OrZarua'" (ed. Jltomir, ii. 115a, 116a;
ed. Jerusalem, 111) to B. B. 34. Tlie last-cited de-
cision, which is also included in the responsa of
INIeir of Rothenburg, is addressed to Isaac b. Samuel
of Darapierre, or Isaac the Elder.

Bibliography: Zunz, Z. G. p. 52; Gross, Gallia Judaica,
p. 578.

s. s. A. Pe.

JOSEPH BEN ISAAC HA-LEVI : Lithua-
nian philosopher of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. He was well versed in philosophical

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P4.GK KROM THE First Edition of thk JLn.«o-(iERMAN "Vosippon," Zirich, 1546.

(From th<? Sulzberger collection m the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.)

Joseph [srael
Joseph ben Johanan

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

264

works, autl when in Prague was asked by Yom-
Tob Lipman Heller to explain to him the "Moreh
Nebukim." He then wrote "Gib'at ha-Moreh,"
containing criticisms on the "Moreli," published
with annotations by Yom-Tob Lipman Heller,
Prague, 1611. The work is divided into three parts :
the first criticizing Maimonides' proofs of tlie exist-
ence of God; the second, on the negation of anthro-
pomorphisms ; and the third, on ilaimonides' proofs
of the unity of God. It is quoted by Joseph Del-
medigo in his "Miktab Ahuz," and was approved
by Ephraim Lentschutz, Isaac Katz, and Mordecai
Jafife. In another work, entitled " Ketonet Passim "
{ib. 1614), Joseph expounded the principles con-
tained in the "Moreh."

BiBLiOGR.iPHY: S. Sachs, in Zifiyon, ii. 78; Zunz, Z. G. p. 288.
No. 141 ; Steinschneider, Cat- Bodl. col. 1473 ; Furst, Bibl.
Jud. li. 115.
K. I. Br.

JOSEPH ISRAEL. See Jacob ben Joseph

ISR.\EL.

JOSEPH, JACOB: Russian-American rabbi;
born at Krozhe, government of Kovno, Russia,
1848; died at New York July 28, 1903. He studied
in the yeshibah at Volozhin under Hirsch Leib Ber-
lin and Israel Salanter, and his aptness as a student
won him the title "harif" (= "sharp-witted"). He
became successively rabbi of Vilon (1868), Yurburg
(1870), and Zhagory, Kovno, and his fame as a
preacher spread, so that in 1883 the community of
Wilna selected him as its " maggid " (preacher).

In response to a call from a number of congrega-
tions in New York Joseph emigrated to the United
States, and on July 8, 1888, was chosen chief rabbi
of the Russian Orthodox communities of New York.
His funeral (July 30, 1902), which was attended by
more than 50,000 Jews, was marked by a public dis-
turbance in which a number of persons were in-
jured. He published "Le-Bet Ya'akob " (Wilna,
1888), a collection of homilies and novelise.

Bibliography : Eisenstadt, Hakme Yisrael he-Ameriku, pp.
56, 57, New York. 1903; The Jewish Journal, Aug. 1. 1902;
Netv York Times and New York Herald, July 29 and 31,
1902: Der Jnde, Cracow, pp. 9, 10, Aug. 21, 1902: Interna-
tional Yearbook, New York, 1902; American Review of
Reviews, Aug., 1902.

A. L G. D.

JOSEPH BEN JACOB (known also as Bar
Satya [X'OD]): Gaon of Sura about 930-936 and
942-948. He was chosen by the exilarch David ben
Zakkai to fill the place of Saadia (c. 930) when the
latter was deposed. In 936, however, when the
exilarch became reconciled to Saadia, Joseph was
deprived of his position, though the income attached
to it continued to be paid to him. After Saadia's
death (942) Joseph was reappointed gaon, which
office he held until 948, %vhen, on account of the
impoverishment and general, decadence of the Acad-
emy of Sura, he left for Bassora, where he died.
See Gaon.

Bibliography: Abraham Ibn Dand, in M. J. C. 1. &5 66-
letter of ShPrira Gaon. ih. i. 40; comp. ih. ii. 81-83; Gratz!
Gesch. V. 2tiO, 277 et acq.; Weiss, Dor, iv. 158-1.59.

f- M. Sc.

JOSEPH B. JACOB ISAAC : Rabbi at Yam-
pol, Russia, later at Zamoscz; died in 1807. He
was the author of "Mishnat Hakamim," on various
subjects, including Maimonides' "Aladda"' (Lem-

berg, 1792). Appended to the book are some no-
velise by his son Isaac, rabbi of Chelm. He refers
also to his son's responsa on the laws of Sabbath
and festivals, entitled "Otot le-Mo'adim."

Bibliography: Kisenstadt-Wiener, Da'at Kedoshim, pp. 69-
70 ; Fuenn, Kcneset Yisrael, p. 469.
s. s. N. T. L.

JOSEPH BEN JACOB OF PINCZOW :

Lithuanian Talmudist of the seventeenth century.
He was a pupil of Zebi Hirsch, rabbi in Lublin. In
1687 he was rabbi at Kosowi, Russia, whence he
was called to Syeltzy. In 1702, compelled to leave
Syeltzy on account of the persecution of the Jews
under the temporary rule of the Swedes, he went to
Hamburg, where he remained until 1706. He re-
turned to Syeltzy in that year, but in 1710 was
compelled again to leave it by the outbreak of an
epidemic. This time he went to Berlin, where he
published his "Rosh Yosef," notes on various Tal-
mudic treatises.

Bibliography : Fuenn, Kiryah Ne'emnnah, p. 96.
s. s. A. Pe.

JOSEPH BEN JACOB IBN ZADDIK (Ara-
bic, Abu Omar)^: Spanish rabbi, poet, and philos-
opher; died at Cordova 1149. A Talmudist of
high repute, he was appointed in 1138 dayyan at
Cordova, which office he held conjointly with Mai-
mon, father of Maimonides, until his death. Joseph
was also a highly gifted poet, as is attested by Al-
Harizi (Kilmpf, "Nichtandalusische Poesie," i. 13).
Several of Joseph's religious poems are found in the
Sephardic and African mahzorim ; and a poem ad-
dressed to Judah ha-Levi, on his visit to Cordova en
route to Palestine, is included in the latter's diwan.

Joseph's reputation rests, however, not on his
rabbinical knowledge or his poetical abilities, but
on his activity in the field of religious philosophj\
In a short treatise written in Arabic (the title being
probably "Al-'Alam al-Saghir ") and, according to
Steinschneider, translated by Nahum ha-Ma'arabi
into Hebrew under the title "'01am Katan," he
expounds his views on the most important prob-
lems of theoJogy. Though not an original thinker
he shows himself to be thoroughly familiar with
the philosophical and scientific literature of the
Arabs, and imposes the stamp of his own indi-
viduality on the subjects treated. The "'01am
Katan " comprises four main divisions,
His Micro- subdivided into sections. After sta-

costnus. ting the elementary and primary prin-
ciples of the knowledge of God, the
acquisition of which is the highest duty of man, and
explaining how the human soul builds up its con-
ception of things, Joseph treats, in the manner of
the Arabic Aristotelians, of matter and form, of
substance and accident, and of the composition of
the various parts of the world. He concludes the
first division with the central idea from which tlie
book is evolved, namely, the comparison between
the outer world (macrocosm) and man (microcosm),
already hinted at by Plato ("Timaeus," 47b), and
greatly developed by the Arabian encyclopedists
known as "the Brethren of Sincerity," by whom Jo-
seph was greatly influen'^ed.

Conceptions of the higher verities are to be at-
tained by man through the study of himself. Avho

265

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph Israel
Joseph ben Johanan

sums up in his own being the outer world. Joseph
therefore devotes the second division of his work to
the study of physical and psychological man. There
is nothing in the world, he holds, that does not hud
a parallel in man. In liim are found the four ele-
ments and their characteristics; for he passes from
heat to cold, from moisture to dryness. He partici-
pates in the nature of minerals, vegetables, and ani-
mals: he comes into being and passes out of being
like the minerals; nourishes and reproduces himself
like the plants; has feeling and life like the animals.
Further, he presents analogies to the characteris-
tics of things: his erect figure resembles that of the
terebinth ; his hair, grass and vegetation ; his veins
and arteries, rivers and canals; and his bones, the
mountains. Indeed, he possesses the characteristics
of the animals: he is brave like a lion, timid like a
hare, patient like a lamb, and cunning like a fox.

From the physical, Joseph passes on to deal with
the psychical man. iSIan, he says, is made up of
three souls, vegetative, animal, and rational. Of
these the rational soul is the highest in quality : it
is of a spiritual substance; and its accidents are
equally spiritual, as, for instance, conception, jus-
tice, benevolence, etc. Imbecility, injustice, malice,
etc., are not accidents, but are negations of the ac-
cidents of conception, justice, and benevolence.
Thus from the knowledge of his physical being
man derives his conception of the material world ;
from that of his soul he acquires his conception of
the spiritual world ; and both of them lead to the
cognizance of the Creator.

The third division deals with the doctrine of God,
the divine attributes, and similar theological prob-
lems. Like Saadia and Bahya, though

His The- more precisely and more systematic -

ological ally, Joseph proves the creation of the

Views. world (and consequently the existence
of a Creator) from its finiteness. He
■iriticizes the theory of the Motekallamin (as ex-
•jiouuded in the "Mahkimat Peti " of Joseph ha-
Ro'eh), who assert that the world was produced by
the created will of God. For him the will of God
has existed from all eternity, and can not be sepa-
rated from the essence of God. He claims that cre-
ation is timeless, and that before the production of
the spheres time did not exist.

From the notion of the existence of God results the
conception of the uniqueness of God; for the sup-
position of a plurality in His essence would nullify
the notion of His existence. What the unit is to
other numbers — forming and embracing them, yet
still differing from them in essence — God is to the
created beings. With the doctrine of the unity of
God is connected the doctrine of the divine attri-
butes. Here Joseph is in advance of his predeces-
sors Saadia and Bahya; and, like Maimonides, he
concludes that no positive attributes, whether essen-
tial or iinessential, can be posited of God, who is
indefinable.

The fourth division deals with the duties of man.
reward and punishment, and resurrection. Man
must serve God with all his heart, and carry out all
His precepts, though, owing to the weakness of his
intellect, he may not grasp the reason for sohie of
them. With Plato, Joseph says that man ought to

know three things: (1) that there is a Creator who
protects all and disposes of everything; (2) that
nothing can be hidden from God ; (3) that man can
not win the favor of God by sacrifices, but must
gain it by good deeds. Joseph asserts man's free
will, without which there could be no reward or

punishment (see Free Will); and he
His Ethics, follows Saadia in the solution of the

problem of God's prescience. The in-
equality in the distribution of worldly goods, the
transitoriness of the world, the relativeness of
the happiness procured by worldly goods, are for
Joseph so many proofs that reward and punishment
can take place only in the next world. He argues
against the doctrine of bodily resurrection in the
Messianic time. Though not himself a Motazilite,
Joseph accepted a number of Motazilite theories
and views (Schreiner, " Der Kalam," p. 27).

The " '01am Katan " was little studied in the Mid-
dle Ages, and is very rarely quoted. Although
paying a high tribute to Joseph's learning, Maimon-
ides, in his letter addressed to Samuel ibn Tibbon
("Pe'er ha-Dor," p. 28b), acknowledges that he has
never seen the work, in which, he believes, are ex-
pounded the teachings of " the Brethren of Sincer-
ity." The " '01am Katan " is cited by David Kimhi,
Jedaiah Bedersi, Meir ibn Aldabi, Isaac ibn Latif,
and by the author of "Ma'amar Haskel." It was
edited for the first time by A. Jellinek at Leipsic in
1854. A critical edition was published by S. Horo-
vitz in the " Jahresbericht des Jud.-Theol. Se-
minars," Breslau, 1903. Joseph was the author also
of an Arabic work on logic, entitled "Al-'Uyun
wal-Mudhakarat," quoted in the "'01am Katan."

Bibliography: Abraham ibn Daud, Sefer Jia-Kabbalah, ed.
Amsterdam, p. 47b ; Zacuto, Sefer ha-Yuhasin, ed. FilipowSkl,
p. 230; Orient, Lit. ix. 283; .Jellinek, inKerem Hemed, viii.
93 ; Beer, Ph ilosophie und Ph ilnsoph ische Schjiftstellerder
Juden, p. 70; idem, in Monatsschrift, iii. 159 et seq.; Zunz,
Literaturgesch. p. 216; Sachs. ReliQiGse Poesie der Juden
in Spa/nen, p. 289; Leopold Weinberg, Der yiikrokn$mos,
Breslau, 1888; K?iutm-dxm. Attribiitenlehre, pp. 2.55 et seq.;
Eisler, in Centralhlatt, vi. 153; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers.
p. 997; idem. Die Ai-abische Literatur der Juden. §102;
Max Doctor, Die Philosophie der Joseph [ibn] Zaddik,
Miinster, 1895.

G. L Br.

JOSEPH BEN JOHANAN : French rabbi of
the fourteenth century. He was a native of Treves
(C^''V"lt3, read by Carmoly "Troyes"), and seems to
have been the first to adopt "Treves " as a family
name. He is called also " the Great " (" ha-Gadol "),
owing to his erudition. He emigrated to France in
1306, and in 1343 he was rabbi of Marseilles, where
he was prominent in a decision concerning the mar-
riage law (Isaac de Lattes, Responsa, ed. Vienna,
p. 88). Isaac b. Sheshet (Responsa, Nos. 271-272)
speaks of Joseph as " the ornament of the wise men,
the crown of the ancients."

Joseph's wife, also, was very learned in the Tal-
mud ; and a decision by her has been preserved by
Simeon b. Zemah Duran (Responsa, iii., No. 78). In
1363, when as a widow she was living in Paris,
where her son Mattithiah was rabbi, she was excused
from wearing the .Jewish badge ("Ordonnances des
Bois de France," v. 498).

Bibliography: Brull, Jahrb.i. 90-91: Carmoly, In ^rch. 7sr.
xvii. 262; Gross, GalUa Judaica, pp. 212, 38L
G. M. Sel.

josepn Den josnua
Joseph ben Judah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

266

JOSEPH B. JOSHUA B. LEVI: Amoia of
the third century; educated by his father (Shab.
68a; Ber. 8b; Yeb. 9a). He was the son-inlaw of
Judah ha-Nasi ; and tlierefore his father, Joshua b.
Levi, did him the honor to rise at his approach, in
order to show his (Joshua's) esteem for the house of
the patriarch (Kid. 33b).

Once Joseph was at the point of death, and fan-
cied he had a glimpse of the mysteries of the world
beyond. When he awoke from his vision he de-
clared he had seen the highest abased and the low-
est exalted, implying the existence of a world in
which men are judged according to standards far
different from earthly ones. There he had also
heard the greeting: " Blessed is the man who came
here with his Talmud [that is, with the proof of his
devotion to the study of the Torah] in his hands "

(Pes. 50a).

Bibliography: Bacher,^O.PaL /iHKir. ii. 105.

g J. Z. L.

JOSEPH BEN JOSHUA BEN MEIR HA-
KOHEN : Historian and physician of the sixteenth
century; born at Avignon Dec. 20, 1496; died at
Genoa in 1575 or shortly after. His family orig-
inally lived at Cuenca, then at Chuete, Spain ; Avhen
the Jews were expelled from Spain it settled at
Avignon. At the age of five Joseph left Avignon
with his father and went to Genoa, where tliey re-
mained until 1516; driven from that city, they went
to Novi, but returned to Genoa in 1538, where Jo-
seph practised medicine for twelve years. On June
3, 1550, he and all his coreligionists there were
driven from Genoa as a consequence of the rivalry
of the non-Jewish physicians. Joseph then set-
tled at Voltaggio, at the request of the citizens
of that small town, practising there down to 1567.
When the Jews were driven out of the territory of
Genoa, he went to Costeletto (Montferrat), where
he was very well received ; in 1571 he was again es-
tablished at Genoa, where he died.

Joseph ha-Kohen had three sons (Joshua, Isaac,
Judah) and two daughters. He was highly re-
garded, not only as historian and physician, but also
for the interest he took in all Jewisii matters. One
of his chief concerns was the release of the many
Jewish captives taken by the vessels of the Italian
republics and by the Corsairs; as in 1532, when
Andre Doria captured many Jews on taking Co-
ron, Patras, andZante; in 1535, when the emperor
Charles V. took Tunis; in 1542, when the galleys
of Cegala Visconti had imprisoned a number of
Jews.

In Hebrew literature Joseph ha-Kohen achieved
prominence by two great historical works. The first
of these, "Dibre ha-Yamim le-Malke Zarfat we-
'Otoman," is in the nature of a history of the
world, in the form of annals, in which he repre-
sents the sequence of events as a conflict between
Asia and Europe, between Islam and Christianity,
the protagonist for Islam being the mighty Turkish
empire, and for Chri-stianity, France. With these two
great groups he connects European history, begin-
ning with the downfall of the Roman empire. The
work was completed Nov., 1533, printed the next
year at Venice, and reprinted at Amsterdam in 1733;
parts were translated into German and French ; the

entire work was issued in English, but badly trans-
lated, by Bialloblotzky.

Joseph was a careful historian. He gathered his
facts from all possible sources, made notes, kept
registers, and conducted a wide correspondence. He
added continually to the first redaction of his works,
carefully dating each one. Of the " 'Emek " he
made, or caused to be made, at least nine copies ; of
the " Book of India," at least five. His work is val-
uable also on account of its brilliant narrative, ex-
cellent characterization, and fine Biblical style.
Having lived in Italy from his childhood and be-
come acquainted with persons prominent politically,
he is a valuable source for the history of his time;
concerning many events, he liad clo.sely examined
competent witnesses. He also mentions a number
of important facts ignored by other historians. He
is less happy in the treatment of ancient history,
for which he often was obliged to consult untrust-
worthy sources.

In writing his annals Joseph ha-Kohen at first in-
tended to devote a special work to the great Jewish
persecutions, with which he had become acquainted
through then unused sources, and accounts of which
he inserted in the annals. This idea he
His Jew- cprried out, drawing upon Samuel
ish Annals. Usque's "Consolapam as Tribulago-
ensde Ysrael" (1557), in his "'Emek
ha-Bakah,"in Avliich he dwells upon the sorrows and
sufferings the Jews endured in various countries in
the course of centuries. The book, which is a mar-
tyrology from beginning to end, closes with the
24th of Tammuz, 5335 (1575). The author's mod-
eration and self-control are admirable. He does not
make use either of the chronicle of Abraham ibn
Daud or of those written by any of the other Juda;o-
Spanish chroniclers. Variants to the printed text
will be found in "R. E. J." x. 248, xvi. 5.

Joseph ha-Kohen began this work in 1558, at
Voltaggio, and concluded it, in its initial form,
toward the end of 1563, the book circulating in Italy
in manuscript. It was finally carried by the author
down to 1575. M. Letteris has edited it with notes
(Vienna, 1852), and M. Wiener has issued a German
translation (Leipsic, 1858).

Joseph ben Joshua wrote also a Hebrew version,
with the title "Mekiz Nirdamim," of Meiir Algua-
dez's Spanish medical work giving prescriptions for
the healing of various diseases; to these prescrip-
tions he added some of his own (comp. Wolf, " Bibl.
Hebr." iv. 853 et seq.; Steinschneider, in Berliner's
"Magazin," x. 166; idem, "Hebr. Uebers." p. 775;
idetn, in "J. Q. R." xv. 137).

Less known is his work upon the New World
("Dibre ha-Yamim"). It contains a reference to
Columbus (whom, however, he confounds with Ame-
rigo) ; the-'work is very meager in its information
(Harrisse, in " Centralblatt fur Bibli-
Other othekswesen," 1888, p. 136). After
"Works. writing it he became acquainted with
Francisco Lopez de Gomara's "Histo-
ria General de las Indias " and Joan Boemus' " Om-
nium Gentium Mores Leges etRitus." From these, in
1557, he compiled his "Mazzib Gebulot 'Ammim "
(see Deut. xxxii. 6), a history of the conquest of
Mexico, to which he added a full account of the dis-

267

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph ben Joshua
Joseph ben Judah

covcrics of Columbus. A small work of a diltercnt
kind was his "Peles lia-Shemot." Avritteu in 1561,
containing an alphabetical list of llebri'w nouns,
Avith Scripture illustrations of their occurrence given
for the purpose of tixiug their gender — a matter iu
■which (us he says) " many writers in Hebrew erred."'
He also compiled, iu 1567, a book of polite foruudas
to be used iu addressing letters, and a large number
of verses, wiiicli are found, written in his own hand,
at the end of his works. A large number of letters,
evidently meant to serve as models, are found in the
J\ISS. Kabbinowicz, No. 129 (now in the library of
the Alliance Israelite Universelle at Paris); two-
thirds of these are by Joseph ha-Kohen ; they give
a good insight into his private life.

BiHMor.RAPHY : M. Letteris, introduction to the Hebr. edition
of 'Einck ha-Bakoh ; Wiener, introduction to tbe German
edition of the same work ; driitz, Gcuclt. 'M ed., ix. :321 cf «'</.;
esjiecially Isidore Loeb, Josef Hncco)icr et /<>' CJironhiiiciirs
JjoY.s, in li. E. J. xvi. :i^ et scq. (also published separately).
See' also 1{. Gottheil, Cnhiitibus ill. JcuUs}i Literature, in
Puhl. Am. Jew. Hid. :5'r)f. ii. I:i9 ct se(/.

E. N.— G.

JOSEPH BEN JUDAH IBN 'AKNIN (in
Arabic, Abu al-Hajjaj Yusuf ibn Yahya ibn
Sham'un al-Sabti [i.e., "of Ceuta'] al-Magh-
rabi) : Disciple of Moses ]Muimonides; born about
1160; died 1226. For the tirst twenty-five years of
Lis life he lived with his father, who was an artisan
at Ceuta in Maghreb. His youth fell iu the period
of the religious persecution of the Jews l)y the fa-
natic 'Abd al-Mu'min; and he had probably, like
Maimonides and other Jews, to abstain from publicly
practising any Jewish rite. He may have been
compelled to learn the Koran ; but he certainly was
instructed in the Bible and in Hebrew literature.
This contradiction between the outward appearance
and the inner conviction ceased as soon as circum-
stances permitted him to leave the coimtiy. He

must then have been about twenty -
Physician five years old, as he was already eu-
and Poet, gaged in the practise of medicine

(Munk, "Notice sur Joseph b. Jehu-
dah," in "Jour. Asiatiqtie," 1842, p. 14). When
not occupied with professional work he wrote He-
brew poems, which were known to Al-Harizi, and in
his "Tahkemoni" (xviii.) the latter speaks highly of
them. Maimonides, to whom Joseph sent Ids poems
together with other compositions from Alexandria,
was not so lavish with his praise. He appreciated
only the great longing for higher studies which
found expression in Joseph's poems.

To satisfy this longing Joseph went from Alex-
andria to Fustat (Cairo) and studied logic, mathe-
matics, and astronomy under Maimonides' direction.
Maimonides likewise expounded the writings of the
Prophets, because Joseph seemed perplexed as to the
possibility of reconciling the teachings of the Proph-
ets with the results of metaphysical research. Mai-
monides advised patience and systematic study ; but
the disciple left Fustat before Maimonides had com-
pleted his course of lectures on the Prophets (Mai-
monides, "Moreh Nebukim." Introduction). His
stay with Maimonidfs was short (Mimk, I.e. p. 34)
— less than two years. He went further east and
settled in Aleppo. Here he established himself as a
medical practitioner, married, and made a success-

ful commercial journey which enabled him to live
henceforth independently and free from care. It
was probably iu the course of this journey that he
witnessed at Bagdad the burning of the works of the
philosopher 'Abd al-Salam (1192).

After the dei)artureof Joseph from Fustat the in-
tercourse between master and di.sciple
Correspond- was continued in writing. Maimon-
ence with ides' "Moreh Nebukim" (Guide for
Maimon- the Perplexed) was writtei» for Joseph
ides. and for those like him who found

it dilHcult to harmonize the results
of philosophical research with the teachings of the
Prophets.

Joseph, however, was not convinced; for he writes
allegorically to his master as follows : " Thy daughter
Kimah [i.e., ISIaimonides' method of reconciling the-
ology and philosoph}' : the most difficult point in his
theory seems to have been the explanation of proph-
ecy], whom I loved and married according to law
and custom, in the presence of two witnesses, 'Abd
Allah and Ibn Kushd, turned her face from me to fol-
low other men. There must be .something wrong iu
her education. Restore the wife to lier husband, ' for
he is a prophet. ' '' Maimonides replies in the same
style, declaring the innocence of his daughter and
the guilt of the husband; and he advises his di.sciple
to have faith in God, and to be more modest and more
careful in his utterances lest he bring evil upon
himself.

Joseph reiuained, however, a true disciple of his
master. He abandoned his other pursuits and wished
to open a school. Maimonides dissuaded him from
the undertaking, unless he should do it without
seeking material profit from his teaching. When,
thirty years later, Al-Harizi visited Aleppo (1217)
he found Joseph in the zenith of his glory. He
praised him as the "Western light," and applied to
Inm the words of Scripture, "and Joseph was ruler
over the whole laud; he supplied food for all"
("Tahkemoni," xlvi., 1.). He must indeed have had
great authority when he defended his master and
silenced the opposition expressed by some rabbis in
Bagdad against the works of Maimonides. The lat-
ter, true to his character, exhorted Joseph to mod-
eration, begging him, being young iu years, not
to oppose an old rabbi whose authority was recog-
nized in the congregation (see "Birkat Abraham,"
Lyck, 1859; "Zikronot," ii. : a letter written by ^la\-
monidesiu 1192).

Joseph was twice married: by the first wife he
had two daughters; by the second, several sons.

His poems are all lost except one in praise of Mai-
monides (see Maimonides, "Kobez,"ed. A. Lichten-
berg, ii. 29, Leipsic, 1859), and the be-
His ginning of another preserved by Al-

Works. Harizi ("Tahkemoni," xviii.; Munk,
I.e. p. 49). He wrote also a treatise on
three problems: (1) the nature of the Absolute;
(2) the derivation of all things from the Absolute;
and (3) "creatio ex nihilo." Not satisfied with his
master's explanation, he subiuits to the consider-
ation of Maimonides a new solution of his own. The
treatise was written in Arabic, but it is known only
in the Hebrew translation published by M. Levy,
"Drei Abhandlungen," Berlin, 1879. Either this es-

Joseph ben Kalonyiuus
Joseph ben Xathau

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

268

say must have been wvitten before Maimonides wrote
the "Guide," or the "unsatisfactory explanations"
referred to are those given by Maimonides in that
work.

Ibn 'Aknin wrote also an allegorical commentary
on Canticles (Salfeld, "Hohelied." pp. 81-85, Berlin,
1879). Two of his writings on Talmudical subjects
are referred to by himself and are probably identical
with an introduction (edited by Gratz, Breslau,
1871), and a treatise on Talmudic weights and meas-
ures, extant in Hebrew translations. He wrote also
an ethical work entitled " Tabb al-Nuf us, " fragments
of which, in Arabic and Hebrew, have been pub-
lished by Giidemann in his "Das Jlidische Unter-
richtswesen," pp. 42 et seq. (Vienna, 1878). The iden-
tity of the author of "Tabb al-Nufus" with Ibn
'Aknin has been questioned.

Bibliography : In addition to Munk, as above, Steinschneider,
In Ersch and Gruber, Encyc. section ii., part 31, pp. 45 et xeq.:
Neubauer, in Monatsftchr-ift, 1870, pp. 348 et seq.; M. Fried-
lander, GMideo/fhePerp/exedo/Maimomcics, parti., note 1.

K. M. F.

JOSEPH BE*N KALONYMUS HA-NAK-

DAN : German Masorite and liturgical poet ; flour-
ished in the first half of the thirteenth century. He
was the author of a long acrostic poem on the ac-
cents, with a commentary. Joseph composed also
liturgical poems, among which were: D1"i02 "l^X
and JV7y "pKi, found in the French manuscript Mah-
zor of 1278; a dirge beginning with >222 ")"1C{< and
a selihah beginning with nmp DOn pyTX, on the
martyrs of Fulda.

Bibliography: Zunz, Literaturaesch. p. -335; idem, Z. G. p.
iil.; Landshuth, "Ammude ha^'Abodah, p. 95; Steinschnei-
der, Jewish Literature, p. 139.
G. I. Br.

JOSEPH KARA. See Kara, Joseph ben
Simeon.

JOSEPH, KING OF THE CHAZARS. See

Chazars.

JOSEPH (JOSE) B. KISMA : Tanna of the first
and second centuries; contemporary and senior of
Hananiah b. Teradion. He is never cited in connec-
tion with halakot, but some ethical and eschatolog-
ical sayings of his are preserved in the Talmud. He
prized association with scholars more than gold;
and when a rich man once offered him great wealth
as an inducement to follow him to a place where no
sages lived, he declined it : " If all the precious metals
of the world were offered me, I would not live but
in the atmosphere of the Torah ; as David has said,
' The Law of Thy mouth is better unto me than
thousands of gold and silver ' " (Ps. cxix. 72). Nev-
ertheless, when, in disregard of the Roman proliibi-
tion against teaching the Law, Hananiah b. Teradion
held public assemblies and taught, Jose endeavored
to dissuade him from pursuing that dangerous
course (see Hananiah b. Teradion). This came to
the ears of the Romans, and when Jose died the
foremost among them attended his funeral ('Ab.
Zarah 18a). On one occasion at the bet ha-midrash
of Tiberias, he witnessed a warm controversy be-
tween Jose b. Halafta and Eleazar b. Shammua', in
Avhich the debaters became so excited that they rent
a scroll between them; tliereupon he severely repri-
manded them, and predicted that the bet ha-midrash
eventually would be converted into a pagan temple.

It is said that his prediction was fulfilled (Yer.
Shek- ii. 47a). Asked by liis pupils " When will the
Messiah come?" he exacted from them a promise
not to call for signs to satisfy them of the accuracy
of his prediction before he answered tlieir question ;
and when they had promised, he replied: "When
this gate shall have twice fallen and been restored,
and fallen again, then, before it shall be restored
the third time, the Messiah will come." Before his
death he ordered that his coffin be placed deep in
the ground ; for, said he, "a time will come when to
every palm in Babylonia a Persian horse will be
tethered, and out of every coflnn in Palestine Median
horses will feed " (Sanh. 98a et seq.).

f he word " Kismah " is a locative noun, probably
identical w ith " Kesam," by which Targ. Yer. (Num.
xxxiv. 4) renders " Azmon." Neubauer (" G. T." p.
280) suggests its identity with "Kasmeya," name of
a place in Upper Galilee.

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 401; Gratz, Gesc?i. 2ded.,
iv. 174.

s. s. S. M.

JOSEPH HA-KOHEN. See Joseph ben

Joshua ben Meik ha-Koiien iia-Sefardi.

JOSEPH DE LAMEGO. See Capateiro,

Joseph.

JOSEPH (B. JACOB) OF MANDEVILLE

(MORELL) : French exegete; pupil of Abraham

ibn Ezra. He wrote a supercommentary on that

scholar's commentary on Exodus (Neubauer, "Cat.

Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 1234, 9). It is probable that

he is identical with the Joseph b. Jacob to whom

Abraham ibn Ezra dedicated his " Yesod Mora."

Bibliography: Gratz, Gesch. vi. 415; Jacobs, Jews of Ange-
vin England, pp. 29, 30, 263.

G. J.

JOSEPH BEN MEIR : Liturgical poet of the
thirteenth century ; perhaps uncle of Mei'r of Ro-
thenburg. He was the author of a dirge beginning
with the words 310 2ny tTtilJ Jimx, which is be-
lieved to have been written on the occasion of the
burning of the Talmud at Paris. It is possible that
Joseph is identical with Joseph ben Mei'r of Saulieu,
whom Me'i'r of Rothenburg cites as having been hi3
master (comp. Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 575).

Bibliography: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. iS2; Fuenn, Keneset
Yis7'ael, p. 482.
s. s. I. Br.

JOSEPH BEN MEIR TE'OMIM. See Te'o-

MiM, Joseph ben Mei'k.

JOSEPH BEN MORDECAI GERSHON
HA-KOHEN: Polish Talmudist; born at Cracow
1510; died 1591. He began his studies in the Tal-
mud at an early age, and became the head of a
yeshibah founded for him by his father-in-law. The
many pupils who attended this school soon made
him famous for his scholarship ; and his views on
religious questions were widely sought. Solomon
Luria was one of his correspondents.

Joseph was the author of "She'erit Yosef " (Cra-
cow, 1590), containing responsa and discussions on
various rabbinical subjects, as well as a commentary
on the "Mordekai," treating Nezikin, Berakot, and
Mo'ed. In the preface the author states that he
published this work at the request of his sons, Tan-
huma and Aaron Moses, who were members of the

269

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph ben Ealonymus

Joseph ben Nathan

Jewish community of Cracow. He also corrected
the manuscript from wliich was printed tlie " Aggu-
dah " of Alexander Suslin ba-Kohen of Frankfort.

BIDLIOGRAPHT : I. M. Zunz, 'Ir ha-Zedeh. p. 23, Lemberp,
1874; Rabinowitz, Ha'arot ice-Tihhutnm, p. 6, Lyck, 18. o;
Dembitzer, KelUat Yofi, p. 4b, Craoow, 1888; B. Friedberg,
Gexch. der Hebraischen Tupographie in Krakau, p. 8, ib.
1900.
B. 6. B. Fr.

JOSEPH BEN MORDECAI HA-KOHEN :

Turkish rabbi and liturgist ol the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries; born in Jerusalem. He was a

pupil of Moses Galante (the younger), whose " Zebah

ha-Shelamim" he brought to Amsterdam, where it

was printed in 1708. Joseph wrote "Dibre Yosef "

(Venice, 1751), a collection of homilies, and "Sha'are

Yerushalayim " {ib. 1707), hymns and songs to be

recited on the Week-days in praise of Jerusalem,

partly of his own composition and partly by otlier

authors.

Bibliography : Furst, BM. Jud. ii. 116 ; Steinscbneider, Cat.
Bod!, col. 1508. ,, ^

K. M. Sel.

JOSEPH B. MORDECAI TROKI. See

Troki, Joseph b. Mordecai.

JOSEPH, MORRIS : English rabbi ; born in
London May 28, 1848; educated at Jews' College in
that city. He was appointed rabbi of the North
London Synagogue in 1868, and in 1874 went to the
Old Hebrew Congregation of Liverpool, where he
officiated as preacher until 1882. He became dele-
gate senior minister of the West London Synagogue
in 1893, when Professor Marks retired from active
service. Joseph has published a collection of ser-
mons, "The Ideal in Judaism," London, 1893, and a
valuable popular work on Jewish theology, entitled
"Judaism as Creed and Life," ib. 1903. His posi-
tion is conservative, midway between Reform and
strict Orthodox.
Bibliography : Jewish Year Book, London, 1903.

JOSEPH (JOSLEIN) BEN MOSES: Bava-
rian Talmudist; born at Hochstadt about 1420;
died after 1488. A few details of Joseph's life are
known through his "Leket Yosher," of which only
one copy is extant in manuscript (Munich MSS.,
Nos. 404, 405). Having studied for five years under
Israel Isserlein, Joseph traveled to the Rhine prov-
inces, but returned to his teacher, whose decisions,
at the request of his fellow students, he committed
to manuscript, subject to Isserlein's corrections. In
1463, three years after Isserlein's death, Joseph be-
gan to arrange the material for publication, continu-
ing the task at Cremona (1474) and finishing it in
1488. It is arranged in the order of the lour Turim.
The work, besides its halakic value, is historically
interesting, containing as it does many passages
bearing on the lives of Isserlein and his students and
illustrating the manners and customs of rabbinical
academies in that period. Judah incorporated in
the " Leket Yosher " the decisions of a pupil of Sha-
lom of Austria, for which he was praised by Isser
lein; he included also some of the collectanea of Ju-
dah Obernik.

Bibliography: Berliner, in Mo)iat!<schri.ft, xviii. 131, 132;
Steinschnelder, Cat. Munich, Nos. 404-405.
s s M. Sel.

JOSEPH (JOSEL) BEN MOSES FRANK-
FURT : Dayyan at Flirth in the first half of the
eighteenth century; born at Frankfort-on-the-Main ;
author of "Torat Yosef," masorah on the Penta-
teuch, with a commentary (Wilmersdorf, 1725).

Bibliography: Furst, Bihl. Jud. ii. 114; Steinschnelder, Cat.
Bodl. col. 1515.
D. S. Man.

JOSEPH B. MOSES PHINEHAS (surnamed
Ha-Zaddik): Polish rabbi; born 1720; died at Po-
sen 1801. He was a man of wealth and influence,
and of great piety. His father-in-law, R. Ezekiel Lan-
dau of Prague, frequently cites him in liis " Noda' bi-
Yehudah." Joseph was successively rabbi of Ya-
worow, Sokoli, and Posen. He was the author of
'•Zikron She'erit Yosef" (Kolomea, 1881), uovellae
on the Babylonian Talmud.

Joseph was succeeded in the rabbinate of Posen

by his brotiier Samuel, author of '"Bet Shemuel

Aharon," who had been rabbi of Tarnopol. Samuel

died at Posen in 1806.

Bibliography: Perles, Gesch. der Judenin Posen, in Mo-
natsschrift, v. 14, 87-88, 261-262; Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da'at
Kedo»him, p. 69; M. Straschun, Likkxite Shoahnunim, p. 78,
No. 1536; Elazar Kohen, Kin'at S'o'ferim, p. 82b, Lemberg,
1892.
s. s. p. Wi.

JOSEPH BEN MOSES OF TRANI. See

Trani, Joseph b. Moses dl

JOSEPH BEN MOSES OF TROYES : French
Talmudist of the first half of the twelfth century.
Isaac ben Samuel the Elder quotes in his responsa
Talmudic explanations which he received orally
from Joseph of Troyes. The latter is probably iden-
tical with Joseph ben Moses, who was an elder con-
temporary of Rabbenu Tarn. The latter addresses
Joseph in a letter as " my honored teacher " ; while
Joseph designates R. Tam as one of his most inti-
mate friends, and regrets that he has been obliged
to leave the place (Troyes) where R. Tam is stay-
ing. It is doubtful whether this Joseph is identical
wfth the tosafist Joseph ben Moses who is quoted
in the earlier tosafot to Yoma 20b and in Judah Sir
Leon's tosafot to Ber. 22b.
Bibliography: Gross, Gallia JucJafca, p. 238; Zunz, Z. G.

A. Pe.

JOSEPH HA-NAGID. See Nagdela (Nag-
rela), Abu Husain Joseph ibn.
JOSEPH NASI OF NAXOS. See Nasi,

Joseph (Joao Migues).

JOSEPH BEN NATHAN OFFICIAL (sur-
named ha-Mekanne = "the Zealot"): French con-
troversialist; lived, probably at Sens, in the thir-
teenth century. He was a descendant of Todros
Nasi of Narbonne. His father held a public ofiice
to which Joseph probably succeeded ; whence the
surname "Oflicial." Coming thus in contact with
high officials and ecclesiastical dignitaries, Joseph,
like his father, was often invited to take part in re-
ligious controversies, in wliich he acquired great
skill. Accounts of these controversies, together
witli those of his father and of some French rabbis,
were collected by Joseph in a work entitled " Yosef
ha-Mekanne " or " Teshubot ha-Minim, " which is still
extant in manuscript (Paris, Biblioth^que Nationale,
Hebr. MS. No. 712; Steinschnelder, "Cat. Hamburg

Joseph ben Nathan
Joseph ben Samuel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

270

Hebr. MSS." No. 187, 7). Tlie Cliristian personages
who iigure in the discussions are: Pope Gregory
(probably Gregory X.); the bishops of Sens, Mans,
Meaux, Vannes, Anjou, Poitiers, Angouleme, and St.
Malo; the bishop of the king (St. Louis); the con-
fessor of the queen (probably Guillaume of Au-
vergne) ; the chancellor ; friars of the Cordelier and
Jacobite orders; and some Jewish converts. All the
Christian dogmas which are derived from Scriptural
texts, such as the immaculate conception, the divin-
ity of Jesus, his mission on earth, his
Controver- birth, death, and resurrection, are ana-

sies with lyzed and discussed ; and there occur

Officials, refutations of some attacks on Juda-
ism, such as the accusation of ritual
murder, which the chancellor endeavored to base
upon Num. xxiii. 24.

The characteristic feature of these controversies,
which in the main have no claim to great originality
as regards the arguments used, is the freedom of
speech and boldness displayed by the Jewish partic-
ipants, who do not content themselves with stand-
ing upon the defensive, but very often attack their
opponents not with dialectics, but with clever repar-
tee. Of this kind of controversy the following may
serve as examples:

Nathan ben Meshullam was asked to give a reason
for the duration of the present exile, while that of
Babylon, which was inflicted upon the Jews as a
punishment for the worst of crimes, idolatry, lasted
only seventy years. He answered: "Because in the
time of the First Temple the Jews used to make stone
images of Astarte and statues which had no chance
of duration, while in the time of the
Examples. Second Temple they deified one of
themselves, Jesus, to whom they ap-
plied the holy prophecies, and thus created a durable
idol which attracted many worshipers. The grav-
ity of the fault, therefore, occasioned equal severity
in the punishment."

Nathan was also asked why the usual expression
" And God saw that it was good " is lacking in the
account of the second day of the Creation, to which
he replied: "Because among the things done on that
day was the division of the waters, which God had
foreseen would be used for idolatrous purposes
[baptism]."

Elijah, Joseph ben Nathan's brother, was asked
by the chancellor why the Mosaic law declared
contact with, or being in the presence or neighbor-
hood of, a dead body to be a cause of impurity.
"Because," answered he, "God foresaw that a time
would come when a nation would pretend that
He had voluntarily submitted Himself to death;
therefore He showed Himself so severe against the
impurities of death."

Joseph's compilation furnishes much valuable in-
formation concerning the condition of the French
Jews in the twelfth and tliirteenth centuries. The
numerous accusations brought against them by the
Christian population, such as ritual murder and the
crucifixion of Jesus, found an echo in the discus-
sions. In an explanation of a text may very often
be detected an expression of the anguish of the per-
secuted.

Although the " Yosef lia-Melj:anue " is nowhere ex-

pressly quoted, it may be assumed tliat it was used
by the polemists. The"Nizzahon Yasiiau," pub-
lished by Wagenseil, and the "Nizza-
Influence. hon" of Lipmanu of Mlilhausen have
some analogical pas.sages. A great
number of the answers of Joseph are reproduced
almost verbatim in many Bible commentaries of
French origin. Specimens of sucli commentaries,
in which many passages can thus be traced, were
published by Berliner in his " Peletat Soferim " and
by Neubauer in Geiger's "Zeitschrift " (1871).

Joseph seems to have been the author also of a
commentar^^ on the Pentateuch, and of the Hebrew
version of the controversy of Jehiel of Paris, at the
end of which is a short poem containing his initials.

Bibliography: Dukes, in Orient, Lit ASi7, p. 84; Carmoly, In
Ben Chananja, 1861, p. 204 ; idem, in La France Igraelilc,
p. 1.58 ; Zunz, Z. G. pp. 84, 8(5 : Gratz, Gcsch. vi. 142, StiT ;
Zadoc Kahn, in R. E. J. i. 222 et seq., in. 1. et seq.; Gross,
Gallia Juilaica, p. 2.52.
s. s. I. Bh.

JOSEPH NAZIR BEN HAYYIM MOSES
HA-LEVI : Palestinian rabbi ; born at Hebron
about 1650; died probably at Cairo 1719. He studied
under Moses Galante and becanje rabbi at Hebron,
from which community he was sent to Europe to
solicit alms. Zebi Ashkenazi met him in this capacity
at Belgrade in 1679, and states that the name " Nazir "
was given him as a Nazarite (" Hakam Zebi," No.
168). Joseph ha-Levi wrote two volumes of re-
sponsa under the title "Matteh Yosef " (Constanti-
nople, 1717-26), edited by his son-in-law, Jeshua
|''T (Shababo). Joseph also edited the responsa
("Ginnat Weradim," ib. 1717-19) of his friend Abra-
ham ben Mordecai ha-Levi, whom he succeeded as
rabbi of Cairo.

Bibliography: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim ; Benjacob, Ozar
ha-Scfarini; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl.' col. 1450; Wolf,
Bibl. Hebr. iii. 390.
D. L. Grtj.

JOSEPH BEN NOAH HA-BASRI (Abu
Ya'kub Yusuf ibn Nuh) : Karaite scholar of the
eighth and ninth centuries; brother of Nissim ben
Noah. He translated the Pentateuch into Arabic,
with a commentary, an abridgment ("talkhis") of
which was made by Abual-Faraj Harun, and excerpts
from which, on Numbers and Deuteronomy, are given
by 'Ali ben Sulaiman in his Pentateuch commentary.
Hadassi says that Joseph recognized only two canons
for religious law: Scripture (203) and harmony in
the totality (p3p) of the laws; and that he rejected
logical deduction (SJ'pn; "Eshkol ha-Kofer," § 168).

Luzki confounded Joseph ben Noah with Joseph
al-Kirkisani, and attributed to the former the " Sefer
ha-Ma'or," which really belonged to the latter ("Dod
Mordekai," p. lib).

Bibliography: Pinsker, Likk%ite Kadmnniyyot, i. 25, il. 73;
Fiirst, Gcsch. des Karilcrt. i! 119; Gottlober, Bikkoret le-
Tdtedot ha-Keiuim, p. 177 ; Frankel, in Ersch and' Gruber,
i3/ici/c. section ii., part xxxili., p. 15; Harkavy, in Stade's
Zeitischrift, 1881. p. 1.58 ; Poznanski, in R. E. J. xxxiii. 215;
Steinschneider. Hebr. Uebers. p. 450; idem, Die Arabische
Litcratur der Juden, § 38.
K. I. Br.

JOSEPH (MAESTRO) DE NOVES : French
physician of Avignon who lived in the middle of
the fifteenth century, and was highly esteemed
throughout tlie south of France (Joseph Colon, Re-
sponsa, No. 181). During the first part of the seven-

271

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph ben Nathan
Joseph ben Samuel

teenth century a rabbi of the same name, Joseph de
Noves, lived at Nicopolis, Bulgaria; he wrote pref-
aces to Abraham di Boton's "Lehem Mishneh " and
Abraham ibn Asus' "Lehem Abbirim."

Bibliography : Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 391.
G. S. K.

JOSEPH B. PETROS: Palestinian amora of
the tirst generation (3d cent.). He was the father
of Joshua b. Levi's first wife (Yer. M. K. iii. 5).
He stood in friendly relations witli Bar Kapparaand
had a discussion with him in regard to the exposi-
tion of a certain Biblical verse (Gen. R. xciv.). He
is mentioned also as having had an argument with
Zabdai b. Levi on a point of Biblical exegesis.

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Pal. ^mor. hi. 598; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot, u. 230.

6. S. A. S. W.

JOSEPH B. PHINEHAS. See Frankfokt-
on-tiie-Main.

JOSEPH IBN PLAT {Q^Si, rarely tDN^'D ; not
"Pilat," as Gratz deduces from the form n{<?''3, oc-
curring once in " Temim De'im, " p. 40 ; and not iden-
tical with Ibn Bulat, or Bolat, of Estella) : Rabbinical
authority of the twelfth century ; born presumably
in southern Spain, whence he went to Provence and
settled in Lunel, though Epstein is of opinion that
he was born in the Byzantine empire. If this is so,
he maj' be identical with the Joseph ibn riX7D whom
Benjamin of Tudela met in Damascus ("' Itinerary,"
ed. Asher, i. 48). He also spent some time in Rome,
and may have traveled in France, Lorraine, Lom-
bardy, and Spain. According to Joseph ibn Zaddik,
be was flourishing in the year 12U5; according to
Abraham b, Solomon of Torrutiel, he died in 1225;
but according to others he died before 1198. Abra-
ham b. David, Asher b. Meshullam, and Zerahiah
ha-Levi Gerondi; all of Lunel, received oral instruc-
tion from him, and he corresponded with Zerahiah,
and also with Abraham b. David of Posquieres,
Maimonides, and Abraham b. Isaac of Narbonne.
He wrote a treatise on the prayers entitled " Tikkun
Soferim," of which a fragment is extant. His hala-
kic treatises, commentaries on various Talmudic
books, such as Nedarim and Hullin, are quoted in
the '"Ittur" (ii. 18c), the "Ko'l Bo" (No. 106), and
"Shittah Mekubbezet" toNedarim (fol. 7d), and ex-
tracts are to be found in the Pardes; his name, how-
ever, is cited in the last-named only in one long
citation on the Benedictions (ed. Constantinople, fol.
39b-41c).

Bibliography : Joseph ibn Zaddik, Chronicles, ed. Neu-
bauer, p. 94 ; Conforte. Knre h'a-Dorot. p. 8b ; Zunz. Ritiui,
p. 3() : iilem. in Geiger's IFiss. Zeit. JUd. Theol. ii. 308, 312;
Solomon ben Adret, Res^otisa, No. 18; Kol Bo, Nos. 5,8,
106; Auerbach. Sefer ha^Eshhoh Introduction, pp. x. et seq.;
Gratz, Gcsch. vi. 287 ; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 284 et seq.;
A. Epstein, in Monatsschrift, xli. 475, xliv. 290.

M. K.— G.

JOSEPH PORAT BEN MOSES (French,
DON BENDIT) : Tosafist of the thirteenth cen-
tury. The surname " Porat " is an allusion to Gen.
xlix. 22. According to Gross, Joseph Porat is iden-
tical with Joseph of Caen, who is cited by Samuel
of Falaise as a rabbinical authority ; but he can not,
as supposed by Dembitzer ("Ha-IIoker," ii. 48 et
seq.), be identified with Joseph ben Moses of Troyes,
the codisciple and opponent of Jacob Tarn. Joseph
Porat was the pupil, and perhaps the grandson, of

Samuel ben Meir (RaSIlBaM), but certainly was not
his son, as erroneously given by Zacuto ("Sefer ha-
Yuhasin," ed. London, p. 218). Joseph Porat wroie
a commentary on the Talmud, fragments of which are
found in the Tosafot to Shabbat (52a) and Yoma (37b,
46a). According to Dembitzer (I.e.), all the passages
cited in the Tosafot in the name of Joseph without
any further indication are to be attributed to Joseph
Porat, who is probably also the author of a mathemat-
ical work found in the Oppenheim collection under
the name of Joseph ben Moses Zarfati. Probably it is
Joseph Porat Avho is designated as " Joseph, grandson
of Samuel ben Meir," in the manuscript commentary
on the Pentateuch in the Bodleian Library (Neu-
l)auer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 271; see, how-
ever, Neubauer in Geiger's "Zeitschrift," ix. 216).

Bibliography: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 543.

s. s.

I. Br.

JOSEPH BEN SAMTJEL. See Bonfils, Jo-
seph BEN Samuel.

JOSEPH, SAIOJEL A. : Australian pioneer and
politician ; born in London 1824 ; died in Sydney, New
South Wales, Sept. 25, 1898. At the age of eight-
een he emigrated to New Zealand, and there acquired
so thorough a knowledge of the native language that
he acted as interpreter to Sir George Grey when the
latter undertook his expedition to pacify the Maoris.
In 1855 Joseph removed to Sydney, where he became
associated in business with Jacob Levi Montefiore.
He was a member first of the lower and then of the
upper house of the legislative assembly, besides
filling the offices of president of the chamber of
commerce and chairman of the City Bank.

Bibliography : Jew. Chron. Sept. 30, 1898.
J. G. L.

JOSEPH SAMUEL BEN ABRAHAM BEN
JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM BARUCH BEN
NERIAH : French rabbi; born at Aix, Provence;
flourished at Avignon toward the end of the thir-
teenth century. Like his father, Abraham ben Jo-
seph of Aix, he was an adherent of Abba Mari of
Lunel. During the religious controversy of 1303-
1306, which greatly excited the whole of southern
France, he sent assurances of his support to Solomon
ben Adret of Barcelona, who calls him, in the cor-
respondence between the two, "Joseph ben Samuel
ben Abraham."

Bibliography: Isaac de Lattes, RespoTi^a, pp. 41. 44, 45;
Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Fran^ais, pp. 517, 675.

G. S. K.

JOSEPH BEN SAMUEL HA-HAZZAN

(also called Joseph ha-Mashbir) : Karaite hakam
of Halicz, Galicia; died in 1700; pupil of R. Nissim.
He was the author of the following works, none of
which has been published: "Porat Yosef," on He-
brew grammar and on the excellence of the Hebrew
language; "Sheber Yosef," on religious philosophy;
"Birke Yosef," the subject of which is not known;
a commentary on the ten Karaite articles of faith ;
"Ner Hokmah" or "Perush Seder ha-Tefillah," a
commentary on the prayer-book. The last-named
work remained unfinished at the time of the death
of the author. Joseph composed also numerous
liturgical poems, which have been inserted in the
Karaite prayer-book. A funeral oration was pro-

Joseph ben Samuel
Joseph Zarfati

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

272

nounced over him by Mordecai, author of " Dod Mor-
dekai," who had consulted him on the answer he was
to give to Jacob Trigland about the origin of Karaism.
Bibliography: Furst, Gesch. desKardei-t. iii. 88; Neubauer,
Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek, p. 75.

K. I- Br.

JOSEPH BEN SAMUEL IBN REY : Ital-
ian rabbi; died prematurely in Venice April 2, 1608.
His epitaph (Wolf, "Bibl. Hebr." iv. 1213) leaves
it to be supposed that his surname was an equiva-
lent for "son of a king." Wolf, however (ib.),
spells it ^n (="Dei"). He was the author of a work
entitled " Sefer Massoret," a treatise on the Masorah,
in which he endeavored to prove that there are no
reasonless or unjustified repetitions in the Bible.
Joseph is mentioned by Samuel Aboab in his re-
sponsa " Debar Shemuel " (No. 56).

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 509; Mortara,
Indice, p. 54 ; Steinschnelder, Cat. Bodl. col. 1520.
X). M. Sel.

JOSEPH SHALLIT BEN ELIEZER RI-
CHETTI (RIQ,UETI) : Italian scholar ; born at
Safed, Palestine; lived in the second half of the
seventeenth century at Verona, where he directed
a Talmudical school. He was the author of " Hok-
mat ha-Mishkan " or " Iggeret Meleket ha-Mishkan "
{Mantua, 1676), on the construction of the First
Temple. He also published a map of Palestine
which Zunz supposes to have been prepared as one
of the illustrations of a Passover Haggadah. Be-
sides his own works Joseph edited " Hibbur Ma'asiy-
yot " (Venice, 1646), a collection of moral tales, and
Gershon ben Asher's " Yihus ha-Zaddikim," to which
he added notes of his own (Mantua, 1676).

Bibliography: Nepi-Ghlrondl, Tnledot Gedole Yisrael, p.
213 ; Zuoz, in Asher's edition of Benjamin of Tudela's Mas-
sa'oU ii. 286 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1526 ; Mortara,
Indice, p. 54.
G. I. Br.

JOSEPH BEN SHESHET LATIMI: Span
ish liturgical poet; lived at Lerida in the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries. In 1308 he wrote a prayer
entitled "Elef Alfin" (comp. Dan. vii. 10), consist-
ing of one thousand words, each word beginning
with the letter k. and each verse with the last word
of the preceding. The "Elef Alfin" was included
in the collection "Kobez Wikkuhim," published
first at Constantinople, later at Breslau (1844).

Bibliography: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 499; Landshuth,
'Ammude ha-'Abodah, p. 98.
G. I. Br.

JOSEPH BEN SOLOMON (JOSEPH DAR-
SHAN OF POSEN) : German preacher; born at
Posen in 1601 ; died there in 1696. When a youth
Joseph studied at Byelaya Tzerkov, Russia, where
he seems to have settled, for in 1648 he was an eye-
witness of the Chmielnicki massacres. Joseph suc-
ceeded in escaping to his native town, where he was
appointed preacher in 1676, holding the ofl3ce till
his death. The following three works of his ap-
peared at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1679: "Yesod
Yosef," a denunciation of certain sins; "Sedeh Bo-
kim," a homiletic commentary on Perek Shirah; and
"Tikkun Hazot," a collection of psalms and prayers.
Among his many unpublished vvorks the following
two may be mentioned: " Wa-Yekalkel Yosef," ser-
mons arranged in the order of the paiashiyyot, and

" Wa-Yelakket Yosef," collectanea of cabalistic and
midrashic works, in the same order.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 404; Perles, In
Monatsschrift, xiv. 121 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1522.
8. s. M. Sel.

JOSEPH BEN SOLOMON OF CARCAS-
SONNE : French liturgical poet of the eleventh
century. He wroteaHanukkah "yozer" beginning
" Odeka ki anafta," which is mentioned by Rashi in
his commentary on Ezek. xxi. 18. Joseph took the
material for this yozer from various haggadot, work-
ing it over in a payyetanic style. It is composed of
verses of three lines each, arranged in alphabetical
order.

Bibliography: Landshuth. ''Ammude ha-'' AhoAdh, p. 96;
Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 123 ; Gross, Oallia Judaica, p. 614.
s. s. A. Pe.

JOSEPH SOLOMON DELMEDIGO. See

Delmedigo, Joseph Solomon.
JOSEPH TAITAZAK. See Taitazak, Joseph.

JOSEPH TOB ELEM. See Bonfils, Joseph
B. Samuel.

JOSEPH BEN TOBIAH : Farmer of the Egyp-
tian royal revenues from about 220 to 198 B.C. ;
nephew, on his mother's side, of the high priest
Onias II. ; founder of the Tobiade family, which
held an important place in the politics of Judea
until the execution of its last member, Menelaus
(162 B.C.). When Onias withheld the tribute at the
time of Ptolemy IV., Philopator, Athenion was sent
to Judea to insist upon its payment. Onias, how-
ever, persisted in his attitude, and when matters
came to a crisis Joseph hastened from his native vil-
lage Phicola to Jerusalem, remonstrated with his
uncle for thus endangering the welfare of the Jews,
and succeeded in obtaining permission to go to Al-
exandria to settle the matter with Ptolemy himself.
He then convoked the people in the court of the
Temple, tranquilized them in regard to the issue of
the conflict, and caused himself to be proclaimed
leader. As such he received Ptolemy's ambassador
with the greatest honors, made him costly presents,
and persuaded him to return to Alexandria, whither
he promised to follow soon afterward.

Having no means of his own, Joseph borrowed
money from friends in Samaria so as to appear with
dignity at the Egyptian court, and proceeded to Al-
exandria. Already predisposed in his favor through
the recommendations of Athenion, Ptolemy was
charmed with Joseph's humor and wit.
Visits and asked him to consider himself a
Egypt as guest during his stay in the Egyptian
Envoy capital. The offense given by Onias

Extraor- was attributed to his great age, and

dinary. Joseph was recognized as political
leader of Judea. This victory was
followed by another: he cleverly managed to obtain
the office of chief tax-collector of Pheniciaand Ccele-
Syria. A force of two thousand soldiers was given
to him by Ptolemy, and he did not scruple to use
the greatest severity in levying taxes. Thus in
A.scalon and Scy thopolis he beheaded, and then confis-
cated to the crown the possessions of, twenty of the
most distinguished citizens for refusing to pay their
taxeS.

273

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph ben Samuel
Joseph Zarfati

Joseph occupied the position of tax-collector, or
rather of governor, for twenty-two years, and ac-
cumulated immense riches, the influence of which
■was felt throughout Judea. But though Joseph's
administration was materially beneficial to Judea, it
was ethically pernicious; he and the members of
his family introduced that corruption and dissolute-
ness which were characteristic of the Hellenic court
of xVlexandria. The poor Jewish agriculturists, be-
coming suddenly rich, began to copy degenerate
Greek customs. To these evils w-ere added the dis-
sensions that arose between the seven sons of Joseph
by his first marriage and Hyrcanus, his son by his
second wife, which dissensions divided Judea into
two hostile camps — Oniades and Tobiades.

Bibliography: Josephus. Aiit. xii. 4; Ewald, Gesch. v. 271 ;
Herzleld, Gesch. des Volken Ji!<racU i. 186; Gra.tz,Gesch. U.
243 et seQ. ; Schurer, Gesch. i. 183, note 4 ; 195, note 28 ; Adolf
Buchler, Die Tobiaden und die Oiiiaden, Vienna. 1899;
Wellhausen, Israelitische und Jlldi^che Gesch. p. 232, note 1.

G. I. Br.

JOSEPH BEN TJRI SHERAGA : Russian

liturgist of the seventeenth century; born in Ko-

brin, government of Grodno. He was the author

of " Ma'arakah Hadashah " (Frankfort-on-the-Main,

1699), containing three selihot in commemoration of

the persecutions of the Jews of Kaidan and Zaus-

mer in 1698. The first, beginning "Alluf batuah,"

is unique in that not only are the verses arranged in

alphabetical order, but each verse begins with the

name of the corresponding letter. This selihah is

provided with a commentary written by the author

himself.

Bibliography : Ftirst, Bibl. Jud. 1. 181 ; Stelnschneider, Jew-
ish Literature, p. 256; Zunz, Liter atur gesch. p. 442.

K. M. Sel.

JOSEPH BEN XTZZIEL: Supposed author of
a cabalistic work which is often quoted by Recanati,
in his commentary on the Pentateuch, under the
title of "Baraita de-R. Yosef b. 'Uzziel," which
is entitled "Mishnat Yosef b. 'Uzziel" in Neu-
bauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." (No. 1947, 3a).
Neubauer describes this work as a commentary on
the "Sefer Yezirah," but it seems from Oppenheim
("Kohelet Dawid," p. 353, No. 965) that it is a sup-
plement to it. Under the title " Shorashim " a
copy is found in the Parma Library (De Rossi, No.
1138, 12). Joseph b. Uzziel is often cited in the com-
mentary to the Alphabet of Ben Sira, where he is
called Ben Sira's grandson and where his opinion
sometimes differs from that held by his father. Stein-
scl'.neider (in Benjacob, "Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 84)
Identifies this Joseph b. Uzziel with the author of
the cabalistic work. Apparently Oppenheim was of
the same opinion, for he appended to the name of
Joseph b. Uzziel the words "'a disciple of Jeremiah."
Some marginal notes on a Mahzor (Neubauer, I.e.
No. 1038) are headed hvciv p flDV DSJ'D.

G. M. Sel.

JOSEPH ZABARA (Joseph ben M^r Za-
bara) : Spanish physician, satirist, and poet of the
beginning of the thirteenth century ; born and died
in Barcelona. He studied in Narbonne under Jo-
sei)h Kirnhi, who twice quotes Zabara on Proverbs.
The only work known to be his is the " Sefer Sha'a-
shu'im," published by Isaac Arish, Constantinople,
VII.— 18

1577, and republished in 1865 in "Ha-Lebauon," and
again by Senior Sachs (" Yen Lebanon," Paris, 1866).
The Constantinople edition contains three other sec-
tions, probably of the same work. It is a book of
stories and fables, after the model of the " Kalilah
wa-Diinnah," which are supposed to be communi-
cated to the author by a giant named " Enan Mana-
tash " during a series of visits. Manj' of them relate
to the wickedness and guile of women, including a
parallel to the "Widow of Ephesus." Another is
a variant of " the clever girl " (comp. Jacobs, " Indian
Fairy Tales," p. 251), Avhile an abstract of the story
of Tobit forms the subject of another tale. The
book concludes with the return of the author to Bar-
celona, "where dwells the great prince R. Sheshet
Benveniste."

Bibliography: Steinschneider, in Ersch and Gruber, JFjic j/c.
section ii., part 31, p. 93 ; Abrahams, in J. Q. R. vl. 502-532
(with an almost complete English transl.): S. Sachs, intro-
duction to Yen Lebanon.
G. J.

JOSEPH B. ZACHARIAH : Jewish general of
the Maccabean period. He, together with Azariah,
was left in charge of the forces when the Maccabean
brothers Judah, Jonathan, and Simon were obliged
to go to Gilead and Galilee for the protection of the
Jews there (I Mace. v. 18; Josephus, "Ant." xii.
8, § 2). Although Judah had expressly commanded
Joseph and Azariah to fight no battles, they, being
ambitious to make a name for themselves, attacked
the city of Jabneh. The Syrians under Gorgias re-
pulsed them with a loss of 2,000 men, and pursued
them into Judea (I Mace. v. 56-62; Josephus, I.e.
§6).

G. S. Kr.

JOSEPH BEN ZADDIK : Rabbi in Arevalo,
Spain, during the fifteenth century; author of a
treatise entitled "Zeker Zaddik," on ritual matters,
in fifty chapters, still in manuscript. The last
chapter contains a chronicle of Jewish worthies
from the Creation down to the day of the writer;
the last entry being dated 1487. A few of the
events near or in his own time are treated somewhat
fully. The rest is made up of names and dates
which are often sadly distorted, both by the author
and by the writer of the manuscript. Nearly all
the data given in the historical chapter are found
in the " Yuhasin " of Abraham Zacuto. According
to Neubauer (who has printed the chapter in his
"M. J. C." i. 85-100), the two authors drew from a
common source.

bibliography : Neubauer, M. J. C. 1., p. xiv. ; idem. Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS. col. 825; Isidore Loeb. in Ii. E. J. xvii. 75
et seq- (where corrections of the text may be found); Michael,
Or ha-Hayyim, No. 1054.

JOSEPH ZARFATI (so called because he be-
longed to the French synagogue): Convert to Chris-
tianity and missionary to the Jews at Rome ; died be-
fore 1597. He accepted Christianity in 1552, taking
the name of Andrea (Filippo ?) di Monti (more
correctly del Monte) in honor of Julius III. He
was born in Fez, and hence is sometimes called
" Joseph Moro." Beginning with 1576, he delivered
sermons having for their object the conversion of
the Jews, which the latter were compelled to attend.
He also wrote, in Italian, works against the Jews,

Joseph ben Zeeb Wolf Levi
JosephuB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

274

as " Conf usione dei Giudci," wliifli lie puljlislied in
Hebrew under tlie title Dmn^n n^l^JD. Tlie Roman
Jews thereupon protested to the Curia, and refused
to listen to his sermons. Xor was he more success-
ful with his "Lettera di Pace'" (Dlfj^i' mJN), which
he issued in 1581. As censor of Hebrew works in
Spoleto and later in Rome he did much harm to
the Jews. He was suspected of having embezzled
money and of liaving accepted bribes.

Margulies believes him to be identical with the Jo-
seph Moro mentioned by Joseph ha-Kohen (" 'Emek
ha-Bakah," pp. Ill, 119) as having on the Daj^
of Atonement, 1558, forced his way into the syna-
gogue at Recanati with a crucifix in his hand, which
he placed in the Ark. Joseph ha-Kohen says that
Zarfati's Christian name was"Filippo," which name
he may have taken in addition to "Andrea."

Bibliography: Berliner, Ceiiftur und OynJiscatUin, p. 4;
Idem, Gesch. derJuden in Rom, ii. 2, pp. 8 et seq.; Vogelstein
and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 172; Monatn-
schrift, 1898, p. 46^ ; R. E. J. ix. 86. xxx. 260 ; Popper,
Censorship of Hebrew Books, pp. 40, 41. 62, 73; S. H. Mar-
gulies, in Berliner Festschrift, pp. 267 et seq.

I. E.-G.

JOSEPH ( Josel) BEN ZEEB WOLF LEVI :

Rabbi in Lesia during the first half of the eight-
eenth century. He was the author of a super-
commentary on Rashi to the Pentateuch entitled
"Tif'eret Yosef" (Prague, 1724); it deals with the
first three books of the Pentateuch.

Bibliography : Zunz, Zeitschrift, p. 343 ; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodl. No. 6008.

JOSEPHS, MICHAEL (known also as Myer
Kdnigsberg) : English Hebraist and communal
worker; born in Konigsberg Oct. 8, 1763; died in
London Feb. 9, 1849. He left his native town in
his thirteenth year for Berlin, where he attended the
Talmudical colleges and met Moses Mendelssohn.
In 1781 he went to London, where while engaging
in commercial pursuits he retained liis attachment
to Hebrew literature. He contribute.d to Hebrew
periodicals; and his poetical writings appeared in
the "Hebrew Review," the "Voice of Jacob," and
the "Jewish Chronicle." In conjunction with Chief
Rabbi Herschell and Dr. Van Oven, he established
in 1818 the Jews' Free School, which became there-
after the chief object of liis devotion, he himself in-
structing and examining both pupils and teachers.
He served also as life-governor of the Jews' Hos-
pital.

As a Hebraist Josephs excelled all his contempo-
raries in England. He edited an English-Hebrew
dictionary under the title "Midrash Millin."

Bibliography: Jew. Chron. Feb. 16, 1849; May 1, 1903; Mo-
rals, Eminent Israelites, s.v.
J- G. L.

JOSEPHS, WALTER: English educationist
and communal worker; born in London Nov. 22,
1804; died Jan. 24, 1893. He was closely connected
■with the management of the following institutions:
Jews' Free School; Jews' Infant School (honorary
secretary from its foundation in 1840); West Metro-
politan Jews' School; Jews' Emigration Society;
Jews' Hospital ; and the Anglo-Jewish As.sociation.
In Jan., 1877, he was presented with a testimonial in
recognition of his longservicesin the cause of Jewish
education.

Josephs was a frequent contributor to the Jewish
press on questions of ritual modification ; and in
1874 he formed the Association for Effecting a Modi-
fication in the Liturgy of the German Jews. In
1837 he had been presented with the freedom of the
city of London; and he was the first Jew to be ad-
mitted a member of the Drapers' Company.

Bibliography : Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, Jan., 1893.
.1. G. L.

JOSEPHSTADT. See Prague.

JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS: General and histo-
rian ; born in 37 or 38 ; died after 100. He boasts of
belonging to the Hasmonean race on his mother's
side (" Vita," § 1). His great-grandfather was Simon
"tlie Stammerer." Asa boy Josephus was distin-
guished for his good memory and his ease in learn-
ing. He passed through the schools of the Phari-
sees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes in turn, and
then spent three years in the desert with a certain
Banus. When nineteen years old he attached him-
self finally to the party of the Pharisees (ib. ^ 2).
In his twenty-sixth year he had occasion to journey
to Rome in the interests of certain priests who had
been sent thither in chains by the procurator Felix.
Here he obtained the favor of the empress Poppa-a.

Shortly after the return of Josephus to Jerusalem
(66) the great Jewish war broke out, and the de-
fen.se of Galilee was entrusted to him by the San-
hedrin in Jerusalem ("B. J." ii. 20,% 4; "Vita,"
§ 7). Why this most important post was allotted to
him is not known. In his autobiography he states
that he was sent there in order to tranquilize the
province and to keep it faithful to the Romans, for
only part of it had revolted ("Vita," ^ 7; comp.
§ 14). This is plainly a distortion of
Appointed, the facts, since Galilee was always
Governor most inclined to war. He was ac-
of Galilee, companied by two men learned in tlie
Law, Joazar and Judas, sent by the
Sanhedrin to watch over his actions. He sent them
back to Jerusalem {ib. %% 7, 12, 14), and then
proceeded to organize the administration of the
province ; instituting a sanhedrin of seventy mem-
bers, and governing the cities through a council
of seven men, an institution afterward extended
throughout Palestine under the title "The Seven
Best of the City." He maintained strict discipline
among the troops, which numbered about 100,000
infantry and 5,000 cavalry ; he surrounded himself
with 500 guards; and he fortified and provisioned a
considerable number of cities {ib. §§ 12-14; "B. J."
ii. 20, ^§ 5-8).

Though a strict adherent of the Law, he was ac-
cused of treachery by some of the zealous patriots
and especially by John of Giscala. But the deeds
of which Josephus was accused may be interpreted
to his honor. Young men from the village of Daba-
ritta had stolen treasure from the governor of King
Agrippa. .Josephus had taken it with the intention
of restoring it to the king. The report was spread
that he was a traitor, and the people were incited
against him by John of Giscala and Jesus b. Zappha
in Tarichfea. He was in danger of being killed,
but he succeeded in making the Taricheans believe
that he intended to use tlie treasure for the fortifica-

275

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joseph ben Zeeb Wolf Levi
Josephus

tions of their city. People from Tiberias, however,
surrounded ]iis house with the iuteulion of settiug
it ou tire. Their leaders were enticed within and
there whipped and mutilated ; and the Tiberians
thereupon took to flight ("B. J." ii. 21, §§ 3-5;
somewhat dillerently, " Vita," §i< 26-30). Not long
afterward John went to Tiberias with the intention
of murdering Josephus; but the latter fled to Tari-
cluea, Avhicli city was so devoted to him that war
would have ensued between it and Tiberias had he
not restrained the inhabitants ("B. J." ii. 21, ^ 6;
"Vita," ^§16-18).

John's next scheme was to have Josephus ac-
cused before the Sanhedrinat Jerusalem. The most
influential members, being convinced of Josephus'
guilt, sent four of their number with a force of 2,500
men to depose him. He, however, pretended to be
occupied with preparations for war; and the dele-
gates could not see liim. Several Gal-
Antagonism i leans went voluntarily to Jerusalem

of John to demand the recall of the envoys.
of Giscala. The latter then ordained a day for
general fasting and prayer in Tiberias,
but Josephus fell upon his opponents with his
armed guards. A few days afterward messengers
from Jerusalem brought letters in which the leaders
of the people confirmed him in his position as gov-
einor of Galilee. He sent the Sanhedrin delegates
back to Jerusalem in chains, and subdued by force
the inhabitants of Tiberias, who were in revolt
against him ("B. J." ii. 21. § 7; "Vita," §§ 38-64).
They, however, still refused to recognize Josephus;
but by a ruse he again overcame them ("B. J." ib.
% 8-10; "Vita," ^§ 32-34; comp. §§ 68, 69).

Sepphorisnow asked for and received a Roman gar-
rison in order to be safe from the rebels. Josephus,
who was obliged to heed the insistence of his follow-
ers, tried to punish the cit}' before the Romans ar-
rived; but hearing that the last-named were on the
way he beat a retreat. When the troop sent by Ces-
tius Gallus had entered Sepphoris, it was no longer
possible for Josephus to storm the city. A few days
later the Romans made a sortie, and Josephus was
defeated ("Vita," §§ 67-71). He was more success-
ful against Sylla, a lieutenant of King Agrippa,
whom he put to flight beyond the Jordan (jb. §§
72, 73).

In the spring of 67 the Romans under Vespasian
and Titus began the war. Josephus was encamped
near the village of Garis, not far from Sepphoris;
but he was forced to draw back upon Tiberias be-
cause his men had fled at the approach of the Ro-
mans {ib. ^ 71 ; " B. J." iii. 6, g§ 2-3). He demanded
of Jerusalem whether or not he should treat with
Vespasian, and asked for reenforcemcnts. The San-
hedrin was unable to comply with his request; and
Josephus entrenched his troops at Jotapata (May,
67), which place was besieged by Vespasian on the
following day. Josephus had recourse to all possi-
ble stratagems; but in spite of these and of marvel-
ous deeds of valor performed by the defenders, the
Romans, after a siege of forty-seven days, forced their
Avay into the city, which with the fortifications was
razed to the ground (July, 07). Josephus escaped
into a cistern connected with a cave in which he
found forty soldiers. Their hiding-place was dis-

covered ; and Josephus, whose life had been assured
to him by the Romans through the intervention of
a friend named Nicanor, escaped only by playing a
trick on his companions. He persuaded them to
kill each other after drawing lots, but arranged to
be the last, and then surrendered to the Romans with
one companion ("B. J." iii. 8, §§ 1-8). Led before
Vespasian, Josephus, asserting earnestly that he pos-
sessed the prophetic gift, prophesied that that gen-
eral would become emperor {ib. § 9). According to
the Talmud, Johanan b. Zakkai had made the same
prophecy, and heathen priests had foretold the ac-
cession of Vespasian and Titus to the imperial throne
(see Schilrer, "Gesch." i. 613). Josephus' actions
from this time on do not cover him with glory ; and
the suspicion of treachery rests heavily upon him.

Josephus, when Vespasian gave him his freedom
("B. J." iv. 10, § 7), according to custom adopted
Vespasian's family name, " Flavins " ; and when Ves-
pasian became emperor, Josephus ac-
Wins companied him to Alexandria (" Vita,"

Favor of ^75). While still a prisoner he mar-
Vespasian, ried, at Vespasian's command, a Jew-
ish captive from Cassarea. She, how-
ever, did not remain with him long, but left him when
he was in Alexandria. It seems, however, that he
had already been married some time before, and that
his first wife, as well as his mother and all his aristo-
cratic relatives, remained in Jerusalem during the
siege (" B. J. " v. 9, § 4). Josephus returned to Pales-
tine in the suite of Titus (" Vita, " § 75 ; " Contra Ap. "
i. 9) ; and during the siege of the capital he was com-
pelled, at the risk of his life, to call upon the rebellious
Jews to surrender. On the one hand, the Jews desired
to capture and punish him ; on the other, the Romans,
whenever they were beaten, held him for a traitor.
Titus, however, paid no heed to the accusations of
the soldiers (" Vita," § 75). After the capture of
Jerusalem, he gave Josephus permission to take
whatsoever he chose. The latter took a few sacred
books and asked only for the freedom of certain
persons. He rescued 190 women and children who
had been shut up in the sanctuary. He also begged
Titus to rescue three persons whom he found cruci-
fied ; and one of them actually recovered by careful
nursing {ib.). As a Roman garrison was to be placed
upon Josephus' estate near Jerusalem, Titus gave
him other land in the plain. He returned with
Titus to Rome, and there received high honors
from Vespasian, including Roman citizenship and a
}early pension. He received also a fine estate in
Judea, so that he was able to devote himself to
writing without pecuniary anxiety. Josephus was
occasionally calumniated by his coreligioni-sts. Thus
a certain Jonathan, Avho had raised a rebellion in
Cyrene, claimed that he had received arms and
monev from Jo.sephus; but Vespasian was not mis-
led by the falsehood {ib. i^ 76; "B. J." vii. 11. g§
1-3). The emperor Donutian punished certain Jews
who had slandered Josephus; and he freed the
Judean estate of his favorite from taxes. Josephus
was also in favor with the empress Domitia.

The woman married by Josephus in Alexandria
bore him three sons, of whom only one, Hyrcanus,
was living at the time that the "Vita" was written.
He divorced her and married a Jewess from Crete,

Josephus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

276

who bore him two sons, Justus, in the seventh year of
Vespasian, and Simonides, surnanied " Agrippa," two
years later. Josephus' autobiography was written
after the death of Agrippa II. ("Vita," § 65). which
occurred in the third year of Trajan {i.e., 100). The
date of Josephus' death is uncertain. It is said that
a statue of liim was erected in Rome after his death
(Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl."iii. 9; Jerome, "De Viris
lUustribus," § 13).

Josephus' numerous and comprehensive writings
are of value not only for the historical data which
they contain, but also as an apology of Judaism.
His works are:

(1) "Concerning- the Jewish War" (Greek,
Uepl rov 'lov6diK.ov Uo/Jfiov), usuall}' cited as "Bellum
Judaicum," in seven books ("Ant." xx. 11; "Vita,"
§ 74) ; in some manuscripts and in Slephan Byzant
{s.v. iaaaTjlig), laropia 'lovSaiKOv TLoMfiov Updg'Pu/iaiovg,
which Niese holds to be correct. Von Gutschmid,
however ("Kleine Schriften," iv. 343), accepts the
title Uepl 'A?Maeug (" Concerning the Capture "), found
in most manuscripts; but this title probably orig-
inated in Christian circles. The division into seven
books belongs to Josephus himself ("Ant." xiii. 10,
§ G ; xviii. 1, § 2), and was known to Porphyry ("Peri
Apoches," iv. 11, p. 76). In addition to a long in-
troduction, they cover the period from Antiochus
Epiphanes to the minor events that followed the
war. Josephus wrote this history originally in Ara-
maic, in order that it might be read by the Jews in
Parthia, Babylonia, Adiabene, Arabia, etc. ("B. J."
Preface, § 2). At a later time he decided to publish
the history of the war in Greek also, and for this he
had to receive help from others in the matter of style
("Contra Ap." i. §9). The supposition is possible
that the original, which is entirely lost, was not as
favorable to the Romans as was the Greek version.

Josephus gives as his reason for writing this his-
tory the contradictory reports circulated either to
flatter the Romans or to disparage the Jews (ib. § 1).
He himself pretends not to have flattered the Ro-
mans, though he is distinctly partial to them. He
emphasizes his exactness {e.g., "Vita," §4); but iiis
claim thereto is justified only when he states bare
facts. He writes partly as an eye-witness and partly
from reports obtained from eye-witnesses (" Contra
Ap. " i. § 9) ; and he had already begun to make notes
during the siege of Jerusalem. Both Vespasian and
Titus, to whom the work was submitted, praised his
accuracy. The latter even wrote on
The Works the manuscript that it ought to be pub-
of lished("Vita," § 65). King Agrippa

Josephus. II. testified in no less than sixty-two let-
ters that he found the account accurate
(tV;.); and similar praise was given by relatives of
the king (" Contra Ap. " 1. § 9). His rival, Justus of
Tiberias, wrote his history twenty years later, while
Josephus described the war immediately after the
events ("Vita," § 65).

The work was presented to Vespasian, and must
therefore have been completed before the year 79.
The last events mentioned are of the year 73; but
the account must have been written after the year
75: for Josephus refers to the Temple of Peace as
being already finished ("B. J." vii. 5, § 7). It is
necessary to assume a period of a few years between

the end of the war and the final composition, other
works on the war having already been published,
as the introductions to the " Bellum Judaicum "
and to the " Antiquitates Judaicje " show. For the
events preceding the war the same sources must be
assumed as for the "Antiquities." The events of
the war itself he knew exactly except the occur-
rences in the beleaguered city of Jerusalem, which
facts he could get only from deserters. For the
events within the Roman camp he doubtless made
U!5e of Vespasian's "Memorabilia. " The statement
of Sulpicius Severus ("Chron." ii. 30, § 6), that the
Temple was burned at the express command of
Titus, has not the credence possessed by Josephus'
account ("B. J." vi. 4, §§ 5-7), which is to the effect
that this happened contrary to the will of Titus.
Schlatter's supposition, that Josephus is less credit-
able than Julianus Antonius, is unfounded.

(2) "The Antiquities of the Jews" (Greek, 'lov-
SaiKr/ ' ApxaLo'Aoyia ; Latin, " Antiquitates JudaicjB ").
This is the most important of his works, and, indeed,
one of the greatest of all antiquity. It comprises
twenty books, and is so arranged that it might be
placed side by side with the Roman history of Dio-
nysius of Halicarnassus, which likewise consisted of
twenty books. It was the purpose of Josephus to
glorify the Jewish people, so often misunderstood,
in the eyes of the Greco-Roman world. He wrote it
in the thirteenth year of Domitian (93) and in the
fifty-sixth year of his life. It commences with the
creation of the Avorld, and carries the history of the
Jews down to the outbreak of the war in 66. In
this stupendous work the individual books are pre-
ceded by an introduction which briefly indicates
their contents; but it is doubtful whether these.orig-
inated with Josephus. The work falls into the fol-
lowing divisions:

(a) Book i. ch. 7 to Book xi. ch. 6, parallel with the
books of the Bible from the creation of the world to
the rescue of the Jews under Artaxerxes in Persia.
Here Josephus desires only to reproduce in Greek
what may be read in the Hebrew Scriptures ("Ant."
Preface, § 3; x. 10, ^ 6). He has, however, omitted
or endeavored to excuse whatever might give of-
fense. The stor}' of the Golden Calf is wholly lack-
ing ; and excuses are found for the murmuring of
the children of Israel. The Septuagint is used
throughout, and even its style is imitated, though
at times he deviates from this source (comp. "Ant."
vi. 4, § 1, with I Sam. ix. 22). As a learned Phar-
isee, Josephus must have known enough Hebrew to
make use of the original: this is shown bj' his ex-
plaining numerous Hebrew proper names, as the
Hellenist Eupolemus had done before him ; see, for
example, "Ant." i. 1, § 2 (comp. Gen. iii. 20); i. 4,
§ 3 (comp. Gen. xi. 9, LXX.) ; iii. 7, § 3 (comp. Ex.
xxviii. 40; xxxi. 2, LXX.); iii. 12, § 3 (comp. Gen.
XXV. 10); viii. 5, § 3 (comp. I Kings ix. 13, LXX.).

The myths and legends scattered through this nar-
rative deserve special attention. Eusebius ("De-
monstratio Evangelica," vi. 39) had already noticed
that the traditions {SevTepuoeiq) of the Rabbis are to
be found in Josephus' work; and it is from him
that many haggadot came to the Church Fathers.
Josephus remarks (see B. M. 86b) that every one of
the three angels who appeared to Abraham had a

277

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Josephus

special mission. This is also found in Philo (" De
Abrahamo," ^§ 22, 28) and in Justin Martyr ("Dial.
cum Try ph." ^ 56). The story of the Patriarchs
and of Moses is especially rich in such legends. He
extols the beauty of Moses and relates how even as a
child the latter frightened Pharaoh; and he gives
the name of Pharaoh's daughter, all of which is to
be found in Talmud and Midrash. The haggadot are
told in an attractive manner; and their appearance
here shows their antiquity.

Although Josephus' treatment of Biblical data is
very free, it is of importance for the history of Bib-
lical exegesis. He gives the number of books in the Bi-
ble as twentj'-two, whereas the Rabbis count twenty-
four. He makes use of Hellenistic allegory ; and his
symbolization of the Tabernacle and of the priestly
garments is similar to that of Philo (" Ant. " iii. 7). He
is very careful to emphasize the humanity and tlje high
moral contents of the Law (ib. xvi. 2, § 4). He is usu-
ally in harmony with the rabbinical Halakah. The
blasphemer against God, after having
Importance been stoned, is hanged {ib. iv. 8, § 6 ;
for comp. Sanh. 45b). The law concern-

Biblical ing injury done to a woman with child
Exegesis. (Ex. xxi. 22) makes a second fine ob-
ligatory, besides the one paid to the
woman's husband, because the population has been
diminished ("Ant." iv. 8, § 33)— a point of view not
taken in the Halakah. Wishing to represent Jewish
law as favorably as possible, he states that a j udge
who accepts a bribe is to be punished with death
("Contra Ap." ii. 27), which is not at all the case.
The command in Ex. xxii. 28 is used by Josephus
for the following excellent doctrine : " Let no one
blaspheme those gods which other cities esteem
such ; nor may any one steal what belongs to strange
temples nor take away the gifts that are dedicated
to any god " ("Ant." iv. 8, § 10), which was not in
the spirit of the Pharisees toward idolatry. He says
that the whole city was interdicted to leprous per-
sons (" B. J. " v. 5, § 6), whereas it was only the Tem-
ple which they might not enter. Josephus goes
farther than the Bible, in order to destroy the fable
that Moses was afflicted with leprosy. He teaches
that the first-born, not only of an ass, but of all un-
clean animals, is to be redeemed ("Ant." iv. 4, ^ 4),
in order to remove all grounds for the idea that this
animal occupied a peculiar position in Jewish law
(see Ass-WoKSHip), an elaboration of the law found
also in Philo. In other respects Josephus presents
an older stratum than does the rabbinical Halakah ;
e.g., when he interprets" Lev. xxii. 28 to mean that
an animal may not be sacrificed on the same day
with its mother {ib. xii. 9, § 4), having in view an
older period when people ate only the meat of sac-
rifices. This is also held by Geiger, who sees in it
traces of the Sadducean standpoint. In other cases
Josephus gives the practise as it obtained in his day ;
namely, that the high priest, and not the king, read
the Law on the Feast of Tabernacles in the seventh
year ("Ant." iv. 8, i^ 12).

That Josephus wrote wholly from a Jewish point
of view may be seen from his misunderstanding of
the use of terms by non-Jewish authorities. This
was the cause, for instance, of his placing the cap-
ture of Jerusalem by Pompey upon the Day of Atone-

ment ("Ant." xi v. 4, §3), where really a Sabbath was
intended ; lie does not seem to have known that the
Gentile authorities were in the habit of calling
the Sabbath a fast-day. Josephus shows himself
perfectly familiar witli Jewish practical life; and it
is wrong to suppose that his knowledge is faulty, or
that with the lapse of time he had forgotten much
(Olitzki, "Flavins Josephus und die Halacha," pp.
25, 27). He had intended to write a separate work
on the laws ; and therefore he treats some briefly,
while others he does not mention at all.

Josephus wished to confirm the Biblical data
wherever they came in touch with the history of
other peoples. In the first eleven books the follow-
ing non-Biblical authors are cited:
Non- Berosus, Hieronynuis the Egyptian,

Biblical Mnaseas, Nicholas of Damascus (i. 3, §

Authors 6) ; Manetho, Berosus, Mochus, Hes-
Cited. tiaeus, Hieronymus, Hesiod, Hecatse-
us, Hellanicus, Acusilaus, Ephorus,
Nicholas {ib. § 9) ; the " Sibyl " (apparently the pagan
Sibyl, as the term o16eol shows; see Stade's "Zeit-
schrift," 1895, xv. 161), Hestiseus (i. 4, §3); Bero-
sus, Hecataeus, Nicholas (i. 7, § 2) ; Malchus, after
a quotation from Alexander Polyhistor (i. 15) ;
Homer (vii. 3, § 2) ; Nicholas (vii. 5, § 2) ; Menander,
Dion (viii. 5, § 3) ; Herodotus (ii. 6, g 2; 10, §§ 2, 3) :
Menander {ib. 13, § 2 ; ix. 14, ^ 2) ; Herodotus, Bero-
sus (x. 1, § 4); Berosus {ib. 2, %2); Berosus, Megas-
thenes. Diodes, Philostratus {ib. 11, g 1). Josephus
had not read all these authors ; but he probably ob-
tained his citations from the great works of Alex-
ander Polyhistor, Nicholas of Damascus, and Strabo
(the citations have been collected by Th. Reinach,
"Textes d'Auteurs Grecs," Paris, 1895). It may
here be noted that just as frequently as in the early
parts of his "Antiquities," Josephus refers to an-
cient authors in his " Contra Apionem " ; indeed he
quotes the same passage from Herodotus (ii. 104) in-
correctly in the former work ("Ant." viii. 10, §3),
while he gives it correctly in the latter ("Contra
Ap."i.§22).

Von Gutschmid {I.e. iv. 562) believes that Jo-
sephus follows Herodotus in Egyptian matters
only, and that he uses Manetho from a secondary
source. This is denied by Sethe ("Sesostris," pp.
3, 5, 19), but is justly affirmed by A. Wiedemann
(in " Theologische Litteratur-Zeitung," 1901, p. 186).
In the "Contra Ap.," however, Josephus has un-
doubtedly made use of Manetho. His familiarity
with ancient history is evidenced by his information
concerning Shalmaneser IV. (Lehmann, "BeitrSge
zur Alten Gesch." 1902, ii. 125-140).

(b) Book xi. ch. 7 to Book xiii. ch. 7, covering the
period from Ezra and Nehemiah to the death of
Simon Maccabeus. Here Josephus is very poorly
informed. In addition to the canonical Ezra and
Nehemiah he had before him an apocrj^phal Ezra.
He uses the Septuagint to Esther together with
its addenda, and, for the history of Alexander the
Great, some Hellenic account containing legendary
material. This is followed bj'a longer extract from
pseudo-Aristeas (xii. 2), and by the history of the
Tobiads, which has been variously estimated. On
account of the chronological difficulties, it has been
held by many to be purely legendary; whereas

Josephus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

278

A. Biichler holds at least the kernel to be historical
(see ToBiADs). Josephus certainly had it from a writ-
ten source. For the period 175-135 b.c. Josephus
has a reliable authority in I Maccabees. He does not
seem to have been acquainted with II Maccabees.
He uses Polybius (see xii. 9, § 1) where Jewish his-
tory touches that of neighboring peoples ; and where
Poiybius ceases (143 b.c.) he uses other historians.
He must also have had access to the genealogy of
the high priest ; it is known that such genealogies
were kept by the Jews.

(c) Book xiii. ch. 8 to Book xvii. ch. 12, from the
death of Simon to the accession of Archelaus. For
the beginning of this period Josephus naust have
used a Jewish source — probably the chronicle men-
tioned at the end of I Maccabees — containing much
legendary material, because he praises Hyrcanus
highly and credits him with the gift of prophecy
("Ant." xiv. 10, § 7). He relates similar legends
concerning Aristobulus I. ; and only for the period
beginning with Alexander Jannaeus did he make use
of a good authorit3\ Here a Talmudic narrative
(Kid. 66a) makes it possible to control Josephus
("Ant." xiii. 10, §§ 5, 6; "R. E. J." xxxv. 28).
For the years 137-135 b.c. Josephus had good au-
thorities in Strabo, whom he often quotes, and
Nicholas of Damascus, not only where he cites
them by name, but also for the general narrative
(B. Niese, in "Hermes," xi. 470, and H. Bloch, "Die
Quellen des Flavins Josephus," p. 92, to the con-
trary). Both Strabo and Nicholas go back to Po-
sidonius, whom Josephus once names explicitlj'
("Contra Ap." ii. § 7). He also cites Timagenes
("Ant." xiii. 11, § 3; 12. § 5), Asiuius Pollio, and
Hypsicrates (xiv. 8, § 3), the latter two in cjuotations
from Strabo. Livy is mentioned once (xiv. 4, § 3).
For the story of Herod, Nicholas is the chief source ;
perhaps also the "Memorabilia" of Herod (xv. 6,
§3).

(d) Book xvii. ch. 13 to Book xx. ch. 11 (ch. 12 is
an epilogue of the whole work), divided into three
groups: (1) a meager history of the successors of
Herod ; (2) a description of events in Rome under
Caligula and Claudius, given in much detail, for
which Josephus' authority seems to have been Clu-
vius Rufus("Ant." xix. 1, § 13); also the history
of Agrippa I. from verbal information ; and (3) the
chronicle of the high priests {ib. xx. 10).

Tliroughout divi.sions (/;), {c), and (d) Greco-Roman
decrees in favor of the Jews are interspersed, which
Von Gutschmid {I.e. iv. 351) believes to be the most
valuable records that writers liave handed down
from antiquity. Josepims claims to have seen them
in the state archives at the Capitol at Rome ("Ant."
xiv. 10, § 26). These, however, can have been only
the records of the deliberations of the Senate. Tlie
decrees of tlie cities iu Asia Minor must have come
from the archives of the Jewisii communities tiiere.
Tliey are so loosely connected witii the main work
that RitschI (in " Rheinisclies Museum." xxviii. 599)
and Mendel.ssohn ("Senatus Consulta Romanorum,"
etc., pp. 112, 156) believe that the later part of the
" Anti(pnties " contains merely a collecticm of mate-
rial. Niese, liowever (in "Hermes," xi. 466), holds
that the work is uniform and that the decrees are
those collected bv Nicholas of Damascus. Willrich

(" Judaica," p. 40) considers them to be the decrees
collected by Agrippa I. in defense of the Jews (Philo,
"Legatio ad Caium," § 28). The following correc-
tions must be made in the dates: "Ant." xiii. 9, § 2,
year 122 (not 133) ; xiv. 8, § 5, year 128 (not 139) ;
xiv. 10, § 22, year 112 (not 133) (Unger, in " Sitzungs-
berichte der Mtinchener Akademie," 1895, p. 551).

Josephus uses throughout tlie Macedonian names
of the months (Niese, iu " Hermes," 1893, p. 197), com-
mencing with Nisanl of the year 311-310 (Unger, I.e.
1896, p. 360). In dating the Maccabean princes, Jose-
phus uses the Egyptian system, in which the gov-
ernmental and calendric years were harmonized by
making the two begin with every first of the month
Toth. The Mishnah shows that this system of dating
was in use among the Jews (R. H. 1. 1). Josephus
had taken the system either from Nicholas or from
Strabo; with Agrippa I. he ceases to use it. Olym-
piads and consular dates are found only in acc(iunts
which go back to Nicholas and Strabo; the Seleucid
era in that period is based upon I Maccabees. Not
one of the dates of the Persian kings mentioned in
the Old Testament has been converted into its corre-
sponding Olympiad year (Unger, in "Sitzungsbe-
richte," 1896, pp. 360-364).

(3) " Autobiography " (Biof ; " Vita "), chiefly a
description of the author's activity as governor of
Galilee, written because Justus of Tiberias had
placed the blame for the revolt on Josephus. From
the beginning the author represents himself as a par-
tizan of the Romans, and therefore a traitor to the
interests of his people. He thereby flatly contra-
dicts many things said in the "Jewish War," which
latter is more trustworthy. The " Vita " must have
been written after the death of Agrippa II. (100 c.e.).
From the conclusion of the "Antiquities" itappears
that the "Vita" pretends to be merely an appendix;
and Eusebius ("Hist. Eccl." iii. 10, § 8) cites a pas-
sage from it, designating it as occurring at the end
of the "Antiquities," which was written in 93 c.e.
It seems that Josephus liad the plan of the " Vita "
in mind when he wrote the concluding words of the
"Antiquities," but did not publish it until after the
death of Agrippa, when he inserted the remark that
Justus had not dared to appear with his history
while Agrippa was yet alive.

(4) "Against Apion," or "The Great Age
of the Jewish People, "directed against the calum-
nies which were circulated at that time against the
Jews, and therefore a valuable apology even to-da3^
The author's chief aim is to prove the antiquity of
the Jewish people; and the real title was therefore
I]tpl T7/g Tcjv 'lovSaiuv ' ApxatoTTjToq (" Concerning the
Antiquity of the Jews ") ; Ilpof tov^ "'ElXrivaq or /card
'K/M/vLdv (" Against the Hellenes "). Tlie present title,
"Contra Apionem," is first f(juud in Jerome ("De
Viris Illust." ch. xiii.). The two books are found
intact only in the Latin translation. The Avork
must have been written later than 93 C.E., since the
"Antiquities" is cited ("Contra Ap." i. 1, g 10).
Like the "Antiquities," the "Contra Apionem" is
dedicated to Epaphroditus, who was either a freed-
man and secretary of Nero or a grammarian in
Rome.

A few otlicr works are incorrectly attributed to
Josephus; e.g., the so-called "Fourth Book of Mac-

279

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Josephus

cabees," or a work entitled "Concerning the All,"
cited by Photius C'Bibliotlieca," Codex 48).

At the conclusion of the "Antiquities" Josephus
says that he proposes to write " Concerning our [the
Jewish] doctrine, in four books: concerning God,
His nature, and concerning the laws, why, accord-
ing to them, certain things are permitted and others
are forbidden." He refers at times to his intention
to tref t more fully of some of the laws ("Ant." 1. 10,
§ 5; iii. 11, §2), which is partially carried out in the
"Contra Apionem." This would then stand in tlie
same relation to the "Antiquities" as the "Vita"
does to the "Jewish War." He refers also to a
more extensive historical work in such terms as
"As has already been stated in other works, "or " we
have stated." Most of these references are in the
"Antiquities" ; but some are found in the "Jewish
War, " which can not therefore be the work referred
to. Destinon ("Die Quellen des Josephus," p. 21)
supposes that Josephus simply copied this formula
from his original, perhaps from Nicholas of Damas-
cus (A. Buchler, in " J. Q. R. " ix. 318). Unger, how-
ever, more properly concludes that Josephus re-
fers to a large work, now lost, and dealing with the
history of Syria from the time of Alexander the Great
to its incorporation in the Roman empire.

When his people in Galilee wished to compel two
Gentiles, who had come to them, to enter the Abra-
hamic covenant, Josephus would not permit it, say-
ing, "Every one ought to worship God according to
his own inclinations, and ought not to be constrained
by force " (" Vita, " ^ 23). The Jews were to have one
boly city, one temple, and one altar (" Ant. " iv. 8,
§ 5). That he interprets even Biblical subjects
freely only to please his Greek readers is seen in his
mention of the destruction of Sodom as though it
were onl)^ a mere incident that people would casu-
ally relate ("B. J." iv. 8, g 4). Otherwise, he nat-
urally holds that the Biblical books
His Biblical "are truly reliable" ("Contra Ap." i.
Interpre- 8). He asserts that the Prophets wrote

tation. all the old historical Jewish writings,
and he ascribed the gift of prophecy
to John Hyrcauus and claimed it for himself. He
frequently refers to the Divine Providence watch-
ing over Israel: but he also knows of the "Fatum "
of the Greeks and Romans; and he himself inclines
to the teachings of the Stoa (" Vita, " § 2). He shows
familiarity with the teachings of Plato in regard to
the soul and the Pythagorean doctrine of its pre-
existence ("B. J." vii. 8, §7). A new and better
life beyond the grave is assured to those who pre-
serve the laws and are capable of djing for them
("Contra Ap." ii. 31). He often speaks of the Mes-
sianic idea as having caused the revolution; but he
never expresses his own opinion in regard to the
Messiah, doubtless out of consideration for the
Romans. The godless zealots are to blame for the
destruction of the Temple ("B. J." iv. 6, § 3); but
the people will come again to its senses during its
servitude ("Ant." xx. 8^ § 5; "B. J." v. 1, § 3) • and
the reestablishment of the sanctuary may be hoped
for ("B. J." I.e. ; "Ant." iv. 8, ^ 46).

Josei^hus' orthodoxy and piety are thus beyond
doubt; but his conduct during the great Jewish war
shows him iu a very doubtful light. Justus of

Tiberias and John of Giscala accuse him of treach-
ery, hypocrisy, and of the perversion of facts. The
other witnesses of his deeds, the Rabbis, are silent
concerning him. Josephus lost his importance for
following generations, which practically ignored him,
yet some references to him exist. Although it has
not been proved that the Josepli Iia-Kohen mentioned
in Hallah iv. 11 and M. K. 23a is really Josephus, the
story of tlie four wise men of Jerusalem who sought
out a philosopher in Rome (Derek Erez R. v.) may,
however, refer to him (Vogelstein and Rieger,
" Gesch. der Juden in Rom," i. 29). In place of Jo-
sephus there appeared in the tenth century a Hebrew
pseudo-Joscphus (see Joseph bex Gorion). The
idea which the later Jewish chroniclers had of Jose-
phus is wholly false (see "Seder ha-Dorot," i. 123,
Warsaw, 1903). Isaac Abravanel complains of his
distortion of the Biblical narratives in order to curry
favor with the Romans. Azariah dei Rossi is the
first Jew to value him at his real worth.

The works of Josephus were rescued by the Chris-
tian Church, for Avhom, like Philo, the author oc-
cupies the rank of a Church father. The "Antiq-
uities" was of importance because it illuminates
the history of the New Testament and
Importance on account of the few notes which it

for the contains dealing with Christendom.
Christian Josephus mentions John the Baptist ;

Church. James, the brother of Jesus ; and Jesus
himself ("Ant." xviii. 3, § 3). In its
present form, this passage can not have originated
Avith Josephus (see Jesus). Eusebius (" Hist. Eccl."
iii. 9, § 2) considers Josephus to have been the most
learned man of his day; and Jerome ("Ep. xxii. ad
Eustachium ") calls him " the Greek Livy . " The By-
zantine chroniclers based their writings largely upon
Josephus; and his "Antiquities" was taken over
into many works (see Hegesippus). It can not be
derfied that he possessed extraordinary literarj- tal-
ents; and his desire to glorify his people ought not
to be accounted to his dishonor. It is true that he
was disingenuous in his dealings with his people ;
but he wrote an exemplary apology for them.
He was vain and self-seeking; but he also fought
and worked much ; and his condemnation by such
historians as J. Salvador and Graetz is certainly too
severe.

Editions and Translations of Josephus'
"Works : In the Occident Josephus has become
known chiefly through a Latin translation of all
his works, with the exception of the "Vita," and
through a free Latin redaction of the "Jewish War."
Jerome ("Ep. Ixxi. ad Lucinium ") says that he
could not accomplish the difficult task of transla-
tion, l)ut that it was generally recognized that a
Latin translation was necessary. Cassiodorus (" De
Institutione Divinarum Literaruni," ch. xvii.) caused
a translation of the " Antiquities " and " Contra Api-
onem " to be made in the sixth century ; but one of
the "Jewish War," generally ascribed to Rufinus,
had existed from about the fourth century. A free
Latin translation was made under the name of
Hegesippus or Egeosippus. Hegesippus com-
presses the seven books of the "Jewish War" into
five; he shows himself throughout to be a Chris-
tian; and has inserted extraneous matter {e.g., con-

Josephus
Joshua

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

280

cerning Simon Magus, "B. J." iii. 2), especially of a
geographical nature. The author, therefore, was
probably a pilgrim to Palestine. The first edition
of Hegesippus appeared in Paris in 1510, and the
work has often been republished. The best edition
is that of Weber and Caesar, Marburg, 1864.

A correct Latin translation appeared first in
Augsburg in 1470; the best edition is that of Basel,
1534. A critically correct text of the " Vetus Lati-
nus " exists as yet only for the two books of " Contra
Apionem " (ed. C. Boysen in " Corpus Scriptorum
Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum," vol. xxxvii., Vienna,
1898). Concerning the character of the translation,
Boysen observes (p. xlii.) that the translator has
neither grasped the meaning of Josephus nor been
able to accommodate himself to his style; nor has he
understood how to translate the difficult Greek
words.

A Syriac translation of book vi. of the "Jewish
War " is contained in the Peshitta manuscript of the
Ambrosianus in Milan, in which it is called "The
Fifth Book of Maccabees." The beginning of it was
published by Ceriani in 1871 ; the complete text— a
photographic reproduction of the manuscript — was
issued by him at Milan in 1876-83, and was repub-
lished with German translation by H. Kottek, Ber-
lin, 1886 (see R. Gottheil In "Hebraica," iii. 3, 136,
New Haven, 1887).

In consequence of the apologetic character of the
"Contra Apionem," a Hebrew translation of it ex-
ists, printed together with Abraham
Syriac and Zacuto's "Yuhasiu " (Constantinople,

Hebrew. 1566; London, 1857) and also sepa-
rately under the title " Kadmut ha-
Yehudim " (Lyck, 1858). The translation was not
made by Zacuto, though he often made use of Jose-
phus in his chronicle, but was appended to the
" Yuhasin " by its first publisher, Samuel ShuUam.
Tills Hebrew translation is very free, whole phrases
of the text being omitted, and was probably made
with the aid of the Latin translation.

New Latin translations of most of the works are
contained in the editions by Hudson, Havercamp,
Oberthilr, and Dindorf. A German translation made
from the Latin (Strasburg, 1531) appeared even be-
fore the first Greek editions, and was later revised
after the Greek {ih. 1561). Mention should also be
made of the German translations of all the works,
by Ott (Zurich, 1735-36), Cotta (Tubingen, 1736),
and C. R. Demme (7th ed. Philadelphia, 1868-69);
of the translation of the "Antiquities " by K. Martin
(Cologne, 1852-53; 2d and 3d eds. by Kaulen) and
by Clemeutz (Halle, 1900). German translations
have been made by Jews as follows: books xi. and
xii. of the "Antiquities" by Horschetzky (Prague,
1826) : book xiii. by the same (Gross-Kanizsa,
1843) ; the " Vita " by M. J(ost) ; " Contra Apionem "
by tlie same, both in the "Bibliothek der Grie-
chischen und ROmischeu Schriftsteller liber Juden-
thum und Juden," Leipsic, 1867;
In Modern "Contra Apionem," abridged by Z.
Lan- Frankel (in " Monatsschrift," 1851-52).

guages. In English may be mentioned the trans-
lation of the "Vita " and of the "Jew-
ish War" by R. Traill (ed. J. Taylor, London,
1862), especially prized ou account of its valuable

supplements; and Whiston's translation of the entire
works, revised by Shilleto (3 vols., London, 1890).
In French : " (Euvres Compl^'tes de Flavins Jo-
sephe," by Buchon, Paris, 1894. Of a new French
translation there have appeared to date : " The An-
tiquities," by Julien Weill, and "Contra Apionem,"
by Leon Blum, both under the direction of Th.
Reinach. A Hungarian translation of the "Jewish
War " from the Latin was made by V. Istoczi, Buda-
pest, 1900. In Italian, the complete works were
translated by Frater Angiolini (Verona, 1779 ; 2d ed.
Rome, 1792). There are also Spanish, Portuguese,
Dutch, Danish, Bohemian, and Russian translations
of Josephus.

The editio princeps of the Greek text of the en-
tire works appeared at Basel in 1544. It was fol-
lowed by the Geneva editions of 1611 and 1634, and
by Ittig's, with learned prolegomena, Leipsic, 1691.
The edition by Bernard, Oxford, 1700, based upon
manuscripts, remained incomplete. For a long time
Hudson's edition (Oxford, 1720), corrected after the
manuscripts, was held with that of Havercamp
(Amsterdam, 1726) to be the best. The editions of
Oberthiir (Leipsic, 1782-85) and of Richter (ib. 1836-
1827) followed Havercamp's; also that
Greek. by Dindorf, which is still used (Paris,
1845-47). Bekker's edition (6 vols.,
Leipsic, 1855-56) was also much used in its day.
The "Jewish War," corrected after the manuscripts
by Cardwell, appeared at Oxford in 1837. The most
painstaking and valuable work has been done by Ben-
edict Niese, who has published the text of Josephus'
works in a large edition (Berlin, 1887-94) and also in
a small one (ib. 1888-95). The review by Naber
(Leipsic, 1888-96) was based upon Niese's works.
Niese's labors have done much but by no means all
that is necessary for the purification of the text.
He committed the mistake of correcting the text in-
dependently of any manuscript authority; so that
Josephus' works still await philological treatment
by a master.

Bibliography : The older literature is jriven by Fabrieius, Bib-
liotheca Grcsca, ed. Harles, v. 49-56, and Fiirst, Bibl. Jud.
ii. 137-132. For a general historical review : Ewald, Gesch.
3d ed., vi. 700, vit. 89-110 ; Nicolai, Griechische Literatur-
t/est'/i. ii. .553-559, Magdeburg, 1877 ; Barwald, JosepMis in
GaUlda, etc., Breslau, 1877 ; Edersheim, in Smith and Wace,
JMct. of Christian Biographi/, Iii. 441-460; Gutschmid,
KJeine Schriften, iv. 336-384, Leipsic, 1893 ; Korach, Ueher
den Werth des Joaephus ah Quelle fllr die Rfimische Gexch.
part i., Leipsic, 1895; Wachsmuth, Einlcitung in das Stu-
dium der Alten Gesch. pp. 438-449, Leipsic, 1895 ; Niese, Der
Jildische Historiker Joftephus, in Histnrische ZeitschrifU
Ixxvl. 193-237 ; Unger, In Sitznngsberichte der Milnchener
Ahademie (philosophical, philological, and historical class),
189.5-97.

Concerning the relation of Josephus' works to the Bible,
Halakah, and Haggadah : Treuenfels, Ueber denBibclcanon
des Fl. Jnsephus, In Orient, Lit. 1849, 1850; Bloch, Die
Quellen dex Flavins Josephus, pp. 8-22, Leipsic, 1879; and
the various introductions to the Bible. On his relation to
Palestinian exegesis: Siegfried, in Stade's Zeiisehrift, 1883,
iii. 33-.35; A. Mez, Die Bibel rie.s Josephus, Basel, 1895; Zunz,
G. V. p. 120; Duschak, Josephus Flavitisund die Tradition,
Vienna, 1864 ; Tachauer. Das Verhdltniss des Flavius Jo-
sephus zur Bibel und zur Tradition, Erlangen, 1871 ; Olitzki,
Flamus Josephiis und die Halaeha, part 1., Berlin, 1885 ;
idem, in Berliner's iVfai/azid, xvi.; Griinbaum, Die Priest er-
gesetze bel Flavius Josephus, 1887; Weyl, Die Jildische Sti-af-
gesetze bci Fl. Josephus, Berlin, 1900. On his theology and
philosophy: Gfrorer, P/i«o, ii. 356-367, Stuttgart, 1835 ; Dahne,
Die JUdisch-Alexandrinische Religionsphilosophie, ii. 340-
24.5, Halle, 1834: Poznanski, Ueber die Religionsphiloso-
phische)i Ansehauutigen des Flavius Josephus, Berlin. 1887;
Lewinsky, Beitrttiie zur Kenntniss der Religinnsplnloso-
phischen Anschauungen des Flavius Josephus, Breslau, 1887.
On his chronology: Destinon, Die Chronologie des Josephus,
Kiel, 1880; Schlatter, Zur Topographic und Gesch. Falds-

281

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Josephus
Joshua

tincui, pp. 360-367, Calw and Stuttgart, 1893; Niese, Zur
Chronolouie ties Josephus, in Hcnnes, 1W«, xxviii. iy4-2:i9.

For the sources: Nussbaum, Ohservatimics in Flavii Jo-
sephi AiiUquitates Lib. xii. 3-xii. Ih. Marburg, 1875; Des-
tlnon, I>\& Q^iellen cles Fl. Josephus iti dcr JMische Ar-
chaeologie, Bueh xii.-xvii. Kiel, 1882; Biicliler, in /?. E. J.
xxxii., xxxiv.; idem, in J. Q. R. ix. For the decrees: Men-
delssohn, Senafi Conaulta Romanorum Qwe, Sunt in Jo-
sephi Antiquitatilnh^, in Acta Snc. Philol. Lips. ed.
Ritschl, 1875, v. 87-388; Rosenthal, in Monatsscliri)t, 1879,
pp. 176-183, 210-228, 3(J0-322 ; Graetz. ih. 1886; Unger, as
above. For geography: Berggren, Flavius Josephtis der
FUhrer und Irrcfilhrer der Piluer, elc, Leipsic, 18.54; Ar-
nold, Die ]iihel/ Joseph, und Jerusalem, Halle, 1865-66;
Boettger, Topiifird/jhisch-Historisches Lexicon zu den
Schriften drs Flarius Josephris, Leipsic, 1879. For explana-
tions of the text : Zipser, Des Flavins Josephus Werk Ueher
das Hohe Alter des Jlldischen Volhes Gcgen Apion, Vien-
na, 1871 ; J. G. Miiller, Des Flavius Josephus Schrift Oegen
den Apion, Basel. 1877; Gutschmid, I.e. iv. 336-589 (cotn-
ttientary on Contra Ap. i., §§ 1-22); and the extensive litera-
ture in Schtirer, G'csc/t. 3d ed., 1. 74-106.
G. S. Kr.

JOSHUA ( JEHOSHUA) : Name of several Bib-
lical personages.

In Hebrew )!^C'^r^•< (Deut. iii. 21 ; Judges li. 7) and commonly
Jjtt'ini (Judges II. 7a ; Ex. xvii. 9 ; Josh. i. 1) correspond to yiii'^VN
='" helped by Yhwh," the shorter form being >!t'i'i = "help"
or "one who helped" (Num. xiii. 8; Deut. xxxii. 44; here
probably an error for jntririi). The Septuagint has 'ItjctoO? ;
the Vulgate, usually " Josue," but "Jesus" in Ecclus. (Sirach)
xlvl. 1 ; I Mace. li. 55 ; II Mace. xii. 15, identical with y Vi'\
the post-exilic form of the name.

1. Biblical Data : The son of Nun ; servant and
successor of Moses. An Ephraimite (Num. xiii. 8),
the grandson of Elishama, he is described as the
chief of his tribe (I Chron. vii. 26, 27). At first
named " Hoshea " (Num. xiii. 8 [A. V. " Oshea "] ;
Deut. xxxii. 44), he was called by Moses " Jehoshua "
(Num. xiii. 16). Joshua first leaps into notice in the
account of the defeat of the Amalekitesin the desert,
"where he leads the picked troops of the Israelites
(Ex. xvii. 8-14). Afterward he appears successively
at the side of Moses as his servant {ib. xxiv. 13;
xxxii. 17, 18); as the guardian of the Tabernacle
{ib. xxxiii. 11); and as the zealous defender of
Moses' prestige on the occasion of Eldad's and
Medad's prophesying in the camp (Num. xi. 27-29).
He is one of the spies sent to explore Canaan {ib.
xiii. 9, 17). Returning from this errand, it is he who
with Caleb allays the apprehension of the excited
people, bravely taking the risk of being stoned to
death {ib. xiv. 6-10). For this fidehty he and Caleb,
alone of all the Israelites twenty years old and up-
ward at the time of this episode, are to enter the
promised land {ib. xiv. 30-38, xxvi. 65, xxxii. 12).

Nevertheless, during the following thirty-eight
years of the desert migration no further mention is
made of him. But when Mo.ses is apprised of his own
impending death, Joshua is pointed out as the one
man to carry to completion the great leader's unfin-
islied task. Moses is bidden to lay his hand upon
him — "a man in whom is the spirit" — and thus to
give him charge as his successor; which command
is carried out {ib. xxvii. Wet seq.). Joshua is to pre-
side over the division of the land {ib.
Appointed xxxiv. 17), but must keep the compact
Moses' entered into with Reuben, Gad, and
Successor, the half of Manasseh {ib. xxxii. 28).
God assures Joshua of success in the
leadership (Deut. xxxi. 14,23); and he as the des-
ignated successor is with Moses when tiie great
prophet addresses his last counsel to the people
{ib. xxxii. 44).

At Moses' death Joshua was filled with "the
spirit of wisdom " {ib. xxxiv. 9). Upon him de-
volved a twofold duty: to conquer the land, and to
apportion it among the tribes (Josh. i. 1-5). Yhwh
Himself encouraged him to be strong and to cling to
the Law, which was never to "depart out of his
mouth." After enlisting the cooperation of the kin-
dred east-Jordanic tribes (i6. i. 6-18), his first concern
was to spy out Jericho {ib. ii. 1). On receiving the
report of his emissaries (/6. ii. 23, 24) he gave the nec-
essary instructions for the crossing by the Israelites
of the Jordan {ib. iii. 1-13). With the Ark of the
Covenant carried by the priests in the van, on the
tenth day of the first month of the forty-first year
after the Exodus the Israelites set out to conquer
the land. The river, miraculously divided as long
as the priests with the Ark remained in its bed, was
crossed north of Adam ; and in memory of this oc-
currence Joshua erected over the place where the
priests had been stationed a monument of twelve
stones {ib. iv. 9). He also ordered that one man from
each tribe should take each another stone from that
spot and deposit it on the western bank as a memo-
rial {ib. iv. 1-8, XX. 24). Here, at Gilgal, Joshua
pitched his camp and remained for some time ; and
in order that all nnght be able to participate in the
Passover, he directed that every Hebrew that had
been born in the desert should be circumcised {ib. v.
2-8).

Jericho was the first city captured. After explor-
ing it by spies Joshua invested it, finally capturing
it in a miraculous manner {ib. v. 13-vi.). The ban
was pronounced over the ruins, and all the inhab-
itants were d'estroyed save Rahab and her paternal
family ; they being spared because she had shown
hospitality to the spies. Joshua became famous by
this victory, but met a reverse at Ai in
Conquest consequence of Achan's misdeed ; how-
of Jericho, ever, after visitingcondign punishment
upon the offender he made himself
master of the town, which was the key to the moun-
tains rising west of the plain of Jericho. The
Gibeonites made their peace with him, gaining ad-
vantageous terms by means of a clever ruse (ix. 8 et
seq.). On Ebal and Gerizim he caused the blessings
and the curses to be read (comp. Deut. xxvii.).

While Joshua was thus engaged in the north,
five of the southern rulers made an alliance to pim-
ish Gibeon ; but they were completely routed at
Makkedah b}^ Joshua, who had hastened to the as-
sistance of the Gibeonites. It was during this battle
that a furious hail-storm set in, proving more deadly
than the sword (Josh. x. 11), and on this occasion
also, at Joshua's command, the sun stood still upon
Gibeon and the moon in the valley of Ajalon {ib. x.
12-13a). The fugitive five kings were discovered
hiding in a cave at jMakkedah. By Joshua's orders
the cave was closed with huge stones until the
pursuit was over, when it was reopened and the
kings, after having been thoroughly' humiliated,
were slain, their bodies being hanged on trees until
the evening, when they were taken down and cast
into the cave. Then followed the conquest of Lib-
nah, Lachish, Eglon, Hebron, and Debir. In the
south Joshua penetrated as far as Kadesh-barnea; in
the west as far as Gaza {ib. x. 29 et seq.). Later on

Joshua

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

282

he routed the allied kings of the north at Lake Me-
rom — Hazor being the head of these kingdoms —
killing the inhabitants and burning the city of Hazor

{ib. xi.).

In this manner Joshua within a few years {ib. xiv.
7 ; comp. verse 10) had made himself master of the
whole country with the exception of the Philistine
and Phenician coasts. Still he continued to guard
in Gilgal his fortified camp ; tlience he governed the
land {ib. xiv. 6), and there he began to allot the dis-
tricts to the various tribes. Judah, Ephraim, and
the half of Manasseh were the first to
Division of be settled, Caleb being allowed to take
the Land. Hebron (i7>. xiv. 12, xv.-xvii.). After
this, Joshua removed the Tabernacle
and the Ark from Gilgal to Shiloh.aud took up his res-
idence there {ib. xviii.). Here he continued the work
of apportioning the rest of the land by lot according
to the families {ib. xviii. -xix.). Cities of refuge, in
accordance with the Law, were appointed {ib. xx.).
Joshua himself received the city of Timnath-serah
in Ephraim for an inheritance {ib. xix. 49, 50; xxiv.
30). Having thus completed his task, he gave Reu-
ben, Gad, and the half of JManasseli permission to
return to their east-Jordanic territory {ib. xxii.
1-9).

When he was " old and stricken in age " Josliua
convened the elders and chiefs of the Israelites and
exhorted them to have no fellowship with the native
population {ib. xxiii.). At a general assembly of the
clans at Shechem he took leave of the people, ad-
monishing them to be lo3'al to their God, who had
been so mightily manifested in the midst of them
{ib. xxiv.). As a witness of their promise to serve
Yhwh, Joshua set up a great stone under an oak
by the sanctuary of Yhwh {ib. xxiv. 26-28). Soon
afterward he died, at the age of 110, and was
buried in Timnath-serah {ib. xxiv. 29-30).

E. G. H.
In Habbinical Literature : Joshua is re-
garded as the type of the faithful, humble, deserv-
ing, wise man. Biblical verses illustrative of these
qualities and of their reward are applied to him.
"He that waiteth on his master shall be honored"
(Prov. xxvii. 18) is construed as a reference to Joshua
(Num. R. xii.), as is also the first part of the same
verse, " Whoso keepeth the fig-tree shall eat the fruit
thereof" (Yalk., Josh. 2; Num. R. xii. 21). That
"honor shall uphold the humble in spirit" (Prov.
xxix. 23) is proved by Joshua's victory over Ama-
lek (Num. R. xiii.). Joshua was a wise man; hence
in iiim was verified the saying, "With me [wisdom]
kings shall rule" (Prov. viii. 15, Hebr.). Not the
sons of ]\Ioses— as Moses himself had expected —
but Joshua was appointed successor to the son of
Amram (Num. R. xii.). Moses was shown how
Joshua reproved Othniel (Yalk., Num. 776). Josh-
ua's manliness recommended him for this high post.
David referred to liim in Ps. Ixxxvii. 25, though
without mentioning tlie name, lest dissensions siiould
arise between his sons and those of his brothers
(Yalk., quoting Sifre, I.e.).

Joshua was always at the front of the army, and did
not, as other generals, ren)ain in the rear {ib.) or in
his tent. Mo.ses in his lifetime appointed Jn.shua as
his interpreter (" meturgeman "), in order to forestall

the possibility of his being looked upon as an up-
start after Moses' death (Yalk., I.e.). Yet Moses' face
was like the sun, and that of Joshua
His like the moon {ib.). Joshua had de-

Faithful served the honor by his faithful service.
Service. He used to rise early in the morning and
set in order the chairs in the house of
assembly. Therefore, according to some, Moses
raised up Joshua from the ground and took him on
his knees, and he and the whole of Israel would lift
up their heads to hear Joshua's words; but Joshua
in his modesty exclaimed : "Blessed be Yhwh^ who
gave the Torah to Israel through Moses, our master "
(Yalk., I.e., quoting the Midrash Yelammedenu).
The wisdom of Joshua is emphasized also in other
connections (Ex. R. xi. and parallels). The predic-
tion (Deut. xxxiii. 17) in the blessing of Moses is
held to have come to pass in Joshua (Sifre, ad loc).
Moses possessed "hod " (splendor), but Joshua, only
"hadar" (a lesser degree of fame; according to
Friedmann, Sifre, 146b, note 11, this has reference
to the fact that kingship was denied to Joshua) ; for
if the former had been Joshua's portion he would
have been absolutely irresistible. Joshua was given
the strength of the ox but the beauty of the " re'em "
(Sifre, I.e.; Yalk., Deut. 959). When Joshua upon
his return with the spies found the people ungrate-
ful, he was the only one that was shocked to the
extent of both falling on his face, like Moses and
Aaron, and rending his garments, like Caleb (Yalk.,
Num. 744).

Moses added the letter * to the name " Hoshea "

(Num. xiii. 16) because he had prayed that God

(n') would keep Joshua from joining

The the conspiracy of the spies, and also

Change in because, as Caleb's reward was a por-

His Name, tion of the land, Joshua's compensation

was to be his own allotment and that

of the other ten (= "yod ") spies (Sotah 34b; Tan.

nd loe. ; Num. R. xvi.). According to Yer. Sheb. vi.

1, the name " Hoshea " was changed as soon as Joshua

entered the service of Moses, or at the latest after

the victory over Amalek.

Joshua was among those who, too modest to call
themselves " 'ebed," were so dignified by God Him-
self (Sifre, Wa'ethanan, cited in Yalk., Josh. 1).
The spies whom Joshua sent to Jericho were Phine-
has and Caleb ( Yalk . ,l.c.). When Joshua commanded
tiie sun to stand still he used the phrase DH (= "be
still " ; Josh. X. 12) ; for the sun kept on singing a song
of praise as long as it was moving. The sun would
not obey Joshua until he had assured it that lie
would sing God's praises himself (Yalk., I.e. 22).
Joshua led and governed the people during thirtj'-
eight years (Seder '01am R. ; Yalk., I.e. 35). Israel is
represented by the Rabbis as not very eager to pay
him honor at his obsequies (Yalk., I.e.).

Rahab is said to have become Joshua's wife.

They had daughters but no son. From this union

many prophets descended, and Hannah was Rahab's

reincarnation. Rahab was ten years

Married old when Israel left Egypt, and during

to Rahab. the forty years intervening she Avas a

great sinner; but when the spies visited

her slie became a proselyte. There is some doubt

as to her having had only daughters by Joshua

283

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joshua

(see Zeb. 116b; Mek., Yitro [beginning] ; Raslii to
Josh. ii. ; Yalk., Josh. 9; Meg. 14a; Gedaliah ibn
Yahya, "Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah," p. 14a).

According to Pirke R. El. xlii., when Jo.shua was
fighting for the Gibeonites the Sabbath was about
to set in. Seeing the disinclination of his people to
continue the battle at the risk of desecrating the
Sabbath, and perceiving that the magicians of the
heathen were inciting the constellations to help the
cause of Israel's enemies, he spread out his hand
toward the light of the sun and of the moon and
"remembered upon them" the Ineffable Name,
when both sun and moon stood still for thirty-six
hours (Yalk., Gen. Lek Leka). The song intoned by
Joshua after his victory is given in full in the " Sefer
ha-Yashar" (chapter on Joshua). Joshua had ap-
pealed to Israel before crossing the Jordan not, as
the text lias it in the literal sense, to prepare provi-
sions for the journey — that was not necessary, since
the manna had not yet ceased falling — but to repent
(Pirke R. El. vi.).

Joshua's name is associated with many"takka-
not,^' e.g., the benediction upon entering the holy
laud (Ber. 48b) ; the license to graze on the plowed
field of others without liability to a charge of rob-
bery (B. K. 60b) ; the permission to gather wood in
a neighbor's field {ib. 61b) ; the permission to gather
grass anywhere (ib.); and seven other measures
enumerated in Maimonides ("Yad," Nizke Mamon,
viii. 5), regulating certain privileges, permitting cer-
tain natural or necessary acts (in open fields or when
walking through vineyards), and assuring to the un-
known dead buried by the community the undis-
turbed possession of his grave (see De.\d, Duty
TO the; Bloch, "Die Institutionen des Judentums,"
i. 54-68, Vienna, 1879).

E. G. H.

Critical View : Joshua's historical reality has

been doubted by advanced critics, who regard him
either as a mythological solar figure (Winckler,
"Gesch. des Volkes Israel," ii. 96-122; Schrader,
"K. A. T." 3d ed., p. 225) or as the personification
of tribal reminiscences crystallized around a semi-
mythical hero of Timnath-serah (="Timnat He-
res"). Eduard Meyer, denying the historicity of
the material in the Book of Joshua, naturally dis-
putes also the actuality of its eponymous hero
(Stade's "Zeitschrift," i.). These extreme theories
must be dismissed. But, on the other hand, it is
certain that. Joshua could not have performed all
the deeds recorded of him. Comparison with the
Book of Judges shows that the conquest of the land
was not a concerted movement of the nation under
one leader; and the data concerning the occupation
of the various districts by the tribes present so many
variants that tlie allotment in orderly and purposed
sequence, which is ascribed to Joshua, has to be
abandoned as unhistorical.

Yet this does not conflict with the view that
Joshua was the leader of a section of the later nation,
and that he as such hud a prominent part in tiie con-
quest of the districts lying around ]\Iouut P^pliraim.
The conquest of the land as a whole was not at-
tempted; this final achievement was the result of
several successive movements of invasion that with
varied success, and often with serious reviTscs.

aimed at securing a foothold for the Israelites in the
trans- Jordanic territories. Joshua was at the head of
the Josephite (Leah) tribes (comp. Judges i. 22, ac-
cording to Budde; Joshua dies at the age of 110, as
does Joseph), for whom the possession of the hill-
country of Ephraim — Gibeon in the south and Ebal
in the north — was the objective point. This inva-
sion on the part of the Josephites was probably pre-
ceded by others that had met with but little success
(comp. the story of the spies. Num. xiv.). But the
very fact that while earlier expedi-
Leader of tions had failed this one succeeded im-
Josephites. pressed for centuries the imagination
of the people to such an extent that
the leader of this invasion (Joshua) became the hero
of folk-lore ; and in course of time the plan of the
conquest of the whole land and its execution were
ascribed to him. He thus grew to be in tradition
the leader of the united people — especially in view
of the supremacy enjoyed by the tribe of Jo.seph,
in whose possession was the Ark at Shiloh — and
therefore the successor of Moses, and as such the
chief in authority when the land was divided among
the tribes.

Recollections of valorous feats performed in the
days of these fierce wars with the aboriginal kings
were transferred to Joshua and his time; battles re-
membered in fable and in song were connected with
his name; natural phenomena (the blocking of the
waters of Jordan by rocks, the earthquake at Jeri-
cho, the hail-storm before Gibeon) which had in-
spired semi-mythological versions were utilized to
enhance his fame, all the more since they helped to
vindicate his dignity as a second Moses. Snatches
of popular songs, no longer understood because
their original mythology had become unintelligible,
were applied to his feats, and in turn gave ri.se to
new accounts of his marvelous accomplishments
(e.g., at Ajalon). This process is perfectly natural,
and has its analogues in the stories concerning other
heroes ; in fact parallels between his biography and
that of Jacob have been discovered (Steuernagel,
"Joshua," p. 150). But all this makes the historical
reality of Joshua as the chief of a successful armj'
of invasion all the more strongly assured. The
chapters dealing with the division of the land must
be dismissed as theoretical speculation, dating from
a period when the tribal organization had ceased to
exist; that is, from the Exile and perhaps later.
The epilogues (the story of Joshua's gathering the
elders or the whole people at Shechem before his
death. Josh, xxiii.-xxiv. 28) are clearly the work of
a Deuteronomic writer; and the scenes are conceived
in imitation of Jacob's blessing (Gen. xlix.) or of
Moses taking leave of the people and admonishing
them before his transition. The cruelty imputed to
Joshua — the ban against Jericho, for instance — is
a trait corroborative of the historical kernel of the
military incidents of his biography.

According to the Biblical accounts, Joshua had
nowhere to meet a non-Canaanite power. The
Flinders Petrie inscription recording Me(r)neptah's
battle with Israel, located in Palestine (before 1200
B.C. ; see ExoDts), is tlius not to be referred to this
period. Egypt's claim to suzerainty had become
merely nominal after 1250 u.c. The empire of the

Joshua, Book of

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284

Hittites {c. 1200) had become disrupted into a num-
ber of small principalities. This would indicate that
the incursion of Joseph-Israel must have taken place
about 1230-1200 B.C. E. G. H.

2. Son of Jozadak or Josedech ; high priest when
the Jews returned under Zerubbabel from the Baby-
lonian exile. His father had died in exile, and on
the return from the Captivity Joshua was the first
high priest to officiate (Hag. i. 1, 12, 14; ii. 2, 4;
Zech. vi. 11 ; Ezra iii. 2, 8; v. 2; x. 18; Neh. xii. 26).
Joshua was therefore born during the Exile. On
the arrival of the caravan at Jerusalem, he naturally
took part in erecting the altar of burnt offering and
in laying the foundations of the Temple (Ezra iii.
2 et seq.). With Zerubbabel he opposed the mach-
inations of the Samaritans {ib. iv. 3). Several of
Haggai's utterances are addressed to Joshua (Hag.
i. 1, ii. 2), and his name occurs in two of tiie
symbolical prophecies of Zechariah (iii. 1-10, vi.
11-15). He is eulogized in Ecclus. (Sirach) xlix.
12, in the list of worthies, as one who " builded the
liouse and exalted a people holy to the Lord, prepared
for everlasting glory." In Ezra (ii., iii., iv., v., x.)
and Neheraiah (vii. ?; xii. 1, 7, 10, 26) he is called

" Jeshua."

E. G. H. B. P.

JOSHUA, BOOK OF.— Biblical Data: The

first book of the second greater division in the He-
brew canon, the "Nebi'im," and therefore also the
first of the first part of this division, the "Nebi'im
Rishonim." It bears in Hebrew the superscription
)3\i^T\'' ; in the Septuagint, using the post-exilic form
of the name (yiCJ'^; Neh. viii. 17), 'Irjaovg (in some
manuscripts with the addition of vVog 'Navy) ; in the
Peshitta, "Ketaba de-Yeshu' bar-Nun Talmideh de-
Mushe " (Book of Joshua, son of Nun, the Disciple
of Moses). It belongs to the historical books of the
Old Testament, its theme being the invasion and con-
quest under Joshua of west-Jordanic Palestine and
its apportionment among the tribes, with an account
of the closing days and death of the great leader.

The book, which comprises twenty-four chapters,
readily falls into two main parts and an appendix,
which may be summarized thus: (1) the events fol-
lowing Moses' death ; the invasion and capture of
the land ; (2) the division of the country ; (3) the con-
duct of the Reubenites, etc. ; two hortatory addresses
by Joshua shortly before his death, followed by a
brief glo.ss on his burial-place and the disposition
made of the bones of Joseph. In detail the contents
are as follows:

Part I., oh. i.-xii.

i. : After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his
previous appointment as Moses' successor, receives
from Yhwu the command to cross the Jordan. In
execution of this order Joshua issues the requisite
instructions to the stewards of the people for the
crossing of the Jordan ; and he reminds the Reu-
benites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their
pledge given to Moses to help their brethren.

ii. : Joshua sends out from Shittim two spies to
explore the city of Jericho. Tliey are saved from
falling into the hands of the king by the shrewd
tactics of Rahab. The spies return and report.

iii.-iv. : Camp is broken at Shittim. A halt is
made at the Jordan. Joshua addresses the people ;

assuring them that Yiiwii, the living God, is in the
midst of them, that He will drive out the Canaan-
ites, and that the Ark will cross the Jordan, where-
upon a miraculous change will be worked in the
waters of the river. The predicted miracle takes
place as soon as the priests Avith the Ark wade into
the water. In commemoration of the event, Joshua
orders two monuments to be erected: one in the
river-bed; the other on the west bank, at Gilgal.
The Reubenites, the Gadites, and the

Crossing- half of Manasseh number 40,000 war-

of Jordan, riors. The priests are bidden to come

up out of the river's bed after the

people have crossed over. This happens on the tenth

day of the first month ; and the camp is pitched at

Gilgal.

V. : Joshua is bidden to make flint knives where-
with to circumcise the Israelites, for those born in
the desert had not been circumcised. This is done ;
Pesah is celebrated ; and the manna ceases. Joshua
in front of Jericho receives the visit of a "captain
of the host of the Lord " in the guise of a man, who
declares that the soil on which Joshua is standing
is holy ground.

vi. : The siege and capture of Jericho; after thirteen
circuits — one every day for six days, and seven cir-
cuits on the seventh day — with seven priests blowing
seven rams' horns and the people shouting, the
walls cave in. Jericho is put under the ban ; but
Rahab is excepted. A curse is pronounced against
any one who should rebuild the city. Joshua be-
comes famous throughout the whole land.

vii. : The miscarriage of the expedition against
Ai, undertaken, upon the counsel of spies, with a
very small force, strikes terror into the heart of the
people and brings Joshua to the verge of despair.
But Yhwii announces that the people have sinned.
As stated in the first verse, Achan has not respected
the ban. The people must be reconsecrated. The
sinner must be discovered by the casting of Yhwh's
lot. This is done. By a process of elimination the
guilt is limited to the tribe of Judah, then to the
clan of the Zarhites, then to the sept of Zabdi ; the
individual members of Zabdi are then brought for-
ward, man by man, and finally Achan is detected
as the culprit. He admits having taken a costly
Babylonian garment, besides silver and gold ; and
his confession is verified by the finding of the treas-
ure buried in his tent. Achan is taken into the val-
ley of Achor, and there stoned to death.

viii. : Expedition against Ai, this time with the
whole army. The city is taken by clever strategy,
30,000 men being placed overnight in an ambush.
The attacking force feigning flight, the King of
Ai is drawn far away from the city ; Joshua points
with his lance toward the city ; whereupon the men
in ambush rush into it, while Joshua and the
army with him face about. Thus the pursuing
enemy is taken between the two sections of Israel's
array. Not one man escapes; the city is burned;
12,000 inhabitants are killed, and the spoils are
taken. The King of Ai is hanged to a tree until
nightfall, when his body is thrown into a pit, where-
on a stone heap is raised. Joshua erects an altar on
Blount Ebal as Moses had commanded, offering to
Yhwh holocausts and saci-ificing peace-offerings.

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Joshua, Book of

On the stones of the altar he engraves a copy of the
law of Moses; the people being ranged in two sec-
tions— one facing Ebal; the other, Gerizim — while
the blessings and curses are read as ordained b}'
Moses.

ix. : Confederacy of the native kings to fight

Joshua. The Gibeonites by craft ob-

The Con- tain a treaty from the Israelites, which

federacy even after the detection of the fraud

Against practised upon the invaders is not

Joshua. abrogated. They are, however, de-
graded to be "hewers of wood and
drawers of water " for the altar of Yhwh.

X. : Adoni-zedek brings about an alliance between
the kings of Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish,
and Eglon, and they ("the five kings of the Amor-
ites ") besiege Gibeon. In their distress the Gibeon-
ites implore Joshua's help. Joshua, assured by
Yhwh of victory, comes up from Gilgal by a forced
night march and attacks the allies suddenly.
Thrown into confusion, the Amorites flee as far as
the ascent of Beth -boron. To this battle is referred
a song from the Book of Jashar, commanding the
sun to be still at Gibeon and the moon in the valley
of Ajalon. The five kings are captured, first being
incarcerated in the cave where they had hidden for
safety, then, after the pursuit had been discontinued,
— scarcely one of the enemies escaping— being by
order of Joshua humiliated and hanged. Then
follows a detailed enumeration of the cities captured
and put under ban. Joshua becomes master of the
whole land — thehill-countrj-, the southland, the low-
land, and the slopes — leaving not one king alive, and
banning all men from Kadesh-barnea unto Gaza, and
all the district of Goshen unto Gibeon. After this
expedition he returns to Gilgal.

xi. : Jabin, King of Hazor, and his allies rendez-
vous at Merom. Joshua is assured by Yhwh of
their total defeat, which in fact is brought about by
a sudden attack on the part of Joshua. Pursuing
them to a great distance (the cities are named), he
hamstrings their horses and burns their chariots,
capturing Hazor, killing all of its people, and burn-
ing the town. Other royal residences he takes by
the sword, putting them under the ban. The spoils
are taken, and the men are put to death. The cities
on the hill are allowed to stand. Joshua drives the
Anakim from the mountains, from Hebron, and from
other places. Only in Gaza some remain. Finally
the land has peace.

xii. : Recapitulation of Joshua's conquests, with
statistical details of the number of the kings (30)
captured and subdued.

Part II., ch. xiii.-xxi.

xiii. : After an enumeration of the places still un-
conquered (mainly the coast districts of the Philis-
tines) Joshua is bidden to apportion the land, the un-
conquered as well as the conquered (verse 6b), among
nine and one-half tribes of Israel, the other two and
one-half tribes having under Moses been given their
portion on the east of the Jordan (verses 14b-32).

xiv. : Resume of the foregoing reference to Reu-
ben, Gad, and the half of Manasseh, with a gloss
concerning Levi's non-inheritance save as regards
detached cities, while Joseph receives a double herit-
age (verses 1-5). Caleb's claim to Hebron is allowed.

XV.: The "lot" of Judah (verses 1-12). Caleb's
share (13). Expulsion by him of the three Anakim
(14). Story of Kirjath-sepher (16). Othniel takes it
and wins, as promised, Caleb's daughter for wife (17).
Her successful plea for the gift of wells (18). Cata-
logue of the heritage of Judah (20 et seq.). Gloss
on the continued dwelling of the Jebusites in Jeru-
salem (63).

xvi. : Lot of the Josephites (1-3). The Ephraim-
ites own cities in the territory of Manasseh (9).
Gloss to the effect that the Canaanites dwelling in
Gezer had not been driven out, but had been re-
duced to slavery (10).

xvii. : Lot of Manasseh, Machir as a warrior taking
for his prize Gilead and Bashan (1). Delimitation
of Manasseh (7). Manasseh's assignments in Issachar
and Asher (11). Gloss stating that these cities had
not been captured (12). Protest of the Josephites
against receiving one share only (14). Joshua ad-
vises them to conquer the wooded hill-land (15).
Plea on their part that the mountain is not extensive
enough, while the plains are held by Canaanites
equipped with iron chariots (16). Joshua's consola-
tory encouragement (17).

xviii. : Erection of the Tabernacle at Shiloh (1).
Seven tribes without allotment. Joshua urges these
to appoint commissions of three men out of each
tribe to go and take the land and to report to him,
when, after dividing it into seven portions, he will
cast the lot (2-7). The commissions carry out the
errand and lay their book of record before Joshua,
who then casts the lot (8-10). Benjamin's share
(11). The boundaries (12-20). List of the cities
(21-28).

xix. : Simeon's share, in the territory of Judah.
List of the cities (1-8), Reason why Simeon's lot
was in Judean territory (9). Zebulun's share; its
boundaries (10-14). Twelve cities not specified
(15b). Issachar's share; its cities and boundaries
(17-23). Asher's lot; its boundaries; summary
gives twenty-two as the number of its cities (24—
31). Naphtali's share; its boundaries and fortified
cities (32-39). Dan's share; its cities enumerated
(40-46). Why the Danites took Leshem = Dan (47).
Joshua receives as his own share Timnath-serah
(49-50). Eleazar and Joshua had assigned the lots
before Yhwh at the gate of the Tabernacle at Shiloh
(51). Cities of refuge established (51b-xx.).

xxi. : The Levites' assignment (1-8). Concluding
paragraph, emphasizing God's fulfilment of His
promise to the fathers (43-45).

Appendix, ch. xxii.-xxiv.

xxii. : Dismissal to their homes of Reuben, Gad,
and the half of Manasseh with Joshua's blessing and
an admonition to take heed of Yhwh's Law as com-
manded by Moses. Now that they have become
rich in cattle, silver, gold, iron, and garments they
are to divide the booty with their brethren (1-8).
Return of the east-Jordanic tribes; they build an
altar at the stone-heap on the bank of the Jordan ;
the Israelites desire to punish them for this act ; but
they first send Phiuehas and ten princes to the Reu-
benites, etc., to censure them, recalling the Peor
episode and advising them to remove to Palestine.
Tiie Reubenites explain that in building the altar
tlu'ir intention was to show their fidelitv to Yhwh,

Joshua, Book of

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286

that their descendants might not be taunted with
being untrue to Him. The delegation rejoices at
tlie explanation, and upon their report the Israelites
abandon the projected punitive expedition (9-34).

xxiii. : Joshua, now old, calls an assembly of all
Israel, at which he admonishes the people to remain
loyal to the Torah of Moses.

xxiv. : An account of a gathering of Israel at
Shechem, at which Joshua delivers an impressive ad-
dress, reviewing the past, and makes the people vow
to remain faithful. He erects a great stone as a wit-
ness to the promise (1-28). Joshua dies (29). Jo-
seph's bones are buried in Shechem (32). Eleazar
dies and is buried (33). E. G. H.
Critical View : The Rabbis ascribe the au-
thorship of the book, as of the last eight verses of
Deuteronomy, to Joshua (B. B. 14b) ; the account
of Joshua's death (Josh. xxiv. 29-32) was added,
according to them, by Eleazar, the son of Aaron
(B. B. 15a), and that of Eleazar's demise (Josh.
xxiv. 33) by Phinehas (B. B. I.e.). But this view
has been rejected by Isaac Abravanel (see preface
to his commentary on the Earlier Prophets), who
correctly observes that the use of the phrase *iy
nrn DVn = "unto this day " (Josh. iv. 9, vii. 26, ix.
27, xiv. 14, XV. 62, xvi. 10) controverts this assump-
tion, and that certain events mentioned in the Book
of Joshua are recorded in the Book of Judges (xix.
45) as occurring "long after the death of Josliua "
(Abravanel, "Comm. in Prophetas Priores," pp. 2b,
col. 2; 3a, col. 1; Leipsic, 1680).

Christian commentators have for similar reasons
contended that the book was by a later author, who
had access to documents composed by Joshua or by
contemporaries of his(Theodoret, "In JosueQua?st."
xiv.). In the "Synopsis Sacras Scriptunie " (xxviii.,
col. 309), attributed to St. Athanasius, the title of
the book is explained not as the name of the author,
but as indicating the hero of the events. Alphon-
sus Tos tat ("Opera," Cologne, 1613; "In Josue I.
Qusest." xiii.) rejects the authorship
Views as of Joshua, and advances the theory
to Author- that the book is the work of King
ship. Solomon, while Maes ("Josue Impera-
toris Historia," Antwerp, 1574) as-
cribes it to Ezra, who had access to ancient Hebrew
archives. These and modern Catholic critics also
(Cardinal Meignan, "De Moi'se a David," Paris, 1896)
thus make the book posterior to the time of Joshua,
but, for the greater part, pre-exilic and always based
on documents coeval with the events reported.

Among modern Jewish critics L. Wogue ("His-
toire de la Bible." Paris, 1881) defends the traditional
view, with reference to B. B. 14b and 15a. More
recently the passage in Ecclus. (Sirach) xlvi. 1 has
been invoked in proof of the authorship of Joshua;
npnorjreini in Ecclesiasiicus means "books," so that
Joshua being designated (ib.)as Jm(So;^;of Muvarf iv
TTftooTjTElaig would imply that he was the "author"
of the "book." The Hebrew text, however, has
nN"l3J3 ntW mK^ (see Israel Levi. " L'Ecclesias-
tique," Paris, 1898), but this has also been construed,
with reference to II Chron. ix. 29, where nii.^^:
means "book," as supporting the traditional view.

Keil in his commentary has endeavored to defend
this view by urging the force of liiay ny = "until

we had passed over" (Josh. v. 1) as demonstrating
that the narrative must have been written by an eye-
witness; but the ancient versions show this reading
to be erroneous. Nor is xviii. 9 conclusive: at the
utmost it proves that the catalogue of cities (xviii.
11-xix. 46) was abstracted from a document contem-
porary with Joshua. In the same way xxiv. 26 may
be taken as evidence only that xxiv. 1-25 is by him,
though upon closer inspection even this passage is
seen to be merely the honest opinion of a later writer.
The objections by Abravanel have not been an-
swered.

Later Biblical books exhibit incidents which de-
monstrate that the situation assumed in Joshua could
not have been that of the period of invasion. For in-
.stance, Jericho, represented in Joshua as completely
overthrown and upon the rebuilding of which a sol-
emn curse is invoked, is found to exist at a much
later date, even as a city of the Prophets (see
Elisii.\; comp. Josh. vi. 2-27, xvi. 1; Judges iii.
12-30; II Sam. x. 5; II Kings ii. 5, 15; v. 19-22;
I Chron. xix. 5; for the curse see I Kings xvi. 34).
Ai, reported burned, is known to Isaiah (as " Aiath " ;
Isa. X. 28). Gezer (Josh. xvi. 10), described as being
reduced to vassalage, is not rendered tributary until
the time of Solomon (I Kings ix. 16).

Compar- But a comparison with the Book of
ison with Judges suffices to discredit the theory

Judges. that the Book of Joshua is an auto-
biography of its eponymous hero. The
narrative in Judges reveals the fact that the inva-
sion was not directed by a general-in-chief, nor un-
dertaken at one time by the tribes united under a
national commander, nor accomplished in the life-
time of one man, mucli less in two decades.

Nor is the book the work of one man. Contradic-
tions abound, e.g., in the chronology: in iii. 1 the
crossing is set for the next day : iii. 2, three days in-
tervene ; iii. 5, the start is again delayed one day ;
comp. V. 10 with iv. 19 and v. 2-9. In xi. 21 the
Anakim are expelled by Joshua, while in xv. 13
Caleb is reported as having performed this feat.
Double and variant versions are given, as, for in-
stance, the explanation of the name Gilgal (iv. 20;
comp. v. 9 and xiv. 6 et seq. with xv. 13 et seq.).

The Book of Joshua must be regarded as a com-
pilation; and analysis of its contents makes it cer-
tain that its sources are of the same character as
those of the Pentateuch. This, to a certain degree,
was the impression of the Rabbis. According to
Mak. 11a, the chapter (xx.) concerning the cities of
refuge was taken from the Pentateuch. The Book
of Joshua was regarded bj' them as written in the
light of the Deuteronomic legislation (Gen. R. vi. 14).
At all events, Joshua and the Pentateuch are treated
as of one character in the saying that the sins of Israel
alone necessitated the adding of other books to
these (Ned. 22b). Joshua is often compared with
Moses (Ta'an. 20a; Sotah 36a ; B. B. 75a; Sanh. 20a;
Mak. 9b).

While modern critics generally are agreed that the
Book of Joshua is a compilation from sources that
have been utilized in the Pentateuch (J, E, JE, D,
and P), with additions by the editor (R = Redactor),
they differ very widely as regards the details. Ac-
cording to Steuernagel ("Joshua," in Nowack's

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Joshua, Book of

" Hand -Koinraen tar"), Albers' attempt in his " Die
Quellenbc'iiclite in Josua," i.-.\ii., 1891, to separate
the components of J from E in part i. (i.-xii.) is un-
satisfactory. In fact, Steuernagel assumes tliat J
and E combined as JE never were accessible to the
compiler of Joshua, the two being then still uncom-
bined. A few fragments from J (after Budde, in
Stade's "Zeitschrift," vii.), parallel with passages
in Judges i., and others somewhat more numerous
from E, are all that he finds in Joshua. He insists
that for i.-xii. another work, D, was the main
source. This D is not identical with tiie author of
Deuteronomy, but is rather D^ {= the author of
Deut. i.-iii.), and is on the whole an independent
elaboration of E. The few fragments of J and E
in Joshua he concedes were added by R, and only
after D'^ had been combined with P (mostly in
part ii.).

Steuernagel's analysis has not been accepted by
Holzinger ("Josua," in Marti's "K. H. C"), who re-
jects D'^ and works out a scheme on the basis of J, E,
and JE, with a pronounced Deuteronomic coloring:
Deuteronomist, Priestly Code, and Redactor. Con-
trary to the Pentateuchal R, who makes P the orig-
inal document, in Joshua JED is the basis, supple-
mented bj' extracts from P. Still later additions are
noticeable as well as changes in phraseology (e.g., the
use of i3K-)B>^ \n^{< in vii. 13, 19 etseq. ; viii. 30 ; ix. 18,
20;x. 40, 42; xiii. 14,33; xiv. 14; xxii. 16,24; xxiii. ;
xxiv. 2, 23). For a detailed analysis on this basis
see Holzinger, "Das Buch Josua," pp. xvii.-xxi.

Steuernagel in his translation prints the different
sources in different types. W. H. Bennett in "The
Book of Joshua" (in "S. B. O. T." 1895) indicates
the various documents by the use of different colors.

Summing up, these various analyses have cer-
tainly demonstrated that, on the whole, in the narra-
tive portion of the book (i.-xii.) the introduction (i.)
is Deuteronomic, as is the conclusion of the whole
book (xxi. 43-xxii. 6, xxiii.), and that
Redaction. Deuteronomic coloring is to be found
in both parts, naturally in a greater
degree in the narrative chapters. The basis of the
book was a Deuteronomic history of Joshua, founded
on material from J and E perhaps not as yet com-
bined as JE, thus excluding Rie(=Redactor of JE).
The main current of the narrative is not origi-
nally Deuteronomic, the Deuteronomic editor height-
ening its coloring, and dwelling on the moral and
religious implications of the story. The narrative
is not always consistent. In xiii.-xix. many frag-
ments are for the most part parallels to Judges i.,
which make it appear that the conquest was a slow,
laborious process, the tribes acting without con-
certed plan and nowhere under united central com-
mand. These belong to J.

But even in the narrative portion, strictly so-
called, as distinct from tlie statistical, a twofold ac-
count is almost always discernible: one apparently
older and more prosy ; the other, with a clear tend-
ency to magnify the importance oftlie events and the
absolute annihilation of the inhabitants (though this
may be set down as by Rd), and to emphasize the
miraculous. The older recalls the method of J in
the Pentateuch ; the younger, that of E. P's share
in the narrative section is very limited. Additions

of a few verses may be ascribed to it. In xiii. -xxii.
the contributions fiom P are much more extensive.
The boundaries and the lists of the cities of refuge
and of the Levitical towns belong to it. The com-
bining of the DeuteT-onomic Joshua (Rd, J, E, per-
haps JE [Rje]) with P was the work of R, who
made verbal changes to suit his ends. But even
after this additions were made, e.fj., xxii. 9-24
(comp. Num. xxxii.-xxxiii. ; Judges xx.). Ch. xvi.
and x vii. have come down in mutilated form. When
they were abridged can not be determined. The
duplication of Joshua's farewell also is by a later
hand ; or it is possible that one account of it (xxiv.)
is from E, while the other is clearly Deuteronomis-
tic, resembling Deut. iv. 29-30.

After eliminating the pragmatic elements and
toning down the Deuteronomic coloring, the critical
study of the Book of Joshua penetrates
Historical to a bed of traditions that in a more or
Character less confused way reflect actual occur-
of the rences; but these did not take place
Book. in the sequence here assumed, nor in
the manner detailed. The division of
the land is, on the whole, the workof a theorist who
utilizes actual conditions to a certain extent, but al-
ways to bring into prominence his priestly program.
Local legends, snatches of folk-lore and folk-songs,
the tendency to concentration in one man of the ex-
periences of tribes and generations (always charac-
teristic of legend), have had a decisive share in the
shaping of the original material. Explanations of
names (Achor, Gilgal), old local shrines, and reminis-
cences of former religious usages are also detectable
as the raw data upon which popular fancy had been
at work long before the various literary sources had
leaped into existence. To deny in toto, with Eduafd
Meyer (in Stade's "Zeitschrift," i.), the historical
character of the book is dogmatic. It may, how-
ever, be noticed that, in contrast with Judges, the
Book of Joshua has no chronological scheme (comp.
xi. 18, xiv. 10, xxiii. 1, xxiv. 31).

In view of the identity of its sources, and also of
the fact that throughout the Pentateuch the con-
quest of the land is presupposed and
The emphasized as the goal (Gen. xiii. 14-

Hexateuch, 17, xv. 13-16, xxvi. 3, xxviii. 13-15;
Ex. iii. 8, 17; xxxii. 13; xxxiii 1-3;
Num. xiii. 17 et seq., xiv., xxxii.; Deut. i. 38, iii.
21, xxxi. 3-6 ; P Gen. xvii. 6-8, xxviii. 3; Num.
xxvii. 18-23, xxxiii. 50-54, xxxiv., xxxv. ; Deut.
xxxiv. 9), critics have held that Joshua at one time
formed with the Pentateuch the so-called Hexa-
TEUCH. If this was the case, it must have been at a
time anterior to the separation of the Samaritans
from the Jews, as the Samaritans have only the Pen-
tateuch; but the books of Ezra and Nehemiah give
no intimation of the existence of a hexateuch. In
all probability the sources J, E, as well as D and P,
carried the narrative to the conquest of the land;
but in their present forms the Pentateuch and Joshua
were never combined. Volck (in Herzog-Hauck,
" Rcal-Encyc." ix. 390), assuming that P is older
than JE and D, aigues that before D was incorpo-
rated into the present Pentateuch, Joshua (i.-xxiv.)
formed a part of a woik composed of P, JE, and
Deut. xxxi. 14-23, xxxii. 1-44,48-52, xxxiii., xxxiv.

Joshua, Book of
Joshua ben Qamla

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

288

1-9, and that it was when Deut. v.-xxviii. was in-
corporated that Joshua was made a separate book.
This theory, while not convincing, helps to make
plain that the sources must have contained the
story of the conquest. That Hosea, Amos, and Mi-
cah knew this Hexateuch (minus Deuteronomy) is
not proved by such passages as Micah vi. betseq. (or
Hosea ix. 10, xii. 4 et seq., and Amos ii. 10, v. 25,
vii. 4). The traditions at the base of the histories
were known to these earlj^ prophets. More than
this can not be inferred from their references to
Shittim and Gilgal {e.g., in Micah vi. 5 et seq.).

The fact that in Joshua the Pentateuchal archaic
forms (nyj for myj or xin for {<\n) are not found is
not evidence against the Hexateuchal hypothesis.
This circumstance merely indicates that at the time
(post-exilic) when the consonantal text
The Text, was fixed Joshua was not one work
with the Pentateuch. Jericho is
pointed in^l^ for Pent, iniv The text is in fairly
good condition. The Septuagint is without some of
the glosses (v. 4-7, vi. 3-5, xx. 4-6). The omissions
in the Hebrew (in xv. 59, names of eleven cities;
in xxi., a passage between verses 35 and 36) are
supplied in the Greek. At the end of xxiv, the Sep-
tuagint presents additions of interest.

The Samaritan Book of Joshua, an extracanonical
book written in Arabic, pretends to be a translation
from the Hebrew (" Chronicon Samaritanum CuiTitu-
lus Est Liber Josuse," ed. Juynboll, Leyden, 1848).
It relates the consecration of Joshua
The (Deut. xxxi.), the Balaam episode,

Samaritan and the war under Joshua as general
Book of against the Midianites; then, with a
Joshua. new title ("Book of Joshua the Son
of Nun "), the conquest of the land
and its division, continuing the story from Joshua's
demise to Eli's death. Interpolations (xxvi.-xxxvii. )
deal with other personages, and in the concluding
chapters Nebuchadnezzar, Alexander, and Hadrian
are the heroes. This book is a medieval compilation
of the time when the Samaritans were under Moham-
medan rule, but contains also old haggadic mate-
rial (see Shobach).

Bibliography: The introductions of Driver, Cornill, Konig,
Baudissin, Reuss, Bleek-Wellhausen, Schrader-De Wette, and
Kuenen ; the histories of Israel by Guthe, Stade, Piepenbring,
Kittel, Winckler ; the Bible dictionaries of Cheyne and Black,
Hastings, Riehm (2d ed.), Schenckel, Hamburger, Winer (3d
ed.); Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyc. viii. ; Vigoiiroux, iii. ; L.
Konig, ^l»est. Studien, i.; idem. Die Authentiedes Buches
Joxua, Meurs, 1836 ; Keil, Kommentar iiber das Buch Josua,
Erlangen, 1847; J. Holleuberg, Die Deuternnomischen Be-
gtatidtheUe dcs Buches Josua, in Theologische Studien
nnd Kritiken, 1874; idem. Die Alcxandrinische Ueher-
Sftzuna dcs Buches J oKua, Menrs. 1876; Wellhausen, Die
Knmposition des Hexateuchs (originally in JahrhucJi der
Theoloiiie. 1876-77); Budde, Richter und Josua, in Stade's
Zeitschrift, 1877, pp. 93 et seq. ; J. S. Black, The Book of
Joshua, Cambridge. 1891; E. Albers, Die Quellenberichte in
Josua (Josh, i.-xii.), Bonn, 1891; Dillmann, Numeri, Deu-
terorwmium, und Jo.>nia, in the Kurzoefasstes Exegetisches
Handhuch, Lelpsic, 1886; Oettli, commentary to the book In
Deuteronomium, Josiui, Richter (Strack-Zockler, Kom-
ment.zum A.T.imS); Wellhau.sen, I'roleyomena, 4th ed. ;
Holzinger, Einleituna in den Hexateuch. 1893; idem. Das
Buch Josua, Tiibingen and Leipsic, 1901 ; Steuernagel, Das
Buch Josua, 1900; W. H. Bennett, The Book of Joshua, in
iS. B. O. T. Leipstc and Baltimore, 1895.

E. G. H.

JOSHUA, THE SAMARITAN BOOK OF:

Samaritan chronicle, written in Arabic; so termed
because the greater part of it is devoted to the his-
tory of Joshua. It was published from an Arabic

manuscript written in Samaritan characters, with
a Latin translation and a long preface by Juj^nboll
(Leyden, 1848). Though based on the Hebrew ca-
nonical Book of Joshua, it differs greatly from the
latter in both form and content. The author, who,
as will be shown, was of a much later period, ampli-
fied the Biblical narratives by weaving into them
legends of a later date and developing the narra-
tives themselves, at the same time altering certain
statements in accordance with Samaritan views on
history. It is divided into fifty chapters, and con-
tains, after the account of Joslnia, a brief descrip-
tion of the period following Joshua, agreeing to
that extent with the Book of Judges. Then follow
histories of Nebuchadnezzar, Alexander the Great,
and the revolt against Hadrian; it ends with an
incomplete account of Baba Rabbah. The follow-
ing is a synopsis of its contents:

Ch. i.-viii. : Introduction: Ch. i. : The author
claims to have translated the following narratives
from the Hebrew. Ch. ii. : Moses appoints Joshua
as his successor, investing him with royal power.
Ch. iii. : Account of Balaam and the King of Moab
(comp. Num. xxii. 2-41). Ch. iv. : Balaam advises
the King of Moab to draw the Israelites into lust
and thus cause their destruction (comp. Num. R.
XX. 23). Ch. v. : Moses sends Joshua and Phinehas
to the war with the Midianites (comp. Num. xxxi.
2 et seq.). Following the account of
Contents, the fall of Jericho (Josh, vi.), the au-
thor relates that the walls of Midian's
stronghold fell at the blast of the trumpets. Ba-
laam, found in the Midianite temple speechless from
terror, was killed by the soldiers in spite of Joshua's
desire to take him alive before Moses. Ch. vi.-viii. :
Moses' death; his testament; the mourning of the
Israelites over him.

Ch. ix.-xliii. : Main Part of the Book : Ch.
ix.-xii. (written in the same strain as the first chap-
ter of the canonical Book of Joshua): Joshua's
activity ; his organization of the army and prepara-
tions for the war. Ch. xiii. : The sending of the
spies to Jericho. Imitating the Biblical account of
the Gibeonites (comp. Josh. ix. 4 et seq.), the writer
says that the spies, who knew several languages,
disguised themselves as travelers, telling those they
met that, having heard of the exploits of Joshua,
they had come from a distant land for the sake of
further information about him. At Jericho, sus-
pected of being spies, they hid themselves in the
house of Rahab. The remainder of the chapter fol-
lows the canonical version. Ch. xiv.-xvii. : The
Israelites cross the Jordan (as in Josh, iii.) ; Joshua's
song, an imitation of the song of Moses in Ex. xv.
1-19; account of the fall of Jericho. Ch. xviii. :
Achan is discovered to have taken possession of
some of the accursed things. Here the account dif-
fers from that in Josh, vii.; there is no mention of
the Israelites being defeated at Ai ; but
Variations the gem in tlie high priest's breast-
from plate that bore the name of Judah
Biblical liaving become dim, it was known
Accounts, that one of that tribe had sinned. The
wedge of gold stolen by Achan is said
to have weighed 2,250 shekels. Ch. xix. : An ac-
count of the Gibeonites, similar to that in Josh, ix.,

EXCTCLOPEDIA.

7'9^r3a Iks GsssHs.

except that oolftlnee GibeonJteditiiesazemeBitMned,
Chepldsah being omitted, di. xx.-xxiiL : The etm-
tiniiatian of tlie war and tbe paititjon ot the land.
Joshua acnds sorreycRS to diride the land into ten
parts, assigning to tibe Levitt f oetj-eig^ eHies^
vfaidiaie to be taken from the other tribesu Jodma
disnusBes the two and a half tribes vhoee aHeiment
was east of the Jordan, appeinting MaMh C^Mobah"
in S^inn. xxxiL 43^ sim of GHead, king orer them;
tbej mnnber 110,580. Ch- xxit,: The SBsrveyOTS
faaTing letnmed, Joshua ^a^gmx. to the tribes their
lespectiTe k)t&. HelQien founds the citjrof Samaria
and builds a temple on IHonnt Gefirim (eomp. Jodi.
TiiL 30). Ch. xxT. : Desoiptioa of the fXKmpemas
state of the Israelites after the partition of the land,
over which peace idgns for twentj jeass.

Ch. X3CTi.— mriL give a long account of the "^ :.~^
between Joshua and the league fanned b;' Skati: .
(!9iobach>. King of Persia, ghanbak, desiriwig :

avenge Idie death of Ins father, JSauSm-
Addi:::n=. mam, who has been killed in battle
with the IsraeMte^ entas into a leagnie
irith aM the nei^ibcHing kings, who decide to wi: r
warwithJo^na. RilMmlMikftr«*.»»°wil«i«»i amlwiaR--.
-with a minatoiT l^tto* to Joshoa, who thef^ipera
ctMBultsthesaiateastothesttepstiobetaken. The
ambassador is amazed at the ^lendor with which
Jo^ua is surrounded and at the dignitjr and (Hder
with which JnghiMi stii mi wjaii^si justjiee. He rettums
with Joshua's answer, thai the Isiadtittes are pup-
pared for tbe war, and attempts to dissuade SLi~
bak fnnn his design, ^lanbak, however, erae: ::-
aged bj his mother and bjthe Dlagi, mamrhps te- : i r
war with an inunense army. Joshua, arrived ~ : -
Jus army at 'Ajlun, crae of the enenaj's oSms^ i^
enelofied b j seven iron wallK called into es^^ismoe
b]r magic At: Jo6hua''s prayer a dove appear^ aiad
bj it he sends a letter to Mabih, who marches w^-r^i-
a gieat annv against ^laubak. The fattti^ fe
feated. At the Shooting of ]Iia]nk''s soMiess : . -
walk about Joshua Aea^pear. Ch. xxxviSL-xWui^
Aft»' a rdgn of foetjr-Sve years Joi^ua die&, and fe
buried at Safv Ghawirah ((comp. Jo^ xxiv. Wf<-
acconnt of his appointnaent of his socxsessiHts ue^ :'
the pra^ierous state of l^tael nlmring iQie ens^ir
period of 960 years — the '^days of salllsSktctn
|~ayyam al-rida" oa- "yesne ha-raz«sa'^). Ym '
original l^end conoeimiinig Shaubak. see So^ih ~^
1, "tJb. with refereuce to 11 SauL x. 16u IS.

Ch. xlxv'.-l- : Ch. xMv. ctmtains an accomntt ":"f
the div^ion under ElM and of the period of ^n ^~ ^1
dalal" or "fanuta*! Ch. xlv.-L give arcoumfls ef
Xebocfaadnezzar, Sing of Hauai C3(osn% ABesan-
der the Great, the revolt, against. Hadraun, the high
priests 'Akbora and ^STathanael. and Baba RabUnh
(see Saxasttass)).

Tbe imannseript &«Mn which Jmymibdl psepairesi
his edition was the property of Scadliger, whot it ns
<--^ — ■''r<?d, ©bdaSned it froiin flae Kgyp-
The ^lanu- -.-jnaaritans in 15®!.. Latter, it

scrip* . - : :•! by Jdiiann Heiifflidlii Htnt-

".i:.^; -. "^ -? described it in his ^Exer-
citarioetes antt-Morinianse '" P&14, pp. 10&-116)) amd
in M$~Sinn^:nia Orientate '"((16S«>. Two other uraaffiD-
scripts (m the Brit^h Museum aisd at Trinmtty Col-
lege, Ckmbridgel) have ^nee eoime to £oini!qp£. An
TIT.— 19

T^gJKffih tTamffiBatiCTia off Jimymbdlll's test has beem BBade
by O. T. Came C'The Igonsisaotaim Cksmwd^ m Book
of J<idbnDia^"]StewT<»k,lie)% CmSmsjt&RdieB^
Juynbiin (pndfaiee t& im edtitiQimJi esnadhadted that the
Samaritan Jdsshnia was the wtosk icf <sm& aBstthsirn who
did ms^ Mre latter than thetMnteesmth eaiattiBiry„ haamg^
Ms ctmneliiii^siiii on the &ct: ifflsit Aim al-F^a^ who
wiiuitte in ISsS, dnsiw finsnn it x&niach naBsffifBTBall i/sit hffi
own (jmremi^e. It w aSsa itpkoittied by "iy«feTritTS (^
14I1)X JraynhsiM fjonrthar cffinDdhaded ^at, the amtftHr
cominBed the woirk fysssn Skxss: ssmrGes— ssae Hdasew-
Samaritan ((the ba^s of ithe fiiiB*!ii. twensty-fonr <
tessi and thiree Aiahoe. The Me^ssw^
sowuce K based upon the Si : : rr3dt tttanadattDoai of
Jo^raa. A Hebrew Btesommst ^ ^tJfQsyffi^Shambak
((ch. xxvL— xxxrm.)) was Im^irtted in ZaenBHta's "'Se&r
Yuhaan'" by ■'BaiiiniTiafjl shulbna, -who deciaied that
_^ tf««»my)j it in a SawmaiJiiltfaiiiii chmoraadle f Se&r Z&kro-
^Sutim'"!, whoie it K saM to have been taken
^rh ^lEidnat^k. It fe ewidesilL that SWwn^T :
',:, _..~i Aialne wdnk, jHobaB^y the 'Ssbbs&t'./l.z

Book of joehuan fm: he meai^ '^Xa^sh.'" lin^&Bt _
~ '^~~'^Tiiiiii ."' a change posobie ffiofiy if t&e origimau »iis
Aiabie chatactens. SffiBusaeS 3iiiii]Ilarai''£ resnaae
-was copied afito-waid by Ihia Tahyai« in hra '^Shall-
: : - ' .-KaWaafah,.'" anad by Bemibea Tfwijftike,, ia his
■ RVuhaaB'^CffleEttBaaBi'^DebaffiBBi'^).

'.^l; SAdOL Jt Sts^A ^ SanumWMm ^^
2 5.=.. A. 33~2iJ^: Phy^caafflii

_. _: '...■! hnm the privH^e ta!> wear kmiigfliitily

gamaentSL The amchli^M!^

dfsoas^sniis with h^ Jew^ei j^Aiyiadsam., whash we-
i--'"':.---/' "™ Js^uBa^s acoapttajiBBe (©f C&rfeii58.Ti?tT_ At

je reoaved the raasQe "^BnuisigSL '

3I_ SffilL.

■^c-=-

3: ^

m aiBiMHia

-^tia^ ftg^jjjgi-'f^-T. Hie tsaiBsnittisd a hag^dnh eS
L'f~^ and a lt«lb]kaiBii of "Anasii h. l^sora. Theteaie
. .. extant soBiiBe &f h^owm hag^;ai^e saySimgs, amd

■ ... JiJ. AraasHT.'" m. T*?!; HeaBipriiEL. *?ifi'5fT IbaH
:■ -:'l,'"iLl^^i. ' _

JOSJEirA (Jiesos) TCTTS' 2 AJiLi: Ju.1 1 ^zh

pnsSH, abooitt 62-^ csl He w^ appsmoBted by Krrng
Agrippa H., afinar ■^niaia'' mm e^ Annam, h^ besm de-
posed ((JosephTQSs -^AmL'" XX. St, f It Jic^nua albs
wassKBon depsa%«lbytteMia]^.,3]!!idnMs pibnoe Jesms
((Jo^na)) b- Gaanal" ' ~ ' •dv^yd aSie hagh-

pfflfefily dignSfiy. A ^ - : _: - - aStwegm ifle de-

pioeed and the new high poesit; tthey iosmlied eaicii
0ither in the panbSoc ^trestis asi^ ev@m thi^w^ shoioDtts at
e»ch fflthiar {(A % 4\ tral" ,Tts:n? 1?. <3-Kn3s35d i^danmed
the victiDV.

JO-5Sri7A iJesrrs^ BEN" C- A IfT A : A h^

pri^t whooffic.. £. He imaanrad ailiK-

Joshua b. Hauaniah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

290

rich widow Martha of tlie high-priestly family Boc-
thos (Yeb. vi. 4), and she by bribing Agrippa II.
(not Jannai, as Talmudio sources say) secured for
him the office of high priest (Yeb. 61a; Yoma 18a;
comp. "Ant." xx. 9, § 4). Although Joshua him-
self was not a scholar, he was solicitous for the in-
struction of the young, and provided schools in
every town for children over five years of age, earn-
ing thereby the praises of posterity (B. B. 31a). The
two lots used on the Day of Atonement, hitherto of
boxwood, he made of gold (Yoma iii. 9).

Joshua did not remain long in office, being forced,
after a year, to give way to Matthias ben Theophil
(" Ant." XX. 9, § 7). Together with the former high
priest Anau and other men of rank, he opposed, but
without success, the election of Phinehas b. Samuel
(68) as high priest ("B. J."iv. 3, § 9). He attempted
peaceably to prevent the fanatic and pugnacious
Idumeans from entering Jerusalem, then torn by
internal dissensions. After they had come into pos-
session of the city, these fanatics took bloody venge-
ance on him, bj'^ executing him, as well as Anan, as
traitors to their country (68) ("B. J." iv. 5, § 2).

Bibliography: In addition to the authorities mentioned
above, Derenbourg, HMoire dc la Palestine, p. 248: Gratz,
in Mntiatsscln-ift. xxx. 59; Strassburger, (xesch. dcj- Er-
ziehiing bci doi Isrneliten, p. 30; Schiirer, Gcseh. dcr Jiulcn,
i. 584, 618 ; ii. 221, 424.
G. S. Kk.

JOSHUA B. HANANIAH : A leading tanna
of the first half-century following the destruction
of the Temple. He was of Levitical descent (Ma'as.
Sli. V. 9), and served in the sanctuary as a member
of the class of singers ('Ar. lib). His mother intended
him for a life of study, and, as an older contempo-
rary, Dosa b. Harkinas, relates (Yer. Yeb. 3a), she
carried the child in his cradle into the synagogue,
so that his ears might become accustomed to the
sounds of the words of the Torah. It was probably
with reference to his pious mother that Johanan
b. Zakkai thus expressed himself concerning Joshua
ben Hananiah: "Hail to thee who gave him birth"
(Ab. ii. 8). According to another tradition (Ab. R.
N. xiv.) Johanan b. Zakkai praised him in the
words from Eccl. iv. 13: "And a threefold cordis
not quickly broken." Perhaps he meant that in
Joshua the three branches of traditional learning,
Midrash, Halakah, and Haggadah, were united in
a firm whole; or possibly he used the passage in the
sense in which it was employed later (Eccl. R. iv.
14; B. B. 59a), to show that Joshua belonged to a
family of scholars even to the third generation.

Joshua ben Hananiah was one of the five who

formed the inner circle of Johanan's pupils (Ab. ii.

8). In enumerating them tradition places him at the

head together with Eliczer b. Hyrca-

Pupil of nus. Tradition also frequently men-
Johanan b, tions these two together as upholders

Zakkai. of opposite views. They were both
present at the celebration of the cir-
cumcision of Elisha b. Abuyah (Aher), in Jerusalem,
and diverted themselves by connecting passages in
the Pentateuch with others in the Prophets and the
Ilagiographa (Yer. Hag. 77b). It was also Eliezerand
Joshua who rescued Johanan ben Zakkai from the be-
sieged city and brought him into the camp of Ves-
pasian.

After the destruction of the Temple Joshua op-
posed the exaggerated asceticism with which many
wished to show their grief, e.g., in going without
meat and wine because the altar on which they had
sacrificed animals and poured libations of wine had
been destroyed. He represented to them that to be
consistent they ought to eat no figs or grapes, since
no more first-fruits were offered, and that they ought
even to refrain from bread and water, since the fes-
tival of drawing water (Joshua describes this festi-
val in Yer. Suk. 55b) had been discontinued, and the
showbread as well as the two loaves of the feast of
first-fruits could no longer be sacrificed (Tosef. ,
Sotah, end ; B. B. 60b). With such arguments
Joshua supported the efforts of his teacher to make
the grief at the lo.ss of the Temple, which until then
had been the center of religious life, less bitter. His
opposition to asceticism, however, was due also to his
mild and temperate nature, which caused him to

say in regard to the severe regulations

An Oppo- which had been adopted by the

nent of school of Shammai shortly before the

Asceticism, destruction of the sanctuary : " On that

day they overstepped the boundary."
As he declared in a dispute on this subject with his
colleague Eliezer, " they have poured water into a
vessel full of oil, thus causing the costly oil to run
to waste" (Yer. Shab. 3c; comp. Shab. 153b).

Joshua saw the greatest danger to the community
in the sickly offshoots of piety. The following he
calls "enemies of general prosperity ": the foolishly
pious (pious at the wrong time); sly sinners; the
woman who shows an overpious bearing; and the
"plague of the Pliarisees," the hypocrites who pre-
tend to be saints (Sotah iii. 4, 31b; Yer. Sotah
31b). In his motto of life (Ab. ii. 11) he recom-
mends temperance and the love of mankind as a se-
curity for individual happiness. An evil eye (grudg-
ing), evil inclination (passion), and hatred of mankind,
he says, bring people out of the world. In the same
spirit he answers the question put by Johanan ben
Zakkai to his pupils as to the best standard of con-
duct. He declares that one should seek a.ssociation
with a good companion and avoid a bad one (Ab. ii.
11). Various anecdotes illustrate the opposition be-
tween Joshua, who represented the teachings of
Hillel, and his colleague Eliezer, who represented the
teachings of Shammai, much in the same way as the
opposition between Hillel and Shammai is depicted
elsewhere (Gen. R. Ixx., beginning; Eccl. R. i. 8;
Kid. 31a).

Joshua's permanent residence was in Beki'in, a
place between Jabneh and Lydda (Sanh. 33b), where

he followed the trade of a needier (Yer.

He "Works Ber. 7d). This occupation did not in

at a Trade, an}' degree diminish the respect paid

to him as one of the influential mem-
bers of the academy at Jabneh. After the death of
Johanan b. Zakkai, he was tlie heartiest supporter
of Gamaliel's efforts to bring about the predomi-
nance of the views of Hillel's followers over those
of Shanimai's, and thus to end the discord which
had so long existed between the schools. But he
was the very one whom Gamaliel humiliated on a
certain occasion when the authority of the presi-
dent was in question (R. H. 25ti; Yer. R. H. 58b).

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Joshua b. Hananiah

Joshua's pliant disposition did not sliield him from
humiliation by Gamaliel a second time; and the
wrong done to this highly esteemed scholar was
the cause of Gamaliel's removal from office. He
soon obtained Joshua's forgiveness, and this opened
the way for his reinstatement ; but he was now obliged
to share his office with Eleazar b. Azariah, who
had originally been appointed his successor (Ber.
28a).

Joshua esteemed Eleazar very highly, and on one
occasion called out in his emphatic manner: "Hail
to thee, Father Abraham, for Eleazar b. Azariah
came forth from thy loins!" (Tosef., Sotah, vii. ;
Hag. 3a; Yer. Hag., beginning). When it became
necessary to present the case of the Palestinian Jews
at Rome, the two presidents, Gamaliel and Eleazar,
went as their reiDresentatives, and Joshua b. Hana-
niah and Akiba accompanied them. This journej'
of the "elders" to Rome, and their stay in the Im-
perial Citj', furnished material for many narratives.
In one of these the Romans call on Joshua b. Hana-
uiah to give proofs from the Bible of the resurrec-
tion of the dead and of the foreknowledge of God
(Sanh. 90b). In another, Joshua comes to the aid of
Gamaliel when the latter is unable to answer the
question of a "philosopher" (Gen. R. xx.). In one
anecdote, concerning a sea voyage undertaken bj-
Gamaliel and Joshua, the astronomical knowledge
of the latter is put to use. He is said to have cal-
culated that a comet would appear in the course of
the voyage (Hor. 10a).

After Gamaliel's death (comp. M. K. 27a; Yer.
M. K. 83a), the first place among the scholars fell to
Joshua, .since Eliezer b. Hyrcanus was under a ban.
Joshua wished to do away with a regulation of
Gamaliel's, but met with opposition on the part of
the council ('Er. 41a). Joshua stood by the death-
bed of his colleague Eliezer b. Hyrcanus and called
to him: "O master, thou art of more value to Israel
than God's gift of the rain ; since the rain gives life
in this world onlj', whereas thou givest life both in
this world and in the world to come" (Mek., Yitro,
Bahodesh, 10: Sifre, Deut. 32; comp. Sanh. 101a).
When, after Eliezer's death, the other law scholars,
Eleazar b. Azariah, Tarfon, and Akiba, contested
some of his opinions, Joshua said to them : " One
should not oppose a lion after he is dead " (Git. 83a;
Yer. Git. 50a). Eleazar, also, seems to have died
some time before Joshua.

In the beginning of Hadrian's rule Joshuaappears
as a leader of the Jewish people. When the permis-
sion to rebuild the Temple was again
TJnder refused, he turned the excited people

Hadrian, from thoughts of revolt against Rome
by a speech in which he skilfully
made use of a fable of ^Esop's concerning the lion
and the crane (Gen. R. Ixiv., end). About the same
time Joshua bj' his eloquence prevented the whole
area of the Temple from being pronounced un-
clean because one human bone had been found
in it (Tosef., 'Eduy. iii. 13; Zeb. 113a). Joshua
lived to witness Hadrian's visit to Palestine; and
he followed the emperor to Alexandria (130). The
conversations between Joshua and Hadrian, as they
have been preserved in the Babylonian Talmud and
the Palestinian Midrash, have been greatly modified

and exaggerated by tradition ; but thej' nevertheless
present in general a just picture of the intercourse
between the witty Jewish scholar and the active,
inquisitive emperor, the "curiositatum omnium ex-
plorator," as Tertullian calls him. In Palestinian
sources Josliua answers various questions of I lie
emperor: how God created the world (Gen. R.
X.); concerning the angels {ih. Ixxviii., beginning;
Lam. R. iii. 21); as to the resurrection of the body
(Gen. R. xxviii. ; Eccl. R. xii. 5); and with reference
to the Decalogue (Pesik. R. 21). In the Babylonian
Talmud three conversations are related, which re-
semble that on the Decalogue, in that Joshua silences
the emperor's mockery of the Jewish crmception of
God bj" proving to him God's incomparable great-
ness and majesty (Hul. 59b, 60a). Joshua also re-
bukes the emperor's daughter when she mocks at
the God of the Jews (ib. 60a); in another place she
is made to repent for having mocked Jo.shua's
appearance (Ta'an. on Ned. 50b). The emperor's
question concerning the odor of Sab-
Relations bath food is a mocking one (Sliab.
■with the 119a). Once Joshua told the emperor
Emperor, that he would dream of the Partliians
(Ber. 56a). At another time he ex-
cused his own non-appearance at a meeting by clev-
erly describing the infirmities of his old age (Shab.
152a). In one conversation, preserved b}' a later au-
thority (Jellinek, "B. H." v. 132), Joshua defended
the justice of God, which M-as doubted by the em-
peror. Once a dispute in pantomime took place in
the emperor's palace between Joshua and a Juda'o-
Christian ("Min "), in which Joshua maintained that
God's protective hand was still stretched over Israel
(Hag. 5b). In another conversation Joshua defended
the honor of Israel against a heretic, who had at-
tacked it, by quoting from Micah vii. 4 ('Er. 101a).
Some of the questions addressed to Joshua by the
Athenian wise men, found in a long story in the
Babylonian Talmud (Bek. 8b et seq.), contain polem-
ical expressions concerning Christianity (Giidemann,
" Religionsgeschichtliche Studien," pp. 89, 136 et
seq.). The historical basis for this remarkable tradi-
tion is found in Hadrian's association with Joshua
b. Hananiah, in Joshua's visit to Athens, and in his
intercourse with Athenian scholars and philosophers.
Its conclusion is an echo of the myth of the Dana-
ides; and it is supposed to demonstrate the superi-
ority of the " wise men of the Jews " over the " eld-
ers of Athens." Embodied in this tradition are the
stories in which the wit of Athens is conquered by
the cleverness of the men of Jerusalem (Lam. R. i. 1,
s.v. "Rabbati"). In one of these the pupils of Jo-
hanan b. Zakkai make sport of an Athenian. That
the tradition contains in parts polemics against
Christianity is explained by the fact that Jo.shua b.
Hananiah fought the heresy of the Jud;eo-Christians.
The same spirit is manifested in the story concerning
his nephew Hananiah (Eccl. R. i. 25).
Opposes It is related that when Joshua ben
Judaeo- Hananiah was about to die, the schol-
Christians. ars standing round his bed mourned,
saying: "How shall we maintain our-
selves against the unbelievers?" Joshua comforted
them with words from Jer. xlix. 7: "If counsel has
been taken away from the children [of God, i.e..

Joshua b.
Joshua b.

Hananiah
Levi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

292

Israel], the wisdom of these [the enemy] has also
perished " (Hag. 5b).

After his death Joshua's importance was extolled
in the words: "Since Rabbi Joshua died, good coun-
sel has ceased in Israel" (Baraita, Sotah, end). Not
long after Joshua's death the thinkers were super-
seded by the men of action ; and Bar Kokba, enthu-
siastically greeted by Joshua's most influential pupil,
Akiba b. Joseph, raised the flag of rebellion against
Rome. That this step had not been taken earlier
was due to Joshua's influence.

In the haggadic tradition Joshua b. Hananiah 's
exegetical controversies with two of his most prom-
inent contemporaries occup}' an important place.
These two are his colleague Eliezer ben Hyrcanus,
who is frequently mentioned in the Halakah also
as holding an opposite opinion, and Eleazar of Mo-
di'im, who belonged to the school of Jabneh and
was especially known as the author of haggadic ex-
positions of the Bible. The controversies between
Eliezer and Joshua refer to cosmology ; to eschatol-
ogy, comprising views on the Messianic period as
well as on the future world and the resurrection ;
and to the interpretation of various Biblical passages.
The controversies between Joshua b. Hananiah and
Eleazar of Modi'im are found in the tannaitie mid-
rash to Exodus; and they form at the same time a
continuous double commentary on the sections con-
cerning the stay of the Israelites at Marah (Ex. xv.
22-27), the miracle of the manna (ib. xvi.), the fight
with Amalek {ib. xvii.), and the visit of Jethro {ib.
xviii.). In these controversies Joshua, as a rule,
stands for the literal meaning of the words and the
historical interpretation of the contents, putting em-
phasis on the meaning demanded by
His the context. The Alexandrian Jews

Exegesis, addressed twelve questions to Joshua
(Niddah 69b). They fall into four
groups: (1) three halakic, (2) three haggadic, (3)
three foolishly ignorant questions (a sort of par-
ody on the questions of halakic casuistry), and (4)
three questions taken from practical life. Eleven
questions also were addressed to him concerning the
special position of woman in physical, spiritual,
social, and religious matters (Gen. R. xvii., end).
Some of these with his answers are : " Why is a man
easy, a woman difficult, to persuade?" "Man was
created out of earth, which easily dissolves in water;
woman was created from bone, which is not affected
by water."— "Why does a man have his head un-
covered while a woman has hers covered ? " " Who-
ever has committed a sin is ashamed before people ;
thus woman is ashamed on account of Eve's sin,
and consequently covers her head." — "Why do
women take precedence in funeral processions?"
"Because they have brought death into the world."

Joshua ben Hananiah. was regarded by posterity
as a man always ready with an answer, and as the
victorious representative of Jewish wit and wisdom.
This is shown in tiie accounts of his conversations
with heathens and in other narratives. He himself
tells of three encounters in which he had to yield
the palm to the wit of a woman and a child. He
introduces the story in these words: "No one ever
overcame me except a woman, a boy, and a maid "
(Er. .53b: comp. Lam. R. i. 1, section "Rabbati,"

end). Joshua explains the end of verse 18 of Ps.
ix. to mean that there are even among the Gentiles

pious people who will have a share
Sayings, in the life everlasting (Tosef., Sanh.

xiii. 2; comp. Sanh. 105a). "The
P.salms," he also said, "do not refer to the personal
affairs of David, but to the affairs of all Israel " (Pes.
117b). If a man learns a halakic sentence in the
morning and two sentences in the evening, and he
is busy the whole day at his trade, it will be ac-
counted to him as though he had fulfilled the whole
Torah (Mek., Beshallah, Wayassa', 2). Holidays are
intended to be employed one-half for worldly en-
joyment, one-half for study (Pes. 68b; Bezah 15b).
From Ruth ii. 19 it may be concluded that the poor
person who receives does more for the giver than
the giver does for the recipient (Lev. R. xxxiv. ;
Ruth R. ad loc).

Bibliography: Frankel, Darke; Graetz; Weiss, Dor; Briill,
Einleituna; Derenbourg, HMoire; Bacher, Ayada der
Tann. 2cl ed., 123-187, 196-310; A. Lewysohn, Tolednt R.
Yehoshua'' ft. Hananiah, in Keller's Bikkurim, i. 36-3.5.

s. s. W. B.

JOSHUA HOSCHEL ben JOSEPH : Polish
rabbi; born in Wilna about 1578; died at Cracow
Aug. 16, 1648. In his boyhood he journeyed to
Przemysl, Galicia, to study the Talmud under
Rabbi Samuel ben Phoebus of Cracow. He returned
to his native country, and continued his Talraudic
studies in the city of Lodmir (Vladmir, Volhynia)
under Rabbi Joshua Falk. After his marriage to
the daughter of Rabbi Samuel of Brest-Litovsk he
became rabbi of the cit}' of Grodno, whence he was
called to the rabbinate of Tiktin (Tykotzin), and
later to that of Przemysl. In 1639 he became rabbi
of Lemberg, and in the following year he was
appointed head of the yeshibah of Cracow. At
Cracow Joshua devoted all his time to matters per-
taining to the yeshibah, " din " (law), and religious
decisions. As he was a man of wealth, he accepted
no salary for all the laborious services he rendered
to the Jewish communitj^ of Cracow.

Joshua was one of the most eminent Talmudical
analysts of his age. Like many of his learned con-
temporaries, Joshua had also a taste for the Cabala;
but he did not allow mystical teachings to influence
ids halakic decisions. On account of his extensive
erudition in Talmudic literature, the number of his
pupils at the yeshibah constantly increased. Many
of them became noted rabbis.

Joshua's published works are: (1) "MaginneShelo-
moj^ " (Amsterdam, 1715), novelLne on various tract-
ates of the Talmud, in which the author attempts
to refute the strictures made by the schools of the
Tosafists on the commentaries of Rashi; (2) "She'e-
lot u-Teshubot Pene Yehoshua'," Amsterdam, 1715;
Lemberg, 1860. Other works of his are still in
manuscript.

Bibliography: C. N. Dernbitzer, Kclilat Ynft, 1. 109. il. 1,
Cracow. 1888-93 ; I. M. Zunz. 'Ar ha-Zedck, p. 79, Lemberg,
1874; H. Friedberg, Luhnt ZAkknnm, p. 11, Drohobicz, 1897;
i^em, Ketrr Kchnnnah,\i.b. ih. 1898; S. Buber, Anshc Sihrm,
p. 83, Cracow, 189.i; Steinsctineider, Cat. Bndl. col. 1557;
R. N. Uabinowitz, Hesj-ot u-Tikkunim,p. 13, Lyck, 1875; S.
Hurwitz, Rchohot 'Ir. p. 10, Wilna, 1890.
s. s. B. Fr.

JOSHUA HdSCHEL BEN MEIR: Rabbin-
ical author; lived in the eighteenth century ; died at
Jerusalem; a contemporary of Elijah Wilna. He

203

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joshua b. Hananiah
Joshua b. Levi

wrote "Mazmiah Yeshu'ah " (Novvydwor, 1782). in
two parts: the first consists of a commentary on tlie
"Mordekai" of K. Mordecai b. Hillel; ami tlie sec-
ond, entitled "Yesliu'ot Ya'akob," comprises objec-
tions to tlie critical notes written on the "Bet Ya'a-
kob, " besides novellye on Baba Kamma. Joshua was
also the author of " Yeshua' be-Rosh " (Shklov, 1788),
a commentary on Rosh to Baba Kamma, Baba Mezi'a,
and Baba Batra.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keneset Titn-ael, p- 229; Walden,
Shem ha-GeiUilim he-Hadash, i. 41, li. 49; Benjacob, Ozar
ha-Sefarim, pp. 2Sl, ^563; Zedner, Cat. Hehr. Books Brit.
Mus. p. 561.
S. S. N. T. L.

JOSHUA HOSCHEL ben SAXTL: Polish rab-
bi; died in Wilua at an advanced age Sept. 9, 1749.
He was named after his grandfather, R. HOschel of
Lublin, Brest-Litovsk, and Cracow (d. 1663), and is
referred to iu a document dated 1745 as being very
old. He became rabbi of Wilna iu 1712 and held
that position until his death. He is mentioned with
great reverence by contemporaneous writers; and
there are approbations by him in "Geon Zebi " by
Zebi Horwitz (Prague, 1736) and in the Jerusalem
Talmud with the commentary "Korban ha-'Edah"
by his brother-in-law David of Dessau (Dessau,
1743; Shklov, 1812). A letter written from Padua
(1729) to R. Hoschel by the physician Jekuthiel of
Wilna, who studied in Italy, describing the writer's
enthusiasm for Moses Hayyim Luzzatto, is published
in Jacob Emden's " Torat ha-Kena'ot " (Amsterdam,
1752). The letter on cabalistic questions, presu-
mably written to the subject of this article by Ben-
jamin Cohen Vitali of Reggio in 1691, was probably
really addressed to the cabalist Joshua HOschel ben
Joseph Zoref of Wilna, who died at Cracow in 1720.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, pp. 109, 114, 369,
Wilna, 1860 ; Idem, Keheset Yisrael, p. 300, Warsaw, 1886 ;
Monatsschrift, xll. 700-708 ; xUi. 328, note.

B. S. P. Wl.

JOSHUA JOSEPH BEN DAVID HA-
LEVI : Rabbi of Venice and Hebrew poet; lived
in the seventeenth century. He composed elegies
(" kinot ") on the deaths of Samuel Aboab and Moses
Zacuto (Venice, 1694), and one, entitled " Kos Tan-
humin," on the death of Moses Levi Majo, rabbi of
Venice {ib. 1707).

Bibliography: Nepl-Ghlrondl, Toledot Gedole Yuirael, p.
171 ; Steinschnelder, Cat. Bodl. col. 1555.
8. s. M. Sel.

JOSHUA B. KARHA : Tanna of the second
century; contemporary of the patriarch Simeon b.
Gamaliel II. Some regard him as the son of Akiba
who was named " Kereah " = " bald " (Rashi on Bek.
58a; Rashbam on Pes. 112a). This is incorrect (comp.
Tosef., Pes. 112a), for he never mentions Akiba, and
would have done so had Akiba been his father.
Only a few halakot of his have been preserved, his
utterances having been mostly haggadic.

Josiiua was bald ; and once in a dispute with a
heretic who taunted him on this score, he refuted
his opponent with remarkable readiness of wit
(Shab. 152a). His affection for his people is shown
by the indignation with which he rebuked Eleazar b.
Simeon, who iiad delivered tlie Jewish freebooters
over to tlic Romans, upbraiding him with the words:
" Thou vinegar son of wine [= " Degenerate scion of

a noble father "], how long wilt thou give the people

of our God unto death V " (B. M. 83b).

He lived to a great age; and when he blessed

Judah ha-Nasi he added the wish that the latter

might live half as long as himself (Meg. 28b).

Bibliography: Frankel, Hndeqctica i7i Miwhnaw, p. 178,
Leipsic, 1^59 ; Brijll, Eiiileitiiim in die Miachna. p. 202, Krank-
fort-on-the-Main ; Bacher, Ag. Tan. il. 308-321; Heilprin,
Seder ha-Dorot, pp. 189-190.
8. J. Z. L.

JOSHUA B. LEVI: Palestinian amora of the
first half of tlie third century. He was the head of tlie
school of Lydda in southern Palestine, and an elder
contemporary of Johanan bar Nappaha and Simeon
b. Lakisli, who presided over the school in Tiberias
(Gen. R. xciv.). With the former, Joshua often
engaged iu haggadic discussions (B. B. 116a; Meg.
27a; Shebu. 18b). It is doubtful whether the words
" ben Levi " mean the sou of Levi, whom some iden-
tify with Levi ben Sisi, or a descendant of the
tribe of Levi (GrUtz, "Gesch." iv. 263; Frankel,
"Mebo," p. 91b; Weiss, "Dor," iii. 60; Bacher, " Ag.
Pal. Amor."i. 124).

Joshua b. Levi was a pupil of Bar Kappara, whom
he often quotes; but he considers his greatest in-
debtedness as being due toR. Judah b. Pedaiah, from
whom he learned a great number of halakot (Ex. R.
vi. ; Eccl. R. vii. 7; Gen. R. I.e.). Another of his
teachers was R. Phinehas hen Jair, whose piety and
sincerity must have exerted a powerful influence
upon the character of Joshua. Joshua himself was
of a very gentle disposition. He was known for his
modesty and piety ; and whenever he instituted pub-
lic fasting and prayer, it was said that his appeals
were answered (Yer. Ta'an. 66c).

His love of peace likewise prevented him from
making any attacks against the "Christian heresy"
(" minut ") that was then gaining ground. He was
tolerant even to the Jewish Christians, though they
often annoyed him; and he forbore cursing one of
them, pronouncing rather Ps. cxlv. 9, "God's mer-
cies extend over all His creatures " (Ber. 7a ; 'Ab.
Zarah 4b). His love of justice and his fear lest the
innocent should suffer on account of the guilty
(Yoma 19b) led him to pronounce against the cus-
tom then prevailing of removing from office a reader
who, by omitting certain benedictions, had aroused
the suspicion of heresy (Yer. Ber. 9c).

Joshua was a public-spirited man and devoted a

considerable portion of his time to furthering the

public welfare (Eccl. R. vii. 7). His

Represent- wealth, and the additional circum-

ative stance of his being allied to the patri-

Position. archal family through the marriage
of his son Joseph (Kid. 33b), must
have added to his authority. He was recognized
as a representative of Palestinian Jewry, for he
is found in company with his friend R. Hanina
interceding on behalf of his people before the pro-
consul in Ctesarea, who accorded Joshua and his
colleague much honor and respect (Yer. Ber. 9a).
On another occasion, when the city of Lydda was
besieged because a political fugitive had found ref-
uge there, Joshua saved the city and its inhabitants
by surrendering the refugee (Yer. Ter. 46b; Gen.
R. I.e.). He also made a journey to Rome, but on
what mission is not known (Gen. R. xxxiii.).

Joshua b.
JosiaL

Levi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

294

Although E. Joshua b. Levi was connected
tljrough family ties with the patriarchal house, and
alwaj-s manifested his high esteem for its members
(Kid. 33b), yet it is largely due to him that the
friendship between the southern yeshibot and the
patriarchal house diminisiied (that such friendship
existed see 'Er. 65b; Yer. Pes. 32a). For Joshua
was the first to ordain fully his own pupils in all
cases where ordination was requisite (Ned. 42b),
thus assuming a power that hitherto had lain in the
hands of the nasi alone.

In the field of Halakah Joshua was of consider-
able importance, his decisions being generally de-
clared valid even when disputed by his contempo-
raries R. Johanan and Simeon ben Lakish. He
was lenient, especially in cases where cleanliness
and the preservation of health were involved (Shab.
121b ; Yer. Yoma 44d). Joshua devoted himself to
the elucidation of the Mishnah ; and his own halakot
resemble in their form and brevity the mishnayot
of the Tannaim.

In the Haggadah, however, he is even of greater
importance. Of that study he entertained a high
opinion, and he explained Ps. xxviii. 5, " the works
of God," as referring to the Haggadah (Midr. Teh.
xxviii. 5). Similarly in Prov. xxi. 21 he identities
"glory" ("kabod") with Haggadah (B. B. 9b).
There is also a reference to a book ("pinkes") by
Joshua ben Levi which is presumed by some to
have presented haggadic themes (Weiss, " Dor, " p.
60); but this can not be well reconciled with the
fact that Joshua disparaged greatly the writing
down of haggadot (Yer. Shab. 15c; Midr. Teh. xxii.
4; Bacher, I.e. p. 129. against Weiss, I.e., who as-
sumes that the " pinkes " was the work of another
rabbi of the same name).

It is beyond doubt, however, that the Haggadah
occupied a very important place in the teaching of
Joshua b. Levi ; this is evident from the manj' hag-
gadot quoted in his name directly or given in his
name by his disciples and contemporaries.

As an exegete Joshua b. Levi is of some impor-
tance, his interpretations often enabling him to de-
duce halakot. Some of his explanations have been
accepted by later commentators (e.^r., Ibn Ezra and
others on Ex. xv. 1 ; see Ex. R. xxiii.).

Joshua b. Levi was an earnest student, and his

emphasis of study is seen when he speaks of God

as saying to David (Ps. Ixxxiv. 11)

His that "better" in His sight is "one

Maxims, day'-' of study in the Law "than a
thousand " .sacrifices (Mak. 10a ; Midr.
Teh. exxii. 2). Though learning is of paramount
importance (Meg. 27a), still he also insists on piety.
He who attends morning and evening the synagogue
service will have his days prolonged (Ber. 8a), and
he who moves his lips in prayer will surely be heard
(Lev. R. xvi., end; Yer. Ber. 9d). He instituted a
number of rules regulating the reading of the Law
in the synagogue on week-days (Ber. 8a) and other
matters relating to the service, many of which are
to this day in force in the synagogue (Sotah 39b).

Some of Joshua's philosophical and theological
opinions are recorded. Speaking of the attributes
of God, he represents Him (Yoma 69b; Yer. Ber.
lie; Yer. Meg. 74c) as "great, mighty, and awe-

inspiring" (Deut. X. 17). He conceives the relation
between Israel and God as most intimate, and he ex-
presses it in the words, "Not even a wall of iron
could separate Israel from his Father in heaven "
(Pes. 85b; Sotah 38b). In his doctrine of future re-
ward and punishment, paradise receives those that
have performed the will of God, while the nelher
world becomes the habitation of the wicked ('Er.
19a). In Ps. Ixxxiv. 5 be finds Biblical authority
for the resurrection of the dead (Sanh. 91b), and in
Gen. R. xxvi. he expresses the liberal view that
immortality is the portion not only of Lsrael, but of
all other nations as well. In a legend (Sanh. 98a)
Joshua is represented as inquiring of the Messiah the
time of his advent, which Elijah answers will be the
time when Israel shall barken unto God's voice (Ps.
xcv. 7). In another connection he speaks of the
futility of estimating the time of the coming of the
Messiah (Midr. Teh. ix. 1; Lev. R. xix.).

In legend, Joshua b. Levi is a favorite hero. He
is often made to be the companion of Elijah the
prophet in the latter's wanderings on
In Legend, earth (Pesik. 36a); he likewise has
dealings with the Angel of Death (Ber.
51a). While yet alive, he is permitted to visit para-
dise and the nether world ; and he sends thence a
description of what he sees to R. Gamaliel through
the submissive Angel of Death (Derek Ere? Zuta
i. , end). Many of these interesting legends rela-
ting to Joshua have been collected in separate small
works entitled "Ma'aseh de-Rabbi Yehoshua' ben
Lewi" and "]\Iasseket Gan 'Eden we-Gehinnom."

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 124-194 ; Frankel,
Mebo, p. 91b; Gratz. Gesch. iv.263: Hamburger, R. B. T. ii.
520; AVeiss, Dor, iii. 59; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 610-
612.

s. s. H. An.

JOSHUA (FALK) LISSER BEN JUDAH

LOB : German Talmudist ; born in Lissa, Poseu.
He was schoolmaster at Hamburg toward the end
of the seventeenth century, and was the author of
" 'Emek Yehoshua' " (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1699),
annotations to the Pentateuch and to novellae of
other rabbis arranged in the form of questions and
answers. In the edition of Oifenbach (1722), Joseph
Yosbel of Flirth added to this work some notes taken
from his " 'Emek ha-Shaweh."

Bibliography: Furst, Bihl.Jiid. i. 273; Steinschneider, Ca(.
Bodl. col. 1558.
G. M. Sel.

JOSHUA BEN MORDECAI FALK HA-
KQjHEN : American Talmudist ; born at Brest-
Kuyavsk, government of Warsaw, in 1799; died at
Keokuk, Iowa, in 1864. While still a j'oung man
he settled in Kurnik, Prussia, and consequently he
sometimes called himself "Joshua of Kurnik." In
1854 he emigrated to America, and was appointed
rabbi first at Newburgh, and later at Poughkeepsie,
after which he retired fiom the rabbinate. .Joshua
has justly been called "the father of American He-
brew literature." He was the author of "Abne
Yehoshua' " (New York, 1860), a commentary on
Pirke Abot. Joshua wrote also " Binyan Yeho-
shua'," novella; on the Talmud, and "Homat Yeho-
shua'," a collection of homilies.
Bibliography: Lebrecht, in Hehr. Bihl. Iv. 28.

A. M. Sel.

295

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Joshua b.
Josiab

Levi

JOSHUA (HA-KOHEN) BEN NEHE-
MIAH : Palesliuian ainora of the fouitli century.
He seems to have devoted himself ahuost entirely to
the Ilaggadah, for no halakic opinion of his is known.
In the Talmud he is mentioned in one i)assage only
(Shek. ii. 4), but his name occurs frequently in mid-
rashic literature. Many of his hagi^adic sayings have
been preserved. Joshua frequently made use of
parables. "A king wasangrj^ with his queen. The
king nevertheless went to a goldsmith and purchased
for her an ornament. He did thus after she had
angered him; what would he have done had she not
angered him ! In like manner God wrought miracles
for Israel, even though he (Israel) had angered Him
by saying, ' Is the Lord among us, or not? ' [Ex. xvii.
7, 12-10], How much more would God have blessed
him had he done according to His will ! " (Pesik. R.
No. 12 [ed. Friedmann, p. 50b]). Some of Joshua's
liaggadie interpretations are based on the symbolism
of numbers (see Tan., Yitro, 19). In addition to
his own haggadot lie transmitted those of others,
especially Eleazar II., Samuel b. Isaac, Hanina b.
Isaac, and Aha.
Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amnr. iii. 303-309.

s. J. Z. L.

JOSHUA B. PERAHYAH : President (" nasi ")
of the Sanhedrin in the latter half of the second cen-
tury B.C. He and his colleague Nittai of Arbela
were the second of the five pairs of scholars who re-
ceived and transmitted the tradition (Ab. i. 6; Hag.
16a; see Zugot). At the time of the persecution of
the Pharisees by John Hyrcanus, Joshua was de-
posed— a disgrace to which his words in Men. 109b
apparently allude. To escape Hyrcanus, he f\ed
to Alexandria; but he was recalled to Jerusalem
when the persecutions ceased and the Pharisees
again triumphed over the Sadducees (Sotali 47a,
Talmud ed. , Amsterdam and Berlin, 1865). The same
passage refers to a pupil of Joshua's who accord-
ing to many may have been Jesus (comp. Krauss,
"Das Leben Jesu," p. 182, Berlin, 1902). Only a
single halakah of Joshua's has been preserved
(Tosef., ]\Iaksh. iii. 4), besides the following ethical
maxim which shows his gentle judgment of his fel-
low men and his eagerness to spread knowledge
among the people: "Get thee a teacher; win thee a
friend; and in jvidging incline toward the side of
innocence " (Ab. i. 6).

Bibliography: Weiss, Dor, i. 135-128; Gratz, Gesch. der
Jiuieii, iii. 73, 87, 113, Leipsic, 1888.

s. J. Z. L.

JOSHUA PHABI. See Jesus ben Ph.^bi.

JOSHUA OF SHIKNIN : Amora of the third
century ; known especially as a transmitter of Levi's
Haggadah. He also quotes a haggadic sentence by
Aha (Lev. P. xxxi. 5). Of his own work only a hag-
gadic sentence, quoted by Yusta b. Shunam, is
known : "The death of sinners excludes tliem from
heaven and earth, whilst the death of the right-
eous establishes them in both '' (Tan., Wayeze, 6 [ed.
Buber, i. 148]).
Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 730.

s. s. S. Kr.

JOSIAH (n"':;'t<\ in'::'X'= "Yuwu supports"):
King of Judah from 639 to 608 B.C. ; son and
successor of Anion and grandson of Manasseli.
His mother was Jedidah, the daughter of Adaiah of

Boscath (II Kings xxii. 1 et seq.). His father.
Anion, fell a victim to a conspiracy and was mur-
dered by his own servants. According to II Kings
xxi. 24, the "people of the land" — that is to say,
the citizens of Jerusalem and Judah as distinct,
probably, from the court party to which the con-
spirators belonged — slew the murderers of King
Anion and made his son Josiah king. Josiah, then
eight years old, reigned thirty -one years.

Of the first eighteen years of his reign the Book of
Kings tells nothing. In 626 B.C. Jeremiah began
his notable work. The influence of this great
prophet, and po.ssibly of Nahum and Zeplianiah,
made itself felt, and Jo.siah inaugura-
B-eform of ted in his eighteenth j'ear that great
Worship, reformation which marks an epoch in
the religious history of Israel. He
first undertook the repair of the Temple, with the
cooperation of his liigli priest Ililkiah. During the
progress of this work " the book of the law " was
found in the house of the Lord. The king was
greatly alarmed lest the calamities threatened in the
book for non-observance of its commands should
come upon him and his people. He sent to con-
sult the prophetess Huldah, who assured him that
the evil foretold would indeed come, but not
in his day; "because," she said, "thine heart was
tender and thou didst humble thyself before the
Lord." An assembly of the elders of Judah and
Jerusalem and of all the people was called, and the
ancient covenant with Yhwh was renewed.

The king then set himself to the task of clean.sing
tlie land from idolatry. First, the Temple in Jeru-
salem was purged by the removal of the instruments
and emblems of the worship of Baal and "the host
of heaven," introduced by Manasseh. Then the
corrupt local sanctuaries, or High Places, were
destroyed, from Beer-sheba in the south to Beth-el
and the cities of Samaria in the north. The priests
of the high placeshe brought to Jerusalem, providing
for their sustenance out of the priestly revenues (II
Kings xxiii. 8-9). The slaughter of some of these
priests and the desecration of their altars with their
bones gives a glimpse of the darker side of this cru-
sade of reform (ib. 19-20). Finally, a great Pass-
over celebration occurred in Jerusalem, such as had
not been known since the days of the Judges.

The evidence is very strong that "the book of
the law " referred to was DErTEKONOMY, and the
measures taken by Josiah are quite in harmony
with this view. In one respect, however, it seems
to have been impossible or impracticable to carry
out the Deuteronomic law. The priests of the high
places were not put on an equality with those of the
Temple, probably because of the opposition of the
Temple hierarchy (comp. II Kings xxiii. 9 and Deut.
xviii. 6-8; see also i:zek. xliv. 10-16). The most
important of the results which followed this reforma-
tion were the centralization of religious worship at
the Temple in Jerusalem and the acceptance of a
sacred book of spiritual and ethical teaching as
canonical and authoritative.

Of the remainder of Josiah's reign very little is
known. It would appear that he exercised some
authority over at least a portion of the former
kingdom of Israel, which had been an Assyrian

Josiah

Jost liiebmann

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

296

province (II Kings xxiii. 15-20). Wlien in 608
B.C. Nineveh was attacked by the Medes and Bab-
ylonians, the young and ambitious

Foreign ruler of Egypt, Necho II., marched
B^lations. northward toward the Euphrates to
take possession of Syria. Whether
through chivalrous loyalty to his Assyrian suzerain
or through fear of Egyptian domination, Josiah
gave battle to Necho at Megiddo, in the valley of
Esdraelon, but was defeated and slain. Zech. xii.
11 is probably a reference to the great mourning in
Jerusalem which followed this disaster (comp. II
Chrjin. XXXV. 24, 25; see Hadad). The story of
Josiahs reign in II Chronicles xxxiv.-xxxv. is sub-
stantially in accord with that in II Kings xxii. -xxiii.
It makes, however, Josiah 's work of reform begin in
his twelfth instead of in his eighteenth year, and
attributes his defeat and death to wilful disregard
of the divine warning received through Necho him-
self, who claimed to have the command of God to
go with haste upon this expedition, and who assured
Josiah that he had no quarrel with him.

The character of Josiah is highly praised by the
editor of Kings and by Jeremiah (11 Kings xxii. 2,
xxiii. 25; Jer. xxii. 15-17). Tlie one extols his zeal
for the purifying of religion, and the other his im-
partial administration of justice.

Bibliography : Histories of Israel by Stade, Guthe, Kittel,
Smith, Piepenbring, Ewald, McCurdy ; Kuenen, I)e God.s-
dienst ran Israel; commentaries to Deuteronomu, Jere-
miah, Kings.
E. G. n. J. F. M.

JOSIAH : Tanna of the second century ; the
most distinguished pupil of R. Ishmael. He is
not mentioned in the Mishnah, perhaps because he
lived in the south (Sanh. 88b), and his teachings
were consequently unknown to the compiler of
the ]\Iishnah, Judah ha-Nasi, who lived at Tiberias
and Beth-she'arim in northern Palestine. This is
the explanation proposed by Frankel and Briill;
but the fact may have been that the Mishnah of
Mei'r, which served as the basis of Rabbi's Mishnah,
did not accept the development of the teachings of
Ishmael as fornmlated by Josiah and R. Jonathan,
and they were consequently omitted by Rabbi from
his Mislmah (Hoffmann, in Berliner's "Magazin,"
1884, pp. 20 et seq. ). Josiah is frequently mentioned
in the Mekilta together with Jonathan. All their
differences concerned only interpretations of Biblical
passages, never halakot. During Hadrian's perse-
cution Josiah seems. to have fled from Palestine; for
he was at Nisi bis, where he delivered precepts in
the college of Judah b. Bathyra (Sifre, Num. 123;
ib. Deut. 218).

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Weiss, Dor. li. 114 : Frankel, Hodegetica in
Mwch7mm, pp. 146-149, Leipsic, 1859 ; Bacher, Ag. Tan. il.
351-364.

8- J. Z. L.

JOSIAH HAZZAN. See Exilarch.
JOSIPPON. See Joseph ]$en Gokion.

JOSSA, GRIGOm ANDREIYEVICH : Rus

sian mining engineer; born about 1800; died in St.
Petersburg 1874. Jossa graduated from the St.
Petersburg school of mines in 1823, and, after a short
term of service at the Ural iron-works, was sent by
the Russian government to complete his studies at

the mining-school in Freiberg, Germany. On his re-
turn to St. Petersburg he was appointed professor
of metallurgy and mining engineering in his alnia
mater, which position he held for twenty-five years.
The most noted of Jossa's writings are : " O Doby-
vanii Syery," St. Petersburg, 1856, and "Kamenny
Ugol, Ogneupornaya Glina i Syerny Kolchedan
Novgorodskoi Guh, " ib. 1855. Jossa was a convert
to Christianity.

Bibliography: Gnrny Zhumal, 1873, No. 1; Entziklopedi-
clieski Slovar, xlii. 764.

H. K. L. Le.

JOST, ISAAC MARCUS: German historian;
born at Bernburg Feb. 22, 1793; died at Frankfort-
on-the-Main Nov. 22, 1860. Jost was one of a poor
family of eleven, most
of whom died in in-
fancy; and when his
father became blind,
the duty of guiding
him fell upon Isaac.
At the age of ten he
lost his father and was
taken to Wolfenbilttel ;
there he attended the
Samsonschule, which
at that time was con-
ducted in the style of
an old-fashioned heder.
This condition im-
proved, however, when
S. M. Ehreuberg (1807)
took charge of the
school ; under him Jost
began to study the Ger-
man language. An intimate friendship connected
him with Zunz, who was also a pupil in that school,
and together they prepared themselves for the en-
trance examination of the gymnasium. Jost entered
the gymnasium at Brunswick, supporting himself
during the years 1809-13 as a tutor in the family of
one of the trustees of the Samsonschule; then, sup-
ported by Israel Jacobson, he entered the University
of Gottingen, removing a year later to that of Ber-
lin. He graduated in 1816, and took up the profes-
sion of teaching, refusing an offer of Jacobson, who
wished him to become a preacher ; for Jost believed
that the task of modern Judaism lay not in any reform
of the services, but rather in an improvement ©f edu-
cation. His first charge was the Bock school, where,
in accordance with the system then advocated by
Jewish and Christian humanitarians, Jewish and
Christian pupils were educated together. The reac-
tionary government of Prussia, however, in 1819,
prohibited the reception of Christian children ; this
severely injured the school, as a great many Jewish
parents had sent their children to it solely because
they desired them to come into contact with Chris-
tians. Nevertheless, Jost remained at his post until
1835, when he was called to Frankfort-on-the-Main
as teacher in the " Philanthropin," which position
he held up to his death.

Having himself suffered from the lack of system
that characterized the yeshibah, Jost took the great-
est interest in pedagogics, and his earliest literary
work was devoted to the writing of text-books, among

Isaac Marcus Jost.

297

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Josiah

Jost LiiebmanzL

which may be mentioned a grammar of the English
language ("Lehrbuch der Englischen Spraohe"),
which went through three editions
Literary (Berlin, 1826, 1832, and 1843), and a
Activity, dictionary to Shakespeare's plays
(Berlin, 1830). He wrote also "Theo-
retisch-Praktisches Haudbuch zum Unterricht im
Deutschen Stil " (Berlin, 1835; the title of the 2d ed.
being "Lehrbuch des Hochdeutschen Ausdruckesin
Wort und Schrift," 1852). To the same class be-
longs his Biblical history, "Neue Jugendbibel,
Enthaltend die Religiosen und Geschichtlichen
Urkunden der HebrSer, mit Sorgfaltiger Auswahl
fiir die Jugend Uebersetzt und Erlautert: Erster
Theil, die Filnf Bucher Mosis " (Berlin, 1823). In
spite of his duties as a teacher and of his varied in-
terests Jost never neglected Jewish literature, espe-
cially Jewish history. His first work in this line was
the " Gesch. der Israeliten Seit der Zeit der Makka-
baer bis auf Unsere Tage " (9 vols., Berlin, 1820-28),
which was followed by a small compendium under
the title " Gesch. des Israelitischen Volkes . . . f iir
Wissenschaftlich-Gebildete Leser" (2 vols., Berlin,
1832). The work, which ended with the Napoleonic
era, was continued in his " Neuere Gesch. der Israe-
liten" (Berlin, 1846-47), bringing it down to the date
of its publication. Toward the end of his life he
wrote another historical work, "Gesch. des Juden-
thums und Seiner Sekten"(3vols., Leipsic, 1857-59),
which deals with the whole of Jewish history down
to 1858. Of other literary works of Jewish interest
his edition of the Mishnah with vocalized text, Ger-
man translation in Hebrew characters, and Hebrew
commentary, deserves special mention (6 vols., Ber-
lin, 1832-86).

Jost appeared repeatedly as an apologist of Juda-
ism against political reactionaries and detractors of
rabbinical literature ; his " Was Hat Herr Chiarini in
Angelegenheit der Europaischen Juden Geleistet? "
(Berlin, 1830) was directed against Abbe Chiarini's
"Theorie du Judaisme"; and his "Offenes Send-
schreibeu an den Geheimen Oberregierungsrath
Streckfuss " (Berlin, 1833), against Streckfuss' " Ver-
haltnis der Juden zu den Christlichen Staaten."
When in the beginning of the reign of Frederick
William IV. of Prussia the rumor was spread that
the king contemplated an alteration of the legal posi-
tion of the Jews in a reactionary sense, Jost wrote
" Legislative Fragen Betreffend die Juden im Preus-
sischen Staate " (Berlin, 1842) and "Nachtrage zu
den Legislativen Fragen " (ib. 1842). He edited
(1839-41) the " Israelitische Annalen," a weekly
chiefly devoted to the collection of historical mate-
rial, and (1841-42) the Hebrew periodical "Zion" (in
collaboration with his friend and colleague Michael
Crkizenacii). He was also a frequent contributor
to the Jewish press, to almanacs, and to year-books.
When Jost published his first historical work
Jewish historiography was still in its infancy. Of
older works, that of Basuage was the
As best in existence ; the sources had not

Historian, yet been collected; and for the relig-
ious history the imsystematic and un-
critical works of the chroniclers were the only guide
and source. It was inevitable that, with the appear-
ance of Zunz's monographs and the numerous similar

works, published either independently or in maga-
zines, the work of Jost should soon become anti-
quated. He recognized this himself at the end of
his life by taking up the work again. Another
shortcoming is his rationalistic attitude toward the
narratives in Talmudic sources, which leads him to
see in many of the Talmudic authors shrewd im-
postors who played on the credulity of their con-
temporaries by feigning miracles (see his presenta-
tion of Eliezer ben Hyrcanus in his "Allgemeine
Gesch." ii. 108). His earlier works lack to a great
extent the strictl)' historical interest, and evidence
too much of Jewish sentiment {ib. ii. 387). His
rationalism is found also in the bitterness with which
he speaks of Juda?o-German ("Jahrbuch," ii. 43).
His best work is in the presentation of modern Jew-
ish history, in which he is singularly exact and
conscientious, and to which he gives an exhaustive
literature of sources; here he exhibits not onl}' a
fine discernment of what is historically important,
but a spirit of fairness which is the more creditable
because he wrote in the midst of the struggle for
Reform.

Jost endeavors to do justice to Samson R. Hirsch's
mysticism as well as to Aaron Chorin's rationalism;
he recognizes the importance of M. A. Giinzburg
and of Isaac Bar Lewinsohn, while Gratz, who wrote
on this period a quarter of a century later, ignores
Giinzburg and Lewinsohn and speaks of Chorin with
the bitterness of a partizan. It is undoubtedly due
to that impartiality that Jost's work suffered by
comparison with the warm Jewish spirit which per-
meates Gratz's work (see Gratz, "Gesch." xi. 456).

While not a man of public life, Jost devoted him-
self to the cause of orphans, and to his initiative
was due the establishment in Fraak-

His Per- fort-on-the-Main of a girls' orphan

sonality. asylum (1853). He was instrumental
also in founding a society (Permissio-
nistenverein, 1843) for the aid of those who, accord-
ing to the law then in existence, had no claim on the
Frankfort charitable institutions, not being freemen
of the city; he founded the Creizenach Stiftung,
for the aid of aged teachers and their families (1842),
and he often assisted young students and poor
authors with both advice and influence. While ad-
vanced in his views, he was indifferent to Reform,
and for years never attended a religious service
(Zirndorf, " Isaak jNIarkus Jost und Seine Freunde,"
p. 130). He married in 1816 a Miss Wolf, niece of
Isaac Euchel. She died in 1842. He devoted him-
self with paternal affection to the pupils of the or-
phan asylum, whom he liked to call his children.

Bibliography: Jost's autobiography; Vor Einem Halhen
Jahrhundei-t. in Pascheles' Sippurim. vol. iii., Prague. 1854,
18&3; A. M. Goldschmidt, in Jahrh. Gesch. der Jmi. vol. ii..
Leipsic, 1861; Klein's Vnlkskalei\der %uid Jahrbuch fUr
IsratUten, 18t5(Mjl; Briill, in AUg. Deutsche Biographic;
Zirndorf, Isaak Morkns Jnst xind Seine Freunde, Cincin-
nati. 1886. A bibliography is given by Fiirst, Bibl. Jud., and
Zirndorf, ib. pp. 2*25-238.
s. D-

JOST LIEBMANN: Court Jew and court
jeweler of Elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg
(King Frederick I. of Prussia), and one of the elders
of the Jewish congregation of Berlin; died 1701.
As court Jew Jost succeeded Israel Aaron, whose
widow he married. His wealth and standing at the

Jotapata
Juan Rodrig-o

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

298

court enabled him to exercise a great influence in
the early period of the Jewish congregation. He ac-
quired the privilege of having his own synagogue, to
which he appointed as rabbi his nephew and son-in-
law, Aakon ben Benjamin Wolf. By his quarrels
witii Marcus Magnus, court Jew of the crown prince,
the congregation was split into two factions, and
after his death the quarrel was continued by his
■widow and his sons Israel and Liebmann Jost (see
Jew. Encvc. iii. 71, iv. 317). Among his numerous
descendants are the brothers Giacomo Meyerbeer,
Michael Beer, and Wilhelm Beer.

Bibliography: Geiger, Gesch. dcv Judcn in Berlin, i. 7, 21-
23, Berlin, 1871 ; Gratz, Gesch. x. 309, 350, Leipslc, 18«8: Kauf-
mann, Samson Werthcimer, p. 86. note 1. Vienna, 18S8:
idem, Vertreibrmo der Juden mix TricH,p.217, ib. 1889; Emil
Lehinann. Berend Lchniann, pp. 32-33. Dresden, 1885;
Landshuth, Toledot Anghe Ita-Shcm. pp. 6-8, Berlin, 1884.

D. S. Man.

JOTAPATA {'lordTrnra, 'InrnTvar?/): City in Gali-
lee to the north of Sepphoris, strongly fortified by
Josephus (Jose-

citadel was razed and the fortifications burned on
the first of Tanimuz, 67 (ib. 7, §§ 33-36).

The site of Jotapata has been identified with the
modern Tell Jafat, north of Sepphoris (E. G.
Bchultz, in " Z. D. M. G." iii. 49 et seq.).

BiBLior.RAPHY: Griirz. Gesch. 4tli ed., ill. 496 et seq.: Neu-
bauer, G. T. pp. 193, 303-204 ; Parent, Sitve de Jotapata,
18Ut); Schurer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 611-«13.
G. M. Sel.

JOTHAM : 1 . Youngest son of Gideon or Jer-
ubbaal. On the death of Gideon (Judges viii.
33) the children of Israel fell back into the slough
of idolatry, from the results of which he had so
signally delivered them by the battle against Midiau
{ib. vii., viii.). Abimelech, the sou of one of Gideon's
concubines at Slieehem, conspired with the She-
chemites, for a given sum of monc}', to have his sev-
enty brothers slain at Ophrah, Gideon's home(«'6. ix.
5). All were killed except Jotliam, who hid himself.

While the assembly of .Shechemites was crowning

Abimelech at a

phus, "Vita,"
§ 37). In the
Mishnah ('Ar.
ix. 6, 32a) this
city is called
nSIV, styled
"the Ancient,"
and is supposed
to have been for-
tified by Josiiua.

The ^t:' Nnaa^j

^"IIDV mentioned
in Gen. R. xcviii.
16 is identified
by R c 1 a n d
("Palilstina," ii.
816) with Jota-
pata. There was
a Menaheni sur-
named nSQIV
(Zeb. 11 Ob),
which probably
means "a native
of Jotapata."
Neubauer ("G.
T . " p . 2 0 3)
thinks that the plain called n2D"' (Tosef., ISiddah, iii.
11) is the plain of Jotapata.

The city is famous in Jewish history for the long
siege which it sustained in the war with the Romans.
As the fortress was verj^ strong, being built on a
rock surroundc'd by steep hills, and accessible on
the northern side only, Josephus fled thither with
his army (Josephus, "B. J." iii. 7, §3). Vespasian
arrived tiiere after many difticulties and pitched his
camp on the northern side of the city (ib. ^ 4). The
Jews fought desperately; especially Eleazar b.
Sameasof Saab, Netir, and Philip of Ruma. Ves-
pasian himself was wounded. Tiie siege continued
for forty-seven days (ib. 7, § 33; 8, § 9), and might
have la.sted still longer had not a deserter betrayed
the Jews. The Romans spared nobody ; and many
of the Jews killed themselves. Forty thousand of
them lost their lives during the siege; and about
1,000 women and children were sokl as slaves. The

Cave on the Top of Tell Jafat, Site of Ancient Jotapata

(Kroiii .1 phot'>f;r.iph by Dr. \V. Popper.)

given place in
Shechem, Jo-
tliam suddenly
appeared on a
point of rock on
Mount Gerizim
and addressed to
the men of She-
chem a parable
(ib. ix. 7-21), the
construction and
application of
whicharenoten-
tirely plain. The
trees of the
forest could not
persuade either
the olive-tree,
the fig-tree, or
the vine to rule
over them. The
worthless bram-
ble proposed it-
self as king,
threatening de-
struction if the
trees rejected it. In other words, "this bramble,
Abimelech, has proposed his own promotion. If
you crown him and trust in him, then rejoice and
let Ijim rejoice in you; but if not, let fire come out
from Abimelech and devour the men of Slieehem,
and from the house of Millo and devour Abimelech."
Jotham then fled ; but within three j'ears his parable
or curse was completely fulfilled (ib. ix.).
Bibliography : Moore, Judges, ad loc.

2. Son of Uzziah or Azariah ; tenth king of Ju-
dah (751 to 735 B.C.). Ilis father sacrilegiously
offered incense in the Temple (II Chrou. xxvi.
16-21) and was smitten with lepros}'. He was thus
compelled to dwell apart from the petiple, and for
nearly fourteen years Jotham was regent, or, in
reality, king over Judah. He inherited a strong
government, well officered and administered. He
himself is said to have built the upper gate of tlie
house of Yiiwu and to have avoided the rashness

299

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jotapata
Juan Bodrig'o

•which allowed his father to enter the Temple (II
Chron. xxvii. 2). "He built cities in the mountains
of Judah, and in the forests he built castles and
towers."' He also defeated the Ammonites, who
paid him an immense atmual tribute. His might is
attributed by the Chronicler (;ib. xxvii. 6) to Jiis hav-
ing "ordered his ways before Yhwii, his God."

But the increasing corruption of the Northern
Kingdom began to permeate Judah, as is seen in the
words of Isaiah and Micah. Ilosca's references to
Judah indicate also a lack of purity of life and wor-
ship under Jotham's reign.

3. One of the sous of Jahdai, descended from
Caleb (I Chron. ii. 47).

E. G. II. I. :\i. p.

JOURNAL SCIENTIFiaUE DE LA THEO-
LOGIE JUIVE. Sec Peiuodicals.

JOURNALS, JEWISH. See Periodicals.

JOY (Hebrew, "simhah," "sason," "hedwah,"
"gil," and "rinnah"): The feeling of gladness and
rejoicing. — Biblical Data: Cant. R. i. 4 enumer-
ates ten different terms for joy, and Wiinsche ('' Die
Freude in den Schrifteu des Alten Bundes," 1896)
states that no language possesses as many words
for joy as docs the Hebrew; which fact indicates
the cheerful disposition of the Jewish people and
the optimism predominant in Judaism (see Opti-
mism). Often the Hebrew poet or prophet transfers
the joj'' of his soul to the surrounding creation ; and
so heaven and earth, mountains and valleys, fields
and trees, are pictured as breaking forth into joy
(Ps. xcvi. 11-12, xcvii. 1, xcviii. 4; Isa. xxxv. 1-2,
xliv. 23. xlix. 13).

The Bible couples joy with the earnestness of life,
in striking contrast to paganism, which at times en-
courages wanton indulgence in sensual pleasures by
rendering wild orgies of passion features of the wor-
ship of its lustful deities, and at other times turns to
the opposite extreme of absolute world-contempt and
avoidance of every healthful enjoyment ("Rejoice
not, O Israel, in the joy of the heathen nations";
Hosea ix. 1, Hebr. ; see Paganism). The Bible cau-
tions against pleasures which leave behind them
heaviness, sorrow, and want (Prov. xiv. 13, xv. 21,
xxi. 15; Eccl. ii. 2, vii. 4) ; but it regards lawful and
liealthful enjoyments as commendable inasmuch as
they are blessings from God (Deut. xii. 7, xxiv. 11 ;
Prov. X. 18; Eccl. ix. 7, xi. 9). To some extent,
rejoicing witii or before God, the Dispenser of all
good, becomes an obligation (Deut. xii. 12, 18; xvi.
11, 15; xxvi. 11; xxvii. 7). Pure joy is the joy of
thanksgiving to God, or the joy in God and in His
help (Lev. xxiii. 40; Isa. xix. 19, xxv. 9; Joel ii.
23; Ps. vii. 12, ix. 3, civ. 34; I Sam. ii. 1). God
Himself is a God of jo_v, who rejoices in His works
(Ps. civ. 31). So do His statutes rejoice the heart
{ib. xix. 9 [A. V. 8]). "In uprightness of heart
there is gladness, wherefore the righteous will re-
joice" {ib. xcvii. 11-12. Hebr.). "It is joy to the
just to do judgment" (Prov. xxi. 15). "The key-
note of the old Hebrew cult was joy, because it was
a communion of man with his God" (Smend, "Re-
ligionsgesch." p. 125, Freiburg, 1893). Fulness of
joy is promised for the soul when in the presence of
God (Ps. xvi. 11). ^Moreover, the Law consecrated

joy, for it was destined to impart joy to those
deprived of joy by poverty and privation. The
festivals of thanksgiving were ordained to be occa-
sions of beneficence to the homeless and fatherless
(Deut. xvi. 9-11). The worship of God should be
offered in joy (Ps. c. 2) ; and the house of prayer
should be joyful (Isa. Ivi. 7). An enemy's fall
should not cause joy (Prov. xxiv. 17).

In Rabbinical Literature : Tlie same spirit

of joyfulness, moderatetl by the consciousness of
duty, pervades rabbinical literature. "Simhah shel
mizwah " (= "joy emanating from sacred duty well
performed ") is regarded as the only state of the soul
in wliicli tile Shekinah rests on man (Shab. 30b), and
in wliich communion with God by means of prayer
should be sought (Ber. 31a). This joy the Rabbis
find conunended in Eccl. viii. 15, and tlie profane
form repudiated in Eccl. ii. 2 (Shab. I.e.). To cheer
tlie depressed is a meritorious act which may obtain
for the lowliest man a share in the world to come
(Ta'an. 22a).

Against the ascetic view of the Essenes, Rab de-
clared that man at the Judgment Da}- will have to
give account for every lawful enjoyment offered to
him by Providence and refused by him (Yer. IJid.
iv. to end). Both he and Samuel quoted sayings
even of a somewhat hedonistic character in order to
discourage the spirit of ascetic world-contempt ('Er.
54a). In a similar sense must be taken the saying
of R. Eleazar, "He who lives without a wife lives
without joy" (Yeb. 63a), and that of Eliezer ha-
Kappar, " He who denies himself wine is a sinner "
(Ta'an. 11a). But the Rabbis made joy, above all, the
characteristic feature of the Sabbath and of the holy
seasons of the year. The words "call the Sabbath
a delight" (Isa. Iviii. 13) were so interpreted as to
render the Sabbath the gem of days and the joy of
the Jewish home (Shab. 118a, b; see S.\BBATn) ;
and similarly every festival was invested with the
character of joy (Pes. 109a; Meg. 16b). Even the
Days of Penitence should have not an austere char-
acter like the Lenten days of the Christians but
preeminently one of cheerfulness (Yer. R. H. i. 57b).

But more powerful than all rabbinical precepts
as an incentive to joy was life itself. In spite of
the gloom cast upon the Jew ever since the destruc-
tion of the Temple (Ber. 31a; 'Ab. Zarah 3b), in
spite of all the persecutions and oppressions endured
by him, there is a wondrous outburst of jo}^ notice-
able in the Jewish liturgy, in every morning and
evening prayer (see Ge'ullah), in the prayers for
Sabbath and holy days, and in the songs and bene-
dictions recited at the table. Cheerfulness is the
key-note of the Jew's character in his domestic life
and in his religious devotion, because it is founded
upon optimism, upon faith in God, and upon hope
in the final triumph of justice and truth.

Bibliography: Guttmacher, Optimism and Prxsimism, pp.
tjl-ft4, Baltimore, 19a3; Hamburger. R. H. T. s.v. Freude;
Wiinsclie. Die Freude in den Scliriftcn des Alten Bundes,
Weimar, 1896.

K.
JUAN DE ABADIA. See Abadia, Jiax de

I. A.

JUAN RODRIGO DE CASTEL-BRANCO

(surnamed Amatus Lusitanus) : Portuguese phy-
sician ; born at Castel-Branco, Portugal, in 1511 ;

Juan Rodrigro
Jubilees, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

300

died at Salonica in 1568. He was a descendant of a
Marauo family called Habib (= Amatus), and was
brought up in the Jewish faith. After having grad-
uated with honors as M.D. from the University of
Salamanca, he left his native country in fear of the
Inquisition. He went to Antwerp for a time and
then traveled through Holland and France, finally
settling in Italy. His reputation as one of the most
skilful physicians of his time preceded him there,
and during his short sojourn at Venice, where he
came in contact with the physician and philosopher
Jacob Mantino, he attended the niece of Pope Ju-
lius III. and other distinguished personages.

In 1546 Juan was in Ferrara, delivering lectures
on anatomy and medicinal plants. At one of his
lectures he dissected twelve cadavers — a great inno-
vation at that time — in the presence of many schol-
ars, among whom was the anatomist Jean Baptiste
Cananus, who through his experience on this occa-
sion discovered the function of the valves in the
circulation of the blood. During his sojourn in
Ferrara, which lasted for six years, Amatus Lusi-
tanus received an invitation from the King of Poland
to remove to that country, which he declin-ed, pre-
ferring to settle in Ancona, where religious toler-
ance existed.

Meanwhile his reputation grew higher and higher.
Jacoba del Monte, sister of Pope Julius III., was
one of his patients ; and he prescribed also for Julius
himself, to whose sick-bed he was later summoned.

With the accession of Paul IV., Amatus under-
went all the sufferings which the Maranosof Ancona
had to endure from this pope. He took refuge in
Pesaro, leaving behind him all his possessions, in-
cluding several manuscript works, the loss of which
he greatly deplored. One of these manuscripts,
however, the fifth part of his "Centurife," was
later restored to him and published. During his
sojourn at Pesaro he received an invitation from the
municipality of Ragusa to settle there. This he
accepted, but after staying for some months he left
the city for Salonica, where he openly professed the
Jewish faith.

Amatus enriched medical literature with several
valuable works which for a long time enjoyed the
highest reputation. Among the-se the most impor-
tant was his "Centurise," in which he published
accounts of his cases and their treatment. This
work, in seven volumes, entitled " Curationum Medi-
cinalium Centurije Septem," passed through a num-
ber of editions (Florence, 1551; Venice, 1552, 1557,
1560, 1653; Basel, 1556; Leyden, 1560, 1570; Paris,
1620; Bordeaux, 1620; Barcelona, 1628). His other
works were : " Enegemata in Duos Priores Dioscori-
dis de Arte Medica Libros," Antwerp, 1536; "Com-
mentatiode Introitu Medici ad ^Egrotantem," Ven-
ice, 1557; "De Crisi et DicbusDecretoriis," ib. 1557;
"In Dioscoridis Anazarbei de Medica Materia Libros
Quinque," ib. 1557; Leyden, 1558; " Enarrationes
Eruditissima;," Venice, 1558; "La Historiade Eutro-
pio" (Eutropius translated into Spanish); commen-
tary on the first book of Avicenna's Canon, which,
as he relates in the preface to the seventh " Cen-
turia," he lost among his possessions at Ancona.

Bibuography: Wolf. Bihl. HeJrr. i. 2fX): Carmoly. tn RfVKf
Orientate, il. 20(): Ernest David, In ArcliireH IsrdfliteK, 1S80;

Ang.Zeit.des Jud. 1880, pp. 668,684, 749; SteinschneidtT.
Hebr. Uebers. p. 686; Vogelstein and Rleger, Gesc)i. dcr
Juden in Rom, h. 256.
D. I. Br.

JUAN DE SEVILLA: Representative of tht
Maranos in 1482, and a wealthy tax-farmer; lived
in Jerez de la Frontera. In 1481, when ordered to
answer to the charge of Judaism before the inquisi-
tors Miguel de Morillo and Fra Juan de S. Martin,
he fled, together with Pedro Gonzales Pichon, his
brothers Alonso and Stephen Pichon (probably rela-
tives of D. Ju^af Pichon), Martin Sanches Monte-
sino, Rodrigo Dios Ayuda (Help-of-God Eliezer),
and Pedro de Prieto — all tax-farmers and his co-
religionists. Juan settled in Evora. Proceedings
were instituted against him and the above-named
Maranos, who owed large sums to the city of Jerez
and to various chapters; and their houses, vine-
yards, and other properties were confiscated by the
fiscal authorities. Through his efforts Pope Sixtus
IV. issued on Aug. 2, 1483, the bull "Ad Futuram
Rei Memoriam," in which he admitted Maranos out-
side Spain to reconciliation.

Juan de Sevilla induced the Bishop of Evora,
Garcia de Meneses, to acknowledge the bull as gen-
uine on Jan. 7, 1484; this kept the Inquisition in
Seville in check for ten years. Juan never returned
to Spain. With the Maranos who fled with him he
was burned in effigy.

Bibliography : Llorente, Histoire Critique de V Inquisition
d'Espagne, 1.169 et seq., iv. 357 et seq. (where the bull Is
given); Boletin Acad. Hist. xv. 321 et seq., 477 et seq. ; Fidel
Fita, La Espana Hebrea, i. 123 et seq. ; Gratz, Oesch. vii.
316.
G. M. K.

JTJAN DE VALLADOLID (called also Juan
Poeta) : Spanish poet and Maranoof lowly station;
born about 1420 in Valladolid. He lived at the
courts of Naples, Mantua, and Milan as improvisator
and astrologer. On his return to Spain he was cap-
tured by ]\Ioorish pirates and taken to Fez, but was
soon released. After having married a Jewess named
Jamila, and, as some maintain, also a Christian, he
married a Moorish woman in Fez. He spent some
years at the court of the kings of Navarre and later
settled in Cordova, where he received a large hon-
orarium from the city council and exchanged satir-
ical poems with Anton de Montoro. Moutoro, after
tendering some advice to his " good and great friend,"
concluded with the words: "We both belong to one
and the same race — we are both Jews; the insults
offered to you wound me also, and the injury which
you'sutfer I suffer too." Contemporary poets invari-
ably refer to Juan as " Judio " (the Jew). With the
great, even with Queen Isabella, he was in high favor.
His poems are scattered through various collections
of songs, both printed and in manuscript. Several
are found in " Concionero de Anton de Montoro "
(Nos. 157, 161, etc.).

Bibliography : Emil Cotarelo y Mori, Concionero de Anton
de Montoro, pp. 13, 341 et seq.
G. M. K.

JUBAIi (^3V): Son of Lamech; "the father of
all such as handle the harp and pipe" (Gen. iv.
lS-21, R. v.); that is, he was the "father" or the
first of the class of musicians, the founder of
music, the inventor of the "kinnor" or lyre and of

301

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Juan Rodrigo
Jubilees, Book of

the '"ugab" or reed-pipe. It is noteworthy that
though the three names " Jabal," " Jubal," and "Tu-
bal " may be derived from, the same root (p2' = " to
lead" or "bring forth," "to be fruitful"), the name
" Jubal" suggests liiiewise ^2V ("the ram's horn "),
and hence "music."

E. G. H. J. F. M.

JUBILEE. See Sabbatical Year.

JUBILEES, BOOK OF (To 'iDfiT/Xaia ; known
also as Little Genesis ['H K'Aavr/ Tiveai(:= " Bereshit
Zuta "] ; Apocalypse of Moses ; Life of Adam) :
Midrashic commentary on the Book of Genesis and on
part of the Book of Exodus, in the form of an apoc-
alypse, containing the views, legends, and religious
practises of the most rigid Pharisaic (or Hasidoean)
school of the time of Jolm Hyrcanus, in whose reign
it was written, between 135 and 105 B.C. Origi-
nally composed in Hebrew^ the book was translated
into Greek (in which form it was known to the
Church Fathers down to the sixth century), and
from Greek into Latin and Ethiopic. The Latin
version, published first by Ceriani (in "Monumenta
Sacra et Profana," Fasc. I., 1861), later by Ronsch
("DasBuch der Jubilaen Unter Beifiiguug der La-
teinischeu Fragmente," 1874), is incomplete. The
Ethiopic version was published by Dillmann in
1859 ; it was translated into German by him in Ewald's
" Jahrblicher der Biblischen Wissenschaft," 1850-51,
and then by Littmann in Kautzsch's " Apocryphen
und Pseudepigraphen," ii. 1900; the Ethiopic text
was published in revised form by Charles in 1895, and
was translated by him into English in the "Jewish
Quarterly Review," 1893-95; in 1902 it appeared
separately in an edition rendered valuable by exten-
sive notes. Epstein is inclined to believe ("R. E.
J." xxi. 80 et seq., xxii. 1 et seq.) that though the
work was scarcely known in Talmudic times, many
haggadot peculiar to the Book of Jubilees found
their echo in Midrash Tadshe and Pirke R. Eli'ezer.
Possibly Jellinek is nearer the truth in claiming an
Essene origin for the book ("B. H." iii. 9 et seq.),
whereas Beer (" Das Buch der Jubilaen und Sein
Verhaltniss zu den Midraschim," 1856; "Noch ein
Wort liber das Buch der Jubilaen," 1857), with argu-
ments that are extensive and erudite but not con-
vincing, ascribes it to a Samaritan author. Singer
("Das Buch der Jubilaen odcr die Leptogenesis,"
1898), following a few suggestions of Ronsch, en-
deavors to prove that the book was written by a
Judjeo-Christian, a contemporary of Paul, for the
purpose of discrediting the latter's doctrine of the
abrogation of the Law. Charles, however, in the
notes to his translation, has established beyond doubt
the origin and character of the work, and, therefore,
his views are, in the main, here followed.

The author of the Book of Jubilees rewrote the
history of the Protoplasts, of the Patriarchs, and of
the Exodus with the view of inculcating certain
principles that found no acceptance afterward in the
rabbinical schools; foremost among these are the
rules concerning the regulation of the calendar
and the festivals. In place of the intercalated cal-
endar, which he condemns in the strongest terms,
lie proposes a solar calendar con.sisting of a civil
year of 13 months. 8 of 30 days and 4 of 31 days, and

an ecclesiastical year of 13 months of 28 days each,
so as to make all festivals, except the Day of Atone-
ment, fall on Sunday, and make the

Chrono- Feast of Weeks fall on the 15tli of

logical Si wan (Book of Jubilees, i. 1, 26; vi.
System of 22 et seq., 38; xlix. 14; see Epstein
Jubilees, in "R. E. J." xxii. \0 et seq.\ Charles,
"The Book of Jubilees," pp. 55 e< seq.).
His leading idea seems to be that the divine plan of
the Messianic kingdom rests upon the exact calcula-
tion of the week, the conunon year, and the "Jubi-
lee " year {i.e.. the last year of a cycle of 7 X 7, or 49
years), each being based upon the sacred number
seven, and the entire history of Israel and the world
being divided into "jubilee" periods (see vi. 35;
comp. Lev. xxvi. 34-43 and Targ. Yer. ad l(>c.\
Ar. 10b; Seder 'Olam R. xi. ; Assumptio Mosis, i. 2;
"Samaritan Chronicle," in "Journal Asiatique,"
1869, pp. 421 et seq.). As in the Book of Enoch
(xlvii. 3, Ixxxi. 1, ciii. 2) and the Testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs (Levi, 5; Asher, ii. 5), every
event, every statute of the Law, and every custom
is, for the author, written down on the tablets of
heaven (Jubilees, iii. 10, 31; vi. 17; xxiii. 32; xxviii.
6; x.\x. 9; et al.); thus social custom and human
destiny are alike determined by God's decree. Jo-
sephus, "Ant." xiii. 5, § 9, calls this 'Elfiapfievr/.

The Book of Jubilees, presenting itself as "the
history of the division of the days of the Law, of
the events of the years, the year-weeks, and the
jubilees of the world" (i. 1, 26, 29; 1. 13), claims to
be a revelation of God to Moses, given through the
Angel of tiie Presence (i. 27-29 [probably Michael])
in addition to the written Law received by Moses
on Mount Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 12); and,
Character while the written Law Avas to be im-
and. Object, parted to all, this was to be the " Cab-
ala," the secret tradition entrusted
only to the saints of each generation, to Enoch,
Methuselah, Noah, and Sliem (ch. vii. 38, x. 14, xxi.
10), then to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Levi, and
finally to the priests and scribes of the latter times
(ch. xii. 27, xxi. 10, xxv. 7, xxxix. 6, xlv. 16).

Obviously, the chief object of the work is to exalt
the Law (and Hasidaan practise) as divinely or-
dained and fixed from eternity, to extol the institu-
tions of the Sabbath and circumcision as heavenly
signs distinguishmg Israel from the rest of the na-
tions, and, finally, to draw the sharpest possible
lines of demarcation between Israel and the Gentiles
— in striking contrast to the practise of the Hellenist
party. As does the Book of Chronicles regarding
the kings of Judah, the Book of Jubilees omits everj'
Biblical narrative which suggests any blemish in the
Patriarchs (see Charles, I.e. Introduction, p. xlviii.),
and transfers to Satan and his hosts those acts of
God Avhich seem unworthy of Him — such as the
tempting of Abraham, the attempt on Moses' life,
the hardening of the heart of Pharaoh, and the slay-
ing of the first-bom (ch. xvii. 16; xlviii. 2. 17; xlix.
2). The Patriarchs are represented as saintly exem-
plars of religion and of filial afifection. Abraham
knew God from his youth, and did not leave his
father, Terah, without his consent and blessing (ch.
xi. 16 et seq.; xii. 1, 28-31); he married Keturah
onlv after Hagar's death (eh. xix. 11). Jacob, like-

Jubilees, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

302

wise, waited for Isaac's blessing and is represented
as being the spiritual heir to Abraham and prompted
in all his doings by filial piety and regard (eh. xxii.
10, XXV. 4, xxvii. 9, xxix. 15, xxxv. 9-12); nor docs
he directly deceive his blind father ("lam thy son,"
xxxvi. 13 [the word "Esau " being omitted]).

Israel, the people, stands in closest relation to
God, the Father, the Israelites being His beloved
children (ch. i. 24 et seq., xix. 29). While all other
nations are subject to angels or spirits appointed
by Him as the Ruler of tlie world, Israel is subject
only to God (comp. LXX. and Targ. Yer. to Deut.
xxxii. 8). As a sign of its union with God, both
the Sabbath and circumcision have been given to
it, privileges which it shares with the angels (ch.
ii. 18-21, XV. 26-27: "The two highest angelic or-
ders have been created tlius from tlie day of their
creation " ; comp. the passage concerning Adam and
the rest of the world's saints [fifteen in number] hav-
ing been born circumcised, derived from Gen. i. 27
— "God created man in his own image " [Ab. R. N.
ed. Schechter, p. 153]). Upon Jacob, as the end,
the whole Creation is centered (ch. ii. 23, xix. 24-25),
and the world's renewal is effected through the
Messianic kingdom in Jerusalem (ch. i. 29, iv. 26).
Accordingly, the twenty-two works of the six days
of Creation are enumerated (ch. ii. 2-22): On the
first day — heaven, earth, water, the spirits, the
abyss, darkness, and light; on the second — the fir-
mament; on the third — the land, the
The Twen- seas, vegetation, and paradise; on the

ty-two fourth — sun, moon, and stars; on the
Works of fifth — the sea-monsters (Behemoth and
Creation. Leviathan, "the first things of flesh
created by His hands "), the fish, and
the birds; on the sixth — the wild and the tame ani-
mals, the creeping things, and man: these twenty-
two works correspond to the twenty-two generations
from Adam to Jacob, as well as to the twenty-two
letters of the alphabet and the twenty-two books of
Holj' Scripture (ch. ii. 23; comp. Midr. Tadshe vi. ;
Epstein, "Mi-Kadmoniyyot ha-Yehudim," 1887, p.
XX. ; and Charles, I.e. pp. 11, 18).

Especially significant is it that, writing in a time
when the Abrahamic rite was spurned by Jews who
desired to be one in the arena with the Greeks (ch.
XV. 33-34; I Mace. i. 13-15; "Ant." xii. 5, g 1 ; As-
sumptio Mosis, viii. 3; Abot iii. 11), the Hasidaean
author represents circumcision as ordained in heaven
from the beginning of Creation (ch. xv. 25-27), as
well as the law regarding the covering of the loins
("gillui 'erwah") as given to Adam and prescribed
on the heavenly tables (ch. iii. 31 : " not as the Gentiles
uncover themselves "). Tlie Sabbath that comes at
the close of the twenty-two generations (ch. ii. 23)
was also ordained in heaven, and was, therefore,
given to no other nation but Israel, to celebrate as
it is celebrated by the angels in heaven (ch. ii. 30-
31 ; comp. Sanh. 58b).

Separation from the Gentiles ("perishut" = a/xi^ia,
II Mace. xiv. 38) is rendered the fundamental prin-
ciple of Jewish law and custom. Israel is forbidden
to eat, or associate, or intermarry with them, be-
cause "they sacrifice to the dead, worship evil
spirits, and eat over the graves; because all their
ways are unclean, and tliey will be destroyed from

the earth, nor will they be saved on the Day of
Judgment" (ch. xxii. 16-22, xxx. 7-10). Espe-
cially singled out as cursed and doomed forever in
the heavenly tables are those nations with which the
Jews came into contact in the time of the Macca-
bees: the Philistines (ch. xxiv. 28-32; comp. I Mace.
V. 68; X. 60, 84, 89; xi. 60-62; xvi. 10); the Idu-
means or the sons of Esau (ch. xxvi. 34, xxx viii. 14;
comp. " Ant." xiii. 9, § 1 ; 15, § 4) ; the Amorites (cli.
xxix. 11, XX xiv. 2-9; comp. the notes on Charles,
I.e. pp. 200 et seq.). The motive of the writer, how-
ever, is not, as Charles says {I.e. Introduction, p.
Iv.), "hatred and contempt of the Gentiles," but is
expressed in the words of the Rabbis (' Ab. Zarali 2b) :
"God saw that the Gentiles would not observe the
Noachian laws, wherefore He outlawed them."

According to Jubilees, vii. 20-29 (comi). Laws,
NoAcni.\N), Noah enjoined his sons to observe jus-
tice, to cover the shame of their flesh, to bless their
Creator, to honor father and mother, to love their
neighbors, and to refrain from fornication, \mclean-
ness, and all iniquity, for because of
The these last three things the Flood came

Noachian upon the earth. Possibly the seven
Laws. Noachian laws enumerated in Sanh.
56aandTosef., 'Ab. Zarah,viii. 4, were
partly misunderstood by the Greek translator.
These laws prohibit the following: (1) injustice;
(2) blasphemy against God ("birkat ha-shem," a
rabbinical euphemism — " blessing of God " instead
of "blasphemy"); (3) incest ("gillui 'erwah"); (4)
idolatry; (5) murder (comp. Gen. R. xxxi. 6: "ha-
mas" [violence] in Gen. vi. 11 includes murder,
idolatry, and incest; comp. Tanna debe Eliyahu
Zutax.); (6) eating flesh cut from living animals
(probably included in the Biblical prohibition in
Gen. ix. 4 against eating flesh from which the blood
has not been drained; comp. Jubilees, vii. 29);- (7)
stealing. (For the statement that the men of the
Flood were guilty of fornication see Gen. R. xxxi. ;
and in regard to their going about uncovered see
Yalk., Job, xxiv. 7.) According to the author, Ca-
naan, the son of Ham, seized by violence the land
of Palestine, which belonged, by lot and by mutual
agreement sealed by oath, to the sons of Shem ; there-
fore Canaan was cursed by his father. Ham, and by
his brothers Cush and Mizraim (ch. x. 29-34), and the
Israelites in conquering the land of Canaan simply
reclaimed their inheritance. The Garden of Eden,
as the dwelling-place of the Lord, fell to Shem (ch.
viii. 18-19, with reference to Gen. ix. 26-27), and
the'rest of the earth was divided by Noah among
his three stms for generations to come (ch. viii.-ix.).

The author aims to trace all religious and social
institutions and customs to the most ancient times,
in order to give them the highest possible sanction ;
it may often be inferred that certain practises he
mentions were observed in his own time. Thus the
law distinguishing between the male and the female
in regard to the days of uncleanness for a woman
after the birth of a child (Lev. xii. 2-5) is attributed
to the fact that Adam was created in the first week
and brought into Eden on the fortieth day, whereas
Eve was created in the second week and brought
into Eden on the eightieth day (ch. iii. 8-14; comp.
Midr. Tadshe xv. ; Jellinek, "B. H." iii. 178).

303

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jubilees, Book of

When Adam went forth from Eden with his naked-
ness covered, he offered incense to God as a thank-
offering at the rising of the sun (obviously a custom
practised by the parents when their child thus left
the state of infancy).

Until Adam left paradise, all creatures, both ani-
mals and man, spoke Hebrew, the language of
heaven (ch. iii. 28; comp. Targ. Yer. to Gen. xi. 1,
and Shab. 12b). After the overthrow of the Tower
of Babel, Hebrew was forgotten on earth until Abra-
ham was taught it again by the angels (ch. xii. 25-
26). After the murder by Cain, it was announced
and written down on the heavenly tables that both
he that committed murder, and he
Hebrew the that witnessed it and did not declare
Language it before the tribunal of justice for
of Heaven, punishment, should be cursed ; where-
fore even the angels must declare every
sin committed by man (ch. iv. 5-6). Enoch, who was
the first man initiated by the angels into the art of
writing, and who accordingly wrote down all the
secrets of astronomy, of chronology, and of the
world's epochs to the end of time, testified against
the angels that fell by lusting after the daughters of
men; and ever since he was taken to heaven he has
been recording the good deeds and the sins of men,
and will continue to record them until the Judg-
ment Day (ch. iv. 21-24; comp. Lev. R. xxxiv. 9).
Thus all the iniquities of men from the time of the
Flood, and all that is done in heaven, earth, or
Sheol, are written on the tablets of heaven for final
judgment on the Last Day. But in regard to Israel,
and Israel only, it was ordained that they should
obtain pardon by repenting of their sins once each
year — on the Day of Atonement (ch. v. 13-18).

The secret of astrology, divulged by the Heavenly
Watchers to men and carved by the latter on rocks,
was deciphered by Kainan the son of Arphaxad,
whom his father liad taught the art of writing (ch.
viii. 2-4 ["Nahor" in ch. xi. 8]; comp. "Ant." i. 2,
§ 3). The distribution of land by lots, that is, by
"writings taken out of the bosom," is ascribed to
Noah (ch. viii. 11 ; comp. Prov. xvi. 33) ; so also is the
book on healing herbs and various kinds of medicine
for the treatment of sickness, diseases being caused
by evil spirits, the host of Satan (ch. x. 7-14; comp.
Jellinek, "B. H." iii., pp. xxx. and 155 et seq.). To
marry the daughter of the father's brother or sister,
or some other kinswoman, while not enjoined by a
law, at least seems to be recommended, to judge
from the fact that all the pious men mentioned in
the Book of Jubilees are represented as following
the practise (ch. iv. 15 et seq., xi. 7, etal.; comp.
Tobitiv. 12; Judith viii. 1; Gen. R. xviii. ; "J. Q.
R." V. 406). The command not to give the younger
daughter in marriage before the elder is declared to
be written on the heavenly tables (ch. xxviii. 6;
comp. Gen. xxix. 26), as is also the command not to
give one's daughter to a Gentile (ch. xxx. 9) or to
commit incest (ch. xxxiii. 10).

The festive seasons of the year, with the rites
connected therewith, are represented as having been
instituted either by Noah or by the Patriarchs,
though they were written from the beginning in
the heavenly tables (ch. vi. 17, 31, 35). There are,
firstof all, the new moons, not of every month, since

the lunar year is denounced by the author, but of
the four " tekufot, " or seasons of the solar year, name-
ly, the vernal equinox — the 1st of Nisan ; the sum-
mer solstice — the 1st of Tammuz ; the
The autumn equinox — the 1st of Tishri ;

Festive the winter solstice — the 1st of Shebat
Seasons of (ch. vi. 23-25; comp. v. 29-30, xiii. 8,
the Year. xxiv. 22; comp. Enoch, Ixxxv. 2, and
the four New-Year's days of the year
in R. H. i. 1: the 1st of Nisan, of Elul [perhaps
originally Tammuz?], of Tishri, and of Shebat).
"On the 1st of Tishri, Abraham observed the stars,
to forecast the rains of the coming seasons " (ch. xii.
16; comp. Lev. R. xx. 4 with regard to the Day of
Atonement). On the 1st of Siwan, after the Flood
had subsided, Noah made atonement for the earth
by offering a kid (comp. Num. xxviii. 15, xxxv. 33),
and other kinds of beasts, with the libation of wine
and oil and with frankincense (ch. vi. 1-3). Then
God made a double covenant with him — first, that
blood should no longer be eaten nor the blood of
man shed, while the blood of animals should be of-
fered twice daily on the altar for the pardon of men's
sins (ch. vi. 4-16; comp. Gen. ix. 4-6; Num. xxviii.
3-8); secondly, that the seasons and festivals of the
year should be fixed according to the course of the
sun (ch. vi. 23-38; comp. Gen. viii. 22).

But it is especiallj' upon the right observance
of the Feast of Weeks that the Book of Jubilees
lays stress, following the Sadducean practise in in-
sisting that it be celebrated each year on the first
day of the week in literal conformity with the
words " the morrow after Sabbath " (ch. vi. 17-22 ;
see Lev. xxiii. 15-16). It was to take
Feast of place on the 15th of Siwan. It was
Weeks. celebi-ated in heaven from the days of
Creation until God ordained it to Noah.
On that day God made the covenant with Abraham
between pieces of sacrificial beasts, as mentioned in
Gen. XV., while Abraham offered the first-fruits of
his tillage with other sacrifices (ch. xiv. 10-20, xv.
1-9; see Charles, I.e. p. 106, notes). Celebrated,
also, by Abraham, as the Feast of the Covenant of
Circumcision (ch. xv. 3), and by Isaac (who was
born on the 15th of Siwan; ch. xvi. 13) and Jacob
(ch. xxii. 1, xxix. 6, xliv. 3), the Feast of Weeks
was renewed by Moses for all generations as the
Feast of the Covenant of Sinai (ch. vi. 19).

The Feast of Tabernacles was first celebrated by
Abraham, in booths; it was maintained during seven
days, and each day he brought seven rams, seven
he-goats, seven kids, and seven sheep, with, seven
kinds of fragrant substances, rejoicing in the com-
pany of his own household and alloAving no stranger
nor any uncircumcised to partake of his feast; and
he made each day seven circuits around the altar,
carrj'ing branches of palm-trees and the fruit of
golden trees in his hand (thus the Israelites after-
ward, as evidently in the time of the author of
Jubilees, celebrated the feast, wearing wrejiths upon
their heads; ch. xvi. 1-31; comp. Lev. xxiii. 39-42;
but see Suk. iv. 5, and Crown). Jacob, too, cele-
brated the Feast of Tabernacles in great pomp and
with many sacrifices (ch. xxxii. 4);and after the 22d
of Tishri had become for him a day of glad tidings, he
added the eighth day. Hag ha-'Azeret (xxxii. 16-29).

Jubilees, Book of
Judaeo-Gerxuan

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

304

The Book of Jubilees states also that tlie Day of

Atonement originated in the time of the Patiiarclis.

It was on the 10th of Tishri that the sons of Jacob

sold their brother Joseph and deceived

Taber- their father by sending him Joseph's
nacles and coat stained with the blood of a kid ;

Atone- and both Bilhah and Dinah died of
ment. grief on hearing of the death of Jo-
seph, so that Jacob mourned three
deaths. Thenceforth it was ordained that the chil-
dren of Israel should afflict themselves on this day
each year and bring a yoimg goat as an atoning sac-
rifice for their sins (ch. xxxiv. 12-19).

Regarding the Passover night, called " lei shim-
murim " = " the night of watching " or " of protec-
tion" (Ex. xii. 43 [A. V., incorrectly, "a night to
be much observed "]), it is stated (ch. xlviii. 15,
xlix. 5; comp. Mek. to Ex. xii. 42) that on that night,
when all the powers of Satan (Mastema) had been
let loose to slay the Egyptians, the angels of heaven
bound him (Mastema) and kept him imprisoned
until the Israelites reached the Red Sea, in order
that he might not accuse them before God for
having taken the golden and silver vessels of the
Egyptians as payment for their servitude. That
night " all Israel was engaged in eating the Pesah
and in drinking wine while praising and blessing
the Lord, the God of their fathers," therein antici-
pating the Seder evening of later times, which must
have been celebrated in this manner in the time of
the author. The meaning of " between the eve-
nings" (Ex. xii. 6) is stated to be "from the third
part of the day to the third part of the night " (ch.
xlix. 9-12; but comp. Pes. v. 1, and Josephus, "B.
J." vi. 9, §3).

Most striking and valuable, as throwing light on
ancient practise, are the observations concerning the
Sabbath (ch. xlix. 8-13; comp. ii. 29-30). Doing
any of the following things on the Sabbath entails
the penalty of death : traveling, by land or sea ;
buying or selling; drawing water; carrying bur-
dens out of the house; killing or striking; snaring
beasts, birds, or fish; fasting or making war; hav-
ing marital intercourse. All these rigid ordinances
of Jubilees (comp. Sanh. 46a) have been observed by
the Falashas (see the work on the Sabbath translated
by Halevy, "Taazaze Sanbat," in "Bibliotheque de
I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes," p. 137, Paris, 1902), the
Samaritans (De Sacy, "Notices et Extraits," xii.
175). and the Karaites (.see Singer, I.e. pp. 198-199;
Charles, I.e. p. 259). The origin of the saying of
grace after meals is ascribed to Abraham (ch. xvi.
26) and to Jacob (ch. xlv. 5).

While the angelology and demonology, as well as

other features, of the book point to the same date

as that of the Book of Enoch and of the Testaments

of the Tnelve Patriarchs, there are

The Date certain facts presented by the book

of the which warrant the assertion, made by

Book. Charles {I.e. Introduction, pp. Iviii.-

Ixvi.), tliat it was written under Joiin

Hyrcanus. It refers to the subjection of the Idu-

means (Esau) to the Jewish people as still existing

(ch. xxxviii. 14),aud to Hellenistic Jews endeavoring

to pass as heathen in the athletic games (ch. iii. 30-

31, XV. 33-34). The hatred toward the Gentiles and

the bitter opposition to intermarriage with them,
the legend of the war with the Amoi-ites, Idumeans,
and Philistines (ch. xxx. 7-17, xxxiv. 1-9. xxxvii.-
xxxviii.), and the warlike spirit pervading the book
(ch. xxiii. 12-31), indicate the impression of the great
events of the Maccabean wars. On the other hand,
the haggadic amplifications and, at times, alterations
of the Biblical history, as in the narrative of the war
with the Shechemites (ch. xxx.) and the attachment
of the death-penalty to infringements of Sabbatical
laws, conform to the halakah of the austere Hasidim,
and are explicable only upon the assumption that
they emanated not from the late rabbinical .schools,
but from the leaders of the ancient Pharisees or
Scribes.

Especially noteworthy in this connection is the
reservation of the lofty position of high priest and
ruler to the tribe of Levi, in reward for its destruc-
tion of Shechem (ch. xxx. 14-17. xxxii. 1-3). The
Levites are represented as the keepers of the sacred
books, and of the secret lore entrusted to them by
the saints from of yore (ch. xlv. 16; comp. x. 4).
This indicates that the priests and Levites still in-
cluded among themselves, as in the days of the
author of the Book of Chronicles, the men of learn-
ing, the masters of the schools, and that these posi-
tions were not filled by men from among the peo-
ple, as was the case in the time of Shammai and
Hillel. Nor is the fact to be overlooked that the
calendric system proposed by the author of the Book
of Jubilees (comp. Enoch, Ixxii.-lxxxii.) suggests a
time when the calendar and the entire religious life
of the Jews was as yet in an unsettled condition,
and not fixed by rabbinical authorities.

Bibliography: Charles, The Book of Juhilees, London, 1903
(where the entire literature is given); Littmann, Das BticU
(ler JiihiUlen, in Kautzsch, Apokryphen ; Schiirer, Gesch.
3d ed., Iii. 274.

JUDACARIA. See Ghetto.

JUD-ffiANS, THE : A society organized in New
York Jan. 28, 1897, upon lines similar to those
of the Maccabaeans in London, England. It was
formed " for the purpose of promoting and further-
ing the intellectual and spiritual interests of Jews."
According to its constitution, "at least three-
fourths of its members shall be engaged in literature,
the arts, or science, or be members of a recognized
profession." Its first officers were: Henry M. Leip-
ziger, president; Richard J. H. Gottheil, first vice-
pr^ident; Isaac S. Isaacs, second vice-president;
Philip Cowen, secretary; and Albert Ulmann, treas-
urer. The society holds social and literary meetings
from time to time; and it has published, under tiie
title "The Judaeans, 1897-1899" (New York, 1899),
a detailed report covering its proceedings during the
first two vears of its existence.

A. ' G.

JUD.a:0-CHRISTIANS, See Ebionites.

JUD.a:0-GERMAN : The language spoken by
the German Jews in Russia, former Poland, Austria,
Rumania, and lately in America and South Africa.
It is spoken also by many Jews in Germany, where,
however, it is fast dying out. Before the end of
the fifteenth century the Hebrew transliteration of

305

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jubilees, Book of
Judaeo-C^rman

German is sporadically met with in the responsa of
the Rabbis, in glosses and exegetic treatises, and
occasional!}' in works of profane literature. In these
the language in no way differs from the current
idiom of Middle High German; and there is no evi-
dence of the existence of a dialectic form of German
among the Jews of central and eastern Europe pre-
vious to the invention of printing. The large num-
ber of Juda>o-German books issued in tiie first
century of the printing-press, and the widespread
dissemination of such works in Germany, led in the
seventeenth centurj^ to the writing of a series of
grammatical sketches by the missionaries and by
the scholars Buxtorf, Wagenseil, and Pfeffer. Ac-
cording to them, the Jews spoke a German dialect
which differed from the literary norm in that it made
u.se of antiquated words and of a large number of
Germanized Hebrew ones. Its chief distinction,
however, lay in its use of the Hebrew characters.
The German spoken by the Jews of Moravia, Po-
land, and Bohemia these scholars stigmatize as cor
rupt, which goes to prove that the origin of Judieo-
Gcrman must be assigned to a period much earlier
than that of which they treat.

It is liard to ascertain what led to this peculiar
development of the German language. The most
plausible explanation is the one given by Gude-
mann, that it was due to the spread of German to
Slavic countries, Avhere the Jews were isolated from
the purifying influence of the mother tongue ; and
that later, in tlie sixteenth century, the modified lan-
guage was carried to Germany by Polish teachers
and rabbis, wlio monopolized almost completely the
learned professions during the next three hundred
3'ears. There were Jews in Slavic countries before
the eleventh century ; but it seems that they spoke
Slavic. After the devastation of Galicia by the
Tatars, however, Daniel of Galitch (1215-66) invited
strangers, among them German Jews, to settle in
his wasted province. After that, Polish kings fre-
quently invited them to form town settlements
among the agricultural Poles. Their solidarity
and privileged self-government were favorable to
the preservation of the language which they had
brought from their German homes ; but their isola-
tion and their predilection for Talmudic and exegetic
studies introduced a large number of Hebrew and
Aramaic words into the vocabular}'- of the learned
and thence into that of daily life, while their Slavic
surroundings furnished them with many others
denoting familiar objects. In their present state,
the various Judwo-German dialects contain about
70 per cent of German, 20 per cent of Hebrew, and
10 per cent of Slavic words. The construction is
chiefly German, though here and there Polish and
Russian influences are patent.

Originally the Jews spoke of their language as
"Teutsch," i.e., German, from which it did not dif-
fer in any way. This is evidenced in the verb
" verteutschen " (r= " to translate," i.e.. to render into
German) and in the common expression "stcutsch "

(= " What do you mean ? "), contracted
Name. from "is teutsch," for some such

phrase as " Wie ist das auf Deutsch? "
(="What does that mean in German?"). In the
sixteenth century, when the written form of the
VTI-20

Judieo-Gernian differed considerably from the liter-
ary German, mainly in the presence of Hebrew
words, the common designation was " Iwre-Teutsch,"
or " Judisch-Teutsch. " The early Bible translations
and ethical worksare written in that " Iwre-Teutsch" ;
and down to the present time all ethical works and
prayer-books have imitated the style found in the
older productions. Such a procedure was made
necessary by the fact that the "Ze'ena u-Re'ena"
and similar works had become household books, ap-
pearing in an almost unchanged form and in count-
less editions for more than three centuries. Tiiis stage
of the language is known under the name of "Tchi-
nes-Teutsch," i.e., "Prayer German," or "Kor-
beu-Minche-Teutsch," and "Sidder-Teutsch," i.e.,
"Prayer-book German," and is frequently used by
modern writers in semiliturgic works, as byAbramo-
witsch in his hymns and Saturday prayers. Con-
formably to its ancient origin, it is comparatively
free from Hebrew words.

For the spoken idiom there was no special term,
though such words as " mame-loshen," z.e., "moth-
er tongue," and "prost-Jlidisch," i.e., "simple Jew-
ish," were used by writers of the earlier part of the
nineteenth century ; indeed, they are occasionally
heard even now. The Mendelssohnian reform cast a
slur on the " simple Jewish, " and scornfully called it a
"jargon." This contemptuous appellation has been
adopted by Judaeo-German writers in Russia, and is
now the most current name for the language as used
for literary purposes. The other common name,
"Jlidisch," i.e., "Jewish," has been carried by
Jewish emigrants to English-speaking countries,
where it has given rise to the form " Yiddish."

Judffio-German is not a uniform language ; the term
is a generic name for a number of dialects that differ
considerably among themselves. Rumanian, Hun-
garian, and Lithuanian Jews speak varieties sufli-
ciently intelligible to one another, just as Bavarians,
Silesians, and Alsatians understand one another;
but their dialects are distinct, and owe their origin
to the different localities in Germany from which
the Jews emigrated. From linguistic evidence, it
may be assumed that a small territory, with Frank-
fort-on-the-Main for its center, represents all the
variations current in the eastern part. This assump-
tion is sustained by the survival of town names,
such as Mainz, Speyer, Worms, as
Southern, the family names of Russian and Po-

Polish, lish Jews. Originallv, no doubt, the
and Liithu- various colonies spoke their separate
anian. dialects; but frequent migrations
brought them into competition, and
either a fusion took place or the more prominent
caused the others to disappear. The dialects of
Judito-German may be conveniently grouped in
three divisions; (1) the southern, spoken in the south
of Russia, in parts of Galicia, and in Rumania, and
corresponding more closely to a variety of Bavarian ;
(2) the Polish, the dialect of Poland and parts of
Lithuania and Galicia; and (3) the Lithuanian, the
dialect sjioken in the greater part of Jjithuania and
bearing strong resemblances to the dialects of Hen-
neberg and of parts of Saxony. The most charac-
teristic difference is in the vocalism. the Lithuanian
having almost entirely lost its long vowels, the

Judseo-German

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

306

Polisli abounding in diphthongs, while the southern
variety has proceeded farthest in the vowel-mu-
tation.

There are many indications of the antiquity of
JudiBO-Germau. Many Middle High German forms
have been preserved here that have disappeared
from the modern German. The long "i" has given
" ay " in the Lithuanian and " a " in the Polish,
whereas Middle High German "el" has become
"ey" in the Lithuanian and "ay" in the southern
dialects. The "u" in "kummen" has not mutated
to "o " in the Lithuanian, but has gone over to "1 "
in the Polisli and the southern varieties. Slavic
words have frequently undergone the same muta-
tions as German words ; and similar mutations have
taken place in the Hebrew element of Juda'O-Ger-
man. It is due to this adaptation of the Hebrew to
the changed German language that the Polish pro-
nunciation of Hebrew differs so much from the
Sephardic.

The grammar has remained strictly Germanic,
though much simplitied in forms. The genitive has
almost entirely disappeared from the declension ; the
plural formation has been enriched by
Grammar, the Hebrew "im," the German dia-
lectic "ech," and the Hebrew "es,"
which last, however, is found also in German dia-
lects. Judfeo-German is exceedingly rich in dimin-
utives; and this part of its structure is the only one
that has been well investigated (by A. Landau).
The verb has lost the imperfect tense; and all the
prepositions govern the dative case. The order of
words is much simpler than in modern German,
being very much like that in English. The struc-
ture of the sentence is greatly influenced by the
Slavic idioms; and Hebrew has left a few traces in
the periodic arrangement of the parts.

Judaio-German as used for literary purposes is
even more varied than the spoken dialects. The
writers attempt to use the native dialect; but, being
unhampered by an established grammar, and being
accustomed to look upon Judoeo-German as a cor-
ruption of literary German, they make more or less
near approaches to the latter. The pure vernacular
was first written in the beginning of the nineteenth
century by Phinehas Mendel Lefin, a Galician; and
varieties of the southern dialect have since been used
by most of the writers of Juda-o-German, from Et-
tinger to Abramowitsch. At first the Lithuanian
dialect was but rarely used in literature, Dick being
the most prominent writer in the Lithuanian half a
century ago. At present, however, the northern
idiom seems to be in the ascendent. This is par-
ticularly the case with the i)eriodical literature in
America, where hardly any other form is met with.
The Polish vernacular has a few adherents, and has
been used with especial vigor by Perez.

The scant literary development of Judajo-German
previous to the middle of the nineteenth century
has left the vocabulary poor; and various means
have been used to sui)ply its needs. Some have
freely introduced the common terms of the other
European languages, while others persist in coining
new words from Hebrew stems. Others, again, have
adopted the current words of the country; so that
one may find Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Slovenian,

Hungarian, and Rumanian elements in the Judteo-
Germau of the various writers. In America the lit-
erary dialect is made to approach German more
closely ; but there is also a large infusion of English
words.

The following series of extracts, representing four
centuries and most of the countries in which JudaiO-
Germau is spoken, gives but an imperfect idea of
all the shades of the vernacular; an investigation
of the history of the language from its incipiency to
the present time has not yet been made. The exam-
ples are given in the transcriptions in which they are
found in recent works.

Specimens of Jud^o-German.

Got kiinig oberster Got er wont Im biinel, er ist stark im
himel, sterk seines gewalt sie wert derhecht. Ewig un' aumer
er wert kunigen. Wen as dein namen Got aso ist deiu lob, du
bist bert zii derzornen un' du bist senft zu wiligen un' nit du
begerst an zu toten der da ist scbuldig zu toten uin sein sund
wenn neuert das er wider kert von seinen tods, du wartest zu
ihm ob er wider kert un' tut naiU'n zu bant du onpfangst

ihn, wen du Got du bist ir beschefer un' drum du weist un'
kenst wol ir gedeknis, wen sie sein vleisch un' blut. (Of the
flfteenth century ; in Griinbaum, "Chrestomathie.")

Zu dem Ubersiger zu Knecht Gots zu -in das er hot geret zu

Got, Red des Gesang das dosig, am Tag da hat beschirmt in (Jot
von teneral sein veinden un' von bant ^inu'. Un' er sprach,
ich wil liben dich Got mein Sterk, Got mein Velsen un' meln
Geheg un' mein Ontrinner, mein Got mein Sterk, ich bescbuz
mich an im, mein Schilt un' Horn meiner Hulf, mein Sterk,
(L>14; ib.)

Wol dem man der nit in der a"'>;u'n rat get, un' in weg der
sunder nit er stet, in gesess der speter nit er sizt, neiert auf
recht der m'ln glbt er sein sin ue' wiz. Die recbt der n^in bait

T T

er in groser acht, da inen lernt er tag un' nacbt, der selbig
wert sein as ein baum der vun wasser nit stet welt, welchersein
ops gibt in seiner zeit. (1580 ; ib.)

Es is ein zeit zum schweigen, es is auch ein zeit zum reden.
ale ding hot seine zeit, schweigen iz wol gut, reden vil besser
wen es not thut; es is nit ale mol wol getan wen man schweigt,
den wen dich einer an deiner eren un' ■^^2D antast, heisst dich
ein nxn 3JJ oderdergleichen, un' du woltest derzu schweigen,
so thustu nit wol dran. (1615; ib.)

mn der Vater von amaN hat verkauft a^c'^x. Un' cmax is
ein mal derbei gestanden, un' wenn einer is gekommen un' hat
gewolt kaufen nir nii3>, da fragt □maN : Wie alt bistu ? Da
entfert er fufzig oder sechzig jar, da sagt er wieder : du bist
nun alt sechzig jar un' du wilst did! bucken zu einem das da
ein tag alt ist ? Da hat sich der selbiger geschemt un' is ni3-\na
weggegangen. (1648; ib.)

Kumt her libe inanen un' frauen, un' tut das schen in n:;'j?a
anschauen, mit drei hundert uud etliclie a^Vy": die da seinen
ale aus die nisj gemacht. un' ach aus den n^i un' >in3 ge-
macht. (175:3; ili.)

Specimens of the Nineteenth Cextiry.

Der dales iz mit dem id'n wi a guf mit a n'some. Der id bi-
k6nt cex mit dem dales wen er iz nox ba der mamen in boujx.
In dales wet der id gibor'n, ujfgihudewet. hot xassene, dernox
kinder, lebt un' starbt. (Lithuania; "Am Urquell," 111.)

De brumfn iz tajer, de mQs iz klejn, ax nit trinkn iz ax nit
sejn : byn ix gegangn inter der tir, bob ix getrinkn on a sir.
(Poland; Lublin, in " Mittheilungen," 11.)

Jajnkele majner, swarzer cigajner, wi bisti giwejn ? Af jener
wel't. Wus hosti gizejn? A bajtl' mit gelt. Farwus ost nist
ginimen? Men git iber di hent. (South ; Odessa; i/j.)

Oj waj ! Ginier taj I Taj iz biter, gimer ciker ! Ciker iz zis,
gimer fis ! Fis iz fiit, Lajg mex in bat. (Galicia ; ib.)

Schloif Kindele scbloif, dort in jenem Hoif, steen zwa Scha-
fcloch bloube, wdllen mei Kindele lioube, kiiiiunt der Halter
mit de Geigen, tbiit de Schafeloch zusammen treiben. (Mora-
via; "Am Urquell," vi.)

307

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaeo-German

VVillst de wohin fohren, nimm drei KocijaSes auf : aner sagt
dir auf, unem sagst dii auf, mit'm dritten fohrst de. (Slavo-
nia; ib.)

E toppelter Riich tome hot sicli on ihiu medabbek gewesen,
un dos gelit bei ilim a wie bei e Bruiiii init zwa Eiiiniern.
Kumiiit der guw. Ilut'h heraiif, llit'btder Biisc uiiteri raus, un e
su aacU uingekehrt. (Hungary ; Heb Sininiel Andrichan.)

Haiszt ii Gescbiift ! Den ganzen geschlogenen Tag steib ich
eriini, und kain Mensch biaucbt ii poar Hoisen. a lutnpige West,
fhotschik bin ich niscbt im Stande los zu werden. (Berlin;
" Intiiiies aus der Liliengass.")

Tlie western European languages were early used
by tlie Jews in Hebrew transliteration. There arc
in existence various documents in Spanish, Proven-
cal, French, and German that reach
Trans- back into the thirteenth, and probably
literation. into the twelfth, centurj\ The oldest
German specimen is a benediction of
the womb. The spelling differs little from that cur-
rent in the other western dialects, and seems to be
a direct evolution from the one in vogue in Spain
and France. ^, n, ), N do duty for all vowel combina-
tions, while y is almost entirely absent. The devia-
tions, if any, from the standard German are slight :
in J''f5="legdich"; X3U="buche"; p"'^ = "legen " ;
nom = " rechte " ; JJ^'I = " viscii " ; KO"'!?ErJ*0 =
" menschlichs " ; xnn = " drie " ; L3''t3t:'J"' = " instet " ;

j>^>^i"l =r " wilius." A similar orthographj^ is fol-
lowed in the glosses of Ii. Moses ha-Darshan of the
thirteenth century. E.vplicit rules for spelling are
given by Isserlein (d. 1460) in the appendix to his
"Sittenbuch." The main change from the earlier
practise consists in the use of N to represent "a"
and "o," whereas "o" was previously expressed as
in Spanish and French byv This Important change
indicates the earlj' mutation of the German "a" to
the Judffio-German "o." No material deviations
from the spelling established by Isserlein are met
with before the middle of the nineteenth century.

Specimens of Spelling.

jjiNn m pa'Nn iiln ii"-;- td ny a'zD tnij u'n jjuism jik
p^BC |>n !■«{< -i^D a-\^<^2 ny Ti i^n t3pMip-\T -\p .yi: ny •^-\^>^2
Snb o^n n'j i^n jyii IS .jSmi jsnj tt'j^i dik ta^iijitDDj'T'j -\i
\3V2 n ii."\ .vv^2 o-j I':: "i-n dd-im^ rarj en ycxir l^>J.'^
•T'D lOB'ina Nn JNOtt' I'ln jin on pn .td b^d

(16th cent.; Buxtorf.)

Nn aan av ,pjt<J nS;'fl -i:i>n aiiin ijin B''C i^n irp'^N ■•jn
N'T jrn Nil .|?yivj D-iin lyr t^n 'jin .ajpn^ij p^Ntar inj pr
Nn ,ppNirj iiM ^'!3•'np ^du Si2''iN ni ,pipu nSys p>N imn
nn'fl ■'Bij Nn ,pjBB'''J pM2 'jiN .psn ioppn!:'>j 'r.xn -inj
.]^y^vi n''''^ ii in jj'v ]jn3 jSpip "iDn 'jin ,jjNitau pxn

(1696 ; "Sefer Ma'asc ha-Shem.")

BNB'J' P'K px pi2^-lS V^^i< Nn TN Vy)^^ ^^^ V'^ '"''? ''^'V

■>i'/'jiN Cpn-ip ps jyipJT'N SnjNn pv^ JIN .Vp; i;T'mj p'^N
n3?!"B-bj' pM V^N .iT^jr i"** I*? ^^A'^- ^J^? "'yP.'''''*-! ?"''''? fJ-'^rJ f^S
jw ts"'? J?C"'7N B-^yijin fj,*p.yj is nas 3-;j:. jj'^n jyivj t>N
Y^H p3j.'J N^n Qy;^s jin ppvj' jin jn;'''^p u'mn n"; ar/^o

(1871; "Sippure Kedoshim.")

In the beginning of the nineteenth century X is
found fully established as "a" and "o," and is silent
at the end of words after vowels and in the begin-
ning before 1 and V J? is universally tonic "e," and
at present also atonic "e," for which at first' was
used ; 1 is " u " ; " stands for " ej " and " aj " ; '1 is

"ou " and "oj." This is true in tlie Lithuanian dia-
lect. But since in the south and in Poland Gernian-
"a" has mutated through "o " to "u," {< represents
such "u"; similarly i stands there for^'i,"'! for
"oy." "ey," etc. As mentioned above, the so called
Polish pronunciation of Hebrew is nothing else than
the mutated German pronunciation, on parallel lines
with the changes in German words. Consequently
it is not always possible to speak of
Pronun- the pronunciation, but the pronuncia-
ciation. tious, of Hebrew words ; for they vary
from i)lace to place. Hebrew words
in JudiEO-German have sulfered still further change
owing to the fact that closed syllables are treated
differently from open ones, that frequently the con-
struct state or a similar form is the origin of the
form in use, and that analogies of various kinds
have produced still further deviation from the orig-
inal Hebrew. All other foreign words are spelled
phonetically and offer no difficulty ; they have not
mutated together with the native German words.

The greatest obstacles to reading Judaeo-German
are the compound words in which the stem is Hebrew
while the suffixes are German and Slavic; here the
etymological Hebrew, the semihistorical German, and
the phonetic Slavic spellings meet in one and the
same word. Only those texts which are pointed,
and this is now frequently the case, offer a safe
guide. Here pathah = "a," kamez = "o," segol =
"e," zere = "ey," shurek = "u," hirek = "i." The
shewas are all silent in Lithuanian, but the other dia-
lects pronounce them according to the mutations of
the German vowels. The transliteration of the con-
sonants has undergone fewer changes and is conse-
quently much simpler. In modern times 11 and not
2 is used for "w," hence only one letter occurs with
rafeh, namel}' Q for "f. " In printed books s stands
generally for "p," while S is "f." The Slavic
sound " z " is rendered by t^t. and English " j " by
cn, and so forth. The chaos of spelling is best il-
lustrated by the rules laid down and followed by
the " Jlidische Volksbibliothek " : (1) Write Judaeo-
German as you speak. (2) Write so that the Polish
and the Lithuanian reader alike may understand you.
(3) Remember that you are writing for the common
people. (4) The German words are to be spelled
as in German. (5) Spell differently words of the
same sound but different signification ; for exam-
ple: p-iGE^ "Stein," and |nyt:^, "stehn"; jnyv,
" zehn, " and JHNV, " Zahne " ; etc.

Specimens of Present-Day Spelling.

Dnj'3 -1 tfnpn 2in nN c:zy2 nos t^cip'-? fi** D>! f<'V
Tion 1JJ1 TIN dSndnt J1JM1N-1 pn_N c-mcn po JIN 'iiJ^f^Ji-i
niDi3 BID tt'iB Dy7_ pB'pj -IS jvS D"n -ij,n jin din N"3 ]Vy'\\i
.|iTj?iij JiBsjjS -in;'t TIN Dy. jin B3i'? indn jin

(Lemberg.)

B''\J IJ? .B^yppnye J-1N t33'"!BJ,'3 inyj. D.-fN -\N11 V'!'*''! 0^1
^D-flS P^BITN B'P n3JJ JIN .tt'^'(7D ']t*f^ Oyn "^tti i'pBN'_ N't J^
PN BJi'^'J !''■'■)!< Dy BNH JIN BJ1D n^^VS tyiN pjrx JND r"';;p
BNH V^^ho nD";iB DNT JIN BD^IpnyO BnH JIN X'^^^D ']t«i' 3J."T

".nrii'lNfl BDMp-iyfl -]i1N 1JJ

(Wllna.)

-B73,n.tDj?T lyaiiN pvz' p3 ,BNT u'lns; B'c ,bSn p^r pa tn
^'N ',2N">N tpiN-i i\": "iNii ,r;-}2 ■^n pr :]'? Bn;7;a ,Bj;S3 oi

Judseo-German
Judaeo-G-erman Literature

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

308

2nn,a-M Dn^^ .oy'^s ino ,2Ni7 i-n ^nj asn .vnsn j^d inj sn^
.priK pi'e^ jnyj a^a I'n oSnh in-; -i>3n /n in: "i^n

(Kiev; "Jiidische Volksbibliothek.")

tiSns' i'l-v !3>c Diyi^NJ-aD iron's
(Jitomir: Lifschitz's "Dictionary-")

■^Nn pyn SS'ia jya'i'ij'C'N an ij^ib yj^r jin i-'i-inS inq
jpo Nn o>'ii S'3 -lyn IS ]in .oj^dn ipn lyjyn) irin^Bis-)n
]>t< ayiSpDp iNii yoxv'^ iNJ n'^y;^ ra iJ,ni'ii t20N-\2yj-\N£3
N ]Va-'^-^V U'tODP INT DipDNC Nn ty^ssn cbonSd ijyaN„

(America.)

The wide-spread dissemination of the German Jews
in the central and eastern parts of Europe has not
been without an influence on the languages of the
nations among whom they have lived. The German,
Russian, and Polish languages have incorporated a
certain number of Judaeo-German words into their
vocabularies. The number of such words in Rus-
sian is naturally small; in Polish it is not always
possible to ascertain whether a given word of Ger-
man origin has come in directly or
Influence through the medium of the Judaeo-Ger-
on Other man; the etymologist has to confine
Lan- himself, therefore, to those of He-
g^ages. brew origin in which the changed
vocalism points unmistakably to a
borrowing from the living dialect of the Jews. A
thorough investigation will, probably, prove a
greater indebtedness to the Jews than has heretofore
been imagined. In German the Judaeo-German ele-
ment is, naturally, confined to the Hebrew stems;
such words are: "acheln," "begern," "betuches,"
" bocher, " " dalles, " " dallinger, " " dibbern, " " dokes, "
"doufes," "floten," "ganfen," "gauner," "goi,'"
"kaffer," "kapores," "knasseu," "kohl," "koscher,"
"matze," "mauschel," "meschugge," "moos,"
"schabbes," "schacher," "schachten," "schakern,"
" schicker, " " schicksel, " " schlammassel, " " schmuss, "
" schof el, " " schote, " " stusz , " " tref e, " " zores. " The
remarkable thing in this collection is that many of
these words have come in through the "thieves'
slang," in which the Hebrew element is not incon-
siderable. Steinschueider dissents from the suppo-
sition that the vagabonds acquired these terms from
their Jewish comrades, on the ground that the num-
ber of such Jewish rogues in the Middle Ages was
inconsiderable. However this may have been, the
thieves found the less-understood Jewish words con-
venient for their purposes; and thence the words
passed through the students' slang into the conver-
sational German.

Judajo-German has fared very badly with scientific
scliolars. While eveiy unimportant dialect of Eu-
rope, spoken it may be by but a few thousand people,
has found its investigator, Juda:o-German, spoken by
more than 4,000,000 peoj)le, has had a small number
of apologists and scarcely any investigators. A
large amount of work remains to be done before
anything like a history of the language can be written.
From the standpoint not only of Judao-German, but
of German itself, a thorough study will repay the

History of

Inves-
tigation.

philologist. A large number of Middle High Ger-
man words has been preserved here that have dis-
appeared from modern German. Such
are : " onweren, " for " ahne werden " =
"to lose"; "lajlach," Middle High
German " lilach " = '" a spread " ; " der-
monen," Middle High German "er-
manen " = " to remember " ; " gewinnen " = " to
bear " ; " nechten " = " yesterday " ; " gich," Middle
High German " gach " = " quick " ; etc.

One of the most crying needs is a study of the
various local subdialects. Saineanu, in his " Studiu "
(see bibliograpliy below), has subjected the Ruma-
nian variety to a general review, while A. Landau,
in the "Deutsche Mundarten" (vol. i., part i.), has
written a good disquisition on the diminutive in the
East - Galician. Wiener, " On the Judaeo-German
Spoken by the Russian Jews " (in " The American
Journal of Philology," vol. xiv.), deals in a general
way with the Lithuanian dialect. There are no
faithfully transcribed te.xts, no collections in a uni-
form scientific alphabet. A few tentative renderings
of local varieties may be found in " Am Urquell,
Monatsschrift fur Volkskuude," published by F. S.
Krauss; in " Mitteilungen der GescUschaft fur Jil-
dische Volkskunde," published by M. Grunwald at
Hamburg; and in a few scattered articles in the
"Zeitschrift des Yereins fiir Yolkskunde," the
" Globus, " and the " Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic. " A
few specimens of East-Galician are given in " Zbior
Wiadomo^ci do Antropologii Kra Jowej," vol. xvii.,
Cracow, 1893; but they contain countless printer's
errors.

The older form of Judaeo-German has been even
more neglected than the modern dialects. Nothing
has been done to ascertain the value of sounds in
the older writings or to collect the peculiar words
contained in them. Zunz (" G. V-") and Gildemann
(" Quellenschriften " and "Gesch.") have gathered a
few of the more peculiar words, while the older dic-
tionaries of Callenberg, Bibliophilus, and Selig deal
only with the Hebrew element in Judaeo-German.
Grilnbaum, in his " Jildisch-Deutsche Chrestoma-
thie," has discussed a large number of words con-
tained in the extracts of his chrestomathy ; but no
one period, no one book, has yet been treated in its
entirety. Rosenberg's " Ueber eiue Sammlung Deut-
scher Yolks- und Gesellschafts-Lieder in Hebraischen
Lettern " (Berlin, 1888) deals only with the contents
of that interesting collection and not with the lan-
guage.

There is a number of Judaeo-German dictionaries
which may serve as a starting-point for lexicolog-
ical studies. The Judaeo-German-Russian and Rus-
siau-Judaeo-German ones by Lifschitz are particu-
larly valuable on account of the very large collection
of rarer words of the southern variety. The one by
Dreisin is interesting because it gives the meanings
in the Lithuanian and southern dialects. Harkavy
has published a Judaeo-Germau-Euglish andEnglish-
Judaeo-German dictionarj', though it must be said
that the Judaeo-German which it contains is mainly
corrupt German.

Bibliography : L. Saineanu, Studiu Dialectologic Ampra
GraiuJui Ei^reo-Qermau, Bucbarest. 1889 (in Rumanian),
which gives a list of twenty-eight works with a short discus-
sion of each. A much larger number is given by A. Landau

309

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judeeo-German
Judeeo-German Literature

in Deutsche Miiiidartcn. vol. i.. part ii., Vienna. 1896. It will
also be profltable to consult the Juda>o-(iennan magazines,
especially the Jihlimhi: ]''ilhsliitiU<>t)ick and the Hauxfrcund,
for books dealing with the language: see also Wiener, The
Histaniof Yiddish Literature in the Nineteenth Century,
ch. U., New York, 1899.
G. L. WlK.

JUD-ffiO-GERMAN LITERATURE : The

earliest known Juda-o-Gcrniaii translation of the
Mahzor belongs to the fourteenth century, and Isaac
ben Eliezer's "Sefer ha-Gan," which has had many
editions, as well as Simeon ben Judah's "Sefer ha-
Musar," was written in the tifteenth century. The
latter two belong to that small class of original eth-
ical-religious works in which early Judffio-German
literature attained its highest development. With
these exceptions most of the earlier works in that
language were translations, beginning with the Bible
(see Jew. Encyc. iii. 191-193, s.v. Bible Transla-
tions) and the prayers, and were dependent on He-
brew, even for their titles. The well-known Baba
BucH marks the introduction of translations from
other tongues, in the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, when Judaeo-German literature properly be-
gan. The equally well-known "Ma'aseh Buch," a
collection of tales from Talmudical and rabbinical
sources, appeared about a century later (Basel,
1602); it enjoys the rare distinction of having been
translated into German by a Christian, one Helvich
(Giessen, 1612). Abraham b. Mattathias' "Kuh-
Buch" (1555), Moses Enoch's "Brand-Spiegel"
(1602 ?), and Isaac b. Eliakim's popular "Leb Tob"
(2ded., Prague 1620) belong to the above-mentioned
class of ethical works.

Works on "minhagim," or ritual customs, of
which that by Jehiel Epstein of Lemberg (1679) is
one of the earliest and the best, were much in favor
in those times. But the attempt to introduce prayers
in Judaeo-German was opposed b}^ the Rabbis, and
Aaron b. Samuel's "LieblicheTefiUah,

Prayers oder Krilftige Arznei fur Guf und Ne-
and shamah" (1709), was interdicted. But

Minhagim, there was no opposition to the large
number of "tehinnot" (prayers) com-
posed especially for women, which began to appear
as early as 1599 ("Tehinnot be-Kol Yom,"by Akiba
Frankfurter, Basel) and multiplied very rapidly (see
Jew. Encyc. iv. 551, s.v. Devotional Literature).
Some of those special prayers, of later periods, are
attributed to women, and contain so many absurdi-
ties that there is a well-grounded suspicion that they
were composed with the object of producing mirth
in.stead of devotion. The same kind of suspicion is
entertained in regard to several collections of ex-
travagant stories about the wonder-working " Zad-
dikim," or early Hasidic rabbis, and it is believed by
many that even the well-known "Shibhe Besht,"
of which numerous editions have appeared since the
first Hebrew and Judfco-German editions about
1815, was written with the object of casting ridi-
cule on the Hasidim.

The number of works on secular subjects in the
earlier periods of the literature is very small, and
the number of those possessing any merit, either
literary or historical, is still smaller. Gershon ben
Eliezer's curious book of travels, " Gelilot Ercz
Yisrael," and Menahem Man b. Solomon's "She'erit

Yisrael," which was designed as a supplement 1o
the "Yosippon" (1748), are the best examples in
geography and history which this literature produced
in tJie seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The
poetical productions that began with rhythmical
l)araj)hrasing of the Bible, as the "Shmuel Buch"
(1543), and include poetical descriptions of persecu-
tions, as the " Viuzlied " (1614) and the

Secular "Schwcdischlied," and some imitations

Works. of the" Nicbelungenlied, "dealing with
Biblical subjects and Midrasliic tales,
as the "Targum Slicni Lied" (1717), also possess
very little literary merit. The JudaoGerman folk-
medicine books, dream-books, lot-books, and other
books written for the ignorant masses, mostly by
ignorant authors, are of interest to bibliographers
only ; this is true, indeed, of the bulk of the Judao-
German literature from the sixteenth to the eight-
eenth century inclusive. The number of Jews able
to read Hebrew was so large in those three centuries
that talented writers found among them a sufficient
number of readers for all their literary productions.
The JudaoGerman writers were usually the pub-
lishers themselves, and they never attempted to pro-
duce, and therefore never succeeded in producing,
works of real merit.

The quantity, like the quality, of the works of
the early period is much more insigniticant than is
generally supposed. Steinschneider's list of the
Judao-German works contained in the Oppenheim
collection includes the great majority of the books
printed in that language down to about 1740, and
consists of 385 numbers ("Serapeum," 1848, pp. 313
et seq.; ib. 1849, pp. 9 et seq.). The number of
Judao-German works written in the century which
followed that period is probably much smaller than
the number now (1904) produced in Russia alone in
the course of a decade.

The modern period of Judao-German literature
began with the works of Isaac Baer Lewinsohn,
Abraham Baer Gottlober, and other early leaders of
the Haska LAH movement, who thus sought adherents-
among the ignorant masses. The effort of Mendel
Levin (Satanov) to imitate his friend and master
Moses Mendelssohn by translating the Bible was
abortive, and his translation of the Book of Prov-
erbs into Judao-German as spoken in Russia is
known onl3' through the ridicule heaped upon him
by Tobias Feder in his " Kol Mehaze-

Modern zim. " The supposition that this trans-
Movement, lation had any influence on later wri-
ters, or was ever popular, is disproved
by the fact tJiat so competent a bibliographer as
Benjacob, who was almost a contemporary of Levin,
hardly knew of it (see "Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 644).
Aksenfeld of Odessa was the first to raise the Judao-
German drama above the level of the "Purimspiel"
and "Mekirat Yosef "; Ettinger of Russian Poland
and Ehrenkranz-Zbarzer of Galicia introduced pop-
ular poetry surpassing anything that preceded it;
and Isaac Meir Dick of Wilna was the author of
short stories that would be considered masterpieces
even to-day were his stj'le more in accordance with
modern requirements.

The first Judao-German newspaper was Alex-
ander Zcderbaum's "Kol Mebasser " (1863); in the

Judaeo-German Literature
Judaeo-Greek

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

310

same decade appeared Zuuser tlie folk-poet, Abram-
ovich the novelist, and Goldfaden the poet and
playwright, none of whom has yet been excelled in
his peculiar tield. Among the earliest and best
satirists were Joel Linetzki (" Polisher Yingel "),
Mani Dlugotch (" '01am ha-Tohu'nik"), M. A. Shatz-
kes (•• Der Judischer far Pessah "), and Eliezcr Zwei-
fel (" Der Gekaufter Maftir "). Some of the works
of the above-mentioned writers have been trans-
lated into several European languages.

While the Juda?o-German literature of the earlier
period is rightly described by Karpeles as an "un-
dercurrent" of Hebrew literature, the modern" Yid-
dish " literature (as it is preferably called by its
devotees) equals, and in some respects rises above,
the latter. This is especially true in the domains
of belles-lettres, poetry, and periodical literature,
and in dramatic works the Hebrew " closet-drama "
remains far behind the Yiddisli drama, which is s>ic-
cessfully presented in several countries (see Dr.\ma,
Yiddish). In periodical literature, Hebrew long
held swaj'in Russia, where the better classes, almost
all of whom are able to read Hebrew, form the bulk
of the newspaper-reading public. But the inevitable
change is occurring even there, and the oldest He-
brew newspaper (•' Ha-Meliz ") ceased to appear two
months after the establishment, in Jan., 1904, of two
daily Yiddish papers. In the United States — ne.vt
to Russia, the most important center of Yiddish lit-
erature— where there is no censor to discriminate in
favor of Hebrew, the Yiddish press is much more
popular, and has been so from the beginning, while
the Hebrew periodical press has only a precarious
existence.

Among the later novelists in Russia, Dinesohn,
Spektor, and Rabinowitz hold the highest rank, the
hitter's "Stempenju " and "Yosele Solovei " being
considered the best productions of their kind. But
most critics are unjust to fertile N. M. Shaikewich,
whose stories possess more merit than
Novelists is usually conceded to them. Of the
and Poets, poets, Frischman, M. Gordon, Frug,
Reisen, Bialik, and J. L. Peretz stand
preeminent. The last-named, perhaps unduly ex-
tolled at first, is now in great danger, owing to the
reaction against him in Russia, of being underesti-
mated. Goldfaden and Zunser went to the United
States, and have almost ceased to write. The fore-
most among the Juda^o-German poets whose talents
Avere developed outside of Russia is Morris Rosen-
feld, who, with A. M. Sharkanski, Ben-Nez, Edel-
stat, Jehoash Bovshoer, and others, represents the
latest school of Yiddish poetry, emancipated from
the censor and from the predominance of Hebrew
which overshadowed it in Russia.

For scientific works of all descriptions, the Judaeo-
German literature of to-day depends on translations
and compilations almost as mucii as it did in the
earlier periods, Jacob Psanter's writings on the his-
tory of the Jews in Rumania and Lazar Schulman's
researches into the history of Jud;eo-German litera-
ture being exceptions, to which, perhaps, may be
added Kranz's " Culturgeschichte " (New York)
But the number of original articles on various scien-
tific subjects that have appeared in dailies, week-
lies, and monthlies in both hemispheres is very

large; some of them are very valuable. The j'ear-
books, as the "Jiidischer Volksbibliothek " (Kiev,
1888 and 1889), the •' Volksfreund," and "Literatur
und Leben," have a permanent literarj- value, and
when the prejudice against the literature of this
language has disappeared much that is contained in
it will be found worthy of being translated into other
European languages.

In the United States Alexander Harkavy has pub-
lished a series of Yiddish-English and English- Yid-
dish dictionaries, Shaikewich, Do-
In litzki, Bukanski, Tannenbaum, Her-

America. malin, Kranz, Kobrin, Gorin, Gordin,
and several others have written origi-
nal works, of more or less merit, that have helped the
Judazo-German literature of the western hemisphere
to assume respectable proportions. Its most promi-
nent representatives in the journalistic field are Leon
Zolotkoff of Chicago, Maurice Vinchevski (the
above-named Ben-Nez), Abraham Cahan, John Pa-
le)', Feigenbaum, Malitz, Minz, Zevin, and Libin,
almost all of whom are authors of works written in
America. The sensational stories that appeared in
the United States in the last decade of the nineteenth
century became very popular in Russia, and the
American export of Yiddish works promises soon to
exceed, if it does not exceed already, the import of
such works from the Old World.

The older JudECO-German literature has been stud-
ied and extensivelj^ treated by Jewish and non-Jew-
ish literary historians, from the time

Literary of Wagenseil down to the present

History, time. Karpeles devoted to it nearly
thirty pages, although he has not even
mentioned its modern developments. Griinbaum's
" Judisch-Deutsche Chrestomathie " (Leipsic, 1882)
is confined to selections from old works, while his
"Judisch-Deutsche Literaturin Deutschland, Polen,
und Amerika " (Berlin, 1894) hardly deserves notice.
The poetical works of the modern division of that
literature fared better, as they were introduced to
the outside world in Dalmau's " Jildisch-Deutsche
Volkslieder aus Galizien und Russland " (Berlin,
1891). A good bibliography of modern poetical
works is appended to the excellent collection of Rus-
sian-Jewish folk-songs by Ginzburg and Marek
(" Yevreiskya Narodnia Pyesni w Rossii, " St. Pe-
tersburg, 1901).

BiBLiOGR.\PHY: Delitzsch, Zur Oesch. der Jlidischen Poeste,
pp. 80-82, Leipsic, 18.36; Gosche's Arcltiii fin- Literati(roe>ich.
1. 93 et !<eq., Leipsic, 1870; Karpeles, (xcsc/i. der JUdi^ichen
Litteratur, il. 10tKt-l()29; Schulman, in Jiidi.^rhc Vo}ki<hi-
bliothek, ii. 115 rt secy., Kiev, 1889; Steinschneiiier, in Mo-
natsschrift, x\n. 7i et seq.; Ver}ia)idlu)igen dei Xtcn Ver-
sammhma Dexitschen Philolnoeii ■>i)id Schidinauner in
Wlirzlmrg, pp.215 et seq., Leipsic, 1869; Wiener's Yiddish
Literature in the Nineteenth Centuri), New York, 1899 (the
only authority for general modern Judteo-German literature).

G. P. Wl.

JUD^O - GREEK AND JVD2E0 - ITAL-
IAN : Although the Greek which is spoken and
written by Jews in various parts of the Balkan
Peninsula differs scarcely at all from that employed
by the non-Jewish inhabitants, the term "Judajo-
Greek " is convenient as distinguishing this dialect
from that spoken by Jews elsewhere. The same is
true of the term " Juda?o-Italian," which refers here

311

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaeo-German Literature
Judaeo-Greek

only to the Venetian and Apulian dialects. The is-
land of Corfu, beiuc:, so to speak, a bridge which
joins the Balkan Peninsula with Italy, may be re-
garded also as the rallying-point of modern Greek
and of the Venetian and Apulian dialects as spoken
and Avritten by Jews. The exclusive sway of the
Greek language among the Cortiote Jews was of short
dui'ation, and lasted only as long as the first stra-
tum of the community which had come from the so-
called Romania remained homogeneous — until from
the Angevin po.ssessi<)ns of southern Italy other
Jews slowly but steadily joined them of their own
accord i)etween the twelfth and fourteenth cen-
turies. There were Greek-speaking Jewish com-
mvuiities in various other parts of the Balkan Pen-
insula (see Gukeck): in Constantinople, Salonica,
Chalcis, Janina, Arta, Zante, and Crete, where Jews
are still found, as well as in various places where
at present none remain.

For the Greek-speaking Jews of the Balkan Pen-
insula modern Greek translations of several parts of
the Bible were made, e.ri., that of the Pentateuch
printed in Constantinople in the year 1547, and that
of Job made thirty years later, which unfortunate]}'
is no longer extant. In Candia, a
Bible town on the island of Crete, a modern

Trans- Greek translation of Jonah, mauu-

lations. script copies of \vhich are preserved in
the Bodleian and the Bologna Uni-
versity libraries, was read as part of the afternoon
service of the Day of Atonement. No record is ex-
tant, however, of a .similar custom in Corfu, despite
all statements to the contrarj'. These translations
are strictly literal versions of the original, and, al-
though in places very ingenious, show but little
knowledge of Hebrew on the part of the translators.
The complete absence of Turkish words and the ap-
parent fact that the translators did not know the
commentaries of the western European exegetes
lead to the belief that the Greek Pentateuch was
written at least two centuries before the date of
publication. The Greek Jonah is even older and
seems to be the earliest knowu monument of the
modern vernacular; it offers, indeed, forms much
nearer to the ancient Greek than any remains of the
late Byzantine literature. Following the originals
very closely, these translations can not be set up as
models of Greek style and sjmtax ; but they supply
trustworthy material for scientific study in so far
as phonology and morphology are concerned. Their
value from this standpoint is greater than that of
other documents owing to the fact that the transla-
tors wrote in Hebrew characters the precise words
and sounds of the every-day language, with no at-
tempt at literai-y improvements.

That the Jews in Greece used to speak without
change the same language as their Christian fellow
countrymen is proved by their non-Biblical, and
therefore freer, translations as well as by their orig-
inal works. To the first class belongs a rimed poem
for Pentecost in lines of unequal length, each stanza
of which was chanted after the original Hebrew it
purported to translate. A few ciuatraius of this
poem without the Hebrew were sung in the Corfu
Greek synagogue and other Jewish places of wor-
ship as late as 1884. There are also more or less free

versions of some post-Biblical lamentations over the
vicissitudes of the Jewish people, in all of which
the genuine character of the Greek is noticeable.
But the most important specimens in this branch of
literature are two original dirges published, with
many errors, in E-f r;/^«f llufwaacoi (1902). They show
the fifteen -syllable line of modern Greek poetry ; and
the only internal evidence of their being Jewish lies iu
the subject-matter. The Jews of the Greek-speak-
ing places have drawn freely f i-om the local stock of

tales, unwritten poetry, etc., inclu-
Poetry. ding all subjects except religion. The

circular singing-dance, xopo^, is still
much in favor with the Jews of Corfu ; and an orig-
inal Greek dirge of a mother over the loss of a son
in a far-distant country was mistaken for a specific-
ally Jewish compo.sition only because a copy was
found written in Hebrew characters and with the
words D"'J3"I and D^tO^rt substituted for others which
in the original signified perha])S "dignitaries of the
Orthodox Church." This dirge, the second of the
two mentioned above as having been published in
1902, is valuable, however, for lines 26-29 (probably
containing a lacuna), which were wrongly inserted
in the piece, and which evidentlj' are part of a lost
festival song. They run as follows:

K' 7/ yig TzptTTEL va xi'P<^~ot, I TTpinEt va Kafiapuvei
T7/V ~aGKa/.ia kuI to Uovpcfj, | Kal ri) 'Meyd/.i; Mipa . . .
Tlpe-£i m 7?/ ( '?) aro?.iaovfie | Kal rpeig (popeg rb XP^vo,
yiari fiov aviifiayovovvrai | fiiKpoi fiov Kal /jieya?.oi.

In Corfu a song beginning

'HprafiE
Kal Ka/.a trdf jSpf/Ka/xe

used to be sung on the first of Adar, which for this
reason was called t^Tn CN"I de iipraue; and at Ja-
nina and Arta a song for Purim is still sung which
contains a few Turkish words, and which must there-
fore have been composed after 1453. In this song
the rules of meter, rime, and accent are observed as
strictly as in the rest of Greek literature. It consists
of quatrains with eight sj'llables to the line, except
in the case of the introductory stanza:

K/va y7.uaaa va fti?.£lg,
fia/j.aa/ia-:ra va fin?Meic,
Koifn/ufvotx va ^VTTvdg,
fiE Kpaal va ~ovg fiedelg.

In a copy of the song in the British Museum (MS.
Or. 5472) two stanzas near the end each lack two
lines, and '*V is apparently used as the most approxi-
mate rendering of the broken palatal sounds " ke "
and " Id " of the modern Greek pronunciation. The
concluding quatrain, referring to Pharaoh's rush
into the Red Sea, is as follows :

Mn^KE va flag KWTjyfjaEi,
eItte va. flag aiy'vpiaei,
TovKaft' 6 dtybg rf/v Kpicrt),
ovde evag va fi vr// y/.iaet.

The Jews of Zante composed Greek verse to com-
memorate the granting of civil equality to tliem by
the French occupiers of the island after the fall of

Judseo-G-reek
Judaeo-Persian

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

312

VenicL'. lu their speech they soinetinies use words de-
rived from the Hebrew (|n = }nj, ^2N> p^- etc.), but
in a Greek form; wliereas the same roots in Corfu
are inflected according to the Venetian or tlie Apu-
lian morphology.

The better class of the Jewish community of
Corfu speaks tlie Venetian dialect with some modi-
fications, due to the influence of the Greek, which
was the only means of oral communication among
the first Jewish settlers of the island. The latter
language, while gradually disappearing as a living
one before the newcomer, bequeathed to it a certain
amount of its vocabulary and some of
Use of its syntactic peculiarities. The con-
Venetian, stant solution of the infinitive ("die
digo " = va 'ttw, "che ti vegna " = va
pfiyc) is the most important phenomenon. Tlie Vene-
tian of the Corfiote Jews accordingly differs from
the same dialect as spoken by non-Jews in tlie same
town. A characteristic of this dialect is the for-
mation in " 6 " of the plural of nouns ending in " a," a
formation wliich originated in the Hebrew ending
ni simplified, according to the Italian laws of
phonology, into "6," e.g., the Italianized plural of
"berakah" is "berakho" (for "berakot"); hence
"novita," "novito"; "cittii," "citto." There has
presumably been no Jewish literature in this dialect,
since Venice herself very early adopted pure Italian
as her official language, and all documents of the
Corfu Jewish community were written in that lan-
guage, which served too in Hebrew schools as the
means of translating the Bible.

The not very numerous Jews Avho went directly
from Spain to Corfu did not long speak their own
language, but soon adopted one or the other of the
two predominant vernaculars of the place. In Arta
is preserved the recollection of a C- talan as well as
of a Sicilian and a Calabrian synagogue. All three
were obviously built by Jews who went thither
after a stay in Corfu which was so short that the
very names of such congregations are unknown to
the Jews of that town. There was also in the
Albanian seaport of Valona (Arlona) a congregation
called the t^l^J {)"p, formed by refugees from Spain ;
but all these congregations must have removed very
early from Albania and Epirus to Salonica, where
they subsequently had mahzorim printed according
to their own rites.

Permanent residence, hoAvever, was found in
Corfu by the Apulians, who brought from the Italian
coast their vernacular and a few specimens, still pre-
served, of their literature. Apulian is still spoken
by the lower section of the community. Two Apu-
lian love-songs, seemingly original, exist in manu-
script, of which one is an independent composition
of a rather scurrilous purport, while in the second
each stanza is preceded by one of a religious He-
brew poem on a quite different subject. Both are
written in Hebrew characters, as is a semioriginal
composition containing the rules for the Passover
supper, of which the following paragraph (with
Italian words retransliterated) may be cited:

"yn^. Plglamu la nxc cu 11 dot sl|?nali, e la spartlinu a
menzu, edlzzimu : Comu spartimu chista nxn, cussl -[nj a-npn
KID sparUu lu Marl Iluviu, e passara II padrl nostrl intra di issii
e flzzl cun issi O'Dj e tin^dj. Cussi cu fazza cu niii ; chlstu

aiiTiu acca. rannii che veni a la terra di ^ntj"' ominl liberi.—
Menza inintimu sotto la tovaggia pir pip''D>N, e raltva menza
infra li doi, pir ou farrimu N'xicn."

The Apulian dialect, in supplanting the Greek

of the original settlers, took from it more material

than did the Venetian. The borrowings extended

to words expressing family connec-

Apulian. tions: e.(/., "patri," "matri," "fratri"
(plural, "fraturi"), "soru," "figgiu,"
"niputi," "maritu," "muggeri," "carussu"; but
yafiapb, v'v(Ptj, ■Kedepo, TreOspa, /*.f;(;wva, Kov/i-dpo-a, avi-
-avr/ao-T;, and )o/i?f (= "wedding"; plural, yd/urm)
(to express "they married," however, the Apulian
"si spussara " is used). Some vegetables and fruits
are known only by their Greek names, both to the
Venetian- and to the Apulian-speaking sections,
e.g., creff/c/'.o, ge/.ivo, kok.kivo-}ov/i, x^f^oviKu; and many of
the terms used in the game of buckle-bones are
Greek: kotgi.^ evea?/ (?) fiia, hiar/ 6vo, hear/ rprlc, evag
6ro rpa^, (3oi'p6a?Lo, xa<Tov?.o; but "panza," "buso,"
and "re," for which last the Epirote Jews say Ktp-
(hv?.6g, while they call its opposite x'^'^ovlo^.

The simple past tense ("vitti," "vidisti," "vitti")
is the only one in use among the Apidian Jews, who
agree in this respect with the Apulians of the Ital-
ian coast; they differ from the latter, however, in
forming the future, which is expressed by means of
the auxiliary "anzu" (= "I have"), as on the Con-
tinent, and a following infinitive, which is always,
as in modern Greek, resolved. Such resolution oc-
curs quite frequently in Apulia itself (with the par-
ticles "mu" or "mi"), but not as regularly as in
Corfu, where with the exception of the substantiv-
ized forms "lu manzari," "lu mbiviri," and a few^
others, the unresolved infinitive is absolutely un-
known. So to-day "diro," "aggiu diri"and"ag-
giu mu dicu " occur on the Continent, but only
"anzu cu dicu" in Corfu.

The Apulian diminutive suffix " -ddhu " gave way
to the Italian-looking "-llu," and is retained only in
idiomatic expressions, such as "scazzamurieddhu "
(= "funny little fellow "), " javaneddhu " (from JV),
" bekozzerjameddhu " (from D^O' "lV1p3), "cavad-
dlm " (= "horse"), "capiddhu " (= "hair"), "chid-
dhu" (="that"), although "indu," from "ille," is
found.

This dialect has brought all borrowed words
under its own laws of accidence : but its original
vocabulary has been hopelessly impoverished and
deprived of its finest elements. A Corfiote Jew vis-
iting any part of Apulia would find difficulty in un-
derstanding the spoken veroacxilar or the songs of
the natives, although the grammatical structure is
exactly the same as that of his own dialect.

The Jews can boast of having preserved the old-
est text in the Apulian dialect, a collection of trans-
lations of Hebrew dirges dating from the thirteenth
century and now in the British Museum (MS. Or.
6276). It contains many obsolete terms which are
very close to tlie Latin and many of the older and
fuller grammatical forms. Among its points of
interest are words and phrases such as " tamen solli-
citatevi" (rr"mind"), " etiam Ribbi Ismahel," "lu
coriu" (="skin"), "di la carni sua," "la ostia"
(= "army"), and" dilicieli." In the fourteenth cen-
tury the decay of Apulian in Corfu had so far ad-

313

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaeo-Greek
Judseo-Persian

vanced that readers were no longer able to pro-
nounce correctly the -words of this Hebrew manu-
script or to grasp their meanings. Vowel-points
were accordingly inserted, but very inaccurately:
and later an incompetent scribe incorrectly sub-
stituted "duzzini" (= "dozens"), "douzelli" ( =
"young men"), "macchiua" (=" machine") for
"magina" (= "image"), and attempted to erase the
superlative termination of "grandissima." It was
perhaps owing to the influence of the Venetian that
he spared all the simple futures; but in four or five
places where the pronoun of the first person was
erased the substituted words have so thoroughly
obliterated the original readings that it is impossi-
ble to discover what was the old form of the pecul
iar "joni" which is now used side by side with
"j6."

An adequate idea of the plurality of languages
which prevailed among the Corfu Jewry during the
last seven centuries may perhaps be derived from
the various changes undergone by Biblical and other
proper names, of which the following are some ex-
amples:

Abraham : Abram, Abram-aKi, Bambi, Bamboli, Abramino,
Nino.

Solomon : Selorai!), SeAwMaxt, Md/ci, Salamon, Salomon.

Sarah : Sara, Sarina, -api, Sapio, SapoOAa, Sapivtco, Sandra.

Rebekah : Rlfga, 'Pi/cio, Richetta, Enrichetta.

Simhah : Mix"), Mix"J»''), Mihhetta, %(.tiix°^'^'^^ Allegra, Alle-
grrina. Evdviiia.

'S.TdtJLiM (Stametta, Stamettina, Metti, MattUde), XaiSco, k6kui
(from Byzantine 206o/<ta), and Za(|)eip<o came from the Greek
peninsula.

To-day the Jews speak Venetian, Apulian, Ital-
ian, and Greek in Corfu; Greek in Arta, Zante,
Chalcis, Crete, and Volo; Spanish and Greek in
Athens ; and Spanish in Larissa and Trikala. In all
these places Jewish children attend classes in the va-
rious Greek schools.

G. L. Be.

JUD^O-PERSIAN : Language spoken by
the Jews living in Persia. The earliest evidence of
the entrance of Persian words into the language of
the Israelites is found in the Bible. The post-exilic
portions, Hebrew as well as Aramaic, contain be-
sides many Persian proper names (especially in
Esther; see I. Scheftelowitz. "Arisches im Alten
Testament," part i., 1901) and titles {e.g., "satrap,"
"ahashdarpenim"), a number of nouns (as "dat"
=z " law " ; " genez " = " treasure " ; " pardes " =
"park") which came into permanent use at the
time of the Achaemenidae. More than five hundred
years after the end of that dj'nasty the Jews of the
Babylonian diaspora again came under the dominion
of the Persians; and among such Jews the Persian
language held a position similar to that held by the
Greek language among the Jews of the West. Per-
sian became to a great extent the language of every-
day life among the Jews of Babylonia ;
Among the and a hundred years after the conquest

Jews of of that country by the Sassanids an
Babylonia, amora of Pumbedita, Rab Joseph (d.
323), dared make the statement (Sotah,
end) that tlie Babylonian Jews had no right to speak
Aramaic, but should speak either Hebrew or Persian.
Aramaic, however, remained the language of the
Jews in Palestine as well as of those in Babylonia,

although in the latter country a large number of
Persian words found their way into the language of
daily intercourse and into that of the schools, a fact
which is attested by the numerous Persian deriva-
tivesin the Babylonian Talmud. But in the Aramaic
Targum there are very few Persian words (see "Z.
D. M. G." xxviii. 56, 67), owing to the fact that after
the middle of the third century the Targumim on
the Pentateuch and the Prophets were accepted as
authoritative and received a fixed textual form in
the Babylonian schools. In this way they were
protected from the introduction of Persian elements.
On a possible early Juda;o-Persian tianslationof the
Bible see JuD.t;o-PERsiAN Litekature, § 1.

The explanation of the Persian derivatives in the
Talmud (they are even more numerous in the ge-
onic literature) is one of the most important tasks
of Talmudic lexicography. R. Nathan explained
about twenty words in the Talmud as
Persian being Persian (see Rapoport, "Bio-
in the graphic R. Nathans," note 6; Kohut,
Talmud. " Aruch Completum," Introduction,
p. viii.). A comprehensive work on
the subject is still a desideratum. Contributions
to the subject have been made by Fleischer (ad-
denda to Levy's "Worterb."), Pedes ("Etymolo-
gische Studien," 1871; "Zur Rabbinischen Sprach-
und Sagenkunde," 1873; and in "Monatsschrift,"
1893), and Kohut. The last-named, however, in his
edition of the " 'Aruk," has not always used the nec-
essary discretion, and frequently declares what is of
purely Semitic origin to be derived from the Persian
("Z. b. M. G." xlvii. 501-509).

Nothing definite can be said in regard to the

diffusion of the Persian language among the Jews

during the long period that elapsed

Earliest between the date of the completion

Traces of of the Talmud and that of the earliest

Modern monuments of the Judaeo-Persian lit-

Dialect. erature. It is nevertheless beyond all

question that a portion of the extant

translations of the Bible originated in a much

older period than did the Judteo-Persian writings

whose dates may be determined. Even in these

writings there are "so many ancient phonetic

and lexical and at times even grammatical forms,

such as are not found in the oldest Neo-Persian

monuments, that this literature must be assigned

to a comparatively early date " (Salemann, " KJiu-

daidad," p. ii.). At any rate the old forms in Judieo-

Persian show that Persian had at a very early

time become the mother tongue of the Jews that

lived in those portions of the dominions of the califs

where Persian was spoken. It is even probable

that as early as the Sassanids there were Jewish

communities which spoke Persian.

The earliest literary monument of Juda'o-Persian
is the curious document, dating from the eighth cen-
tury, which Dr. M. Aurel Stein has found in the
ruins of Khotan. Its language is almost free from
Arabic admixture, and it contains no Hebrew words
(D. S. Margoliouth. in "Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, " Oct. , 1903, pp. 735-760). The second oldest
document (the deposition of witnesses in a family
lawsuit) dates from the year 1332 of the Seleucidan
era (=1020 c.e.), and was written in Ahwaz (Per-

Judaeo-Persian

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

314

sian, "Hormshir"), the capital of Khuzlstan, in
•which city there was at an early date a largo Jewish
population {idem, in "J. Q. K." xi. 671 et seq.).

The Neo-Persian language, which brought forth a

flourishing national literature in the tenth century,

probably became the inotlier tongue of

Contem- the Jews who lived within the smaller
porary territory where Persian was spoken.

Dialects, Persian is spoken to-day by the Jews
of Persia proper, and, for the most
part, by those under Russian dominion in Central
Asia (in Bokiiaka, etc.). There is a colony of Bo-
kharian Jews in Jerusalem. The total number of
Jews who speak Persian is estimated at about 50,-
000. The so-called " Mountain Jews " of the Cau-
casus speak a dialect called "Tat," which varies
considerably from the ordinary Neo-Persian. Their
number is reckoned at 20,000 (see Jew. Encyo. iv.
558b, s.^^ Dialects; W. Geiger, "Bemerkungeu,"
in "Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie," i., section
2, p. 408 ; and Vsevolod Miller, in the third report
of the Laz.arevski Institute for Oriental Languages
at Moscow). What Geiger says of the general char-
acteristics of Judieo-Persian should especially be em-
phasized {l.c.Y>. 410): "It differs from the written
language not nearly so much as the other dialects
and patois of Persian. It is no more a historically
independent dialect than is the Tadshiki (the Per-
sian of the transoxanian lands), but is rather a cor-
ruption of the High Neo-Persian with local dia-
lectic color." This is due to the fact that the Per-
sian Jews busied themselves with Persian national
literature, transcribing it in Hebrew characters. In
their own poetry also the Jews were influenced by
this literature, which made itself felt even in their
Bible translations. But in course of time corrup-
tions crept in, especially in these Bible translations,
as they were carried from place to place. Simeon
Hakani in the introduction to his translation of the
Pentateuch gives interesting examples of Persian
wonis which are corrupted in vulgar speech and are
used in this corrupted form by the Jews of Bokhara
in their letters to one another. Thus, instead of
IKJDDX ("asmttn" = "heaven"), they write JNSDN;
instead of nx:^^ND (" padishah " = " ruler "), KJDND ;
instead of mJD (Arabic, "sa3dah"= "bending"),
mOtJ'; instead of Pin^D (Arabic, "kitf" = "shoul-
der "), ns^3 ; instead of ynJ (Arabic,
Corruption "jam'a " = "congregation "), Qyj; in-
from stead of njoij? (Arabic, "'umr" =

Literary "life "), DIIJ?- Of these examples the
Language, last three show instances where the
corruption consists in the transposition
of the consonants. The .same occurs in the poem of
Chudaidad (seeSalemann, ^.c. p. vi.). Simeon Hakam
liimself used the vulgar tongue (" lashon hamoniyi ")
in his translations intended for his fellow country-
men of Bokhara; and his Persian ritualistic compen-
dium may well be called a treasure-house for the
Judpeo-Persian idioms of Bokhara. On the other
hand, Simeon asserts that the language of his trans-
lations is correct Persian, " leshon pursi zah " (see
the title-page of the Pentateuch translation in "Z.
D. M. G." Ivi. 730).

The following attempt to present an idea of the
character of Judaeo-Persian will be restricted 1o

grouping tlie prominent peculiarities under several
heads. A distinction is made between the language
of the older literary productions (such as the dic-
tionary of Moses Shirwaui and the commentary on
Samuel), and the most recent Judaeo-Persian wri-
tings in Bokhara. Among the latter is the poem of
Chudaidad, although it was written at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century.

Transcription : All of the Judoeo-Persian litera-
ture, whether in manuscript or printed, presents the
Persian text in Hebrew characters. In Bokhara at an
early date the Hebrew vowel-signs were used to rep-
resent tlie Persian vowels in the copies of the poems
of Yusuf Yehudi and his circle and of the Chu-
daidad poem. In the commentary on Samuel the Per-
sian is also partially punctuated. The Neo-Persian
publications in Jerusalem intended for Bokhara are
all pimctuated. This has the advantage of showing
the pronunciation of the Persian within the district
in which it originated more clearly
Punctua- than is the case with the common
tion. Arabo-Persian alphabet with its scar-
city of vowel signs. Thus, for exam-
ple, in the Hebrew transcription " k " is always dis-
tinguished from "g"; also, as regards vocalization,
"i" from "6," "u" from "6." The Hebrew tran-
scription shows also very clearly the changes which
many sounds have undergone among the Persian
Jews partly through dialectic variation of pronunci-
ation, partly through carelessness, or as aids to pro-
nunciation. An example of the transcription of the
older period is furnished by the Samuel commentary
(about the 14th cent.; see "Z. D. M. G." li. 398).
In this work 2, when it designates "b," is frequently
written with dagesh; where it stands for "w" it is
usually written with rafeh. 3 with or without
dagesh corresponds to the Persian " g " (" gaf ") ; J to
Persian "gh," sometimes also to the ordinary "g"!
3 is "j" ("jim"), sometimes also "tsh." T repre-
sents also " dh " ; 3 with or without dagesh is " k " ; 3
is "kh" or "khw," although the latter is sometimes
transcribed by 13. d = " s " (" sad "). S with rafeh

is " f " ; without it, " p. " IT = " tsh. " For the vow-
els, the following may be noted : Long " a " is usu-
ally left undesignated, though it is often indicated
by the vowel-letter X or by kamez; short "3,"
(" 6 ") is often designated by shewa, sometimes by X ;
final " ah " (" 6h ") here and there by N. Short " u. "
is designated by the vowel-letter "i ;
Various short " i " by the vowel-letter > (comp.
Forms of "Z. D. M. G." liii. 412). As an exam-
Gimel. pie of the modern method of tran-
scription may be mentioned the rule
that Simeon Hakam lays down. He uses four forms
of gimel: (1)3 for the usual, hard "g"; (2)3 for

"gh"; (3) i for "j "; and (4) i for "tsh." He has

thus avoided entirely the use of V for the last sound.
In regard to a, f\, and 3, "], with or without dagesh,
Simeon Hakam observes no rule : " We leave this to
the reader, since there is a different pronunciation
in every city. That of the people of Bokhara is not
like tliat in the cities of Persia or in Balkh." In
Simeon's ritualistic compendium the transcription
is less methodized than in the translation of the
Bible (see "Keleti Szemle," iii. 15b; "Z. D. M. G."

315

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judeeo-Persian

Ivi. 759). In one of the Bokhara translations of
Abot, printed in Jerusalem, "j"is rendered by J ;
"tsh,"byj.

Phonetics, Consonants : In the Samuel com-
mentary and in Shirwani's dictionary the following
important variations in sound from the written lan-
guage are found, some of which occur also in the
later literary jiroductions : " k " is found for " g," and
vice versa ("IDJID foi" " tuwauger," p^Q for '* paigan,"
are, according to Noldeke, " older forms which have
preserved the original ' k "') ; " k " for " gh " ; " g "
for " k " ; " t " for " t, " and vice versa ;

Conso- final " t " instead of " d " ; " d " for " th" ;

nantal " d " for " z " ; " tsh " for " sh " (pSD =
Changes, "sliipish"); "j" for "z"; "h"for
" h " ; "1 " for " r " (in a modern publi-
cation ^^DSn stands for I^DDn) ; " w " (1 or 3) for
"b"; "b" for "f"; "m" (before "b") for "n";
"mb" (final) for "m." The changes which, espe-
cially among the Bokharian Jews, Arabic derivatives
undergo, owing to the permutation of consonants,
are such that the word-form often becomes almost
unrecognizable (for examples see"Z. D. M. G."liii.
393, Iv. 251 et seq., Ivi. 746-753); changes due to the
transposition of consonants, as the above-cited re-
mark of Simeon Hakam shows, are also a peculiarity
of the vulgar speech of the Bokharian Jews.

Vowels : A marked characteristic of Judoeo-Per-
sian is the very frequent use of the vowel "u," it
often being substituted for other vowels, for "a"
(" e ") or " i. " The fact that in the Samuel commen-
tary " u " (written 1) sometimes takes the place of " i, "
may perhaps be explained by the supposition that
in pronunciation the vowel "i" sounded like "u,"
and that this was rendered bj^ 1 ; hence, conversely,
a ' is sometimes found for " u " (pK^n = " dushman"
= "enem3^"). It has already been noted that the
Judfeo-Persian texts carefully designate (by ' • and
i — ) the vowels "e" and "o," which in Persian
writing are not distinguished from "i" and "u."
Also the suffixes of the first person plural ("-im,"
"-id") are frequently written Q'— and n>— (also
T\^~). Modern publications and manuscripts write
" segol " instead of " zere " (see " Z. D. M. G." Hi. 199).
For short " T, " the pronunciation " e" is also found (the
Samuel commentary writes np, also n'D, for "sih" =
"three"; T)J, but also n-fj, for "gird" = "around,"
" about "). In the transliteration of Arabic words the
Judfeo-Persian texts of both ancient and modern
times indicate the "imalah" of the "a" sound; the
Samuel commentary also writes VHtJ'N ("ishtew")
for the Persian word "shitab." For the short-
ening of vowels in Juda?o-Persian see Noldeke,
" Lilterarisches Centralblatt," 1889, p. 890. The
above-mentioned transcription of short vowels by
means of " shewa " points to a shortened pronuncia-
tion of the vowels.

Etymolog-y : The use of the particles "az,"

"Sn" between two substantives to designate the

genitive relation is found in the old

Sign of the Samuel commentary as well as in the

Genitive, most modern texts. The original

sign of the genitive (the vowel "I"),

which was appended to the first substantive ("status

constructus "), is attached in these texts to the

substantive and to the genitive particle also;
thus: D^Ky '•JNTN \nNtJ'nXC= " king of tlie world."
In the oblique case, besides the suflix "-ra," the par-
ticle "azmar" (instead of the "mar" used in the
older language) is placed before the substantive both
in the modern Bible translations ("Z. D. M. G." liv.
558) and in the old Samuel commentary {ib. li. 407).
In the latter, "azmar" is also found alone, without
the suffix "-ra." The use of the Arabic plural end-
ing "-at" in Persian words, e.g., "murghat"
(nXJ-llD = "birds"), is a peculiarity of the Tadshiki
which has naturally affected tlie dialect of the Bo-
kharian Jews(" Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie, "
i., section 2, p. 407). The preservation of the J in
the plurals Jjin ("arms"), la'JT ("knees") in the
Samuel commentary is an ancient usage (Noldeke,
in "Z. D. M. G." li. 671). The form "dudum"
(second), in the Book of Daniel, goes back to the
Old Persian form of this ordinal ("Grundriss," i.,
section 2, p. 116).

As regards pronouns, the archaism " ema " (we)
is found. Noteworthy also are " mayan " and

"shumayan " for the first and second
Pronouns, persons plural. The attachment of

the enclitic pronoun " sh " by means
of "i," in the Ezekiel commentary (Salemann), is
important.

In the conjugation of the verb the following
points are to be noted: The suffix of the first person
singular is " -um " instead of "-am"; e.g., Dnxi
in the Samuel commentar}-; DHH, D1J13 in that on
Ezekiel. The suffix of the third person plural,
"-and," throughout the Samuel commentary, is

shortened to "-an"; YusufYahudiuses
Conjuga- both ; wiiile Simeon Hakam writes the
tion of ending sometimes |^- (" -an "), some-
Verbs, times }— ("-in"). The second person

plural has at times the ending " -etan. "
The imperfect plural in the Samuel commentary has
the ending "-in" instead of "-id " (e.^'., p'-i'J3 =
"ye wept," instead of "bigiryid"). The apocope
of "-ast" to "-as" is frequent {e.g., DTI3 for
" kardast "). In the Samuel commentary and else-
where the present participle is preferably formed
with "-a." The same commentary also furnishes
many examples of the archaic formation of the pas-
sive, that is, with the employment of the verb
" amadan, " instead of the usual " shudan. " Another
form of the passive, without an auxiliary verb, is to
be found in the Ezekiel commentary : it is a form
which had been known only in Middle Persian
(Pahlavi), and can now serve as an important testi-
mony to the survival of that form (Salemann, " Zum
Mittelpersischen Passive," St. Petersburg, 1900).

Of prepositions those should be noted in which
the original initial "H-" has been preserved. The
Ezekiel commentary has K3X for"ba": TX3S for
"baz"; -)3N for "bar"; ••3N for "be " (Salemann,
lb. p. 270). The substantive " tilh " ("under part,"
" ground ") is used by the Jews of Bokhara as a prep-
osition meaning "under." Especially remarkable
are the particles which are used to-da.y by the Bo-
kharian Jews, but have not yet been met with else-
where: (1) The preposition "katlr," also "keti,"
meaning "with"; it is used also as a postposi-

Judaeo-Persian
Judaeo-Persian Literature

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

316

tive. Its origin may be traced to an Arabic sub-
stantive, "kitar," "katar" (row), which is used also
in Persian and Turkish. (2) The par-

Preposi- tide of comparison " warin," which is
tions and always placed after the substantive
Particles, (probably from the particle "war,"
" warah," which is used only as a suffix
to substantives, with the meaning of the Latin "in-
star "). (3) The adverbial particle " hamtor " (mean-
ing "at any rate," "certainly," "nevertheless"). (4)
The interrogative particle "tshito" (how?). In
reference to these particles see "Z. D. M. G." Ivi.
pp. 730-739 (for No. 4, ib. li. 552). For the parti-
cle of negation with the imperative, Simeon Hakani
uses"na" instead of "mi" {e.g., "nakuu" instead
of " maknuu ").

Among the suffixes employed in the formation of

substantives, "-ish" is often found in the older texts.

In the written language it is used only

Formation in the shortened form "-ish," and is

of Sub- appended to the present stem. In
stantives. Shirwani's dictionary nearly eighty
such substantives are given (see
Stade's "Zeitschrift," xvi. 231 et seq.\ "Grundriss,"
i. , section 1, p. 281). Another abstract ending,
"-ih" (n^), of which many examples occur also in
Shirwani, is added to adjectives to form substan-
tives, and corresponds to the Pahlavi abstract end-
ing of nouns "-ih" (Stade's "Zeitschrift," xvii. 200,
202; "Z. D. M. G." li. 671). The adjectival suffix
" -omand " (instead of " -mand ") should also be noted
in IJDIDHD (in the translation of Isaiah, ed. Lagarde)
and nJDID^l (in the Ezekiel commentary) ; both
words mean "terrible."

Among the verbal formations are the numerous
causatives ending in "-anidan " in the Samuel com-
mentary ("Z. D. M. G." li. 672) and in the Ezekiel
commentary (Salemann, I.e. p. 271).

As regards the syntax of Judao-Persian the most
noteworthy feature is the fact that the translations
of the Bible follow exactly the syntactical construc-
tion of the Hebrew, in order not to

Syntax, lose any detail of the original text.
The Hebrew participle is rendered by
the participle without regard to tense ; the Hebrev/
article, by the demonstrative "an " ; and the accusa-
tive particle riN, by " mar " (or " azmar "). The in-
finitive which stands before a finite verb in Hebrew is
faithfully rendered by the Persian infinitive; and in
the same way the infinitive with a pronominal suffix
is literally translated. This tradition of the Persian
translators of the Bible has been preserved by their
most recent representative, Simeon Hakam. His
Pentateuch in a way furnishes an ideal interlinear
translation ; and, in order to emphasize its merits as
such, he has carried out the plan of using dots to
separate single words or groups of words in the
translation which correspond to single words in the
text. This of course is characteristic only of trans-
lations of the Bible into Judseo-Persian ; but it is
possible that it may also have influenced other pro-
ductions. However, Noldeke has stated that the
"Narration of Daniel" (a translation from the
Aramaic) is free from the Hebraized syntax of the
Bible translations (" Litterarisches Centralblatt,"
1884, p. 889). A peculiarity in the style of a mod-

ern literary production of Bokiiara is the use of the
" pluralis majestatis." In this work, a popular
homily, the third person plural is used in speaking
of the person represented as acting or
Pluralis speaking; similarly, a person is ad-
Majestatis. dressed in the plural of the second
person. The singular is used, however,
of wicked persons, and God also is always referred
to in the singular. The reason for these two excep-
tions seems plainly to be the feeling that the polite
form of the plural is not in place in speaking of
God, whereas the respect implied by that form is
not deserved by the wicked ("Z. D. M. G." Iv. 250,
Ivi. 758).

The chief importance for Persian philology of the
Judieo-Persian texts lies in the surprising wealth of
additions to the vocabulary which all of them, with-
out exception, offer. Lagarde has given a number
of noteworthy lexical facts in his " Persische Stu-
dien aus der Propheten-Uebersetzung," and W.
Bacher has also collected important expressions fvrom
Shirwani's dictionary and the Samuel commentary,
as well as from the most recent Judaeo-Persian
writer, Simeon Hakam (Stade's "Zeitschrift," xvi. ;
"Z. D. M. G." li., Ivi.;. A number of words which
can be traced back to Middle Persian,
Vocabu- in part even to the Avesta language,
lary. have been brought to light and incor-
porated in the Persian dictionary;
likewise interesting word-formations and meanings
of well-known words which were not to be found
elsewhere.

Further interest attaches to the Judoeo-Persian
texts on account of the large number of Arabic de-
rivatives which they contain. These far exceed the
number of Arabic words found in Persian diction-
aries. Perhaps the influence of Arabic-speaking
Jews, as well as familiarity with the Arabic Bible
translations of Saadia, may have contributed to this.
A characteristic of the language of the Jews liv-
ing in the northern lands where Persian is spoken is
the intermixture of Turkish, especially East-Turkish,
words. As early a writer as the lexicographer Sol-
omon b. Samuel in the fourteenth century was in-
fluenced by Turkish ("Keleti Szemle," i. 21etseq.,
87 et seq. ; "Ein Hebraisch-Persisches Worterb." pp.
10, 27). He even explains a Biblical word (^Jip,
Job xvi. 15) by a Turkish one having a similar sound
(meaning "belly"). The above-mentioned homily
contains a comparatively large number of Turkish
words ("Z. D. M. G." Iv. 255); but the greatest
number occur in Simeon Hakam 's ritualistic com-
pendium (see "Keleti Szemle," Iv. 157). The latter
work is an interesting example of the fact that in
modern times many words from European languages,
especially from the Russian, have found their way
into the language of the Persian-speaking Jews of
Bokhara ("Z. D. M. G." Ivi. 753 et
Foreign seq.). The German word " Jahrzeit,"
Words in its ritualistic meaning, has been
Adopted, adopted by them (see " Zeit. fur Hebr.

Bibl." v. 154).
That which gives a Jewish character to Judaeo-Per-
sian is the use of mixed Hebrew and Persian forms,
and the close union of the two elements. Combina-
tions of a Hebrew noun with a Persian verb are fre-

317

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaeo-Persian
Judseo-Persian Literature

quent in the writings of Solomon b. Samuel ("Ein
Hebriiisch - Persisclies Worterb." pp. «JU-22). By
means of the Persian suffix "-i " he forms a word of
Persian character from a Hebrew word; e.g., "she-
lihi kuna"=:"oue who fills the olHce of prayer-
leader" ("sheliah zibbur"). He adds the Persian
plural ending to a Hebrew word {e.g., ^NmOti')-
The same Hebrew-Persian form of expiession is
found in the Samuel conunentary. Simeon Hakam's
ritualistic compendium offers the greatest number
and most varied examples of the mixture of Hebrew
with the Persian spoken by the Bokharian Jews of to-
day C'Z. D. M. G." Ivi. 755-758). In many of these
a Persian (or Arabic) word is joined with its Hebrew
equivalent in order to make the meaning more plain.
Hebrew substantives are also joined by means of the
Persian genitive suffix (^~ ; which is added to the
first word) ; by the addition of the Persian ending
" -nak " an adjective is formed from a Hebrew sub-
stantive {e.g., '^J<J njsp = "danger-
Admixture ous"), etc. Aramaic words also are
of Hebrew used in Persian, and are similarly com-
and bined with Persian ones. This ap-

Aramaic. pears to be due to the influence of the
Targumim, many woi'ds from which
were adopted into the common language of the Per-
sian Jews at an early date. Especially is this no-
ticeable in the writings of Solomon b. Samuel, who,
for example, regularly expresses the idea of praying
by "zeluta kardan." The Aramaic "shibta" ( =
Ilebr. " shebet '") is used throughout to designate a
tribe. In the above-mentioned homily the tribe of
Dan is called p ^"'Nt32K'- Simeon Hakam in his
translation of the Pentateuch everywhere renders
nOO or t33JJ' by the Aramaic word, writing it with
D instead of ^. He seems, however, to have kept
the pronunciation with "s" for this Aramaic word,
on account of the influence of the Arabic '"sibt."

A curious fact, of interest in the history of lan-
guage, is the custom of Solomon b. Samuel and of
the writer of the Samuel commentary, when writing
Hebrew, of using the Hebrew word tj>' exactly like

the Persian " ast," and of placing it at the end of the
sentence, which is not done in Hebrew. Solomon
b. Samuel furnishes another example of the influence
of Persian syntax on Hebrew style (see "Z. D. M.
G." li. 396; "Ein Hebraisch-Persisches Worterb."
p. 22).

For the importance of Judteo-Persian for Persian
philology see, further, Lagarde, " PersischeStudien,"
p. 68; Paul Horn, in Stade's "Zeitschrift," xvii.
203; Carl Salemann, "Khudaidad," p. ix. ; Wilhelm
Geiger, in "Grundriss," i., section 2, p. 408.

Bibliography : Besides the Bemerkunaen of W. Geiger, cited
in tbe article, Salemann, on Middle Persian, in Gnindriascier
IraniKchen Philolngie, i., section 1, pp. 359, 369. 281, 291.
319, 332; idem, in LitteraturUatt fUr Orientalischc Philo-
logie, ii. 74-86; Horn, on the literary New Persian, in Grund-
risx der Irnnischcn Philoloqie, i., section 3, pp. 19cf passi/H,
Index, pp. 536 cf seq.; Noldeke, in Litterarisches Central-
blatt, 1884. cols. 888-891 ; idem, in Z. D. M. G. li. 669-676 ;
Ethe, in Litteraturhlatt filr Orientalische Philolnnie, i.
186-194.
G. W. B.

JUD^O-PERSIAN LITERATURE : At the

present stage of research it is not possible to ar-
range the literature of the Jews written in Persian
but in Hebrew characters either in chronological or

even in geographical order, because the origin of the
manuscripts does not always show the origin of the
works they contain. The following survey is based
siini)iyupon a division into j)rose works and poetry,
each of these divisions being subdivided according
to the subject-matter of the writings. The greater
part of the manuscripts mentioned in this article be-
longs to E. N. Adler of London, who iias published
a catalogue of them in the "Jewish Quarterly Re-
view" (x. 584-626; printed separately
Sources, under the title "HOT DID "TJJ. Tli'e
Persian Jews: Tlieir Books and Their
Ritual," London, 1899). The manuscripts are here
cited according to their provenience: T. = Teheran:
B. = Bokhara. Other collections are to be found in
the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris ("Catalogue,"
1866), and in the British Museum (Margolioutli, " De-
scriptive List of the Hebr. and Samaritan MSS. in
the Brit. Mus." London, 1893; ulein, "Cat. Hebr.
and Samaritan MSS. in the Brit. Mus." part i., ib.
1899). TJie printed works have for the most part
been published within the last few years at Jeru-
salem for the Jews of Bokhara.

Prose. § I. Bible Translations : The oldest frag-
ments of Persian translations of the Bible occur in a
Parsee polemic dating from the second half of the
ninth century, the " Shikand Gumanik Vijar" (see
JEw^ Encyc. iii. 190b, s.v. Bible Translations).
Maimonides, in the "Iggeret Teman," refers to the
fact that the Pentateuch was translated into Persian
several centuries before Mohammed (" Kobez, " ii. 3d ;
Zunz, " G. V." p. 9). The Persian Jews at the time of
Maimonidesascribedan equally ancient origin to their
translation of the Bible ; and the Syrian bishop Theo-
doret, in the fifth century, mentions a Persian Bible
translation which existed in his day (Munk, "Notice
sur Saadia, " p. 63, note 2). This translation must have
been in Pahlavi, but it has completely disappeared.
There are, however, manuscript translations of the
Pentateuch that are centuries older than that of
Jacob ben Joseph Tawus, which was printed in the
sixteenth century. Joseph b. Moses, the writer of
]MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 5446, which contains the Penta-
teuch, finished his work on the 24th Adar, 1319.
He was probably also the translator (".I. Q. R." xv.
281). After this comes, according to Seligsohn {ib.
pp. 278 et seq.), a translation contained in the Vatican,
Paris, and St. Petersburg manuscripts of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries (see Guidi in " Rendiconti
. . . deiLincei," 1885, p. 347 ; the St. Petersburg manu-
script differs from the others in its readings; Harka-
vy-Strack, " Catalog," p. 166). On linguistic grounds
Guidi believes that this translation was made in
Kurdistan or in one of the border provinces, though
the Vatican manuscript came from
Location Laristan in southern Persia. More-
of over, it is closely connected with the

Versions. Targum of Onkelos ("Paris Cat." p.
7). The third translation chronolog-
ically is that, mentioned above, by Jacob ben
Joseph Tawus, published in the so-called Constan-
tinople Polyglot (1546) and incorporated, in Persian
transcription with Latin translation by Thomas
Hyde (1657), in vol. iv. of the London Polyglot.
Like the preceding two it rests on the old traditions
of the Judseo-Persian Bible translations. How the

Judseo-Persian Literature

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

318

ancient tradition was exposed to later debasing in-
Huences is set forth by Simeon Hakam of Jerusalem
in the preface (p. iv. b) to his work, which contains
a carefully punctuated translation of the Penta-
teuch (DniDJD NIPD D, 5 vols., Jerusalem, 1901-3).
He says that it was the custom from oldest times in
Bokhara to translate the Scriptures for school pur-
poses, but that this was done orally, and that a great
many changes and errors crept in, especially idioms
from the ordinary spoken language. The meaning
of certain words had been forgotten and the Hebrew
was retained untranslated ; Persian words were used
in quite different significations because of similarity
of sound, or Aramaic ones from Onkelos were sub-
stituted, or the Persian words themselves were cor-
rupted. Instead of this corrupt oral translation of
the Torah, Simeon Hakam wished to give his fel-
low countrymen of Bokhara a new
Character and correct translation, fixed by print-
of ing. Simeon had as aids to his work

Transla- (Preface, p. v. b) the translation of
tion. Tawus, the poetic Avork of the Mol-
lah Shahin, the Arabic translation of
Saadia, and the commentaries of Rashi, Abraham
ibu Ezra, and Samuel b. Mei'r. His translation fol-
lows the Hebrew text verbatim. The single words
are separated from each other by dots; and in order
to satisfy the adherents of the traditional tiansla-
tion, he very often inserts in brackets and in smaller
print the rendering of certain words as approved by
the traditions of Bokhara. Simeon's statement as
to the lack of written Bible translations among the
Persian Jews is confirmed by the fact that Adler's
collection contains only one manuscript of the Pen-
tateuch (B. 61), dated 1776.

§ II. A translation of the Earlier Prophets, to-
gether with Kuth, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles,
is found in a Paris manuscript (Nos. 90, 91), com-
pleted 1601-2 in the city of Lar. MS. Adler, B.
43h, contains a " tafsir " (explanation) of Joshua from
the Targum. A Paris manuscript (No. 97), older
than the sixteenth century, contains a translation of
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel i.-x. (ed. Lagarde,
"Persische Studien," 1884; see Noldeke, in "Lite-
rarisches Centralblatt," 1884, p. 888). In it the Tar-
gum and the commentary of David Kimhi have
been used (Munk, I.e. pp. 70-83). The translation
of Isa. Hi. 13-liii. 12 had been edited earlier, in
Persian transcription, by Neubauer in his work,
"The 53d Chapter of Isaiah According to Jewish
Interpretations " (pp. 137 etscq.). The Paris Library
also contains a transcription of the translation of
Isaiah and Jeremiah, made in Hamadan in the year
1606 (Munk, I.e. p. 69). The Targum is the basis of
a translation of Jeremiah in a Paris.manuscript (No.
100), the writing of which shows the same character
as the other Paris manuscripts already mentioned.
A codex of Samuel (MS. Adler, B. 43) also contains a
tafsir of Isaiah. The commentary on Ezekiel to be
mentioned later contains a translation of Ezekiel
which follows the text closely and varies considera-
bly from the translation edited by Lagarde. Trans-
lations of the twelve Minor Prophets are contained
in a Paris manuscript (No. 101), and in two manu-
scripts in the St. Petersburg Library (Harkavv-
Strack, "Cat." pp. 165, 262). MS. Adler, B. 45

(comp. B. 52), contains a collection of the prophetic
haftarot (Harkavy-Strack, I.e. p. 160).

In the year 1740 Baba b. Nuriel in Ispahan com-
pleted a translation of the Pentateuch and Psalms
at the command of Nadir Shah. The same transla-
tion is contained in MSS. Brit. Mus. Or. 4729 (year
1822) and 2452 (Margoliouth, " Cat. " p. 120). I. Grill
has edited the 68th Psalm ("Indogermauische For-
scliungen," ii. 142). A further translation of the
Psalms is found in MS. Adler, B. 27 (comp. T. 31);
but MSS. Vatican 37 and 42 are probably of non-
Jewish origin (see Horn in "Z. D. M. G." li. 7;
comp. AValton, "Prolegomena," p. 694). A new
translation by Benjamin b. Johauan ha-Kohen of
Bokhara was published at Vienna in 1883 (see Ethe
in "'Lit.-Blatt fur Orientali.sehe Philologie," i. 186).
The same author published a translation of Proverbs
at Jerusalem in 1885 (see Zetterstein in "Z. D. M.
G." liv. 555). Other translations of this book exist
at Paris (MSS. 116, 117) and in the Adler collection
(B. 43, 46); translations of Job, at Paris (MSS. 118,
120, 121), St. Petersburg (Harkavy-Strack, I.e. p.
167), and Parma (MS. De Rossi 1093). A new trans-
lation of Job, made by Solomon Babagan b. Phinc-
has of Samarcand, was printed at Jerusalem in 1895
(see "J. Q. R." x. 547). Various translations of the
Five Scrolls exist in manuscript; e.^^., of Canticles,
Adler, B. 12, 43, 46; T. 31; Paris 116, 117; of Ruth,
Paris 40, 116; of Lamentations, Adler, B. 43; Paris
101, 118 (see also Munk, I.e. p. 69, uotel); ofEcclesi-
astes, Adler, B. 43, 46; T. 31; Paris 116, 117; and of
Esther, Adler, B. 43, T. 16; Paris 116, 127 (the last
from the year 1280). Simeon Hakam has edited a
Persian translation of Canticles (see his preface to
the Pentateuch translation, p. v. b). The Paris
Library has two copies of a translation of Daniel
(MSS. 128, 129), the second having been made in the
year 1460. The translation of Ezra, Nehemiah, and
Chronicles has already been mentioned (MSS. Paris
90, 91).

§ III. Apocrypha : The apocryphal books trans-
lated from Hebrew redactions are Tobit, Judith, Bel
and the Dragon, and the Book of Antiochus (MS.
Paris 130, written 1601 in Lar; Munk, I.e. pp. 83-86).
Especially noteworthy and also of linguistic interest
is an Apocalypse of Daniel ("KissaiDaniyal,"ed. Zo-
tenberg, in Merx, " Archiv," i. 385 et seq. ; see Jew.
Encyc. i. 684, *■.(•. Apocalyptic Literaturp;) trans-
lated from a lost Aramaic original and appended
to the translation of the Biblical Daniel (MS. Paris
128). MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 4743 (of the year 1816)
contains " Daniyal Namah " (=" History of Daniel "),
by Khawajah Bukhari ("J. Q. R." vii. 119).

§ IV. Bible Commentaries : Of Bible commentaries
in Persian there is only one, on Ezekiel, published
by Salemann from a St. Petersburg manuscript (Fir-
kovich collection, ii., No. 1682). The beginning (up
to i. 26) is lacking, the existing commentary to-
gether with the above-mentioned translation extend-
ing to xxxix. 26. The date of the manuscript can
not be determined, although the language of the com-
mentary has many old forms (see C. Salemann in
" Bulletin de 1 'Academic Imperiale des Sciences de St.
Petersbourg, " 1900, xiii. , No. 3, pp. 269-276). The Per-
sian commentary on the Book of Samuel, " 'Amukot
Shemuel, " written in northern Persia during the four-

319

THE JEWISH E^X'YC•LOPEDIA

Judaeo-Persian Literature

teenth century (MS. Gastor 77), is only in part Per-
sian. Besides the Persian rendering of single words
and sentences it contains principally extracts from the
commentary of Rashi. In spite of its brevity it is
of peculiar interest from a philological point of
view. The beginning of a similar work on the Book
of Kings, closely following that on Samuel, is
also contained in this manuscript (Bacher, in "Z. D.
M. G." li. 392-425). IMS. Brit. :\[us. Or. 2460 con-
tains, according to Margoliouth ("Cat." i. 184 d
seq.), a "fragment of a Persian commentary on por-
tions of the Prophets." Only single prophetical
haftarot are conmiented upon. The above-men-
tioned translation of the Pentateuch of the year
1319 is in individual passages accompanied by ex-
planations in Persian ("J.'^Q. R." xv. 279). Like-
wise the translation of the twelve Minor Prophets
(MS. Paris 101) contains explanatory remarks in the
margin.

§ V. Lexical glosses accompanying the Bible text
were especially popular among the Persian-speaking
Jews as an aid to the stud}' of the Bible. Joseph b.
Moses, the author of the Pentateuch translation of
1819, refers to the "Master Abu Sa'id," who wrote
an explanation of the diflicult words in all of the
twentj'-four books of the Holy Scriptures ("J. Q.
R. " XV. 282). Tlie commentarj^'on Samuel (MS. Gas-
ter 77 ; see above) contains such lexical glosses on cer-
tain parts only. MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 2454 (of the
years 1804-5) contains "A vocabulary of difficult
words in the Bible, explained in Persian " (Margo-
liouth, "Descriptive List," p. 72). Of the Adler
collection, B. 1 (perhaps of the year 1183) gives, as an
appendix to a siddur, "Perush ha-Millot, Persian
translation of the difficult words and passages of the
Bible." B. 43 contains a "Sefcr Bi'ur

Lexicog- Millot ha-Torah," composed in 1708.

raphy. In the same codex the difficult words
(K'^K'p probably means notiiing more
than this) of the books of Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Chronicles are explained. B. 49 contains "A
vocabulary of difficult words in the Pentateuch
with explanations in Persian." B. 50: "Vocabulary
of diffi.cult words in the Bible (Pentateuch, Kings,
Ezekiel, Esther, Canticles, and Joel)."

Judttio-Persian literature boasts of two dictionaries
that deserve notice: one entitled "Sefer ha-Meli-
zah," by Solomon b. Samuel of the fourteenth cen-
tury; the other, " Agron," by Moses ben Aaron ben
She'erit of Shirwan of the fifteenth century. The
former, which is contained in one St. Petersburg
and in three Adler manuscripts (these supplement
one another: one of the Adler manuscripts was writ-
ten in 1490; the St. Petersburg one is still older),
was completed in Urgenj, Russian Turkestan, in
the year 1339. The " Sefer ha-Melizah " is a literary
curiosity not only on account of its place of origin,
which is not elsewhere mentioned in the history of
Jewish literature, but also on account of its contents.
It comprises about 18,000 articles, some of them very
short, however, which comprehend the whole vocab-
ulary of the Bible, of the Targum, of the Talmudic-
Midrashic literature, and of other writings, in a
systematic alphabetical arrangement, with Persian
translations of the words explained, hundreds of
which are unidentifiable. Some of these may be

corruptions of the original forms, or they may be
derivatives; but some of them are nothing more
or less than linguistic puzzles (see Bacher, "Ein
Hebraisch-Persisches Worterb." Strasburg, 1900).

Of the "Agron," composed in 1459, only a large
fragment, from the middle of the letter "yod" to
the end, has been preserved (MS. Gaster 77). It
deals with the whole vocabulary of the Old Testa-
ment, including the Aiamaic portions. The articles
are arranged alphabetically, and consist partly of
roots, partly of word-formations (chiefly substantives
and particles). It gives the several different mean-
ings of one root or noun in as manj' separate articles.
The book is a popular aid to the study of the Bible;
and in its use of the Persian language it presents
many interesting idioms (Bacher, in Stade's "Zeit-
schrift," xvi. 201-247; xvii. 199-203).

Grammatical writings in Persian are not to be
found in Judteo-Persian literature. Kevertheless
Baba b. Nuriel's translation of tlie Psalms is pre-
ceded by " A Granunatical Introduction on the Serv-
ile Letters, the Vowels, and the Accents " (Margo-
liouth." Cat." i. 120).

§ VI. Traditional Literature : The IMi.shnah treatise
Pirke Abot has frequently been translated on ac-
count of its use in the liturgy. It seems that in
Bokhara not only is it read on the Sabbaths during
the summer, but one chapter is read each day. This
is to be seen from the introduction to the Persian
translation, or rather explanatory paraphrase, printed
at Jerusalem in 1902 (Bacher, in "Zeit. fiir Ilebr.
Bibl." vi. 112-118, 156-157). Other translations
exist, e.g., that of Jacob b. PaHiel (MS. Adler, T.
25; see also T. 2, 60; B. 38). the beginning of a
metrical translation of Abot by Mollah Amrani ("Im-
raui) has also been preserved ("J. Q. R." xv. 290).
^IS. Adler, B. 35, contains a translation of the so-
called "Alphabet of Ben Sira," written in 1681; this
is also found in MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 4731 (CoAvley-
Neubauer, "The Original Hebrew of Ecclesiasti-
cus," pp. XV., xxix.). The Persian

Talmud marginal notes to the Hebrew Genizah
and text of Ben Sira should also be men-

Midrash. tioned here (Stade's "Zeitschrift," x.
308-310). A translation of portions of
the Midrash on the death of Moses and Aaron is con-
tained in MS. Adler, T. 32. The same Midrash has
recently' been translated by Simeon Hakam (see his
preface to the Pentateuch translation, p. v. b). For
a homiletic dis.sertation on the seven Avonders of
Egypt by Eleazar ha-Kohen (MS. Adler, B. 36) see
"Z. D. M. G." liii. 422. MS. Adler, T. 32, "The
Story of the Destruction of the Temple" ("Horban
ha-Bayit "), and T. 9, "Persian Hebrew Midrash,"
also belong here. MS. Adler, T. 65, "Hebrew-Per-
sian Perush Mishnayot," written in the year 1830,
probably contains lexical glosses to the Mishnah
(comp. B. 43a, "explanation of unusual words which
are found scattered throughout the Mishnah").
Persian glosses to the first book of Maimonides'
" Yad ha-Hazakah " are found in MS. Brit. Mus.
Or. 2456 (Margoliouth, "Descriptive List," p. 42).

§ VII. Halakah : A catechism on the rules for
slaughtering, written in Hebrew some time between
the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries in the northern
part of the Persian linguistic territoiy, contains Per-

Judseo-Persian Literature

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

320

sian expressious ("Zeit. far Hebr. Bibl." iii. 166).
A compreheusive work in Persian on the ritual has
recently appeared in Jerusalem. It is the ritual
compendium of Abraham Aminof translated by
Simeon Hakam from the unpublished Hebrew orig-
inal ("Likkute Dinim," 4 parts, Jerusalem, 1901-3;
see Bacher in "Zeit. fiir Hebr. Bibl." v. 147-154;
idem, in •' Z. D. M. G. " Ivi. 729-759 ; " Keleti Szemle, "
iii. 154-173).

§ VIII. Liturgy : Elkan N. Adler has discussed the
siddur of the Persian Jews, on the basis of three
manuscripts containing it (B. 1, B. 6, T. 79), in "J.
Q. R." X. 601 et seq. One of these manuscripts, a
revision of Saadia's siddur, was written in 1564 in
Shiraz. Of the Persian parts of this siddur (p. 605)
he says: "Many of the less easy hymns and prayers
are translated into Persian." The liturgical rules
and directions are frequently given in Persian (see
also Neubauer's remarks on the Persian parts of the
siddur of the Chinese Jews, in "J. Q. R." viii. 129,
137 et seq.). Other manuscripts to be mentioned in
this connection are : Adler, T. 43, " Hebrew Prayers,
Hymns, Selihot, Hosha'not, Stories, etc., with some
translations into Hebrew-Persian, written by Ephra-
im b. Rahamim " ; T. 49, " Confessions of sins and
prayers" ("Widduyim," "Tahanunim "), by Elisha
b. Samuel; T. 51-53, " Hebrew -Persian Prayers,
Poems," etc.; T. 80, "Selihot, etc., Hebrew-Persian
translation." T. 66 contains a translation of the
Pesah Haggadah.

Reference to a liturgical usage of the Bokhara
Jews is made in a small book published by Raha-
mim b. Elijah (Jerusalem, 1899), which contains a
translation based on the Targum of the haftarah for
the last day of the Pesah feast (Isa. x. 32-xii.), and,
in connection with it, a long homily on the invasion
of Sennacherib. Another little book by the same
author is a glorification of the seven evenings of
the Feast of Tabernacles (the " seven guests " ; comp.
MS. Adler, B. 23) based on the Luria legend (see
Bacher in "Zeit. fiir Hebr. Bibl." iv. 180-185, v.
131). The liturgical poetry (MSS. Adler, B. 3, 4)
will be spoken of later.

§ IX. Narratives : Here may be mentioned, besides
the works spoken of in § II., and those to be dis-
cussed in connection with poetical productions, the
story of Eldad ha-Dani, of which several copies exist
(MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 4731; see "J. Q. R." vii. 119;
MSS. Adler, B. 14, T. 60); T. 26, "Ma'asiyyot," He-
brew-Persian narratives about Maimonides, etc. ; and
T. 42, historical stories.

§ X. Miscellaneous : MS. Adler, T. 5, is designated
"Hebrew -Persian Medical Dictionary." MS. Brit.
Mus. Or. 2455 (see Margoliouth, "Descriptive List,"
p. 85) contains various Persian treatises in Hebrew
cliaracters on medicine. The same manuscript,
dating from the year 1807, contains also the "Ta'bir
Nameh,"a translation of the book of interpretations
of dreams ("Pitron Halomot"), attributed to Hai
Gaon. A dream-book in Persian, a translation by
Simeon Hakam of Nathan Amram's "Sefer ha-
Ahlama " (a compilation from the " Pitron Halomot "
and from the " Mefashsher Helmin " of Solomon Al-
moli), was published in Jerusalem in 1901. It also con-
tains an extract from the " Sefer ha-Pirkus " (on con-
vulsions; see Benjacob, "Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 602),

likewise attributed to Hai Gaon. The preface states
that the work was widely circulated in Bokhara and
the adjacent districts in 1877 by the pious R. David
Hefez. A Persian translation of the "Sefer ha-
Bal'i " (by an unknown author), with an appendix
entitled "Seder ha- Yamim," accompanies the dream-
book. The "Sefer ha-Bal'i" resembles the "Sefer
Re'amim u-Re'ashim" of Isaac Ashkenazi. The
"Seder ha- Yamim" is attributed on the title-page to
Hayyim Vidal. In the field of superstitious litera-
ture belongs also MS. Adler, B. 25, "Hebrew -Persian
Charms."

Poetry. § XI. Modem Persian ; Modern Persian
poetry, which, since Firdusi, has enriched the liter-
ature of the world with numerous works of the first
rank, has made a lasting impression on the Persian-
speaking Jews. The love of poetry and the atten-
tion given to its cultivation which have characterized
Persian civilization down to the present day, distin-
guish also the Jews who live among Persian-speak-
ing people, and the classics of Neo-Persian poetry
have been warmly appreciated by them. Various
manuscripts of the classics transcribed into Hebrew
testify to this. The British Museum contains He-
brew manuscripts of Nizami (Or. 4730) and of Hafiz
(Or. 4745), both of them of the eighteenth century
(" J. Q. R. " viii. 119). In the Adler collection, T. 78
contains " Nizami's Romance ' Khosraw and Shirin, '
transliterated with twelve three-quarter-page illus-
trations, highly colored"; T. 77, "The story of
Yusuf and Zulaikha by Jami, with an illumina-
tion"; T. 27, besides writings on Jewish subjects,
the "Gulistan" of Sa'di; the diwan numbered T. 21
contains chiefly poems of Sa'di; T. 19 contains a
great deal of the diwan of Sa'ib ; T. 73 is " the story of
the Prince of Bokhara " ; B. 36, which will be men-
tioned again, is a collection of poems by Moham-
medan and Jewish poets. Among the poems are
the "ghazals" of Sa'di and poems by Tufaili, Say-
yidi, Zinbu of Samarcand, Mushfiki (d. 1585; con-
cerning him see Vambery, "Gesch. Bokhara's," ii.
97), Shamsi, and others whose names
Influence are not given. There are also a poem,
on the interesting from a historical point of
Je^ws. view ; an elegy by Hagi on the death
of the Khan 'Ubaid Allah (d. 1711 ; see
"Z. D. M. G." xxxviii. 342); and two narratives in
prose : one with verses intermixed, the scene of which
is laid in Samarcand in the " madrasah " of Mirza
Ulug-Beg ; the other by the above-mentioned Say-
yidi, written in the year 1680. One of the Hebrew
writers of these non -Hebrew works was Simhah b.
David ("Z. D. M. G." liii. 422-437).

It will be seen further on (^ XVII.) that toward the
end of the seventeenth and in the first half of the
eighteenth century Persian poetry was especially
cultivated by the Jews of Bokhara. Characteristic
of earlier times is the fact that MoUah Shahin (see be-
low) incorporated a verse of Sa'di in his poem with-
out further remark (Horn, in "Z. D. IM. G." xlvii.
204). Despite the religious and social chasm separa-
ting them from the authors and cultivators of Per-
sian literature, the Jews zealouslj' devoted themselves
to its productions and made them their own by
transcribing them into Hebrew characters. So, in
their own poetry, which was based on Jewish tradi-

321

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judseo-Persian Literatura

tion, they closely followed the Persian national liter-
ature in language and meter, arid, in a certain sense,
contributed to it.

§ XII. Those Judaeo-Persian poems should first be
mentioned in which the subject-matter is furnished
by Biblical narratives. The chief representative of
this Biblical epic poetry is Maulana Shahin Shirazi,
a poet of the fourteenth century. Simeon Hakam,
in the introduction to his Pentateuch translation
(p. V. a), states that Shirazi completed his work
in the year 1639 of the Seleucid era (= 1328 c.e.).
He terms the work itself " Sefer Sharh 'al ha-Torah "
(= "Commentary on the Pentateuch"), or simply
"Sharh" (= "Commentary "). In MS. Brit. Mus.
Or. 4742, which was finished in 1702 by IMolla
Amina, the work is entitled merely " Kitab Shahin "
(= " Book of Shahin ") ; and the note of an owner of
this manuscript cites it simply as " this Shahin "
(see Seligsohn in "J. Q. R." xv. 286 et seq.). One

of the introductory poems is written

Epic in praise of Sultan Bahadir Abu Sa'id

Poetry. of Shiraz, whose reign (1317-36) is

considered the golden age of Persian
poetry (see Hammer-Purgstall, " Gesch. der Ilchane,"
ii. 262 et seq.).

Shahin, a fellow countryman and an older con-
temporary of Hatiz, was plainly under the influence
of this florescent period when he undertook to write
the narrative parts of the Pentateuch in poetic form.
He selected for it the " hazaj " meter, which is espe-
cially popular in the narrative poetry of the Per-
sians, and the form of the couplet (" mathnawi ").
He strictly follows the sequence of tiie weekly sec-
tions, and enriches the Biblical material with leg-
ends, such as occur in the "Sefer ha-Yashar," and
with other additions. The whole work is divided
into short chapters, each provided with a super-
scription. Three of these have been published by
Seligsohn with an English translation ("J. Q. R."
XV. 290-800). Simeon Hakam has published the first
two parts, on Genesis (Jerusalem, 1903).

In similar fashion Shahin did into poetry the
post-Pentateuchal parts of the Biblical narrative.

MS. Adler, T. 15, entitled "Milhamot

Molla Adouai," contains "The Wars of

Shahin. Joshua with the Philistines [i.e., Ca-

naanites], Bible stories in Persian
verse, by Muley Shahin." An incomplete manu-
script in the British Museum (Or. 2453; see "R. E.
J." xxiii. 279) contains an anonymous poetical re-
daction of the books of Samuel (as far as II Sam.
V. 11), as has been demonstrated by Horn (in "Z. D.
M. G." xlvii. 202-212), who has edited a portion of
it (on I Sam. xxv.). The manuscript begins with a
poem on Yusuf and Zulaikha, which Horn, on the
strength of the catalogue (see Margoliouth, "De-
scriptive List," p. 69), considers to be a transcription
from the work of Jami. It is very probable, how-
ever, that it is the corresponding portion from
Shahin's poetical redaction of the Pentateuch. The
manuscript also contains a versification of the Book
of Ruth (before that of Samuel). The contents and
form of the work show that Shahin is the author
and that he undertook a poetical redaction of the
whole Bible narrative.
A metrical redaction of the books of Esther and
VII.— 21

Ezra and of theTargumSheuion Estiier (MS. Adler,
T. 27) should also be mentioned in this connection.

§ XIII. The translations of liturgical poetry oc-
cupy' a large place in the Judaio-Persian Avritings.
Two poems of Solomon ibn Gabirol were frequently
translated: the "Azharot" and "Keter Malkut."
MSS. Adler, B. 35 and 38, contain the text and Per-
sian translation of the "Azharot." The latter of
these manuscripts contains a translation of the first
part of the "Azharot" ("Tafsir Shemor Libbi ") by
Samuel, son of the Molla Pir Ahmad, under the
title "Ihtiraz Namah" (="Book of Warning");
it contains also a translation of the second part of
the same work ("Tafsir Be-Zel Shaddai Eheseli ")
bj' Manasseh, son of the Molla Solomon b. Eleazar,
who was called also " Jami Kashmiri. " MS. Adler,
T. 29, contains "Tafsir Azharot, by Muley Benjamin
ben M. Mishael " (" R. E. J." xliii. 101, note 2). T.
64 contains " Azharot by Nathanael b. Moses, " an
original Hebrew poem, and the transla-
Sacred tion in Persian by the author himself.

Poetry. The " Keter Malkut " was published in
Jerusalem with a Persian translation
by Solomon Babagan b. Phinehas in 1895 (" J. Q. R. "
X. 597). A translation of the same poem is also
contained in MSS. Adler, T. 31 and 47. Perhaps
the "'Ateret Malkut" of R. Joseph, called "Yad-
gar" (MS. Adler, T. 48), is another name for the
"Keter Malkut."

The translator of the "Azharot," Benjamin b.
Mishael, translated the " 'Akedah " of Judah Samuel
'Abbas b. Abun (Zunz, "Literaturgesch." p. 216;
" J. Q. R. " xiv. 622) in 1718, and augmented the trans-
lation considerably with verses of his own.. This
translation was first edited in 1902 in Jerusalem.
As an appendix are added the Persian translations
of the " widdui " of Rabbi Nissim for the morning
prayer of the Day of Atonement, and two other
confessions of sin for musaf and minhah of the Day
of Atonement. Sabbath hymns with Persian trans-
lations are printed in "Seder Kebod Shabbat," pub-
lished by David Hakam, Wilna, 1895 (Salemaan,
"Chudaidad," p. iii, note 2).

Numerous metrical translations of various non-
liturgical Hebrew poems are found in the Hebrew-
Persian book of songs, which will be spoken of
later, and in other collections (diwans), of which
only the fact that they exist is as yet known. A
few other works to be mentioned in this connec-
tion are: MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 4744, containing
"Liturgical Poems in Hebrew and Persian " ("'J. Q.
R." vii. 119); MS. Paris 127, at the end of which is
a Purim poem in Hebrew and Persian (see " Paris
Cat." p. 13); MS. Adler, T. 3, "Bakkashot u-Piz-
monim; Text and Translation " ; and MS. Adler, T.
43, " Prayers, Hymns, etc. , with Some Translation
into Hebrew-Persian " (see above, § VIIL)

^ XIV. Independent Collections : The translations of
liturgical and other religious poetrj' into Persian are
often augmented so as to form independent poems.
The literature of this kind contained in the manu-
scripts is still too little known for it to be possible
to give an enumeration of the religious poetry of
the Persian Jews that does not rest on a Hebrew
basis. Seligsohn, from a Paris manusciipt (No.
1356), has published the interesting work of a Per-

Judseo-Persian Literature

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

322

sian poet, Moses b. Isaac (of uuknown date), in which
the "Azharot" of Gabirol are imitated ("R. E. J."
xliii. 101 et seq.). It is a new redaction in Hebrew
verse, to which a translation is added, a Persian
tetrastich corresponding to each Hebrew disticli.
The wliole is preceded by a Persian introductory
poem. The poem proper, liiie tlie above-mentioned
Persian translation of Gabirol 's" Azharot," is entitled
"Ihtiraz-Namah." MS. Adler, B. 41, contains a
poem by R. Benjamin — which is perhaps the orig-
inal of the above-mentioned one of Benjamin b.
Mishael — in Hebrew with Persian translation. MS.
Paris 118 contains an elegy on the Ninth of Ab in
Persian, interspersed with Hebrew words (]Munk,
I.e. p. 68; "Orient, Lit." vi. 619). In MS. Brit.
Mus. Or. 4729, the above-mentioned Persian transla-
tion of the Psalms is followed by "several litur-
gical poems in the same language" ("J. Q. R. "
vii. 119).

§ XV. Diwans : The Adler collection contains a
considerable number of compilations of songs,
brierty termed "diwans"; and onlyliere and there is
a scanty designation of their contents given. They
are compri.sed in the following Adler manuscripts,
all of them from Teheran: T. 4, "Poems, Prob-
lems"; T. 6, "Diwan of Muley Solomon"; T. 8;
T. 17; T. 23; T. 30, "Hebrew-Persian diwan of
Israel b. IMoses, Samuel b. Nissim, Moses b. Joseph
ha-Levi, Refuali Cohen b. Eleazar, Elishab. Samuel,
etc."; T. 40; T. 51-52, "Hebrew-Persian Prayers,
Poems, etc."; T. 63, "Hebrew and Hebrew-Persian
Diwan, inter alios Abraham, David b. Ma'amin " ;
T. 72; T. 74, "Seventy Songs from Yezd."

Of the manuscripts brought from Bokliara, B. 18,
"Hebrew and Hebrew-Persian Diwan, Shirot," be-
longs here. B. 38 is a collection (written in Meshed,
c. 1806) containing " Hebrew and Persian piyyutim
for weddings, circumcisions, etc." As authors are
mentioned: Siman-Tob, Israel b. Moses, Shabbethai
Salih, and Abraham b. Levi. B. 13 contains ninety-
one poems in Hebrew, Hebrew and Persian, and
Persian alone.

Many of the poems of this collection are also found
in "Yismah Yisrael" (Jerusalem, 1901), by Israel b.
Abraham of Yezd, a collection of songs used by
Persian Jews on festive occasions ("J. Q. R." xiv.
116-128). Of the sixty-three poems in the book
only a very small number are Persian, although
many of the Hebrew poems are followed by Persian
translations. Many of the Hebrew poems are by
Israel Najjarah; eight are accompanied by a Per-
sian rendering ; and " Molla Joseph " or " Molla Jo-
seph the poet " (who is none other than Yusuf Ye-
hudi of Bokhara) is named as the translator of four
of them. Among those of Israel Naj-
Najjarah. jarah, the Aramaic Sabbath song,
"Yah Ribbon 'Alam," is reprinted in
Persian translation in "J. Q. R." xiv. 126. Two
others of his, from the collection "Yismah Yisrael,"
have been published with their translations by
Rahamim b. Elijah (Bacher, in "Z. D. M. G." Iv. 241-
257; comp. ib. Ivi. 729). Other authors of Persian
poems or Persian translators whose works are found
in this collection are: (1) Siman-Tob, wlio mentions,
as a source of his "Hayat al Ruh," a collection of
songs by Israel Yezdi (see "Zeit. fiir Hebr. Bibl." v.

152). The collection has Hebrew poems of his ac-
companied with his own Persian translations. (3)
Benjamin Aminu: a prayer for the master of the
house. (3) Tobiah : a " ghazal. " (4) Judah : a Hebrew
and Persian poem ("J. Q. R." xiv. 127). (5) Mauas-
seh of Kashmir, also called "Jami Kashmiri" (see
^ XIII.): translations of two poems of Israel Najja-
rah, one of which is dated 5564 (= 1804). (0) Molla
Amin: translation of a poem of Jonah, in which the
curious rime of the original is imitated. Where the
translator is not named, as in certain poems of Naj-
jarah and in the " 'Akedah" of Ephraimb. Isaac, the
translator is probably Yusuf Yahudi or Siman-Tob.
The anonymous Persian jioems which the collection
contains do not show Jewish religious color eitiier
in their subject-matter or in their language. Among
the authors who contributed only Hebrew poems
may be mentioned Shakirsh {on account of his re-
markable name, which perhaps is connected with
the Persian word "shagird ") and Elisha b. Samuel.
§ XVI. Of these poets ]\IolIa Joseph b. Isaac de-
serves special attention. Under the name Yusuf
Yahudi (= "Joseph the Jew") he was highly re-
garded even in non-Jewish circles. His name is at
times accompanied with the epithet "sha'ir" (poet).
In a Hebrew note, found in MS. Adler, B. 16, it is
stated that Joseph b. Lsaac wrote the " Seven Broth-
ers" in the year 5448 (= 1688), and the two works
" Sharh ( ?) Antiochus " and " Sharh iNIosheh Rabbenu, "
sixty -one years later (5509 = 1749). He died on the
eleventh of Nisan, 5515 (= 1755), and must therefore
have reached the age of ninety. The last two works
mentioned in the note have not yet been found. Tlie
one was plainly a redaction of the Antiochus Megil-
lah (see above, § III. ) ; the other, a poetical rendering
of the life of Moses. The name " Sharh " (= "com-
mentary ") is the same as that of the workof Shahin
(see above, ^ XII.). On the other hand, Yusuf "s early
work, the "Seven Brothers " ("Heft Biraderan " or
"Heft Dadcran "; also with Hebrew title "Shibe'ah
Ahim"), has l)een preserved in several copies (MSS.
Adler, B. 7, B. 11, B. 16, B. 28, B. 51 ; fragment in
B. 15), and was printed in Jerusalem in 1884 (see
" J. Q. R. " X. 588, 597). The poet says that he com-
pleted his work on the eighth of Ab, 5448 (= 1688),
the day before the fast-day upon which it was to
be read. This work, treating of the celebrated

martyrdom of the seven brothers and

Yusuf their mother, is based on the narrative

Yahudi. of the Palestinian midrash, Ekali Rab-

bati, to Lam. i. 16 (Bacher, " Judische
Mitrtj'rer im Christlichcn Kaleuder," in " Jahrb. fur
Jiidische Gesch. und Litteratur," 1901, iv. 70-85).
Another poem of Yusuf's which shows much simi-
larity to the " Seven Brothers " in its phraseology is
the eulogy of Moses, entitled "]\Iukhammas" (ed.
Bacher, in " Z. D. M. G. " liii. 396 et seq.) on account of
its strophicform, containing twenty strophes of five
lines each. MS. Adler, B. 36, contains also more than
a dozen poems composed by Yusuf Yahudi. Part of
them have the same strophic form as the eulogy of
Moses. One is an elegy (1732) on a Molla Letifi,
aged eighty -eight. Two poems have distinctly re-
ligious contents: a song for Sabbath and an Elijah,
song for the close of that day (see "Z. D. M. G."
liii. 389-396). For Y'usuf 's translations see § XV.

323

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judeeo-Persian Literature

^ XVII. In the note concerning Yusuf Yahudi,
spoken of in tlie preceding paragraph, mention is
also made of liis associates ("'haberini "), ])robably
meaning his poetical contemporaries. These latter
are MoUa Uzbek, Molla Elisha, and Molla Solomon.
" It was this last who wrote a 'Sharh Aiitiochus '
after Molla Joseph's work of tlu; same name had
appeared. They all died in Bokhara." Elisha is
probably identical with the Elisha b. Samuel re-
ferred to in § XV. ; and IMolla Solomon is probably
the author whose diwan is mentioned in the same
secti(m.

Other poets whose works are found in IMS. Adler,
B. 36, and wlio probably belong to the same circle,
are: David b. Abraham b. Mahji, who wrote an
Elijah song in Hebrew and Persian strophes, and
L'/ziel, two of whose Elijah songs are given in "Z.
D. M. G." liii. 417-421. These are the same in
form as the Elijah songs of Yusuf Yahudi and of
David b. Abraham. At the head of the collection of
Bokhara Elijah songs is the poem of Benjamin
Amina, mentioned above (i^ XV.). With them is
placed a short poem by the same author written in
Hebrew verses interspersed with Persian (reprinted
in "Z. D. M. G." liii. 420 et seq. ; see also "J. Q. R."
xiv. 123). The Molla David, several of whose poems
are contained in this collection, is plainly identical
with the David b. Abraham mentioned above. His
poems include a "kasidah" in praise of IMoses, and
three pieces designated as "kasidahs," but which
are really prose pieces, consisting of rather long par-
agraphs, each ending with the same rime and con-
taining observations and exhortations. The same
form of rimed prose is also found in a poem of
Yusuf Yahudi ; but there it is designated as " tawil."
Of the poems given without their authors' names
may be mentioned an elegy (perhaps by Yusuf
Yaliudi) on a Molla A'ta, a pious scholar Avho died
on the 25th of Kislew, 1689.

§ XVIII. The facts given in the last two sections
seem to show that the Tews of Bokhara in the second
half of the seventeenth and in the first half of the
eighteenth century lived in comparatively favorable
circumstances, and coula cultivate Persian poetry
without considerations ot creed. In Persia proper,
however, during the same period, they suffered op-
pression and repeated persecution, as appears from
two remarkable poems written at the time in the same
form of the " mathnavi " as are the Bib-
Records of lical poems of JMolJa Shahin (MS. Paris

Persecu- 1356, written in lc<42; the first one
tion. alsoinMS. Adler, 291). Seligsohn has
published four extracts fi-oni them
with a French translation ("R. E. J." xliv. 87-103,
244^259). The longer one relates, in more than
twenty divisions, the persecutions endured \>y the
Jews in Ispahan under the rule of Abbas I. (d. 1628)
and during the whole of the reign of Abbas II. (d.
1666). He also relates, in chronological order, the
persecutions sufTered by the Jews in the cities of
Ramadan, Shiraz, Ferahabad, Kashan, and Yezd.
Other extracts from the work of Babai are pub-
lished by Bacher ("Une Episode de I'Histoire des
Juifs de Perse") in "R. E. J." xlvii. 262-282. The
poet was born in one of these cities: the heading
of the work calls him "Babai b. Lutf, known as

the Kashani." The work has no title; it is designated
simply "Gufta-i Baiiai " (=" Narrative of Babai").
The same is the ca.se witli tiie second work, the au-
thor of which is called in liie superscription "Babai
b. Ferhad." He describes the persecutions of the
Jews under tin; Afghan dynasty of Mahnuid, Ash-
raf, and Tahmasp ""u. (1722-32). Tiie' Paris MS.
contains also a poem composed by Mashiah b. Ra-
phael in honor of Abraham ha-Nasi.

A short jjoem of Babai b. Lutf's is contained in
MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 4731 (see "R. E. J." xliv. 88,
note 2). This Teheran manuscript contains among
other things "Timsal Namah, known as the 'Story
of the Seven Viziers,' in the redaction of Rabbi
Judah" ("J. Q. R." vii. 169). This is perhaps the
same Judah whose bilingual poem has been men-
tioned above (§XV.). The same manuscript con-
tains further a work entitled "Mahzan al-Pand."
MSS. Brit. Mus. Or. 4732, 4744, from Teheran (of
the year 1812), contain a metrical redaction of Abra-
ham b. Hasdai's "Ben ha-Melck weha-Nazir" ("J.
Q. R." I.e.). Tlie Adler collection has four copies
of this work — the Persian title of which is "Shah-
zada wa-Sufi " — likewise from Teheran (T. 18, 20,
41, 75).

§ XIX. In the eighteenth century or at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth, during the reign of Emir
Ma'.sum (d. 1802), the Zealot ruler of Bokhara, a
pious and leai-ned man by the name of Chudaidad
(Hebr. " Nathaniel ") suffered martj'rdom because
he refused to embrace Islam, which, it was falsely
said after his death, he had accepted. This occur-
rence was celebrated by a Bokhara poet, Ibrahim
Abu al-Khair, in a poem containing nearly 400 dou-
ble lines. It is in contents and meter of the same
character as the two Babai poems referred to in the
foregoing sections (ed. C. Salemann,

Chudai- in the "Memoiresdel'Academie Impe-
dad. riale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg,"
7tli series, vol. xlii. ; comp. extracts
by Noldeke in "Z. D. ]\I. G." li. 548-553, and cor-
rections by Bacher, ib. Hi. 197-212; see, also, "Zeit.
fiir Hebr. Bibl." iii. 19-25). Of a longer poem by
Ibrahim Abu al-Khair, completed on the eighth of
Shebat, 5569 (= 1809), only the introductory parts
are extant, one of which is devoted to the praise
of the ruler of Bokhara (see Salemann, I.e. pp. iv.-v.).

In MS. Adler, B. 11, the Chudaidad poem has the
superscription: "In memory of ["bi-yadi "] Molla
Chudaidad, the pious." Then follows a poem
twelve pages long with a similar superscription:
" In memory of Molla Ishak Kemal ; may he rest in
Eden."

The year 1893, in which the Jews of Bokhara
founded a large colony in Jerusalem marks the be-
ginning of a new epoch 'n their liter-
Modern ary activity. ]\Iany of then^ -onsider
Literature, it a pious task to care for the '-{'ica-
tion and edification of the Jews in their
native country by publishing liturgical and other
writings in tlie popidar tongue of Persia. Among
the Bokhara Jews living in Jerusalem, Simeon Ha-
kam stands preeminent as an editor and translator.

§ XX. The following is an alphabetical list of the
authors mentioned in this article, with references to
the sections in which they are treated:

Judeeo-Spanish

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

324

Abu Sa'ld (13th or 14th cent.),

5.
Amln, 15.

Baba b. Nurlel (1740), 2.
Babal b. Ferhad (c. 1730), 18.
Babal b. Lutt Kashani (1665),

18.
Benjamin, 14.
Benjamin Amina (18th cent.),

15, 17.
Benjamin b. Johanan ha-

Kohen (1883-85), 2.
Benjamin b. Mishael (1718),

13, 14.
David, 17.
David b. Abraham b. Mahji

(18th cent.), 17.
David Hakam (1895), 13.
David b. Ma'min, 15.
Eleazar ha-Kohen, 6.
Elisha (18th cent.), 17.
Elisha b. Samuel, 8, 15.
Ibrahim ' Abu al-Khair (1809),

19.
'Imrani, 6.
Israel b. Abraham of Yezd

a901), 15.
Israel b. Moses, 15.
Jacob b. Joseph. See Tawus.
Jacob b. Paltiel, 6.
Joseph b. Isaac. See YusuF

Yahcdi.
Joseph b. Moses (1319), 1.

13.

Joseph Yadgar
Judah, 15, 18.
Khavv'ajah Bukharl, 3.
Manasseh b. Solomon b. Elea-
zar Kashmiri (1804), 13, 15.
Mashiah b. Raphael (18th

cent.), 18.
Moses b. Aaron b. She'erit of

Shirwan (1459), 5.
Moses b. Isaac, 14.
Moses b. Joseph ha-Levi, 15.
Nathanael b. Moses, 13.
Rahamlm b. Elijah (1899), 8, 15.
Refuah Cohen b. Eleazar, 1.5.
Samuel b. Pir Ahmad, 13.
Shabbethai Salih, 15.
Shahin Shirazl (1328), 12.
Shakirsh, 15.
Siman-Tob, 15.
Simeon' Hakam (1903), 1, 2, 6,

7, 10.
Solomon (18th cent.), 15, 17.
Solomon Babagan b. Phinehas

of Sainarcand (1895), 2, 13.
Solomon b. Samuel of Urgenj

(1339), 5.
Tawus, Jacob b. Joseph (16th

ceut.), 1.
Tobiah, 15.

Uzbek (lathcent.), 17.
Uzziel (18th cent.), 17.
Yusuf Yahudi of Bokhara (d.

1755), 15, 16, 17.

W. B.

JUDiEO - SPANISH LANGUAGE (LA-
DING) AND LITERATURE: Judieo-Spauish
is a dialect composed of a mixture of Spanisli and
Hebrew elements, •which is still used as the vernac-
ular and as a literary language by the Sephardim or
"Spagnioli," descendants of the Jews expelled from
Spain and now scattered throughout Turkey, Servia,
Bosnia, Bulgaria, Palestine, and Morocco. The lan-
guage to which it has the greatest similarity is the
Old Spanish or Castilian of the fifteenth century ;
and it is frequently designated as "idiomaEspanol,"
"lengua Castellana," or "lengua vulgar." Judao-
Spanish resembles the much more corrupted Judaeo-
German in that it includes many old Hebrew and
Talmudic words, particularly such as have been
transmitted from genei'ation to generation or can
not be exactly translated into another language;
e.g., "hen," "rahmonut," "zedakah." It differs
from modern Spanish in that it contains many Old
Spanish forms and words which were still current in
Castile toward the end of the fifteenth century, at
the time when the Jews were expelled from Spain,
but which have entirely disappeared from the vocab-
ulary of modern Spanish, or which are now very
rarel}'' used ; e.^., "fruchiguar," "ermollecer," "es-
cuentra," "muchiguar," " podestania, " "pecilgo"
(= Spanish "pellizco "), "espandir," etc.

One of the characteristics of Ladino is that it con-
tains words taken from the Hebrew and Spaniolized;
e.g., "meldar" (to read), "meldador" (the reader),
" melda" (school), "darsar" (from the Hebrew root
Em = •' to investigate," " to instruct "), " chanufer "
(from P|3n = " the flatterer ")— words occurring fre-
quently in JudiBo-Spanish, but not found in Spanish
proper. Some Spaniolized Hebrew Avords, however,
have become current in Spain and Portugal; for
example, "malshin" (= Spanish "malsin," Portu-
guese "malsim," accuser, slanderer), and its deriva-

tives " malsinar " and " malsindad " ; the rabbinical
"get" (Spanish "guet"), and others.

In Judaeo-Spanish, as in Old Spanish, " f " and " g "

are each used instead of "h"; e.g , "fljo" instead

of " hi jo " ; " fablar " instead of " hab-

Old. lar " ; " fambre " instead of " hambre " ;

Spanish " fermosa " instead of " hermosa " ;
Phonetics, "agora" instead of "abora." The let-
ter "h," whether occurring at the be-
ginning or in the middle of a word, is frequently
omitted, as in " ermano " for " hermano, " and in " con-
ortar" for "conhortar." Often" m "changes into" u,"
as in "muestros" for "nuestros," "mos," "muevo,"
for "nos," "nuevo "; "m"and "n"are sometimes
inserted, as "amvisar" for "avisar," "munchos" for
"muchos." Metathesis of "d" before "r" takes
place, as " vedrad, " " vedre, " " acodro, " " pedrer, " for
" verdad, " " verde, " " acordo, " " perder " ; or of " r "
before "o," as "probe" for "pobre," "proberia"
(still used in Galicia) for "pobreria." "b"is not
seldom used for " v," as"biuda," "bolar," instead of
"viuda," "volar." For the study of Old Spanish,
Ladino is a ricli mine that has not yet been suffi-
cientl}^ explored. For the Turkish words which
have entered the Ladino vocabulary, see Danou in
" Keleti Szemle," iv. 215 et seq.

Ladino is written in the so-called Spanish cursive
characters, and is printed generally in rabbinical,
though sometimes in square, Hebrew characters, and
not seldom in Latin letters. One of the phonetic
characteristics of this dialect is the change of the
Spanish "U" to "y"; e.g., "cabayero" for "cabal-
Icro, " " estreya " for " estrella " (the same change
takes place in the Spanish of Andalusia). In print-
ing with Hebrew or rabbinical characters this sound
is represented by a "lamed "and a double "yod"
(^^i?); e.g., "iXDN"^ for "llamar"; INT''!? for "lle-
var"; "^t<p for "calle" (street). Instead of "q"
preceding " e " and " i, " "ip is used, as 'p for " que " ;
^pi< for "aqui"; p^p for "quien " ; "s " is used in-
stead of "z" and "c," as in "sielo," "cabeson," for
" cielo, " " cabezon " ; Avhile T> pronounced " j , " is used
instead of " y " and " g " before " e " and " i, " as y]\o
for " muger " ; ^fX for " hijo." The letter " r " is not
doubled in Ladino.

A comparatively rich literature, which arose at
the beginning of the sixteenth century and is still
diligently cultivated, exists in Ladino. For several
centuries this literature was confined to translations.
The first work published in Judaeo-Spanish, a trans-
lation of the ritual rules for slaughtering (Constan-
tinople, 1510, and reprinted several times at Venice,
Pisa, London, Amsterdam), was designed to meet
immediate religious needs. The translation of the
Pentateuch in Hebrew vocalized square characters
(Constantinople, 1547) was the first
Ladino Lit- larger work which the Sephardic Jews

erature ; of Turkey published in the language
Bible. "which the old Jews use." Twenty
years later the entire Bible was pub-
lished in several parts, the third of which included
the Later Prophets. This translation, which agreed
almost entirely with the one that appeared at Ferrara
in Latin letters in 1553, was followed by another,
in four parts (Constantinople, 1739-45), in Ladino
("entero bien Ladiuado "); seventy years later Israel

325

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judseo-Spanisri

b. Hayyim of Belgrade issued a translation (Vienna,
1813-16) ; the Constantinople edition was reprinted
at Sm^'rna in 18S8 el seg., and again at Constanti-
nople in 1873, ail of these being in Raslii characters.
New translations and reprints of single books of the
Bible were frequently issued : the Pentateucii or
"Hunias de Parasioth y Aftliaroth," generally in
Latin letters, eight times at Amsterdam between
1627 and 1733; the Psalms at Salonica in 1582, sev-
eral times at Amsterdam since 1628, at Vienna 1823
and often, at Constantinople 1836; theMegillot with
Ladino translation, ib. 1813; and especially Can-
ticles ("'Cantares de Selomoii "), which was used in
the liturgy, and printed with the Aramaic paraphrase*
abf)Ut twenty times, beginning with 1619, at Venice,
Amsterdam, Hamburg, Leghorn, and Vienna. A
Judoeo-Spanish translation of tlie apocryphal Eccle-
siasticus (Sirach), after Ben Zeeb's Hebrew version,
was first made by Israel b. Hayyim of Belgrade
(Vienna, 1818).

Contemporaneously with the Judoeo-Spanish
translation of tlie Bible that of the prayers for the
whole 3'ear and for Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kip-
pur was issued by the same establishment at Ferrara
(1553). The prayers, " Ordcn de Ora-

Liturg-y. clones de Todo el Anno " or " De Ora-
ciones de (del) Mes," and "Orden de
las Oraciones Cotidianas," were printed and fre-
quently reissued at Ferrara, at Venice, especially at
Amsterdam, and later at Vienna, in various sizes,
generally in Latin letters, occasionally in vocalized
Hebrew square characters. Sometimes calendars
for twx-nty 3'ears or more were added. In the course
of time there appeared special translations of : the
"selihot" or penitential prayers (Venice, 1552; Am-
sterdam, 1666 ; Vienna, 1865) ; the " ma'amadot "
(Venice, 1609; Amsterdam, 1654, and frequently);
the Pesah Ilaggadah (Amsterdam, 1822; Venice,
1629, and frequently there as well as in Leghorn,
Vienna, and London); the prayers for the vigils
(Hamburg, 1662; Amsterdam, frequentlj-); prayers
for the fast-days (Venice, 1623; Amsterdam. 1630,
and often) ; the various blessings, " Orden de las
Bendicioues" (Amsterdam, 1640, 1650, and fre-
quently); the "azharot," recited by the Sephardim
at Shabu'ot (Venice, 1753; Leghorn, 1777); the Se-
phardic prayers and songs on the 15th of Shebat,
under the title "Peri 'Ez Hadar" = "Fruit of the Tree
Hadar" (Venice, 1766; Belgrade, 1865); and others.
Threnodies and prayers for special occasions, as
those recited every year in memory of the earth-
quake at Leghorn (Jan., 1742), were also translated
(Pisa, 1746). The "Perakim" or "Sayings of the
Fathers," which also served for liturgical purposes,
were often translated (first by Moses Belmonte, Am-
sterdam, 1644), sometimes together with the Book
of Ruth or Canticles (Amsterdam and London), but
generally alone, and always with the Hebrew text
(Venice, Amsterdam, Pisa, Belgrade, and Salonica).

Extracts from Joseph Caro's Shulhan 'Aruk were
translated under the title ]'\^^ pN inxlDN'"^ "n^"^"
□"JSn jn^tJ> Cnpn y en Ladino jMesa de el Alma,"
in order to enable the women and ihe men wIk) did
not know Hebrew to become acquainted with the
religious rules and ceremonies (Salonica, 1568; Ven-
ice, 1602). In 1609 Moses Altaras issued a revised

edition at Venice under the title " Libro de Mante-
nimiento de la Alma." Joseph de David Pardo
compiled a "Compendio de Dinim que Tcdo Ysrael
Deve Saber y Observar," which was published by
his son David Pardo of London (Amsterdam, 1689).
Isaac Nombrado translated the entire ritual code
Orah Hayyim under the title "-jSjon ]Jlh\:f ^le.sa del
Rey, en Ladino Claro, con su nmrt " (Constantinople,
1744).

An apologetic work, "Fuente Clara," which is

now very rare, appeared anonymously at the end of

the sixteenth century; and at the be-

Apolo- ginning of the seventeenth century
getics and Isaac Troki's " Hizzuk Emunah " was

Homi- translated into Spanish by Isaac

letics. At bias. A Ladino translation of tlie
latter work was publi-shed by Isaac
Emaraji at Smyrna about 1840. Fifteen years later
a refutation of McCaul's "Old Paths," made neces-
sary by the efforts of the missionaries, was published
at the same place by Raphael b. Elia Katsin.

Books of an ethico-religious nature were published
in Ladino, partly as independent works, partly as
translations of earlier ones. The initial work was
the " Regimicnto de la Vida " by ]\Ioses Almosnino,
which "contains everything that it is necessary for
man to know in order to travel the whole journey
of life without neglecting his duties." This work
was first printed in rabbinical script (Salonica, 1564),
with a long treatise on dreams, in the form of a
letter to Don Joseph Nasi, at whose request it was
written ; a revised edition in Latin letters was pub-
lished at Amsterdam in 1729. Bahya's " Hobot ha-
Lebabot," or " Obligacion de los Corazones," trans-
lated into Ladino by Zaddik b. Joseph Formon
before the end of the sixteenth century, and printed
at Constantinople, was republished several times
(Amsterdam, 1610; Venice, 1713; Vienna, 1822) and
was also translated into Portuguese (Amsterdam,
1670). Jacob Hagiz translated Isaac Aboab's "Me-
norat ha-Ma'or" "en lengua bulgar," under the title
" Almeuara de la Luz," at Leghorn in 1656 (2d ed.,
Amsterdam, 1708). " Shebet jMusar " was translated
at Constantinople about 1740and at Smyrna in 1860,
and the popular " Kab ha-Yashar " (as " Castigerio
Plermoso con Mucho Consuelo ") at Constantinople in
1857. Isaac de Moses de Pas issued a kind of religious
manual, containing Maimonides' Thirteen Articles
of Faith, an explanation of the feast- and fast-days
and of the Ten Commandments, in Hebrew and
Judseo-Spanish (Leghorn, 1764), and "Medicina de
Lengua, Arbol de Vidas " (ib. 1734), a compendium
in defense of tlie Hebrew language. The foremost
work of Juda'o-Spanish literature is"Me'amLo'ez,"
an exegetic-midrashic-ethic-homiletic encyclopedia,
to which Jacob Culi and several other scholars con-
tributed, and which passed through several editions
(see CuLi).

One of the earliest poetic works in Ladino is the
rimed story of Joseph, "Coplasde Joseph ha-Zaddik
(el Justo)," by Abraham Toledo (Constantinople,
1732). Juda'o-Spanish literature is comparatively
rich in songs — "coplas," "cantares," "roscas" — for
Purim, with carnival games composed for the occa-
sion. The first " Coplas de Purim " appeared about
1700. J. Clava wrote "Cancio de Purim," consist-

Judseo-Spanish
Judah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

326

ing of 110 verses (Amsterdam, 1772); a "Compen-
dio de la Alegria" appeared at Leghorn in 1782;
another, at the same place in 1792
Poetry. and 1875; "Roscas de Purim " was
published at Vienna in 1866; and
"Coplas Nuevas," at Salonica in 1868. Many other
religious and secular poems in Ladino are still ex-
tant in manuscript. There are also many Judneo-
Spanish proverbs, of which some have been col-
lected and transcribed into Spanish in Kayserling's
"Refranes 6 Proverbios Espaiioles de los Judios
Espanoles" (Budapest, 1889); they have appeared
amplified in R. Foulclie-Delbosc's work "Proverbes
Judeo-Espagnols " (Paris, 1895) ; and an additional
collection has been published by A. Danon ("Re-
cueil de Romances Jud. -Espan. " in " R. E. J. " xxxii.
102 et seg., xxxiii. 122 et seq.).

In the first decades of the eighteenth century a
desire for culture and education was gradually
awakened in the Jud;eo-Spanish-speakiug Jews of
the East: Jud;eo-Spanisli literature was in conse-
quence filled with new life, and many Judseo-Spun-
ish works were published at Vienna, Belgrade, and
especially at Constantinople, Salonica, and Smyrna.
As the Cabala and mysticism are wide-spread in the
East, mystical and cabalistic works were at first
most largely published. Even most of the books on
morals published more recently are mystical in char-
acter; e.g., the anonymous "Mikra Kodesh" (Con-
stantinople, 1818); Innnauuel Salem's "Tobali To-
kahah " (Salonica, 1850), containing passages fi-om
the Talmud, Midrash, and Zohar, arranged according
to the pericopes ; Hayyim Abraham Uzziel's " Mekor
Hayyim " (Salonica and Smyrna, 1859-61), in four
parts; Isaac Farhi's "Zek'ut u-Mishor" (Smyrna,
1850), "Imre Binah " (Constantinople, 18G3); and
the works of the pious Eliezer Papo, as "Dammesek
Eliezer" (Belgrade, 1850), and "Pele Yo'ez " (Vi-
enna, 1870), translated in part by his son. Elia de
Vidas' mystico-cabalistic work "Reshit Hokmah "
was printed as early as 1703 (Constantinople); that
on the death of Moses, in 1763 (ib.). The story of
the birth and youth of the cabalist Isaac Luria ap-
peared at Smyrna in 1765 ; and the biography of
Israel Shem-Tob (Besht) at Belgrade in 1852. As
the reading of the "holy" Zohar was regarded as
conducive to salvation, an extract
Philosophy therefrom, "Leket ha-Zohar," was
and translated into Ladino (Belgrade, 1859,

Grammar. 1861). It is characteristic of the cul-
tural status of the Jews of the East
that a small medical work containing lecipes for
charms appeared in Ladino (Smyrna, 1865).

The first Hebrew grammar in Ladino was pub-
lished at Vienna in 1823; it was followed by several
others (Smyrna, 1852; Bucharest, 1860), and by a
" Uiccionario de la Lengua Santa " (Constantinople,
1855), the explanations of each word being given
in "la lengua Sephardis." Juvenile and popular
Avorks also were Lssued; e.g., a Biblical history {ib.
1854), a compendium on astronomy (ib. 1850), one on
astrology {ib. 1847), and an arithmetic (Belgrade,
1867). The Jewish clironicle "Shebet Yehudah,"
which M. de Leon had translated into Spanish as
early as 1640, was transcribed into Judaeo-Spanish
(Belgrade, 1859), and the "Libro de Acontecimientos

de Sabbatai Zewi," on the experiences of Shabbethai
Zebi, was also translated (Salonica, 1871). Eidad
ha-Dani's legendary' account of tlie Ten Tribes in
farther Asia was translated into Ladino as earl}' as
1806, a second edition being publislied at Salonica
in 1860; and there also Kalonynuis b. Kalonymus'
treatise "IggeretBa'alc Hayyim" was published for
the third time in a Judteo-Spanish translation. A
short history of the Ottoman empire was issued for
the instruction of the people (Salonica, 1860; Con-
stantinople, 1873), and was edited by David Hazzau
at Smyrna in 1887. Judah ISTehama translated from
the English a "Historia LTniversal " {i.e., of Asia;
Salonica, 1861); a history of Alexander the Great
Avas translated from the Hebrew {ib. 1857); one of
Napoleon III., from the French (Belgrade, 1860);
and S. Bloch's geography of A.sia and
Miscellane- Africa was translated by Isaac b.
ous Works. Amaragi (Salonica, 1853, 1857). Sev-
eral biographies of famous men, as
Moses Montefiore, Adolphc Cremieux, and Albert
Cohn, whose philanthropies extended also over the
Ea.st, were written in Juda'o-Spanish.

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century
novels, stories, and dramas (Racine's "Esther," Mo-
liere's "L'Avare") were translated from the French
and Hebrew or were worked over independently.
The " Historia delMilley Una Noche " was tran.slated
about 1855. Works in Judtt'o-Spanish in rabbinical
scri]it were and still ai'e issxied for the conversion of
the Jews by the Scotch Missionary Society, which
has also published in Ladino "El Manadero," a
partly scientific review dealing with Jews and Juda-
ism (Constantinople, 1855, 1885). A number of pe-
riodicals are published in Ladino.

Bibliography: Knyserling:, Bihl. E!ip.-Po7-t.-Jud. 1890; idem,
in Ersch and Griiber, Eiicjic. section ii., part 41, p. 150;
Griinbaum, Jlldwch-Spanvichc Chrcatomathie, Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1896; Franco, Hiatoire des Ii^raflite.'i de V Em-
pire Ottoman, pp. 270 etscq.; B. F. Dobranioh, Lns Pnctns
Judeii-Hij<pani)s, Buenos Ayres, 1886 ; roulche-Delbosc, Re-
vue HmmniQue, i. 22.
G. M. K.

JUDAH (min^ = praised [?]; comp. Gen. xxix.
35, xlix. 8).— Biblical Data : The fourth son of .la-
cob and Leah; born in Padan-aram (Gen. xxix. 35).
It is he Avho suggests tlie sale of Joseph to the Ishnia-
elite traders. He becomes surety for Benjamin, and
prevails upon his father to let him go down to Egypt
according to the request of Joseph, after Reuben
has failed {ib. xliii. 3-14). In subsequent interviews
with Joseph, Judah takes a leading part among the
brethren {e.g., "Judah and his brethren," ib. xliv.
14), and makes a most touching and persuasive plea
for the release of Benjamin {ib. xliv. 16-34). In
Jacob's blessing {ib. xlix.) he seems to be exalted to
the position of chief of the brethren, owing appar-
ently to the misconduct of Reuben and the treach-
erous violence of Simeon and Levi (see ib. xxxiv.,
XXXV. 22; comp. ib. xlix. 4, 5-7), who thereby forfeit
the birthright. Success in war, booty (under the
figure of the lion's prey), the hegemony, at least for
a time, among the clans of Israel, and residence in a
rich vine-growing and pastoral country are prom-
ised to his descendants {ib. xlix. 8-12).

According to Gen. xxxviii., he married the daugh-
ter of the Canaanite Shuah, by whom he had three
sons, Er, Onan, and Shelah. Er married Tamar,

327

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaeo-Spanish
Judah

but (lied childless. According to custom liis widow
was givcu iu inarriage to his brother Ouau, who
was slain for misconduct; and she was then prom-
ised to the third sou, Slielah. This promise not
having been fullilled, she resorted to stratagem, and
became by Judah the mother of Pharez and Zarah.
Pharez was ancestor of the royal house of David
(Kulh iv. 12, 18-22; I Chron. ii. 3-16).

K. G. II. J. F. M.

In Rabbinical Literature : Judah was born

on the tifteeuth day of the third mouth (Siwan),
in the year of the Creation 2195, and died, at the age
of 119, eighteen years before Levi (Book of Jubilees,
xxviii. 15, for the date of birth only ; Seder '01am
Zuta; Midr. Tadshe, in Epstein, "Mi-Kadmoniyyot
ha-Yehudim," Supplement, ' p. xxiii. ; "Seder ha-
Dorot," i. 47; comp. Test. Patr., Judah, 12). In
the "Sefer ha-Yashar," section "Shemot," p. 104b
(Leghorn, 1870), however, it is said that Judah died
at the age of 129, eighty-six years after he went to
Egypt. "

Judah's name is interpreted as a combination of
" Yhwii " (given as a reward for his public confession,
Gen. xxxviii. 26) with the letter "dalet," the numer-
ical value of which is 4, Judah being
His Name, the fourth sou of Jacob (Sotah 10b ;
Yalk., Gen. 159). With reference to I
Chron. v. 2, Judah is represented by the Rabbis as
chief over his brothers, who obeyed him and who
did nothing without his approval ; lie is styled "the
king" (Gen. R. Ixxxiv. 16; Test. Patr., Judah, 1).
He is therefore held responsible by the Rabbis for
the deception that his brothers practised upon their
father by sending to him Joseph's coat dipped in
the blood of a kid (Gen. xxxvii. 31-32). Judah was
punished for it iu a similar manner, Taraar sending
to him his pledge, saying, "Discern, I pray thee,
whose are these" {ih. xxxviii. 25; Gen. R. Ixxxiv.
19, Ixxxv. 12). The death of liis wife and his two
sons (Gen. xxxviii. 7-12) is also considered by Tan-
huma (Tan., Wayiggash, 10) as a divine retribution
for the suffering which he caused his father by sell-
ing Joseph. According to Gen. R. xcv. 1 and Tan.,
I.e., Jacob suspected Judah of having killed Joseph ;
Tanhuma even adds that it was Judah himself who
brought Joseph's coat to Jacob. Judah's attempt
to rescue Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 26) is considered in-
sufficient; for, as he was the chief, he should have
brought Joseph on his shoulders to his father (Gen.
R. Ixxxv. 4). His brothers, on seeing their father's
grief, deposed Judah and excommunicated him,
saying : " If he, our chief, had ordered us to bring
Joseph home, we would have done so " (Ex. R. xlii.
2; Tan., Wayesheb, 12). Judah atoned for that
fault by confessing that it was he who had given
Tamar the pledge ; and he was rewarded for that
confession by a share in the future world (Sotah 7b).
"Bat Shua' " (Gen. xxxviii. 12), according to Jubi-
lees, xxxiv. 20, was the name of Judah's wife, while
in " Sefer ha-Yashar " (section " Wayesheb ") her
name is given as" Tllit." Judah was the first to in-
stitute the levirate marriage (Gen. R. Ixxxv. 6).

Judah is furthermore represented as a man of
extraordinary physical strength. When he shouted
his voice was heard at a distance of 400 parasangs ;
when he became angry the hair of his chest became

so stiir that it pierced his clothes; and when he took
into his mouth lumps of iron he reduced them to
dust (Gen. R. xciii. 6). According to others, blood
liowcd from his two bucklers {ib. xciii. 7). He was
a prominent figure iu the wars between the Canaan-
ites and his father's family after the latter liad
destroyed Shechem. These wars are alluded to by
pseudo Jonathaii(on Gen. xlviii. 22) and in Midr. Wa-
yissa'u (Jellinek, "B. H."iii. 1-5), and are describ'.-d
at great length in "Sefer ha-Yashar," section " Wa-
yishlah " (see also Jubilees, xxxiv. 1-9;
Jvidah Test. Patr., Judah, 3-7). Judah's first

as Hero, remarkable exploit was the killing of
Jashub, Kingof Tappuah. Tlie latter,
clad in iron armor, came riding on a horse and slioot-
ing arrows with both hands. While still at a dis-
tance of thirty cubits (according to Midr. Wayis-
sa'u, 177i cubits) from him, Judah threw at Ja-
shub a stone weighing sixty shekels, unhorsing him.
Then in a hand-to-hand fight Judah killed his ad-
versary. While he was stripping the armor from
the body, he was assailed hy nine of Jashub 's com-
panions, of whom he killed one and put to flight
the rest. Of Jashub's army he kiHed 1,000 men
(comp. Test. Patr., I.e.), or, according to "Sefer ha-
Yashar " {I.e.), forty-two men. Great exploits were
performed by him at Hazar and Gaash, where he was
the first to jump upon the wall and create havoc
among the enemy. Midr. Wayissa'u describes also
the battle between the children of Jacob and those of
E.sau, in which the chief part was taken by Judah.
When Judah interfered in behalf of Benjamin (Gen.
xliv. 18-34), he at first had a heated discussion with
Joseph, which is given at great length in the "Sefer
ha-Yashar" (section " Wayiggash, "agreeing in many
points with Gen. R. xciii. 7). The following inci-
dents may be mentioned: When Joseph retained
Benjamin, Judah shouted so loudly that Hushim,
the son of Dan, who was in Canaan at a distance of
400 parasangs from him, heard his voice. Hushim
came immediately to Egypt, and with Judah desired
to desti-oy the land. In the " Sefer ha-Yashar " it is
stated that .ludah lifted a stone weighing 400 shek-
els, threw it into the air, and finally ground it to
dust with liis foot. He then told Naphtali to count
the districts of Egypt, and when the latter reported
that there were twelve of them, he said to his broth-
ers; "I take three for myself and let each one of
you take one, and we shall destroy the whole of
Egypt." It was this decision that induced Joseph
to disclose himself to his brothers.

Because Judah had pledged himself to bring Ben-
jamin back to his father, saying, "If I bring him
not unto thee, and set him before thee, then let me
bear the blame for ever" (Gen. xliii. 9), his bones
were rolled about without rest in the coffin during
the forty years that the children of Israel wandered
in the wilderness. Moses then prayed to God, argu-
ing that Judah's confession had induced Reuben to
confess his sin with Bilhah (Sotah 7b; B. K. 92a;
Mak. lib). Judah's name was engraved on the
emerald in the high priest's breastplate (Num. R.
ii. 6).

The tribe of Judah had the preeminence over
the other tribes in that Elisheba, the mother of all
the priests; Othniel, the first judge; Bezaleel, the

Judah

Judah, Kingdom of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

328

builder of the Tabernacle; and Solomon, tlie builder

of the First Temple; and all the pious kings were

of the tribe of Judah, as will be the

Preemi- Messiah (Yalk., Gen. 1.j9). This dis-

nence of tinction was given to the tribe of Judah
the Tribe, as a reward for its zeal in glorifying
God at the passage of the Ked Sea.
"When the children of Israel were about to cross, a
dispute arose among the tribes, each desiring to be
the first to enter the Avater. The tribe of Benjamin
sprang in first, for which act the princes of Judah
threw stones at it (Sotah 37a). In Ex. R. xxiv. 1
it is stated, on the contrary, that the other tribes
refused to enter the slimy bed of the sea until the
tribe of Judah set them the example by plunging in.
According to H. Judah, the Temple was erected on
Judah's land— anol her reward to the tribe (Gen. K.
xcix. 1); but a ditt'erent opinion is that only the
whole eastern side of the edifice, including the court-
yards and the altar, was on Judah's ground, while
the Temple proper was on land belonging to Benja-
min (Yoma 12a; Zeb. o3b). The people of Judah
are said to have been versed in the Law ("bene
Torah "), because in the wilderness the tribe was
placed on the east side of the camp (Xum. ii. 3),
being thus near to Moses and Aaron (Num. R. xviii.
4). It seems that the soil of Judah's territory was
remarkable for the excellent (iualit\' of its grain, one
measure of Judean grain being worth five measures
of that produced in Galilee (B. B. 122a).

The reason given for the transportation into cap-
tivity of the tribe of Judah is that it was a punish-
ment for intemperance (Gen. B. xxxvi. 7).

s. s. M. Sel.

Critical View : It is very generally main-
tained by recent criticism that Judah is simply the
eponymous ancestor of the tribe of that name, and
that the narrative in Genesis gives the history of the
tribe in the form of personal liistor}- (see Jud.\h,
Tkip.e of). It is worthy of note, however, that the
thirty-eighth chapter of Genesis, which is held to
give an account of the various clans which united
to form the tribe, under the tigure of the marriages,
etc., of Judali and Ins sons, makes no mention of the
Kenites and the Kenizzites (comp. Judges i. 12-15,
16). It is hardly a sufficient answer to say that the
Caleb or Kenizzite clan was distinct until the time
of David (see I Sam. xxv. 3, xxx. 14); for, accord-
ing to the commonly received view. Gen. xxxviii.
belongs to J and was not written earlier than the
ninth century B.C., by which time, in any case, these
clans must have been incorporated with Judah.
E. o. H. J. F. .McC.

JUDAH, KINGDOM OF : The legitimate suc-
cessor of the kingdom established by David was the
smaller kingdom to the south, Aviiich remained true
to Solomon's son Rehoboain. Although the first
titular king of Judah, he was the third king to reign
in Jerusalem. The possession of this great fortress
rendered it possible to hold all the country to the
south and the most valuable portion of Benjamin
in the immediate north. jVFore important than its
strategic value was its prestige as the tirst great
national center, the seat of a splendid court of the
" thrones of justice," and, above all, of the prescrip-

tive worship of the God of Israel. Moreover, its
territory, though small, was compact, homogeneous,
and easily defended ; and its country population,
frugal, hardy, and unspoiled by con-
Early Ad- tact with foreigners, was devotedly
vantages, attached to the legitimate dynasty.
Again, since all the most formidable in-
vaders of Palestine came from the north, the rival
kingdom became perforce its protector from spolia-
tion and ruin. Thus it came to pass that, while
northern Israel passed through frequent changes of
dynasty, became a prey to many terrible invasions,
and endured as a nation but a little more than two
centuries, the kingdom of Judah was controlled
by the "house of David" throughout its existence,
whicJi lasted for three and one-half centuries after
the disruption.

The history of the kingdom may best be divided
with reference to its most decisive external rela-
tions. The fiist period extends from Rehoboam to
Jotham (934-735 B.C.); the second, from Ahaz to
Josiah (735-608) ; the third, from Jehoahaz to Zede-
kiah and the fall of Jerusalem (608-586).

I. Strife between the two kingdoms followed in-
evitably upon the separation. At first Judah,
through the small standing army maintained by
David and Solomon, was steadily successful. One
victory especially, gained by Abijah
Strife with (918) over Jeroboam, was made nuich
Israel. of in the later traditions of the king-
dom. But the next king, Asa (915),
was so closely pressed by Baasha of Israel that he
was forced to invoke the effective aid of the Ara-
means of Damascus. Yet before the death of Asa
a lasting friendship was made with Israel, now
under the new and powerful dynasty of Onui (886).
Henceforth Judah assumed its natural subordinate
role till Israel was crushed by alien foes. From any
other serious danger .ludah was for a long time al-
most entirely free. The raid of Shishak of Egypt
(939) soon after the schism involved indeed the sub-
mission of .lerusalem ; but it was quickly over and
left no permanent results.

In the prolonged wars waged by the Arameans of

Damascus and 3Iesha of Moab against nortiiern

Israel the Southern Kingdom took no direct share

beyond sending aid to the sister kingdom. Thus

Jehoshaphat (872), the son of Asa, fought side by

side with Ahab of Israel in the fateful battle of

Ramoth in Gilead (853). Jehoshaphat further

strengthened the alliance by marrying his son Jeho-

ram to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab

Alliance and the Phenieian .Jezebel. Oueinju-

with rious effect of this union was the in-

Israel. troduction of the evil cult of the Tyr-

ian Baal from Samaria into .Jerusalem.

When Jehu rose against Joram of Israel and put him

to death (842), Ahaziah, the son of .Jelioram, then

visiting his uncle in Jezreel, also fell a victim to the

fury of the usurper. The consequence was that

Athaliah undertook to govern in Jerusalem.

The reign of this foreign queen with her odious
cult was tolerated for only six years, when the
priests of Yhwh placed upon the throne Jehoash,
the youthful son of Ahaziah (836). His reign was
chieHy marked by a purification of the Temple serv-

329

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah

Judah, Kingdom of

ices. Under his son and successor, Aniaziali, Judah
began a career of development and prosperity which
finally made it one of the leading kingdoms of the
West-land. An essential factor in tiiis achievement
was the reconquest of Edom, which had been hjst
to Judah under Jehorani. This secured a share of
the '"verland traffic of western Arabia, as well as the
coa. ol of the Red Sea trade from the Gulf of
Akaba. Amaziah's successes led him foolishly to
provoke to war Joash, King of Israel. The result
was the defeat and capture of Amaziah and the sub-
mission of Jerusalem, whicli, however, was released
upon the surrender of the treasures of the Temple
and of the ro3'al palace (e. 790).

With Uzziah (Azariah ; sole ruler 769) the pros-
perity of Judah was renewed and brought to its
greatest height. Asa powerful ruler and statesman
lie was the only true successor of King David. His
kingdom was extended beyond precedent, embracing
much of the Philistine country, and
Era of for a time even holding the suzerainty
Expansion, of Moab. In fortifications and stand-
ing armies as well as in the develop-
ment of all the natural resources of his country, he
was a successful imitator of the great Assyrian
monarchs. Jotham (sole ruler 738?) continued the
vigorous regime of his father.

It should be noted that the expansion of Judah
was coincident with the equally remarkable recuper-
ation of northern Israel after the long and exhaust-
ing Syrian wars. The temporary prosperity of both
kingdoms was chiefly due to the opportunities of
development afforded by the decline of Damascus.
Judah as well as Israel had suffered from the aggres-
sion of this powerful Aramean state ; for in the early
days of Jehoash {c. 835), Hazael of Damascus had
ravaged the whole country up to the city of Jeru-
salem, which opened its gates to him and yielded up
its spoil.

II. A decisive change took place with the acces-
sion of Ahaz, son of Jotham (735). The determin-
ing political factor was now the great Assyrian em-
pire, reorganized under Tiglath-pileser III. (Pul).
To resist his expected invasion Pekah, King of
Israel, made alliance with Rezin of Damascus.
Ahaz refused to join the league, and.
Vassalage when threatened with coercion by the
to allies, called in the help of the invader.

Assyria. The northern half of Israel was an-
nexed by the Assyrians; and Damas-
cus fared still worse. Judah was reprieved ; but it
became a vassal state of Assyria.

Hezekiah, son of Ahaz (719), prospered as long as
he deferred to the prophet Isaiah with his wise
policy of " quietness and confidence " in Yhwh.
But in 701 he joined in a wide-spread insurrection
against Assyria, with the result that the whole of
Judah was devastated by the Assyrian king Sen-
nacherib, many of its people were deported, and
Jerusalem itself was spared only after a plague had
broken out in the army of the invader. This na-
tional discipline favored the religious reforms of
Isaiah : but Hezekiah died in comparative youth ;
and the reign of his son and successor, Manasseh
(690), was marked by degeneracy in faith, worship,
and morals. Judah was still the vassal of Assyria ;

and tlie prestige of the sovereign state had potent
influence in the religious as well as in the political
sphere. An attempted insurrection in the latter
part of the reign of Manasseh was speedily crushed;
and Judah bore until the downfall of Assyria the
yoke to which Ahaz had offered submission. The
brief reign of Anion (641) showed no improvement
upon that of his father, Manasseh.

Under the youthful Josiah (639) the reforming

priestly party gained the upper hand. The law

of Moses was promulgated, and gro.s3

Reforma- abominations in religion and morals

tion ; were sternly put down (621). But

Vassalage this promising career was soon cut

to Egypt, short. Necho II., at the head of the

revived native monarchy of Egypt,

was now aiming to replace Assyria in the dominion

of western Asia. He passed through Palestine with

an invading force in 608 ; and Josiah, offering battle

to him at Megiddo, was defeated and slain.

III. At Jerusalem Jehoahaz, second son of Josiah,
was put upon the throne, but after three months
was dethroned by Necho and exiled to Egypt. He
was replaced by Josiah 's eldest son, Eliakim, whose
name was changed by Necho to "Jehoiakim" to in-
dicate his change of allegiance. Judah 's vassalage
to Egypt was, however, very brief. In 607 Nine-
veh was taken and destroyed by the Medes. The
whole of the low countries westward to the Mediter-
ranean fell to the ally of the Medes, the new Baby-
lonian monarchy. The Chaldean Nebuchadnezzar
shattered the power of Egypt at Carchemish in 604 ;
Syria and Palestine were soon cleared of the Egyp-
tians; and Jehoiakim became a Babylonian sub-
ject.

The prophet Jeremiah coimseled continued sub-
mission ; but in 598 Jehoiakim rebelled. Jerusalem
was invested ; and before the siege had well begun
the unhappy king died. His son Jehoiachin (597)
held out for three months, and then surrendered at
discretion. He and his chief men, with the flower
of the kingdom, were deported. ]\[ost of the cap-
tives, with the prophet Ezekiel, were placed in an
agricultural colony by the canal Chebar in central
Babylonia.

Over the crippled and enfeebled kingdom was
placed Zedekiah, the third son of Josiah. Again
symptoms of discontent appeared, fomented by
Egyptian intrigues. Again Jeremiah interposed
with remonstrance, protest, and invective; and yet
again the deluded Judahites rebelled.

Fall of lu Jan., 587, the Chaldean army ap-
Jerusalem. peared before Jerusalem. This time a
more desperate resistance was offered.
Promises of help from Egypt could not be fulfilled.
The city was taken (July, 586) ; the leaders of the
rebellion were put to death ; and Zedekiah himself
was carried, a blinded captive, with the greater por-
tion of his subjects, to Babylon. All valuable prop-
erty was taken away as spoil; and the Temple and
city were destroyetl by fire. This was the end of
the royal house of David, though not the end of
Jewish nationality.

Bibliography: See Israel and the articles on the several
killers of Judab.
E. G. H. J. F. McC.

Judah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

330

JUDAH, TRIBE OF.— Biblical Data: The

tribe of Judah is said to have been desceuded from
the patriarch Judah, the fourth son of Jacob and
Leah (Gen. xxix. 85). In the Book of Numbers it
is represented as sharing with the other tribes, witli-
out distinctive fortunes, tlie experiences of the
Exodus and of the sojourn in the wilderness. The
clans which then composed the tribe are said to have
been the Shelanites, Perizzites, Zerahites, Hezronites,
and Hamulites (Num. xxvi. 19-22). In Josh. xv.
Judah is said to have received a large inheritance
which stretched right across the laud from Jericho
westward to the Mediterranean and from Jerusalem
southward to the desert. The territory is said to
have extended south as far as Kadesh-
Territory baruea (verse 3), which lay about fifty
of Judah. miles south of Beer-sheba (see Trum-
bull, "Kadesh Barnea," New York,
1884), and west as far as Gaza, Ashdod, and Ekron
(verses 42-47). From the Book of Judges (i. 16) it
is learned that the Kenites united with Judah so
as to become, probably, a clan of the tribe. To these
clans the two Kenizzite clans of Caleb and Othniel
appear to have been added {ih. i. 12-15, 20; Josh,
xiv. 6-15, XV. 13-19). Closely connected with Caleb
was Jerahmeel, who is .said to have been Caleb's
brother (I Chron. ii. 42). In I Sam. x.wii. 10, xxx.
29, the Jerahmeelites appear to be a part of the tribe
of Judah ; they are therefore to be regai'ded as an-
other clan of the tribe.

After the settlement in Canaan, Judah seems to
have stood apart from the other tribes. It is not
mentioned in the song of Deborah (Judges v.); and
in the accounts of the kingdom of Saul it is regu-
larly reckoned separately from the other tribes
(comp. I Sam. xi. 8, xvii. 52, xviii. 16). Upon the
death of Saul, David erected the tribe of Judah
into a separate kingdom (II Sam. ii. 1 et seq.). As
the house of Saul under the weak Ish-bosheth main-
tained its supremacy over the remaining tribes but
seven and one-half years, Judah was after that time
reunited to Israel under her own king, David. This
union continued for eighty years, through the reigns
of David and Solomon. For the further history
of tlie tribe see Ji'daii, Kingdom of.

Critical View : Possibly the ti'ibe of Judah is

mentioned in the El-Amarna tablets (comp. Jastrovv
in "Jour. Bib. Lit." xii. iSl et. seq.); but, if so, the
reference is too obscure to increase present knowl-
edge. In the judgment of critics the stories of the
patriarch Judah are not real biography, but are nar-
ratives of an eponymous hero, or portions of the
history of the tribe. These being taken in this way,
it is gathered that the clan of Judah was at first
weaker than the clans of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi ;
that when Judah entered Palestine it first gained a
foothold at Adullam and Timnah (Gen. xxxviii. 1,
12), places which were probably on the eastern side of
the Judean ridge. This Timnah is not to be confused
with the Timnah of the Shephelah (Judges xiv. 1).
An alliance was soon made with the clans of the
Perizzites and Zerahites, who had the palm-tree for
their totem, and were therefore said to be children
of Tamar (Gen. xxxviii. 13-30). Later the Kenizzite
clans of Caleb and Othniel were amalgamated with
the tribe. These clans were, perhaps, of Edomitish

origin, since Kenaz is counted among the descend-
ants of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 11). The.se two clans

occupied tlie region around Hebron,

Joined by Cariael, and Kirjath-sepher, or Debir.

Clan of Gradually the Jerahmeehtes were also

Caleb. incorporated in the tribe of Judah.

Their habitat appears to have been in
the Negeb (I Sam. xxvii. 10), and as Jerahmeel is
said to be Caleb's brother, perhaps they also were
of Edomitish origin. A branch of the Kenites
from the Sinai tic peninsula added another element
to Judah 's complex character (see Kenites). This
large admixture of foreign blood in the tribe of
Judah is probably the reason why the Judahites were
so loosely connected with the other tribes of Israel.
A consciousness existed ou both sides that Judah
stood apart in origin and in sentiment.

The prophets of Judah framed the Deuteronomic
law which led to Josiali's reform. This reform ac-
centuated the uniqueness of Israel's religion; and it
was this that held the iniiabitauts of the J udean king-
dom together in exile, tliat revived their state, and
that made them the world's teachers of monotheism.
But tlie inhabitants of the Northern Kingdom were
absorbed by the people among whom they were scat-
tered, because their religion lacked this uniqueness.
It was this uniqueness, furthermore, which caused
the name of the tribe of Judah to be perpetuated in
one of the great religions of the Avorld.

BinLKKJRAPHY: Stade, Ocfch. (Jes Volkea Itfracl, i. 1.57-160,
Berlin, IKHit; I.iittier, in Stade's Zcittchrift, xxi. .Vi-tJO ; Bar-
Um, Semitic Oiiuins, pp. :i71-~8li. New York, liX)2. on the
history of tlie kingdom of Judah, see the histories of Israel,
by Stade, Wellhausen, Kittel, U. P. Smith, etc.

E. G. ir. G. A. B.

JUDAH (Coadjutor of Josephus) : The San-

liedrin of Jerusalem commissioned Judah and Jo-
ezar to assist Josephus (06 c.e.) in pacifying the
jieople and inducing them to lay down their arms.
Josephus at first calls tiicm noble men (" Vita," § 7),
but afterward remarks maliciously that, being
]iriests, they had in their possession much money
from the tithes given them. The envoys wished to
return home, probably because they perceived Jo-
sephus' duplicity, but he persuaded them to remain
("Vita," § 12). He accused them of taking no
thought for the future, and of accepting bribes from
John of Giscala for permission to seize the grain
in the imperial granaries in Galilee ("Vita," >; 13);
in other words, they sided with the patriot John.
Josephus finally was obliged to send his colleagues
back to Jerusalem ("Vita," § 14).

G. S. Kr.

JUDAH (Jewish Prince) : Son of Simeon
Tharsi. When Antiochus VII., Sidetes, sent his gen-
eral Cendebfcus against Simeon, the latter, too old for
war, gave the command to his two sons Judah and
John, who valiantly executed the commission. After
a short stay at Modin, their ancient family seat, they
met the large army of the Syrians in the plain of
Jabneh, defeated them, and pursued them as far as
Azotus, inflicting a loss of 2,000 men. Judah was
wounded, and John, who subsequently became
ruler, led the army back alone to his father (c. 137
B.C. ; I Mace. xvi. 1-10; Josephus, " Ant."xiii. 7, %3,
where his name is not given). When Simeon was
murdered bj' his son-in-law Ptolemy, his two sons

331

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah

Mattathias and Judah were also killed (135 u.c. ; I
Mace. xvi. 11-17). This passage seems lo indicate
that Judah was the second son, and was probably
named after his great-uncle Judas Maccabeus; hence
it must be assumed that he was born alter 161 u.c.
and was about twenty-live years of age at tlie time
of his death.
G. S. Ku.

JUDAH ("Rabbi Mor"): Chief rabbi of the
Jews in Portugal and treasurer of King Don Diniz,
with whom he enjoyed great favor; died before 1304.
He was very wealthy; in 1298 he lent 6,000 livresto
Don Raimund de Cardona for the purchase of the
citj' of MounTo. A document dated Oct. 2, 1303,
bears the signature "En Judaz Anaby a vij." lie
was succeeded in office by his son Don Guedelha
(Gedaliah), who was also treasurer of the queen
mother Donna Brites; the high favor he enjoyed with
the king was used in the interests of his coreligionists.
The king presented him with two towers at Beja to
supply him with the building material for his houses.

Bibliography : Brandao, Mnnarchia Lusitana, v. 265, vi.
26; Ribeiro, Disftertacwes, iii. 2, 19; Kayserling, Gesch. dej-
Juden in PortuyaK pp. 19 ct scq.: J. Mendes dos Remedios,
Os Judeus em Purtunal, pp. 139 ct 8cq.\ Rios, Hint. li. 39.
G. M. K.

JUDAH (known also as Thesoureiro Mor
Judah.) : Treasurer to Ferdinand, King of Portu-
gal; appointed in 1378. After the king's death he
became the favorite of his queen, Leonora de jVIene-
yes, whom he accompanied as a page when she was
obliged to flee from the infuriated populace of Lis-
bon. The deposed queen requested her son-in-law
John I. of Castile, who had made war upon Portu-
gal, to bestow the chief rabbinate of Castile (not of
Portugal, as Griltz says) upon Judah; John, how-
ever, at the instance of his young wife, Beatrice,
gave the office to Judah's rival, David Negro-
Yahya. Thereupon the crafty Leonora hiied a
count to kill her daughter's Imsband, then besieging
Coimbra. But the plot failed; the king was in-
formed of it by David Negro, of his suite, who had
been warned by a Franciscan monk. Leonora, Ju-
dah, and a maid wlio was in the conspiiacy were
immediately arrested. Brought before the king,
Judah disclosed everything in presence of Queen
Beatrice, David Negro, and a notary, and repeated
his confession before Leonora. The last-named was
banished to Tordesillas ; Judah, whose wife was the
sister of a wealthy man by the name of David Al-
guadez, a relative of Meir Alguadez, was condemned
to death, but was pardoned at the intercession of
David Negro. He fled to Castile, accompanied hy
Judah and Moses Nahum, his tax-collectors. His
treasures were given by John I. of Portugal to Gon-
9alo Rodriguez de Abreu, and his houses and other
possessions to the widow of the brave king Pereira.

BiBLiooRAPHY : Brandao. Mnnarchia Ltmtana, vlii. .509, 584 ;
Kayserling, Gesrh. der Jndcn in Portugal, pp. 36. 32 et »eq.;
J. Mendes dos Remedios, Os Jitdeiw em Portugal, 1. 168 et
sea.; Gratz, Gesch. vlii. 49-51 et seq.
G. M. K.

JUDAH or JUDA (American Family) : Fam-
ily members of which settled in Newport, R. I.,
New York, Charleston, Richmond, Philadelphia,
Montreal, Jamaica, and Surinam. The following is
au alphabetical list of those known to have lived in

America (the " Publications of the American Jewish
Historical Society " are cited as "Publ."):

Abigail Judah, born 1742; died 1819 at Rich-
mond, Va. ("Publ." vi. Ill); Abraham Judah,
son of Ilillel Judah; born July 15, 1774 {i/j. xi. 155);
Andrew Judah, mentioned in the " South Caro-
lina Gazette," Dec. 31, 1764, as "a physician from
London" (see B. Elzas, "Jews of South Carolina,"
ii. 12, Charleston, 1903); Andrew Judah, of In-
diana; served in the Civil war (S. Wolf, "The
American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen," p.
412) ; Anna Judah, daughter of Naphtali Judah;
died in New York 1822 ("Publ." iv. 208); Baran
Judah, enrolled in the New York militia company
in 1738 (ib. ii. 92).

Baruch Judah : Mentioned under date of Jan.
10, 1715-16, as one of the freemen of New York {ib.
vi. 101) ; one of the signers of a petition addressed
to the maj^or and board of aldermen in New York
praying permission to use ground purchased for a
cemetery, Aug. 23, 1728 (comp. ib. iv. 196; vi. 127,
131). A Baruch Judah is also mentioned as one
of the electors at a congregational meeting of the
Spanish-Portuguese synagogue in New York. He
died Jan. 12, 1774, aged 95 years (comp. ib. xi.
154). Another Baruch Judah was one of the char-
ter members of Congregation Beth Shalome, Rich-
mond, Va. (comp. ib. iv. 21, xi. 72), cited in its
minute-book, 1791; was born June 21, 1763; died ia
Richmond, Va., Sept. 26, 1830 (comp. ib. xi. 154).
Mrs. Baruch Judah was a member of that congrega-
tion in 1834 {ih. iv. 23).

B. H. Judah was librarian of the Richmond
Library Company (comp. ib. xi. 73).

Benjamin S. Judah : One of the most promi-
nent merchants of New York in the eighteenth cen-
tury; a founder of the New York Tontine in 1786.
He was an active member of Congregation Shearith
Israel in that city. His signature is affixed to an
official document, dated lyj'ar 20, 5551 = 1791
("Publ."ii. 51: iii. 120; vi. 130, 131), and to a petition
addressed to the legislature, Feb. 13, 1789, to have
Vermont admitted as a separate state into the Union
(comp. ib. xi. 96, 97).

David Judah : Member of Capt. Gregory's
Company in the Cimnecticut Line in 1776 {ib. xi. 92).

Emanuel Judah: Romantic actor of wide range;
born in New York, where he made his debut in
1823 in melodrama and light comedy. His person
and talents are described by Daly (" Settlement of
the Jews in North America," 2d ed., pp. 103-104,
New York, 1893). He was drowned in the Gulf of
Mexico in 1839 (Brown, " Hist, of the American
Stage " ; H. P. Phelps, " Players of a Century ").

Gershom Seixas Judah, one of the charter mem-
bers of Congregation Beth Shalome, Richmond.
Va., mentioned in 1791 ; born Oct. 12, 1767 (" Publ."
iv. 21, xi. 155): Hillel or Hilliard Judah, son
of Baruch Judah and Sarah Hilbert; married in
1759 Abigail (daughter of Isaac Mendez Seixas and
Rachel Levy), who bore liim nine children. Their
names are given in "Publ." xi. 154-155, where full
data are furnished (comp. ib. iv. 202, 211). Mrs.
Hillel Judah died in Richmond, Va., Sept. 1, 1819,
aged 77 years ; H. Judah was enrolled in the 90th
Indiana Infantry during the Civil war (Wolf, I.e. p.

Judah
Judah I.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

332

178) ; Isaac Judah, no doubt the same as Isaac H.
Judah, officially connected with the congregations
Shearith Israel in New York and Beth Ahaba in
Richmond (comp. "Publ." iii. 130; iv. 21, 23; vi.
131 ; xi. 154; E. Calish, "Hist, of Congregation Beth
Ahaba, Richmond, Va., 1841-1901," p. 8, Richmond,
1901), was born July 10, 1761 ("Publ." xi. 154);
Israel Judah, served in Company F, 31st Indiana
Infantry, during the Civil war (Wolf, I.e. p. 178);
Jacob Judah, mentioned in 1658 as one of the early
settlers at Newport, R. I. ("Publ." vi. 67); Jacob
Judah, cited as one of the members of the Jewish
congregation in Charleston, S. C, c. 1800 (B. Elzas,
"Hist, of Congregation Beth Elohim, Charleston,
S. C, 1800-1810," p. 4, Charleston, 1902), was son of
Hillel Judah, and born May 4, 1765; Jacob Samuel
Judah, of Philadelphia; died June 20, 1783 ("Publ."
vi. 108) ; Joseph Judah, one of the earliest settlers
in Newport, 1658 («i. vi. 67); Manuel Judah, one
of the charter members of Congregation Beth
Shalome, Richmond, in 1791; born July 15, 1769;
died in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 8, 1834 {ib. xi. 155;
see also ib. iv. 21, 208); Michael Judah figures
as a litigant in early Connecticut records, c.a.
1763. In 1777 he petitioned the Council of Safety
for leave to forward mercantile supplies from Rock
Hill to Norwalk, Conn. (comp. ib. xi. 90, 93) ; Moses
Judah, mentioned, under date of 1768, as a merchant
and one of the freemen of New York {ib. vi. 102) ;
he was one of the signers of a petition to Congress,
dated Philadelphia, Sept., 1779 (ib. iii. 149); Naph-
tali Judah, one of the trustees of Congregation
Shearith Israel, New York, e. 1805 {ih. vi. 132);
Rebecca Judah, daughter of Hillel Judah and
Abigail Seixas; married May 31, 1809 {ib. iv. 311).

Samuel Judah : New York patriot, son of Baruch
Judah, was born in New York Aug. 19, 1728; mar-
ried, Kislew 39, 1759, Jessie, daughter of Alexander
Jonas, of London (died in New York, May 39, 1818,
aged 83 years). He was one of the signers of the
decision to enforce the non-importation agreement
against England in 1770; he died in Philadelphia
Oct. 19, 1781. aged 53, the father of twelve children
(Wolf, I.e. p. 34; "Publ."iv. 89; v. 305; vi. 102,
108); Samuel Judah, of Montreal, Canada; sym-
pathizer with the American cause in the Revolu-
tionary war ("Publ." iv. 234); Samuel Judah,
served in Company K, 20th Indiana Infantry, dur-
ing the Civil war (Wolf, I.e. p. 178).

Samuel B. H. Judah : Dramatist and author ;
son of Benjamin S. Judah; born in JNew York 1799.
In 1820 he wrote a melodrama, " The Mountain Tor-
rent," produced in the same year with fair success.
In 1823 he wrote another, "The Rose of Arragon,"
received with much favor. Subsequently he wrote
"The Tale of Lexington" and "Gotham and the
Gothamites; a Medley," produced in 1833. The
latter is a versified satire directed against more than
a hundred prominent citizens of New York, and is
spoken of as "defamatory " by Daly, Avho gives an
admirable critique of it in his sketch of the author
(Daly, I.e. pp. 139-145). Judah was indicted for
libel, and, together with his publisher, was ar-
rested. Unable to pay the fine imposed, he was
sent to prison; but, owing to illness, he was soon
pardoned by the governor and discharged. Subse-

quently he became an attorney and counselor of the
supreme court. His character and personality are
described by Daly, who knew him. W. Dunlap, iu
his " Hist, of the American Theatre " (p. 409, New
York, 1833), mentions another of Judah's plays,
entitled "Odofriede" ("Publ." vi. 114); and Daly
{I.e. p. 145) says he wrote, besides, a work of fiction
"of no particular merit." His plays had some
vogue in Philadelphia (H. S. Morals, "The Jews of
Philadelphia," p. 378). His son, Emanuel Judah
(see above), was an actor of merit.

Thomas O. Judah, served in Company D, 117th
Indiana Infantry, during the Civil war (Wolf, I.e. p.
178) ; Uriah Judah, mentioned among the earliest
settlers in Montreal, Canada, in 1768 (" Publ. "i. 117).

A pei'sou named Judah conducted the first school
in Mobile, Alabama, e. 1830 (comp. "The Mobile
Register," Oct. 3, 1832).

The name "Juda" occurs in documents pertain-
ing to the history of the Jews in Surinam, Dutch
Guiana, in 1790. A. M. Juda was the author of
"Four Open Letters on the Finances of Surinam,"
written in Dutch, and published in Amsterdam in
1869-70. Another person bearing this name was an
active abolitionist, and supported the antislavery
movement in Jamaica, West Indies, in 1840.

A. G. A. K.

JUDAH (Russian Family): Family prominent
in the communal life of Grodno and Lithuania during
the greater part of the sixteenth century. Judah
Bogdanovich, its chief founder, was born about
1475 and died at Grodno about 1546. His father,
Bogdan, owned an estate in the district of Grodno
prior to the expulsion of the Jews from Lithuania
by Alexander Jagellon iu 1495. Their departure
from the country was followed by the occupation of
their real property by their Christian neighbors; and
the Bogdan possessions were so appropriated. Judah
probably returned to Grodno with the other exiles
in 1503. He petitioned for the restoration to him of
the estate formerly owned by his father, and his
claim was allowed and confirmed by the king. A
few years later Judah was engaged in extensive
business operations; and he became the farmer of
the Grodno wax taxes (1509). He probably is the
" Judah of Grodno " referred to in the list of expenses
incurred by the grand duchy of Ijithuania for the
years 1506-11, as having a claim of 12 kop groschen
against the town secretary of Grodno for goods sold
to him. His name is again mentioned in a docu-
ment dated Nov. 11, 1523, wherein King Sigismund
Jagellon orders payment to be made to Judah Bog-
danovich and Lazar Chatzkovich, Jews of Grodno,
for merchandise furnished by them.

In 1525 Judah Bogdanovich was collector of taxes,
and had extensive dealings with the local nobles,
many of them being indebted to him. In 1533, in a
royal document issued to Judah, au-
Importance thorizing him to collect a debt, he is
of Judah styled " merchant to the Queen Bona."
Bogdano- At the instance of Prince Andrei Vassl-
vich. livich Polubenski the fifteen serving-
men who had been transferred to
Judah in payment of the debt were to be turned
over to the prince, the latter undertaking to pay

333

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

Judah
Judah

to Judah the amount in (lucstirm. At this time,
Judali's oldest sou, Abraham (Avraam Igudich),
is nicutioned in counectit)n with the elaini.

lu the fV)llo\ving year King Sigisnnuid contirmed
by a decree (June 23, 1533) the liudings of the court
of rabbis ("doctorov zhidovsiiikh ") held in Lublin,
by whicii Judah 's son Pesah was honorably ac-
quitted of the charge made agaiust him by the Jew
Yesko Shlomich of Biyelsk to the effect that Pesah
had taken from him 13,000 kop groschcn which he
had failed to return. Some months later Judah and
his son Agron (Aaron) were authorized to state
under oath their claim against the nobleman Wilen-
ski, who they alleged had borrowed of them 500 gold
ducats and 1,009 kop groschen, and Wileuski Avas
then ordered to pay them such claim.

Several years later Judah 's son Abraham liad be-
come a prominent merchant. His name frequently
occurs in court documents (1539-41) relating to his
attempts to collect debts of money, grain, wax, etc.,
due to him.

Judah himself is mentioned frequently in legal
documents of 1540-41. Thus on April 15, 1540, he
was one of the three members of a court of citizens
(the other two being Tatars) to pass on the claim of
a certain Lukash against the Jewess Brenya ; and on
June 11, 1540, he was a member of another tribunal
which had to consider an agreement made between
a Jewess of Grodno, Stekhna Lyatzkova, and lier
stepson Mo.ses Lyatzkovich. Further evidence of
the esteem in which Judah Bogdanovich was lield is
furnished by a court document, dated Feb. 28, 1541,
wherein he is accepted as a reliable witness.

On Nov. 8, 1546, Abraham, Agron, and Moshko
(Moses), the elder sons of Judah by his tirst wife,
Maryama, came to an agreement with Govash,
Ilya, and Shmoilo (Samuel), their brothers b}^
Judah's second wife, Xehama, as to the division of
the estate left by their late father. This estate,
which was of great value, included gold, silver,
houses, lands, and outstanding debts. Breach of
the compact on either side was to be subject to a
fine of 1,000 kop groschen. Judah had at least three
other sons not mentioned in this document, nameh',
Pesah (mentioned above), Israel, and Bogdan ;
and to them should be added, perhaps, Nahman.

Moshko Igudich appears as one of the three per-
sons elected (May 22. 1549) by the community of
Grodno to settle with the Christian merchants of
the city the proportion of taxes to be paid by the
Jewish communit}^ and to come to an agreement
with them as to other relations of the community
with their Christian neighbors. About this time
the Judah family antagonized a part of the Grodno
conmiunity in connection with the appointment of
a rabbi. Complaints had evidently been made, since
in a document dated Oct. 28, 1549, Queen Bona
ordered Kimbar, the magistrate of
Relations Grodno, to assemble the Jews of the

with the city for the election of a rabbi who

Grodno should have no family ties in Grodno.

Commu- In case of disagreement, the members

nity. of the community not related to the

Judah family w^ere to be given the

privilege of electing a rabbi of their own. The

trouble was chiefly due to the determination of the

Judah family to i)lace the religious affairs of
the community in charge of their relative Morde-
cai, who had married a daughter of Judah Bogda-
novich.

The decree of Queen Bona apparently failed to
settle the matter; and the leaders of the opposition,
Misan Ciiatzkovich and Isaac Israilovich, made re-
newed complaints to the (pieen, who again ordered
Misan Ciiatzkovich and his followers to elect a rabbi
of their own, such rabbi to have the same privileges
in spiritual matters as the person selected by the
Judah family.

On July 11, 1559, Moshko Igudich obtained a de-
cree from King Sigismund relieving him from the
payment of debts for a period of three years, be-
cause of a misfortune that had befallen Moshko's son
Isaac, who had been robbed of a great amount of
merchandise near the city of Shklov.

A local census of the Jewish householders in
Grodno taken in 15G0 gives the names of Agron,
Abraham, Pesah, Moshko, and Israel Igudichi, be-
sides those of Tobias, the son of Abraham, and
Isaac, the son of Agron.

Bibliography : AMu ViJevsltavo Centralnavo Arhhiva,
No. 0771, p. 102; Akty Mefrilsi Litvoskni; Bershadski,
Russ<ko-Ycvreiski Arkhiv, i.-iii.; Reyesty, i.
II. K. J. G. L.

JUDAH I.: Patriarch; redactor of the Mishnah;
born about 135; died about 220. He was the tirst
of Hillel's successors to whose name the title of he-
reditary dignity, "ha-Nasi " (=: "the prince"), was
added as a permanent epithet; and accordingly in
traditional literature he is usually called " Rabbi
Judah ha-Nasi." In a large portion of such litera-
ture, hoAvever, and always in the Mishnah, he is
simply called "Rabbi," the master par excellence.
He is occasionally called "Rabbenu" (= "our mas-
ter"; see Yeb. 45a; Men. 32b; comp. Abbahu's sen-
tence, Yer. Sanh. 30a). The epithet " ha-Kadosh "
(= "the holy") was occasionally added to "Rab-
benu." Two of Judah's prominent pupils, Rab and
Levi, in speaking of him (Pes. 3Tb; Shab. 156a), add
to the term " Rabl)i " the explanatory sentence, " Who
is this? " " Rabbenu ha-Kadosh " (Fraukel, " Darke
ha-Mishuah," p. 191, erroneously considers this as a
later gloss). The epithet "holy" is justified by
Judah's singularly moral life (Shab. 118b; Yer.
Meg. 74a ; Sanh. 29c). It may have been borrowed
from the terminology which was used by the in-
habitants of the city of Sepphoris; for Jose b.
Halafta also praises his colleague Mei'rasa holy and
moral man (Yer. Ber. 5, below; comp. Gen. R. c,
where the second term is missing). The epithet
"holy" is by no means analogous to the epithet
"divus," used to designate the Roman emperors
("He-Haluz," ii. 93). It is likewise incorrect to in-
terpret (as Levy, "Neuhebr. Worterb." iv. 255) the
sentence of Hiyya, a pupil of the patriarch, in Ket.
103b to mean that the title "holy" was not used
after Rabbi's death, for Hiyya intends what is
repeated elsewhere in different words (Sotah, end),
namely: "At Rabbi's death ' humility and the fear
of sin ' ceased." The three virtues holiness, humil-
ity, and the fear of sin occur in this sequence in the
series of virtues enumerated by Phinehas b. Jair
(Sotah ix., end, and parallel passages).

Judah I.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

334

Accordiug to a statement handed down in Pales-
tine (b3^ Abba; b. Kahana, Gen. R. Iviii. ; Eccl. R i. 10)
and in Babylonia (Kid. 72b), Judah I.
Birth was born on the same day on which
and Akiba died a martyr's death. The

Education, place of his birth is not known ; nor is
it recorded where his father, Simon b.
Gamaliel II., sought refuge with his family during
the persecutions under Hadrian. On the restoration
of order in Palestine, Usha became the seat of the
academy and of its director; and here Judah spent
his youtli. It may be assumed that his father gave
him about the same education that he himself had
received, and that his studies included Greek (Sotah
49b; comp. Baciier, "'Ag. Tan." ii. 825): indeed, his
knowledge of Greek fitted him for intercourse with
the Roman authorities. He had a predilection for
this language, saying that the Jews of Palestine
who did not speak Hebrew sliould consider Greek
as the language of the country, while Syriac
(Aramaic) had no claim to that distinction (Sotah
ib.). In Judah's house pure Hebrew seems to have
been spcken; and the choice speech of the "maids
of the house of Rabbi " became famous (Meg. 18a ;
R. H. 26b ; Naz. 3a ; Er. 53a).

Judah devoted himself chiefly to the study of
the traditional and of the written law. In his
youth he had close relations with most of the great
pupils of Akiba; and as their pupil and in converse
with other prominent men who gathered about his
father at Usha and later at Shefar'am, he laid the
foundations of that wide scholarship which enabled
him to undertake his life-work, the redaction of the
Mishnah. His teacher at Usha was Judah b. 'Ilai,
who was officially employed in the house of the
patriarch as judge in religious and legal questions
(Men. 104a; Sheb. 18a). In later years Judah was
wont to tell how when a mere boy he read the roll
of Esther at Usha in the presence of Judah b. 'Ilai
(Meg. 20a; Tosef., Meg. ii. 8).

Judah felt especial reverence for Jose b. Halafta,'
that one of Akiba's pupils who had the most confi-
dential relations with Simon b. Gamaliel. When,
in later years, Judah raised objections to Jose's
opinions, he would say: "We poor ones undertake
to attack Jose, though our time compares with his
as the profane with the holy!" (Yer. Git. 48b).
Judah hands down a halakah by Jose in Men. 14a.
At Meron, in Galilee (called also
His "Tekoa' "; see Baclier, I.e. ii. 7tjj, Ju-

Teachers, dah was a pupil of Simeon b. Yohai
(" when we studied the Torah with
Simeon b. Yohai at Tekoa'"; Tosef., 'Er. viii. 6;
Shab. 147b; comp. Yer. Shab. 12c). Judah also
speaks of the time when he studied the Torah with
Eleazar b. Shammua' ('Er. 53a; Yeb. 84a; comp.
Men. 18a). Judah did not study with Me'ir, evi-
dently in consequence of the conflicts which had
separated this famous pupil of Akiba from the house
of the patriarch. He regarded it as great good for-
tune, however, to have beheld even Meir's back,
though he was not allowed to look him in the
face, as one should regard one's teacher according
to Isa. XXX. 20 ('Er. 13b; Yer. Bezah 63a, where an
anachronistic anecdote is connected with this saying
of Judah's). Nathan the Babylonian, who also took

a part in the conflict between Mei'rand the patriarch,
was another of Judah's teachers; and Judah con-
fessed that once, in a fit of youthful ardor, he had
failed to treat Nathan with due reverence (B. B.
131a: in different version Yer. Ket. 29a; B. B. 16a).
In halakic as well as in haggadic tradition Judah's
opinion is often opposed to Nathan's. In the tradi-
tion of the Palestinian schools (Yer. Shab. 12c; Yer.
Pes. 37b) Judaii b. Korsliai, the halakic specialist
mentioned as assistant to Simon b. Gamaliel (Ilor.
13b), is designated as Judah's real teacher. .lacob
b. Hanina is also mentioned as one of .ludah's
teachers, and is said to have asked him to repeat
halakic sentences (Sifre. Dent. 306). The R. Jacob
Avhose patronymic is not given and in Avhose name
Judah quotes halakic sentences is identical with
one of these two tannaim (Git. 14b; comp. Tosef.,
'Ab. Zarah, v. 4). In an enumeration of Judah "s
teachers his father, Simon b. Gamaliel, must not be
omitted (B. M. 85b). In the halakic tradition the
view of the S(m is often opposed to that of the father,
the latter generally advocating the less rigorous
application (see Frankel, I.e. p. 184). Judah himself
saj's ('Er. 3"2a): "My opinion seems to me more cor-
rect than that of my father " ; and he then proceeds
to give his reasons. Humility was a virtue ascribed
to Judah. and he admired it greatly in his father,
who openly recognized Simeon b. Yohai's superi-
ority, thus displaying the same modesty as the Bene
Bathyra when they gave way to Hillel, and as
Jonathan when he voluntarily gave precedence to
his friend David (B. M. 84b, 85a).

Nothing is known regarding the time when Judah
succeeded his father as leader of the Palestinian
Jews. According to a tradition (Mishnah Sotah,
end), ihe country at the time of Simon b. Gamaliel's
death not onlj^ was devastated by a plague of locusts,
but suffered many other hardships. It was for this
rea.son, it may be assumed, that Judah, on begin-
ning his public activity, transferred the seat of the
patriarchate and of the academy to another place in
Galilee, namely. Bet She'arim. Here he officiated
for a long time. During the last seventeen j-ears
of his life he lived at Sepphoris, which place ill
health had induced him to select on
His account of its high altitude and pure

Academy air (Yer. Kil. 32b ; Gen. R. xcvi. ; Ket.
at Bet 103b). But it is with Bet She'arim
She'arim. that the memory of his activity as di-
rector of the academy and chief judge
is principally associated: "To Bet She'arim must
one go in order to obtain Rabbi's decision in legal
matters," says a tradition concerning the various
seats of the directors of the academies (Sanh. 32b).
The chronology of Judah's activity is based entirely
on assumption. The year of his death is deduced
from the statement that his pupil Rab left Palestine
for good not long before Judah's death, in 530 of
the Seleucidan era (hence 319; see "R. E. J." xliv.
45-61). He assumed the office of patriarch during
the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus {c.
165). Hence Judah, having been born about 135,
became patriarch at the age of thirty, and died at
the age of about eighty-five.

It is difficult to harmonize the many anecdotes,
found in Talmudic and midrashic literature, relating

335

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah I.

to Judah's intercourse witli an emperor named An-
toninus (see Jew. Encyc. 1. 656) with the accounts
of the various bearers of tliat name; and they tliere-
fore can not be used in a historic account of Judali's
life and activit3^ However, as Marcus Aurelius
visited Palestine in 17o, and Septimius Severus in
200, there is a historical basis for the statement that
Judah came into personal relations with some one of
the Antonines; the statement being supported by
tlie anecdotes, although they may report more fic-
tion than truth. In many of these narratives refer-
ences to the emperor ai>ply really to tlie imperial
representatives in Palestine. The assumption that
not Judah I., but his grandson, Judah II., is the
patriarch of the Antonine anecdotes (so Graetz)
seems untenable in view of the gen-
His Patri- eral impression made by the personal-

archate. ity of the patriarch; the tradition
doubtless refers to Judah I. The
splendor surrounding Judah's position, a splendor
such as no other incumbent of the same ofUce en-
joyed, was evidentlj' due to the favor of the Roman
rulers. Although the Palestinian Jews had to contend
with serious difficulties, and were persecuted during
the patriarch's tenure of office, covering more than
fifty years, yet it was on the whole a period of peace
and one favorable to the activity of the academy.
Judah I., who united in himself all the qualifications
for internal and external authority, was natural Ij'
the chief personage of this period, which was des-
tined, in virtue of its importance, to close the epoch
of the Tannaim, and to inaugurate definitely with
Judah I. 's life-work the epoch of the Amoraim.
Judali's importance, which gave its distinctive im-
press to this period, was characterized at an early
date by the saying that since the time of Moses the
Torah and greatness, i.e., knowledge and rank,
were imited in no one to the same extent as in Ju-
dah I. (Git. 59a; Sanh. 36a).

It is a curious fact, explainable by the nature of
the sources, that only scattered data concerning
Judali's official activity are to be found. These
data refer to: the ordination of his pupils (Sanh. 5a,
b); the recommendation of pupils for communal
offices (Yeb. 105a; Yer. Yeb. 13a); orders relating
to the announcement of the new moon (Yer. R. H.
58a, above); amelioration of the law relating to the
Sabbatical year (Sheb. vi. 4; Yer. Sheb. 37a; comp.
Hul. 7a, b), and to decrees relating to tithes in the
pagan frontier districts of Palestine (Yer. Dem. 22c;
Hul. 6b). Tlie last-named he was obliged to defend
against the opposition of the members of the patri-
archal family (Hul. I.e.). The ameliorations he in-
tended for the fast of the Ninth of Ab were prevented
by the college (Meg. 5b; Yer. Meg. 70c). Many
religious and legal decisions are recorded as having
been rendered by Judah together with his court, the
college of scholars (Git. v. 6; Oh. xviii. 9; Tosef.,
Shab. iv. 16; see also Yeb. 79b, above; Kid. 71a).

The authority of Judah's office was enhanced by
his wealth, which is referred to in various traditions.
In Babylon the hyperbolical statement was subse-
quently made that Rabbi's equerry was more
wealthy than King Sapor. The patriarch's liouse-
hold was compared to that of the emperor (Ber.
43a, 57b). In connection with a sentence by Simeon

b. Yohai, Simeon b. Menasya praised Judah I. by
saying that he and l,is sons united in themselves
beauty, power, wealth, wisdom, age, honor, and
tlie blessings of children (Tosef., Sanh. xi. 8; Baraita
Ab. vi. 8). During a famine Judah opened liis gran-
aries and distributed corn among the needy (B. B.
8a). But he denied himself the pleasures procurable
by wealtli, saying: "Whoever chooses the delights
of this world will be deprived of the delights of ti)e
next world; whoever renounces the former will re-
ceive the latter" (Ab. R. N. xxviii.).

No definite statements regarding the redaction of
the Mishnah, in virtue of wJiich Judah became one

of the most important personages of

His Jewish history, are to be found eitlier in

Redaction the Mislinah itself or in the remaining

of the voluminous traditional literature. The

Mishnah. IMishnah contains many of Judah's

own sentences, which are introduced
by the words, "Rabbi says." The work Avas com-
pleted, however, only after Judah's death, sentences
b}' his son and successor, Gamaliel III., being in-
cluded also (Ab. ii. 2-4). But no proofs are required
to show that the Jlishnah, aside from this final re-
vision, is Judah's work. Both the Talmuds assume
as a matter of course that Judah is the originator of
the Mishnah — "our Mishnah," as it was called in
Bab^ion — and the author of the explanations and
discussions relating to its sentences. However, the
Mishnah, like all the other literary documents of
Jewish tradition, can not be ascribed to any one
author in the general acceptance of that term; hence
Judah is correctly called its redactor, and not its
author. The Halakah, the most important branch
of ancient Jewish traditional science, found its au-
thoritative conclusion in Judah's Mishnah, which is
based on the systematic division of the halakic mate-
rial as formulated by Akiba; Judah following in his
work the arrangement of the halakot as taught 03'
Meir, Akiba's foremost pupil (Sanh. 86a). Judah's
work in the Mishnah appears both in what he inclu-
ded and in what he rejected. The mass of tanuaitic
Halakah sentences still found in the Tosefta and in
the baraitot of both Talmudim shows that Judah
had no small task in selecting the material that he
included in his work. Also the formulating of
halakic maxims on controverted points required
both his unusual technical knowledge and his un-
disputed authorit}'; and the fact that he did not in-
variably lay down the rule, but always admitted
divergent opinions and traditions both of the pre-
Hadrianic time and, more especially, of Akiba's
eminent pupils, evidences his circumspection and his
consciousness of the limits imposed upon his author-
ity by tradition and by its recognized representa-
tives. For questions relating to the Mislmah, in-
cluding the one whether Judah edited it orally or in
writing, see Mishnwii.

Among Judah's contemporaries in the early j'ears

of his activity were Eleazar b. Simeon,
Contempo- Ishmael b. Jose, Jose b. Judali, and
raries and Simeon b. Eleazar, the sons respective-
Pupils, ly of Simeon b. Yohai, Jose b. Halaf ta,

Judah b. 'Ilai, and Eleazar \>. Sham-
mua' ; their relations to Judah are discussed in the
articles under their respective names. The following

Judah I.
Judah II.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

336

amoDg his better-known contemporaries and pupils
may be mentioned: Simon b. Manasseh, Phineliasb.
Jair, Eleazar ha-Kappara and his son Bar Kappara,
the Babylonian Hiyya, Simon b. Halafta, and Levi
b. Sissi. Among his pupils who taught as the first
generation of Amoraim after his death are; Hanina
b. Hama and Hoshaiah in Palestine, Rab and Samuel
in Babylon.

Judah 's motto (Ab. ii. 1) is divided into three
parts. In the first he answers the question, what
course a man should follow in life, with the words:
" Let him so act that his deeds will be for his own
glory [i.e., approved bj'his conscience] and praised
by men " (another answer by Judah to the same ques-
tion is recorded in Baraita Tamid 28a). In the second
part he remarks that the least commandment should
be as rigorously observed as the greatest. In the
third he says that the most effective preventive of
sin is the consciousness "that there is above us an
eye that sees, an ear that hears, and a book in which
all the deeds of men are recorded." His deep relig-
ious feeling appears in his explanation of certain
passages of Scripture — I Sam. xxviii. 15; Amos iv.
13, V. 15; Zeph. ii. 3; Lam. iii. 29; Eccl. xii. 14—
which reminded him of the divine judgment and of
the uncertainty of acquittal, and made him weep
(Yer. Hag. 77a; Lev. R. xxvi. ; Midr. Shemuel
xxiv.).

Judah was, indeed, easily moved to tears. He ex-
claimed, sobbing, in reference to three different stories
of martyrs whose deaths made them worthy of future
life: "One man earns his world in an hour, while
another requires many j-ears" ('Ab. Zarah 10b, 17a,
18a; for a sentence by Judah on the ranking of the
pious in the future world see Sifre, Deut. 47). He
began to weep when Elisha b. Abuya's (Aher's)
daughters, who were soliciting alms, reminded him
of their father's learning (Yer. Hag. 77c; comp.
Hag. lob). And in a legend relating to his meeting
with Phinehas b. Jair (Hul. 7b) he is represented as
tearfuU}' admiring the pious Phinehas' unswerving
steadfastness, protected by a higher power. He
was frequently interrupted by tear^ when explaining
Lam. ii. 2 and illustrating the passage by stories of
the destruction of Jerusalem and of the Temple (Lam.
R. ii. 2; comp Yer. Ta'an. 68d). Hiyj'a found him
weeping during his last illness because death was
about to deprive him of the opportunity of studying
the Torah and of fulfilling the commandments (Ket.
103b). The following story shows his delicacy of
feeling. He said to a calf, which, while being led
to the slaughtering-block, looked at him with tear-
ful eyes, as if seeking protection: "Go; for thou
hast been created for this purpose ! " To this
unkind attitude toward the suffering animal he
ascribed his years of illness, which he bore with
great resignation. Once, when his daughter was
about to kill a small animal which was in her way,
be said to her: "Let it live, child; for it is written

(Ps. cxlv. 9): 'His [the Lord's] tender

His mercies are over all'" (B. M. 85a;

Character. Gen. R. xxxiii.). His appreciation of

animal life appears also in tlie prayer
which he said when eating meat or eggs (Yer. Ber.
10b) : " Blessed be the Lord who lias created many
souls, in order to support by them the soul of every

living being. " When wine seventy years old cured
him of a protracted illness, he prayed : " Blessed be
the Lord, who has given His world into the hands
of guardians" ('Ab. Zarah 40b). He privately re-
cited daily the following supplication on finishing
the obligatory prayers (Ber. 6b; comp. Shab. 30b):
•'May it be Thy will, my God and the God of my
fathers, to protect me against the impudent and
against impudence, from bad men and bad compan-
ions, from severe sentences and severe plaintiffs,
whether a son of the covenant or not. " In regard
to Die inclination to sin (" yezer ha-ra' ") he said : " It
is like a person facing punishment on account of rob-
bery who accuses his traveling companion as an ac-
complice, since he himself can no longer escape. This
bad inclination reasons in the same way : ' Since I
am destined to destruction in the future world, I
will cause man to be destroyed also ' " (Ab. R. N.
xvi.). It is not unlikely that Judah was the author
of the parable of the blind and the lame with which
he is said to have illustrated in a conversation with
Antoninus the judgment of the body and the soul
after death (Mek., Beshallah, Sliirah, 2; Sanh. 91a,
b ; see a similar parable by him in Eccl. II. v. 10).
The impulse to sin is tfie topic of another conversa-
tion between Judah and Antoninus (Gen. R. xxxiv. ;
Sanh. 91b). Judah 's sentence, "Let thj' secret be
known only to thyself; and do not tell thy neighbor
anything which thou perceivest may not fitly be
listened to" (Ab. R. N. xxviii.), exhorts to self-
knowledge and circumspection. On one occasion,
when at a meal his pupils expressed their prefer-
ence for soft tongue, he made this an opportunity to
say, "May your tongues be soft in your mutual in-
tercourse " {i.e., " Speak gently without disputing " ;
Lev. R. xxxiii., beginning). The following sentence
shows a deep insight into the social order: "The
world needs both the perfumer and the tanner: but
happy he who engages in the fragrant trade; and
wo to him who engages in the vile-smelling trade !
The world needs both the male and the female:
but happj' he who has male children; and wo to
him who has female children " (Pes. 65a; Kid. 82b;
comp. Gen. R. xxvi.). He praises the value of
work by saj'ing that it protects both from gossip
and from need (Ab. R. N., Recension B, xxi.). The
administration of justice has taken its place beside
the Decalogue (Ex. xx., xxi.); the order of the
world depends on justice (A. V. "judgment," Prov.
xxix. 4); Zion is delivered by justice (Isa. i. 27) ; the
pious are praised for their justice (Ps. cvi. 3).

Judah sums up the experiences of a long life spent
in learning and in teaching in the confession, which

also throws light upon his character, " I

Sayings on have learned much from my masters,

Study. more from my colleagues than from

my masters, and more from my pu-
pils than from all the others " (Mak. 10a ; Tan. , Ta'an.
7a). Judah indicates that one can also learn
from a young teacher: "Do not look to the jug,
but to its contents: many a new jug is full of
old wine; and many an old jug does not even
contain new wine " (Ab. iv. 20). He forbade his
pupils to study on the public highway (probably
in order to put a stop to abuses), basing his
prohibition on his interpretation of Cant. vii. 3

337

THE JEWISH EXCYCL(JPEDIA

Judah I.
Judah II.

(M. K. 16a, b) ; and be deduced from Prov. i. 20 tbe
doctrine, '' Wboever studies tbe Torab iu secret ■will
find public reuown tbrougb bis scholarsbip " (zi.)-
He connected witli Deut. xi. 12 tbe question: "Wby
is it written, ' for wbom the Eternal, tby God, cares ' ?
Does not God care for all countries? The answer is:
' Scripture means to say that although God seems to
care only for the land of Israel, yet for its sake He
also cares for all other countries. God is similarly
called tbe protector of Israel (Ps. cxxi. 6), although
He protects all men (according to Job xii. 10), but
only for tbe sake of Israel ' " (Sifre, Deut. 38). Ac-
cording to Joshua b. Levi, Judab interpreted Jer.
xlix. 20 to mean that tbe Romans, tbe destroyers of
the Temple, will in time be destroyed by the Per-
sians (Yoma 10a).

In Judab's Bible exegesis those portions may be
noted in Avbicb be undertakes to harmonize conflict-
ing Biblical statements. Thus he harmonizes (3Iek.,
Bo, 14) tbe contradictions between Gen. xv. 13 ("400
3'ears") and verse 16 of the same chapter C'tbe
fourth generation"); Ex. xx. 16 and Deut. v. 18 (ib.
Yitro, Bahodesb, 8) ; Num. ix. 23, x. 35 and ib. (Sifre,
Num. 84); Deut. xiv. 13 and Lev. xi. 14 (Hul. 63b).
The contradiction between Gen. i. 25 and verse 24
of that chapter, in tbe latter of whicb passages
among the creatures created on the sixth day is in-
cluded as a fourth categorj' tbe "living souls" — a
categor}- not included in verse 25 — Judab explains by
saying that this expression designates tbe demons,
for wbom God did not create bodies because tbe
Sabbath had come (Gen. R. vii., end).

Notewortbj' among the other numerous Scriptural
interpretations which have been handed down in
Judab's name are those in which be cleverly intro-
duces etymological explanations, as of tbe follow-
ing: Ex. xix. 8-9 (Shab. 87a); Lev. xxiii. 40 (Suk.
35a): Num. xv. 38 (Sifre, Num. 115); II Sam. xvii.
27 (Midr. Teh. to Ps. iii. 1); Joel i. 17 (Yer. Peah
20b); Ps. Ixviii. 7 (Mek., Bo, 16).

David did not really commit sin with Bath-sbeba,
but only intended to do so, according to Judab's
interpretation of tbe words " to do tbe
Use of evil" (II Sam. xii. 9). Rab, Judab's
Scripture, pupil, ascribes this apology for King
David to Judab's desire to justify his
ancestor (Sbab. 56a). A sentence praising King
Hezekiab (Hul. 6b) and an extenuating opinion of
King Ahaz (Lev. R. xxxvi.) have also been banded
down in Judab's name. Characteristic of Judab's
appreciaticm of tbe Haggadab is bis interpretation
of tbe word "wa-yagged" (Ex. xix. 9) to the effect
that tbe words of Moses attracted the hearts of his
bearers, like the Haggadab (Shab. 87a). Tbe anec-
dote related in Cant. R. i. 16 (comp. Mek., Besballah,
Shirah, 9) indicates Judab's methods of attracting
his bearers' attention in bis discourses.

Judab was especially fond of the Book of Psalms
(see 'Ab. Zarab 19a; Midr. Teh. to Ps. iii. 1). He
paraphrased the wisb expressed by David in Ps.
xix. 14, " Let the words of my mouth ... be
acceptable in tby sight," thus: "May the Psalms
have been composed for the coming generations;
may they be written down for them ; and may those
that read them be rewarded like those that study
halakic sentences " (Midr. Teh. to Ps. i. 1). In refer-
VII.— 22

ence to the Book of Job he said that it was impor-
tant if only because it presented the sin and punish-
ment of the generations of the Flood (Gen. R. xxvi.,
end). He proves from Ex. xvi. 35 that in the ar-
rangement of the sections of the Torah there is no
chronological order (Sifre, Num. 64). Referring to
tbe prophetic books, be says: "All the Prophets be-
gin with denunciations and end with comfortings "
(Midr. Teh. to Ps. iv. 8). Even tbe genealogical
portions of the Book of Chronicles must be inter-
preted (Ruth R. ii., beginning). It appears from a
note in Pesik. R. xlvi. (ed. Friedmann, p. 187a)
that there was a haggadic collection containing
Judab's answers to exegetical questions. Among
these questions may have been tbe one which
Judab's son Simeon addressed to him (according to
Midr. Teh. to Ps. cxvii. 1).

Judab's death is recorded in a touching account
(Yer. Kil. 32b; Ket. 104a; Yer. Ket. 35a; Eccl. R.

vii. 11, ix. 10). No one bad the heart
His Death, to announce tbe patriarch's demise to

tbe anxious people of Sepphoris, until
the clever Bar Kappara broke the news in a parable,
saying: "Tbe heavenly host and earth-born men
held the tables of the covenant ; then the heavenly
host was victorious and seized tbe tables." Ju-
dab's testamentary wishes, which referred to bis
successor and to his family as well as to his inter-
ment, have likewise been banded down {ib.}. In
accordance with his express desire he was buried at
Bet Sbe'arim, where he bad lived at one time and
where be bad long since prepared his tomb (Ket.
103b, below); but, according to the work "Gelilot
Erez Yisrael," bis tomb was shown at Sepphoris.

Bibliography : Hamburger. J?. B. T. ii. 440-4.50; Bacher. A(i.
Tan. ii. 4.54-486; Biicliler, R. Jehuda I. und die Stddie
P(iZt/.sfi?ia'.s, in J. Q. R. xiii. 68:!-740; Moses Kunitz. Bet
Rahhi, Vienna, 1805; and the bibliography to the article An-
toninus.
s. s. W. B.

JUDAH II. : Patriarch; son of Gamaliel III. and
grandson of Judah I. ; lived at Tiberias in the mid-
dle of the third century. In the sources he is called
"Judah," "Judab Nesi'ab" (="ha-Nasi "), and oc-
casionally "Rabbi "like his grandfather; as Judah
III. is also designated as "Judah Nesi'ab," it is often
difficult, sometimes impossible, to determine which
one of these patriarchs is referred to. In halakic tradi-
tion Judah II. was especially known by three ordi-
nances decreed by him and bis academy ; one of
these ordinances referred to a reform of the divorce
laws (Yer. Git. 48d; Git. 46b). Especially famous
was tbe decree permitting tbe use of oil prepared by
pagans, incorporated in the ]\Iishnah with tbe same
formula used in connection with decrees of Ju-
dah I.— "Rabbi and his court permitted" ('Ab.
Zarab ii. 9; comp. Tosef., 'Ab. Zarab iv. 11). This
ordinance, which abrogated an old law, was recog-
nized as authoritative in Babylonia by Samuel and,
subsequentl}', by Rab, who at first hesitated to ac-
cept it (see Ver. 'Ab. Zarab 41d ; 'Ab. Zarab 37a).
Simlai, the famous haggadist, endeavored to induce
tbe patriarch to abrogate also the prohibition against
using bread prepared by pagans. Judah. liowever,
refused to do so, alleging that he did not wish his
academy to be called the "loosing court" ('Ab.
Zarab 37a). Judah could not carry out his intention

Judah II.
Judah Aryeh

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

338

of omitting the fast-day of the Ninth of Ab when it
fell on the Sabbath (Yer. Meg. 70b ; Meg. 2b). The
patriarch was by no means regarded by his great
contemporaries as their equal in scholarship, as ap-
pears from a curious meeting between Yannai and
Judah II. (see B. B. Ilia, b; another version occurs
in Yer. Sanh. 16a, where Johanan accompanies
Yannai).

Hoshaiah was in especially friendly relations with
Judah (see Yer. Yeb. 9b; Yer. Bezah 60d, bottom;
B. K. 19b; in another version Yer. B. K. 2d; Yer.
Meg. 70d ; Meg. 7a, b ; in Pes. 87b, where Hoshaiah
refutes an inimical opinion on heretics at the request
of the patriarch, Judah I. is probably meant; see
Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." i. 96). Together with
Joslnia b. Levi, Judah assisted at Laodicea at the
reception of a female proselyte into Judaism (Yer.

Yeb. 8dj. Jonathan b. Eleazar was

Relations his companion at the baths of Gadara

with. (Yer. Kid. 64d). The relations be-

Johanan. tween the patriarch and Johanan, the

leader of the Academy of Tiberias,
seem to have been friendly (Ta'an. 24a); Johanan
accepted the regular material support offered to him
by the patriarch (Sotah 21a). He also induced the
patriarch to visit Simeon ben Lakish, who had fled
from Tiberias in consequence of having made offen-
sive remarks in regard to the dignity of the patri-
archate, and invite him to return (Yer. Sanh. 19d;
Yer. Hor. 47a; Midr. to Sam. vii.).

On another occasion it was Simeon ben Lakish
who succeeded in softening Judah's indignation
toward a daring preacher, Jose of Maon, who had
denounced the rapacity of the patriarchal house
(Yer. Saidi. 20d; Gen. R. lx.\-.x.). Simeon ben
Lakish, moreover, seems to have exhorted the patri-
arch to unselfishness. " Take nothing, " said he, " so
that you will have to give nothing [to the Roman
authorities]" (Gen. R. Ixx.). Simeon ben Lakish
also reminded the patriarch of the need of providing
for elementary education in the various cities, refer-
ring to the saying, "A city in which there are no
schools for children is doomed to destruction " (Shab.
119b; see Bacher, I.e. i. 347). Judah was not so un-
important in the field of the Halakah as might ap-
pear from some of the details mentioned above, since
Simeon ben Lakish, who was not his pupil, hands
down a whole series of halakic sentences in the name
of "Judah Nesi'ah " {i.e., Judah II. ; see "Seder ha-
Dorot," ed. Maskileison, ii. 177; Halevy, " Dorot ha-
Rishonim." ii. 30 et seq.). Simeon ben Lakish doubt-
less survived Judah and repeated his traditions.
Simeon handed down also some of Judah's haggadic
sentences (.see Shab. 119b ; Yer. M. K. 82c). The pas-
sage (Nazir 20c) referring to Simeon ben Lakish as
"sitting before Judah" and explaining a midrash
does not refer to him as a pupil, but as a member of
the college. This view is supported by 'Ab. Zarah
6b, which speaks of Simeon as " sitting before Judah
Nesi'ah"; here the patriarch asks Simeon what to
do in a certain case, and Simeon clearly appears as
the better halakist, not as the patriarch's pupil.

Judah's relations to the scholars of his time in
general appear from the following controversy in
reference to Ps. xxiv. 6: "One of them says: 'The
time is adapted to the leader [" parnas "] ' ; another

says: 'The leader is adapted to the time'" ('Ar.
17a). It was probably the patricirch who expressed
the opinion that the leader is adapted to the time in
which he is called to leadership, and that he must
not be blamed for his own incapacity. In the above-
mentioned meeting between Judah and the daring
preacher Jose of Maon (Gen. R. Ixxx. ; Yer. Sanh.
20d) it is the latter who utters the maxim, "As the
time, so the prince." On another occasion Judah
openly confessed his incaiiacity. Once during a
drought he had ordered a fast and prayed in vain
for rain. Thereupon he said, " AVhat a difference
between Samuel of Ramali [referring to I Sam. xii.
18] and Judah, the son of Gamaliel ! "VVo to the time
which has such a tent-peg, and wo to me that I have
come at such a time ! " Rain soon fell in consequence
of this self-abasement (Ta'an. 24a).

Various stories of Judah's youth, referring to him
and his brother Hillel, have been preserved. " Judah
and Hillel, the sons of R. Gamaliel [Gamaliel III.],
on their trip to Kabul, in Galilee, and to Biri"
(Tosef., Mo'ed, ii., end; Yer. Pes. 30d; Pes. 51a)
"offend against the customs of both places. In
Kabul they meet with a solemn reception " (Sem.
viii.). Griltz identities this Hillel, Judah's brother,
with the "patriarch Joullos" {'lovA/Mg TzarptdpxK),
■with whom Origeu conversed at Ctesarea on Biblical
subjects (Origen on Psalms, i. 414; see Griltz,
" Gesch." 2d ed. , iv. 250, 483 ; " Monatsschrift," 1881,
pp. 443 et seq.)\ but as Hillel himself was not a
patriarch, it may be assumed that it
Relations was Judah who conversed with Ori-
with gen. Origen probably misread lOYAOS

Origen. for IOTA A 2. This assumption agrees
with the above-mentioned statement
about Hoshaiah's close relations with the patri-
arch, for it may be assumed as a fact that Hoshaiah
had intercourse with Origen at Ctesarea ("Monats-
schrift," I.e.; "J. Q. R." iii. 357-360; Bacher, "Ag.
Pal. Amor." i. 92).

Bibliography : Gratz, Oescli. 2d ed., Iv. 241 ct scq. : Frankel,
Mcbo, pp. 92a ct scQ. ; Weis.s, Dor, Iii. 65 et seq. ; Halevy,
Dorot 7ia-JRi<7io?iini, Ii. 36 et seq. and passim ; Bacher, Ag.
Pal. Amor. iii. 581.
S. S. W. B.

JUDAH III. : Patriarch ; son of Gamaliel IV.
and grandson of Judah II. The .sources do not dis-
tinguish between Judah II. and Judah III., and,
since the title "Nesi'ah " was borne by both, which
of the two in any citation is meant by "Judah Ne-
si'ah" can be gathered only from internal evidence,
especially from the names of the scholars mentioned
in the context. Judah III. held the ofl[ice of patri-
arch probably during the close of the third and the
beginning of the fourth century. He was a pupil
of Johanan (d. 279) ; in a question regarding the time
of the new moon, which he sent to Ammi, he intro-
duces a sentence taught to him by Johanan with the
words : " Know that R. Johanan has taught us thus
all hislife long" (R. H. 20a). In a conversation with
the famous haggadist Samuel b. Nahman, he refers
to a haggadic sentence by Eleazar b. Pedat (Yer. Hag.
77a; Gen. R. xii.). Judah III. commis.sioned Jo-
hanan's pupils Ammi and Assi, who directed the
Academy of Tiberias after Eleazar's death, to organ-
ize the schools for children in the Palestinian cities
(Yer. Hag. 76c; Pesib:. 120b); Ammi especially ap-

339

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

judah II.
Judah Aryeh

pears as his councilor in liaggadic questions (Bezah
27a; M. K. 12b, 17a; 'Ab. Zurah 33b). Once" he
questioned Ammi regarding tiie meaning of Isa.
xxvi. 4 (Men. 29a); he also visited tlie baths of Ga-
dara with Ammi (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah 42a, 45b).

Ammi protested against the number of fast-days
which Judah set in times of trouble, saying that the
community should not be overburdened (Ta'an. 14a,
b). Once Helbo, a pupil of the above-mentioned
Samuel b. Nahman, requested Judah, who had ab-
sented himself from a fast-day service held in the
public square of the citj% to take part in the service,
which would thereby become more efficacious (Yer.
Ta'an. 65a). The prominent amora Jeremiah is said
(Yer. Meg. 74) to have reproached Judah in a letter
for liating his friends and loving his enemies (comp.
II Sam. xix. 6). GeniKinus, Judah's Roman slave,
is mentioned several times (Yer. Shab. 8c; Yer.
Yoma45b; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah 42a). The most impor-
tant event of Judah III. 's patriarchate is the visit
of the emperor Diocletian to Palestine (see Jew.
En'cyc. iv. 606, where "Judah III." should be read
instead of "Judah II."). One Friday the patriarcli
was called upon hurriedly to visit Diocletian at
Caesarea Philippi, and liis extraordinarily quick
journey thither from Tiberias gave rise to a legend
(Yer. Ter. viii., end; Gen. R. Ixiii.) in which the
aged Samuel b. Nahman appears. (On the Church
father Epiphanius' reference to the patriarch see
Griitz. " Gesch." 2d ed., iv. 483.) When Judah III.
died (c. 320) Hiyya bar Abba compelled liis col-
league Ze'era, who was of priestly descent, to ignore,
in honor of the dead patriarch, the prescriptions to be
observed by the Aaronides (Yer. Ber. %h ; Nazir 5b,
c). This scene took place in the " synagogue of the
vine " at Sepphoris ; hence it is to be assumed that
Judah III. was buried at Sepphoris. He was suc-
ceeded by his son Hillel II.

Bibliography: Griitz, Gcsch. 2d eU., iv. 301 ef .sf 7. ; Halevy,
Dorot lia-liis)i(niini, ii.
s. s. W. B.

JTJDAH IV. : Patriarch ; son of Gamaliel V. and
Traudson of Hillel II. Beyond his name and the
iact that he officiated during the last two decades of
the fourth Century, nothing is known of him. He
is probably identical with the " Judah Nesi 'ah " who
addressed a question on Ruth iii. 7 to the haggadist
Phinchas b. Hania (Ruth R. v. ; Bacher, " Ag. Pal.
Amor." iii. 312). With his son Gamaliel VI. the
patriarchate of Hillel's descendants ceased in Pales-
tine.

BiBMOfiRAPiiv: firiitz, flcxclt. 3d ed., iv. 38-t, 484.
s. s. W. B.

JUDAH BEN ABRAHAM: Pupil of Rashi;
flourished at the beginning of the twelfth centiny.
He studied under Rashi with Shemaiah (father-in-
law of Rashbam), with whom he was engaged in
literary work. Together they arranged the posthu-
mous writings of their teaclier, and edited, in ac-
cordance with oral instructions, a work on the Pass-
over rite. This work is cited in the Tosafot (Pes.
114a), Rashi and Shemaiah being named as its
authors.

RiBi.iofJRAPHY : Gross, OnJlia Judaicn, p. ")()«.

A. Pk.

JUDAH B. ABUN (in Arabic, Abu Zaka-
riyya) : Spanisli p(jet; lived in Seville. He was
probably the sou of that Abun to whom Moses iba
Ezra dedicated several poems and whose death Ibn
Ezra bewailed in an elegy ("Diwan," No. 12; "Mo-
natssehrift," xl. 198). Judah is cla.ssed, in Moses
ibn lizra's works on poetry, among the Spanish po-
ets, and his scholarship is highly i)rai.sed by Judah
ha-Levi. Only one short poem of Judah's has sur-
vived; it was addressed in token of friendsiiip to
Judah ha-Levi, who answered it by another (Judali
ha-Levi, " Diwan," ed. Brody, i. 88^ No. 63). Judah
b. Abun is not identical with Judaii Samuel 'Aljbas
b. Abun, the author of a well-known " *akedah."

Bibliography: Geiger, Jehuda ha-Levi, p. 142; Brody, in
Zcit. fIXr Hcbr. Bihl. iii. 178.

G. H. B.

JUDAH B. AMMI : Palestinian amora of the
third generation (4th cent.); the son, perhaps, of tlie
celebrated R. Ammi (Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." iii.
715). His house was a rendezvous for scholars, and
R. Ze'era, when exhausted by study, would sit at
the threshold of .ludah's house, so that as the rab-
bis came and went he could rise in their honor ('Er.
28b). Judah b. Ammi transmitted a number of
halakic decisions in the name of Simeon b. Lakish
(Yer. Ter. ii. 3).

Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, II. 182 ; Ag. Pal.
Amor. iii. 715.

E. c. A. S. W.

JUDAH ARYEH LOB BEN JOSHUA HO-
SCHEL : Rabbi at Slutsk, government of Minsk,
Russia, in the middle of the eighteenth century.
He was the author of "Torah Or" (Berlin, 1745),
halakot concerning the reading and writing of the
Law and the rudiments of Hebrew grammar. Ju-
dah wrote also a work entitled "Sha'agat Aryeh,"
mentioned by him in the tAventieth chapter of the
preceding work.

Bibliography : Benjacob, Ozar lia-Scfarim, p. 644.
G. L Br.

JUDAH ARYEH OF MODENA. See Leon

(Judah Aryeh) of Modi:na.

JUDAH ARYEH BEN ZEBI HIRSCH :

French Hebraist; flourished in the beginning of the
eighteenth century; born in Krotoschin, Germany.
He lived at Avignon and Carpentras, and is gener-
ally called after the latter town. He \vas the au-
thor of : "Ohole Yehudah" (Jessnitz, 1719), a He-
brew dictionary, in which special attention is paid
to proper names, including their etymology: and
"Geza' Yehudah" (Offenbach, 1732), a short con-
cordance. In his introduction to the former work
Judah mentions two other Avorks of liis: "Pene
Aryeh" and "Helek Yehudah," both on th? Penta-
teuch. The grammatical essay which preceded the
'•Helek Yehudah" was published with a German
translation under the title " Yesod Leshon ha-
Kodesh" (Wilmersdorf, 1724). A Hebrew manu-
script in the Bodleian Library (Neubauer, "Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 2300, 2) contains a gram-
matical poem, beginning DC' 1L"N ". '^n^' ^ commen-
tarv by Judah, toAvhieh are added the paradigms of

Judah ben Asher
Judab ben Eli

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

340

the verbs, with a Hebrew -German translation, and

some grammatical rules.

Bibliography: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 612-613; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1378.
T. M. Sel.

JTJDAH BEN ASHEB: German Talmudist;
later, rabbi of Toledo, Spain ; born in western Ger-
many June 30, 1270; died at Toledo July 4, 1349;
brother of Jacob ben Asher ("Ba'al ha-Turim ").
These dates are deduced from the evidence fur-
nished by Judah's testament and epitaphs (Luzzat-
to, " Abue Zilvkaron," No. 5; see Schechter in "Bet
Talmud," iv. 340-346, 372-379).

At the age of thirteen, according to the custom of
the German Talmudists of that epoch, Judah began
to travel. He set out for Spain July 18, 1283, and
arrived at Toledo April 7, 1285, consuming almost
two years in his journey. He does not appear to
have stayed long in Toledo; for in 1286 he mar-
ried the daughter of his oldest brother, Jehiel, who
is not known to have left Germany before 1305.
After her death he married the daughter of Solomon,
another brother of his.. In 1305 his father, Asher
B. Jehiel, who was then obliged to leave Germany,
sent Judah before him into Spain in order to arrange
for his settling there.

Judah says in his testament that w^lien he first
came to Toledo he could not profit much by the
Spanish Talmudists, as he understood neither their
writing nor their language; and as he had sore
eyes he could not even occupy himself with wri-
ting. After liis father's death (1321 or 1328) Judah
was chosen by the Toledo community as his succes-
sor in the rabbinate. He was held in great esteem
by the members of his congregation, and when, on
account of some disagreement, he manifested a de-
sire to remove to Seville, they urged him to remain
and doubled liis salary. Still, he was not favorably
inclined toward Spain ; for he recommended his five
sons to emigrate to Germany, his native country.

Asher, Judah's father, had ordained that every
member of his family should give for charitable pur-
poses a tithe of his earnings, and that three-fourths
of the amount of such tithe should be confided to
two trustees for distribution among the poor. In
the agreement signed by Asher and his sons on Oct.
20, 1314, Judah and his brother Jacob were ap-
pointed trustees (see Jacob b. Asher). Judah ap-
proved heartily of this charitnble institution, and at
his request, on Sept. 18, 1346, his sons signed an
agreement making a similar arrangement in regard
to the disposition of their own earnings (Bet Tal-
mud, iv. 377),

Judah was a recognized authority on rabbinics;
and his responsa, together with a fragment of his
commentary on Shabbat, were published, imder the
title of "Zikron Yehudah," by David Cassel (Berlin,
1846).

Bibliography: Cassel, introduction to Zikron Yehudah;
Gratz, Gegch. 3d ed., vii. 301-;302 ; Stelnschneider, Cat. Budl.
col. 1291.

s. 8. M. Sel.

JUDAH B. BABA : Tanna of the second cen-
tury; martyred (at the age of seventy) during the
persecutions under Hadrian. At that time the gov-
ernment forbade, among other things, the ordination

of rabbis, an infraction of the law being punished
by the death of both ordainer and ordained and by
the destruction of the city in which the ordination
took place. Judah b. Baba nevertheless called to-
gether five — according to others, seven — disciples
qualified for ordination, took them to a defile be-
tween Usha and Shefara'm, and duly ordained them.
They were detected, and while his disciples, at his
urging, fled, he, too old and feeble to flee, was slain
by the Roman soldiery, who hurled 300 javelins at
his body (Sanh. 14a). So great was the fear of the
Romans that people did not dare even to praise him
publicly.

In the Haggadah he not only appears as an au-
thority, but is the subject of many sayings and
legends. He was known as " the Hasid, " and it is
said that wherever the Talmud speaks of "the
Hasid," either he or Judah b. Ilai is meant; he was
considered by his contemporaries as perfectly stain-
less (B. K. 103b). From eight (or eighteen) years of
age until his death he enjoyed little sleep; he fasted
for twenty-six years in succession ; and he defied
the Emperor of Rome in his presence (Jellinek, "B.
H."ii. 69; vi. 25 etseq., 35).

In the Halakah, lie was the author of some deci-
sions; he also transmitted a number of important
halakot ('Eduy. vi.), the most remarkable being
that one witness to the death of the husband is suffi-
cient to justify permitting the wife to marry again
(Hamburger, "R. B. T." ii. 451). Akiba was his
most powerful opponent in halakic disputes (Bacher,
"Ag. Tan." i. 404).

Bibliography : Gratz, Gcsch. iv. 59, 164; Bacher, Ap. Tan. 1.
Hfi etseq.; Heilprin, Seder /ia-Dorot, ii. 165 ; Frankel, Dacfre
ha^Mishnah, p. 129 ; Briill, Mebo hxi-Mishnah, i. 133 ; Weiss,
Dor, ii. 119.
s. s. A. S. W.

JUDAH BEN BARZILLAI (usually called
Al-Bargeloni = " the Barcelonian ") : Spanish Tal-
mudist of the end of the eleventh and the beginning
of the twelfth century. Almost nothing is known
of his life. He came of a very distinguished familj^
on account of which he was not seldom called "ha-
Nasi " (the prince), a title of honor borne also by his
descendants in Barcelona.

It is very doubtful if Judah was a pupil of Isaac
b. Reuben, as some have asserted; nor can the
names of his own pupils, and whether Abraham b.
Isaac (RABaD II.) of Lunel was among them, be
determined. Gtertain it is that Abraham ben Isaac
knew Judah personally and consulted him in diffi-
cult cases. Judah once had a controversy with his
learned fellow citizen Abraham b. Hiyya. The lat-
ter, it seems, tried to postpone a wedding because
the stars displayed unfavorable omens, while Judah
held such a course to be contrary to law, since the
regarding of omens is forbidden in the Scriptures.
Judah was one of the greatest codifiers of the Mid-
dle Ages, although, with the exception of a few
fragments, his writings in this department have
been lost. They are often cited as authoritative,
however, by Rabad II., Isaac b. Abba Mari (for
botli of whom he is simply "Ha-Rab," or "Ha-Rab
ha-Mehabber"), Abraham b. David (RABaD III.),
and Zerahiah b. Isaac ha-Levi.

The works of Maimonides and Judah b. Asher,
published a century later, caused Judah's codex

341

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah ben Asher
Judah ben Eli

to be neglected, although individual scliolars down
to the sixteenth century made use of it. From
quotations found in works of more than forty au-
thors it is seen that Judah codified the whole law,
ritual and civil. His "Sefer ha-'Ittim," of whicli
manuscript fragments exist in the library of Jews'
College, London (Hirschfeld, in "J. Q. R." xiv. 191-
192), is cited by name. The fragments contain regu-
lations for the Sabbath ; but the book originally in-
cluded not only regulations for the Sabbath festivals
and the New Moon, but also nearly all the material
treated of in the first part of the Tur, and probabl}^
even more than this. Part of the " Sefer Iia-'Ittim "
is printed in Coronel's "Zeker Natan" (pp. 129 et
seq., Vienna, 1872). The part of the codex whicli
deals with marriage laws and kindred topics is called
by some " Seder Nashim " ; by others, " Yihus She'er
Bosar." The civil law was contained in the "Sefer
ha-Dinini " (so read b)^ Halberstam instead of " Sefer
ha-Dayyanim" ), whicli was divided into five " gates, "
and the extent of which may be judged from that
portion of it published as " Sefer ha-Shetarot " (S.
I. Halberstam, Berlin, 1898), embracing 138 pages,
and treating of the different forms of contracts ac-
cording to rabbinical law.

Besides this halakic work Judah wrote a detailed
commentary on the "Sefer Yezirah." Like most
commentaries on this remarkable book, that by
Judah helps little to an understanding of the text ;
on the contrar}', it contains Judah's own rather
diffuse, half-mystical, half-philosophical theological
discussions. The author betrays, besides, an as-
tonishing familiarity with the Talmudic-Midrashic
literature, and gives extracts from works of the
Geonim which are otherwise unknown.

Judah was acquainted with the philosophical
w^-itings of Saadia and of Samuel b. Hophni, but
not with those of Solomon ibn Gabirol and Bahya.
He shows little talent for dealing with theological
or philosophical subjects. He argues strenuous)}'
against the charge made by the Karaites that tlie
Rabbis favored anthropomorphisms. The "Sefer
Yezirah " was first published by Halberstam in 1885
(Berlin).

A treatise on the preparation of scrolls of the
Law, published by E. Adler in "J. Q. R." ix. 681-
716, is attributed to Judah, but hardly Avith suffi-
cient reason. In his commentary to the "Sefer
Yeziraii" Judah mentions another of his own works,
" Zemannim, " about which nothing further is known.
To judge from certain allusions of Judah it would
seem that he wrote a commentary also on the Bible;
at any rate he had planned such a work.

Bibliography: Bacher. in J. Q. R. x. 381-383; idem, in R.
E. J. xvii. 272-284 ; E. Adler, ih. ix. 66&-681 ; Halberstam,
in the introduction to Judah ben Barzillai's commentary
on the Sefer Ye:}irah and Sefer ha-Shetarot ; idem, in J. Q.
R. X. 165-167 ; Kautinann, in additions "to Judah's rezirali
commentary ; J. H. Weiss, in Ha-Asif, iv. 221-32.5 ; Zunz, in
Catalogus . . . Lipaioiais, p. 331.
s. s. L. G.

JUDAH B. BATHYRA.
JUDAH BENVENISTE.

See Bathyra.
See Benveniste.

JUDAH DE BLANIS (called also Laudadeus
[= "Judah"] Blanis): Italian physician; lived at
Perugia in the middle of the sixteenth century.
David de Pomis, in his "De Medico Hebra'o,"

counts Judah among the most prominent Italian
physicians. He was a diligent student of Cabala,
and associated much with Emanuel of Benevento,
the editor of the " Tikkune Zoliar." In 1553 Judah
caused a copyist to prepare for liim a copy of the
cabalistic work "Sefer ha-Kaneh." It is probable
that Judah de Blanis is identical with Judah ben
Solomon, who in 1523 copied several letters from
Jerusalem, and with a certain Judah ben Solomon
de Blanis ({J>"'jf531) of Pesaro, whose authority Lam-
pronti ("Pahad Yizhak," iii. 26a) invokes.
Bibliography : Griltz, Gesch. Ix. 42; Briill, Jahrb. 1. 237.

K. I. Bk.

JUDAH THE BLIND. See Yehudai ben

Na H.MAN.

JUDAH OF CORBEIL : Tosafist of the thir-
teenth century. He wrote tosafot to a great num-
ber of Talmudical treatises, and is quoted in the
"Kol Bo" (No. 87, on Berakot), in the To.safot Ye-
shanim (on Yoma 14a), in the tosafot of Asheri (to
Yeb. 14a; Ket. 17a; Kid. 16b; Naz. 65b; Zeb. 37b),
and in the " Sliittah Mekubbezet " of Bezaleel Ash-
kenazi (on B. K. 70b). Judah was also the author
of ritual decisions which are found in "Haggahot
Maimoniyyot" (Hilkot "Ma'akalot Asurot," viii.)
and in the responsaof Meirof Rotlienburg(ed. Lem-
berg. No. 487, on Niddah). Biblical explanations
by Judah are quoted in the tosafot to the Penta-
teuch (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 270).

Bibliography; Neubauer, in Geiger's Jttri. Zeit. ix. 217; Re-
nan-Neubauer, Leu Rabhins Fran^ais, p. 441; Gross, Gallia
Judaica, p. .561.

G. L Br.

JUDAH HA-DARSHAN BEN MOSES:

French Bible commentator; lived at Toulouse in the
first half of the eleventh century. He is often
quoted by Rashi in his commentary on the Penta-
teuch, and is twice mentioned in a commentary on
the Mahzor (Cod. Munich, No. 346) in connection
with an explanation of Zeph. iii. 1 and of an expres-
sion of Eliezer lia-Kalir's quoted by Menahem of
Helbo. According to Geiger, Judah was the son of
Moses ha-Darshanof Narbonne; in that case he may
be identical with Judah ben Moses, a disciple of Rashi
who is cited by Abraham ibn Daud in his " Sefer ha-
Kabbalah " as having taught in Narbonne.

Bibliography: Geiger, Parschandatha, p. 11 ; Gross, Gallia
Jmlaica, p. 214.
G. I. Br.

JUDAH B. DAVID CAGLIARI. See C.\G-

LIAKI.

JUDAH BEN DAVID OF MELUN : French

tosafist of the first half of the thirteenth century;
son of the tosafist David of JMelun (department of
Seine-et-Marne). In Perez of Corbeil's tosafot to
Baba Kamina (ed. Leghorn, p. 53a) he is quoted
under the name "Judah of ]\Ielun." After 1224 he
took charge of the Talmud school at 3Ielun ; and he
was one of the four rabbis who defended the Tal-
mud against Nicliolas Donin in the public disputa-
tion at Paris in 1240.

Bibliography: R. E. J. i. 248; Zunz, Z. G. p. 48; Gross,
Gallia Judaica, p. 354; Gratz, Gesili. vii. 06.
s. s. A. Pe.

JUDAH BEN ELI, or 'ALI ('ALAN), THE
TIBERIAN : Karaite grammarian and liturgical
poet ; died at Jerusalem, where he was rosh yeshi-

Judah ben Eliezer
Judah ben Ilai

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

342

bah in 932. He was the author of a grammatical
work entitled " Me'or 'Enayim," in which he divided
the Hebrew nouns into thirty-five classes (see Hadassi,
"Eshkol ha-Kofer," alphabets 173, 257). Pinsker
("Likkute Kadmoniyyot," p. 5) supposes that the
scholar of Jerusalem mentioned by Abraham ilin
Ezra at the beginning of his "Moznayim " as author
of eight grammatical works was Judah b. Eli. He
wrote also two piyyutim (Karaite Siddur, iv. 119),
and a dirge on the ruin of Zion containing an acrostic
on his name (Pinsker, I.e. Supplement, p. 139).

Judah is identified by Dukes ("Kontres," p. 2)
and Abraham Geiger (" Ozar Nehmad," ii. 158) with
the 'All, or Eli, b. Judah ha-Nazir quoted by David
Kimhi in his " Miklol " (ed. Flirth, p. 90b). The
identity of Judah b. 'Ali and 'Ali b. Judah is con-
firmed by Abraham b. Azriel in his commentary
on the Mahzor (Perles, in "Monatsschrift," xxvi.
365), who quotes a Judah ha-Nazir, or ha-Nasi,
b. 'Ali. Pinsker (I.e.) identifies Judah also witli
Yahya ibn Zakariyya the Tiberian, mentioned by
the Mohammedan historian iMas'udi.

BiBLiorRAPHY: D. Kaufmann, in MimaUschrifUxxxv. oS-ST;
Furst. in Orient, Lit. xii. 83, 84; Steinsclineider, in J. Q. R.
xi. 483; Pinslcer, Lihkute Kadmonifniof' PP- w, lO.), liHi, ana
Supplement, pp. 04,'ltKi ; tiottlober, BiMsorei le-Toledot na-
Jyera'im, pp. 170, 171.

j^ JVl. DETv.

JUDAH BEN ELIEZER (called YeSOD) :
Lithuanian Talniudist and philanthropist; born at
Wilna; died there March 18, 1762, having officiated
as dayyan, communal secretary, and, for a short
time, rabbi. Although so eminent as a Talmudist
that he was consulted in the dispute between Jona-
than Eybeschutz and Jacob Emdeu, he was never-
theless revered by the Jcavs of Wilna not for his
learning, but because of his philanthropy. He lived
at a time of continuous persecution (see Wilna),
but was ever ready to come to the help of his co-
religionists with both word and deed. He renovated
the. half-ruined synagogue,, built a new one that
still bears his name, contributed to philanthropic
societies, and aided widows and orphans.

The Jews showed their gratitude to their benefac-
tor by appointing him temporary ra'Dbi, with the
single purpose that he might keep this important
office open for his young son-in-law, Samuel b.
Abigdor. Judah also rendered important services
as comnuinul secretary; for he not only arranged
and carefully preserved all the documents relating
to tlie history of the Jews of Wilna, but also, in his
last will, made it ol)ligatory upon every succeeding
secretary to continue his work.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kiryah Nc'cmanah, p. 115.
s. s. A. Pe.

JUDAH BEN ELIJAH TISHBI : Karaite
scholar and liturgical poet; nourished at Belgrade
in the first half of the sixteenth century; grandson
of Abraham ben Judah. He copied and completed
the exegetical work of his grandfather, entitled
"Yesod Mikru," and was the author of liturgical
poems, several of whicli have been inserted in the
Karaite prayer-book ("Siddur ha-Kera'im," ii. 215;
iii. 171, 172, 174). Judah was the copyist of the
" Yehi Me'orot, " on the precepts attributed to Tobiah
ben Moses.

Bibliography: Pinsker. Likkute Kadmoniuuot, p. 93; •
Furst, Gesch. des Karaert. ii. 393.
K. I- Br.

JUDAH BEN ENOCH: Chief rabbi and
preacher of Pfersee, Bavaria ; lived at the end of the
seventeenth century. His sermons for the festivals
of Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles were pub-
lished with those of his father, Enoch ben Abra-
ham, under the title of " Ueshit Bikkurim " (Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1708). A collection of his responsa
was published by his son Enoch ben Judah under
the title " Hinnuk Bet Yehudah " (ib. 1709), in which
are included some responsa of Judah's father, as
well as of Enoch ben Judah himself.

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ftirst, Bibl. Jud. Ii. 38 ; Wolf, Bibl. Hcbr. iii..
No. 742c. ^_ ^

8. s. M. Sel.

JUDAH B. EZEKIEL : Babylonian amora of
the second generation; born in 220; died at Pumbe-
dita in 299. He was the most prominent disciple of
Rab (Abba Arika), in whose house he often stayed,
and who.se son Hiyya was his pupil ('Er. 2b). After
Rab's death Ju(iah wentto R. Samuel, who esteemed
him highly and called him -'Shinena" (= "sharp-
witted''; Ber. 36a; Kid. 32a). He remained with
Samuel until he founded a school of his own at
Pumbedita. Judah possessed such great zeal for
learning and such tireless energy that he even
omitted daily prayer in order to secure more time
for study, and prayed but once in thirty days (R.
H. 35a). This diligence, together with a remark-
ably retentive memory, made it possible for him to
collect and transmit the greater part
Transmits of Rab's, as well as many of Samuel's,
Rab's and sayings; the Talmud contains about

Samuel's four hundred iiaggadic and halakic

Sayings, sayings by the former, and many by
the latter, all recorded by Judah b.
Ezekiel; while a number of other sayings of Rab's
that occur in the Talmud without the name of the
transmitter likewise were handed down by Judah
(Rashi to Hul. 44a).

In recording the words of his teachers, Judah used
extreme care, and frequently stated explicitly that
his authority for a given saying was uncertain, and
that his informant did not know positively Avhetlier
it was Rab's or Samuel's (Hul. 18b). His own mem-
ory, however, never failed him, and the traditions
recorded by him are reliable. When his brother
Rami says, in one jdace, that a certain sentence of
Rab's, quoted by Judah, should be disregarded (Hul.
44a), he does not question the accuracy of Judah's
citation, but implies that Rab had afterward aban-
doned the opinion (luoted by Jutlah, and had, in a
statement which the latter had not hcjaid, adopted
an opposite view.

Judah b. Ezekiel introduced a new and original
method of instruction in the school which lie built
up at Pumbedita; by emphasizing the need of an
exact differentiation between, and a critical exam-
ination of, the subjects treated, lie became the
founder of Talmudic dialectics (Sanh. 17b; Hul.
110b; B. M. 381)). His method of instruction, how-
ever, did not please some of his older pupils, and
they left him; among these was Ze'era, who went
to Palestine despite Judah's declaration that no man

343

THE JE^YISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah ben Elieze»
Judali ben Ilai

sliould leave Babylonia for that country (Ket. Ilia).
But the new method was acceptable to most of his
disciples, and was especially attractive to the young,
so that the school at Pumbedita steadily increased
in importance and popularity. After the death of
Iluna, head of the Academy of Sura, most of his
l)upils went to Pumbedita, wiiich,
New until the death of Judah, remained

Method of the only seat of Talmudic learning.
Dialectics. Although Judah devoted himself
chiefly to dialectics, he did not fail to
interpret the mishuayot, to explain peculiar words in
them (Pes. 2a; M. K. 6b), or to determine the cor-
rect reading where several were given (Bezah 3ob;
Suk. 50b).

Judah gave little attention to Haggadah, and
what work he did in tJiat field was almost entirely
lexicographical (Ned. 62b; Hul. 63a; Ta'an. 9b;
Git. 31b). In his daily conversation he took pains
to acquire the habit of exact and appropriate ex-
pression, for which his contemporary Nahman b.
Jacob praised him (Kid. 70a, b). A lover of nature,
Judah was a close observer of the animal and plant
life around him. "When in the springtime thou
seest Nature in her beauty thou shalt thank God
that He hath formed such beautiful creatures and
plants for the good of mankind " (R. H. 11a). Sev-
eral of his explanations of natural phenomena have
been preserved (Ta'an. 3b, 9b), as well as etymolo-
gies of the names of animals and descriptions of
their characteristics (Hul. 63a; M. K. 6b; Shab.
77b).

Judah was celebrated for his piety, and it is re-
lated that Avhenever he ordained a fast in time of
drought rain fell (Ta'an. 24a). According to him,
piety consists chiefly in fulfilling one's obligations
to one's fellow creatures and in observing the laws
of " meum et tuum " (B. K. 30a). It was probably
for this reason that he applied himself chiefly to
the Mishnaic treatise Nezikin (Ber. 20a).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Bab. Amor. pp. 47-53; Weiss,
Dor, iii. 186-189.
J. J. Z. L.

JUDAH IBN EZRA, See Ibn Ezra, Judah.

JUDAH IBN GHAYYAT, See Ibn Ghayyat,
JruAii BEN Isaac.
JUDAH HADASSI. See Hadassi, Judah.

JUDAH HAYYUJ. See Hayyuj, Judah.

JUDAH B. HIYYA: Palestinian amora of the
first generation (3d cent.);- son of the famous R.
Hiyya. In Midr. Shemuel xi., and in Yer. Sanh.
29b, he is called aI.so Judah be-Rabbi. He was
the twin brother of Hezekiah (Yeb. 6~)b) and son-in-
law of Yannai, who outlived him (Ket. 62b). Judah
b. Hiyya is sometimes called " Rabbi " (Sanh. 37b),
although it would seem that he was never ordained,
since he is more frequently mentioned without this
title. He and his brother Hezekiah are often termed
simply the "sons of Hiyya" (Yoma 5b, et al.) or
"the young people" (Hul. 20a), although both were
celebrated for their learning and piety. Simeon ben
Livkish states that they left Babylonia with their
father and went to Palestine, and spread learning
there (Suk. 20a). Their piety is extolled in Hul.
86a and B. M. 85b.

Judah was extremely diligent, and would spend
the entire week in the seminary away from his fam-
ily, going home only for the Sabbath (Ket. 62b).
Besides the discussions whicli Judah and Hezekiah
lield with .Tohaiian ('Al). Zaraii 46a) and Joshua b.
Levi (Zel). 116a), and the sayings that are ascribed
to both brothers, many maxims have been preserved
that belong to Judah alone. The following sentence
of his may be mentioned : " Cain did not know wjiere
life leaves the body, and consequently inflicted many
blows upon Abel before he finally wounded him in
the neck and killed him" (Sanh. 37b).

BiBi.iofiRAPiiY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. L 48-52; JYankel,

Mi.li'i, pp. Ula, 123b.

.1. J. Z. L.

JUDAH BEN ILAI : One of the most impor-
tant taunaim of the second century ; born at Usha,
a city of Galilee (Cant. R. ii.). Plis teachers Avere
his father (himself a pupil of Eliezer b. Hyrcanus),
Akiba, and Tarfon. He studied under the last-named
in early youth (Meg. 20a), and was so closely asso-
ciated with him that he even performed menial serv-
ices for him (Tosef., Neg. viii. 1). Judah b. Baba
ordained him as teacher at a time when the Roman
government forbade such a ceremony. Almost at
the beginning of Hadrian's persecution Judah ben
Ilai was forced to flee from Usha and conceal him-
self; and he often related episodes of the "times of
peril" (To.sef., 'Er. viii. 6; Suk. i. 7). When, after
the revocation of Hadrian's edicts of persecution,
the pupils of Akiba held their reunions and councils
in Usha, Judah received the right to express his
opinion before all others, thus being "Rosh ha-
jNIedabbebrim " (leader among the speakers), on the
ground that he was the best authority on the tradi-
tions (for other grounds see Cant. R. ii.,4; Ber.
63b; Shab. 33a). He was intimately associated
with the patriarc:h Simon b. Gamaliel II., in whose
house he is said to have been entrusted with the
decision in matters pertaining to the religious law
(Men. 104a). He was also able to win the con-
fidence of the Romans by his praise of their civili-
zine tendencies as shown in their construction of
bridges, highways, and market-places (Shab. 33a).

Judah's personal piety was most rigid; and he
observed many of the practises of the Hasidim and
the Essenes. He drank no wine ex-
Personal cept on the days Avhen the Law re-
Piety, quired, and preferred to eat only veg-
etable food (Ned. 49b). On Friday,
after he had bathed and clad himself in white to
prepare for the Sabbath, he seemed to his pupils an
angel. According to a later rule of interpretation,
Judah b. Ilai is meant in all passages reading, " It
once happened to a pious man" (B. K. 104a). He
was naturally passionate and irascible (Kid. 52b);
but such was his self-control that he seemed the re-
verse. Thus he once showed exceptional mildness
when he had au opportunity to reconcile a married
pair (Ned. 66b). The .study of the Law was his
chief and dearest occupation; and he lamented the
fact that such a devotion was no longer wide-spread
as in former times. Yet his interest in the joys and
sorrows of his fellow men was keener still. When-
ever a funeral or a wedding-procession passed, he
interrupted his study to join it (Ket. 17a).

Judah ben Ilai
Judah ben Lakish

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

344

Judah lived in the utmost poverty. His wife
made with her own hands a cloak which served
them both in turn: the wife as she went to the
market; the husband on his way to the college.
Nevertheless, he declined all assistance, since he had
accustomed himself to the simplest mode of life, and
on principle desired to have no delight in this world
(Ned. 40b). His high conception of the calling and
the responsibility of a teacher of the Law, as well
as his mild judgment of the multitude, was ex-
pressed in his interpretation of Isa. Iviii. 1: "Show
ray people their transgression " — that is, the teach-
ers of the Law, from wliose errors wickedness arises
— "and the liouse of Jacob their sins" — that is, the
ignorant, wliose wickedness is only error (B. M.
33b).

Judah often teaches the Mishnah of Eliezer, which
he had received from his father (Men. 18a), and fre-
quently explains the traditional hala-
Sources kot by particularizations introduced
of His by the phrases " Ematai ? " (= " When
Teaching, does this statement apply ? ") and " Ba-
nieh debarim amurim?" (= "In what
connection was this said?" Hul. v. 3; Ber. ii. 4).
His most frequent teachings, however, are tlie doc-
trines of his master Akiba. His own halakot he sets
forth in the form of midrashim (see Midrash Ha-
lakah); for, in bis view, mishnah and midrash are
identical (Kid. 49a). Those who devote themselves
only to the Mishnah, that is, to the stereotyped Hala-
kah without its Scriptural basis, he terms "ene-
mies " (B. M. 33b) ; but those who direct their atten-
tion to the Scriptures are "brothers." Yet it is only
they wlio interpret or expound the Bible who re-
ceive this latter name ; for he wlio makes a literal
translation of a verse of Scripture is a "liar," and
he who adds to it a "blasphemer" (Tosef., Meg.,
end).

In his interpretation of the Scriptures and in the
deduction of legal requirements from it Judah ad-
heres strictly to the method of his teacher Akiba,
whose rules of exegesis he adopts. It
Chief is thus that he explains a word ap-
Authority parently superfluous (Bek. 43b; Pes.
of Sifra. 42a), and employs the rules of "al
tikri" ('Ar. 13b) and "notarikon"
(Men. 29b). Nevertlieless, he interprets also ac-
cording to the older Halakah in cases where he de-
duces a definition from the literal wording of a pas-
sage, and bases Ins explanation strictly on its obvi-
ous meaning, "debarim ki-ketaban" (Pes. 21b, 91a;
Zeb. 59b). The greater portion of the Sifra, or lia-
lakic midrash on Leviticus which originated in the
school of Akiba, is to be attributed to Judah, nearly
all the anonymous statements in it being his, " Setam
Sifra H. Yehudah " ("Er. 96b). Of his exegetical
principles only one need be noted: "In the Holy
Scriptures certain phrases which border on blas-
phemy have been altered " (Mek., ed. Weiss, 46a).
Many liaggadic utterances and traditions of Ju-
dah's have been preserved. His traditions regard-
ing the Temple at Jerusalem are very numerous;
and special interest attaches to liis accounts of the
origin of the Temple of Onias (Men. 109b) and of
the Septuagint (Meg. 9), as well as to liis description
of the synagogue at Alexandria (Suk. 51b) and of

the conditions and institutions of antiquitj' (Tosef.,
Ter. i. 1 ; Shab. v. 2 ; and man}^ other passages).

Many of Judah 's maxims and proverbs have like-
wise been preserved ; a few are cited here : " Great is
beneficence : it quickeneth salvation " (B. B. 10a).
"Great is toil: it honoreth the toiler" (Ned. 49b).
" Who teacheth his son no trade, guideth him to rob-
bery " (Kid. 29a). "The best path lies midway"
(Ab. E. N. xxviii.).

Judah attained a very great age, surviving his
teachers and all of his colleagues. Among his dis-
ciples who paid him the last honors was Judah ha-
Nasi. His grave was shown at Ensetim beside the
tomb of his father ("Seder ha-Dorot," p. 169).

Bibliography: Frankel, Hndeqetica in Mischnam, pp. 158-
164, Leipslc, 1859; Briill, Einleitung in die Mischna, pp. 169-
178, Frankfort-on-the-Main ; Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. 452-460;
B&cher, Ag. Tan. ii. 191-224; Hoffmann, Einleitung in die
Halaclnsclien Midraschim, p. 26.
s. J. Z. L.

JXTDAH BEN ISAAC (known also as Judah.
Sir Leon of Paris): French tosafist; born in
Paris 1166; died there 1224 (Solomon Luria, Re-
sponsa. No. 29). According to Gross he was prob-
ably a descendant of Rashi, and a pupil of Isaac b.
Samuel of Dampierre and his son Elhanan. He
married a daughter of Abraham b. Joseph of Orleans,
who has been identified by Jacobs (" Jews of Angevin
England," p. 409) with Abraham fil Rabbi Joce,
chief Jew in London in 1186. In a list of that year
associated with Abraham occurs the name of Leo
Blund, whom Jacobs identifies with Judah ben
Isaac {ib. p. 88; comp. Bacher, in "J. Q. R." vi. 360).

Sir Leon must have left Paris in 1182, when all
Jews were expelled from the French king's domin-
ions; he did not return till 1198. According to
Gross, however, he received his chief training at
Dampierre under Simson of Sens, Simson of Coucy,
Solomon of Dreux, and Abraham b. Nathan of Lunel.
Shortly after 1198 he returned to Paris and founded
an important school of tosafists, in which were
trained, among others, Jehiel b. Joseph (Sir Leon's
successor), Isaac b. Moses (author of " Or Zarua' "),
Samuel b. Solomon (Sir Morel of Falaise), and Moses
of Coucy. He appears to have composed tosafot to
most of the tractates of the Talmud, traces being
found of his annotations to twenty tractates. The
only collection that has been published are his ad-
ditamenta to Berakot, published at Warsaw in 1863.
A long fragment of his tosafot to 'Abodah Zarah is
still extant in a manuscript that formerly belonged
to Luzzatto and Halberstam (" R. E. J." vii. 55)
and that is now in the possesion of Jews' College,
London. A few of his responsa are also found,
chiefly in various additions to the Mordecai, while
reference is also found to his commentary on the
Pentateuch, in which he appears to have followed
the method of RaSHBaM.

Judah wrote several poems — an Aramaic descrip-
tion of the Decalogue (Zunz, "Ritus," p. 198), a
pizmon (idem, "Literaturgesch." p. 329), and a piy-
yut (Landshuth, " 'Ammude ha-'Abodah," i. 68).
He is not, however, to be identified with the mys-
tical Judah Hasid, to whom are attributed the "Se-
fer ha-Hasidim " and an ethical will. Among the
writers whom Judah quotes may be mentioned
R. Amram, Sherira, Hai, and Nissim Gaon, Alfasi,

345

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah ben riai
Judah ben Laklsh

Maimonides, Elijah b. Menahern, Gershom b. Judah,

Jacob of Orleans, Jacob of Corbeil, Joseph Kara,

Joseph Bekor Shor, Yom-Tobof Joigny, aud Kaslji.

Bibliography: Gross, in Berliner's Maoazin, iv. 173-210;
idem, Gallia Jtidaira, pp. 519-534 ; Jacobs, Jews of AngevUi
England, pp. 406-416.
S. S. J.

JUDAH B. ISAAC IBN SHABBETHAI

HA-LEVI. See Judaii ibn Siiaiujetiiai.

JUDAH B. ISAAC IBN AVAKAR. See

Ibn Wakak, Judah ben Isaac.

JUDAH BEN JOSEPH PEREZ: Rabbi at
Venice aud Amsterdam in the first half of theeight-
eentli century. He wrote: "Seder Keri'e JMo'ed,"
cabalistic readings for the holy days (Venice, 170G) ;
"Perah Lebanon," sermons on the Pentateuch, to
■which he added "Nahal Etan," sermons and auto-
biography of his relative aud predecessor Isaac Ca-
vallero (Berlin, 1712); "Ska'are Rahamim," mystical
and cabalistic prayers, readings from the Zohar, etc.
(Venice, 1716) ; " Fundamento Solido," compendium
of Jewish theology in Spanish (Amsterdam, 1729);
" Aseretha-Debarim," ch. xix.-xx. of Exodus with
poetical paraphrases in Aramaic and Arabic, and
hymns in praise of Simeon ben Yohai {ib. 1737). He
also edited "Dibre Yosef," respousa of Joseph ben
Mordecai ha-Kohen of Jerusalem (Venice, 1715).

Bibliography: Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. Hi. 77-78; Steinschneider,
Cat. Bodl. col. 1366 ; Kayserllng, Bihl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 88.

D. S. Man.

JUDAH JUDGHAN. See Yudgiianites.

JUDAH B. KALONYMUS B. MEIR : Ger-
man historian and Talmudic lexicographer; flour-
ished in the second half of the twelfth century.
Judah came from one of the most celebrated Jewish
families of Germany. Kalonymus,Judah's father, was
a scholar, an elder in Speyer, and respected at court.
He was taught by his great-uncle Abraham b. Sam-
uel, by Judah (the brother of the pious Shemaiah b.
3I0RDECA1), and by his uncle ]\Ioscs b. Mei'r (of whom
nothing more is known). Judah was the author of
the following works: (1) "Agron," a Talmudic
lexicon, dealing especially with the "termini tech-
nici " of the Talmud ; (2) a treatise on benedictious,
treating especially the linguistic forms used ; (3)
tosafot to Bezah and Sotah; (4) a work in which
Judah enumerates all the persons mentioned in the
Talmud and the Midrash, and seeks to determine
their periods, examining critically and in detail all
the statements concerning them to be found in rab-
binical literature.

The last-given work is the only one of Judah 's
writings that has been, partially at least, preserved.
The Bodleian Library has two manuscripts contain-
ing parts of it; one (Xo. 2199 in Neubauer, "Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.") extends from ]nn2 to n'y*L^''
inclusive; the other (Xo. 2220, ib.) extends only to
|1S"lD. and is also otherwise shortened. Portions
of this lexicon, now generally called " Yihuse Tan-
naim wa-Amoraim," have been published in Stein-
schneider's article Np"in in "Ozar Xehmad " (ii. 29)
and in Goldberg's article XTQ "13 in " IIa->higgid "
(xi. 85, 93); and R. X. Rabbinowicz has published,
under the title "Yihuse Tannaim wa-Amoraim," in
the publications of the society Mckize Xirdamim
(Lyck, 1874), all that is given under the letter 3 in

MS. 2199. As the scope of this excerpt shows, the
book was laid out on a large scale ; in fact, the remnant
of it preserved in manuscript comprises 800 pages.

The great knowledge of the author, who was
master of the whole Talmudic literature, is excelled
only by his critical ability. Quite like a modern
critic, Judah went to work cautiously, and sifted
his material carefully. He not only compared par-
allel passages, but in doubtful cases he presented
collations from all the manuscripts he could find.
Besides Talmudic-Midrashic literature, he made use
of all the geonic and rabbinical writings. His lexi-
con is, therefore, of quite as much value for post-
Talmudic literature as for the Talmudic. Judah's
book is especially rich in material for the history of
German scholars of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Bibliography: Epstein, Das TaJmudische Lexicon Yihuse
Tannaim iva-Amoraitn, reprinted from Monat.vtch'rifU
xx.xix.; Goldberg, in Ha-Magfjid, xi. 85; R. N. Rabhinnwicz,
in the introduction to his edition of the fragments of Judah's
work ; Steinschneider, in Ozar Nehmad, ii. 29.
s. s. L. G.

JUDAH IBN KURAISH: Hebrew gramma-
rian aud lexicographer; born at Tahort, northern
Africa; flourished in the eighth and ninth centuries.
In his grammatical work he advanced little bej'ond
his predecessors, but his contributions to compara-
tive philology are of great value. He recognized
that the various Semitic languages are derived from
one source, and that, although different in their de-
velopment, they are subject to the same linguistic
laws. His " Risalah," a letter in Arabic to the com-
munity at Fez (ed. Barges and Goldberg, Paris,
1857), is the earliest known contribution to the
critical study of the Semitic languages. In the pref-
ace he warns the community of Fez not to neglect
the study of the Targumim, since thej' are impor-
tant for a correct knowledge of the Bible, which
coutains many Aramaisms. Judah's grammatical
researches were original, and he maintained his
views regardless of the 3Iishnah and the Talmud ;
hence he has been, erroneously, considered a Ka-
raite. He is said to have written, in addition to the
"Risalah," a dictionary, and a book on the Com-
mandments. Of these works, however, nothing
certain is known, although Judah himself mentions
the dictionary in the "Risalah."

Bibliography : Goldberg, preface to the Risalah. Paris. 18.57 ;
Karpeles, Ga^ch. der Jlidisclun Literatur, i. 4:5.5 ef »tq., Ber-
lin, 1S86 ; Winter and Wunsche, Die JUdische Litteratur, ii.

T""- J. Z. L.

JUDAH BEN LAKISH : Tanna of the second
century. His name occurs only in the Tosefta and
the Mekilla. He is the author of the halakah to the
effect that a corpse may be carried on the Sabbath
to save it from a fire (Shab. 43b). Besides this ha-
lakah, which is transmitted by him alone, there is
another (Tosef., Sanh. i. 7) which prescribes that
after a judge has heard both sides, and has formed
an opinion, he may not say: "I will not judge be-
tween you."

A few of Judah's haggadic utterances also have
been preserved ; e.g. : " The children of Israel had
two Arks of the Covenant. In one were the broken
tables of stone; in the other, the Book of the Torah "
(Tosef., Sotah, vii. 18). "The Ark of the Cove-
nant was not carried to Babylon, but was hidden in

Judah Leon
Judah ha-Levi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

346

the Temple itself " (Yoma 53a). " When a scholar
neglects learning, Prov. xxvil. 8 may be applied to
him " (Hag. 9b).
Bibliography : Briill, EinleUung in die Misclma, p. 249,

Frankfort-on-the-Maln ; Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 494^9o.

g J. Z. E.

JUDAH LEON DI LEONE : Italian rabbi
from 1796 to 1835. Sent as a messenger from He-
bron to Rome, he became rabbi in the latter city
during the troublous times following the struggles
of the Jews for emancipation and reform. He was
one of the collaborators to the collective work en-
titled N'^n-K ny2-1E^'K D^jain nnaoC Letters of

Italian Rabbis"), which first appeared at Leghorn,
then in a German translation at Hamburg, and was
subsequently translated into French. Judah repre-
sented the Jewish community when Pius VII. en-
tered Rome in 1800; the pope, however, did not
keep the promises of good-will toward the Jews
which he then made. While Rome was under
French rule Judah Avas director of the consistory of
Rome (1811). He could not preach there, as he did
not understand Italian. In his work "Hilkot Beko-
rot " he appears as a halakic author.

Bibliography: Vo.eelstein and Rieger, Gench.der Judenin
Rom. ii. 400; Nepi-Ghiroudi, Tolcdnt Gedole YUfrael, p. 166;
Berliner, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 2, 130.
s. I. E.

JUDAH LEONE B. ISAAC SOMMO (DE

SOMMI ; called also Leone Ebreo) : Italian writer
and dramatic critic and manager; died after 1591.
A scion of the Portaleone family of Mantua, he
lived first at Ferrara— where he was the friend of
Azariah del Rossi and became known as a scholar
and skilful penman— and then at Mantua {c. 1550-
1590). At the instance of the ducal court of Mantua
he then devoted himself entirely to the stage, as a
teacher of the theory and practise of the dramatic
art. In 1562, as a result of the appearance of his
poem " Drusilla," he was elected member of the Acca-
demia degli Invaghiti, and as he could not become
a "cavaliere," being a Jew, he received the title of
"Scrittore Accademico."

He was a prolific writer in Italian ; and his works,
which are extant in manuscript in sixteen volumes
at Turin, include dramas, dialogues on dramatic art,
and poems. The dialogues deal with: (1) the origin
and rules of the art of acting; (2) division of the
drama into five acts; (3) delivery, costumes, etc.;
(4) the actor; (5) scenery; (6) the entr'acte.

Judah considered Moses, the reputed author of the
Book of Job, as the originator of the drama. He
pretended to have translated from the Aramaic a
book, "Corso della Vita," in which a youth receives
instructions for correct living from his guardian
angel, and is then seduced by the Tempter. This
work, according to Judah, was intended for dra-
matic representation. For the Accademia Judah
wrote ten pieces including allegorical dramas on the
accession of princes and on their death. His lyrical
poems fill four volumes, and include .sonnets, can-
zones, and satires, which he dedicated to various
members of the house of Gonzaga and to the pope
as protector of the Accademia.

In the field of Jewish literature, Judah translated
forty-five Psalms in ottave rima, with superscrip-
tions in Hebrew. He also wrote "Magen Nashim,"

in Hebrew, an apology for woman, with an Italian
translation, which he dedicated to Hannah da Rieti.

Bibliography : Steinschnelder, Hebr. Bibl. vi. 94 ; idem, in
Monatsschrift. xlii. 467 et seq.: Rr. Letterbode, xii. 73; Pey-
ron, Xota di Stnria Letteraria. Turin, 1884 ; Uejob, De la
Conditinn des Juifs d Mantnue. in R. E. J. xxiii. 75; Ales-
sandro d'Ancona, Orioini del Teatro Italiano, ii. 401-427;
Vogelsteln and Rieger, Oesch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 103.
D. I. E.

JUDAH HA-LEVI (Arabic, Abu al-Hasan
al-Lawi) : Spanish philosopher and Hebrew poet;
born at Toledo, southern Castile, in the last quarter
of the eleventh century ; died in the Orient after
1140. If his birth is correctly assigned to 1085 or
1086 (Rapoport, in "Kerem Hemed," vii. 265), it oc-
curred about the time of the eventful conquest of
Toledo (May 24, 1085) by the Christian king Alfonso
VI. It is probable that Judah's father, Samuel "the
Castilian," sent Judah, who was his only son, to
Lucena to be educated in the various branches of
Jewish learning at the school of Isaac Alfasi. On
the death of his master, Judah composed an elegy
(Brody, "Diwan des Abul-Hasan Jehuda ha-Levi,"
ii., No. 14, p. 100). It was probably in Lucena, too,
that Judah won the friendship of Alfasi 's most
prominent pupils, Joseph ibn 3Iigas and Baruch
Albalia. Judah chose medicine as his profession;
but he early evinced a love for poetry and showed
marked poetic talent. He was well acquainted with
the productions of the Arabic and the
His Youth. Castilian poets; yet the muse spoke to
him in the old and sacred language of
the Bible, in which "he sang for all times and
places, soon becoming the favorite of the people"
(Zunz, " Literaturgesch. " p. 203). He became deeply
versed in Greco-Arabic philosophy also. The early
ripening of his poetic talent aroused the admira-
tion of his friend and senior, the poet Moses ibn
Ezra, who accorded him enthusiastic praise (see
Luzzatto in "Kerem Hemed, "iv. 86; Dukes, "Moses
ibn Ezra," p. 987; Geiger, "Diwan des Castilier's
Abu'l-Hassan," pp. 15,^20).

After completing his studies, which he, being in
easy circumstances, had been able to pursue delib-
erately, Judah returned to Toledo, where he soon
acquired so large a practise that he complained in
a letter to his friend David Narboni (Brody, I.e. i.
224, 225) of a lack of tranquillity and leisure. He
married in Toledo; and from allusions in some of
his poems it is evident that his only child was a
daughter, through whom he had a grandson, also
named Judah.

Judah ha-Levi does not seem to have been con-
tented in Toledo; for he removed to the Moham-
medan city of Cordova. Even here he did not feel at
ease. Though personally he occupied an honored
position as a physician, he felt the intolerance of
the Almoravid fanatics toward his coreligionists.
He had long yearned for a new, or rather for the old,
home — for the Holy Land. This yearning was deep-
ened by his intense application to his
Journey religio-philosophical work and by his
to the resultingclearer insight into Judaism;
Holy Land, and at length he decided to set out on
a journey to Palestine. For himself
at least, he wished "to do away with the contradic-
tion of daily confessing a longing and of never at-

347

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah Lieon
Judah ha-Levi

templiug to realize it " (Kaufinann, "Jehuda Ilale-
vi'"); and therefore, on the death of his wife, lie
bade farewell to daughter, grandson, pupils, friends,
rank, and affluence. There was only one image in
his heart — Jerusalem :

" O city of the world, most chastely fair.
In the far West, behold I sigh for thee.
*********

Oh ! had I eaple's wings, I'd fly to thee.

And with my falling tf^ars make moist thine earth."

(Brody, I.e. li. 16" ; version in Lady Magnus' "Jewish Portraits.")

After a stormy passage he arrived in Alexandria,
where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends
and admirers. At Damietta he had to struggle
against the promptings of liis own heart and the
pleadings of his friend Halfon ha-Levi that he re-
main in Egypt, which also was Jewish soil and free
from intolerant oppression. He, liowever, resisted
the temptation to remain there, and started on the
tedious land route trodden of old by the Israelitish
wanderers in tiie desert. Again he is met with, worn
out, with broken heart and whitened hair, in Tyre
and Damascus. Here authentic records fail ; but Jew-
ish legend has taken up the broken threads of his-
tory and woven them further. It is related tiiat as
he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight
of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy,
the celebrated "Zionide," "Zion ha-loTish"ali." At
that instant he was ridden down and killed b}^ an
Arab, who dashed forth from a gate (Gedaliah ibn
Yahya, "Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah," ed. Venice, p.
40b).

The life-work of Judah ha-Levi was devoted to
poetry and philosophy. His poetry is usually classi-
fied tmder the heads of secular and religious, or, as
in Brody's new edition of the "Diwan," under litur-
gical and non-liturgical. Such a division, however,
can be only external ; for the essential characteristic
of Judah's poems — wliich are the e.xpression of a
deeply religious soul — is the lofty key to which they
are attuned. Even in his drinking- and love-songs
an attentive reader may hear the vibrations of relig-
ion's overtones.

The first place in his secular or non -liturgical
poetry is Occupied by poems of friendship and
eulogy. Judali must have possessed
His Secu- an attractive personality ; for there
lar Poetry, gathered about him as friends, even in
his earliest youth, a large number of
illustrious men, like Levi al-Tabban of Saragossa,
the aged poet Judah ben Abun, Judah ibn Ghayyat
of Granada, Moses ibn Ezra and Ins brotliers Judah,
Joseph, and Isaac, the vizier Abu al-Hasan, Meir
ibn Kamuial, the physician and poet Solomon ben
Mu'allam of Seville, and Samuel ha-Nagid of ]\Ialaga,
besides his schoolmates Joseph ibn >[igasand Baruch
Albalia. He was associated also with the gramma-
rian Abraham ibn Ezra; but the assertion that the
latter was tlie son-in-law of Judah is one of the tic-
lions of Gedaliah ibn Yahya ("Shalshelet ha-Kab-
balah," ed. Amsterdam, p. 41a). Equally incorrect
is the statement made by the author of " Yuhasin "
(ed Amsterdam, p 186) that the two were cousins.
In Cordova Judah addressed a touching farewell
poem to Joseph ibn Zaddik. the pliilosopher and
poet (Geiger, " Nachgelassene Schriften," p. 159).

In Egypt, where the most celebrated men vied with
one another in entertaining him, his reception was
a veritable triumph. Here his particular friends
were Aaron ben Jeshua Alamani in Alexandria, the
nagid Samuel ben Hananiah in Cairo ("Monats-
schrift," xl. 417 et seq.), Halfon ha-Levi in Damietta,
and an unknown man in Tyre, probably his last
friend. In their sorrow and joy, in the creative
spirit and all that moved the souls of these men,
Judah sympathetically shared; as he says in the
beginning of a short poem (Brody, I.e. i.. No. 4.5):
"My heart belongs to you, ye noble souls, who
draw me to you with bonds of love " (comp. Geiger,
I.e. iii. 123).

Especially tender and plaintive is Judah's tone in
his elegies (Brody, I.e. ii. 67 et seq.). Many of them
are dedicated to friends. Besides those composed
on the deaths of the brothers Judah (ih. Nos. 19,
20), Isaac {ib. No. 21), and JMoses ibn Ezra {ib. No.
16), R. Baruch {ib. Nos. 23, 28), Meir ibn Migas {ih.
No. 27), his teacher Isaac Alfasi {ib. No. 14), and
others, one of the most affecting is that on Solomon
ibn Farisscl, who was murdered on May 3, 1108.
The news Oi this friend's death suddenly clianged
Judah's poem of eulogy (Nos. 11, 22) into one of
lamentation {ib. Nos. 12, 13, 93 et seq.), which for
grandeur and loftiness of tone has been compared to
David's lament over Jonathan.

Joyous, careless youth, and meny, happy delight

in life find their expression in his love-songs ' b. ii.

1 et seq.). Many of these are ef .ihala-

Love- mia, and are characterized bj' a bril-

Song-s. liant Oriental coloring as well as by a
chaste reserve (see "Betulat Bet Ye-
hudah," ed. Luzzatto, passim). In Egj-pt, where
the muse of his youth found a glorious Indian sum-
mer in the circle of liis fi lends, he wrote his swan-
song:

" Wondrous is this land Ui see.

With perfume its meadows laden,
But more fair than all to me

Is yon slender, gentle ma'den.
Ah, Time's swift flight 1 fain would stay.
Forgetting that my locks are gray."

(Geiger, I.e. p. 168.)

Drinking-songs and enigmas in rime bj' Judah
have also been preserved (Brody, I.e. ii. 189 et seq.).

If one may speak of religious geniuses Judah ha-
Levi must certainly be regarded among the greatest
produced by medieval Judaism. No
His other man, it would seem, drew so

Religious near to God as Judah; none else knew

Poetry. how to cling to Him so closely, or felt
so safe in His shadow. At limes the
body is too narrow for him : tlie soul yearns for its
Father in heaven, and would break through the
earthly shell (S. D. Luzzatto, "Diwan," No. 14;
Heller, "Die Echten Melodien," p. 227). Without
God his soul would wither away ; nor is it well with
him except he prays (Luzzatto, I.e. No. 57; Heller,
I.e. p. 135). The thought of God allows him no
rest; early and late He is his best beloved, and is
his dearest concern (Heller, I.e. p. 82; "Tal Orot."
No. 12). He occupies the mind of the poet waking
and sleeping; and the thought of Him. the impulse
to praise Him, rouse Judah from his couch by night
(Luzzatto, I.e. No. 81 ; Heller, I.e. p. 229) Although

Judah ha-Levi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

348

Judah strives to be free from subjection unto many,
he rejoices that he is subject to the One, whose
servant he gladly designates himself; for he may
win the grace of God throughout eternity. Char-
acterized by "noble grandeur and quiet simplicity,"
the short poem in Luzzatto, I.e. (No. 28) and in
Heller, I.e. (p. 152) is most effective, and might be
entitled "TJie Higher Peace," after a similar poem
by the German poet Heinrich von Kleist. When
Judah is ill Jic hopes to be cured by God's grace
rather than by the medicines he himself has prepared
(Geiger, I.e. p. 117). Even during the voyage, amid
storms and surrounded by rough sailors, over whom
only the pilot has any authority (Brody, I.e. ii., No.
16; Geiger, I.e. p. 164), Judah finds peaceful trust
in God; and his poems (Brody, I.e. ii. 168 et seq.),
composed on the sea, are among the most beautiful
of his religious lyrics. In all situations in life God
is the friend to whom his heart turns in the fulness
of its longing. If God is with him, all is bright in
his "narrow prison," and sorrow's gloom dissolves in
gladness.

Next to God, the poet's people stand nearest to
his heart: their sufferings and hopes are his. Like
the authors of the Psalms, he gladly sinks his own
identity in the wider one of the people of Israel ; so
that it is not always easy to distinguish the person-
ality of the speaker. No other Jew-
Patriot- ish poet is so steeped in recollections
ism. of the ancient history of Israel when

singing of the tokens of God's love
to His chosen people. Whenever Judah reflects on
his coreligionists, the reproachful question rises, de-
spite his reverence: " Wliy hast Thou sold us to the
oppressors?" (Luzzatto, I.e. No. 11). "Shall we be
captives forever in a strange land?" (Heller, I.e. p.
101 ; " Tal Orot," No. 2). " How long must our anx-
ious hopes dragon? " (Heller, I.e. p. 126; Brody, I.e.
No. 70). "When shall the morn of freedom dawn
for Israel? " On earth none can or will answer him ;
yet while " Edom and Ishmael riot in the Holy City "
(Heller, I.e. p. 44; "Tal Orot," No. 6) and Israel
everywhere is in bondage, his prayers shall wring
from heaven the redemption of his people. How
he prays for "new life," for "refreshment for the
weary flower " — Israel ! Through temporary resig-
nation and despair (Plellor, I.e. p. 1; "Tal Orot^"
No. 71) the poet figlits his way to confldence and
hope; for "the prophet hatli foretold all" {ih.). He
represents Israel calling upon God with tender per-
suasion to set him free:

" Come, Beloved, come thou to me,
In the bower of lilacs woo me ;
Slay the fiends that would pursue me.
" Harps and chimes and cups all golden
To the joy of old embolden,
'Neath the radiant glory olden."

(Heller, I.e. p. 77; "Tal Orot," No. 8.)
God answers, giving to His peojile new comfort to-
gether witli new strength for endurance (Heller, I.e.
p. 77; "Tal Orot," No. 8):

" Bide thou thy time— within thy soul be peace,
Nor a.sk complaining when thy pain shall cease;
Speak, rime, and sing, for victory is thine.
Nigh thee my tent is pitched, and thou art mine."

(Zunz, "G. S." i. 131.)
Often Judah's poetic fancy finds joy in the radi-
ant thouglit of the return of his people (Heller, I.e.

p. 226; Brody, "Diwan," No. 6). Then his words
seem to be tlie music of the harp (Geiger, I.e. p.
145) ; and he summons Israel, " the dove in a strange
land," to jubilant rejoicing over her triumphant re-
turn {ib.). The period of political agitation about
1130, when Islam (so intensely hated by the poet)
was gradually losing ground before the victorious
arms of the Christians, gave Judah reason to hope
for sucii a return in the near future. The vision of
the night, in which this was revealed to him (Geiger,
I.e. p. 154), remained indeed but a dream; yet Judah
never lost faith in the eventual deliverance of Israel
and in the eternity of his people. On this subject
he has expressed himself in the poem:

" Lo ! sun and moon, these minister for aye ;
The laws of day and night cea.se nevermore :
Given for signs to Jacob's seed that they

Shall ever be a nation— till these be o'er.
If with His left hand He should thrust away,
Lo ! with His right hand He shall draw them nigh."
(Luzzatto, I.e. No. 61 ; transl. by Nina Davis in " Songs of

Exile," p. 49.)
The remarkable and apparently indissoluble union
of religion, nationalism, and patriotism characteris-
tic of post-exilic Judaism reached its
Represent- acme in Judah ha-Levi and his poetry,
ative Yet this very union in one so consist-
Character ent as Judah demanded the fulfilment
of His of the supreme politico-religious ideal
Poetry. of medieval Judaism — the return to
Jenisalem. Though his impassioned
call to his contemporaries to return to Zion might
be received with indifference or even with mockery
(Luzzatto, I.e. No. 86), his own decision to go to
Jerusalem never wavered. " Can we liope for any
other refuge either in the East or in the West where
we may dwell in safety? " he exclaims to one of his
opponents (i5.). The songs that accompany his pil-
grimage (Brody, Z.(^. ii. 153) sound like one great
symphony wherein the "Zionidcs" — the single mo-
tive ever varied — voice the deepest soul-life alike of
the Jewish people and of each individual Jew. The
most celebrated of these " Zionides, " with its remark-
able monotony, is found in every Jewish liturgy,
and is usually repeated in the synagogue on the
Ninth of Ab (Brody, I.e. ii. 155). It has been trans-
lated into German by Herder. Mendelssohn, and
many other modern writers; into French by Munk;
into Dutch by L. Wagenaar ("Isr. Letterbode," v.
ISetseci.); into Italian by Benedetti; into Russian
by Harkavy; repeatedly into English; and into
other European languages. The following is the
English translation by Nina Davis {I.e. p. 37) of the
opening lines:

" Zion, wilt thou not ask if peace's wing

Shadows the captives that ensue thy peace.
Left lonely from thine ancient shepherding ?

" Lo ! west and east and north and south— world-wide—
All those from far and near, without surcease.
Salute thee: Peace and Peace from eveiy side."

The poems of Judah lia-Levi which have been

adopted into the liturgy number in all more than

300. Every season, Avhether of sor-

Synagogal row or of joj', has been enriched by

Poetry. his songs. A summary of them has

been given by Zunz {I.e. pp. 203 rt .'<e'/. ;

Appendix, pp. 8-10, 33, 55, and by Landshuth

("'Anunude ha-'Abodah," pp. 70 et seq.). The

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Censored Page kkom the First Edition of Jidau ha-Levi's "Cuzari," Fano. IJOu.

(In the possession of George Alexander Kobut, New York.)

Judah ha-Levi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

350

longest and most comprehensive poem is a "ke-
dushshali," which summons all the universe to
praise God with rejoicing, and which terminates,
curiously enough, in Ps. ciii. (Sachs, "Die Re-
ligiose Poesie der Juden in Spauien," pp. 304 tt
seq.). These poems were carried to all lands, even
as far as India (Zunz, "Ritus," p. 57); and they
influenced the rituals of the most distant countries.
Even the Karaites incorporated some of them into
their prayer-book ; so that there is scarcely a syna-
gogue in which Judah's songs are not sung in the
course of the service (Zunz, "S. P." p. 231). The
following criticism of Judah's synagogal poems is
made by Zunz {ib.): "As the perfume and beauty
of a rose are within it, and do not come from with-
out, so with Judah word and Bible passage, meter
and rime, are one with the soul of the poem ; as in
true works of art, and always in nature, one is never
disturbed by anything external, arbitrary, or ex-
traneous."

Judah by his verses has also beautified the religious
life of the home. His Sabbath hymns should be
mentioned here, one of the most beautiful of which
ends with the words:

" On Friday doth my cup o'erflow,
"What blissful rest the night shall know,
When, in thine arms, my toil and wo
Are all forgot, Sabbattwny love !

" 'Tls dusk, with sudden light, distilled
From one sweet face, the world is filled ;
The tumult of my heart is stilled—
For thou art come. Sabbath my love !

" Bring fruits and wine and sing a gladsome lay.
Cry, ' Come in peace, 0 restful Seventh day I ' "

'Heller, I.e. p. 19 ; " Tal Orot," No. 1 : transl. by S. Solis-Cohen.)

"The use of foreign {i.e., Arabic) meters destroys
the essence of the Hebrew language, which is based
on homophony and results in harmony," is the ob-
.servation put into tlie mouth of the rabbi in Judah
ha-Levi's "Cuzari" (ii., § 74), together with other
original remarks on the Hebrew language (comp.
Friedlander in Kohut ^lemorial Volume, pp. 139 et
seq.). Nevertheless, Judah himself used the most
complicated Arabic meters in his poems with much
good taste (for further details see H. Brody, "Stu-
dien zu den Dichtungen Jehuda ha-Levi's," Berlin,
1895). A later critic, applj'ing a Talmudic witti-
cism to Judah, has said : " It is hard for the dough
when the baker himself calls it bad." Although
these forms came to him naturally and without
effort, unlike the mechanical versifiers of liis time
(see "Cuzari," v. 16), he would not except himself
from the number of those he had blamed. His
pupil Solomon Parhon, who wrote at Salerno in
1160, relates that Judah repented having used the
new metrical methods, and had declared he would
not again employ them. That Judah felt them to
be out of place, and that he opposed their use at the
very time when they were in vogue, plainly shows
his desire for a national Jewish art independent in
form as well as in matter.

Judah was recognized by his contemporaries as
the great Jewish national poet, and in succeeding
generations by all the great scholars and writers in
Israel (see, e.g., Al-Harizi, "Tahkemoni,"makamahs
lii., xviii.). His equal in poetic ability, Heiurich

Heine, has paid him a tribute of honor in his " Ro-
mancero " (see E. A. Bowring, " The Poems of
Heine," p. 476, London, 1859).

So far as is known, the first to collect the poems
of Judah ha-Levi into a diwan was R. Hiyya al-
Ma'arabi, probably a younger friend of the poet. R.
Jeshua bar Elijah ha-Levi used this diwan as tlie
basis for a new and larger collection, a manuscript
of which has been found in Tunis. In
MSS. his interesting Arabic preface (trans-
lated into German in Geiger, I.e.),
Jeshua states that, besides Hiy5-a's collection, he
had two others before him, made respectively by
David ben Maimon and Abu Sa'id ibn Alkash (?),
from which he took some material. Further, he
says that he added songs and piyyutim which R.
Hiyya had omitted because in the time of the latter
they were generally known and were to be found
in every Mahzor. Jeshua, however, does not im-
ply that all the poems added by him were written
by Judah ha-Levi. On the contrary, he lays spe-
cial emphasis on the need of caution, particu-
larly in cases where there is only an incomplete
signature, as "Judah" or "Levi." He divides his
diwan of 816 poems into three parts: (1) poems, for
the most part secular in tone, having the same meter
and rime throughout; (2) strophic poems, mostly
religious in character, in which every strophe has a
different rime, although the last line of each strophe
has the same rime ; (3) poems of varied metrical
structure, mostly piyyutim, and a few letters in
rimed prose. Jeshua usually designates in a short
superscription the contents and the occasion of the
poem. The Bodleian Library contains two manu-
script diwans of Judah ha-Levi (Neubauer, " Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 1970, 1, with the title "Maha-
ueh Yehudah " ; a more recent collection, ib. No.
1971, corresponds to the Tunis manuscript, but is
more complete).

The chief published collections of Judah's poems

are: (1) "Betulat Bat Yehudah," ed. S. D. Luz-

zatto, Prague, 1840 ; (2) " Diwan, " also

Editions, edited by Luzzatto, Lyck (Mekize

Nirdamim), 1864; (3) "Tal Orot," by

the same editor, published by EisigGraber, Przemysl,

1881; (4) " Ginze Oxford, "ed.Edelmann and Dukes,

London, 1851; (5) "Rabbi Yehudah ha-Levi," by A.

Harkavy, Warsaw ("Ahiasaf"), 1893-95; (6) "Bet

ha-Behirah," by Samuel Philipp, Lemberg, 1888

(mainly a reprint of Luzzatto's "Diwan"); (7)

"Diwan des Abul-Hasan Jehuda ha-Levi," a new

and complete edition by H. Brody, Berlin (Mekize

Nirdamim), 1894 et seq.

Some of Judah's poems have been translated into
European languages. The most promi-
Transla- nent translators are:
tions. German : A. Geiger (" Diwan des

Castilier's Abu'l-Hassan," etc., Bres-
lau, 1851); Heller ("Die Echten Ilebriiischen Melo-
dien," ed. D. Kaufmann. Berlin, 1893); Kiimpf
("Nichtandalusische Poesie Andalusischer Dichter,"
Prague, 1858); Sachs ("Die ReligiSse Poesie der
Juden in Spanien," Berlin, 1845); Steinschneider
("Manna," ib. 1847); Sulzbacii ("Dichtungen aus
Spanien 's Besseren Tagen," Frankfort-on-the-Maiii
1873); and Zunz ("S. P." Berlin, 1855).

351

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah ha-Levi

English: M. H. Bresslau (in "Ginze Oxford,"
Loudon, 1851) ; Nina Davis (" Songs of Exile," Phila-
delphia, 1901); Edward G. King (in "J. Q. R." vii.
464); J. Jacobs ("Jewish Ideals," London, 1896); E.
Lazarus ("Songs of a Semite," New York, 1882);
Alice Lucas (in "The Jewish Year," London, 1898);
Lady Magnus ("Jewish Portraits," ib. 1897).

French : J. Weill (in "R. E. J." xxxviii., p. Ixv. ;
Italian: S. de Benedetti (" Canzoniere Sacrodi Giuda
Levita," Pisa, 1871); Russian: S. Frug (in "Vos-
khod ") and A. Harkavy {ib.). Other translations oc-
cur in the various Mahzorim renderings.

Bibliography: Of the mass of literature on Judah ha-Levi
only the more important summaries of his life and poetry can
be given here: I. Abrahams, Jeif/s/i I/ifcrrtti»-e, pp. 126 e(
seq.\ J. Dereubourg, in Journal Asiatique^ 1865, ii. 264 et scq.;
A. Geiger, Diivan des CastiUer's Ahu'l-Hasmn Juda ha-
Levi. Breslau, 1851 (partly reprinted in his JS'achyclassenc
Schriftoi, u\.97etscq.); Griitz, Gctich. vi. 11" et seq.; Har-
kavy, R. Yelmda ha-Levi. in Vnshhod, 1881 (Hebrew transl.
by A. S. Friedberg, in Rabbinowitz. Kene^et I'l.srar (, i. 4'.t et
.sfj.); J. Jacobs, Jewish Ideals, pp. 103 et seq.; D. Kaufmann,
Jehuda Halevi. Breslau, 1877; Lady Magnus, JcH'fe?i Por-
traits, pp. 1 et seq.; Pinkusfeld, Juda ha-Levi Mint Gram-
mat ikuses Excgcta. Budapest, 1887; Sachs, Die RcUyiOse
Poesie der J^^den. pp. 287 et seq.; Steinschneider, Jewish
Literature, Index; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jlidixclie Lit-
teratur, iii. 40 et scq., 120 et scq.; J. Weill, in K. E. J.
xxxviii., p. Ixv.
G. M. Sc.

As Philosopher : The po.sition of Judah ha-
Levi in the domain of Jewish philosophy is parallel
to that occupied in Islam by Ghazali, by whom he
was influenced (comp. Kaufmann, "Attributen-
Ichre," pp. 119 et seq.). Like Ghazali, Judah en-
deavored to liberate religion from the bondage of the
various philosophical systems in wJiich it had been
held by his predecessors, Saadia, David ben Marwan
al-Mekamez, Gabirol, and Bahya. In a work writ-
ten in Arabic and entitled "Kitab al Hujjah wal-
Dalil fi Nusr al-i)in al-Dhalil" (known in the Hebrew
translation of Judah ibn Tibbon by the title " Sefer
lia-Kuzari," and cited in this article as tha " Cuzari "),
Judah ha-Levi expounded his views upon the teach-
ings of Judaism, wliich he defended against the at-
tacks of philosophers, heretics, Karaites, etc.

The work is divided into five essaj^s ("ma'ama-
rim "), and takes the form of a dialogue between tlie
pagan king of the Chazars and a Jew who had been
invited to •instruct him in the tenets of the Jewish
religion. After a short account of the incidents pre-
ceding the conversion of the king, and of the con-
versations of the latter Avith a pliilosopher, a Chris-
tian, and a Moslem concerning their respective
beliefs, the Jew appears on the stage, and by his
first statement startles the king; for, instead of giv-
ing him proofs of the existence of God, lie asserts and
explains the miracles performed by Him in favor of
the Israelites. The king expresses his astoni.shment
at this exordium, which seems to him incoherent;
but the Jew replies that the existence of God, the
creation of the world, etc., being taught by religion,
do not need any speculative demonstrations. Fur-
ther, he propounds the principle upon
Main which his religious system is founded ;
Principle namely, that revealed religion is far
of the superior to natural religion. For the
"Cuzari." aim of ethical training, which is the
object of religion, is not to create in
man good intentions, but to cause him to perform
good deeds. This aim can not be attained by philoso-

phy, which is undecided as to the nature of good,
but can be secured by religious training, which
teaches what is good. As science is the sura of all
the particles of truth found by successive genera-
tions, so religious training is ba.sed upon a set of
traditions; in other words, history is an important
factor in the development of human culture and
science.

Now as the Jews are the only depositaries of a
written history of the development of the human
race from the beginning of the world, the superior-
ity of their traditions can not be denied. No com-
parison is possible l)etween JewLsh culture, which
is based upon religious truth, and Greek culture,
which is based upon science only; for the wisdom
of the Greek philosopjiers lacked that divine sup-
port with which the Prophets were endowed. Had
a trustworthy tradition that the world was created
out of nothing been known to Aristotle, he would
have supported it by at least as strong arguments as
those advanced by him to prove tlie
" Creatio eternity of matter. Belief in the eter-
ex Nihilo." nity of matter, however, 'is not abso-
lutely contrary to Jewish religious
ideas; for the Biblical narrative of the Creation re-
fers only to the beginning of the human race, and
does not preclude the possibilitj' of preexistent mat-
ter. Still, relying upon tradition, the Jews believe
in "creatio ex nihilo," whicli theory can be sustained
by as powerful arguments as those advanced in
favor of the belief in the eternity of matter. The
objection that the Absolutely Infinite and Perfect
could not have produced imperfect and finite beings,
made by the Neoplatonists to the theory of "creatio
ex nihilo," is not removed by attributing the exist-
ence of all mundane things to the action of nature;
for the latter is only a link in the chain of causes
having its origin in the First Cause, which is God.

Having established that revelation and not specu-
lative philosophy is the only trusty guide to the
knowledge of God, the Jew proceeds to demonstrate
the superiority of his i-eligion. The preservation of
the Israelites in Egypt and in the wilderness, the
delivery to them of the Law on Blount Sinai, and
their later history are to him so many evident proofs
of their superiority. He impresses
Superi- upon the king the fact that the favor
ority of of God can be won only by accom-
Judaism. plishing the precejits in all iheir minu-
tia', and that those precepts are bind-
ing only on the adherents of Judaism. The ques-
tion why the Jews only were thus favored with God's
instruction is as little worthy of consideration as
would be the question why the animals had not
been cieated men. The Jew then shows that the
immortality of the soul, resurrection, reward, and
punishment are all implied in Scripture and are re-
ferred to in Jewisli writings.

In the second essay Judah enters into a detailed
discussion of some of the theological questions
hinted at in the preceding one. To these belongs in
the first place that of the divine attributes. Judah
rejects entirely the d(K-trine of essential attributes
wliich liad been proiiounded by Saadia and Bahya.
For liim there is no difference between essential and
other attributes. Either the attribute affirms a quality

Judah ha-Levi
Judah Low

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

352

in God, in which case essential attributes can not be
applied to Him more than can any other, because
it is impossible to predicate anything
Question of Him, or the attribute expresses
of only the negation of the contrary

Attributes, quality, and in that case there is
no harm in using any kind of at-
tributes. Accordingly Judah divides all the attri-
butes found in the Bible into three classes: active,
relative, and negative, which last class comprises
all the essential attributes expressing mere negations.

The question of attributes being closely connected
with that of anthropomorphism, Judah enters into
a lengthy discussion on this point. Although op-
posed to the conception of the corporeality of God,
as being contrary to Scripture, he would consider
it wrong to reject all the sensuous concepts of an-
thropomorphism, as there is something in these ideas
which tills the human soul with the awe of God.

The remainder of the essay comprises dissertations
on the following subjects: the excellence of Pales-
tine, the land of prophecy, which is to other coun-
tries what the Jews are to other nations; the sacri-
fices; the arrangement of the Tabernacle, which,
according to Judah, symbolizes the human body ; the
prominent spiritual position occupied by Israel,
whose relation to other nations is that of the heart to
the limbs ; the opposition evinced by Judaism toward
asceticism, in virtue of the principle that the favcn*
of God is to be won only by carrying out His pre-
cepts, and that these precepts do not command man
to subdue the inclinations suggested by the faculties
of the soul, but to use them in their due place and
proportion ; the excellence of the Hebrew language,
which, although sharing now the fate of the Jews,
is to other languages what the Jews are to other
nations and what Palestine is to other lands.

The third essay is devoted to the refutation of the
teachings of Karaism and to the history of the de-
velopment of the oral tradition, the Talmud. Judah
ha-Levi shows that there is no means of carrying
out the precepts without having recourse to oral
tradition; and that such tradition has always existed
may be inferred from many passages of the Bible,
the very reading of which is dependent upon it, since
there were no vowels and accents in the original text.

The fourth essay opens with an anal3'sis of the
various names of God found in the Bible. Accord-
ing to Judah, all these names, with
Names of the exception of the Tetragrammaton,
God. are attributes expressing the various

states of God's activity in the world.
The multiplicity of names no more implies a multi-
plicity in His es.sence than do the multifarious influ-
ences of the rays of the sun on various bodies imply
a multiplicitj' of suns. To the intuitive vision of
the prophet the actions proceeding from God appear
under the images of the corresponding human ac-
tions. Angels are God's messengers; and either
they exist for a lengtli of time, or they are created
only for special purposes.

From the names of God and the essence of angels
Judah passes to his favorite theme and shows that
the views of the Prophets are a purer source for a
knowledge of God than the teacliings of the philos-
ophers. Although he professes great reverence for

the "Sefer Yezirah," from which he quotes many
passages, he hastens to add that the theories of
Abraham elucidated therein had been held by the
patriarch before God revealed Himself to him. The
essay concludes with examples of the astronomical
and medical knowledge of the ancient Hebrews.

The fifth and last essay is devoted to a criticism
of the various philosophical systems known at the
time of the author. Judah attacks by turns the
Aristotelian cosmology, ps3'chology, and metaphys-
ics. To the doctrine of Emanation, based, accord-
ing to him, upon the Aristotelian cos-
Arguments mological principle that no simple

Against being can produce a compoimd being,

Philoso- he objects in the form of the following
phy. query : " Why did the emanation stop
at the lunar sphere? Why should
each intelligence think only of itself and of that
from which it issued and thus give birth to one ema-
nation, thinking not at all of the preceding intelli-
gences, and thereby losing the power to give birth
to many emanations?" He argues against the the-
ory of Aristotle that the soul of man is his thought
and that only the soul of the philosopher will be
united, after the death of the body, with the active
intellect. "Is there," he asks, "any curriculum of
the knowledge one has to acquire to win immortal-
ity ? How is it that the soul of one man differs from
that of another? How can one forget a thing once
thought of? " and many other questions of the kind.
He shows himself especially severe against the
Motekallamin, whose arguments on the creation of
the world, on God and His unity, he terms dialectic
exercises and mere phrases.

However, Judah ha-Levi is against philosophical
speculation only in matters concerning Creation,
God, etc. ; and he follows the Greek philosophers
in treating of the genesis of the material world.
Thus he admits that every being is made up of mat-
ter and form. The movement of the spheres formed
the sphere of the elements, from the fusion of which
all beings were created. This fusion, which varied
according to climate, gave to matter the potentiality
to receive from God a variety of forms, from the
mineral, which is the lowest in the scale of creation,
to man, who is the highest because of his possessing,
in addition to the qualities of the mineral, vegetable,
and animal, a hylic intellect which is influenced by
the active intellect. This hylic intellect, which
forms the rational soul, is a spiritual substance
and not an accident, and is therefore imperishable.
The discussion concerning the soul and its facul-
ties leads naturally to the question of free will.
Judah upholds the doctrine of free will against the
Epicureans and the Fatalists, and endeavors to recon-
cile it with the belief in God's providence and om-
niscience (see Fkee Will).

Altliough the " Cuzari " failed to stem the philo-
sophical flood which, at the time of the appearance
of the work, was inundating Judaism,

Influence it exercised a great influence upon the
of the theologians. It was much studied;

" Cuzari." and traces of it are to be found in all

the theological and cabalistic writings

of the Middle Ages, not excluding even the Zohar,

which borrowed from it several passages, among

363

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah ha-Levl
Judah Low

them the saying, "Israel is among the nations as
the heart among the limbs" (Zohar, iii. 221b; comp.
Jacob Emden, "Mitpahat Sefarim," i., § 5; Jellinek,
"Beitrage zur Gesch. der Kabbala,"i. 76). Besides
the Hebrew translation of Judah ibn Tibbon, which
passed through eleven editions (1st ed. Fauo, 1506;
last ed. by David Cassel, Leipsic, 1869), another
rendering into Hebrew was made by Judah ben
Isaac Cardinal, at the beginning of the thirteenth
century. The study of the " Cuzari " seems to have
become very popular in the fifteenth century. No
less than six commentaries on it appeared in the
first half of that century ; namely : three by Solo-
mon ben Menahem Frat Maimonandhis two pupils;
one by Jacob ben Hayyim Vidal Farissol, under the
title "Bet Ya'akob"; one by Solomon ben Judah
Vivas, entitled " Heshek Shelomoh " ; and one by
Nathanael Caspi. In addjtion to these commentaries,
which are still extant in manuscript, there have been
published in the various editions of the " Cuzari "
the commentaries of Judah Mercato (1589-94),
Isaac Satanow (1795), Israel Zamosc (1796), G.
Brecher (Prague, 1838), and Israel Halevy (Pres-
burg, 1860). The " Cuzari " was translated into
Latin by Buxtorf (1660); into Spanish by Jacob
Abendana (1663); and into German by Jolowicz and
David Cassel. Another German version, translated
from the Arabic original, was published at Breslau
in 1885 by Hartwig Hirschfeld, who two years later
critically edited the Arabic and Hebrew texts (Leip-
sic, 1887).

S. Landauer has shown that v., § 13 of the
"Cuzari," in which Ha-Levi gives the views of the
" philosophers " on the soul (2d ed. Cassel, pp. 385-
400; ed. Hirschfeld, pp. 310-325), is practically an
excerpt from the " Psychology of Ibu Sina " (Avi-
cenna) published in part by him ("Z. D. M. G."
xxlx. 335). Corrections of the Arabic text are given
by Goldziher in "Z. D. M. G." xli. 691, of the He-
brew text by Horovitz in "Mouatsschrift," xli. 264.
In regard to the passage 1., § 68 on the eternity of
the universe, see the remarks of Kaufmann in " Mo-
natsschrift," xxxiii. 208, and Hirschfeld, ib. p. 374.
Portions of the Arabic text have been published by
Neubauer in "Miscellany of Hebrew Literature," i.
62, and by B. Goldberg iu "Ha-Maggid," v. 183.

Bibliography: Munk, MelanQts, pp. 483 et seq.: Eisler. Vor-
lenungen Uber die JUdische Philosnpliie de>< Mittclalters,
i. 81 et seq.; Ctizari, ed. Cassel, Introduction ; Kaufmann,
Die Attrihutenlehre. pp. 119 et seq.: idem, in J. Q.R. i. 451
et seq.: A. Frankl-Griin, Die Etliik den Juda HaUvi:
Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. p. 4(W ; Bernfeld, Da'at Elo-
him, pp. 182 et »eq.; Harkavy, iu Keneset Yisrael, i. 77.

G. I. Br.

JTJDAH HA-LEVI BEN SHALOM (known
also under the name Judan) : Palestinian amora of
the fourth generation ; flourished in the second half of
the fourth century. Few halakot of his are recorded
in the Jerusalem Talmud. He appears as the op-
ponent of Hananiah in the question of the fine im-
posed upon those who illegally make use of tithes
(Yer. Ter. 14c ; Ket. 27b), and as opposing Matta-
uiah in a halakic matter (Yer. Shab. 13d; Git. 44b).
A question addressed to Jose on the laws of inher-
itance is given under Judahs name (Dem. 25c), and
he is found instructing a Babylonian amora named
Phinehas in a question of ritual ('£r. 22d). Judah's
VII.— 23

activity in the field of the Halakah was rather lim-
ited; his name occurs more frequently in midrashic
and haggadic literature. Some of his haggadot are
very interesting; for instance, that concerning the
love of God for men : " Wlien we are worthy and liave
good actions to our credit, then God gives us our
reward; but when we have nothing of our own, then
God blesses us for the sake of His love; for He is
good " (Midr. Teh. to Ps. Ixxii.). Judah is the author
also of the following sayings: "Nothing causes
more harm than women; the sin of the golden calf
caused the death of only 3,000 persons, while tliat
of the women of Shittim cau.sed the death of 24,000.
Therefore is it said: 'And I find woman more bitter
than death'" (Eccl. vii. 26). "Joseph resisted the
enticements of the wife of his master; at the moment
of temptation the image of his father appeared to
him and said: 'Joseph, the names of thy brothers
will at a future time be on the stones of the breast-
plate ; wilt thou be satisfied that thy name should
be missing'?'" (Tan., Wayesheb, p. 94).

Bibliography: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dnrot. 11. 183; Frankel,
Mebo, 95b; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iil. 432-443.
s. s. I. Br.

JUDAH LOB ben JOSHUA (HOSCHKE) :

Rabbi at Busk, Poland (now Austrian Galicia), ia
the seventeenth century. He was the author of
"LebAryeh," containing homilies on the Pentateuch
and the Five Megillot, published at Wilmersdorf in
1673.

Bibliography : steinschneider. Cat. Bodl. col. 1333.
s. s. I. Br.

JUDAH LdB BEN SIMEON, or LEO SI-
MONIS : Rabbi and physician ; born at Frankfort-
on-the-Main about the middle of the seventeenth
centuiy; died at Mayence in 1714. He studied
medicine and philosophy in Padua, where in 1674 he
obtained the degree of doctor of medicine and of
philosophy. About a year after his return to Frank-
fort, David Claudius of Giessen solicited his col-
laboration on the Bible which he was about to edit
with Latin annotations. The young scholar ac-
cepted the offer, and he wrote a preface to the work
(Frankfort, 1677).

Judah's medical work did not interfere with his
study of the Talmud and the Cabala ; so that, owing
to his great erudition, he was named "dayyan" of
. Frankfort. He occupied that office till 1687, wlien
he was called as chief rabbi to Mayence, which office
he held for twenty-seven years.

While he was at Mayence he wrote: " Yad Ychu-

dah" (Frankfort-on the Main. 1678), a commentary

on Menahem Azariah da Fano's " 'Asarah ^la'ama-

rot," and "Zera' Yehudah" (OfTcnbach, 1721), a

commentary on the Passover Haggadah. Some re-

sponsa of his are to be found in the collection "Shab

Ya'akob " by Jacob ha-Kohen Poppers of Frankforl-

on-the-Main.

Bibliography: Steinschneider. Cat. Bodl. col. 1373; Wolf.
Dilil. Hebr. 1. 1*57. 13,58: iii. 749b. ia58e; iv. 749h ; D. Kauf-
mann. in Z. D. M. G. .xlv. 493-504: Horowitz. JUdixche
Aerzte, pp. 33. 34 ; Fuenn. Kcno^it Yiifrael, p. 4:^.

JUDAH LOW (LOB, LIWA) BEN BEZA-
LEEL (known also as Der Hohe Rabbi Low):
Austrian Talmudist and mathcniatic ian ; horn about

Judah Low
Judah b. Pedaya

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

354

the second decade of the sixteenth century in Posen.
Avhither his family liad gone from Worms toward
the end of the fifteentli century, probably inconse-
quence of persecution; died at Prague Aug. 22,
1609: second son of Bezalecl ben Hayyim. His
fatlier was the brother of Jacob Worms, the chief
rabbi of all the communities of the German empire,
and brotlier-in-law of Isaac Klauber of Posen, whose
grandson was Solomon Luria. Low's elder brother
Hayyim (see Hayyim ben Bkzaleel) studied with
Shalom Sliakna. Liiw had also younger brothers
named Sinai and Samson, who enjoyed reputations
as scholars.

As L5w never speaks of himself in his books, lit-
tle is known concerning his life. Tlie assumption
that he was Shakna's pupil is disproved not only on
the ground of chronological ditlicuUies, but also by

Tombstone of J udab Low ben Bezaleel at Prague.

(From a photograph.)

his positive attitude in denouncing the pilpul, in
which Shakna indulged so much. From 1553 to 1573
Low was IMoravian " LaTidesrabbiner " at Nikolsbur.L' ,
an oilice by virtue of which he directed not onl}' the
affairs of the community, but especially the study
of the Talmud. He caused a collection to be made
of the ^Moravian statutes (" takkanot") concerning
the election of the county and district elders, taxa-
tion, and the restraint of luxury, with
His the purpo.se of supplementing and con-

Takkanot. fuming them. The Moravian commu-
nities considered him an authority,
even long after lie had given up his oilice — pcihaps
in consequence of the persecution of the Jews in
Moravia — and liad settled in Prague. As such he
was appended to when the "Nadler " calumny was

curiied into Moravia, in consequence of which his
own family sull'ered and against which he liimself
had delivered a warning discour.se on the Sabbath
between liosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur, 1583
(pi-inted Prague, 1584). " Nadler " (or rather " Nud-
ler": comp. Grimm, " Worterbueh ") was an oppro-
brious epithet that cast a slur upon the legitimacy
of many families.

Low had undertaken to deliver the discourse be-
cause a short time previously the death of Isaac
Meluik had left the chief rabbinate of Prague va-
cant. At the time Low occupied a semiofficial
position. He had founded the "Klaus," a Talmud
school which he conducted until 1584, and he had
also rendered great services to the community of
Prague by regulating the statutes of the hebra kad-
disha, founiled in 1564, and by organizing mishnayot
societies. Yet he was passed over in the election, his
brother-in-law Isaac Hayyot, an adherent of the
pilpul, being chosen chief rabbi of Prague. Low
tlien gladly accepted the call of his native commu-
nity, Posen. In 1588, however, he was again in
Prague. He was drawn tiiither not only by family
ties (his wife belonging to the eminent Altschuler
famil}', and his daughtei's being married in that
cit}-), but also by the fact that Isaac Hayyot had re-
signed his office. For a second time Low accepted
the position of rabbi. At this date (1588) he re-
newed and enlarged the scope of the ban which
he, together with ten scholars of Prague, had pro-
nounced in 1583 against the "Nadler" calumny.
On the present occasion he acted in conjunction with
Eleazar of Worms at Posen, and Mordecai Jaffe, Isaac
Cohen Shapira, Joseph b. Isaac ha-Levi Giinzburg,
and Uri Lipman Hefez at Gnesen. On the tenth of
Adar, 5352 (Feb. 23, 1592), Low was commanded to
appear before the emperor in tlie castle. He went
to the audience accompanied by his brother Sinai
and his son-in-law Isaac Cohen ; and Prince Bertier
was present with the emperor. The conversation
seems to have turned on cabalistic subjects.

In the same year (but it can not be proved whether
it was in consequence of the audience) Low went
back to Posen, where he had been chosen chief rabbi
of Poland. Here he wrote a work on the ethics of
Judaism, "Netibot Shalom" (Prague, 1596), as the
second part of his Abot commentary " Derek ha-
Hayyim " (Cracow, 1589). In Prague were also
printed in 1593 two discourses he liad delivered in
Posen, "'Al ha-Mizwot" and " 'Al ha-Torah wa-
'Abodah." In the " Pesak 'al 'Agunah" {ib. 1594)
there is a responsum by Low. In this work Low is
called "chief rabbi of Prague"; and indeed he be-
came chief rabbi de jure, probably after the death
of Isaac Hayyot (1597).

At Prague Low wrote between 1598 and 1600 the
following works: (1) "Tif'eret Yisrael " (Venice,
1599), on the excellence of the teachers of the Torah ;

(2) "Nezah Yisrael" (Prague, 1599),
His Works, on the Exile and the Messianic time;

(3) "Be'er ha-Golah," on difficult Tal-
mudic passages, being at the same time a defense of
the Talmud {ib. 1598); (4) " Or Hadash " {ib. 1600), on
Esther and Purim; (5) "Ner >Iizwah" {ib.), on Ha-
nidikah. There was also printed at Prague (1598)
the funeral sermon preached by Low on the death

355

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Judah Lbw^
Judah b. Pedaya

of Akiba Gunzburg of Fnuikfoit. Low Avas spe-
cially active as the friend and counselor of the noble
3Iordecai Meisel. After sulTcrins nnich at Prague
from external oppression and internal ciuarrels, he
now stood as the center of the rapidly rising com-
munity.

Low was licld in high regard by his contempo-
raries as Avell as by posterity. He is praised as the
"glory of the Exile," the -'light of Israel" (Gans),
" the wonder of our time, in whose light our core-
ligionists walk, and whose waters all Israel drinks."
His person even has become the center of a wliole
cycle of legends (see Golem), which are closely re-
lated to the Faust legends and were due probably
to his ascetic, pious, retired life, to his profound
knowledge, and not a little to his mysterious audi-
ence with Emperor Rudolph II.

Yet he was not among the champions of the
Cabala, and none of his works is devoted to it. Al-
though he could not reconcile himself to the investi-
gations of Azariah dei Rossi, and understood all the
utterances of the llaggadah literally, yet he was en-
tirely in favor of scientitic research in so far as the
latter did not contradict divine revelation.

In addition to those of Low's works mentioned
above, the following have appeared: "Gur Aryeh"
(Prague, 1578), commentary to Rashi on the Penta-
teuch; "Geburat ha-Shem" (Cracow, 1582), on the
Pesah Haggadah ; discourse for Shabbat ha-Gadol
(Prague, 1589). The following manuscripts are ex-
tant: "Bi'ure Yoreh De'ah," printed 1775; "Hid-
dushc Aggadot"; "Bi'urim 'al Dine Mezuzah, Keti-
bat Megillah, Kele ha-Kodesh, Bigde Kehunnah
we-Sammane ha-Ketoret"; "Bi'urim 'al ha-Rif
u-Mardekai."

Bibliogr.^phy : Lieben, Gal 'Ed, PraRiie, 1&56; N. Griin, Dcr
Hiihc Rabbi Low. ib. 188.5; Tendlau, Saycii iDid Lcucnden
dcr JlMischcn Torzeif; E. Bischofl, Die Kal)l)ala]i, Leipsic,
1903; Uermann-Teige-Winter, Dtw Prager Ghetto, Prague,
190:i
s. s. M. Gr.

JTJDAH LOW BEN OBADIAH EILEN-
BTJRG : Russian rabbi of the sixteenth centurj-;
succeeded Naphtali Herz as rabbi of Brest-Litovsk
about 1570. His signature appears in the " takka-
not " (ordinances) passed by the Coun'cii. of Foxtk
L.\NDS at the Gromnitca fair at Lublin (1587), with
those of Solomon of Lublin, Joshua Falk, Samuel
Edels, and other prominent rabbis. These takkanot
prohibit, among other things, the purchase of rab-
binical positions or the securing of such positions
througli inlluence. Judah is the author of - ]SIinhat
Yehudah," a supercommeutary on Rashi to the Pen-
tateuch (Lublin, 1609; Prague, 1078; etc.). With
Judah's own explanations the work contains ex-
tiacts from Solomon Luria, from IMordecai Jaife's
■'Lebush ha-Orah," and from Elijah b. Abraham's
"Mizrahi."

BlBLiocRAriiv : Feinstein. '/r Tciiillali, pp. 2:5, 10(), Km, 186,
191 ; Benjacob, Oznr lia-Scfarim, p. 'M\.

JTJDAH BEN MEIR HA-KOHEN HA-
ZAKEN : French Taiumdist ; lived about the year
lOoO. According to the sources, he was surnameil
"Lecm," •'Leonte," "Leontin," "Sire Leon," and
"Sire Leontin," and was designated as "the grand "
and "thegaon." He was the principal teacher of

Gkksiio.m ben Jldaii (Me'or ha-Golah), who con-
sidered him an authority in religious decisions.
Judah seems to have been one of the founders of the
.scientilic study of Ihe Talnmil in France. He, to-
gether with Eliezer ben Judah, addres.sed a teshu-
bali to the Jewisli comm\uiity of Troyes concerning
the validit}^ of certain statutes.

BniLiOGR.tPiiY : Epstein, ./Udusche Alterthllmer vdh Worms,
p. :(; (iriitz, Gcsclt. v. SM; (iross, Gnllia Jridaica, \>p. 224,
3tX), ")20; Zunz, Litcratinvcxcli. p. till.
s. s. M. Sc.

JUDAH BENMENAHEM: Italian liturgical
poet; lived, probably at Rome, in the middle of tiie
twelfth century; father of the Roman dayyan Men-
ahem ben Judah. He was the author of fourteen
piyyutim, of which some are to be found in the
printed Roman Mahzor, and some are still in manu-
script.

Bibliography : Zunz. Literatiirgesch. pp. 140 et seq.; Lauds-
huih, 'Amnntdc ha-'Aboda)i, p. 68; Luzzatto. Mcbo. p. 21;
Vogelstein and Rietrer, Gesch. dcr Juden in Rom, 1. 368.

G. I. Bk.

JTJDAH MINZ. See :Min-z, Judah.

JUDAH BEN MOSES OF ARLES : A

scholar of the second hall' of the eleventh century
who enjoyed a great reputation and authority not
only in France, but throughout the Rhine districts.
One of Rashi 's contemporaries, Nathan b. 3Iakir of
Maj'ence, mentions him as among " the venerable
ones" and "the most respected " of Mayence (Zunz,
"Literaturgeschichte," p. 160).
E. c. S. K.

JUDAH BEN MOSES B. DANIEL, See

RoMAM\ Lkom;.

JUDAH BEN NATHANAEL : French litur-
gical poet; lived at Beaucaire in the first quarter of
the thirteenth century. Al-Harizi, who became
acquainted with him about 1211, praiseshim highly.
Judah had five sons: Samuel, Ezra, Isaac. Isaiah,
and Xathanael, all of whom were liturgical poets.
The eldest, Samuel, was the author of "Kerobot,"
inserted in the Avignon ritual and recited on the
fast-day of Tebet ; the third son, Isaac, surnamed
"ha-Sheniri" (n'J^'n), whose songs "made tiie stars
pale," lived at Malauccne, and composed piyyutim
for the different festivals of the year, many of which
are preserved in the Siddur of Avignon and Car-
pentras.

Bibliography: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 46(5, 469; idem, LitcraUtr-
ijrsch. jip. 47~'-47.'J.
G. S. K.

JUDAH B. PEDAYA (known also as Bar
Padah) : Palestinian amora of the first generation
(3d cent.); nephew of Bar Kappara. Among his
numerous pupils the most important was the hag-
gadist Joshua b. Levi, who claimed to have received
numerous halakot from Judah (Ex. R. vi ; Eccl. R.
vii. 7). According to another statement of Joshua b.
Levi (Gen. R. xciv.). Judah was the most important
of the haggadists of the South, and discussed Tal-
mudic questions witii the patriarch Judah I. His
halakic and haggadic sayings are numerous in botli
Talmuds (Weiss, "Dor," iii. 63). In his h.-.ggadic
interpretations he often departs from the traditional
vocalization. Thus, in Gen. R. (to Gen. xix. 12), he

Judah Poki
Judah ben Samuel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

356

reads "pe" instead of "po," and supposes that the

angels forbade Lot to entreat forgiveness for tlie

people of Sodom after they had manifested their

shameful desires (Gen. R. xxvi.).

Bibliography : Hellprin, Seder ha-Dnrot, H- 311 ; Bacher,
Ag. Pal. Amor. ili. 579 ; Frankel, Mebo, p. 70b.
E. c. A. S. W.

JTTDAH POKI (PXJKI) BEN ELIEZER
TSHELEBI: Karaite scholar; lived at Constan-
tinople; died before 1501; nephew of Elijah Bash-
yazi. According to Steinschneider, the surname
"Poki" is a variation of "Bagi," which is derived
from the Turkish "bak" (pronounced "bag").
Judah traveled through Palestine, Egypt, Babylo-
nia, and Persia to acquaint himself with the Karaite
■writings found in those countries. In 1571 he is met
with in Cairo in the house of the Karaite Nasi.
Judah wrote "Sha'ar Yehudah," a discussion of the
laws concerning incestuous marriages (published by
his son Isaac at Constantinople in 1581). The au-
thor quotes in this work another work of his : " Zot
li-Yehudah," on the determination of the new moon.
Jedidiah Solomon ben Aaron of Trok cites in his
" Appirj'on " a prayer-book composed by Judah, and
other works dealing with Hebrew grammar and
poetry.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bndl. col. 1307; idem,
Hebr. Bihl. xx. 94 ; Fiirst, Oesch. dejt Kardert. iii. 14 ; Neu-
bauer, Aus der Peteishuryer niblinthek, p. 65; Gottlober,
Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-Karaim, p. 174.
K.' I. Br.

JUDAH B. SAMTJEL IBN 'ABBAS. See Ab-
bas, Judah ben Sa.muel ben.

JTJDAH BEN SAMUEL HE-HASID OF
REGENSBURG: Ethical writer and mystic; died
Feb. 22, 1217 ("OzarTob," 1878. p. 045^ Berliner,
"Magazin," 1876, p. 220; "Kerem Homed," vii. 71
[erroneously 1216]; "Ben Chananja," i v. 248 [er-
roneously 1213]). He was descended from an old
family of cabalists from the East that had settled
in Germany. His grandfather Kalonymus was a
scholar and parnas in Speyer (died 1126). His father,
also called "He-Hasid" (-"the pious"), " Ha-
Kadosh," and " Ha-Nabi " (Solomon Luria, Responsa,
No. 29), was president of abet ha-midrash in Speyer,
and from him Judah, together with his brother Abra-
ham, received his early instruction. Samuel (see A.
Epstein in "Ha-Goren," iv. 81 et seq.) died while
Judah was still young {idem, " Jlidische AUertiimer
in Worms undSpeier," in "Mouatsschrift," xli. 41,
42). About 1195 the latter left his native place and
settled in Regensburg (Ratisbon), on account of an
"accident" (Moses Minz, Responsa, No. 76)— most
probably persecution experienced by the Jews of
Speyer generally.

He founded a yeshibah in Regensburg and secured
many pupils. Among those who became famous
were Eleazak ok Worms, author of the " Rokeah " ;
Isaac ben Moses of Vienna, author of "Or Zarua' ";
and Baruch ben Samuel of Mayence, author of "Se-
fer ha-Hokmah." Eleazar applies to his teacher in
several passages terms expressive of the highest es-
teem, suoli as " father of wisdom " (Paris MS. No. 772.
fol. 73a; comp. Epstein in " Monatssciirift," xxxix.
459).

Judah left one son, Moses Saltman (Epstein, I.e.
p. 449, note 7), autlior of a commentary on several

parts of the Bible (see Schiller-Szinessy, " Cat. Hebr.
MSS. . . . University Library, Cambridge," p. 159).
It has been erroneously supposed that Judah had two
other sons, Aaron (Luria, I.e.) and David (Stein-
schneider, "Hebr. Bibl." iv. 98; Gross, in Berliner's
"Magazin," i. 106; Briill's " Jahib." ix. 45; Epstein,
I.e.).

Legend de.scribes Judah as an excellent bowman
who at the age of eighteen was ignorant of the
daily prayers. When, however, en-
Leg'ends of lightenment suddenly came upon him
His Life, he performed many miracles. He re-
stored fertility to a young married
woman. The prophet Elijah is said to have par-
taken of his " Seder " meal and to have been seen by
him in a synagogue. He miraculously prevented a
Jewish child from being baptized, and knew the
exact year of Israel's redemption. He maintained
social intercourse with the Bishop of Salzburg and
acted as seer for the Duke of Regensburg (Jellinek,
"B. H." vi. 139; Grlinbaum, " Jiidisch-Deutsche
Chrestomathie," p. 385; Brull's "Jahrb." ix. 20).
The report of such intercourse with persons in official
positions may perhaps be based on truth.

It is rather difficult to determine in what the new
and important departure ascribed to him by legend
consisted, since the obscurity spread
Writings, over his works is as impenetrable as
that surroimding his life. The study
of the Talmud, especially as it was treated by his
contemporaries, seemed to him fruitless. Still, occa-
sionally ahalakic writing, "Gan Bosem," is quoted
(comp. Zunz, "Z. G." p. 162) as his; a decision
of his is found in TaSHBaZ, § 219 (Zunz, I.e. p. 566),
in R, Isaac's "Or Zarua'," and in Meir Rothenburg's
collection of responsa (Zunz, "Literaturgesch." p.
298) ; and he is found in social intercourse with cel-
ebrated halakists of his age.

His commentary on the Pentateuch, written down
by his pupils after hia lectures, is known only by
citations in later commentaries (Zunz, "Z. G." p. 76
et passim ; Luzzatto, " Kerem Hemed," vii. 71 ; " Ozar
Tob," 1878, p. 045).

He composed liturgical songs, but the authentic-
ity of those attributed to him is uncertain. As re-
gards his Tin^'H "I'E^ (seven parts; the
Liturgist. eighth is called "l13Dn "I^K'), printed
in Tihingen, 1560 (Steinschneider,
"Cat. Bodl." No. 3313), and translated into German
in S. Heller's " Die Echten Hebraischen Melodien "
(ed. Kaufmann), there is very great divergence of
opinion, and the question of its authorship is still
undecided. According to Zunz ("Literaturgesch."
p. 300), it seems to be genuine, as do also his
prayer inyOT n33'' and his selihah ^K-|LJ'"'3 D\-|^K
"|nw pnj. More probably, according to the
sources (.see "Siddur Hegyon Leb," p. 529, Konigs-
berg, 1845), his father, or a certain Samuel Hazzan,
who died as a martyr at Erfurt in 1121, composed
the "Shir ha-Yihud," and Judah himself wrote a
commentary on it (Landshuth, " 'Ammude ha-
'Abodah," p. 77; Epstein, in "Ha-Goren," iv. 98).
Several prayers are erroneously attributed to Judah ;
e.g., Zunz wrongly ascribes to liim the alphabet-
ical "tehinnah" TIID DV mDTN (Steinschneider. I.e. ;
Landshuth, I.e.). He wrote also commentaries on

357

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah Poki
Judah ben Samuel

several parts of the daily praj'crs and on the Mah-
zor (Zunz, I.e. p. 301; corap. also Epstein, I.e. pp.
91, 95 et seq.).

Judah collected the notes of travel of his fellow
citizen Fethahiah, tliough incompletely and without
any order (Zunz, in Asher's " Itinerary of Hen jamin
of Tudela," ii. 253). His chief literary work was
an ethical and mystical one. Undoubtedly genuine
is his "Sefer ha-Kabod," which is mentioned by his
pupils. Rather doubtful is the autJiorship of the
ethical will (nSIV), printed in 1583 and translated
into Judaeo-German, Prague, seventeenth to eight-
eenth century (comp. Moses Brlick, " Rabbinische
Ceremonialgebrauche in Ihrer Entstehung," pp. 68
et seq., Breslau, 1837; Abrahams, "Ethical Wills,"
in "J. Q. R." iii. 472). This testament contained
regulations regarding the dead (§§ 1-15), the build-
ing of houses (§§ 16-21), matrimony (§§ 22-32), pro-
hibited marriages between stepbrothers and step-
sisters and between cousins, and various customs
and superstitious prescriptions (^g 33-end).

There are also ascribed to Judah an astrological
work, "Gematriot" (Azulai, "Shem ha-Gedolim,"
ii.. No. 27), handed down by his pupils and seen by
Azulai, and "Sefer lia-Hokmah," on prayers and
customs and the writing of scrolls of the Law.

The principal work, however, with which Judah's
name is connected is the " Sefer Hasidim " (Bologna,
1538; Basel, 1580, and often reprinted [see Stein-
schneider, " Cat. Bodl." col. 1320] ; published accord-
ing to De Rossi MS. No. 1133 [which contains many
variant readings and represents an older text] in
Mekize Nirdamim collection by Judah Wistinetz-
ki, Berlin, 1891-93). The book contains ethical,
ascetic, and mystical sentences, intermingled with
elements of German popular belief. It deals (§§ 1-
13) with piety (heading, " Shemuel "; so-called " Sefer
ha-Yir'ah "); (^§ M-26), reward and punishment,
penitence, the hereafter, etc. (heading, " Sefer ha-
Hasidim"; so-called "Sefer Teshubah"); (g§ 27-
489), authorship of the book, pride,
Sefer the hereafter and retribution, peni-

Hasidim. fence and sinful desires, fasting and
fast-days, suspicion, public mortifica-
tion, martyrdom, etc. (heading, " Zeh Sefer ha-Hasi-
dim"); (§§ 490-638), the Sabbath; (§§ 639-746),
tefillin, zizit, mezuzot, books; (§§ 747-856), the
study of' the Law ; (gg 857-929), charity ; (ii§ 930-
970), reverence for parents; (§§ 971-1386), piety,
worship of God, prayer, visiting the sick, etc. ;
(^§ 1387-1426), excommunication and oaths; the
tinal paragraphs repeat and amplify upon matter
previously discussed.

The " Sefer Hasidim " is not a uniform work, nor
is it the product of one author. It has been said that
Samuel he-Hasid is the author of the first twenty-
six .sections (see ed. Wistinetzki, p. 490, note; Ep-
stein, I.e. p. 94). In its present form the book con-
tains, according to Glidemann ("Erziehungswesen,"
Vienna, 1880, p. 281, note iv.), three revisions of the
same original work, of which Judah is undoubt-
edly the author; and both the contents and language
of the book indicate that it originated in Germany.
Iinporlant additions were made also bj' Judah's
pupil Elcazur Rokeah (see Epstein, l.r. p. 93). for
wliich reason the authorship of the whole work lias

sometimes been ascribed to him. On account of the
fact that collectors and copyists used varying re-
censions, sometimes the same pa.ssage occurs two or
three times in different parts of tiie " Sefer Hasidim."
Some fragments of otlier books are inserted (as ^ 33,
Isaac Alfasi's "Halakot"; ^ 36, Saadia Gaon's
"Emunot we-De'ot"; ^5431, Yerushaimi Berakot ;
^§ 30-32, R. Nissim's " Megillat Setarim "). It <-on-
sists, according to the edition of Basel, of 1,172 para-
graphs; according to the last edition, of 1,903.
(IJhosen parts have been translated into German by
Zunz, "Z. G." pp. 135-142 (comp. Zunz, "Litera-
turgesch." p. 299; GrUtz, "Gesch." vi. 215). The
"Book of the Pious" is an exceedingly ricii .source
for the " Kulturgeschichte" of tiie Jews in the Mid-
dle Ages (.see Berliner, "Aus dem Inneren Leben " ;
Abrahams, "Jewish Life in the Middle Ages "). Ju-
dah he-Hasid has often been confounded ("Kore
ha-Dorot," "Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah," "Yuhasin,"
" Shem ha-Gedolim ") witli Judah Sir Leon of Paris,
who is also called "he-Ha.sid," which is nothing but
an honorable title usual in his age. The fact that
French words are to be found in the " Book of the
Pious " and that it reflects French conditions caused
Griitz also to attribute its authorship to Judah Sir
Leon he-Hasid. But the reasons given by Gratz are
not tenable.

The precise importance of Judah ben Samuel it is
diflScult to determine. Side by side with the offi-
cial, dogmatic religion of the Church

Mystic. or the Synagogue there has always
existed a mysticism dealing more
largely and more intimately with the personal rela-
tion of the individual to God, which at times was in
opposition to the religion of the Synagogue. Judah's
mysticism was in such a stage of opposition ; he
therefore undervalued the study of the Halakah and
indulged in marked departures from the accepted
religious practises. He endeavored to deepen the
feeling of devotion and piety and emphasized the
importance of studying the Bible as against study-
ing the Talmud. He deals mystically with prayer,
regarding it as more important than study. It was
really he who introduced theosophy among the Jews
of Germany. The occasional quotations from his
"Sefer ha-Kabod " present the .salient points of his
views. The conception of a personal relation to the
Lord was long since felt by Jewish thinkers to be in-
consistent with His spiritual nature. Judah and iiis
school, therefore, though not the first ones, distin-
guished between the Divine Being (" 'P^zeni ") and
the Divine Majesty (" Kabod "). The Divine Being,
called also " Kedushshah," dwells in the west, invisi-
ble to men and angels. The Divine Being is superior
to all human perception. When God reveals Him-
self to men and angels. He appears in the form of
the Divine Majesty. The Divine Majesty, tiien,
dwelling in the east and created out of divine fire,
holds the divine throne, true to its nature of repre-
senting to human eyes the Divine Being. The
throne is draped on the south, east, and north, while
it is open to the west in order to allow the reflection
of the Divine Being dwelling in the west to shine
upon it. It is surrounded by the heavenly legions of
angels, chanting to the glory of the Creator (Epstein,
in " Ha Hoker." ii. 37 e( seq.).

Judah ibn Shabbethai
Judaism

THE JEWISH EXCYC'LOPEniA

358

Lacking the philosophic traiuiug coinmou ainoug

the Spauish Jews — althougli lie was acquainted with

Ibn Ezra, Saadia, some of the Karaites, and perhaps

]Maimouides — Judah did not reduce his ni3-stic-theo-

sophical theories to a system, and they are therefore

ditRcult to survey. His intellectual importance is on

the whole not clear (conip. GLidemann, "Gesch."

pp. 153 et seq., 167 et seq. ; Jew. Encyc. iii. 465, s.v.

Cabal.a). Zunz C'Z. G." p. 125) says of him: "To

vindicate whatever is noble in human endeavors,

and the highest aspirations of the Israelite, and to

discover the inmost truths alluded to in the Sacred

Books, seemed to be the ultimate purpose of a mind in

which poetic, moral, and divine qualities were fused. "

Bibliography: In addition to the works cited in the article,
Fiirst, liUd. Jud. i. 169; S. A. Wertheimer, Sefer Leshon
HaiiuUm, two parts, Jerusalem, 18951; Reifniann, in Ozar
toh, 1885, pp. 26 et aeq.
K. M. Sc.

JUDAH IBN SHABBETHAI (known also as
Judah Levi ben Isaac) : Spanish poet of the
end of the twelfth century. He has been identified
with the physician Judah b. Isaac of Barcelona,
who is praised as a poet by Al-Hari/i (ch. 46), but
he may also have lived at Burgos. He is a master
of the " mosaic " style, and skilfully applies Biblical
and Talmudic phrases; his humor is spontaneous.
Judah ibn Shabbethai is the author of "jMilhemet
ha-Hokmah weha-'Csher " and "Minhat Yehudah
Sone ha-Nashim." The former work (called also
"Meiek Rab ") is in the style of the "makamah," in
rimed prose interspersed with short p;)ems. It was
written in 1314, and is addressed to the nasi Todros
ha-Levi Abulafia, who is called upon, at the end of
the work, to act as judge in a poetical dispute. It
appeared at Constantinople in 1543 (?), and was
probably printed for the last time as an appendix to
Abraham b. Hasdai's "Ben ha->Ielek weha Nazir "
(Warsaw, 1894).

"Minhat Yehudah Sone ha-Nashim " (called also
"Sefer Zerah " or "Tahkemoni ") likewise is written
in the style of the makamah. It is a humorous sa-
tire on women, and is a much better piece of work
than the "Milhemet." It was written iu 1218 and
dedicated to Abraham al-Fakhkhar (ben ha-Yozer).
Like the "Milhemet," it appears to have been first
printed at Constantinople, in 1543, tiie last reprint
being in Eliezer AsiikcTiazi's "Ta'am Zekenim "
(Frankfort-on-the-]\Iain, 1854).
Buti.H)(iR.\piiY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bocil. col. 1369 ef .«(■ ly.

(■■•■ H. B.

JUDAH B. SHENEOR OF EVREUX :
Frencii liturgical poet of the thirteenth century.
lie maintained a correspondence with Jacob b. Sol-
omon of Counson {r. 12G0). According to Carmoly,
he was the brother of Moses and Samuel of Evreu.x,
and lived in Vendeuvre; but Gross rejects this
opinion, for Judah followed them a whole genera-
tion later, and it can not be positively aflirmed even
that he was a native of Evreux. Judali composed
an ei.'gy of forty-five stropiies on the martyrs, open-*
ing with the words "Ziyyon halo tish'ali." He is
quoted by Aaron ha-Ko!ien("Shabbat," i^324). The
reference in " Semak " (No. 153) is not to Judah.
but to Isaac b. Sheneor.

BiBLiooRAiMiv: 7Amz.Z. G. p. 42: idem, Literaturgench. \\
479; 'iross. (Inllid Jiidnim. p. 11.

o. I L

JUDAH SICILIANO (called also Al-Sha'ari
['"IJ/uvS]) : Italian poet of the fourteenth century.
He earned a livelihood by giving lessons in poetry
and by Avriting occasional poems; but none of his
poetical productions has been preserved. He com-
posed a riming dictionary, preserved in manuscript
at Oxford and Rome (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr.
I\ISS." No. 1580; Michael, "Or ha-Hayyim," No.
1163). Judah became acquainted with Immanuel
ben Solomon of Rome by sending him a poem;
the latter in his "Mehabberot" (ch. xiii.) highly
commends Judah's skill in the use of various
meters.

Bibliography : Zunz, AnaJekten, in O. S. iii. 184 ; idem, Z. G.
p. 516 ; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i.
327, 389, 434, 445.
G. M. Sc.

JUDAH BEN SIMEON BEN PAZZI
(called also Judah b. Pazzi and Judah b. Si-
mon) : Palestinian amora and haggadist of the be-
ginning of the fourth century. He frequently
transmits halakic and haggadic aphorisms under the
name of his father and of R. Joshua b. Levi, R.
Johanan, and Simeon b. Lakisli. In his own hag-
gadic maxims Judah frequently employs parables,
of which one may be cited : " A wolf broke into the
fold and seized a kid. Then came a strange dog
which barked at the wolf and fought with him for
the kid. Thereupon the wolf said : ' Why dost thou
bark at meV Have I taken aught that was thine? '
Such a dog was Balak, who opposed the Israelites
because they had overcome Sihou and Og" (Yelam-
medenu, in Y''alk., Num. xxii.).
Bibliography : Bacher, A{j. I'aL Amor. iii. 160-220.

s. J. Z. L.

JUDAH IBN TIBBON. See Ibn Tibbon,
Jl'dah.

JUDAH ZEEB BEN EPHBAIM : Hunga-
rian Talmudist of the seventeenth century; son of
Ephraim ben Jacob ha-Kohen, whose home in Ofeu
he left for Jerusalem' in 1685. Judah edited his
father's responsa, "Sha'ar Efrayim," published at
Prague in 1686. He added some original responsa
under the title " Kontres Aharon." He then re-
turned to Jerusalem, whither he had gone on leaving
Ofen.
Bibliography : Fuenn, Jjiiryali Ne'emanah, p. 84.

s. s. A. Pe.

JUDAH B. ZIPPORI: Instigator of an up-
rising against Herod the Great. Shortly before the
hitter's death two prominent scribes of Jerusalem,
one of whom was Judah b. Zippori (Josephus,
"Ant." xvii. 6, § 2, has lafuijiaiog ■ "B. J." i. 33, § 2,
has ^ervipepiihu;; ed. Niese), thouglit it a good opjior-
tunit^'to tear down the golden eagle that Herod had
placed above the gate of the Temple. They incited
the young men of Jerusalem, some of whom were
tlieir own pupils, and these, on a false report of
Herod's death, cut down the eagle. Thereupon a
party of soldiers seized forty of them and took them
bt'fore tile king. Tliey did not deny their deed ;
and the angry king had the ringleaders, among them
the two scribes, burned alive; the remainder he
deliveretl for punishment to his servants, who killed
them.

S. Kn.

359

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judah ibn Shabbethai
Judaism

JUDAISM* {'lovdaiafidi): The religion of the
Jewlsli people! (II iMacc. ii. 21, viii. 1, xiv. 38; Gal.
1. 13 = nn.T, Esth. R. iii. 7; comp. DnrTTlO. Est.h.
viii. 17); their system of beliefs and dcjctriues, rites
and customs, as presented in their sacred literature
and developed imder the influence of the various
civilizations with which they have come in contact,
widening out into a world-religion affecting many
nations and creeds. In reality the name "Juda-
ism" should refer only to the religion of the peo-
ple of Judea, that is, of the tribe of Judah, the name
"Yehudi" (hence "Judean," "Jew ") originally des-
ignating a member of that tribe. In the course of
time, however, the term "Judaism " was applied to
the entire Jewish history.

A clear and concise definition of Judaism is very
difficult to give, for the reason that it is not a relig-
ion pure and simple based upon accepted creeds,
like Christianity or Buddhism, but is one insepara-
bly connected with the Jewish nation as the deposi-
tory and guardian of the truths held by it for man-
kind. Furthermore, it is as a law, or system of
laws, given by God on Sinai that Ju-
Definition. daisni is chiefly represented in Scrip-
ture and tradition, the religious doc-
trines being only imjilicitly or occasionally stated ;
wherefore it is frequently asserted that Judaism is
a theocracy (Josephus, "Contra Ap." ii. 16), a relig-
ious legislation for the Jewish people, but not a re-
ligion. The fact is that Judaism is too large and
comprehensive a force in history to be defined by a
single term or encompassed from one point of view.

Extending over thirty-five centuries of history
and over well-nigh all the lands of the civilized
globe, Judaisni could not always retain the same
form and character. Judaism in its formative pe-
riod, that is, in the patriarchal and prophetic times,
difl'ered from exilic and post-exilic Judaism; and
rabbinic or pharisaic Judaism again presents a
phase quite different from Mosaic Judaism, to which
the Sadducees, and afterward to some extent the
Karaites, persistently clung. Similarly Judaism in
the Diaspora, or Hellenistic Judaism, showed great
divergences from that of Palestine. So, too, the
mysticism of the Orient produced in Germany and
France a different form of Judaism from that incul-
cated by the Arabic philosophy cultivated by the
Jews of Spain. Again, many Jews of modern times
more or less systematically discard that form of Ju-
daism fixed by the codes and the casuistry of the
Middle Ages, and incline toward a Judaism which
they hold more in harmony with the requirements of
an age of broader culture and larger aims. Far from
having become 1900 years ago a stagnant or dried-
up religion, as Christian theoh^gy declares, Judaism
has ever remained "a river of God full of living
waters," which, while running within the river-bed
of a single nation, has continued to feed anew the
great streams of human civilization. In this light
Judaism is presented in the following columns as a
historic power varying in various epociis. It is first

* It is niitural that div(>re;ent views upon so oompU'.x a subject
should e.xist. Tlif following article is frankly wriUcu from the
standpoint of Reform .liiilaism. Fur a presentation of the
more conservative aspect of Uie subject see Religion; Thk-

OLOC.Y.

necessary to state what are the main principles of
Judaism in contradistinction to all otiier religions.

I. The Essence of Judaism: (n) Judaism is
above all the religion of pure monotheism, the proc-
lamation, propagation, and preservation of which
have been the life-purpose and task of the Jcwi.sh
people. "God is One, and so slioiild Israel be of
all nations the one vouching for His pure worship"
(Josephus, "Ant." iv. 8, § 5; Ber. 6a, with reference
to I Chron. xvii. 20, 21; Deut. vi. 4, x.wi. 17-18;
Sifre, Deut. 31; and Sabbath afternoon liturgy:
" Attah chad "). Judaism is not the mere profession
of belief in the unity of God which each Jew is en-
joined to make every morning and evening by reci-
ting the Shkma' ("Ant." iv. 8, § 13; Sifre, Deut.
34; Ber. i. lei seq., ii.). It istheguardian.ship of the
pure monotheistic faith; and this im-

Unity of plied the intellectual and spiritual
God. elaboration as well as the defense of
the same throughout the centuries
against all powers and systems of paganism or semi-
paganism, and amidst all the struggles and suffer-
ings which such an unyielding and uncompromi.'^ing
attitude of a small minority entsiiled (see Jew. Ex-
cvc. vol. vi., s.v. God).

Judaism did not begin as an abstract or absolute
monotheisiu arrived at by philosophical speculation
and dogmatic in its character. Its God was not se-
lected out of many, and invested with certain attri-
butes to suit the requirements of an age or of a class
of thinkers. Judaism at the very outset was a dec-
laration of war against all other gods (Ex. xx. 3).
Yhwii, its Only One, from Sinai, spoke at the very
birth-hour of Israel, His first-born, the words:
" Against all the gods of Egyjit I will execute judg-
ment: I am the Lord "(Ex. xii. 12); and to Babylon
went forth His word: "The gods that have not
made the heavens and the earth, they shall perish
from the earth, and from under these heavens."
"They are vanity, the work of error" (Jer. x. 10,
15). "All the gods of the nations are things of
nought ["elilim"; A. V. "idols"]: but the Lord
made the heavens " (Ps. xcvi. 5). The contrast be-
tween the living God and everlasting King, the only
true God, and the idols worshiped by brutish man
(Isa. xliv. 9-19; Jer. x. 8-15; Ps. cxxxv. 16-18)
was too striking to allow Judaism to regard heathen-
ism and all its folly otherwise than with sarcastic
cont'nnpt; while the heathen, on their side, were at
a loss to comprehend the Jew worshiping an unseen
God and without any images (Tacitus, "Historia?,"
ii. 5, 9; Juvenal, xiv. 97). But idolatry, as well as
iclolaters, was consigned to relentless extermination
by Judaism, not so much on account of its intrinsic
error as becau.sc of the abominable rites connected
with it, which led to the degradation and moral
depravity of man (Ex. xx. 5; xxiii. 24, 33: Lev.
xviii. 24-^30; Deut. iv. 24, vii. 2-5, 23; ix. 3; xiv. 16;
\\. 17-18). From the days of Moses (Num. xxv. 1)
down to the time of Philo and the rabbinic schools
(Philo, "De Ilumanitate "; Dollinger, "Ileidenthum
und Judenthum," 1857, pp. (jb2 ct seq., 700-718: see
also Jubilees, Book of; Sihvi.i.ixes), pagan culls
were steeped in vice and cruelty, rendering them
"an abomination" tmto "Israel's God. who hateth
lewdness" (Sanh. 106a), wherefore rigid intolerance

Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

360

toward every tonn or suare of idolatry became the
characteristic featare of tlie rabbiuical law {ib. vii.
Getserj., x. 4; Maimonides, "Yad," 'Akkum, ii.-vii. ;
ifK Melakiin, vi. 4; see Worship, Iuol-. Judaism
brooks DO compromise with polytheism or idol-
atrous heathenism. Indeed, it enjoins the Jew to
give up his life rather than to act disloyally toward
liis pure monotheistic faith (Dan. iii. ; I Mace. i. 63;
II Mace. vii. ; Sanh. 74a). As soon as the Jewish
people were scattered among other nations, and there-
by found the opportunity of drawing comparisons
between other beliefs and their own, it was inevitable
that they should be so impressed with the superiority
of their faith as to look forward with perfect conli-
dence to its ultimate triumph, like Abraham, con-
scious of their mission to proclaim the only God
everywhere and to establish His kingdom through-
out the earth (Isa. ii. 2, xv., xlvi., xlix.; Zech. viii.
23; Gen. R. xxxix.; see also Propaganda Litera-
ture); and this hope for the final victory of pure
monotheistic tnith over all pagan error found pow-
erful utterance in the daily prayer of the Jew (see
'Alenu), and especially in the solemn New-Year
liturgy (see Liturgy).

However tribal or exclusive the idea of the God
of Israel may have been originally, Judaism boldly

assumes that its God was the God of
Universal- man from the very beginning; the
ity of God. Creator of heaven and earth, and the

Ruler of the world from eternity to
eternity, who brought the Flood upon a wicked
generation of men, and who established the earth in
righteousness and justice (Gen. i.-x.). In the light
of this presentation of facts, idolatry or the worship
of other gods is but a rebellious breaking away from
the Most High, the King of the Nations, tlie univer-
sal God, besides whom there is no other (Deut. v.
39; Jer. x. 7), and to whom alone all knees must
bend in humble adoration (Isa. xlv. 23, Ixvi. 23).
Judaism, accordingly, has for its sole object the res-
toration of the pure worship of God throughout the
eartli (Zech. xiv. 9); the Sinaitic covenant, which
rendered Israel "a kingdom of priests among the
nations" — itself only a renewal of the covenant
made with Abraham and his descendants for all
time — having been concluded for the sole purpose
of giving back to mankind its God of old, the God
of the Noaciiian covenant, whicii included all men
(Gen. ix. 17, xviii. 18-19; Ex. xix. 3-6; Isa. -lix.
6-8). Surely there is notiiing clannish in the God of
tiie Prophets and the Psalmist, who judges all men
and nations alike with justice and righteousness
(Amos i.-ii., ix. 7; Jer. xxvi. ; Ezck. xl. ; Ps. xcvi.
13, xcviii. 9; and elsewhere). Judaism's God has
through the prophetic, world-wide view become the
God of history, and through the Psalms and the
prayers of the Hasidim tlie God of the human heart,
"the Father," and tlie "Lover of souls" (Isa. Ixiii.
16; see Wisdom, xi. 26, and Arra). Far from de-
jiarting from this stan(li)oint, Judaism in the time
of the Synagogue took the decisive forward step of
declaring the Holy Name (see Adonai) inelfable, so
as to allow the God of Israel to be known only as
"tlie Lord God." Henceforth witiiout any definite
name He .stood forth as the world's God without
peer.

Judaism at all times protested most emphatically
against any infringement of its pure monotheistic
doctrine, Avhether by the dualism of
Spiritual- the Gno.stic (Sanh. 38a; Gen. R. i. ;
ity of God. Eccl. R. iv. 8) or by the Trinitarian
ism of the Church (see Jew. Encyc.
iv. 54, s.r. Christianity), never allowing such at-
tributes as justice and pardoning love to divide the
Godhead into different powers or personalities. In-
deed, every contact with other systems of thought
or belief served onh' to put Judaism on its guard
lest the spirituality of God be marred by ascribing
to Him human forms. Yet, far from being too
transcendental, too remote from mortal man in his
need (as Weber, "Jlidische Theologie," 1897, pp.
157 et seq., asserts), Judaism's God "is ever near,
nearer than any other help or sympathy can be"
(Yer. Ber. ix. 13a); " Plis very greatness consists in
His condescension to man " (Meg. 31a; Lev. R. i.,
with reference to Ps. cxiii. 6). In fact, "God ap-
pears to each according to his capacity or temporary
need" (Mek., Beshallah, Shirali, iv. ; see Schechter
in "J. Q. R." vi. 417-427).

Judaism affirms that God is a spirit, above all lim-
itations of form, the Absolute Being who calls Him-
self "I am who I am"("Eheyeh asher Eheyeh " ;
Ex. iii. 14), the Source of all existence, above all
things, independent of all conditions, and without
any physical quality. Far, however, from exclu-
ding less philosophical views of the Deity, so ardent
a Jew as R. Abraham b. David of Posquieres con-
I tends against Maimonides that he who holds human
conceptions of God, such as the cabalists did, is no
less a Jew than he who insists on His absolute incor-
poreality (Haggahot to "Yad," Teshubah, iii. 7).
Indeed, the daily prayers of the Jew, from "Adon
'01am" to the "Shir ha-Yihud " of Samuel b. Ka-
lonymus, show a wide range of thought, here of
rationalistic and there of mystic character, combi-
ning in a singular manner transcendentalism and
immanence or pantheisrn as in no other faith. While
the ideas of the various ages and civilizations have
thus ever expanded and deepened the concei^tion of
God, the principle of unity was ever jealously
guarded lest "His glory be given to another" (Isa.
xlii. 8; see God).

But the most characteristic and essential distinc-
tion of Judaism from every other system of belief
and thought consists in its ethical monotheism.
Not sacrifice, but righteous conduct, is what God
desires (Isa. i. 12-17; Amos v. 21-24;

Ethical Hos. vi. 6; Micali vi. 6-8; Jer. vii.

Mono- 22; Ps. xl. 7 [A. V. 6], 1. 8-13); the

theism. whole sacrificial cult being intended
only for the spiritual need of man
(Pesik. vi. 57, 62; Num. R. xxi. ; Lev. R. ii.). Re-
ligion's only object is to induce man to walk in the
ways of God and to do right (Gen. xix. 19; Deut.
X. 12), God Himself being the God of righteousness
and holiness, the ideal of moral perfection (Ex. xx.
5-6, xxxiv. 7; Lev. xix. 1; Deut. vii. 9-10). Wliile
the pagan gods were "products of fear," it was
precisely "the fear of God " which produced in Ju-
daism the conscience, the knowledge of a God with-
in, thus preventing man from sin (Gen. xlii. 18; Ex.
XX. 20; Deut. X. 12; Job i. 1). Consequently the

361

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaism

history of mankind from the beginning appeared as
the work of a moral Ruler of the world, of "the
King of the nations of whom all are in awe " (Jer. x.
7; Ps. Ixv. 13, xcvi. 10; Dan. ii. 21), in whom power
and justice, love and truth are united (Ps. Ixxxix.
15 [A. V. 14]). As He spoke to Israel, "Be holy,
for I the Lord your God am holy " (Lev. xix. 1,
Hebr.), so "He said unto man, Behold tlie fear of
the Lord, that is wisdom; and to depart from evil is
understanding" (Job xxviii. 28; comp. Micah vi. 8;
Isa. xxxiii. 15; Ps. xv., xxiv. 4: "He hath showed
thee, O man, what is good; and what doth the
Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and to love
mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God ? "). Quite
characteristic of rabbinical Judaism is the fact that
the names used for God are chiefly taken from His eth-
ical attributes : " The world's Righteous One " (" Zad-
diko shel 'olam," Gen. R. xlix. ; Yoma 37a); "The
Merciful One " (" Rahmana ") ; and most frequently
" The Holy One, blessed be He ! " (" ha-Kadosh baruk
hu"). Before Cain killed his brother, he said:
" There is no divine judgment and no Judge " (Targ.
Yer. to Gen. iv. 8). " The first question put to man
at the Last Judgment will be : ' Didst thou deal
honestly with thy fellow man ? ' " (Shab. 31a ; see
God).

(b) The unity of the world is a corollary of the
unity of God. The many gods of heathendom di-
vided the world into many parts and domains, and
made it appear as the battle-ground of hostile pow-
ers. The One God of the Bible renders earth and
heaven, light and darkness, life and death one — a
universe ruled by everlasting wisdom and goodness,
the work of one great Designer and Ruler who fore-
sees in the beginning what will be in the end, who
arranges everything according to His sublime pur-
pose (Gen. i. 1-31 ; Isa. xlv. 5-7, xlvi. 9-10, Iv. 8-9;
Ps. civ. 24; Prov. iii. 19, 20; Job xxviii. 24-27,
xxxviii.). Therefore God's covenant with the
world which He created makes night
Unity and day and the seasons of the year
of the maintain their order. He has given

Cosmos. earth and heaven and everything
therein their laws which they can not
transgress (Gen. viii. 22; Jer. xxxiii. 20; Job
xxxviii. 33; Ps. civ. 9, cxlviii. 6). At the same
time God is ever present in the world watching and
sustaining everything (Isa. xl. 28, xli. 4; Ps. civ.
27-30, cxxxix. 16, cxlv. 1.5-16; .see Providence).
Every single act of God is part of His wondrous
work (Job V. 9, xxxviii. ; Ps. Ixxvii. 15 [A. V. 14],
xcvi. 3). Accordingly all miracles are manifesta-
tions of His omnipotence (Gen. xviii. 14; Ex. ix.
16; Num. xvi. 30). The grand conception of an all-
controlling Power and Wisdom creating order every-
Avhere, and working after one great design, attaina-
ble only upon the basis of Jewish monotheism,
finally paved the way for the idea of an empire of
law in nature. How far this unity and immutabil-
ity of the laws of nature, fixed by the will of the
Creator, are compatible with miracle is a question the
difficulty of which was felt by the rabbis of the
Mislnial) (Ab. v. 6; and Gen. R. v.). "God at Cre-
ation fixed the conditions for certain creatures under
which they should change tlieir nature " (tlie pas-
sage was misunderstood l)y Weber, I.e. j). 202, us

well as by the medieval Jewish philosopliers; see

MlK.\(hES).

At any rate, Judaism, while insisting upon the
unity of God and Hie government of the world, rec-
ognizes alongside of God no principle of evil in crea-
tion. God has no counterpart eitlier in the powers
of darkness, as the deities of Egypt and Babylon
had, or in the power of evil, such as Ahriman in the
Zoroastrian religion is, whose demoniacal nature
was transferred by the Gnostic and Christian sys-
tems to Satan. In the Jewish Scriptures Satan has
his place among the angels of heaven.
No Power and is bound to execute tlie will of

of Evil. God, his master (Job i. 7) ; and though
sin and death are occasionally ascribed
to him (see Satan), he can seduce and harm only as
far as God permits him, and in the end must work
for good (B. B. 16a). "God is the Creator of light
and darkness, the Maker of peace and of evil " (Isa.
xlv. 7). Everything He made was found by Him to
be very good (Gen. 1. 31); "also death," says R.
Meir (Gen. R. ix.). " What the Merciful does is for
the good" (Ber. 60b). Whatever evil befalls man
has disciplinary value: it is intended for his higher
welfare (Deut. viii. 5; Ps. xciv. 12; Ta'an. 21a:
" Gam zu letobah ").

Because the Lord saw that the world could not
stand to be measured by strict justice, He mingled
the quality of mercy with that of justice and cre-
ated the world with both (Gen. R. xii.). In striking
contrast to the pessimistic doctrine that the world
is the product of mere chance and full of evil, the
Midrash boldly states that the world was (or i.s) a
process of selection and evolution : " God created
worlds after worlds until He said, ' This at last
pleases Me ' " (Gen. R. ix. ; see Optimism).

(c) Next to God's unity the most essential and
characteristic doctrine of Judaism is that concerning
God's relation to man. Heathenism degraded man
by making him kneel before brutes and the works
of his hand : Judaism declared man to be made in
the image of God, the crown and culmination of
God's creation, the appointed ruler of the earth,
and vicegerent of God (Gen. i. 26, 28). In him as
the end of Creation the earthly and the divine are
singularly blended. This is the obvious meaning of
the childlike Paradise story (Gen. ii.-iii.). The idea
is summed up in the Psalmist's words: "Thou hast
made him a little lower than godly beings [A. V.
" angels "] " (" Elohim " ; Ps. viii. 6 [A. V. 5] ) ; " Thou
hast made him ruler over the work of Thine hand "
{ib. verse 7 [6]). This twofold nature
Man as the of man, half animal, half deity, is fre-
Son of God. quenlly alluded to in Job (iv. 17-19,
vii. 17, x. 9-12, XXV., xxxii. 8). The
original meaning of "The Lord made man in the im-
age of Elohim" is somewhat doubtful, though
clearly some kind of "godly beings'" is intended
(Gen. i. 27, v. 1); the old tran.slators have "angels";
see Book of Jubilees, xv. 27. and :Mek., Beshallah,
vi.; Ex. R. XXX. 11, xxxii. 1; Gen. R. viii.; and
Targ. Yer. to Gen. i. 27; Symmachus and Saadia
translate : " God created him in a noble, upright stat-
ure" (see Geiger, "Ur.schrift," pp.323. 324, 328).
However this may be, R. Akiba. as spokesman for
Judaism, takes it to signify that man is born free like

Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

362

God, able to choose between good and evil (Mek.,
I.e.). According to others (see Nahmanides and
Ibh Ezra, adloc), it is his intelligence which ren-
ders him " the image and likeness of God " (Gen. ii.
7; Isa. xlii. 5; Ps. civ. 29; Prov. xx. 27; Job xxxii.
8; Eccl. xii. 7). At any rate, it is the affinity of the
human soul to God which is expressed in the words
"image of God." The Rabbis say, "He is made for
two worlds: the world that now is, and the world
to come" (Gen. R. viii. ; Tan., Emor, ed. Buber,
p. 21).

The body makes man cherish sensual desires, and
thus incline to sin (Gen. vi. 3-5, viii. 21 ; see Yezer
Har.\'); but it by no means forces him to commit
sin. Judaism refutes the idea of an inherent impu-
rity in the hesh or in matter as opposed to the spirit.
Nor does Judaism accept the doctrine of original
sin. The Paradise story (Gen. iii. ) asserts in parabolic
form man's original state of innocence (see Orioi-
N.4L Sin). " The soul that Thou hast given me is
pure, Thou hast created it. Thou hast fashioned it,
and Thou hast breathed it into me, and Thou pre-
servestit within me, and at the appointed time Tliou
wilt take it from me to return it within me in the
future." These are tlie words recited by the Jew
every morning in liis prayer (Ber. 60b). The belief
of some, borrowed from Plato, that the body is "a
prison-house of the soul" (Wisdom, ix. 15; Jose-
phus, "B. J."ii. 8, § 11), never took root in Judaism,
though the idea that Adam's sin brought death into
the world (Wisdom, i. 13-16, ii. 21-24) is occasionally
voiced by the Rabbis (see Death). Judaism knows
of no "law of sin in the body" of which Paul
speaks (Rom. vii. 23-25). Some commentators have
found the doctrine of original sin in Ps. Ii. 7 (see
Ibn Ezra and Delitzsch, ad loc); but the view re-
ceives in general no support from rabbinical liter-
ature (see Lev. R. xiv. 5), though R. Johanan speaks
of "the poison of the serpent" ('Ab. Zarah 22b;
comp. Shab. 55b; Nahmanides on Num. xix. 2;
Zohari. 52; Eccl. R. vii. 13).

The fundamental principle of Judaism (see Mai-
monides, " Moreh," iii. 17) is that man is free ; that is
to say, the choice between good and evil has been
left to man as a participant of God's spirit. "Sin
lieth at the door, and unto thee shall be its desire;
but thou shalt rule over it" (Gen. iv. 7, Hebr.) says
God to Cain ; and herein is laid down for all time
the law of man's freedom of will. Accordingly
Moses says in the name of God : " See, I have set be-
fore thee this day life and good, and
Man's deatli and evil ; . . . therefore choose
Freedom of life" (Deut. xxx. 15, 19); and Ben
Will. Sira, commenting upon this, says:
"God hath made man fiom the begin-
ning and left him in the hand of his counsel. . . .
He hath .set tire and water before thee ; thou may-
est stretch forth thy liand unto whichsoever thou
wilt. Before man is life and death; and whichso-
ever he liketh, it shall be given him" (Ecclus. [Si-
rach] XV. 14-17). Similarly R. Akiba declares: "All
is foreseen ; but the mastery [that is, free will] is
granted " (Ab. iii. 1^5). Another rabbinical saying
is, "Everything is determined by Heaven save the
fear of Heaven " (Ber. 331)). Freedom of will con-
stitutes man's responsibility; and his heavenly pre-

rogative would be impaired were there an inheritance
of sin. "Every man shall be put to death for his own
sin," says the Law (Deut. xxiv. 16). It is the prin-
ciple for which the prophet Ezekiel fought (Ezek.
xviii. 20). Accordingly the Rabbis say: "The

wicked are under the power of their hearts; the
righteous have their hearts in their power " (Gen.
R. Ixvii.). Also, "Man is constantly led along the
way he wishes to go. If he wishes to pollute him-
self by sin, the gates of sin will be opened for him;
if he strives for purity, the gates of purity will be
opened to him" (Yoma38a; Mak. 10b; Nid. 30b).
Regarding the difhculty df reconciling free will with
divine omniscience, see Free Will. Notwithstand-
ing man's propensity to sin, caused by the Yezer
ha-Ra', " the leaven in the lump " (Ber. 17a ; comp. I
Cor. v. 7), and the universal experience of sinfulness
(Eccl. vii. 20; Ex. R. xxxi.), rabbinical Judaism
denies that sin is inherited from parents, pointing to
Abraham the son of Terah, Hezekiah the son of
Ahaz, and others as instances to the contrary
(Tan., Hukkat, ed. Buber, p. 4, with reference to
Job xiv. 4), and insists on the possibility of sinless-
ness as manifested by various saints (Shab. 55b;
Yoma 22b; Eccl. R. i. 8, iii. 2).

Sin, according to Jewish teaching, is simply er-
ring from the right path, owing chiefly to the weak-
ness of human nature (Num. xv. 26;
Sin and Re- I Kings viii. 46; Ps. xix. 13, Ixxviii.

pentance. 39. ciii. 14; Job iv. 17-21); only in the
really wicked it is insolent rebellion
against God and Plis order (" pesha' " or " resha' " ;
Isa. Ivii. 20; Ps. i. 4-6, xxxvi. 2; and elsewhere).
And there is no sin too great to be atoned for by re-
pentance and reparation (Ezek. xviii. 23; Yer. Peali
i. 16b; Kid. 40b). The whole conception, then, of
mankind's depravity by sin has no place in Ju-
daism, which holds forth the reintegrating power
of repentance to Gentiles and Jews, to the ordinary
and the most corrupt sinners alike (Pes. 119a ; R. H.
17b ; Sauh. 103a, 108a ; Y^oma 86a, b). " Before God
created the world. He created repentance for man
as one of his prerequisites" (Pes. 54a; Gen. R. xxi.,
xxii. ; see Repentance; Sin).

{d) The doctrine by which Judaism exerted the
greatest influence upon the history of the world is,
however, that of the unit}' of the human family.
The first eleven chapters of Genesis, whatever the
origin of the narrative may be (see Babyloni.\ and
Genesis), teach tliat all the tribes of men have de-
scended from one parent, Adam (="man"), and
that consequently the various races constitute one
family. This doctrine is the logical consequence of
the other, the unity of God. The theology of Juda-
ism shaped its anthropology also. Childlike as the
story of the confusion of tongues at tlie building of
the Tower of Babel may appear (Gen. xi. 1-9, prob-
ably based upon an old Bab3ionian myth relating to
the battle of the giants with the celes-

Unity of tial gods), the Jewish genius made it

Mankind, convey a great truth, namely: God
dispersed men in order to cause the
whole earth to be the habitation of the human race,
and thus to found and establish the higher unity of
man upon the greatest possible diversity. Accord-
ingly the end of history is that the Lord shall "turn

363

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaism

to the nations [A. V., incorrectly, "the people"] a
pure language, that they may all call upon tlie name
of the Lord, to serve Him with one consent " (Zeph.
ill. 9; comp. Gen. ix. 1).

Here is foreshadowed the world-plan of salvation',
the Kingdom of God, an idea peculiar to Judaism.
As Creation is centered upon man, so is the perfection
of humanity, through the unfolding of all the pow-
ers of man in the world, the aim of the world -drama
of history (Gen. 1. 28; Isa. xlv. 18). ''The world
was created for man " (Ber. 6b). " Abraham, the
true type of humanity, would have been the first-
created man had God not seen the necessity of ma-
king him the restorer of a world corrupted by sin
since Adam's day." "The Torah given to Israel on
Sinai w'as originally intended for Adam as the first
man ; but, seeing that the six Noachian com-
mandments— that is, the unwritten laws of human-
ity— were kept l)y him, God reserved the Torah for
the descendants of Abraham" (Eccl. R. iii. 11;
comp. Gen. R. xvi. 9, xxiv. 5). By their non-ob-
servance of the Noachian laws (Gen. R. xxiii.,
xxxviii.) the earlj^ generations of men all failed to
fulfil the design of the Creator; Abraham was there-
fore selected to bring men back to the way of right-
eousness (Gen. xviii. 19; Josh. xxiv. 3), and thus to
reunite the world by making the God of heaven God
of the earth also (Gen. R. xxxix. 13, lix. 11).

The Ten Words of Sinai, too, were intended for
every nation ; but when all the others refused to ac-
cept them and Israel alone merited the priesthood
by promising "W^hat the Lord sayeth we will do,"
the Owner of the whole earth rendered Israel "His
peculiar treasure among the nations, a kingdom of
p iests and a holy nation" (Ex. xix. 1-8, xxiv. 7;
JMek.,Yitro, Bahodesh, 5; Sifre, Deut. 343; Pesik. R.
xxi.). In fact, the Ten Words of Sinai were promul-
gated in seventy languages in order that the\' might
be understood by all of the seventy nations (Shab.
88b). " Had Israel not accepted the Law, the world
would have been turned into chaos " (Shab. 88a).

Israel, then, has been chosen, like Israel's ancestor
Abraham, the descendant of Shem (Gen. ix. 26-27),
to be a blessing to all nations on earth (ib. xii. 3,
xix. 18); and the name by which the Lord calls him
at the Exodus (Ex. iv. 22), "My first-
Israel's born son," betokens in the language
Mission, of the time his mission to be that of
the priest and teacher In the house-
hold of the nations, leading the rest by his precept
and example to the worship of the Only One {ib.
xix. 6; Lsa. Ixi. 6). "A people dwelling in solitude
and not counted among the nations" (Num. xxiii. 9;
Deut. vii. 7), but ^'atchcd over by divine providence
with especial care (Deut. xxvii. 18-19, xxxii. 8-12),
the standard-bearer of incomparable laws of wisdom
and righteousness in the sight of the nations (ib. iv.
5-8), Israel has been created to declare God's praise
to the world, to be "His witnesses" (LXX., "mar-
tyrs") testifying to His unity, "the light of the
nations," and the "covenant of the people to estab-
lish the earth" (Is{\. xliii. 10, 21; xlix. 6-8). "To
Israel's house of God the nations shall Hock to be
taught of His ways and to learn to walk in His
paths." This is to bring humanity back to its nor-
mal condition, peace and bliss on earth, because

righteousness will then prevail everywhere and the
whole "earth shall be full of the knowledge of the
Lord" (Isa. ii. 2-4. ix. 6, xi. 4-9, Ixv. 25; Micafl
iv. 1-4). Israel, who when redeemed from Egypt
proclaimed God as King (Ex. xv. 19; Lev. R. ii. 4),
received the truth of Sinai as a trust ; he is never to
rest until his God shall become king of the whole
earth, until all men and nations shall bend the knee
before Him (Zeeh. xiv. 9; Isa. xl. 5, xlv. 13, xlix. 19;
Ps. xxii. 29 [A. V. 28], xlvii. 9 [8], Ixxvii. 5 [4], xcvi.-
xcix.). "Israel, who proclaims God's unity, is pro-
claimed by God as His unique people " (Mek. , Beshal-
lah, Shirah, 3). Israel, as the people of the saints
of the Most High, is to establish the kingdom of
God to last forever (Dan. ii. 44, vii.). But as
teacher and guardian of mankind's purest faith and
loftiest hope, he is dealt with more severely by God
for every transgression (Jer. ii. 21; Ezek. xx. 33-41;
Amos iii. 2). Nay more, as the servant of God he
has been chosen for continual martyrdom in the
cause of truth and justice; he, therefore, is the
"man of sorrows" whose affliction is to bring heal-
ing to the world and to lead many to righteousness
(Isa. lii.-liii. ; see Sekvant of God).

Whether the expectation is that the universal
kingdom of God on earth will be brought about by
an ideal king from the house of David, the Messiah,
as Isaiah and his followers depict the future of
Israel (Isa. xi. 1 et seq. ; Ezek. xxxiii. 24), or by
the dispersed people of Israel itself, as the seer of
the Exile (Isa. Ivi.-lxvi.) indicates (see Messiah);
whether or not the great day when all flesh shall
worship the Lord will be preceded by a day of di-
vine judgment when all the wicked "shall be stub-
ble" (Mai. iii. 19, 21 [A. V. iv. 3]; see Day of the
Lord; Eschatology; Gog and Magog), Judaism
by its idea of a divine kingdom of truth and right-
eousness to be built on earth gave to mankind a
hope and to history a goal for which to live and
strive through the centuries. Other nations beheld
in the world's process a continual decline from a
golden age of happiness to an iron age of toil, until
in a great catastrophe of conflagration and ruin the
end of all things, of men and gods, is to be reached:
Judaism points forward to a state of human perfec-
tion and bliss to be brought about by the complete
unfolding of the divine in man or the revelation of
God's full glory as the goal of history. And herein
lies its great distinction also from Christianity. Ju-
daism's scope lies not in the world beyond, the
world of the spirit, of which man on earth can have
no conception. Both the hope of resurrection and
that of inmiortality, in some form or other familiar
and indispensable to all tribes and creeds, seem
evidently to have come to the Jews from Avith-
out — the one from Persia or Babylonia, the other
from Greece. Judaism itself rests on neither (see

EsCnATOLOGY; I.MMORTALITY ; RESURRECTION). ItS

sole aim and purpose is to render the world that
now is a divine kingdom of truth and righteous-
ness; and this gives it its eminently rational, ethical,
and practical character.

II. Character of Judaism : Judaism has a two-
fold chaructor: (1) universal, and (2) particular or
national. The one pertains to its religious truths
destined for the world; the other, to its national ob-

Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

364

ligations connected with its priestly mission. Upon
the former more stress is laid by the Prophets and by
most of the sacred poets, by the Alexandrian propa-
gandists and the Palestinian haggadists, as well as
by the medieval philosophers and tiie modern Re-
form school; whereas the Mosaic law, the Hala-
kah, and the Talmudic and cabalistic schools dwell
almost exclusively upon the latter.

(1) As a universal religion Judaism differs from
all other religions in that it is not a creed or a sys-
tem of beliefs upon the acceptance of which re-
demption or future salvation depends (see Articles
OF Faith). It is a system of human conduct, a law
of righteousness which man should follow in order
to live thereby (Lev. xviii. 5) ; that is, according to
R. Meir, the law of humanity, since "man" is
spoken of and not Israel nor priest nor Levite
(Sifra, Ahare Mot; 'Ab. Zarah 3a; comp. Sanli. 59a,
where the meaning of R. MeVr's words is altered).
It is a law "for life and not for the depriving of man's
life" (Sifra, I.e.). When, in answer to a heathen
mocker, Hillel summed up the entire Law in the
Golden Rule : " What is hateful to thee do not unto
thy neighbor " (the Targumic translation of " Love
thy neighbor as thyself "; Lev. xix. 18; Shab. 31b;
see Ab. R. N., Recension B, xxvi., ed. Schechter, p.
53, where the answer is ascribed to R. Akiba instead ;
comp. Sifra, Kedoshim, iv.), he simply voiced the
truth of which Abraham and Job are set up as
types, and which is expressed by lawgiver (Deut.
iv. 8) and prophet (Isa. i. 10-17, xxxiii. 15; Hos. vi.
6; Amos V. 21-24; Micah vi. 6-8; Zech. viii. 16-17),
by the Psalmist (Ps. XV., xxiv., xxxiv. 13-15) and
the Book of Wisdom, as well as by the Rabbis
(Mek. 23b-24a). Whereas heathenism by its cults
of Moloch and similar gods fostered cruelty, the
Torah enjoined man " to walk in the ways of a right-
eous and merciful God, and be righteous and merci-
ful like Him" (Deut. xi. 22; Sifre, Deut. 49; Mek.,
Beshallah, Shirah); to love the stranger and protect
the fatherless and the widow as He does (Deut. x.
17-20).

Judaism is, above all, the law of justice. Whereas
in heathendom, except in the case of some exalted
philosopher like Plato, might was deified, and the
oppressed, the slave, and the stranger found no pro-
tection in religion, the declaration is everywhere
made throughout Scripture that injustice committed
by man against man provokes the wrath of the
world's Ruler and Judge (Ex. xxi.

Justice 22-23; Gen. vi. 13, xviii. 20; Deut.

to All. xxvii. 15-26; Amos i. 3-ii. 8; and
elsewhere), and that rigliteousness
and compassionate love are demanded for the op-
pressed, the slave, the poor, tlie fatherless and
liomeless, the stranger, and for tlie criminal as liav-
ing a claim on the sympathy of his fellow men;
even for tiie dumb creature compassion is required
(Ex. xxii. 20-26, xxiii. 5-6; Deut. xxii. 6; xxiv. 6,
10-xxv. 4; Job xxxi.). This is the "Torah" of
whicli Isaiah speaks (Isa. i. 10), the "command-
ment" put by God upon every human heart (Deut.
x\x. 11-14). And this spirit of justice permeates
the Talmudic literature also. "For lighteousncss
is one of the pillars of the world" (Ab. i. 18).
"Where right is suppressed war comes upon the

world " {ih. iv. 8). " The execution of justice is one
of the Noachian laws of humanity " (Sanh. 56b).
"Justice is demanded alike for. the Gentile and the
Jew" (Mak. 24a; B. K. 113a; and other quotations
in Bahya b. Joseph's "Kad ha-Kemah," ch. "Geze-
lah "). To have due regard for the honor of all fel-
low creatures ("kebod haberiyyot"; Tos., B. K. vii.
10) is one of the leading principles of rabbinic law
(Shab. 94b).

Judaism furthermore is the law of purity.

Heathenism by its orgiastic cults of Baal-peor, As-

tarte, and the like, fostered impurity and incest

(Lev. xviii. 3, 24-30; Num. xxv. 1-9; Deut. iv. 3).

The Torah warns against fornication.

Purity and and teaches purity of heart and of

Truth. action (Num. xv. 39; Deut. xxiii. 18-

19, xxiv. 15; Prov. vii. 5-27; Job

xxxi. 1), because God is too pure to tolerate unchas-

tity in man or in woman (see Holiness; Purity).

Judaism resents every act of lewdness as "nebalah "

= "villainy " (Gen. xxxiv. 7, 31; Deut. xxii. 21;

Judges xix. 24; II Sam. xiii. 12; see Folly), and

most severely condemns lascivious talk (Isa. ix. 16;

Shab. 33a).

Judaism is, moreover, the law of truth. Its God
is the God of truth (.Jer. x. 10). "The seal of the
Holy One is truth" (Gen. R. Ixxxi. ; see Alpha
AND Omega). Abraham, Moses, Jeremiah, Job, and
Kohelet wrestled with God in doubt until He re-
vealed Himself to them in a higher form (Gen. xviii.
25; Ex. xxxii. -xxxiii. ; Jer. xii. 1; Job xxxi. 35).
And as the Prophets had perfect faitli in God as the
God of truth and therefore shrank from hypocrisy
(Yer. Ber. vii. lie), so did all the Jewish philoso-
phers show perfect confidence in truth while boldly
expressing their lofty views concerning the Deity
and divesting God of every trace of Anthropomor-
PHiSM and Anthropopathisxi and of every attri-
bute infringing upon the spirituality and unity of
God. It was, says the, Talmud, the last will of Ca-
naan that his children should not speak the truth
and should love lasciviousness (Pes. 113b). "The
Torah of Moses is truth " and "desires men to speak
the truth and assent to the truth, even as God Him-
self assents to the truth when honestly spoken " ; for
"L^pon truth rests the world " (B. B. 74a; Ps. xv. 2;
Ab. R. N. xxxvii. ; Ab. i. 18). Tliis honest search
for truth made Judaism, indeed, the world's great
power for truth as well as for righteousness.

Judaism promotes and fosters education and cul-
ture. In contrast to such S5''stems of faith as foster
ignorance of the masses, it renders it a duty for the
father to instruct his children and for the ccmimunity
to provide for the general instruction of 61d and
young (see Education ; Philosophy). It sanctities
labor, and makes the teaching of a trade whereby a
livelihood may be earned a dut)^ incumbent upon
the father or upon the municipal authority (see La-
HOR, Holiness of). It makes the systematic care
of the poor a duty of the community with a view to
the dignity and self-help of the recipient (see Char-
ity). It denounces celibacy as unlawful, and en-
joins each man to build a home and to contribute
to the welfare of himian society (see Marriage).
The high priest in Israel was not allowed to officiate
on the Day of Atonement unless he had a wife

365

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaism

living with him (Yoma i. 1; conip. Ta'un. ii. 2). It
eu joins love of country and loyalty to the govern-
ment, no matter how unfriendly it be to the Jew
(Jcr. xxix. 7; Ab. iii. 2; Ket. Ilia; see Patri*-
otism).

Judaism is a religion of joy, and it desires tliat
man sliould rejoice before God and gratefully enjoy
all Ilis gifts, at the same time filling otlier hearts
with joy and thanksgiving. Especially are its Sab-
bath and festal days seasons of joy with no auster-
ity about them. Judaism discourages asceticism (see
Asceticism; Joy).

Judaism is a religion of hope. It teaches men to

recognize in pain and sorrow dispensations of divine

goodness. It is optimistic, because it does not defer

liope merely to the world to come, but waits for

the manifestation of God's plans of wisdom and

goodness in the moral and spiritual advancement of

man. While the present w^orld is, in comparison to

the future one, declared to be "like

The E.elig'- the vestibule wherein one prepares for

ion of the palace," it is nevertheless stated

Joy, Hope, that " one hour devoted to repentance

and Love, and good works in this world is more

valuable than the entire life of the

■world to come" (Ab. iv. 16-17); for *' to-day is the

time for working out one's destiny, while to-morrow

is the time for receiving compensation " ('Er. 22a).

As its highest aim and motive Juilaism regards
the love of God. Twice every day the Jew recites
the Shema', which contains the words: "Thou shalt
love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, with all
thy soul, and with all thy might " (Dent. vi. 5);
this verse is understood to enjoin him to willing-
ly surrender life and fortune whenever the cause of
God demands it, while it at the same time urges
him to make God beloved by all his fellow creatures
througii deeds of kindness, as Abraham did (Sifre,
Dent. 32). This love of God implies the most un-
selfish devotion and the purest motive of action;
that is, acting not from fear, but rather for God's
sake alone (Sifre, Deut. 32, 48; Ab. ii. 12); doing
good not in view of any reward in the world to come
(Ab. i. 3), but for its own sake (see Schreiner, "Die
Jlingsten Urtheile fiber das Judenthnm," 1902, pp.
145-151); and it also implies tlie love of man (Deut.
X. 12-19; see Love).

Judaism, finall}^ is a system of sanctification of
life. It teaches that the whole of life is holy, be-
<'ause God is manifested in it: "Be holj% for the
Lord your God is holy " (Lev. xix. 1, Hebr.). Even
in tiie functions of animal life the presence of a holy
God should be realized (Deut. xxiii. 15); and when
the perfect state of humanity sii:vll have been at-
tained, every road will be a holy road free from im-
purity (Isa. XXXV. 8), and "In that day shall there
be upon the bells of the horses, Holy unto tiie Lord "
(ZecJi. xiv. 20, H. V.).

(2) The striking feature of Judaism, however, is
that, while containing the highest sjiiritual and etliical
trutlis for humanity, it is bound up witli the Jcwisii
nation. Tiie One and Only God, Yiiwii, is Israel's
God in particular (Sifre, Deut. 31); and the separa-
tion of Israel from the rest of the nations in order to
distinguish it as God's people is the express purpose
of the Torali (Lev. xx. 24, 26), and the characteristic

trait of Judaism from tiie time of Ezra (Ezra vi.
21; Neh. x. 21) and of the Scribes or Pliarisees (see
PuAHisEEs). This national distinctness or aloofness
of the Jew has brought him all the hostility, perse-
cutions, and bitter attacks of a surrounding world
from the days of Haman (Esth. iii. 8) and of Apion in
Alexandria down to the most recent times (.see Anti-
Se.mitism ; Apion). Even such historians as Momm-
sen (" Rbmische Gesch." 1885, v. 487). Ed. Meyer
("Gesch. des Alterthums," iii. 167-236), Harnack
(" Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Ciiristenthums,"
1902, p. 16), and Bousset (" Wesen der Religion des
Judenthums," 1903, pp. 128-157) see in Judaism only
a national religion, in Israel's God a national God.
Nay, it may be affirmed without ex-
National aggeratiou that a just and unpreju-
Character diced estimate of Judaism is found
of Judaism, nowhere in modern Christian wri-
tings (see Schreiner, I.e.). Tlie fact
of the matter is that Judaism, while representing
the guardianship of the universal religious truths
for humanity, surrounded the Jewish people, as the
priestly people of the world's Only God, with laws
and rites of a specific national character in order to
keep these very truths forever intact and at the
same time to invest the guardians of them with the
sanctity of the world's priesthood. "The people of
Israel have from the beginning sworn fidelity to
God and have recognized Him as the world's Ru-
ler" (Ber. 6a; Hag. 3a); therefore have they been
called "the sons of God "(Deut. xiv. 1; Ab. iii. 13).
Yet their especial sonship of God implies that they
should be faithful to Him unto death, and by con-
tinued self-surrender and martyrdom should glorify
His name before the world throughout the ages
(Sifra, Emor, iv., on Lev. xxii. 32-33; comp. Ps.
xliv. 18-23; Dan. iii.; II Mace. vii. ; and Kiddcsh
ha-Shem).

The Sinaitic covenant which rendered Israel "a
kingdom of priests and a holy nation " (Ex. xix. 6)
became, the Rabbis say, "a source of hatred to the
nations" (Shab. 89a: a play upon words, "Sinai"
— "Sin'ah"), because it separated it from them by
statutes and ordinances such as the dietary and the
Levitical purity laws and others intended to prevent
idolatrous practises. Like the priest in the Temple,
whose garments and mode of life distinguished him
from the rest in order to invest him with the spirit
of greater sanctity and purity (I Chron. xxiii. 13),
so Israel was for all time to be impressed with its
priestly mission by all those ceremonies which form
so prominent a feature in its rehgious life (see
Cere.monies; Circumcision; Com-
The Jews a mandments; Dietary Laws). Par-
Separate ticularly the Mosaic and. later on, the
People. Pharisaic laws had for their object the
separation of the Jewish people from
all those influences prevalent in heatliendom which
led to idolatry and impurity ; wherefore not only in-
termarriage, but also participation in any meal or
other festive gathering which could possibly be con-
nected with idol-worship was prohibited (see Wou-
siiii', Idoi.-; Intermarkia(jk; Jrnii.EEs, Book ok.)
This persistent avoidance of association with tlie
Gentiles on the part of the Pharisees, which in the
time of the Maccabees was termed iiniiia = " keeping

Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

366

apart from the surrouiuiiiig nations" (comp. II
Mace. xiv. 38), became the chief cause of the accusa-
tion of a " liatred of mankind " wliich was brought
against the Jews by the Greeks and Romans, and
which has ever since been reiterated by the anti-
Semites (see Schiirer, "Gcsch." iii. 3, 416).

In reality these very laws of seclusion fitted the
Jew for liis herculean task of battling for the truth
against a world of falsehood, and enabled him to re-
sist the temptations and to brave the persecutions of
the nations and the ages. They imbued him with a
spirit of loyalty unparalleled in human history ; they
inculcated in him the principle of abstinence, ena-
bling him to endure privation and torture ; and filled
him with that noble pride which alone upheld him
amidst the taunts and sneers of high and low. They
brought out those traits of manhood which charac-
terized Abraham, who, according to the Rabbis, was
called " 'Ibri " (Hebrew) because his maxim was:
"Let all the world stand on the one side [" 'eber
chad "] — I side with God and shall win in the end "
(Gen. R. xlvi.). But these laws also fostered a con-
ception of the sanctity of life unknown to other
creeds or races. By investing the commonest act
and event with religious obligations, they made the
whole of life earnest and holy with duty. Instead
of being "a yoke of servitude," as Schiirer and others
have it, they " filled the home and the festal seasons
with higher joy " (see Schechter and Abrahams in
"J. Q. R." iii. 763 et seq., xi. 626 et seq.).

III. Judaism in Its Relation to the Gentile
World: Notwithstanding its unmitigated severity
against heathenism with its folly and vice, and against
every mode of compromise therewith, Judaism does
not, like other creeds, consign the non-believer to
eternal doom. It judges men not by their creed,
but by their deeds, demanding righteous actions and
pure motives, since " fear of God " signifies fear of
Him who looketh into the heart (Sifra, Ahare Mot,
iii. 2). It declares through R. Joshua b. Hananiah,
whose opinion is generally accepted, that "the
righteous of all nations have a share in the world
to come " ; the Shammaite R. Eliezer in consign-
ing all heathen to Gehenna bases his argument on
the Scriptural verse Ps. ix. 18 (A. V. 17), into
which he reads, " The wicked are turned to Sheol
because all heathen forget God " — not as R. Joshua
does, '"all those heathen tliat forget God " (Sanh.
lOoa). It is the moral depravity ascribed to the
heathen, owing to his unchaste and violent habits,
which is the cause of all the harsh haggadic ex-
pressions— such as " the people that resemble the ass "
(Ket. Ilia) — and halakic injunctions found in the
Talmud against the heathen (Gentile or 'Akkum ;
see Jubilees, Book of). The latter is always
under grave suspicion (.see 'Ab. Zarah ii. 1 ; Yeb.
98a), yet, no sooner does he solemnly discard idola-
try than his association is invited and he has a claim
on protection (Git. 45a).

On the contrary, Judaism waits for " the righteous
nation that keeps the faith " (Isa. xxvi. 2), and opens
wide "its gates that the righteous from among the
heathen world may enter" (Ps. cxviii. 20; Sifra,
Ahare iMot, xiii.), calling tlie Gentiles that .serve God
in righteousness " i)riesis of the Lord " (" Otiot de-R.
Akiba," letter "Zayin "). It declares that the Holy

Spirit may rest upon the righteous heathen as well
as upon the Jew (Tanna debe Eliyahu R. ix.). It
pays due homage to the wise among
Its At- the heathen (Ber. 58a; Sotah 85b;
titude Bek. 8b; Gen. R. Ixv.). It recog-
Toward nizes the existence of jirophets among
Prose- the heathen (B. B. lob: "Fifteen
lytism. prophets God sent to the heathen
world up to the time of Moses: Balaam
and his father, Job and his foiu- friends," etc. ; comp.
Lev. R. i. 12, ii. 8; Tanna debe Eliyahu R. xxvi.;
ih. Zuta xi., etc.). The assertion made by Max
Miiller, Kuenen, and others, that Judaism is not a
missionary religion, rests on in.sulficient knowledge.
There existed an extensive proselyte propaganda
literature, especiall}' in Alexandria (see Did.^che;
Pkopaganda) ; and, according to the Midrash, "the
heathen world is saved by the merit of the one prose-
lyte who is annually won " (Gen. R. xxviii. ; comp.
Matt, xxiii. 15; Jellinek, "B. H." vi.. Introduction,
xlvi.). Abraham and Sarah are represented as de-
voting their lives to making proselytes (Gen. Ii.
xxxix.); and as the Psalmist accords to the pro.se-
lytes — " tliose that fear God " — a special place (Ps.
cxv. 11), so does the daily prayer of the Jew in the
"Shemoneh 'Esreh" contain a special blessing for
the proselytes ("Gere ha-Zedek "). Only in later
centuries, Avhen the Church interfered through apos-
tates and by edicts, was the proselyte declared to be
a plague instead of a desired accession to the house
of Israel (Isa. xiv. 1) ; the ancient Halakah en-
deavored to encourage the heathen to come under
the wings of the Shekinah (Yeb. 47a, b ; Mas. Gerim ;
Lev. R. ii.). In order to facilitate the admission of
Gentiles, Judaism created two classes: (1) "prose-
lytes of righteousness," who had to bring the "sacri-
fices of righteousness" while submitting to the
Abrahamic rite in order to become fyll members
of the house of Israel; and (2) "proselytes of the
gate " (*' gere toshab "), who accepted only the seven
Noachian laws (ten and thirty are also mentioned) of
humanity. Occasionally the necessity of undergoing
circumcision is made a matter of controversy also
in the case of the full proselyte (see Circumcision).
But proselytism as a system of obtaining large
numbers is deprecated by Judaism.

However, the IVIessianic age is regarded as the one
when " the fulness of the heathen world " will join
Judaism (Isa. xiv. 1; Zecli. viii. 23; 'Ab. Zarah 3a).
Especially characteristic of the cosmopolitan spirit
of Judaism is the fact that the seventy bullocks
brought as sacrifice during the Sukkot festival at
the Temple were taken to be peace-offerings on be-
half of the supposed seventj' nations representing
the heathen world (Suk. 55b), a view shared by
Philo ("De Monarchia," ii. 6; idem, "De Septe-
nario." p. 26; see Treitel in "Monatsschrift," 1903,
pp. 493-495). Throughout the entire ethical liter-
ature of the Jews, from Tanna debe Eliyahu R.
down to the various Ethical Wills of the Rabbis,
there is voiced regarding the non-Jewish world a
broadly human spirit which stands in strange contrast
to the narrowness with which .Judaism is viewed by
Christian writers, even those of liigh rank (see Zunz,
"Z. G." pp. 122-157). The same cosmopolitan atti-
tude was taken by Judaism whenever its representa-

367

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaism

tives were called upon to act as intermediaries be-
tween Moslem and Christian; and the parable of the
three rings, put by Lessing into the mouth of Nathan
der Weise, was actually of Jewish origin (see
Wlinsche in "Lessing-JMendelssohn Gedenkbuch,"
1879, pp. 329 et seq.).

IV. Judaism as Law : Owing to the Paulinian
antithesis of law and faith or love (see Lowy, "Die
Paulinische Lehre von Gesetz," in "Monatsschrift,"
1903, pp. 333 et seq., 417 et seq.), the Torah, the
basis and center of Judaism since Ezra, has been
persistently placed in a false light by non-Jewish
writers, undue stress being laid upon "vhe burden
of the Law." In reality, the word "Torah" sig-
nifies both "law" and "doctrine"; and Judaism
stands for both while antagonizing Paul's con-
ception of faith a& a blind dogmatic belief which
fetters the mind. It prefers the bondage of the
Law to the bondage of the spirit. It looks upon
the divine commandments as a source of spiritual
joy ("simhah shel mizwah ")andas a token of God's
special protection (Ber. 31a), for which it enjoins the
Jew to offer Benedictions and to display zeal and
enthusiastic love (Ab. v. 20). "God has given the
children of Israel so many commandments in order
to increase their merit [Mak. iii. 16] or to purify
them" (Tan., Shemini, ed. Buber, p. 12). Every
morning after having taken upon himself the yoke
of God's kingdom, the Israelite has to take upon
himself the yoke of the divine commandments also
(Ber. ii. 2); and there is no greater joy for the true
Israelite than to be " burdened with commandments "
(Ber. 17a). "Even the conmionest of Jews are full
of merit on account of the many commandments
they fulfil" (/^*. 57a.)

The Law was accordingly a privilege which was
granted to Israel because of God's special favor.
Instead of blind faith, Judaism required good works
for the protection of man against the spirit of sin
{lb. 32b). The Law was to impress the life of the
Jew with the holiness of duty. It spiritualized the
whole of life. It trained the Jewish people to ex-
ercise self-control and moderation, and it sanctified
the home. It rendered the commonest functions of
life holy hy prescribing for them special command-
ments. In this sense were the 613 commandments
regarded by Judaism.

Some of these are understood to be divine marks
of distinction to separate Israel from the other na-
tions— statutes ("hukkot") which are designated
as unreasonable by the heathen world, such as laws
concerning diet, dress, and the like (Sifra, Ahare
Mot, xiii.). Others are called " 'eduyot " (testimony),
in view of their having been given to
Purpose of make Israel testify to God's miracu-
the Law. lous guidance, such as the festive
seasons of the year; while still others
are "signs" ("ot"), being tokens of tiie covenant
between God and Israel, such as circumcision, the
Sabbath (Gen. xvii. 11; Ex. xxxi. 13), the Passover
(Ex. xii. 13, xiii. 9), and, according to the rabbinical
interpretation, the tefillin (Dcut. vi. 8, xi. 18).

Of sacraments, in the sense of mysterious rites by
which a person is brought into a lifelong bodily
relationship to God, Judaism has none. The Sab-
bath and circumcision have been erroneously called

thus by Frankel (in his "Zeitschrift," 1844, p.
07): tliey are institutions of Judaism of an essential
and, according to the generally accepted opinion,
vital character; but they do not give any Jew the
character of an adherent of the faith (see Ceremony ;
CoMMAND.MENTS). At the Same time the Sabballi
and the festival seasons, with the ceremonies con-
nected with them, have at all times been the most
significant expressions of Jewish sentiment, and
must be regarded as the most important factors of
religious life both in the Synagogue and in iiie home
(see Ab, Ninth of; Atonement, Day of; Hanlk-
KAii; New-Yeak; Passover; Purim; Saijbatii;
SiiABUOT; and Sukkot).

While the immutability of the Torah, that is, the
law of Moses, botli the wiitten and the oral Law, is
declared by IMaimonides to be one of the cardinal
doctrines of Judaism, there are views expressed in
the Talmud that the commandments will be abro-
gated in the world to come (Nid. 61b). It is espe-
cially the dietary laws that will, it is said, be no
longer in force in the Messianic time (Midr. Teh. on
Ps. cxlvi. 4).

On the question whether the laws concerning
sacrifice and Levitical puritj' have ceased to be in-
tegral parts of Judaism, Reform and
Orthodox Orthodox Jtidaism are at issue (on this
and Reform and other points of difference between
Judaism, the two extreme parties of Judaism see
Reform Jidaism). Between the two
stands the so-called " Breslau school," with Zacharias
Frankel as head, whose watchword was " Positive
Historical Judaism," and whose principle was " Re-
form tempered with Conservatism." While no
longer adhering to the Mosaic origin of the Penta-
teuch (see Gratz in "Geseh." ii. 299-318, and
Schechter in "J. Q. R." iii. 760-761) and the divine
character of tradition (see Frankel, "Darke ha-
Mishnah "), it assigns the power and authority for
reforms in J udai.sm only to the Jewish community
as a whole, or to what Schechter calls "catholic
Israel." The latter author desires "a strong author-
ity," one which, "drawing inspiration from the past,
understands also how to reconcile us [the Jews]
with the present and to prepare us [them] for the
future " (" J. Q. R. " iv. 470). Griltz goes so far as to
reduce Judaism to two fundamental principles: (1)
" the religious element, which is mere negative mon-
otheism in the widest acceptation of the term," and
(2) the ethical, which offers the ideal for the moral
life: " Be ye holy even as I am holy " ; at the same
time declaring that " prophets and Talmudists did
uot regard sacrifice or ritual as the fundamental
and determining thing in Judaism" (Gratz, i. 9).
This leads to a final statement of the principles and
forces of Judaism.

V. Historic Principles and Forces of Ju-
daism: The Shema', "the proclamation of God's
unitv, requires an undivided Israel" (Mek., Yitro,
Bahodesh, i.). "One God, One Israel, and One
Temple " is the principle twice stated in Josephus
("Ant." iv. 8, t; 5; "Contra Ap." ii. 28); "One God,
One Israel, and One Torah " is the principle upon
which Orthodox Judaism rests. " It was an evil day
for Israel when the controversies between the schools
of Shammai and Hillel began, and the one Torah ap-

Judaism
Judaizing' Heresy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

368

peared to have become two Torot" (Sanh. 88b;
where the plural " Torot " occurs, it refers to the
written and oral law ; Yoma 28b, with reference to
Gen. xxvi. 5; comp. Shah. 31a). This Torah, both
written and oral, was known to and practised in all
its details by the Patriarchs (Yoma 28b; Gen. R.
Ixiv. ; comp. Jubilees, Book of, and " Attah Ehad "
in the liturgy). ""Whosoever denies that the whole
Law, written as well as oral, was given by God to
Moses on Sinai is a heretic" (Sanh. 99a; Sifra, Be-
har, i. 1).

The trustworthiness of the divine behest until the

final codification of the Law, from this point of view,

rests upon the continuous chain of

Chain of tradition from Moses down to the men
Tradition, of the Great Synagogue (Ab. i. 1), and
afterward upon the successive ordi-
nation of the Rabbis b_v the elders with the laying
on of hands (probably originally under the influence
of the Holy Spirit; see Semikah). Accordingly
the stability and the immutability of the Law re-
mained from the Orthodox standpoint one of the
cardinal principles of Judaism (see M. Friedlander,
'"The Jewish Religion," 1891; Samson Raphael
Hirsch, "Horeb," 1837).

Independent research, however, discerns evolution
and progress to have been at work in the various
Mosaic legislations (Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19; Deut. xii.-
xxi. 13; ard Leviticus togetlier with Num. xv.,
xviii.-xix. 22), in the proplietic and priestly as well
as in the soferic activities, and it necessarily sees
in revelation and inspiration as well as in tradi-
tion a spiritual force working from within rather
tlian a heavenly communication coming from with-
out. From tliis point of view, ethical monotheism
presents itself as the product not of the Semitic race,
which may at best have created predisposition for
prophetic inspiration and for a conception of the
Deity as a personality with certain moral relations to
man, but solely of the Jewish genius, whose purer
and tenderer conception of life demanded a pure
and holy God in sharp contrast to the cruel and
lascivious gods of the other Semitic races (see M.
Joel, " Religios - Philosophische Zcitfragen," 1876,
pp. 82-83).

It was the proplietic spirit of the Jewish na-
tion embodied in Abraham (not the Midianite, as
Budile tliinks, nor .some Babylonian tribe, as the
Assyriologists would have it) which transformed
Ynwii, an original tribal deity localized on Sinai
and connected with the celestial phenomena of na-
ture, into the God of holiness, "a power not our-
selves that maketh for righteousness," the moral
governor of the world. Vet this spirit
The works throughout the Biblical time

Prophetic only in and through a few individuals
Spirit. in each age; again and again the peo-
ple lapse into idolatry from lack of
power to soar to the heights of prophetic vision.
Only in the small Judean kingdom with the help of
the Deuteronomic Book of the Law the beginning is
made, and linally through Ezra the foundation is
laid for the realization of the plan of "a kingdom of
priests and a holy nation."

But while thus the people were won, and the
former propensity to idolatry, the "yezer ha ra".'"

was banished forever b}- tlie power of the men of
the Great Synagogue (Yoma 69b), the light of pro-
phetic universalism became dim. Still it found its
utterance in the Synagogue with its liturgy, in
the Psalms, in the Books of Jonah and Job, in the
Books of Wisdom, and most singularlj- in the
haftarah read on Sabbath and holy days often to
voice the prophetic view concerning sacrifice and
ritual in direct antagonism to the ^losaic precepts.
Here, too, " the Holy Spirit " was at work (see In-
spiration ; Synagogue). It created Pharisaism in
opposition to Sadducean in.sistence upon the letter
of the Law; and the day when the injunction "an
ej'e for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth " was abro-
gated, and the rationalistic interpretation of the
Scribes was substituted therefor, was celebrated as
a triumph of reason (Megillat Ta'an. iv. 1). While
the legalists beheld God's majesty confined to
" the four ells of the Halakah " (Ber. 8a), the Hag-
gadah imfolded the spirit of freedom and progress;
and when m3-sticism in tlie East threatened to be-
numb the spirit, philosophy imder Arabian influ-
ence succeeded in enlarging the mental horizon of
Judaism anew.

Thus Judaism presents two streams or currents
of thought ever running parallel to each other: the
one conservative, the other progressive and Hberal;
the one accentuating the national and ritualistic, the
other the cosmopolitan and spiritual, elements; mys-
ticism here and rationalism there, these together
forming the centripetal and centrifugal forces of
Judaism to keep it in continuous progress upon its
God-appointed track.

Judaism, parent of both Chuistianity and Islam,
holds forth the pledge and promise of the unity of
the two("Yad," Melakim, xi. 4; "Cuzari," iv. 23;
see Jew. Encyc. iv. 56, s.v. Christianity), as it
often stood as mediator between Cliurch and Mosque
during the Middle Ages (see DisruT.\TioNS and Ju-
DAii ha-Levi). In order to be able to "unite all
mankind into one bond " (New-Year's liturgy and
Gen. R. Ixxxviii.), it must form "one bond" (Lev.
R. XXX.). It must, to use Isaiah's words, constitute
a tree ever pruned while "the holy seed is the sub-
stance thereof " (Isa. vi. 13); its watchword being:
"Not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit,
saith the Lord of hosts" (Zecli. iv. 6).

For Karaitic Judaism see Karaites.

Bibliography: M. Friedlauder, The Jexvish iteZiffion, Lon-
don, 1891; Geiger, Da-a Judeitthum und Seine Gesc)iichte,
Bresiau, 1865; idem, NncJioelaxsene Schyiften, i.-v.; M.
Giidemann, Was 1st JudentlnimJ Vienna, 1902 ; Morris Joseph,
Judaism as Creed and Life. London, 1903; Jost, Gesch. des
Judentlniws und Scinci- Seklen. Leipsio, 18.57-59; Judai.im
at the Warbt's Parliament of Rcliuioiis, Cincinnati. lS9i;
Margolis. The Tlicnlo(jieal Aspect of Reform Judaism, in
Tear Book of the Central Conference of A nterican Rabbis,
190;3. pp. IS.')-;«8: Claude Monteflore, Hihbert Leeture.\
London, 189:2; idem, Liberal Judaisin, ib. 1903; Felix Perles,
BousseVs Re!i(iio)i des Judenth%nns ini XeutestamentUchen
Zeitalter, Kritisch Untersitcht. Berlin. 1903; Schechter,
Stxidies in Judaism. Philadelphia, 1896; Schreiner, I>ie
Jnngsten Urtheile iiber dat: Judcnthum. Berlin, 1902;
Stein, Sc/i (if ( des Lebens, Mannheim, 1872; Toy, Judaism
and Christianity. Bostou, 1890: Weher, Jti(?isc/ie Theologie
auf Grnnddes Talmud ; special articles l)y Abrahams, Gratz,
Claude Monteflore. Schechter, and Oswald J. Simon, in J.Q.
R. i.-xvii.; Kohler, 'J'he Spirited Forces of Judaism, Juda-
isn> and Reform. The Spirit nf Judaism, in the yienorah
Monthln. 189-1, isg."), 1897 ; L. Low. in Gesammelte SchHften,
1889, i.: Z. Frankel, in his Zeitschrift, 1844.

JUDAIZERS. See Inquisition.

869

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaism
Judaizing Heresy

JUDAIZING HERESY (ZHIDOVSTVTJ-
YUSHCHAYA TERES), or JXJDAIZING
CHRISTIANS: A Christian heresy which tirst
made its appearance in Novgorod during the reign
of Grand Duke Ivan Vassilyevich III. (second half
of tlie fifteenth century), and from there spread to
Pskov and Moscow.

From the work of the priest Josif Volotzki, en-
titled "Prosvyetitel," etc. (The Enlightener, or the
Detection of the Judaizing Heresy), it is evident
that the first propagator of the heresy was the influ-
ential Jew Skhariyah (Zechariah) of Kiev, "who
had studied astrology, necromancy, and various
magic arts." He came to Novgorod (1471) in the
suite of Prince Michael Olelkovich, probably as his
commercial agent, and was soon followed by the
Lithuanian Jews Osif, Shmoilo, Skargei, Moisei, and
Chanush. Skharij-ah at first converted the priest
Dionis and the archpriest (" Protopapas ") Aleksei,
and through the latter many other clergymen of
Novgorod and Pskov. The doctrine of the sect, as
given by Volotzki and other Russian church his-
torians, was as follows : The belief in the only one
God and the negation of the divinity of Jesus Christ
and of the Trinity. Christ, according to their be-
lief, has not yet appeared, and when he does so, he
will not appear as the son of God in substance, but
through his benefactions, " like Moses and the Proph-
ets." Until the arrival of Christ the laws of Moses
should be strictly followed, since the evangelistic
writings are all erroneous. Furthermore, thej' con-
demned images and strongly censured monasticism.

The Russian historian Ilovaiski is of the opinion
that the essential principles of the heresy had little
in common with Judaism, and were rather the out-
come of the rationalistic ideas of the Reformation,
■which reached Novgorod from western Europe. But
Luther's predecessor, Johannes von Goch (1400-75),
recognized the authority of the Church and the mo-
nastic orders ; and Erasmus of Rotterdam was not
born till 1467 or 1469.

In the beginning the heresy was kept secret, its
adherents remaining within the Greek Orthodox
Church. In 1480, when Grand Duke Ivan Vassilye-
vich visited Novgorod, Aleksei and his friend Dionis
found favor with him. He took them both to Mos-
cow and placed them at the head of the Churches of
the Assumption and of the Archangel Michael re-
spectively, and here they commenced an active prop-
aganda. Aleksei, enjoying the confidence of the
grand duke in a high degree, soon succeeded in con-
verting his secretary, Feodor Kuritzyn ; the archi-
mandrite Zossima ; the monk Zechariah ; the princess
Helena, daughter-in-law of the grand duke; and
many other prominent rersonages. The grand duke
soon became familiar with the doctrine of the heresj',
and seemed to be favorably disposed toward it.

The existence of the heresy was officially de-
noimced in 1487, when a few intoxicated clergymen
of Novgorod openly blasphemed against the Ortho-
dox faith and were accused before the archbishop
Gennadi. One of the accused priests, Naum, re-
pented and told the archbishop all about the heresy,
and that some of th? merchants of Moscow, among
them Ivashka Chorny and Ignashka Zubov, had been
circumcised and had escaped to Lithuania (1487).
VII.— 24

Gennadi then became the chief opponent of the
heresy, but found little support in the higher courts,
both civil and ecclesiastical, since the grand duke
favored tlie leaders of the heresy and the metro-
politan Geronti was personally antagonistic to
Gennadi. The latter then called a council of the
bishops (1488), which decreed execution of the im-
penitent heretics, "who glorify the Jewish faith and
abuse the Greek Orthodox religion." In 1491, when
Zossima was appointed metropolitan, Gennadi con-
vened another council, which condemned the chief
heretics among the clergy, pronounced an anathema
against them, and imprisoned them in a monastery.
In Novgorod, by Gennadi's orders, the lieretics were
punished in a very cruel manner.

With all his influence and power, however, Gen-
nadi did not succeed in suppressing the heresy ; for
the sectarians were favored by the grand duke, and,
with the help of Kuritzyn, one of the sect, Kassian,
was appointed Archimandrite of Novgorod. Gen-
nadi then secured the aid of Joseph Volotzki, who
by his accusations forced Zossima to resign (May 17,
1494). The grand duke's daughter-in-law also took
the part of the heretics, and with the accession of
her son to the throne the sectarians hoped that the
persecution of the heresy would cease.

In 1490 the Church council passed a resolution
against the heretics, many of w'hom were tortured
to death in the prison of Novgorod. The majority
of the Judaizers, however, continued their teachings
and converted many of the masses directly to Juda-
ism. By the machinations of Gennadi, Helena and
her son Dimitri were imprisoned in a monastery
(1502), and Vassili, the younger son of the grand
duke, was proclaimed successor to the throne. The
attitude of the government in regard to the heresy
then changed. The council convoked by the grand
duke opened its sessions Dec. 27, 1504, and con-
demned some of the heretics to capital punishment.
Tlie deacon Volk Kuritzyn (Feodor's brother), Ivan
Maximov, and Dimitri Konopliov were burned in
cages at the stake, while other members of the sect,
including the archimandrite Kassian, Avere burned
at the stake in Novgorod. Some of the heretics
were imprisoned; others were sent to monasteries.

From this blow the heresy could not recover,
although the doctrines of the sect continued to
spread secretly. Kostomarov (vol. xii.) believes
that the sect of the Molokans derived its origin from
the Judaizers.

In a letter to the Metropolitan of Moscow, Gennadi
sends a collection of speeches, delivered before the
czar by the Russian ambassador to Spain, conceining
the way in which the King of Spain liad outrooted
heretics. He further relates the story of the bap-
tized Jew Daniel, who had lately traveled from
Kiev to Moscow and had heard from the Jews of
Kiev that the grand duke had destroyed all the
churclies in Moscow, owing to the spread of the
heresy, with which the grand duke seems to have
sympathized.

For the defense of the Orthodox faith against the
Judaizers, Dimitri Gerasimov, translator at the am-
bassadors' court, translated from the Latin the fol-
lowing works:

(1) Nicholas de Lyra's work on " The Infidelity of

Judaizing' Heresy-
Judas Maccabeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

370

the Jews " ; (2) " Conviction of the Jews " ; (3) the
work of the baptized Jew Joseph on " The Jews Who
Were Baptized in Africa."

But little is known of the fortunes of the Judai-
zing sects during the period intervening between the
reign of Ivan III. and that of Alexander I. It is
known only that Ivan the Terrible would not admit
in 1550 Jewish merchants from Poland, for the
reason that they brought " poisonous herbs to Rus-
sia and led the Russians away from Chiistianity "
(Regesty No. 470 ; see also Regesty No. 500). It
would seem, however, from the legislative measures
passed from time to time, that the government still
regarded the Judaizing sects as a real menace to the
supremacy of the Greek Orthodox Church. The fact
that little is known of the Judaizing sects during
that period may be due to the care exercised by the
sectarians in keeping their beliefs secret, and to the
disinclination of the Jews of Russia in the making
of proselytes.

During the reign of Emperor Alexander I. the
sectarians, encouraged by his liberal attitude, gath-
ered new life, and many began openly to announce
their principles. They Avere then called in the Rus-
sian official documents " heretics " and " Sabbatari-
ans," who followed certain Jewish dogmas and rites,
e.g., the observance of the Sabbath and circumcision.
The first official reports about them appeared in 1811,
almost simultaneously from the governments of
Tula, Voronezh, and Tambov. The Archbishop of
Voronezh reported that the sect owed its origin, in
1796, to some Jews who had settled among the Chris-
tian inhabitants of those governments, and that its
doctrines had taken root in six villages of the dis-
tricts of Bobrov and Pavlov. In 1818 some of the
farmers of the government of Voronezh sent a formal
complaint to the emperor Alexander against the
oppression by the local civil and ecclesiastical offi-
cials of those who confessed the Mosaic faith. Upon
the strength of this complaint a strict investigation
was ordered concerning bribes which had been ac-
cepted by some of the officials. At the same time
the secretaries of worship and of the interior were
ordered to make a report to the emperor concerning
the Judaizing Christians.

From the investigation it became apparent that
the Judaizing heresy had spread to the governments
of Orel, Tula, and Saratov. About 1,500 members
confessed it openly, and many more kept their belief
secret. The sect, according to the opinion of the
metropolitan, was not a distinctly Old Testament
cult, but was characterized by the observance of
certain Jewish rites, e.(j., the celebration of the Sab-
bath, circumcision, contracting marriages and dis-
solving them at will, peculiar burial ceremonies, and
manner of assembling for prayer. The sectarians
declared that they did not condemn the Christian
faith, and, therefore, did not consider themselves
apostates; and they insisted that tliey never had
been Christians, but had only adhered to the faith
of their fathers, which they would not forsake.

The measures which were taken against the spread
of tlie Judaizing heresy had sad consequences for
the Jews. While the leaders of the sect were sent
into the army or deported to Siberia, the officials con-
sidered it useful to tlieraselves to call the sect in

official documents a Jewish sect, and to announce
that the sectarians were Jews. They claimed that
the name " Sabbatarians " would not convey to the
Russian masses a correct idea of the nature of the
sect. Its members were intentionally called " Jews "
in the statutes so as to expose them to the contempt
of the people. Finally a ukase was issued by the
synod July 29, 1825 (" Pervoe Polnoe Sobranie Za-
konov " xl., No. 30,436 A), ordering the expulsion of
all Jews from those districts in which the Sabba-
tarians or Judaizing Christians were to be found.

As late as 1880 Jews Avere expelled from districts
where adherents of the sect were supposed to exist.

Bibliography: Panov, Feres Zhidov^tvumuihchikh, in the
Journal of the Ministrn of Public Instructwn, 1877, part
188, p. 14; Aktji Ititoricheskiiia, i. 521, published by the
Archives Commission ; Chtenie Mnskov Ikavo Ohshchestva
Isto7-ii. 1847, No. 8; R?t,ss^a;/a Istoricheskaija Biblioteka,
vi. 76.3, 786; Polnoe Sobranie Russkikh Lyetopisei, vol.
iv.; Platen, Kraikaya Tzcrkovnana Rossi,'<kaya Istorij/a,
Moscow, 18.33; Rudnev, Razsuzhdenie o Yeresyakh, etc.,
Moscow, 1838.
K. H. R.

JUDAS THE ESSENE : Saint renowned for his
prophetic powers in the time of King Aristobulus
(105-104 B.C.). Josephus ("Ant." xiii. 11, § 2; "B.
J. " i. 3, § 5) relates the following characteristic story
concerning him : Judas had foretold that the death
of Antigouus, the king's brotlier, would take place
on a certain day at Strato's Tower in Ca?sarea by
the Sea, when to his great astonishment he saw him
pass by the Temple on the day specified. As he had
never before failed in his predictions he was greatly
dejected on realizing that this time his prophecy
could not be fulfilled, the distance to Csesarea being
so great and the hour so late. HoAvever, the prophet,
as Josephus calls him, learned a few hours afterward
that there was near Jerusalem a subterranean passage
also called " Strato's Tower, " and that Antigonus had
been slain there by the body-guards of the king.

G. K.

JUDAS THE GALILEAN : Leader of a pop-
ular revolt against the Romans at the time Avhen
the first census Avas taken in Judea, in which revolt
he perished and his folloAvers were dispersed (Acts
V. 37) ; born at Gamala in Gaulonitis (Josephus,
"Ant." xviii. 1, § I). In the year 6 or 7 c.e., Avhen
Qtiirinus came into Judea to take an account of the
substance of the Jcavs, Judas, together with Zadok,
a Pharisee, headed a large number of Zealots and
offered strenuous resistance (ib. xviii. 1, § 6; xx. 5,
§ 2; tdetn, "B. J."ii. 8, § 1). Judas proclaimed the
Jewish state as a republic recognizing God alone as
king and ruler and His laws as supreme. The revolt
continued to spread, and in some places serious con-
flicts ensued. Even after Judas had perished, his
spirit continued to animate his followers. Tavo
of his sons, Jacob and Simon, were crucified by
Tiberius Alexander ("Ant." xx. 5, § 2); another
son, Meuahem, became the leader of the Sicarii and
for a time had much power; he was finally slain
by the high-priestly party ("B. J." ii. 17, §§8-9).

Gratz ("Gesch." iii. 251) and Schurer ("Gesch."
i. 486) identify Judas the Galilean Avith Judas, son
of Hezekiaii the Zealot, who, according to Jose-
phus ("Ant." xvii. 10, § 5; "B. J." ii. 4, § 1), led
a revolt in the time of Quintilius Varus. He took
possession of the arsenal of Sepphoris, armed his

371

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judaizine Heresy
Judas Bffaccabeus

followers, who were in great numbers, and soon be-
came the terror of the Romans.

Bibliography: Griltz, Gesch. 3d ed., ill. 260, 364; Schurer,
Gcsch. 3d ed., i. 42(), passim.
K. M. Sel.

JUDAS ISCARIOT (nVlp Ey'N = "the man of
Keriot," a town iu Judah; Josh. xv. 25; see also
Rapoport, " 'Erek Millin," p. 28, s.v. m"i3TN; Tay-
lor. "Sayings of the Jewish Fathers," p. 170): One
of the twelve Apostles of Jesus ; he betrayed his mas-
ter and delivered him up to the priests for judgment
(Matt. X. 4; Mark iii. 19; Luke vi. 16). That Jesus
siiould have shown so little foresight in the choice
of an apostle naturally caused great perplexity to
his followers; and consequently the Gospels present
the facts of the betrayal as well as the character of
Judas from partizan points of view and in different
ways. According to Luke xxii. 3-5 (comp. John
xiii. 27) Satan entered into him while he sat at the
table, among the rest of the Apostles, to partake of
the Passover meal, and he left to commune "with
the chief priests and captains, how he might be-
tray " Jesus, while they "covenanted to give him
[Judas] money." In Mark xiv. 10-11 Satan is
omitted; in Matt. xxvi. 15 the price of thirty pieces
of silver is given with a view to the Christian inter-
pretation of Zech. xi. 12 (comp. Matt, xxvii. 3-9 ct
seq.). Possibly the story that Judas was moved by
avarice is a later invention. In fact, the tendency
to make Judas the type of greed is manifested in
John xii. 4-6, according to which passage he was a
thief who misappropriated the money in the com-
mon treasurj^ of which he had charge ; therefore he
objected to having fine ointment worth three hun-
dred pence expended upon the anointing of the feet
of Jesus by Mary instead of being deposited with
the money reserved for the poor.

In all likelihood, Judas, being of the district of
Judah, while the rest were all Galileans, w-as not
impressed with the Messianic character claimed by
Jesus, and therefore, merely to obtain immunity for
himself, committed the cowardly act of betraying
him to the soldiers and officers of the priests that
came with swords and staves to seize him and his
followers. He singled out Jesus by kissing him
while greeting him as rabbi (John xviii. 1 etseg.);
they then seized Jesus and brought him bound to
Annas and Caiaphas the high priest (Matt. xxvi. 47
et seq., and par. pas.), while his disciples, inclu-
ding Peter, left their master to his destiny.

The Gospels, however, relate that Jesus knew be-
forehand that Judas would betray him, and accord-
ingly announced it at the Passover meal in the very
presence of Judas, pointing him out as the betrayer
before he left the table and immediately before the
betrayal took place (Matt. xxvi. 21 et seq., 46 et seq. ;
Mark xiv. 18 etseq., 42; Luke xxii. 21; John xiii.
21, xviii. 4).

About the further history of Judas various legends
circulated. Matt, xxvii. 3 etseq. relates

The End that when he saw that Jesus was con-

of Judas, demned, he repented of his act and

took back the thirty pieces of silver he

had received from the priests and elders and cast

the money into the Temple treasury, calling it the

price of innocent blood, and then went away, and.

like Ahithophel (II Sam. xvii. 23), hanged himself;
but the priests would not use the money for Temple
purposes, it being blood-mouey (comp. Deut. xxiii.
18); they decided, therefore, to buy with it the pot-
ter's field in which to bury strangers; hence its
name, "Hakal Dama" (= Field of Blood).

As is .so often done by Matthew, the passage
Zech. xi. 12-13, strangely confused with Jer. xviii.
2 and xxxii. 6 et seq., is referred to as a typieal
prophecy of the event here narrated. Quite differ-
ent is the story of Judas' end related in Acts i.
18-19. There, he bought the field with the money
and died upon it through a fall: "falling headlong,
he burst asunder in the midst, and all his bowels
gushed out " ; this account is concluded by a refer-
ence to Ps. Ixix. 26 (A. V. 25). See Aceld.xma.
According to Papias, the disciple of John (see Geb-
hardtand Harnack, " Patrum Apostolicorum Opera,"
i. 2, 93 et seq.), Judas' whole body was so swollen as
to be a terrible sight to those passing by, and, after
lying there a short time, he burst open on his own
field. In the Arabic Apocryphon, "Evangelium
Infantiae Salvatoris,"ch. xxxv., Judas is represented
as having been possessed by Satan at the birth of
Jesus; and when the infant Jesus was taken near
him to afford him relief from an ailment, Jesus beat
him instead. In the Middle Ages Judas was fre-
quently made a subject of popular myths and repre-
sented as the type of wickedness.

Bibliography : Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bihl.; Herzog-
Hauck. Real-Enciic. (where the modem literature of the
subject is Riven): Winer, B. R.
T. K.

JUDAS MACCABEUS : Son of the priest Mat-
tathias, and, after his father's death, leader against
the Syrians. When he entered on the war he must
have been in the prime of his manhood. At first he
did not fight pitched battles, but made unexpected
night attacks upon villages and small towns on the
edge of the desert, iu order to drive out the Syrians,
destroy the heathen altars, and punish Jewish trai-
tors (I Mace. iii. 8 ; II Mace. viii. 1 ; Josephus,
"Ant." xii. 6, §4). He and his brothers probably
had then only a small troop of fugitives about them,
as his father had had, and could not carry on an
open warfare ; it was the continued small conflicts
that gradually created for him an organized armj'.
At first only the Syrian local authorities who were
immediately concerned paid any attention to the
Jewish rebellion. Apollonius, strategusof Samaria,
attacked Judas with his army, but was defeated and
slain, and his sword was thenceforth borne bj-
Judas; on that occasion the Jews took a great deal
of booty (I Mace. iii. 10-12; "Ant." xii. 7, § 1).
This victory must have brought Judas many re-
cruits, and the news of the battle moved Seron,
strategus of Cojle-Syria, tomarchagainst him with a
considerable army, including many Jewish traitors.
The small Jewish band, weak with fasting, was at
first dismayed by the might of the enemy, but Judas
succeeded in inflaming their zeal for the holy cause,
and they gave battle in the narrow pass of Beth-
horon, northwest of Jerusalem. The Syrians were
defeated and pursued as far as the plain; 800 of
them fell, and the rest fled into the country of the
Philistines (I Mace. iii. 13-14; Josephus, I.e.).

Judas Maccabeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

372

Antioclius undertook an expedition (166-1G5 B.C.)

into Persia (I Mace. iii. 37) ; he needed money to

meet the war-tax of the Romans, and

Syrians the tax-income from Judea had been

Advance interrupted by the disturbances; he

Against left the government and his minor son,
Judas. Antiochus V., in tlie care of Lj'sias, a
man of royal blood. Lysias then sent
Ptolemy, son of Darymenes (II Mace. viii. 8 makes
him strategus of Ccele-Syria and Phenicia), Nicanor,
son of Patroclus, and Gorgias — men experienced in
war — to Judea with an army of 40,000 infantry and
7,000 cavalry; they went as far as Emmaus ("Ant."
xii. 7, g 3). Victory seemed to the Syrians so as-
sured that they had Phenician traders with them in
camp prepared to buy as slaves the captives whom
they expected to take; the money was intended
by Nicanor to defra}^ the Roman war- tax (II ISIacc.
viii. 10). The Jews assembled in Mizpah, the old
place of worship (I Mace. iii. 46; Josephus and II
Mace, do not name the place), where, in sackcloth
and ashes, they observed a solemn day of prayer
and repentance. Judas' 3,000 men were scantily
armed ; he had no cavalry, and there were not even
enough helmets and swords for his force; but his
followers were well disciplined (I Mace. iii. 55, iv.
6; comp. vi. 6; "Ant." xii. 7, §§ 3-4). According
to another authoritj^ Judas had as many as 6,000
men, who were divided into four equal companies
of 1,500, and commanded by four of the Maccabean
brothers, the first division by Judas himself; the
fifth brother, Eleazar, read aloud from the Bible
(comp. the difficult passage I Mace. iii. 48), and gave
the password: "Help of God" (II Mace. viii. 16-
23). This authority deserves credence in preference
to I Maccabees or Josephus (who slavishly follows
I Mace). By a stratagem, Judas gained an advan-
tage over Gorgias (I Mace. iv. 1-25; "Ant." xii. 7,
§ 4), overcame both him and Nicanor, and killed
9,000 Syrians (perhaps 900); he captured much
spoil, including the money of the Phenician traders
(II Mace. viii. 23-25). It is probably only a tradi-
tion that this battle took place on Sabbath eve and
that the stricter Jews were thereby prevented from
pursuing the enemy (II Mace. viii. 23-29).

The next battle was witli Lysias himself (autumn
of 165 B.C.), who approached from the south, wliere
he had hoped to find support from the Idumeans. The
two armies met at Beth-zur, south of Jerusalem and
on the road to Hebron. Judas, although much
weaker, gained a brilliant victory and compelled
Ly.sias to retreat to Antioch (I Mace. iv. 26-35;
"Ant." xii. 7, § 5; II Mace. xi. 1-15 places Lysias'
campaign much later and makes the enemies con-
clude peace with each other, which can hardly be
true). Judas and his associates could now enter Je-
rusalem ; only the citadel, the Acba, remained in the
hands of the Syrian garrison; with them, probably,
were also the Jewish traitors, perhaps with the
high priest Menelaus at their .head.

Hanuk- The first thing the patriots did was to

kah. reconsecrate the profaned Temple, and

with this is connected the origin of the

Hanukkah feast. This closes the first period of the

Maccabean revolt.

Judas was left in peace for about two years. But

the small neighboring tribes, which did not like to
see the Jews once more in power, arose again, as in
the time of Nehemiah. Judas punished first the
Idumeans in Acrabatene, in the region of the Dead
Sea: then the tribe of Baans. He proceeded next
against the Ammonites in the land east of the Jor-
dan, who were led by Timotheus; took their city
Jaazer, and made their wives and children captives
(I Mace. V. 1-8; "Ant." xii. 8, § 1). The Jews in
Gilead, who had taken refuge in the fortress Di-
atiiema, sent word to Judas that they were severe-
ly beset by Timotheus, and begged for aid ; other
messengers reported the straits of the Jews in Gali-
lee, who likewise were harassed by their neighbors.
Judas sent his brother Simeon to Galilee with 3,000
men ; the enemies of the Jews were punished, and
the comparatively few Jews there were transferred
to Jerusalem with their wives and children.

Judas and his brother Jonathan went next against
Gilead with 8,000 men, leaving the remainder of the
army to Joseph b. Zechariah and Azarias, who, con-
trary to orders, fought with Gorgias for the posses-
sion of Jabneii, and suffered a severe
March defeat. They "came not of the seed
Against of those by whose hand deliverance
Gilead. was given unto Israel " (I Mace. v. 62).
Judas and Jonathan fought with great
success in Gilead ; the city of Bosor was taken and
Timotheus put to flight ; the latter, indeed, gathered
his forces together again, but was again defeated.
The Jews of Gilead were transferred also to Judea,
whither Judas returned victoriously by wa}' of Scy-
thopolis, after being compelled to fight his way
through Ephron (I Mace. v. 3-50 ; "Ant." xii. 8,
g§ 2-5). Judas had been successful in all these bat-
tles, which were planned with great skill.

Meanwhile, Antiochus IV. died (164 B.C. ; Seleu-
cidan era 148, not 149 as in I Mace. vi. 16). Before
his death he appointed his trusted friend Philip as
regent and guardian of his son. There was really no
government to keep watch on the Jews. Thus
Judas undertook the siege of the Acra, the garrison
of which continually annoyed those who attended
the Temple, although the latter was strongly forti-
fied. Some in the Acra, among them renegade
Jews, escaped and fled to Antioch, bitterly com-
plaining that they, who had remained faithful to the
king, were threatened in life and property. There-
upon another strong army was sent into Judea;
Lysias commanded 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry,
and 32 elephants; the young king, nine years of age.
marched with him. It was an imposing army, such
as the Jews, probably, had never previouslj^ seen.
The Syrians could not, indeed, easily
Battle at capture the fortified Beth-zur, yet Ju-
Beth-zur. das was obliged to abandon the siege
of the Acra and turn against the en-
emy. A battle ensued (162 B.C.) at Bath-zacharias,
four hours north of Beth-zur. One of the brothers,
Eleazar, was killed in tiie execution of an act of
daring; Judas, too, was conquered, and Beth-zur
fell into the hands of the Syrians (I Mace. vi. 28-48
[where the defeat is scarcely mentioned]; "Ant."
xii. 8, §§ 3-5; "B. J." i. 1, § 5; in II Mace. xiii. 1-
17 a victory is made of it). The Syrian army then
besieged the Temple mount; the besieged, who

373

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judas STaccabeuB

had their brethren from Galilee and Gilead among
them, were in want of provisions, since it was the
Sabbatical year (Seleucidan era 150), and hence they
sued for peace. Lysias granted them complete re-
ligious freedom, which was what they had been
fighting for, and this right was not again taken from
them. The Jews were compelled, however, to sub-
mit to the Syrians, as before the war, and even the
fortifications of tlie Temple were destroyed (I Mace,
vi. 49-54; "Ant." xii. 9, § 5; II Mace. xiii. 18-22).

Tlie cause of all the evil, Menelaus, was executed
at tins time ("Ant." xii. 9, ^7; II Mace. xiii. 3-8).
Perhaps it was this peace with Lysias to which II
Maccabees xi. 14 intended to refer, although the
passage places it as early as Lysias' first cam-
paign. Probably, Lysias concluded peace in or-
der to be able the more easily to subdue his rival
Philip. But soon a more formidable enemy appeared
in the person of the new king Demetrius I. (162-
150), who put to death both Lysias and his royal
ward. The renegade Jews, among them Alcimus,
whom Josephus for some strange reason calls high
priest, even at this stage, went to Demetrius and
again complained of the persecutions they endured
at the hands of Judas and his party. Demetrius,
energetic and impulsive as he then was, immediately
sent Bacchides to Judea with a large
Bacchides army, placed Alcimus under his pro-
and tection, but bade him remove Judas

Alcimus. and his companions. Bacchides en-
deavored to lure Judas into his power
by pacific assurances; Judas, however, saw through
his craft. But now internal divisions again became
manifest; the Hasidaeans, when they saw their relig-
ious freedom assured to them, willingly recognized
Alcimus and the Syrian dominion— but to their mis-
fortune, for Bacchides, in spite of his solemn oath,
killed sixty of them, thereby cowing the others.

Although the laud was by no means pacified, Bac-
chides went back to Antioch, leaving behind only
one command to protect Alcimus. The party of Al-
cimus fought now with that of Judas, but the latter
was the stronger, and Alcimus sent again to the
king with a plea for aid (1 Mace. vii. 1-25; "Ant."
xii. 10, §§ 1-3).

The king sent a strong army under Nicanor (not
the Nicanor of Antiocbus Epiphanes), a man who
had enjoyed his confidence in Rome. Nicauor also
first tried stratagem, and for a time Judas believed
in his friendly disposition, but he then discovered the
treacherv and escaped the danger in time (I Mace,
vii. 26-30; "Ant." xii. 10, § 4). II Mace. xiv. 12-
27 represents Nicanor as feeling real respect for
Judas ; he made peaceful propositions to him through
Posidonius, Theodotus, and Mattathias, which were
accepted ; the friendship was increased by their per-
sonal acquaintance, and Nicanor is said to have ad-
vised Judas to take a wife and found a race of
heroes. But Alcimus looked upon these develop-
ments with alarm, charged Nicanor with treacherj^
before the king, and declared that Judas desired to
be high priest in his stead.

Then, for the first time, hostility broke out be-
tween Nicanor and Judas, and a battle was fought
at Capharsalama. Graetz, Schilrer, and Wellhausen
state that it ended in the defeat of Nicanor, and that

is, indeed, the literal statement of I Mace. vii. 32,
where it is said : " There were slain of Nicanor's
side about 5,000 men, and [the rest] fled into
the city of David." But one would naturally sup-
pose that the Syrian army would flee into the
Acra, since the city of David was in Judas'
hands; and it is also said immediately afterward
(verse 33): "After this went Nicanor up to Mount
Sion": hence Judas must be intended in verse
32, not Nicanor. In fact, Josephus ("Ant." xii.
10, ^ 4), who always uses I Maccabees, has an-
other version: "He beat Judas, and forced him
to fly to that citadel which was at Jerusalem"
{i.e., to that part of the mount fortified by Judas).
Since, then, Judas had fled to Jerusalem, it is com-
prehensible that Nicanor, being threatened by the
priesthood there, demanded his surrender (I Mace,
vii. 26-38; "Ant." xii. 10, ^§4.5; II Mace. xiv.
11-36).

Thereupon Nicanor proceeded to the region of
Beth-horon, northwest of Jerusalem, a place sit-
uated favorably for the Jews, who were acquainted
with the country' ; Judas encamped
Nicanor against him at Adasa. The battle that
Day. ensued was desperate, and ended in a
glorious victory for the Jews ; Nicanor
fell, and his troops to the number of 9,000 were put
to flight (I Mace. vii. 39-50; "Ant." xii. 10, 5$ 5; II
Mace. XV. 1-36). Judas appointed the 13th of Adar,
the day of the victory (161 B.C.), as a feast-day, and
it still has a place in the calendar of special days
("Megillal Ta'anit").

Judas was again the ruler of the whole land. Ac-
cording to Josephus ("Ant." xii. 10, ^ 6), the sud-
den death of Alcimus occurring at this time, the peo-
ple gave the otfice of high priest to
Was Judas Judas. Josephus ("Ant.'' xii. 11, §2),
High in relating Judas' death, observes
Priest ? also that he was high priest for three
years; but in another place he says
that after the death of Alcimus there was an
intermission of seven years in the otfice of high
priest ("Ant." xx. 10). Judas' three years, then,
fell probably immediately after the consecration of
the Temple (165-162), that is, before the election of
Alcimus, who, moreover, according to I Maccabees,
may possibly have died after Judas. Neither I Mac-
cabees nor the rabbinical authorities, however, speak
of Judas occupving the high-priesthood (see Griltz,
"Gesch." 2d ed., ii. 365, note 3).

I Mace. viii. (comp. "Ant." xii. 10, g§ 6. 11; II
Mace. iv. 11) then relates in detail how Judas made
a treaty with Eome, and describes
Treaty the power of that country, prob-
with ably not as it appeared to Judas, but
Rome. as it appeared to the author. Judas
may safel}' be accredited Avith polit-
ical sagacity enough to see the advantage of suing
for the favor of the Romans, for he must have ob-
served that they were continually concerned in Syrian
trade. The narrative is also furnished witli names
and details, which show that it has .some real founda-
tion in fact. This is the opinion of Graetz, Schiirer.
and Niese. That Josephus, in " B. J." i. 1, § 4, does
not mention the treaty is probably due to the fact that
he is merely summarizing. Justin (xxxvi. 3, § 9)

Judd
Judgre

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

374

speaks of the "amicitia Romanorum " for which the
Jews had asked, only it is not known whether he in-
tends to refer it to the time of Demetrius I. or to that
of Demetrius II. The document, however, which tlie
Romans are said to have given to Judas' ambassa-
dors (I Mace. viii. 23-30) is generally held to be not
genuine. After the defeat of Nicanor, Demetrius
again sent a large army under Bacchides, which
encamped near Berea (Berzetho); Judas encamped
near Elasa (Eleasa). The courage of the Jews sank
at the sight of the large army confronting them, and
the}' fled, only 800 men remaining for the battle.

There was no escape for Judas. Once more he
performed prodigies of valor ; with a few courageous
followers he put the right wing of the
Judas' enemj^ to flight, but lie was hard
Death. pressed by the left wing and fell fight-
ing (160 B.C., in the month of Nisan).
His body was concealed by his brothers and buried
in Modin (I Mace. ix. 1-21; "Ant." xii. 11, §6).
The patriotic party, called "Friends of Judas," was
now relentlessly persecuted.

I Mace. iii. 1-9 gives an enthusiastic description
of the warlike ability, heroism, and bravery of
Judas and of the punishment lie inflicted upon the
enemies of God, both heathen and Jews; Josephus
("Ant." xii. 11, § 2) emphasizes the fact that Judas,
like his father, Mattathias, fought for the freedom of
his people and won everlasting renown. This charac-
terization is wholly confirmed by fact. Judas' strict
piety should also be emphasized ; he prays to God
before almost every battle ; he fulfils the command-
ment of Deut. XX. 1-9; he sings psalms (I Mace. iv.
24) ; he watches for the true prophet {ib. iv. 46) ; he
introduces Hanukkah and Nicanor Day.

Bibliography: Gratz, Gesch. 2d ed., ii. 32o-3T6; Schiirer,
Gesch. 3d ed., i. 204-222 (where bibliography is given); Well-
hausen, I. J. G. 4th ed., pp. 258-266, ■Berlin, 1901 (his chronol-
ogy has been followed); Niese, Zur Kritik der Beiden Mac-
cahUer BUcher, Berlin, 1900.
G. S. Kr.

JTJDD, MAX (originally Maximilian Judkie-
wich) : American manufacturer, consul-general,
and chess-player; born Dec. 27, 1851, at Cracow,
Austria ; emigrated to the United States when eleven
years old. From 1864 to 1867 he lived in Washing-
ton, D. C, and, on becoming an American citizen,
was granted permission by an act of Congress to
assume his present name. Since 1873 he has resided
in St. Louis, Mo. From 1874 to 1893 he was engaged
in business as a wholesale cloak-manufacturer, and
in the latter year was appointed by President Cleve-
land United States consul-general at Vienna, which
post he held for more than four years.

Judd has been very active in the American chess
world. He won fourth prize at the Michigan state
tournament of 1869; first prize at the Ohio state
tournament held at Cincinnati in 1872; and second
prize at the centennial tourney at Philadelphia in
1876. He lost a match with McKenzie, champion of
the United States, by 5 to 7 in 1883; won one with
Showalter by 7 to 3 in 1889; and gained first prize
at the Western Chess Congress held in Chicago in
1903.

Though Judd was never pitted against Steinitz or
Zukertort in set matches, he played a large number
of games with those masters, winning a majority;

and a game which he won from Blackburne (New
York, 1889) has been published as a specimen of fine
play ("Examples of Chess Master-Play," transl. from
the German of Jean Dubresne by C. T. Blanshard,
New Barnet, 1893).

A. A. P.

JTJDE, DER : Periodische Blatter fur Reli-
gion und Gewissensfreiheit : Weeklj- magazine
published in Altona, Germany, from April 10, 1832,
to Dec. 31, 1833, by Gabriel Riesser. Its chief aim
was to agitate for the social emancipation of the
Jews of Europe. Full accounts were published of
the debate in the English Parliament during 1833 on
the proposed removal of the Jewish disabilities.

G. A. M. F.

JUDE, DER (New York), See Periodicals.

JTJDE, EPISTLE OF. See New Testament.

JUDEA. See Palestine.

JTJDENBTJHL. See Nuremberg.

JUDENBURG: One of the oldest cities of
Stj-ria, Austria; the ancient Idunum. The name
of Judenburg occurs in a document of 1075. Then
there were many Jews in the district; Jews prob-
ably' had been living there for a centurj-. Influ-
ential, and in almost complete control of its com-
merce, they excited by their success the envy of the
Christians, Avho spread and believed the most ab-
surd reports concerning them. About tlie time
when the accusation was spread at Fiirstenfelde that
the Jews had desecrated the host, it was reported
at Judenburg that the Jews had formed the de-
sign of murdering all the Christians in the night
of Christmas. It was said that a Jewish girl who
was in love with a Christian had betrayed the plan
to him, urging him to save himself b}' flight. The
Christian in turn warned his fellows, and the people
determined to exter-
minate the Jews.
Many of them fled,
but a great number
were killed. This
event did not deter
the Jews, however,
from resettling there
shortly after. As
early as 1329 a Jew
Hoschel is mentioned
as lending money to
the convent of Ad-
mont; and it is also
said that the Bishop
of Lavant borrowed
money from the Jews

David and Hobsel. Among the Jews that Duke Al-
bert II. took under his especial protection were Has-
lein, Velchlein, Isserlein, and Freudmann. In the be-
ginning of the fifteenth century twenty-two Jewish
wholesale dealers were established at Judenburg
each of whom possessed a fortune of over 100,000
gulden, and of thirty-eight other wealthy mer-
chants the majority also were Jews. A rather
long street called " Judengasse " was occupied almost
entirely by the Jews, but was not considered as a

Anns of the Jews of Judenburg.

375

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judd
Judgre

ghetto, as they were living also in other parts of the
city.

In 1496 the Diet of Styria obtained an order from
Emperor Maximilian expelling the Jews from Styria,
Cariuthia, and Caruiola, because they had been
"guilty of desecrating the holy sacrament of the
altar and murdering Christian children." The Jews
again settled in these three crown lands under Em-
peror Francis Joseph I. The escutcheon of the city
of Judeuburg bears an Austrian eagle and a Jew's
head with pointed beard and peaked hat. In the
chief square is still standing a house on which the
figure of a Jew's head is carved as the sign of the
city; it is said that this was the principal synagogue
of the Jews. Legend reports that on the occasion
of the massacre of the Jews the last one caught was
strangled with a chain at the city gate still called
" Judenthiirl." At present there is a small com-
munity in the city belonging to the rabbinate of
Graz, with a chapel and a cemetery.

G. ■ S. Mu.

JUDENDEUTSCH. See Jud^o- German.

JXTDENEID. See Oath, ]\Iore Judaico.

JUDENGELEIT. See Leibzoll.

JTJDENHERBERGEN. See Inns.

JTTDENHTJT : Tall, conical hat, generally yel-
low, serving, in conformity with the decrees of the
fourth Lateran Council (1215), as a distinguishing
mark for the Jews. This council (" Mansi Concilia,"
xxii. 1055 €t seq.; Gratz, "Gesch." 3d ed., vii. 16)
decreed that every Jew should wear a distinguishing
mark ; this decree was reaffirmed by the Synod of
Vienna, 1267. Pope Paul IV., in 1555, decreed that
the Jews should wear hats of a yellow color (Gratz,
I.e. ix. 339; Berliner, "Gesch. der Juden in Rom,"
ii. 5). In paintings and engravings since the thir-
teenth century Jews can be recognized by their
pointed hats. The Jewi-sh troubadour Siisskind von
Trimberg says that he walked about in the Jewish
manner with a long mantle and a pointed hat. His
picture in an illuminated manuscript containing the
troubadours' songs ("Manessische Handschrift ")
shows him with such a hat (Hagen, "Minnesinger,"
ii. 258-260, 536-538; Gratz, I.e. vi. 234). As a
mark of exceptional favor, some distinguished Jews
were exempted from wearing the Jews' hat; the
municipal board of Venice, for instance, allowed the
famous physician and professor Jacob Mantino to
wear during two months the regular black doc-
tors' cap ("Vessillo Israelitico, " 1903, p. 310). See
IIead-Dress.

Bibliography: Liebe, Das Judentum, p. 28, Leipsic, 1903;
Constant, Lcs Jiiifs Dcvant L'Eqlise et L'Histoire. pp.
129-136, Paris. 189" ; Ulysse, Etude Historique mir la Roue
des Juifs, in R. E. J. vii. 95.
G. D.

JUDENSCHREINSBUCH : Collection of deeds
belonging to Jews in the St. Lawrence parish of
the city of Cologne (Germany); since the thirteenth
century they have been kept in a separate alcove ;
later on they were bound into book form. The Jew-
ish deeds were written in Latin and often also in
Hebrew, the Hebrew text being sewed to the Latin
document. They date from about 1230 to 1347, and
have been edited by Robert Honiger and Moritz

Stern (" Judenschreinsbuch der Laurenzpfarre zu
Koln," Berlin, 1888) for the Histohische Commis-
sion.

o. D.

JTJDENSCHULE (Schola Judeeorum) : The
usual German expression for "synagogue" in medi-
eval times. It seems to have been first u.sed in the
charter of Frederick II. of Austria, issued 1244
(Scherer, "Die Kechtsverhilltnisse der Juden," etc.,
p. 182), wherein wilful damage done to the syna-
gogue is declared punishable by a tine of two tal-
ents. The reason for calling a synagogue "school "
is found in the practi.se, traceable to Talmudic times,
of using the synagogue asa schoolroom (Shab. 11a).
The lack of decorum in the ancient synagogues im-
posed on the term " Judenschule " the meaning of
"a disorderly crowd." Sessa therefore originally
gave to his farce, known later as "UnserVerkehr,"
the name "Judenschule" (1813).

The Italian Jews also call their synagogue "scu-

ola"; so the Scuola Catalana in Rome ("Vessillo

Israelitico," 1904, p. 14). In Slavic countries the

equivalent "shkola " is used for "synagogue," and

the sexton is therefore called "shkolnik," just as in

some German documents the hazzan is called " Schul-

singer." Similarlj^ in England the synagogue is

called "shool" by the Ashkenazim. The name

"Schulmeister," however, seems to be limited to the

teacher, and is not applied to the rabbi.

Bibliography : GUdemann, Gesch. iii., Index ; Heb. Dibl.
xix. 73.

G. D.

JUDENSTATTIGKEIT ("Jews' settlement " or
"Jews' establishment"): Archaic technical term for
the legal status of a Jewish communitj', and as
such identical with the more frequent term' " Juden-
schutz." It seems to have been used onlyatFrank-
fort-on-the-Main and AVorms. The first edition of
the Frankfort " Judenstattigkeit " was printed as a
means of political agitation by the Frankfort gilds
in 1613. The next authorized edition, identical with
the first, was printed by the Frankfort senate in the
following year. This law, however, was superseded,
through the events connected with the Fettmilch
riot, by one issued by Emperor Mathias (1617) and
confirmed by Emperors Leopold (1661) and Joseph
I. (1705). Both are included in Schudt's " Jiidische
Merckwilrdigkeiten." A new "Stattigkeit," issued
by Prince Dalberg in 1807, was abrogated in 1811,
when the Jews received full rights of citizenship.

Bibliography: Schudt, JlUUsche ^ferckwiird^gkcit€n, iil.
119 et seq.. 156 et ■■icq.; Gratz. Gesch. 3d ed., x. 29 ; Jost, A'eu-
ere Gesch. i. 24 et seq., Berlin, 1845.

JIJDGE.— Biblical Data : The common Hebrew

equivalent for " judge " is " shofet, " a term found also
in the Phenician as "sufet" {= "regulator"); the
latter is a name given to those who had chief con-
trol in the Sidonian colonies, and to the Hebrew
"shofet" was originally attached a similar signifi-
cance. But alongside of the original meaning, which
the Hebrew retained (see Judges, Book of), the
term assumed tlie significance of "judge." The la-
ter HebrcAv word"dayyan" (Ezra vii. 25, Aramaic
portion), wdiich has come in Talmudic and post-
Talmudic times to be the word used exclusively for
"judge," is found in the Bible only in reference to

Judgre

Judg'es, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

376

God (I Sam. xxiv. 16; Ps. Ixviii. 6). The term " pe-
lilim "(Ex. xxi. 22: comp. Deut. xxxii. 31), usually
translated "judges," is a rare word; and a different
reading has been suggested by Budde for the passage
quoted (Stade's "Zeitschrift," xi. 101). The term
"elohim" is also used in reference to judges (Ex.
xxi. 6; xxii. 7, 8; comp. Ps. Ixxxii. 1, 6); but
some of the modern commentators translate this
word here, as elsewhere, by " God " (Hastings,
"Diet. Bible," s.t. "Judge, Judging," and note).

Among the early Israelites, the elders of the tribes,
and subsequently the elders of the locality, admin-
istered justice (see Eldeu). Acting upon theadvice
of Jethro, Moses selected "able men

Institu- out of all Israel and made them heads
tion. over the people, rulers of thousands,

rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties,
and rulers of tens; and they judged the people
at all seasons: the more important [A. V. "hard"]
causes they brought unto Moses, but every small
matter they judged themselves" (Ex. xviii. 25, 26;
comp. Deut. i. 15). It is also recorded that Mo.ses
once appointed Aaron and Hur to act as chief judges
in his absence (Ex. xxiv. 14). The judge was
considered a sacred person ; ■ seeking a decision at
law was called "inquiring of God" (Ex. xviii. 15).
Moses is often represented as bringing a case to
God before rendering a decision (Ex. xviii. 19; comp.
Num. XV. 34, 35; xxvii. 5).

After the Israelites settled in Canaan the system
introduced by Moses seems to liave fallen into desue-
tude, because there was no union

Develop- among the tribes. The military rulers
ment. of the people in the time of the Judges
probably assumed control over the ad-
ministration of justice. Samuel is recorded as hav-
ing traveled from place to place judging Israel, while
his headquarters were at Raniah (I Sam. vii. 15-17,
xii. 3; comp. Judges v. 10), and his sons judged the
people at Beer-sheba (I Sam. viii. 2).

With the establishment of the monarchy the king
and his officers were naturally regarded as the su-
preme authority and the final court of appeals (II
Sam. xii. 1-16, xv. 2, xvi. 5-9). Solomon was con-
sidered " to have the wisdom of God in him to do
judgment" (I Kings iii. 28). Although David is
recorded as having appointed 6,000 Levites as judges
and officers (I Chron. xxiii. 4, xxvi. 29), the organi-
zation of courts of justice in accordance with the
Deuteronomic code (Deut. xvi. 18, xvii. 8-13) was
not effected until the time of Jehoshaphat. He
established courts all over Palestine, and appointed
two chief justices — a priest over ecclesiastical affairs,
and a"nagid" (the ruler of the house of Judah)
over temporal affairs (II Chron. xix. 4-11). In Jeru-
salem the royal judges soon superseded the elders
(Jer. xxvi. 11); but in the smaller communities
the elders still continued to exercise their wonted
authority (Isa. iii. 14; II Kings xxiii. 1). On the
return of the Jews from Babylon, Ezra was ordered
by Artaxerxes to appoint judges " which may judge
all the people that are beyond the river " (Ezra vii.
25, 26; X. 14).

The qualifications for judgeship are tersely de-
scribed in Jethro's words, "able men, such as fear
God, men of truth, hating covetousness " (Ex. xviii.

21). The judge must not be influenced by the posi-
tion or wealth of the litigants (Ex. xxiii. 6; Deut. 1.
17, xvi. 19), and must not accept bribes (see Bri-
15EUY). It was the duty of the judges, in order to
put away from themselves the guilt of innocent blood,
to determine by measurement the town nearest the
place where was found the body of a murdered man
whose murderer was not known (Deut. xxi. 1-9).
The judge had to be present at the infliction of the
punishment of flagellation (Deut. xxv. 1-3). See
Sanhedrin.

E. G. H. J. H. G.

In Rabbinical tiiterature : While the term

" dayyan " in Talmudic literature is identical with
" sage," " student of the Law, " " professor of the acad-
emy," or "rabbi of the community," perfect free-
dom was given to the litigants in a civil case to
choose from among the people their own judges.
Even one man could administer justice and enforce
his decisions, if he was known as a scholar (" mum-
heh"), or if the litigants agreed to abide by his de-
cision (Sanh. 5a). If one of the litigants chose one
judge and the other chose another, these two judges
might select a third, even against the will of either
party ; and the decision rendered by them was bind-
ing {ib. 23a). Each one of the judges, however, was
careful not to accept the appointment unless he was
satisfied that the other members of the court were
worthy and respectable men (Sheb. 30b). The Rabbis
recommended that all cases should be brought before
a regularly constituted court of three ; and the larger
the court the better (Sanh. 8a; Shulhan 'Aruk,
Hoshen Mi-shpat, 3, 3, 4).

The qualifications of the judge were many and

various. The members of the three classes of courts

— the Great Sanhedrin, the Lesser

Q,ualifica- Sanhedrin, and the Court of Three

tions. (Josephus, in " Ant." i v. 8, mentions a

Court of Seven) — which, according to

Talmudic tradition, existed iu Palestine during the

second commonwealth (see Bet Din ; S.\nheduin),

had to be duly ordained and authorized by the nasi

of the Sanhedrin or by three of its members (Sanh.

13b; Maimonides, " Yad," Sanh. iv. ; see Authority;

Ordination). Only ordained judges could decide

cases involving fines or corporal punishment (Sanh.

14a; "Yad," I.e. 12).

The members of the Sanhedrin had to be familiar
not only with Jewish law and tradition, but also with
many languages and sciences (Sanh. 17a). Priests
and Levites were preferred to laymen (Sifre, Deut.
xvii. 9); and only such Israelites could serve as
members of the Sanhedrin as were of pure Jewish
descent (Sanh. 32a; see Yihus). A very old man, a
eunuch, or one who had no children could not be a
member of the Sanhedrin {ib. 36b). Besides possess-
ing the necessary mental and spiritual qualifications,
a member of the Sanhedrin hud to be physically well
built, of imposing figure, and without a blemish on
his body {ib. 17a). While members of the Court of
Three were not required to po.ssess all these qualifi-
cations, they had to be distinguished for the follow-
ing seven qualities: wisdom, humility, fear of God,
hatred of money, love of truth, amiability, and a
good reputation (" Yad,"Z.(". ii. 7, where these quali-
ties are derived from Biblical passages).

377

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judgre

Judg-es, Book of

Persons related to one another were disqualified
from acting together as judges or as witnesses;
judges were required to be amicably disposed
toward one another (Sauh. 29a), and there could
not be among them one who was a particular
friend or enemy of one of the litigants (Ket. 105b).
One who witnessed a crime or a transaction could
not act as judge in the matter (^lak. 12a). All
those disqualified from testifying in Jewish courts
(see Evidence) were prohibited also from acting as
judges (Nid. 49a). A woman or a proselyte was
distiualilied for judgeship (Yeb. 102a; B. K. loa;
Tosef., s.v. "Asher"). There is no age limit given
in the Talmud. While the opinion expressed is that
no one under forty should give decisions ('Ab. Zarah
19b), the later rabbis allowed a person of eighteen
years to assume ihe title of judge (comp. Shab. 56b),
while others were of the opinion that one of thirteen
years of age might administer justice (Hoshen Mish-
pat, 7, 3; comp. Yoreh De'ah,' 242, 13,' 14).

Equality before the law should be the principle
guiding all the actions of the Jewish judge (Lev.
xxiv. 22 ; Deut. i. 17). A case involving a " perutah "
(the smallest Palestinian coin) should be regarded
by him with the same gravity as one involving thou-
sands (Sanh. 8a). Both parties should

Equality be accorded equal respect by the court.
Before the and no preference should be shown
Law. even to the learned man (Sheb. 30a;
"Yad," I.e. xxi. 1; Hoshen Mishpat,
17, 1). The judge must not listen to the arguments
of one of the litigants in the absence of the other,
nor must he assist either of them in his arguments,
but must listen quietly to the presentation of the
case by both parties and then render his decision
(ib. SOh, 31a; "Yad,"/.c. 10; Hoshen Mishpat, 17, 8).
He should attend to the cases in the order in which
they are presented, although he may attend to an
orphan's case before that of a widow, to a widow's
before a learned man's, to a scholar's before that of
an ignoramus, and to a woman's before a man's
(Sanh. 8a; "Yad," I.e. 6; Hoshen Mishpat, 15, 1, 2).

There was no interpreter between the judge and
the parties concerned in the case, except when tiie
judge understood a language, but could not speak
it tiuentlj' (Mak. 6b). The judge was enjoined to
arbitrate between the contending parties; and the
first question put to them was, "Do you wish law
or arbitration ? " but he could not compel them to
arbitrate except when orphans were involved or
when the case could not be established on a legal
basis. If the decision was once rendered in accord-
ance with law, the same court could not again arbi-
trate, even if both parties wished it (Sanh. 6b;
"Yad." I.e. xxii. 4, and "Kesef Mishneh," ad loc;
Hoshen Mishpat, 12, 2-5).

Forty years before the destruction of the Second
Temple, the Talmud relates, the Sanhedrin removed
from the Temple premises to a place called "trade-
hall" ("hanut"), and since then the Jewish courts
have had no jurisdiction in cases involving capital
punishment ('Ab. Zarah 8b: Sanh. 41a). The au-
thority of the judge was still further curtailed aft^r
the wars of Bar Kokba, when the ordination of
judges was prohibited (Sanh. 14a). As only or-
dained judges could decide penal cases, after that

period judges could, theoretically, attend only to
strictly civil cases; but they were given the power
to decide also such penal cases as involved actual in-
jury toothers — that is, tliose of common occurrence
and tile settlement of which was an urgent matter
(Git. 881); Hoshen Mishpat, 1,1; see Jurisdiction).
Still when there was need of prompt and decisive
action, the local courts frequently extended the
bounds of their authority, and inflicted corporal
punishment, confiscated property, and even asked
assistance of non-Jewish governments to force obe-
dience to their mandates (Sanh. 46a et al.).

While throughout the Diaspora various govern-
ments granted to the Jewish rabbis judicial author-
ity, sometimes even in criminal cases, the tendency
of the later rabbis was to submit to the law of the
land in all cases; and only such matters as did not
affect the community and from which the govern-
ment derived no special benefit were decided in Jew-
ish courts (Hoshen Mishpat, 369, 6-11 ; see Conflict
OP Laws).

A judge who made a mistake m his decision of a
law that is clearly stated in the Mishnah or in the
Talmud or in anj' of the accepted codes
Judge in had to try the case again if pos.sible.
Error. but if not — as when one of the liti-
gants could no longer be reached — he
was not required to pay any loss resulting from his
decision. If the mistake was in a matter disputed
by the authorities, but which was generally decided
in accordance with one opinion and the judge
decided in accordance with the oppo.site opinion
("shikkul ha-da'at"), if he was a learned man
("mumheh ") and the litigants had agreed to abide
by his decision, or if he had been appointed a
judge by the recognized authorities, he had to give
them a new trial; and if this was impossible, he was
not required to pay. But if he was not a learned
man, although the litigants had agreed to abide
by his decision, or if he was a learned man but had
no permission to judge and the litigants had not
agreed to abide by his decisions, he had to give them
a new trial ; and if this was not possible, he had to
pay the damages caused by his decision (Sanh. 32a,
33a; "Yad," I.e. vi. 1; Hoshen Mishpat, 25, 1-3,
Isserles' gloss, and "Pithe Teshubah," ad loc). See
Accusatory and iNquisiTORiAL Procedure ; Crim-
inal Proceduke; Execution; Fees; Sanhedrin.

Bibliography : Hamburper, /?. B. 2*. s.v. Richter: Saalsohutz,
Das Moaaische Iiec)it. ch. iv.. Berlin. 18.t3; Rabbinowicz,
Einlcitung in die Gesctzuehung und die Medicin dex Ttial-
muds (Mayer's transl.), part ii., Treves, 1881; Jelski-Grttien,
Die Innerc Einrxchiung des Gros.'<en Sunhedrioiis zu Jeru-
salem, Breslau (n.d.): Biiehler, Da.s Sunedrion in Jerti-
mlenu Vienna, 1902: Bloch. Civilproces.'i-Ordnung. parts i.-
i v., Budapest, 1882: Mendelsohn, Criminal Ji/nVprm/f/ice,
part ii., Baltimore. 1891; Frankel. Die GeiatUehe Amtslte-
fdhigung im Judndhume, in .Tahrh. f\lr Gesch. dcr Juden,
1. 139-1&5, Leipsic, 1860 ; Schurer, Hist, of the Jewish People,
Index, Edinburgh, 1885.
s. s. J H. G.

JUDGES, BOOK OF (Hebr. D'DD1:^•) : In the
Hebrew canon, the second book of the Earlier
Prophets, placed between Joshua and Samuel.

§ I. Name : The book derives its name from the
fact that it deals with the "Judges," a term which,
according to the statements found in the book (comp.
ii. 11-19 and the constantly recurring formulas in iii.
7, vi. 1; iii. 12, iv. 1, x. 6, xiii. 1; iii. 8, iv. 2,9, x.

Judges, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

378

7), designates men who dealt out justice to the op-
pressed people (comp. DDB', Ps. x. 18) ; hence it is
used in the sense of y'K'lO = " rescuer " (ii. 16. 18).
The word, however, means more than this and more
than the modern "judge": it means the leaders or
rulers (comp. the Suffetcs [= D'DDISJ'] in Carthage)
who took charge of the affairs of the several tribes
in case of war with the Canaanites or other neigh-
boring peoples, and who also assumed leadership of
their respective tribes in the succeeding times of
peace. In accordance with the needs of the time,
their functions were primarily judicial (iv. 5). The
book itself announces that it will deal with the time
of the Judges from the death of Joshua ; but the
description of Joshua's death at the beginning of
the book is doubtless a later addition, and the intro-
duction repeats (i. 1-ii. 5) the theme of the Book of
Joshua, namely, the conquest of the country west
of the Jordan. Nor does the Book of Judges give
the conclusion of the history of the Judges; for the
two stories appended to the book in its present form
belong not to the end of that period, but to its begin-
ning, and the narratives forming the kernel of the
book break off before the period of the Judges ends.
The thread is taken up again in the Book of Samuel.
It may be assumed, however, that the original Book
of Judges was carried down to the end of the period
and concluded with the story of Eli and Samuel,
which forms the beginning of I Samuel.

§ II. Synopsis of Contents : Before discussing
the several parts and their origin, it may be well to
note the peculiar composition of the book. The
introduction and additions may clearly be separated
from the main te.xt, giving the following three
divisions: (1) introduction; (2) Book of Judges
proper: and (3) appendixes.

(1) Introduction : (a) i. 1-ii. 5, a general view of
the conquest of Canaan. The story is evidently in-
tended to portray the great tribulations of the time
of the Judges, which God inflicted because the
Israelites partially spared tlie Canaanites in spite of
His command to the contrary (see ii. 1-5, especially
verse 3). {h) ii. 6-iii. 6, a general description of the
conditions obtaining at the time of the Judges. The
chief characteristic of this time is found in the recur-
ring change from apostasy and punishment to re-
pentance and deliverance. The account forms the
introduction to the following stories, which are, as
it were, summarized in ii. 11-19.

(2) The Book of Judges Proper, iii. 7-xvi. 31 : This
describes Israel's delivery, through divinely ap-
pointed judges, from the subjugation to the Canaan-
ites and the neighboring peoples which it had
brought upon itself. The accounts of the activities
of the several judges vary con.siderably in length;
only the five so-called " Great Judges " are treated in
detail. The narratives maj' be summarized as fol-
lows: {a) iii. 12-80, account of the Benjamite Ehud,
who overthrew the tyranny of the Moabites; {h)

iv.-v., story of Barak (and Deborah),

Sections of who overthrew the tyranny of the

Book. Canaanites (but see ^ III. ) ; (c) vi. 1-viii.

32, story of Gideon of western Manas-
seh, who overthrew " the Midianites and the Amalek-
ites and all the children of the East"; (d) x. 6-xii.
7, story of Jephthah the Gileadite of the tribe of

Gad, who vanquished the Ammonites; (e) xiii.-xvi.,
account of the Danite Samson, who vanquished the
Philistines; (/) iii. 7-11, story of the Kenazite
Othnicl, from the tribe of Judah, who vanquished
Chushan-rishathaim (iii. 10) ; together witli various
incidental remarks relating to the so-called Minor
Judges: {g) iii. 31, story of Shamgar; (/;) x. 1-5,
stories of 'Tola of Issachar and Jair of Gilead (eastern
Manasseh); and {i) xii. 8-15, stories of Ibzan of
Beth-lehem, Elon the Zebulonite, and Abdon the
Pirathonite of the tribe of Ephraim. With the ex-
ception of the priestly tribe of Levi and the two
tribes of Reuben and Simeon, which soon became
extinct, each of the tribes is represented by at least
one judge. The section viii. 33-ix. 57, dealing with
the leadership of Abimelech, is not strictly of the
same order as the rest.

(3) Appendixes : Two stories from the time of the
Judges: («) xvii. and xviii., the campaign of the
Danites, and the transference to Dan (Laish) of the
sanctuary of Micah the Ephraimite; {b) xix.-xxi.,
the outrage at Gibeah, and the resultant punitive
war against Benjamin, which is almost destroyed;
the measures taken for the preservation of the tribe.

§ III. Sources : The Main Text, iii. 7-xvi. 31 :
The earliest sources are found in the stories relating
to the five Great Judges:

(1) The account of Ehud, iii. 12-30, which, Avith
the exception of the Deuteronomistic framework
(verses 12-15 and 30), is a uniform story, based
doubtless on ancient tradition.

(2) The story of Barak and Deborah, iv. and v.,
in which must be distinguished: {n) the Song of
Deborah, v. 2-31, describing the sufferings and the
victory of the people, and which was doubtless
composed hy an e3'e-witness. It is uncertain, how-
ever, whether Deborah herself compo.sed this. Doubt
arises from the exhortation (v. 12) "utter a song,"
and from the fact that the introduction does not say
that she composed it, but only that Deborah and
Barak sang it {ih. verse 1). Nor does it follow abso-
lutely from the word TlOpCi' (verse 7) that Deborah
composed the Song. Although ^n^p is probably

intended as the first person and has
Song of been so interpreted down to recent
Deborah, times, yet it may also have been in-
tended as an address to Deborah, as
the second person feminine singular (= nOp; comp.

"•miS^, Jer. ii. 33)—" until thou hast arisen, Deborah ! "
And even its interpretation as the third person femi-
nine singular (=: npp, old form of iV2i\), in which

the 1 would be secondary, conditioned by the tradi-
tional conception, according to which the expression
is in the first person) is not excluded, and the read-
ing may be, "until Deborah arose." Nor is the
first person in verse 3 decisive, as it may refer to
any poet. The exhortation in verse 12, "Awake,
awake, Deborah: awake, awake, utter a song,"
formerly considered a direct proof of Deborah's
authorship, really excludes this possibility, unless it
is assumed that it is a poetic address of the author
to herself. Aside from these doubtful argiunents,
the context, with its striking references to the deeds
and thoughts of women (Deborah, Jael, Sisera's
mother and her " wise women "), might point to a

379

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judges, Book of

poetess as the author. Eveu if the Song was not com-
posed by Deborah, it was at least tlie work of a con-
temporary; and as such it is the earliest source for
the liistory of Israel, and a historical document of
supreme value. It not only recounts a liistorical
fact, but breathes the wild spirit of a heroic age, and
with elemental force portrays especially the pitiless
delight in battle and bloodshed, and the joy of de-
liverance from the yoke of tyranny.

(/>) The prose historical account in ch. iv. stands in
a peculiar relation to the Song, inasmuch as the poet-
ical account has been clearly changed into a histor-
ical narrative, which presents various contradictions
to and exaggerations of the Songin regard to numbers
and events. This prose account based upon the Song
of Deborah is, however, only a part of tlie story
told in ch. iv. ; for, in the first place, the story of
the victory of Barak and the tribes of Zebulun and
Naphtali over King Jabin of Hazor (iv. 10) is joined
to it, and, in the second place, there are other details
which are not found in the Song, and which there-
fore were derived from independent tradition, espe-
cially the reference to the attack made by the Israel-
ites from Mount Tabor. The story in ch. iv., taken
for the most part from the Song, and which ma}'
be called the story of Sisera in contrast to the stor}' of
Jabin, narrates the victory of Deborah and of Barak
of Issachar over Sisera at the Kishon, and the death of
the last-named at the hands of Jael. In consequence
of the fusion of the stories, Sisera in the account inch,
iv. does not appear as the head of a coalition of the
Canaanite kings, as he is represented in the Song,
where he is the chief personage, but merelj^ as the
general of King Jabin. The stories are so closely
fused that they can uo longer be separated, this being
doubtless due to the confounding of two heroes of
the name of Barak (= "lightning "; comp. the sur-
name in "Hamilcar Barcas"); namely, Barak of
Kedesh of the tribe of Naphtali (iv. 5 [A. V. 6]) and
Barak of Issachar (v. 15).

(3) The account of Gideon, vi.-viii., consisting of
two separate narratives brought into harmony by
the passages vii. 25 and viii. 10. Ac-
Account of cording to the main text, including vi.

Gideon. 2-6, 11-24, 33 et seq., vii. 1, and vii.
9-25 (except verse 12), as well as the
passages vi. 35; vii. 2-8, 14, 16-22, preserved only
in revised form, Gideon delivered the whole of Israel
from the inroads of the Midianites, who.se camp on
Mount Gilboa he surprised. The Ephraimites then
captured and killed the fugitives together with their
kings Oreb and Zeeb at the fords of the Jordan
(comp. especially vii. 24). According to another
account, which forms a connected series of addi-
tions to the main text (i.e., to vi. 2-viii. 3), and which
includes vi. 7-10, 25-32, 36-40 as well as the Deu-
teronomically revised passage viii. 4-27, Gideon
with 300 men captured the Midiauite kings Zebah
and Zalmunna beyond the Jordan, whither he had
pursued them.

A valuable remnant of the earliest Hebrew history
has been preserved in the story of Abimelech, which
is appended to the story of Gideon. Jotham's dar-
ing and original parable of the trees in search of a
king, included in this story, was (as appears from
ix. 57) probably added at a later time by an editor

who took it from a source earlier than tliat of the
main story. This parable, one of tlie few remnants
of purely secular writing, can not have originated
in the time of Abimelech, who reigned only three
years at Shechem, as its criticism of the king was
evidently the result of a clearer insight than
could have been possessed by a contemporary. It
was probably a product of the Northern King-
dom, where the people liad unfortunate experiences
with elected kings.

(4) The story of Jephthah, xi. 1-xii. 7, is in gen-
eral uniform ; the first two verses, however, are prob-
ably revised, as they do not fit in with verse 7, nor
with the passage xi. 12-29, which appears as a
learned disquisition applying in no Avise to the Am-
monites, to whom the message was to be addressed,
but to the Moabites. In xi. 35-40, also, the editor,
intent on abbreviating, seems to have made changes
in order not to dwell on the human sacrifice which
must have been described in the original narrative.

(5) The story of Samson, xiii.-xvi., narrating in
twelve sketches his deeds and tragic death. This,
also, is a uniform composition, with the exception of
a revision in xiii. and xiv., and is evidently the
work of a single author.

In general, it maj^ be noted in regard to these old
heroic stories of the Book of Judges that there is
some resemblance in language and manner of de-
scription to the narrative sources of the Pentateuch ;
for this reason Coruill has designated the first ver-
sion of the story of Gideon, the story of Samson,
and the basis of x. 6-16 as Jahvistic in character,
and the story of Sisera, the second version of the
story of Gideon, together with the stories of Abime-
lech and Jephthah, as Elohistic (other scholars,
however, as Budde, think differently). These resem-
blances are so slight that they may be explained as
contemporaneous work or imitation, rather than as
a continuation of the Pentateuch sources.

The main text of Judges, including the above-
named stories, constituted, with the exception of later
additions, the earlier book, which began

Original therefore with ii. 6 ; and as the initial
Book. words, "And Avhen Joshua had let the
people go," correspond with the Avords
introducing the first valedictory in Josh, xxiii. 2, it
follows that the original Book of Judges continued
the original Book of Joshua. Furthermore, it fol-
lows that the second valedictory with the accom-
panying statements in Josh, xxiv., and the first ac-
count of Joshua's death, in Judges ii. 8 et seq., as
well as the present introduction to Judges, were
added later; this is also apparent from the present
beginning of Judges: "Now after the death of
Joshua it came to pass."

The Introduction : It has been shown that the in-
troduction is a later addition; and the fact is further
proved by its contents, the story of the conquest of
the country west of the Jordan, which is the theme
of Joshua, being here repeated. But while the Book
of Joshua narrates the story of the complete destruc-
tion of the Canaanites by the people of Israel under
one commander-in-chief, the introduction to Judges
says that the tribes of Israel fought singly; and it
does not refer to the complete destruction of the
Canaanites (comp. Judges i. 27-33, ii. 1-3). Of

Judg-es, Book of
Judg-es, Period of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

380

these two accounts the introduction to Judges is
doubtless more objective, and shows a better com-
prehension of tlie actual facts, while the narrative
in Joshua is founded on the Deuterouomistic revi-
sion. The introduction itself, however, is not uni-
form; according to i. 8, the children of Judah con-
quered and burned Jerusalem and killed its inhab-
itants, while, according to i. 21, the children of Ben-
jamin did not drive the Jebusites out of that city,
but dwelt together with them in Jerusalem "unto
this day " (according to the parallel account in Josh.
XV. 63, some scholars read in this passage min^ ''J3
in.stcad of JD'JQ 'J3, which is derived from Josh.
xviii. 28). Cornill ascribes a Jahvistic origin to the
passages i.-ii. la, 5b, 28a; iii. 2-3, and an Elohistic
origin to i. la; ii. 13, 20-22a; iii. 5-6.

The Appendixes : The first appendix, xvii. and
xviii., is a very valuable old story. Bertheau,
Budde, Kittel, Cornill, and others assert that two
accounts must be here distinguished. According to
one, the Ephraimite Micah made an ephod and tera-
phim, and hired a Levite to be to him "a father
and priest " ; 600 Danites then persuaded the Levite
to go with them and become their priest, where-
upon they conquered Laish and set up there for their
tribal sanctuary the image that Micah
The Priest had made. According to the other ac-
of Micah. count, Micah made a " pesel " (graven
image) and "massekah" (molten im-
age), and engaged a young Levite as priest, whom he
held as a son ; but the Danites, who stole the pesel
and massekah, made Jonathan, Moses' grandson, their
tribal priest instead of the Levite, and through the de-
scendants of Jonathan the priesthood was transmitted
in the tribe of Dan. But according to Oort, Well-
hauseu, Kuenen, Baudissin, and others, it is more
probable that the discrepancies in the narrative may
be explained on the ground of interpolations (com-
pare 7DS !ind nDD?D, which always follow TlDXand
D^D"in). The story itself is unique in that it de-
scribes a cult and a priesthood which are nowhere
else found in the Old Testament. This fact itself
points to an early date of composition.

As two dates are given in the text, xviii. 30 and
31, the question arises which of these two state-
ments is the original — that is, the earlier — one. The
first statement, xviii. 30, points to the time of the
fall of Ephraim (722 B.C.), or at least to that of the
deportation of the northern and eastern inhabitants
of the country (735 B.C.) ; the second, to a time near
the beginning of the royal house of Israel, as the
destruction of the Temple of Shiloh probably oc-
curred during the Philistine wars, in which the
priestly house of Eli, ofliciating at Shiloh, perished.
The first statement, also, originated at a time that
had become remote to later generations, as is shown
by the fact that the ascription of these deeds to a
grandson of Moses caused offense to the people, and
a copyist tried to remove it by interpolating a J in
ntJ^ so as to change the name to ntJ'jro (this has re-
cently been denied by Sinker).

The second appendix, xix.-xxi., in its main text,
which can now hardly be determined with certainty,
might similarly be traced back to an ancient story,
as is indicated by expressions similar to those found
in the first appendix ; e.g., the Levite sojourning as

a stranger in the country (xix. 1). The formula
common to both appendixes, "in those days there
was no king in Israel, but every man did that which
was right in his own eyes" (xvii. 6, xxi. 25; comp.
xviii. 1, xix. 1), perhaps also indicates that the orig-
inal text was composed before the Exile; although
it is possible that in the second appendix it is a later
addition, or was introduced by the author in imita-
tion of the first appendix. For the story as a whole
dates from a very late period, since there is evidence
that it is based on the Priestly Code. This is espe-
cially evident in the fact that the community of
Israel is represented as a compact body pronouncing
punishment upon Benjamin as with one voice, while
elsewhere in Judges every tribe attends to its own
affairs. The fact that all the personages named,
with the exception of Aaron's grandson Phinehas
in XX. 28, are anonymous indicates that this is a
piece of fiction and not a historical narrative. The
story may have some historical foundation; for
Hosea (x. 9), speaking of course quite independently
of this story, also mentions the sin of Israel since
the days of Gibeah. Nor is it impossible that the
story, as Noldeke was the first to assume, describes
the ruin of Benjamin by the war between David and
Saul's sou and the insurrections under David.

§ IV. Combination and Kevision of The
Sources : The earlier Book of Judges, a compila-
tion of the stories of the five Great Judges together
with the additions of the redactor, was practically
Judges in its present form, with the exception of
the Deuterouomistic framework (together with the
story of Othniel), the six Minor Judges, and some
later revised additions. The Deuterouomistic editor
added to the earlier book the following passages;
namely, ii. 6-9 and iii. 7-11 (the account of Othniel
being taken from Josii. xv. 17), all the additions by
which he adapted the old material to
Additions his conception of history, and the
by Deute- strictly chronological arrangement
ronomist. taken from I Kings vi. 1, the 480 years
being divided by him into 12x40 years
or generations, 20, 40, or 80 years respectively being
assigned to each of the judges. This Deuterouo-
mistic arrangement was again supplemented by an
editor following the Priestly Code, who partly re-
vised the work, inserted passages of his own (viii.
29-31 and x. 17, 18), and added the portions relating
to the five Minor Judges (x. 2-5 and xii. 8-15), in
order to round out the number of the twelve judges.
Tliis last-named portion has been skilfully harmo-
nized with the chronological arrangement of the
Deuterouomistic editor ; for the sum of the years of
office of the five Minor Judges (28 -j- 22 -f- 7 -j- 10 -f- 8
= 70) is practically equal to that of the years of
o[)pression under the five Great Judges (8 -(-18 + 20
4-7 + 18=71). The last editor, finally, added to
iii. 31 the personage of Shamgar (from the Song of
Deborah, v. 6) because at his time the judgeship
of Abimelech caused offense, and the editor wished
to remove Abimelech without disturbing the num-
ber of the judges.

§ V. Age of the Sources : The sources from
which the material for the various heroic stories
was taken are in part very old, the Song of Deborah
having originated as early as the time of the Judges.

381

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judges, Book of
Judges, Period of

These old sources, liowevcr, were committed to
writing a considerable time after the date of the
events which they narrate. Samson certainly lived
a long time before the account of his life was
written down, because it has a very evident admix-
tui'e of mj'thic elements, as, for instance, his heroic
deeds and the virtue ascribed to his hair. His deeds
remind one of the deeds of Hercules, and his name

(ptJ'OK' = " the sunny ") shows a resem-

Story blance in attributes to the Plienician

of Samson, sun-god Melkart, the prototype of tlie

Greek Herakles. Although the story
of Samson may be based on historical fact, it must
be noted tiiat Samson's deeds differ from those of
the other warrior judges in that these latter are
"saviors of their tribe " while Samson fights with
the Philistines on his own account. Hence the com-
pilation of the stories of the five Great Judges must
be dated soon after the division of the kingdom.
Single passages, like the basis of ch. xvii. and xviii.,
may be much older. The editor who combined his
own additions with the book containing the stories,
producing thereby tlie earlier Book of Judges, prob-
ably wrote in the last decades of the kingdom of
Israel. The Deuteronomistic edition was under-
taken during the Exile, at which time the other ad-
ditions were probably also incorporated. The two
appendixes were added very much later, as appears
not only from the date of composition of tlie second
appendix (xix.-xxi.), but also from the fact that
the Deuteronomistic revision, which may be traced
throughout the Book of Judges down to ch. xvi.,
did not include the two appendixes. Had they been
added earlier, moreover, they would have been in-
serted in a different place, namely, in the beginning,
where they belong, according to the dates mentioned
in them (xviii. 30 and xx. 28). Although these ref-
erences to the time may be glosses, they can not have
been added after the book was completed.

§ VI. Literary Characteristics : As a result
of difference in sources originating at different times,
the book has no literary unity. Side by side with
the stereotyped formulas, which reveal the histor-
ical point of view of the compiler of the earlier
Book of Judges (iii. 7, vi. 1; iii. 12, iv. 1, x. 6,
xiii. 1 ; iv. 2, 9, x. 7), and the passages added in tlie
spirit of these formulas, there are stories popular in
character, to which have been added snatches of old
folk-poetry, old proverbs, descriptions of popular
customs, popular etymologies, and other character-
istics of naive popular composition. The mytholog-
ical elements, which are especially predominant in
the story of Samson, are also derived from popular
beliefs. Yet the historical narrative, in spite of vari-
ous legendary additions, is on the whole true to fact,
as appears from the frankness with which religious
and moral conditions, widely differing from later cus-
toms, are discussed.

Bibliography: Commentaries: G. L. Studer, Das Buch der
Richter, 2d ed. 1842; J. Bacbmann, Das Bxich der RicMa\
mil Besonderer Rilcksicht auf die Gesch. Seiner Aui^leaung
und Kirchlichen Verivenduiig Erkliirt, vol. i., ch. i.-v.. 1868-
1869; E. Bertheau, Das Buch der Richter und Ruth, in Kurz-
fjefaj^stes Krenetisches Handhuch, 184.5, 188!}; P. Cassel, in
Lange's Theologisch-HomiletiKches Bihehcerk.'M ed. 1887;
C. F. Keil, Jofiua, Richter, Ruth, in Bihlificher Knmmentnr,
2d ed. 1874; S. Oettli, Dos Deuteronomium uiid, die Blicher
Joitua %md Richter, in Strack and ZQck\e.r, KurzgefaK,ster
Kommentar, 1893; G. F. Moore, A Critical and Exeyetical

Commentar}! on JudtjeK, in T)ie InternatUmal Critical
Cummcntarii. 1895; k. Budde, Das Buc)i der Riclder, in
K. II. r. 1W»7; W. Nowack, Richter und Rutlt, in Nowack's
Itantl-Kiniuiieiitar, l'.»(Kl.

Criticisiu of Sourci-s : Th. NiMdeke, Untersuchuntien zur
Kritik dex A. T. 18(i'.(, iip. ITiJ-lDK; .]. Wellhau.sHti, in Blet-k's
EinleitU)ni, 4I1j ed. 1878, pp. lXl:'Mr,\ idem, I'mlegonuna zur
Gesch. Ixraclx, 4th ed. WX). pp. 229-247; B. Stade, in Stade's
ZcitHchrift, 1881, 1. 3:!9-:i4;j; S. U. Driver, in J. (,». R. IHS'.I. i.
2.58-270; K. Budde, y^ie Bilther Richter jtnd Samuel, Ihre
Quellen und l)ir Aufhau, IH^, pp. 1-lOti; Itudolph Kittel,
JJic Pentateuchiselun Urkundeu in den BlUliern Riclder
und Samuel, in Tlieologische Studien und Kritiken, 1«92.
pp. 44-71; (;. Kalkoff, Zur Quellcnkritih den Richtertnirlies
{Giimnafii<d-I'r(niran>m), Aschersleben, 1893; VV. Kianken-
berg. Die Comitiufition (lex Deutertnwmiscltcn Rieliter-
huches (Richter ii. 2-xvi.) Nchxt einer Kiitik von Richter
xvii.-xxi. 1895; G. Moore, Judgex, in Cheyne and Black,
Encjic Tiilil.: H. Winfkler, Alttextamentliche I'ntersuch-
ut.(jen, 1892, pp. '>.')-'>'.) (on Jtiilycs iii. 12-Sl), and 42 et xeq., 9:J
(on I'i.-ix.); and the following articles in Stade's Zei7.s(7u(/^ :
Ed. Meyer, in 1. 117 et seq.. 1?. Stade, in i. 14<j et sc<i., and K.
Budde, in vii. 93-1H6 and in viii. 148, on Judges i. 1-ii. 5; \\.
Bohnie, in v. 8ti, 251 et xeq. on Judijex vi.-ix.; B. Stade, in iv.
250-2.56, and \V. Bfihme, in v. 251-274, on Juduex xiii. et xeq.;
K. Budde, in viii. 28.5-;i(H) on Judnes xvii.-xxi.; VV. Biihine, in
V. 30-36 on Judycs xxi.; Giidemann, in Monatsschrilt, xviii.
357 et xeq.

Criticism of Texts and Translations: O. F. Fritzsche, Liher
Judicum Secundum LXX [ntoprete.s, 1867; A. van Door-
ninck, Bijdraue tot de Tekxikriticii van Richtcren i.-.vvi.
1879; P. de Lagarde. SciAuarjinta-Studien, 1892, [jp. 1-72
(Ahhandlungen der K. Gexellxchaft der Wissenscliaften zii
Gfittingen, 1891, xxxvii.); A. Mez, Die Bihel des Josenhus,
1895.

On the historical substance of the book see bibliography to
Judges, Period of; and on the mythological elements of
the story of Samson see F. Schvvally, Semitische Krieunalter-
tVimer : I. Der Heiliite Kriey im Alien Israel, 1901.

For the Song of Deborah: J. Marquart, Fundamente Is-
raelitischer und JUdischer Gesch. 1896, pp. 1-10; G. A.
Cooke, The History and Song of Deborah, 1896; C. Brus-
ton, Lc Cantique de Dehora, 1901 ; and the bibliography to
Deborah, The song of.

Text : edition G. F. Moore, in S. B. 0. T.

E. G. H. V. Ry.

JUDGES, PERIOD OF : The present form of
the Book of .1 uiiges has given rise to the phrase " time
of the Judges," which covers the period from the
death of Joshua down to the revival and consolida-
tion of Israel as a kingdom under Saul. This
period, however, does not correspond with that
covered by the Book of Judges, w'hich includes
part of Joshua's period; and the events under the
last two judges belong to the Book of Samuel.
Moreover, the designation "Judges," as well as the
account given of their activity in the book in its

present form, is inadequate, as the

Social term "judge" was subsequently ap-

Conditions. plied to certain persons who, without

being kings, ruled over the whole of
Israel like the Kings. This happened, however,
only when the people were collected together on
extraordinary occasions, as, for instance, in making
war upon a common enemj^, when the members of
several or of a majority of the tribes would place
themselves under the leadership of the strong war-
riors among them; and when the object in view had
been accomplished, such leaders returned to the re-
spective spheres of their personal influence. This
influence did not extend beyond the bounds of their
own tribe or of a few other tribes, though they re-
tained the preeminence they had achieved by their

leadership in YinvH's war. In times of

Mostly of peace, moreover, their activities were

Local Im- chiefly confined to the judicial func-

portance. tions whence they derived their title.

Indeed, most of the judges had only a
local importance ; for there has been preserved no
account of their deeds based on actual authentic

Judgres, Period of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

382

tradition, but only a formal account composed
for a definite purpose and, therefore, of no historical
value. Similarly, the chronological framework into
which the account of the twelve judges has been
fitted is, as regards their sequence and their tenure
of office for twenty, forty, or eighty years respect-
ively, a fiction of later time. All that remains,
after separating these later additions to the "histor-
ical account " of Judges, is confined to the old stories
of the five so-called "Great Judges," which form
the substance of the Book of Judges; to these may
be added the beginning of the book, if not as an
actual historical source, at least as a valuable source

on the early ritual. These five Great

The " Great Judges did not exert a legally or

Judges." judicially determined influence upon

affairs common to the Israclitic tribes:
their personal influence was rather confined to one
or a few tribes; and only the stress of events
brought a majority of the tribes under their leader-
ship. Still they rendered great services by preserv-
ing the work of Moses under difficult conditions at
a time when neither the life nor the laws of the peo-
ple had been fully regulated.

A faithful picture of the conditions obtaining at
the so-called " time of the Judges " is found in the

Song of Deborah (see Judges, Book ov,

Historic § 3), which is not only the most im-

Back- portant historic source in Judges,

ground of but also the earliest source of Hebrew

Song of historical tradition. It may be gath-

Deborah. ered from the te.xt (Judges v.), which

unfortunately has been much muti-
lated, that the principal reason for the temporary
union of the tribes in the war of Yhwh, aside from
the oppressions under which they suffered, was the
religious conviction that Israel could not serve
Yhwh more worthily than by engaging in war with
Canaan (verse 23). But long-continued bitter op-
pression had discouraged the Israelitic troops ; and
any flickeringsof rekindling courage were quenched
by threatened attacks (verses 6 et seq.). In this
period of general discouragement (verse 8) arose the
prophetess Deborah, -who, by her firm faith in Yhwh
and in His helping hand, reawakened in the masses
and among the chiefs the feeling of the solidarity of
the tribes of Yhwh. Ephraim, Benjamin, ^Machir
(Manasseh), Zebulun, Naphtali, and Issachar send
troops under the leadership of their respective
princes, with Barak, the son of Abinoam — who, ac-
cording to verse 12 ("lead thy captives captive,"
reading "|"'2B'), had suffered personal injury — as
commander-in-chief of the entire Israelitic army
(verses 12-15). Only a few tribes remained behind;
and upon these scorn and curses are hurled : upon
Reuben for its indecision ; upon Gilead for its indif-
ference ; upon Dan and Asher for their covetousness ;
and upon Meroz for its cowardly egoism (verses IS-
IS, 23). Sisera and his allies collect their army on the
plain of the River Kishon before Haroseth, where the
war-chariots can deploy and the bowmen afford pro-
lection. In the battle that ensues Yhwh aids the Isra-
elites by a storm. The Canaanites are defeated in Taa-
nach, on the southern border of the plain of Jezreel,
and their leader, Sisera, is killed in flight by the treach-
ery of the Kenite woman Jael (verses 19-22, 24-27).

This is the substance of the song; but a few other
conclusions may be drawn from it. It is to be noted
that the tribes of Simeon, Levi, and Judah are not
menfoned at all; this may be explained on the
ground that the first- named two were then already
dissolved, and that for some time Judah had not
been closelj^ connected with the other tribes (comp.
Gen. xxxviii. 1), and was not flourishing, as it sub-
sequently was in consequence of its connection with
the southern family of Tamar (Gen. xxxviii.). Since
five tribes are bitterly reproved for taking no part
in the war it must be assumed that Yhwh's army
included at that time nearly all the men dwelling
in Israel. This may be historically explained only
on the ground that after Israel's de-
The Wars cisive victories, which finally placed
of YHWH. the tribes in possession of Canaan,
an agreement made in Canaan more
closely connected the tribes, which had been consoli-
dated by the common war of Yhwh, imposing upon
them service in the army and also the recognition of
Yhwh and His judgment; and it may be assumed
that this agreement was made during the events
forming the story of Josh. xxiv.

If one compares the performance of the Israelitic
tribes, as described in the Song of Deborah, with
the other statements referring to immediately pre-
ceding conditions, it will be furthermore seen that
this common action of the Israelitic army was in
fact an extraordinary event and one momentous for
the development of the Israelitic people. For the
territory of the Israelitic tribes, which it may be es-
timated numbered at that time 130,000 persons (ac-
cording to Judges V. 8 there were 40,000 men able
to bear arms), was very limited, as appears from
Judges i. 27-33. In the interior the Canaanites held
the boundaries of the plain of Jezreel to the south,
east, and north {ib. verses 27 and 30); important
localities in the mountains of Galilee {ib. verses 31
and 33), the entire coast southward to Dor {ib. verses
27 and 31), and the fortress of Gezer on the south-
west frontier of Ephraim, which covered important
passes to the mountains {ib. verse 29). Some of tlie
Israelitic tribes found settled abodes only with great
difficulty, having to contend even with the hostility
of the other tribes. It is reported of the Danites
{ib. xvii. et seq.) that, after being driven from the
coast, they sought refuge on the western side of the
plateau {ib. i. 34, v. 17, xvii. et seq.), and that, being
unable to remain there, they traversed the territory
of Ephraim, and finally settled in the vicinity of
Laish at the sources of the Jordan.

The Israelites had to wage sanguinary wars with
the native Canaanites and with the neighboring peo-
ples, both before winning their per-
The Rescue manent dwelling-places — which was
of Individ- of course their primary object — and
ual Tribes after having conquered the country,
by Their in order to make their possession se-

Judges. cure. The story of Jabin, for exam-
ple (Judges iv.), recounts a victory of
the tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali, which, like Dan
and Asher, were half-breed tribes; i.e., they had a
larger admixture of Canaanite blood than the other
tribes. This is probably the same victory which in
Josh. xi. 1-5 is represented as having been gained

383

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judges, Period of

by Joshua at the waters of Merom. The event,
however, took place after the death of Joshua ; and
it opened up to the Israelites regions in which the
Canaanites predominated, as they did in general in
the lands lying toward the coast of the Mediter-
ranean.

Enemies in the east were added to those in the
country west of the Jordan. Nomad tribes which
camped alongside of Israel near Horeb and Kadesh,
the Amalekites and the Midianites as well as the
Moabites, appeared on the eastern frontier of Pales-
tine, with tlie purpose of settling, like Israel, in the
western cultivated country ; and the Israelites had
to stem this movement from east to west, lest they
should be overwhelmed by the newcomers. Now
the several judges appeared where danger threat-
ened. Ehud the Benjaraite, by murdering the Moab-
ite king Eglon, liberated his tribe from the tribute
which that king had imposed upon it ; and with the
troops from Mount Ephraini he recaptured the
fords of the Jordan as well as Jericho, which was
besieged by the nomad tribes (Judges iii.). The
Gileadite Jephthah of Mizpah {ib. xi.) succeeded in
repulsing the Ammonites, who at that time were
threatening Gilead, that is, the tribe of Gad, and
who subsequently even advanced to the valley of
the Jordan (I Sam. xi.). Gideon (Jerubbaal), of
Ophrah in Manasseh, fell upon the Midianites, who
had entered into the territory of Manasseh, at the
source of the present Nahr Jalud, on the eastern
border of the plain of Jezreel, and drove them toward
the valley of the Jordan. Aside from Manasseh,
he called also upon the neighboring tribes of Naph-
tali and Asher to take part in the pursuit, and
ordered the Ephraimites to guard the fords of the
Jordan, in order to cut off the Midianites' retreat
and to capture their kings Oreb and Zeeb (Judges
vi. et seq.).

After his successes Gideon retained a leading posi-
tion within his tribe. According to Judges viii. 22
et seq., he was even offered the hered-
Prognosti- itary rulership, i.e., kingship over the

cations tribe, but refused it as being a heathen

of the dignity. The Midianites described

Kingdom, him and his family as men of royal

appearance {ib. viii. 18) ; and the tribe

of Manasseh, which was at that time the largest and

most important and which occupied the most fertile

part of the country, from the plain of Jezreel to

Shechem, gained its supremacy over the other tribes

probably through the influence of the personality of

Gideon and of the reputation he enjoyed among the

other tribes (comp. Gen. xli. 50 et seq.). Manasseh,

however, had subsequently to cede this supremacy

to Ephraim (comp. Gen. xlviii.).

A consequence of the tribal kingship of Gideon,
who was first succeeded by his seventy sons, was
the tyranny of Abimelech, a son of Gideon born at
Shechem, hence of a Canaanite mother. He de-
manded from the Shechemites to be recognized as
sole ruler; and the Canaanite population, which had
already recognized Israel's supremacy, decided in
favor of the related half-breed. He seized the
treasure of the temple, gathered some troops about
him, and destroyed all the descendants of Gideon,
with the single exception of Jotham. The She-

chemites now really proclaimed him king, and he
ruled for three 3'ears"over Israel," i.e., the territory
of Palestine over which Gideon had ruled (Judges ix.
6, 22). He put down with much bloodshed an insur-
rection of the Shechemites, instigated by an Israel-
itic clan called Ebed (Jobaal) under the leadership
of Gaal ; but he was killed soon after in an attack
on Thebez (ib. verses 50-54).

The foregoing are the facts that may in general

be gathered in regard to the political conditions and

events relating to the Israelitic tribes

Religious during the so-called " time of the
Conditions Judges." It now remains to glance

in Israel, at the religious and cultural conditions
during the same period. The sources,
and in particular the stories of the Book of Judges
in its present shape, recount the repeated apostasy
of Israel and its worship of the Canaanite gods:
but as the accounts cite only a few specific instances,
one has evidently to deal with a survey of the relig-
ious conditions of the time from the standpoint of
later conditions and conceptions; and these ac-
counts, with their interchange of apostasy and op-
pression, of repentance and salvation, were in fact
added to the book at a later time. At the time of
the Judges Yiiwii was actually the god of Israel,
that is, of its leaders and of the people generally,
as appears especially from the Song of Deborah;
and in addition Baal, the chief god of the Canaan-
ites, was also prominent in names — for example,
" Jerubbaal " = " Gideon" — and therefore probably
also in the cult of Israel. Later historians regarded
this as a formal apostasy from Yhwh, although it
was not so in fact, because no pure cult of Yhwh
existed at the time of the Judges. Yet the prophets
Hosea and Jeremiah correctly judged the conditions
when they complained that the apostasy from Yhwh
began with the immigration into Canaan (Hosea ix.
10, X. 1, xi. 1 et seq., xiii. 5 et seq. ; Jer. ii. 1-8).
A relation arises between Yhwh and Baal which
actually leads Israel to the verge of natural religion.
The name " Jobaal " is typical of this relation ; for it
implies the equalit)' of the Canaanite Baal with the
Israelitic Yhwh, an implication that could not re-
main without consequences.

As Israel, after taking possession of the country,
soon made its Yhwh analogous to Baal, who had
until now been lord of the land, so it also took pos-
session of the hill sanctuaries of the latter (the
" bamot "), which were held sacred as being nearer to
the godhead. The Israelites soothed their religious
conscience by connecting the legends of the Patri-
archs with these old Canaanite sanctuaries. Con-
nected therewith were frequently the so-called " maz-
zebot." These Avere originally large exposed blocks
which were "set up" (nnVD, from 3VJ), i-e., set up-
right, on their broad side, and which, as seats of the
godhead, received votive offerings of oil and sacrifi-
cial blood. Later they probably gave place to artis-
tically hewn pillars which stood near the altar. The
cult of Yhwh was also connected with sacred trees
standing near the eminence or in the open field : but
the Israelites did not accept the "asherim," which
probably were originally simple trunks of trees or
poles planted beside the altar as symbols of Astarte,
the goddess of fruitfulness (see Asherah). .iVs the

Judges, Period of
Judgrment, Divine

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

384

bamot and their mazzebot were originally dedicated
to Yhwh (comp. Ex. xxiv. 5 [A. V. 4]), the ashe-
rim, which may even have been connected with the
phallic cult, had no place beside these altars; and
they are in fact not mentioned in early times.

Whatever facts can be gathered from the original

accounts of that time in regard to this YnwH cult

at lh3 old Canaan ite sanctuaries, which

Baal and was perhaps also influenced by the

YHWH. ritual of the Canaanites themselves, are
confirmed by the accounts referring to
several of these places of worship. Tims there was
at Shechem a Baal-berith (= "covenant Baal"),
who was evidently intended as the guardian and
protector of the covenant made between tlie Israel-
ites and the Canaanites in regard to their dwelling
together in peace (Judges ix.). As it is not explained
whether he was intended to represent Yhwh or
Baal, the Canaanite part of the inhabitants of
Shechem probably took him to be Baal, while the
Israelites recognized him, in spite of his name
"Baal," as Yhwh. And Jerubbaal (Gideon), who,
as stated above, went to battle in behalf of Yhwh,
and erected a sanctliary to Yhwh in his native city
of Ophrah, set up in the sanctuary an ephod, that
is, an idol, which, in accordance with Canaanite cus-
tom and skill, was finely wrought and covered with
precious metals. The later reviser of Gideon's story
not unjustly regarded this as a grievous apostasy on
the part of Gideon and his contemporaries {ib. viii.,
especially verses 21 et seq.). The Danites, on their
expedition to Laish, found a similar idol on Mount
Ephraim, together with terapliim, images proba-
bly representing progenitors of the tribe or race.
While the narrator of the story is sure that both em-
blems refer to the cult of Yhwh, and are not images
of Baal and Ashtaroth, the reviser thinks it neces-
sary always to add the words n^DJOl 7DD to TiQN
D'Qini in order to indicate that they were carved and
cast images (and hence did not belong to the Yhwh
cult, which permitted no such images). When the
Danites seized the images together with the attend-
ant priest, and carried them to Dan, a sanctuary
arose there that subsequently became famous, and
whose Levitic priests traced their descent back to
Moses (i6. xvii.-xviii., especially X viii. 30).

The cultural conditions of the Israelites during

the time of the Judges were of course dependent

primarily on the economic conditions.

Cultural By conquering the land of Canaan the
Status Israelites were transformed from
of the nomads into agriculturists, for they
Israelites, now dwelt in villages and towns, in
huts and houses, and lived on what
they raised in their fields, namely, grain, wine, oil,
figs, and the milk and meat of tlieir cattle. What
they did not need for their own subsistence they
sold to the Phenician merchants that traveled
through the country, or exchanged for the products
of Phenician skill, such as decorated vessels and
garments, or for goods imported by the Phenicians
from the cultured countries of the Euphrates or
from Egypt (comp. Gen. xlix. 20, and for later
time I Kings v. 23, 25; Ezek. xxvii. 17; Josephus,
"Ant."xiv. 10, §6). Thus the Israelites, as the in-
heritors of Canaan, entered at the same time into

possession of the richer and more developed culture
of that country.

But the pleasures with which they became ac-
quainted through the more refined former lords of
the country were attended by the consequences of
more advanced culture; and the Israelites in time
gave themselves up to voluptuousness and immoral-
ity, as the tirades of the Later Prophets amply tes-
tify. This more luxurious mode of life was not, it
is true, adopted at the very beginning of the time
of the Judges; Indeed Israel remained for some time
a rough people, barbarized by continuous wars.
Sword law and the vendetta reigned supreme.
Neither expeditious undertaken for pillage and
plunder (comp. .Judges xvii. et seq.), nor treacherous
dealings with the enemy, as practised by Samson,
nor assassinations, as those committed by Jael and
Ehud, gave offense; and even the lives of those
nearest and dearest were sacrificed to satisfy a vow,
as in the case of Jephthah.

Bibliography : Compare the respective sections in the histories
of Israel by Ewald, A. Kohler, B. Stade, E. Renan, H. Winck-
ler(1895,i.),A. Klostermann (1896), C. H. Cornill (1899), J.
Wellhausen 11897, 3d ed., ill. 35-50), and H. Guthe (§§
18-21, pp. 55-64); R. Kittel, Geach. der Hehriier, 1892. ii.
3-22, 55-9(). On the sources, etc., see bibliography to Judges,
Book of.

E. G. H. V. Ry.

JUDGMENT : The sentence or final order of a
court in a civil or criminal proceeding, enforceable
by the appropriate modes of execution appointed by
law. In criminal cases, according to Talmudic law,
the judgment was pronounced by the chief of the
court in the presence of the accused (Sanh. 79b;
Maimouides, "Yad," Sanh. xiv. 7; ih., Rozeah, iv.
7). If the judgment was for acquittal it could not
be reversed ; but if it was for conviction it could be
reversed, and another trial instituted either at the
plea of the convict, after presenting a sufficient rea-
son, or at the instance of new witnesses appearing
for the defendant (see Acquittal; Execution).

In civil cases, also, judgment was pronounced by
the presiding judge. The formula was very sim-
ple: "A, thou art guiltj^ "; "B, thou art innocent."
The judgment could be pronounced

In Civil even if the parties concerned were not
Cases. present (Sliulhan 'Aruk, Hoshen Mish-
pat, 18, 6; comp. ib. 13, 6). If one of
the litigants wished to have a written copy of the
judgment, the court might furnish him with one
before the litigants left the court-room, but not
after, because it was apprehended that they might
settle the case between themselves outside. The
formula for a written judgment was as follows: "A
and B came before the court, and in its opinion A is
guilty and B is innocent." Neither in the written
nor in the spoken sentence should the names of the
judges be included (Sanh. 30a; "Yad," Sanh. xxii.
8; Hoshen Mishpat, 19, 2; comp. ib. 39, 9-10).

The reasons for the decision were included in the
judgment only when the judges noticed a dissatis-
faction on the part of the litigants, or when one of
the litigants asked for the reasons. Tlie prevailing
custom, however, was to explain the reasons of a
judgment only when one of the litigants was com-
pelled to appear before a certain court, though he
wished to be judged by another. In such a case be
had to pay the money immediately on the receipt of

385

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judges, Period of
Judgment, Divine

the judgment uotc; and if the decision was reversed
by another court the monej' was refunded to Inm.
A high and famous court need not assign any reason
for its decisions (Sauh. 31b; Tosef., Sanli. s.v.
"We'im"; B. M. 69b; Tosef., B. M. s.v. " Ki " ;
Hoshen Mishpat, 14, 4, Isserlcs' gloss).

Tlie judges were not permitted to divulge to tiie
public their individual opinions of any case after
it had been decided. On one occasion a disciple
Avas expelled from the court-room because he related
the opinions of the judges in a case twenty-two
years after its trial (Sanh. 31a; " Yad," Sanh. xxii. 7).

A judgment in civil cases could be reversed at the
instance of either of the parties. Even if the court
ordered them to produce all new testimony within
thirty days, and they brought new testimonj'^ after
that period, the judgment might be reversed and a
new trial instituted. If at the question of the court
one of the litigants admitted that he
Reversal of could bring no other testimony, and
Judgment, then produced new testimony, 'which,
however, could have been obtained be-
fore, tlie judgment could not be reversed. But if he
brought Avitnesses who were in a distant laud at the
time of the trial, or testimony of which he might
have had no previous knowledge, a new trial was
usually granted (Sanh. 31a; "Yad," Sanh. vi. 6-8;
Hoshen Mishpat, 20, 1).

For reversal of judgment in cases of appeal to
higher courts see Appeals. See also Excommuni-
cation; Execution.

BiBLiOfiRAPHY : Bloch, Die CivUprocesfi-Oi-dnunQ. pp. 84-8T,
Budapest, 188:i ; Mendelsolm, Crimuiai Jurii<prude)ice, pp.
148-153, Baltimore, 1891.
S. S. J. H. G.

JUDGMENT, DAY OF. See Day of Judg-
ment; Judgment, Divine.

JUDGMENT, DIVINE : The final decision by
God, as Judge of the world, concerning the destiny
of men and nations according to their merits and
demerits. Justice and righteousness are such fun-
damental ideas Avith Judaism and are such essential
attributes of God (Gen. xviii. 19; Job xxxiv. 13;
Jer. ix. 23; Ps. Ixxxix. 15 [A. V. 14], xcvii. 2) as
to have forced the conviction upon every believer
that all the evil which befalls man is the outcome of
the divine judgment, and that every evil deed will
meet with its due punishment. " Shall not the Judge
of all the earth do righteous judgment? [A. V.
" right "1 " (Gen. xviii. 25). " Behold, the righteous
shall be recompensed on earth: much more the
wicked and the sinner" (Prov. xi. 81, Hebr.). All
the great catastrophes of past ages, such as the
Flood, the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah, the
earthquake that swallowed up Korah and his men,
and the destruction that came upon Egypt and upon
other oppressors of the Israelites, are, therefore, rep-
resented in the Bible as divine judgments (Gen. vi.
5, xviii. 20; Ex. vii. 4; Lev. xviii. 25; Num. xvi.
30, xxxiii. 4; Judges ii. 18 [the original meaning of
"shofet" is "vindicator"; that is, executor of the
divine judgment upon Israel's foes] ; comp. II Sam.
xviii. 19; Isa. xi. 4). The end of history, therefore,
was conceived to be the execution of the divine
judgment upon all the nations (Lsa. xi. 15, xxv.
6-xxvi. 9, Ixvi. 16; Jer. xxv. 31 ; and especially Joel
VII.— 25

iv. [A. V. ii! ] 12). Tliis divine judgment is to take
place, according to the Biblical view, on earth (I's.
xcvi. 13, xcviii. 9; Joel, I.e.), and is intended to
be particularly a vindication of Israel (Deut. xxxii.
41; Isa. XXX. 18; Jer. xxv. 31, xxx. 11; and Ps.
cxxxv. 14).

This Day of Judgment (see Day of the Lokd) is
mentioned in Judith xvi. 18, in apocalyptic and rab-
binical literature referring to Isa. Ixvi.

In the 24, and in Psalms of Solomon, xv. 12.

Apoc- It is portrayed in very vivid form in

rypha. the Sibyliincs (iii. 34, 91, 500-544, 670,
687,783), in the Book of Jubilees (v. 10,
ix. 15, xxiii. 11, xxxvi. 11), and particularly in Enoch
(X. 0, 12: xvi. 1; xix. 1; xxii. 4, 11: xxv."4;xlv. 2;
Ixxxiv. 4; xciv. 9). The leading idea in Enoch is
that the Deluge was the first Avorld judgment, and
that the final judgment of the world is to take place at
the beginning or at the close of the Messianic kingdom
(Enoch, x. 4-12, xvi. 1, xix. 1, liv. 5-10, xc. 19-27,
and elsewhere). The one at the beginning of the
Messianic kingdom {ib. xlv. 2; Mek., Beshallah,
Shirah, 6; 'Ab. Zarah 3b) is more national in its
character; the one at the close, called by R. Eliezer
" the Day of the Great Judgment " (Mek., Beshallah,
Wayissa'u, 4), isto consign all souls either to Paradise
or to Gehenna. The fire of the latter consumes the
wicked, the heathen often being represented as types
of wickedness, while the Israelites are supposed to
be saved by their own merit or by that of their
fathers (Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 2-5; R H. 17a; Eccl. R.
iii. 9, iv. 1; Pes. 103a; Midr. Teh. to Ps. i. 5-6).
The divine judgment described in the Testament of
Abraham (see Abraham, Testament of) is one con-
cerning all souls (xi.-xiv.) in the life to come. The
twelve judges described as sitting there (see "J. Q.
R." vii. 587) have their parallel in the Falasha tradi-
tion (see Halevy in "Taazaze Sanbat," p. 144, Paris,
1902, following Ps. cxxii. 5; comp. Tan., Kedoshim,
ed. Buber, i. ; Luke xxii. 30). Regarding the Mes-
siah as Judge, see Eschatology.

But there is a divine judgment which takes place
in this world and is continual. "Man is judged
daily," says R. .Jose (Tosef., R. H. 13). R. Levi says
(Y'er. R. H. i. 57a; Pes. R. xl. ; Midr. Teh. to Ps.
ix. 9): "God judges the nations at night, Avlien
they refrain from committing sin, and judges the
people of Israel in the daj'time, Avhen they are doing
meritorious work." "There are four seasons of the
year," says the Mishnah (R. H. i. 2), following Akiba
(Tosef., R. II. i. 13), "when the world is judged:
in spring [Pesah], in regard to the yearly prod-
uce; in early sumtner [Shabu'ot], in regard to the
fruitage of the trees; on Sukkot, in regard to the
winter's rain; and on New-Y^ear's Daj', when man
is judged." It is owing to these vicAvs (comp.
Jubilees, Book of) that tlie 1st of Tishri became
the Day of Judgment in the Jewish liturgy (see Day
OF Judg.ment). Not yet recognized as such in the
time of Josephus (" Ant. " iii. 10, § 2) and Philo (" De
Septenario," § 22), this season of repentance and
penitential prayer removed from the Jew that gloom
and dread of the Last Judgment Day so prevalent
in Essone and Christian life and literature (comp.
Ber. 2Sb), and gave to Jewish ethics its more prac-
tical, healthy, and mundane character. K

Judicial Notice
Jiidischheit

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

386

JUDICIAL NOTICE. See Notice.

JUDICIAL RECORDS. SlcDked; Judgment.

JUDICIAL SALES. See E.xecution.

JUDISCH-THEOLOGISCHES SEMINAR
(FRANCKELSCHER STIFTUNG): Institu
tiou in Broslau for the tmiuing of rabbis, founded un-
der the will of Jonas Fjianx-kel, and opened in 1854.
Commercial Councilor ("Kommerzienrath") Jonas
Frituckel, a descendant of a rabbinic family, and a
very wealthy bachelor, who devoted his entire for-
tune to philanthiopic and educational purposes, left
a bequest for the establishment of a training-school
for rabbis and Jewish teachers. Franckel was presi-
dent of the Breslau congregation, and an enthusias-
tic supporter of Geiger, who had no doubt inspired
the bequest; and it was probably the founder's in-
tention that Geiger should be the president of the
institution (Abraham Geiger, " Lebeu in Briefen," p.
129, BerUn, 1878). The executors of the Franckel
legacy felt, however, that an institution which
sliould be presided over by a man of Geiger's ad-
vanced views would not gain the confidence of the
congregations; they therefore called ZachariasFran-
kel to the presidency (Feb. 7, 1853). Owing to some
legal complications the seminary could not be
opened until Aug. 10, 1854, althoiigh its constitu-
tion had been confirmed by royal order of Aug. 31,
1847. Frankel selected as teacliers Heinrich Gkaetz
and Jacob Bernays, to whom Manuel Joel and B.
ZucKERMANN Were added as assistants, both being
soon afterward promoted to the rank of regular
teachers.

The institution had at the beginning three divi-
sions, namely: the regular rabbinical department,
which admitted only such students as were enti-
tled to enter the university ; the prepar-

Original atory department, receiving students

Depart- who possessed the knowledge required

ments. for entrance to the " Secunda " of a
Prussian gymnasium; and a training-
school for religious teachers. For a teacher's diploma
a three-year course of study was required, while the
rabbinical course required seven years. The teach-
ers' seminary, which in the beginning was very
well attended, soon declined, and in 1867 was closed
on account of lack of students. The preparatory
department, originally necessary because the stu-
dents of the seminary came largely from yeshibot
and had no secular training, became superfluous
with the increase of students having regular gym-
nasium education, and was closed in 1887; so that
to-day the seminary has onlj' one department, and
provides for theological training only.

The administrators of the Franckel estate inaugui
rated the seminary with a capital of 100,000 thalers
(§72,000) apart from the building and the library ;
for a teachers' pension fund the sum of 3,000 thalers
was set aside; and a stipendiary fund for students
was started with 5,000 thalers. The last-named fund
received many additions in later years, and special
foundations were created for graduates who had not
obtained positions, e.g., the Director Frankel Stif-
tung, founded on the occasion of ZacliariasFrankel's
seventieth birthday (1861), and a similar foundation
on the occasion of Graetz's seventieth birthday

(1887); two prizes, one founded by Joseph Lehiuann
(1855) with a capital of 1,800 marks, and one; by
David Kaufmanu (1895), in memory of David Rosin,
with a capital of 4,000 kronen.

The subjects taught at the rabbinical seminary
were: Talmudic literature, by the president ("Di-
rector"); history and exegesis, by Graetz; philoso-
phy of religion, by Bernays ; homiletics and Midrasli,
by Jo(3l: and tiie calendar by Zucker-
Curriculum niann, who was also librarian. This
and Staff, division Avas changed in details when
the teaching staff underwent changes,
but remained the same in its general principles. In
1863 Joel became rabl)i of Breslau and was succeeded
by Jacob Freudenthal, who retained his position at
the seminary until 1888, when lie was appointed
professor of philosophy at Breslau University. In
1866 Bernays was called as professor of philosophy
and chief librarian to the University of Bonn, and
he was succeeded at tlic seminary by David Rosin,
who held the post imtil his death (Dec. 31, 1894).
After Zacharias Frankel's death (Feb. 13, 1875),
Leyser Lazarus was elected president and served as
svich from Sept. 23, 1875, until his death (April 16,
1879).

After Lazarus' death the administration changed.
David Joel, brother of Manuel Joel, was called to
the institution as professor of the Talmudic branches,
with the title of "Seminarrabbiner," and the presi-
dency was to alternate between him and Professor
Graetz as the senior f)f the faculty. Joel, who en-
tered upon the duties of his office Jan. 1, 1880, died
Sept. 9, 1882; and since his death the presidency
of the seminary has been held in turn by the mem-
bers of the faculty. Joel was succeeded as "Semi-
narrabbiner " by Israel Lewy, who has held the chair
of Talmudic literature since May 1, 1883. Since the
death of Graetz (Sept. 7, 1891) Marcus Brann has
occupied the chair of history, teaching at the same
time exegesis and Talmudic codes. After the death
of Zuckermann (Dec. 17, 1891) his position as teacher
was not tilled, Brann assuming the duties of libra-
rian. Upon Rosin's death (Dec. 31, 1894), Saul Hor-
ovitz was called (Jan. , 1896). He teaches philosophy
of religion, homiletics, and some of the Talmudic
branches; so that the present (1904) staff of profess-
ors comprises only three teachers (Lewy, Brann,
and Horovitz).

Since its inauguration the seminary has had 464
students and has graduated 119 rabbis. A number
of other officiating rabbis, while not
Students, graduates of the institution, have re-
ceived part of their training there.
They came from various countries of Europe and
from the United States, and have occupied promi-
nent positions throughout Europe and America.
The first graduation of teachers took place in 1857;
the first graduation of rabbis, in 1862, on Jan. 27,
the anniversary of the death of Jonas Franckel, the
founder of the institution. The average number of
students is about 40, the highest number having
been 58 in 1866. The library, which was begun with
the collection of Leon V. Saraval of Triest, and has
been augmented by various important donations,
numbers, according to the latest report, 22,332
printed volumes and 212 volumes of manuscripts.

387

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judicial Notice
Jiidischheit

Of the students quite a number have acciuired con-
siderable reputation as scientitic authors; among
ihera may be mentioned Peries. Glidemann, Rah-
mer, Bacber, Kaufmauu, A. Scliwarz, and Philip
Bloch.

The institution has remained faithful to the spirit
of its tirst president, Zacharias Frankel, the princi-
pal exponent of historical Judaism. It proclaims
freedom in theoretical research, but demands of its
disciples a faithful adherence to the practises of tra-
ditional Judaism. Of existing seminaries it is the
oldest, in view of the fact that the Seminal re Hab-
binique of Paris was hardly more than a yeshibah
before its removal from Metz. At all events the
Judisch-Theologisches Seminar was the first scien-
tific institution for the training of German rabbis;
and as such it has been the type for those founded in
Budapest and Vienna.

Bibliography : Zur Gesch. dex Jildutch-Thcoloqischen Semi-
nars, in Programm zur ErOffnung (Jes JUdi,-<ch-Theolo-
gischen Seminars, Breslau, n.d.; Das Jlidisch-Thenlo-
gische Seminar zu Breslau am Tage Seines Filnf und
Zwanzigjdhrigen DeMehens. Breslau, n.d.; the annual re-
ports of the institution, each of which contains a scientific
essay ; and the periodicals, chiefly the Monatsschrift, from
1853.

JUDISCHE CHRONIK, See Periodicals.
jiJDISCHE LITERATURBLATT, DAS.

See Periodicals.

jtiDISCHE MONATSSCHRIFT. See Peri-
odicals.

JTJDISCHE PRESSE, DIE : Organ fiir die
Gesammt-Interessen des Judenthums : Week-
ly periodical published in Berlin since 1869. Its
editors have been S. Enoch and Israel Hildesheimer
and his son Hirsch Hildesheimer. At various times
I. Hollander, S. Meyer, and Gustav Karpeles have
been associates. The " Presse " represents conserva-
tive interests; and its theological position is Ortho-
dox. Belletristic matter is published in its weekly
feuilleton, "Sabbat Stunden," and scientific articles
in a supplement called " Israelitische Monatsschrift."

G. A. M. F.

JTJDISCHE SCHULBOTE, DER. See Peri-
odicals.

JTJDISCHE TTJRNZEITUNG : A Jewish
monthly ; published in Berlin by Herman Jalowicz
as the official organ of the Jiidischer Turnverein Bar
Kochba. The first number appeared July, 1900.
Its object is to advance the physical education of
the Jewish race by promoting the exercise of gym-
nastics among Jewish young men. The " Jildische
Turnzeitung " is a Zionist publication. G.

JTJDISCHE VOLKSBLATT, DAS. See

Periodicals.
JTJDISCHE VOLKSSCHTTLE. See Period

ICALS.

jtroISCHE V0LKSZEITT7NG. See Period

ICALS.

JUDISCHE WELTBLATT, DAS. See

Periodicals.

JTJDISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT FTJR WIS-
SENSCHAFT UND LEBEN : Quarterly publi-
cation issued in Breslau from 1862 to 1873 (11 vols.)
by Abraham Geiger. It was originally Geiger's

intention to call it " Zeitschrift Biblischer und Jii-
discher Wissenschaft," and he was partly led to issue
the "Zeitschrift" because of Hilgenfeld's refu.sal to
publish in his "Zeitschrift fiir EvangelischeTlieolt)-
gie " articles written by others than Protestants (sec
Geiger's " Nachgelassene Schriften," v. 25o etscr/.}.
Tlie "Jlidische Zeitschrift" contained not only
scientitic articles on Jewish history and literal ur<',
but also articles dealing with the religious questions
that agitated the Jews of liis day. A great deal was.
written by Geiger himself (f.ff., the " Vorlesungen
liber Judenthum," in vols. ii. and iii.), and the fore-
most Jewish scholars also contributed to it. G.

JTJDISCHES CENTRALBLATT. See Peri-
odicals.

JTJDISCHHEIT (JTJDISCHEYT or JTJ-
DISCHAYT): Medieval German expression fortlic
Jewish community of a certain locality or of a wh()le
country. Thus the gilds of Speyer in 1352, re-
admitting the Jews after their expulsion in 1349,
speak of them as " Jiidischlieit, die bi uns zu Spire
wohnende werdent" ("Zeitschrift fiir Gesch. der
Juden in Deutschland," v. 246); the"Gemeine Jii-
dischheit " in Rothenburg - on - the - Tauber in 1519
sent a petition to the emperor (ib. iv. 3). The Jews
in Burgau, in a petition addressed to Emperor Fer-
dinand I. in 1559, speak of the " Gemeiue JiidLschheit,
so im heiligen Reich wohnend " {ib. iii. 161, v. "333).
JosEL OF RosuEiM sigus documcnts as "Gemeiner
Judischhait Bevelshaber" (ib. iii. 169) or as " Re-
gierer Gemeiner Jiidischait im Reich " (Feilchenfeld.
"Josel von Rosheim," pp. 15, 27, 153, Strasburg,
1898). But by the sixteenth century the expression
" Judenschaft" had become more customary ("Zeit-
schrift fiir Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland," iii.
162, V. 332). Samson Wertheimer is called in the
" Schutzbrief " granted to him by Emperor Leopold
I., Aug. 29, 1703, "der in unsern. . . Landen sich
bef lindenden Judeuschaflft Vorgesetzter Rabbiner "
(Kaufmann, "Samson Wertheimer," p. 29, Vienna,
1888); and the Jewish community of Halberstadt, in
an address to the prefect of the department of the
Saale in 1808, speaks of itself as "Judenschaft"
(Auerbach, "Gesch. der Israelitischen Gemeinde
Halberstadt," p. 212, Halberstadt, 1868). When the
Jewsbegan to be considered asordinary citizens, even
this name was obnoxious; and when the Prussian
government in the bill concerning the legal status
of the Jews spoke of " Jtidenschaften " the states
changed it to "Synagogengemeindpn," which ex-
pression remained in the law of July 23, 1847.

" Judischkeit " (•' Yiddishkeit " : " Jewish Chroni-
cle," March 18, 1904, p. 20) is nowadays used, in a
sense somewhat akin to the English "Jewishness,"
by the German Orthodox to signify strict adherence
to the ritual laws and complete acceptance of the
Orthodox principles. It is frequently found in
"Der Israelit" of Mayence and in cognate litera-
ture. Breuer, in his eulogy of S. R. Hii-sch, Papa.

1889, says: " Jiidischkeit, alte Judischkeit, war zum
Hohn und Spott geworden " ("Isr. Wochenschrift,"

1890, p. 43).

Bibliography: Jolowlcz. Da^ Gesetz liber die Verhm(ni,si>e
der Juden in Preiwwen, etc., KOsUn, 1847; Allg. ZcU. des
Jud. 1»4~, p. 340, passim.

Judith, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

388

JUDITH, BOOK OF: An Apocryphal book
in sixteen cliapteis. The book receives its title
from the name of its principal character, Judith

(nnin^ = " Jewess " ; in the Greek
Title. transliteration, 'Iov6eid), a name found

also in Gen. xxvi. 34 (comp. the corre-
sponding masculine proper name ^niiT in Jer. xxxvi.
14, 31, 23).

The Book of Judith is a story written for house-
hold reading. While it may properly be classed as
didactic, yet it is one of those popular tales in which
the chief concern of the writer is with the telling of
the story rather than with the pointing of a moral,
and in which the wish to interest takes precedence
even of the desire to instruct. What gained for
the book its high esteem in early times, in both the
Jewish and the Christian Avorld, was its intrinsic
nierit as a story, rather than its religious teaching
or its patriotism.

It is, furthermore, a historical novel; tliat is, its
scenes are definitely located as to place and time and
connected with important personages of historj-,

with the purpose of adding life to tiie
General narrative. This feature it has in coin-
Character mon witli such stories as those of Ruth,
and Esther, Daniel, and especially with

Contents, the Book of Tobit, the work most

nearly akin to it. But in Judith the
names of persons and looalities are introduced in
such profusion and with such minuteness of detail
as have no parallel in the other old Jewish composi-
tions of this class.

The events of the narrative are represented as
taking place (m the occasion of the hostile advance
of an " Assyrian " army into Palestine; The inhab-
itants of a certain Jewisii city called " Bethulia "
(properly " Betylua ") can check the advance of the
enemy, because tlieir city occupies the narrow and
important pass througli which is the entrance into
Judea (Judith iv. 7 et seq., viii. 21-24). But the As-
syrians, instead of attempting to force the pass,
blockade the city and cut off its water-supply. In
the distress wliich follows, Judith, a woman of
Bethulia, works deliverance for her city — and tlius
for all Judea and Jerusalem — by bewitching the
Assyrian captain, Holofernes, and cutting off liis
head.

The book begins with a date, "the twelfth year
of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar," and everything
moves with the air of a precise account of actual
events. But the way in whicli the narrative at once
makes open sport of chronology and historj^ is very
striking. Nebuchadnezzar is the king of Assyria,

and reigns in Nineveh ( !). The Jews,

Historical who have "newly returned from the

Setting. captivity" (iv. 3, v. 19), are in no

sense his subjects; indeed, his chief
captain has apparently never heard of them (v. 3).
Yet tlie writer of this story was a well-informed
man, familiar with foreign geography (i. G-10, ii.
21-28), and well acquainted with the Hebrew Scrip-
tures (i. 1; ii. 23; v. 6-19; viii. 1, 26; ix. "i ct seq.).
It must therefore be concluded either that the prin-
cipal names of the story are a mere disguise, or that
they were chosen with a purely literary purpose,
and with the intent to disclaim at the outset any

historical verity for the tale. The former supposi-
tion is not rendered plausible by any consideration,
and fails utterly to account for the peculiarities of
the narrative ; the latter, on the contrary, gives a
satisfactory explanation of all the facts. That is,
with the very first words of tlie tale, "In the twelfth
year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who reigned
over the Assyrians in Nineveh," the narrator gives
liis hearers a solemn wink. They are to understand
tliat this is fiction, not history. It did not take
place in this or that definite period of Jewish his-
tory, but simply "once upon a time," tlie real vague-
ness of the date being transparently disguised in the
manner which has become familiar in the folk-tales
of other parts of the world.

Both tiie nuiiie and the site of the city in which
the scene of the story is Lud have been the subject
of much debate. It is beyond all question that the
narrator in describing Bethulia is describing a real
place with which he is personally familiar. The
plain requirements of the description are these : a
large city in the hill-country of Samaria, on the
direct road from Jezreel to Jerusalem,
The City lying in the path of the enemy, at the
Bethulia. head of an important pass, a few hours
(vi. 11, vii. 1-3) south of Geba. This
Geba is the yij of the Talmud, the modern Jeba',
two or three hours northeast of Samaria, at the point
where tlie ascent into the mountainous country be-
gins. Between this point and the plain of Jezreel
there is nothing resembling a pass. Holofernes,
with tlie division of his army whicli had just chas-
tised the coast cities (iii. 6 et seq.), was in the van.
A considerable body now joined him from the east
(Moab, Amnion, Edom, etc. ; v. 2, vii. 8). The
statement that his vast army "encamped between
Geba and Scythopolis " (iii. 10) suits all the condi-
tions perfectly.

As Torrey first pointed out, in the "Journal of
the American Oriental Society," xx. 160-172, there
is one city, and only one, which perfectly satis-
fies all the above-mentioned requirements, namely,
Shechem. A great army, with its baggage-trains,
breaking camp at Geba in the morning (vii. 1),
would arrive in the afternoon at the springs in the
broad valley {ib. 3) just under Shechem. This,
moreover, is the city which occupies the all-impor-
tant pass on this route, the pass by which " was the
entrance into Judea " (iv. 7). Furthermore, each
one of the details of topography, which the writer
introduces in great number, finds its unmistakable
counterpart in the surroundings of Shechem. The
valley below the city is on tlie west side (vii. 18;
comp. ib. verses 13, 20). The "fountain of water in
the camp " (xii. 7) is the modern Bait
Identity of al-Ma, fifteen minutes from SJiechera.
Bethulia. The ascent to the city was through a
narrowing valley (xiii. 10 ; comp. x.
10). Whether the words " for two men at the most "
(iv. 7) are an exaggeration for the sake of the story,
or whether they truly describe the old fortifications
of the city, it is impossible to say with certainty.
At the head of this ascent, a short distance back from
the brow of the hill, stood the city (xiv. 11). Rising
above it and overlooking it were mountains (vii. 13,
18; XV. 3). The "fountain" from which came the

389

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judith, Book of

water-supply of the eity (vii. 12 ctneq.) is the great
spring Ras el-'Ain, in the valley {fv tuovauvi, ib. 17)
just above Shecheni, "at the foot" of ]\Iount Geri-
zini. Tlie abundant water-supply of the modern
city is ])n)bably dtie to a system of aneiout undei-
ground conduits from this one spring; see Robinson,
"Pliysical Geography of the Holy Land," p. 247,
and Guerin,"Saniarie," i. 401 etxeq. Further corrob-
orative evidence is given by the account of the
l)h)ckade of Bcthulia in vii/l3-20. "Ekrebel" is
'Akrabah, three hours southeast of Shechem, on the
road to the Jordan; "Chusi" is Kuza (so G. A.
Smith and others), two hours south, on the road to
Jerusalem. The identitj' of Bethulia with Shechem
is thus beyond all question.

The reason for tlie pseudonym is obvious. Be-
cause of the feeling of the Jews toward the Samari-
tans, tiie name "Shechem" could not be repeatedly
used in a popular tale of this character for the city
whose people wrought deliverance for Jerusalem
and for the sanctuary of the Jews. The original
form of "Betylua" (Greek, BairovTiova, etc.; Latin,
"Bethulia," whence the modern usage) is quite un-
certain. The favorite rvhvi n''3 = "House of God,"
is not improbable.

Judith is certainly one of the very best extant

specimens of old Jewish story-telling, and forms

a worthy companion-piece to Tobit,

Literary which it surpasses in vividness of

and style. Its author introduces a con.sid-

Religious erable variety of material, but all in

Impor- due proportion ; everything is subor-
tance. dinated to the main action, and the
interest never flags. The principal
scenes are painted very vigorously, and a striking
picture is often sketched in a few words (comp. x.
10, 18; xiii. 13; xiv. 6). The poem in the closing
chapter is a fine composition, plainly the work of no
ordinary writer.

The book has a distinctly religious trend, and
is well calculated to inspire both patriotism and
piet}'. For the history of the Jewish religion, how-
ever, it contributes little of importance. Views and
doctrines wliich liave nothing to do with the prog-
ress of the story are not introduced.

As most students of the book have recognized, it

was originally written in Hebrew. The standard

Greek version bears the unmistakable

Original marks of a translation from this lan-
Language ; guage. The idioms are those of clas-
Versions. sical Hebrew ; and yet the dialect in
which the book is composed is plainly
a living one. The diction is fresh and vigorous, and
not noticeably reminiscent of the canonical Old Tes-
tament.

The wide-spread popularity of the story is attested,
as in the case of Tobit, by tlie existence of a num-
ber of separate recensions; these do not, however,
diverge very widely from one another. Three Greek
forms have been preserved: (1) the standard text,
found in most manuscripts (including the principal
uncials) and given in all the printed editions;
in all probability the recension which most nearly
represents the original form of the story ; (2) a sotuc-
what corrected and " improved " recension, repre-
sentetl by Codex 58 (Holmes and Parsons) and by

the Old Latin and Syriac versions ; and (3) a text
closely related to the preceding, found in Codices 19
and 108. The Old Latin translation exists in several
divergent forms. The Vulgate version was made
by Jerome (according to his own testimony hastily
and with considerable freedom) from an Aramaic
text. It gives the narrative in a form wliich is both
much abridged and plainly .secondary.

The several Hebrew versions of Judith are all
comparatively recent, and are quite worthless for
the criticism of the book. Two of these are given
in Jellinek, "B. H." i. 130-141, ii. 12-22; another is
published by Gaster in "Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch." xvi.
156-163. These are all free adaptations of the story,
very much abridged.

The author of Judith beyond question lived and
wrote in Palestine. He was a Jew, not a Samar-
itan, and probably dwelt near Sheciiem. From the
manner and frecjuency of the mention of Dotlian
(iii. 9 [?] ; "Dothaim," iv. 6; vii. 3, 18; viii. 3)— if
the Greek text can be trusted — it might perliaps be
conjectured that liis home was there.
Author From the prominence given in tlie
and Date, ixtok to the ceremonial law, many
have drawn the conclusion that its
author was a Pliarisee; but this is hardly a safe con-
clusion. All that can be inferred with certainty is,
that the punctilious performance of rites and cere-
monies was popularly recognized at that time as
characteristic of the extreme type of "holiness" de-
manded by the story for its heroine. There is no-
where in the story any hint that its Avriter would
have recommended such punctiliousness as desirable
for the Jews in general, any more than the admiring
Christian biographers of Simeon Stylites appear to
think that it would be well for the people to follow
his example. As for the tale invented to deceive
Holof ernes (xi. 12-16), it is of course not necessary
to suppose that even such a saint as Judith would
have regarded this transgression of the Law, in a
time of distress, as a grievous sin.

The tale of Judith, as has already been observed,
is not given any genuine historical setting; nor is it
likely that its author liimself connected it with any
particular time. The names, Jewish and Persian, of
his principal characters he selected with the free-
dom which belongs to any popular narrator. There
is nothing in the book which gives any direct clew
to its date, or any precise indication of the circum-
stances of the Jews at the time when it was written.
The passage iii. 8 is plainly a reminis-
Possible cence of the measures taken by Anti-
Date of ochus Epiphanes. It may also fairly
Composi- be urged that the glorification of
tion. Shechem in this transparent way is
much more easily conceivable after
120 B.C., when John Ilyrcanus took and humbled
the city, than before that date, when it was a per-
petual thorn in the side of the Jews. On the other
hand, the character of the Hebrew in which the
book is written (see above) favors a comparatively
early date. One would probably not be far out of
the way in placing it near the beginning of the first
century B.C. The book is first quoted by Clement
of Rome ( Ep. I. ad Corinth., c. 55), near the end of
the first century of the common era.

Judith _^_^

Julius m.

THE JEWISH E^X■YCLOPEDlA

390

Bibliography: The principal commentaries are those by
Fritzsche, 1853, Ball in the Njjea/ier's Comnicntaiii. 1H«8, and
Scholz, 2d ed., 18th5; Lohr translates the book in Kautzsch's
Apokn/phcn ; Nestle contributes helpful notes on the text in
his yidrqinnlien mid MatrriaUcn. 189:3; see also (iaster,
in Hastings. Diet. Bible; Porter, in Cheyne and Black, En-

4. C. C. T.

JUDITH, MADAME (/lee JULIE BERN AT):

French actress; born in Paris Jan. 30, 1827. Slic
began her theatrical career at the Theatre des Folies-
Dramatiques in 1842, where her melodious voice and
graceful bearing won lier the heart of the public, to
whom she was known as "la belle Juive." On Nov.
30, 184.6, Julie Bernat Judith made her debut at the
Theatre-Francjais as Emma in Alexandre Duval's
"Fille d'Hooneur. " Ju 1851 she married Bernard-
Derosne and in 1852 became " Societaire " of the com-
pany. Her chief roles were : Rosine, in " Le Barbier
de Seville"; Penelope, in Ponsard's tragedy "Ulys-
se"; Laurence Venlier, in Etienne Arago's comedy
" Aristocraties " ; MathUde, in Alfred de Mussel's
"Un Caprice"; Antonia, in "Mensonge et Verite";
Charlotte Corday, in Ponsard's drama of that name;
and Gabriellc, \n Theodore Barriere's drama "Lis
dans la Vallee." In 1866 she left the stage, and has
since resided in Paris, where she, with her husband,
Bernard-Derosue, has translated several English
novels into French. Julie Bernat Judith is remotely
related to the famous actress Rachel Felix.

Bibliography: I.arousse, Gi-and Dictioimaire Univeisrl du
X1X« Siecle ; KayserlinR, Die Jiidischen Frauen, p. 330.

s. F. C.

JUDITH MONTEFIORE COLLEGE : Theo
logical seminaiy founded in 1869 by Sir Moses Mon-
tetiore in honor of his wife, Lady Judith Moutetiore,
at Ramsgate, Kent, England, near his residence,
East Cliff Lodge. It mainly took the form of a bet
ha-midrash attended by elderly men of learning who
studied the Talmud there. The first principal was
Dr. L. Lowe; after his death, in 1888, it languished
for a time, till an attempt was made to convert it
into a modern theological seminary under the prin-
cipalship of Dr. M. Gaster, wlio largely increased
the library by judicious purchases. The experi-
ment lasted from 1891 to 1896; but it pro%'ed unsuc-
cessful. The college was then restored to its orig-
inal object; and the buildings are now occupied
by six collegians who study the Law and Talmud
and deliver public lectures once a month. Part of
the library has been transferred to Jews' College,
London.

Bibliography: Reports of Judith Montcnovc Cnllenc, 1S92-
iHiMi ; The Jewish Year Book, mti.

J.
JUDITH OF WORMS. See Worms.

JUIVERIE. See Giiktto.

JULIAN THE APOSTATE (FLA''''IUS
CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) : Roman emperor; born
Nov. 17, 331; reigned Irom Nov., 361. till June. 363.

The recognition of Christianity as the religion of
the state by Constantine the Great, uncle of Julian,
about the year 313 had resulted in an increase of
persecution for the Jews of the Roman empire; but
Julian, immediately upon his accession to the throne,
issued a proclamation extending freedom and equal
rights to all sects and beliefs, Jewish, pagan, and
('hristian. In his passionate devotion ,to paganism,

which he vainly sought to reestablish, Julian veiie-
mently opposed Christianity ; but for Judaism and the
Jew he showed every consideration. His knowledge
of Jewish affairs was extensive. In his writings he
refers to the Sabbath, the Passover, the dietary laws,
the laws of sacrifice, circumcision, and other Jewisli
practises. He is said to have established among the
JcAvs of Palestine an order of patricians, w-ho exer-
cised judicial functions, and whom he entitled "pri-
mates" (called in the Talmud "aristoi ").

His views upon Judaism are set forth at length in
his polemic against Christianit}-. He regards Juda-
ism as inferior to Hellenism, but vastly
His superior to Christianity. He is par-

Views on ticularly severe upon the Jewish doc-
Judaism, trines of monotheism and the election
of Israel. He inveighs against the
narratives of the Creation, the garden of Eden, the
Flood, etc., with the same arguments as were em-
ployed at a much later date by Voltaire. Through-
out his polemic (only extant in St. Cj'ril's works) he
displays an accurate knowledge of the Old Testa-
ment, often quoting it with fluency. His acquaint-
ance with the text was, however, limited entirely to
the version of the Septuugint : he knew little or no
Hebrew.

The most important incident in his careei*that is
associated with Jewish histor}' is his proposal to re-
build the Temple in Jerusalem. This novel sugges-
tion was propounded by him in a letter addressed to
the "Community of the Jews," at the beginning of
the year 363. In this epistle Julian alludes to his
abolition of the heavy taxes which had been imposed
upon the Jews and to his desire to treat them amica-
bly.

" Desiring to extend yet further favors to you. I have ex-
horted my brother, the venerable Patriarch Julos [i.e., Hillel II.],
to put a stop to the collection of the so-called Apostol^ [see J.kw.
Encyc. ii. 20, S.V.] among you ; and henceforward no one will
be able to oppress your people by the collection of such imposts,
so that everywhere throughout my kingdom you may be free
from care : and thus enjoying freedom, you may address still
more fervent prayers for my empire to tlie Almighty Creator of
the Universe, who has deigned to crown me
Promise with his own undeflled right hand. . . . Thus
to Restore should you do, in order that when I return
the Temple . safely from the Persian war, I may restore the
Holy City of Jerusalem, and rebuild it at my
own expense, even as you have for so many years desired it to
be restored ; and therein will I unite with you in giving praise
to the Almighty."

This promise of the emperor, which must have
raised joyous hopes in the hearts of the Jews, was
destined not to be realized. The work probably
was never commenced ; for Julian fell in the war
against Persia, and with his death the condition of
Israel changed for the worse.

Many eminent writers upon Jewish and Church
history, however, believe that the work of rebuild-
ing the Temple was commenced immediately after
the above-mentioned letter Avas written, but that,
owing to certain strange causes which are explained
in different ways, it was unexpectedly interrupted.
Gratz, Gibbon, and Milman accept this view; but
a careful inquiry into the evidence for the opinion
results in tracing its origin to a fanciful legend iirst
narrated by a bitter Christian euemj' of Julian,
Gregory Nazienzus. This fable is the source of the
account given by the heathen hi.storian Ammianus

391

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Judith,
Julius III.

Marcellimis, and of tlic various versions detailed by
tlie Cliurcliclironiciurs. The only re fereuces in Jew-
ish writings to the projeet of the emperor are to he
met with in works of tiie sixteenth eentury, wliieh
references arc without independent value.

[The cause of the almost complete silence of the
Jerusalem Talmud on Julian is supposed by Griitz
C'Gesch." 2d ed., iv. 872) to have been the fact that
the restoration of the Temple was not thought of
otherwise than in connection with the appearance of
the Messiah, as whom a Roman emperor could not
be considered. Baclier lias shown that tlie Pales-
tinian amora U. Aha (see Jew. Encvc. i. 276, f<.r.
Au.\ [AiiAi] III.), who was a contemporary of
Julian, voices a difl'erent sentiment, and that he pos-
sil.>ly refers to the plan of Julian in such sayings as:
"The Temple Aviil be rebuilt before the appearance
of the Davidic kingdom" (Yer. Ma'as. Sh. 56a);
"Five things were missing in the Second Temple:
tire, the Ark, Urim and Thummim, anointing-oil, and
the Sliekinah"— hinting that tlie Third Temple
niiglit lie built even without these (Yer. Ta'an. 65a).
Juhan is also mentioned by name in Yer. Ned. 37d,
where the expedition of Dl^h^ against the Persians
is refericd to. There is no need to change the read-
ing to D1JX''t3'l^pin, as Gratz {f.r. p. 492) has done
(.see "J. Q. R." x. 168).— o.]

Bini-ionRAPiiv: M. Artier, The Emperor Julian andthcJeirs.
in ./. Q. R. July, isifl : (iratz, Oesvli. iv. 371 ; (;il)bon. Decline
ami Fall, eh. .xxiii.: Newman. Kssaii on Mirdclcn. p. 134.
Oxford, 1842: G. H. IJenflall, The thnyer or Julian (Hulsean
Fssav for 1876i: Alice Gardner, Julian, I'hiloso)iher onil
Emperor (in Putnam's Heroesof tlie Natinni-: Series), cli. xi.
and notes: P. AUard, lJ)i Pri'nir><eur du. Sionisme : Julie n
rAj)ostat et lex Ji(i'/.s. in Le C(n-re>tpo)itlant. 1301, pp. ^iO
et yc(j.
G. M. Al).

JULIAN OF TOLEDO: Primate of Spain;
born in Toledo (where he was also baptized); died
in 690. He was the first of the long list of ecclesi-
astical princes wlio were of the Jewish race and
who opposed and persecuted their former coreligion-
ists. That he was "of Jewish origin " is stated by
Isidor de Beja and Paid de Burgos. He was a man
of great sagacity and discretion, prudent in judg-
ment, very charitable, tempering severit\' with mild-
ness. Nevertheless he was a party to the violent act
committed by the Visigotliic king Erwig, by which
King Wamba was robbed of the crown — tlie same
king whose memoiy Julian perpetuated in his his-
tory of Wamba. As a reward for his .services Julian
was raised to the primacy of Spain, which caused
as much dissatisfaction among the Spanish clergy
as the views formulated by him concerning the
Trinity caused offense and anger at Rome.

It was Julian who induced King Erwig to pass

the severe laws against the Jews at the twelfth

Council of Toledo, over Avhich he pre-

At the sided. In 686, at the request of Er-

Councils wig, he wrote " De Comprobatione
of Toledo. /Etatis Sextoe Contra Juda^os," in-
tended to combat Judaism and to con-
vert the Jews. The work deals with the Messianic
prophecies of the Bible. Julian is honest enough
to own in his dedication of the work to the king
that " if the Jew be not improved by the book, at
least the Christian may derive some benefit from it."
He attempts to prove that Jesus was actually born

in tlie sixth age, in which the Messiah was to come;
"but," he adds, "tiiis time should not be reckoned
according to the Hebrew original, which has been
falsified by the Jews, but according to the Septua-
gint, whicli is more trustworthy."

In spite of his enmity toward the Jews, Julian did
not completely break off all a.ssociation with them.
He sent liis book on the future life (written in
687) to Bishop Idalus of Barcelona, to whom it was
dedicated, b}' a Jew named Restitutus. Idalus re-
ceived the latter so iingracioush- that he tore tlie
gift from the hands of the bearer, and expressed his
astonisliment thai Julian should liave entrusted a
book of spiritual content to an "unbelieving and
godl<;ss Jew " and should iiave made "an animal a
bearer of liglit."

Birmocraphy : Felix, Vitn Juliani. in E^paua Sagrndit. v.
~T8; Rios, Hint. i. 'A7 el tieq.: Helfferich, iJer West{ioUii.tclic
Arianismns, p. 77 ; Griitz. GCKch. v. 164 et t>eq.
o. M. K.

JULIANUS : TiCader of a Samaritan rebellion at
Nablus in 530 against the Romans: son of Samaron
or Sabarona or, according to another reading, Sahir.
Julianus took the title of king or emjieror, and wore
a diadem and other insignia of royalty. When the
revolt was quelled he was executed, and his head
was sent as a trophy to Constantinople. See Jvs-

TIMAX.

c. S. Kk.

JULIANUS B. TIBERIANUS. See Ln.i-

AM BEN TaBKIN.

JULICH (Latin, Juliacum ; Hebrew, ND^'l
ND^V) : City of Rhenish Prussia, near Aix-la-Ciia-
l)elle, situated on the Ruhr. In 1227 Emperor Fred-
erick II. conferred upon Count Wilhelm of Jiilich
the right to dispose, without anj' interference on
the part of the crown, of any Jews who should settle
in his dominions. It can not be ascertained whether
AVilhelm availed himself of this privilege and in-
vited Jews to settle at Jiilich; but that several Jew-
ish families were living there at the end of the thir-
teenth or, at the latest, in the first year of the
fourteenth century, is shown bj' the fact that a cer-
tain Simon and his wife Minna, living at that time
in Cologne, were designated as natives of Jiilich
(comp. Stern and Honiger, " Das Judeuschreinbuch
der Laurenzpfarre zu Kijln," p. 157). Like many
other German communities, that of Jiilich was wiped
out in 1349 at the time of the Black Death. A seal
of the fourteenth century preserved in the archives
of Clervatix bears the Hebrew inscription p 2^]}"
ND^IJ hav 'pT] (= "Jacob, son of the martyr Joel of
Jiilich").

In the following centuries the presence of Jews at
Julich is probable, though not certain. The .same
uncertainty prevails concerning the Jewish commu-
nity of Cleve, which also was a dependency of the
margraves of Jiilich. In 1901 Jiilich numbered 102
Jewish inhabitants in a total population of 5,385;
Cleve, 145 in a total population of 14,684.

Bibliography: Aronlu.s, Reaei^ten, p. 195, No. 441; R. E.J.
vii. 12.5; Salfeld. A/artf/io/oaiinii, p. 155.

J. I- B"

JULIUS III. (GIOVANNI MARIA DEL

MONTE) : Two hundred and twenty-eighth pope;

born at Rome 1487; elected jiope Feb. 8, 1550;

Julius Archelaus
Juniper

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

392

died March 22, 1555. Personally he was favorably
inclined toward the Jews. He attached to liis per-
son a Jewish physician named Theodoro de Sacerdo-
tibus; and during an illness he consulted two other
Jewish physicians, Vitale Alatino de Ponds and
Amatus Lusitanus. Julius prohibited the baptism of
Jewish children without the consent of their parents,
attaching a penalty of 1,000 ducats to the breach
of this order. He also confirmed and increased
tlie privileges of the Portuguese Jews of Ancona
(March 20, 1553).

He yielded, however, to the influence of the reac-
tionary party, by which he liad been elected; and
several of his edicts inflicted great suffering upon
the Italian Jews. Upon the denunciation of the
baptized Jews Ananel di Foligno, Joseph Moro, and
Vittorio Eliano, Julius issued (Aug. 12, 1553) an
edict enjoining the bishops and magistrates to seize
and burn all copies of the Talmud, as containing
slanderous attacks against Christianity. With pre-
meditated malice this edict was to be carried into
effect on the day of the Jewish New-Year (Sept. 9,
1553). In the following year (May 29) Julius issued
the bull "Contra Hebraeos Retinentes Libros Thal-
mudis," in which the Jews were ordered, on pain of
severe punishment, to give up within four months
all books supposed to contain blasphemies against
Jesus; such books to be revised by Christian cen-
sors, and the suspected passages expunged. By his
edict of 1553 Julius imposed a tax of ten golden
ducats on every synagogue in his domains, to be
paid toward the support of the House of Neophytes.

Bibliography: Morini, Archiatri Ponti'^cf, i. 290, 417, Roinf,
17H4; David de Poinis. Zemah Daivid, Introduction; Joseph
ha-Kotien, 'Emekha-Ddka, e'd. Wiener, p. li;3; Griitz. Gesch.
ix. 2,H7, :?;56; Stern, UrkiituUivhe Bi;itr(lge liber die Stclhum
dcr PUjit<te zn den Juden, pp. 9.5 et sei/., Kiel, 189)3; Vogel-
steia and Rieger, Gesch. dcr Juden in Bom, ii. 144 ct seq.

D. I. Bu.

JULIUS ARCHELAUS: Son of Chelcias
C'Ant." xix. 9, § 1; XX. 7, g 1 [without "Julius"]),
and, to judge from his name, a Hellenized Jew, prob-
ably of a rich and noble family. He was chosen by
King Agrippa I. as husband for his first daughter,
Mariamne (Josephus, " Ant." xix. 9, § 1). Mariamne
was only ten years old at her father's death (44) ;
and the marriage took place under her brother
Agrippa II. (ib. xx. 7, § 1), a daughter, Berenice,
being the result of the union. Mariamne subse-
quently left Archelaus and married the alabarch
Demetrius {ib. § 3). Josephus refers, for the ve-
racity of his liistory of the Jewish war, among
others to Julius Arclielaus, who was familiar with
Hellenistic culture ("Contra Ap." i., § 9).

G. S. Kr.

JULIUS, HENRIETTE. See Jui.ius, Niko-

L.\I"S HkI.\I{I(II.

JULIUS, NIKOLAUS HEINRICH : German
physician and prison-reformer; born at Altona, Ger-
many, Oct. 3, 1783; died at Hamburg Aug. 20, 18G2.
He received his early education at Hamburg and at
the Graiie Kloster at Berlin. He studied medicine at
Heidelberg and Wlirzburg (M.D. 1809), and, after
conversion to Christianity, settled in Hamburg as
a physician. During the wars of 1813 and 1815
against France he served as surgeon to the Hanseatic

Legion. In 1825 Julius traveled through England;
in 1834 and the two following years, through the
United States; and in 1836, through France and Bel-
gium. His writings upon the necessity of improve-
ment in the conditions of prisoners attracted the
attention of the Crown Prince of Prussia (latei Fred-
erick William IV.) to the author, who was invited to
Berlin in 1840. He was attached to the Department
of the Interior and retained his ])Osition till 1849,
when, under the parsimonious regime which cur-
tailed the force employed in all offices, he was dis-
missed. He then returned to Hamburg, where he
continued to reside until his death.

Julius took great interest in the condition of pris-
oners, and spent much time and money in his propa-
ganda for bettering their lot. He was assisted in
this work by his sister Henriette, an authoress.

Julius was the author of: "Biblictheca Germano-
Glottica," Hamburg, 1814; "Mitteihingen fiber die
Morgenlandische Brechruhr," 26. 1822-31; "An Es-
say on the Public Care for the Sick as Produced by
Christianity," 'ib. 1825; "Die AVeibliche Fiirsorge
flir Gefangene und Kranke Ihres Geschlechts aus
den Schriften der Elizabeth Frej^ und Anderer, " Ber-
Ihi, 1827; " Vol lesungen fiber die Gefilngnisskunde,"
ib. 1828 (French transl. by Lagarmitte, Paris, 1831);
" Amerika"s Bes.serungs System und Dessen An wen-
dung auf Europa," Berlin, 1836; "Nordamerika's
Sittliche Zustande," Leipsic, 1839; "Beitriige zur
Britischen Irrenheilkunde," ib. 1844, etc. He trans-
lated belletristic literature, asTicknor's "Geschiclite
der Schoneu Litteratur in Spanien," Leipsic, 1852,
etc.

From 1821 to 1835 he published, with Gerson, in
Hamburg, the "Magazin der Auslandischen Litera-
tur der Gesaiumten Heilkunde. "

Julius was also editor of the "Jahrblicher der
Straf- und Besserungsanstalten," Berlin, 1829-33,
and, with Nollner and Varrontrapp, of the "Jahr-
blicher der Gefiingnisskunde und Besserungs-
anstalten," Frankfort-ou-the-Main and Darmstadt,
1842-49.

Bjbliogr.\phy: AUg. Deutsche Biographie; Hirsch, Biog.
Lex.\ Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.
s. F. T. H.

JULIUS OFPAVIA: One of the first European
Jews of the Middle Ages known by name. About
760 he disputed at Pavia with Magister Peter of
Pisa on the truth of the Christian religion. Alcuin,
the friend of Charlemagne, mentions this dispu-
tation, at which he was present while on a visit to
Italy.

Bibliography: Gudemann, Gesch. ii. 12.

G. I. E.

JULIUS SEXTUS AFRICANUS. See Sex-
Tus Julius Africanus.

JUMA-I-BALA : Turkish city on the Bulga-
rian frontier, four hours from Dubnitza. The com-
munity here dates from the middle of the eighteenth
century, and must have been important and wealtiiy ;
for when the famous chief Pazvan-Oglu and liis
band of Kirjalis revolted against Sultan Salim III.,
the Jews of the city had to pay the bandits a
ransom of six thousand silver aspers. The present
comiuunity is very poor, and comprises no more
than thirty families (1902). It has a small school,

393

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Julius Arcbelaus
Juniper

and services are held in a liouse which lias been ar-
ranged to serve as a synagogue.

BiBi.iixiKAPiiY : Judah H. Alkalai, Hcucd Ic-Ahraham, p. 83,
^aloiiicii, 1819.
D. M. Fh.

JUNG-BTJNZLAU : Town in nortlieastern Bo-
hemia. Its Jewish community, one of tlic oldest
in the province, was formerly one of the largest in
Bohemia; it is first mentioned, under the name of
N^DDU "lyj, iu documents dated 1546. The com-
munal records begin in 1562. A synagogue, mod-
eled after the Meisel Synagogue at Prague, was
built in the eighteenth century. An old cemetery
contains the grave of Jacob Bassevi von Tkeuen-
BhKG, who died at Jung-Bunzlau in 1633.

The first rabbi of whom there is record was Sam-
uel b. Joseph of Lublin, author of "Lehem Kab ''
(puljlished in 1609 with an approbation by Low b.
Bezuleel, chief rabbi of Prague). He was followed
by Abrahara Samuel b. Isaac Bacharach.
Succeeding rabbis were: Hayyim. Feibel, son-in-
law of Isaiah Horowitz, and the compiler of the
variants to Rashi's commentarj^ on the Pentateuch;
Eliezer Lipmann, son of Wolf Graetz (1679);
Moses Isaac Spira (until about 1712; d. 1749),
father-in law of Jonathan ■ Eybeschiitz ; Moses
Brandeis ha-Levi, a descendant of Low b. Beza-
leel; his son Bezaleel, who, like his father, was
district rabbi of Bunzlau (died June 4, 1767, in early
manhood, his work "Zedah Baruk," Prague, 1786,
being published posthumously) ; Eliezer Bondy,
district rabbi of Bechin and Bunzlau (d. 1804);
Ezekiel Glogau ("Schlesinger "; d. 1821), who
was called by Napoleon I. to the Sanhedrin of Paris,
and thereby became involved in political difficulties;
autiiorof'Mar'ehYehezkel" (Prague, 1822); Isaac
Spitz, called in 1824 (d. May 6, 1842), son-in-law of
Eieazar Fleckeles and grandfather of the poet Moritz
Hartmaun; and District Rabbi Isaac Elbog-en (d.
1883).

With the death of the last-named the title of dis-
trict rabbi ceased, and the succeeding inciunbents—
Alexander Kisch, at present (1904) rabbi of the
Meisel Synagogue in Prague ; Moritz Griinwald
(d. 1895 as chief rabbi of Bulgaria); and M. Klotz,
who Jield the office until 1901 — have borne the title
of rabbi.

In 1903 there were in Jung-Bunzlau 135 Jewish

families in a total population of 13,479.

Bibliography: JUdisches Centralhlatt. 1887, 1888; Zeit-
nchrift flir Oench. der Juden in Dcutscldaiid, i. 178-189 ; N.
Griin, Der Hohe Rabbi L6w.
D. A. Ki.

JUNIOR, RIGHT (German, " Jlingsten-Recht " ;
French, "maiuete"; in English law, "borough
English ") : System of tenure in which a father's
property descends to the youngest son ; ultimogeni-
ture as opposed to primogeniture. It has been sug-
gested that the custom arose during the pastoral or
nomad period, when the eldest son would move on
with his share of the flocks, while the youngest
would be left behind to take up the father's position
when he died.

In historic times among the Jews the preference
in descent went with the eldest son (see Pkimogeni-
tuke) ; but in the early legends of the Hebrews there
are indications that the youngest or the younger

son had the birthright. All the patriarchs appear
to be youngest sons. Jacob is the youngest son
of Isaac, the younger son of Abraham, and of Re-
bekah, the youngest child of Bethuel, the youngest
son of Nahor. The favorite wife of Jacob appears
to be the younger daughter, Rachel, whose young-
est son, Benjamin, is called by a name implying
heirship. Joseph's youngest son, Ephraim, has the
birthright, while Mo.ses, David, and Solomon also
appear to be youngest sons. It has accordingly,
been suggested by Jacobs that the conflict between
these traditions and later legislation, which regarded
the birthright as falling to the eldest son, explains
many of the more puzzling stories of Genesis as
being introduced in order to justify the seemingly
anomalous inheritance of the youngest son; e.g., tlie
illegitimacy of Ishmael; the winning of the birth-
right by Jacob ; the disgrace of Reuben ; the offense
of Sirneon and Levi; and the blessing of Ephraim
by Jacob (Gen. xlviii. 13-19). On this hypothesis
these legends were introduced in order to explain the
accounts of the passingof the birthright to theyoung-
est son, which had been handed on by tradition.

One point in favor of this view is the fact that it
is Rachel who takes away the teraphim or ancestral
gods of the hearth (Gen. xxxi. 19, 80), a distinct
connection with junior right (comp. Elton, "Origins
of English History," pp. 211-216, 221). This theory,
besides accounting for the above-mentioned legends
of Genesis, would explain the jealousy with which
the brothers regarded Joseph, who would be the
heir under the sj'stem of junior right. It has not,
however, gained any general acceptance.

Bibliography: Jacobs, Studies in Biblical Archceolouu, PP-
■«j-b3.

J.
JUNIPER : The traditional rendering of
"rotem" in I Kings xix. 4, 5; Ps. cxx. 4; and Job
XXX. 4, adopted by Aquila and the Vulgate, and
followed by the English versions; while the Septu-
agint seem to have been at a loss regarding the
exact meaning of the Hebrew term, and either tran-
scribe it by paOfiEv, or render it by the general term
tpvrbv kprifiiKov, or ^v'kov. As " rotem " is unques-
tionably identical with the Arabic "ratam," which
means "broom" (comp. Low, "Aramaische Pflan-
zennamen," p. 366), it must likewise be intended for
some species of that shrub, probably the Genista
rcetam (Forskal, "Flor. Eg. -Arab." Ivi.), which is
indigenous to the Sinaitic peninsula and to Arabia
Petra, and is the most conspicuous shrub in the desert
south of Palestine. Rising to a height of ten to
twelve feet, and growing in clustered bushes, the
broom affords a grateful shade in the desert, which
fact is referred to in I Kings (comp. Vergil, "Geor-
gics," ii. 434); while the allusion in Ps. cxx. 4 agrees
with the fact that the coals of the broom burn a
h)ng time and emit an intense heat.

More difficult is the passage in Job, where the
roots of the rotem are spoken of as " meat " ; for,
while the leaves and fruit of the broom are a favor-
ite food of goats, the roots are inedible. It may be
that the allusion is merely intended to depict ex-
treme distress, unless for UOvh ("their meat") is
to be read DT3n$ ("to warm themselves"; so R. V.
margin; comp. Isa. xlvii. 14). "Rithmah,"a place-

Jurisdiction
Justin Martyr

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

394

name dt'iivcd from "loteni," is meutioned in Num.
xxxiii. 18.

The juniper proper, Jindperits Sahina, or savin,
is assumed to be intended by '"ar'ar" (Jer. xvii. 6,
xl viii. 6 [A. V. " heatli" ; It. V. margin, " tamarisk "]),
as that is the meaning of tlie identical term in Ara-
bic. This tree grows to a heiglit of ten to fifteen
feet, and abounds in tlie rocks of Arabia Petra.

Bini.iO«RAPHY : Balfour, Plant x of thf Biblr, p. 50; Robinson,
Resen7clief<, 1H3S, i. 2(J3, 299; ii. 5(»i; Tri.strain, iVot. HM. pp.
358-359, London, 1867.
E. G. H. I. M. C.

JTJKISDICTION : Tlie authority of a court of
law to decide cases of certain kinds. This depends
on the kind of matter in disinite: on the locality of
the subject; on liie residence of the parties; and on
their willingness to submit tliemselves to some local
tribunal.

I. As to the kind of question, the Mishnah discusses
the court of seventy-one elders, the intermediate
courts, the criminal courts of twenty-three judges,
the courts of three ordained judges for cases involv-
ing damages and penalties, and courts of three
judges for ordinary civil cases, besides some special
courts whose functions were rather religious or ad-
ministrative than judicial. If the law-making and
executive powers of the co\irt of seventy-one be left
out of view, the scheme is very much as follows:

The court of seventy -one alone has jurisdiction
over a tribe accused of idolatry ; the seduced city
(Deut. xiii. 13-18) can be tried only by
The this court (such a trial never took

Sanhedrin. i)lace); the trial of a false prophet
(Deut. xviii. 20-22) or of a rebellious
elder (Deut. xvii. 8-13) must take place before it:
also any proceeding in whicli the high priest is a de-
fendant (Sanh. iii. 5, xi. 4).

This seems to be its only original jurisdiction;
but the importance of the Great Sanhedrin as a court
of justice is based on Deut. xviii. 8-11. Whenever
an inferior court feels itself incompetent to decide a
legal question, whether it arises in litigation or in
a matter of ritual law, the judges of that court are
to proceed to the religious center of Israel and to
seek counsel there, and must then act upon the in-
struction there received. According to Sanh. xi. 2,
there were at Jerusalem two intermediate courts
each composed of twenty -three members, to which
the judges of the country first submitted their
doubts; and onlj- if such courts coidd not satisfy
them, would they together with these courts lay the
matter before the supreme court.

The constitution of the local court of twenty-three
and its jurisdiction in cai)ital cases have been men-
tioned under Accusatoky Puockdure and Crim-
inal PuocEDiiRE. The trial, of involuntarj' homi-
cide, punishable by exile to the cities of refuge, also
belonged to a court of twentj'-three, as did that of
an ox or any other privately owned animal that had
killed a person, either free or slave (Sanh. i. 4).

According to the prevailing opinion in the ISIish-
nah, only three judges were required for a court to
try a criminal charge involving tlx; punishment of
stripes. Where a crime was punishable only by
(kmble or manifold restitution, like theft, or by a
fixed mulct, the proceeding to ascertaili the guilt of

the accused was considered a civil action, and came
before three judges.

The Mishnah mentions some procedures not of
contested juri.sdiction : the ordaining of elders and
the in(iuest and expiation over the beheaded heifer
should both be performed by five elders; the cere-
monies of Halizah and Mi'un must take place before
three; redemption of the fourth-year fruit-tree and of
the second tithe, before three; the appraisement of
consecrated things for redemjjtion, before three; Es-
timates, if to be paid out of movables, before three,
one of them a kohen ; if to be paid from land, be-
fore ten, one of them a kohen (Sanh. i. 3). Actions
on contract (technically called "loans and admis-
sions ") were tried before three judges, who were not
required to be ordained.

II. In contradiction to modern W^estern notions,
the ])hiintiil' — which term in most cases meant the
creditor — had the right to biing suit in the court of
his own domicile. The Talmud (Sanh. 31b) has the
following: "If two are in hot litigation, and one
says, ' Let ivs plead here,' while the other says, ' Let
us go to the place of assembly [lyin n'3].' they
compel him to plead in his own town; and if neces-
sary to ask a question of law, they write it out and
send for a decision and the reasons therefor. " But the
distinction is afterward made that if the creditor asks
for it, on the principle laid down in

Venue. Prov. xxii. 7, "the borrower is subject
to the lender," the cause is thrown into
the higher court, and the debtor is compelled to go
there for trial. These views are copied by IVIaimon-
ides and by the Shulhan 'Aruk, Hoshen Mishjiat
(14), wiiere, however, the gloss of KeMA questions
whether the demand for trial in a higher court is
applicable in his day, when there is no patriarchate
nor regular rank among rabbinical courts. The
medieval authorities were much divided about the
meaning of " Place of Assembly " and " Great Court "
used in the same connection, and whether these
words hav(! the same meaning; but Maimonides
says ("Yad," Sanh. vi. 9) that in Spain it was the
custom for the defendant to follow the jilaintiff to a
court recognized as higher than that of the city of
domicile.

However, at the very foundation of civil jurisdic-
tion is the right of the parties to choose their judges
among those who are qualified, which right is rec-
ognized by the Mishnah (Sanh. iii. 1 ; the grounds
for challenge being regulated in the following sec-
tions). Hence, in a large community holding more
than three men qualified by learning and character,
a bench of judges for the cause would be made up
under the initiative of the local rabbi, somewhat
as a jury is made up in English and American courts
by the presiding judge (for details of qualification
and election, see Jidge). At any rate, a court
should not consist of less than three judges: if the
parties agreed upon one, he would be only an arbi-
trator, whose award, based on their contract, might
be enforced by a court (Hoshen Mi.shpat, 3, follow-
ing Sanh. i. 1). The exception that a single ex-
pert (nnOlO) might try cases of contract ("loans and
admissions") is no longer valid because ordination
("semikah"), which alont can make an expert, is
no longer practised.

395

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Jurisdiction
Justin Martyr

But l)ot!i tlic I'ak'stiiiian iuul Babylonian Tal-
unids, in connncntiufj: on Sanli. i. 1, give instances
of prominent amoiaini wlio sat as solo judges; and
the latter states tliat a labbi holding "authority,"
i.e., one ajipointed for the purpose by the patriarch
in Palestine or by the head of the Exile in Baby-
lonia, might so sit.

BiHLiocKArHY : Maimonides, Yath Slctiih.: Bloch, Die Ciril-
iYocew-0;d»ii()i(/ iin Mo.^ai.'uh-Iiahliinischcu Rr.chtc.
s. L. N. D.

JUS GAZAKA or GAZAGA : The usual Ital-
ian term for the riglit of Ha/.akah, especially with
regard to the rent of liouscs in tiic ghetto of Home.
Clement VIII. made it part of tlie law relating to
Jewish tenant-right there. Several publications
containing cases bearing on this law are mentioned
iu Berliner, "Gesch. der Jmlen in Rom," ii. 225.
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1893 (see also Abraliams,
"Jewish Lite in the Middle Ages," pp. 68 e( i<eq.).

JUS PRIM^ NOCTIS : Alleged seigniorial
rigiit to marital privileges. The feudal lords had
the right of giving heiresses in marriage, and there
appear to be traces of still more intimate rights over
the daughters of tenants, though this has been dis-
puted. An attempt has been made to prove that
this right was claimed !)y cither the Greeks or Ro-
mans over the Jews iu Palestine, and led to the rising
of the Maccabees and the institution of the feast of
Hanukkah, in which Jewesses had a special interest
(Shall. 28a). The Jerusalem Talnuid (Ket. 25c) de-
clares that owing to the claims of the strategus on
betrothed girls tliey were married in their fiances'
liouscs. The Babylonian Talmud ( Ket. 3b) says that it
used to be a custom for maidens to many on Wednes-
day and widows on Thursday, but that the mar-
riage-day had been changed to Tuesday so as to avoid
the right claimed by the "tafsar" or prince; and in
a late scholium on the ]\Iegillat Ta'anit it is even de-
clared that Mattathias the high priest began the war
of independence in order to save his daughter from
asimilaroutrage. A midrash on Hanukkah (ed. Jel-
linek, i. 137) also mentions this tradition, to which
the Book of Jutlith may have some reference. S.
Krauss suggests, further, that the right in question
was put into force by the pretor Lucius Quietus
about 117. Israel Levi, however, has pointed out
the absence of any corroborative evidence either for
the ]\Iaccabean or the Roman period, and the im-
probability of such a barbarous custom having been
raised into the force of law. A similar story is told
by Rabbi Judan of the giants or Nel]lim before the;
Deluge (Gen. R. .xxvi.). Levi suggests that it may
have been derived from the Roman legend of Vir-
ginius.

Bibliography: I. Weil, in R. E. J. vii. ir>6-1.59; elaborated by
S. Krauss, ih.. xxx. 24-42, 204-219; refuted by I. Levi, ih.. pp.
220-231 ; comp. K. Schmidt, Jiis Prima' N'lCtht, Freiburg, 1881 ;
idem, Dcr Strcit Uhcr dn.sjns Prinice Koctii^, Berlin, 1884.

JUSTIN MARTYR: Church Father, who in
his works, written in Greek (the Aid/.n-yog Trpb^
'Yl)v<i>uva and ' \~ohiyia are cited here as "Dial." and
" Ap." respectively), makes frequent mention of the
Jews and Judaism. He was born about the year
100 at Flavia Neapolis, the ancient Shechem and
the present Nablus; executed about 165. His par-

ents were pagans ("Dfal." § 28). He became a
Christian under Hadrian, perhaps at Ephesus {ib.
§5^ 2-8; " Ap." ii. <:$ 12). There, in intercom-se with
Jews of Hellenic culture, he may have become ac-
quainted with the Bible and, very slightly, with the
doctrinal methods of the l?abbis. That he did not
understand Hebrew is plainly evidenced by his
writings.

Justin is more familiar with Greek philosoph)',
which he treats from a sophistical standpoint, than
with the learning of the Jews. Of liis authentic
works which have been preserved the only ones
which bear upon the Jews are the two Apologies —
one addressed to Antoninus Pius, the other to Mar-
ciis Aurelius — and his Dialogue with the Jew
Tryphou. Although in the Apologies, supposedly
written in defense of paganism, lie continually at-
tacks Judaism, and brings forward from the Old
Testament arguments for Christianity, the Dialogue
is more especially devoted to this theme.

The Dialogue was written shortly after the Bar
Kokba war (about 135), to which he refers in sev-
eral passages (Dial. § 108; Ap. i. 31).
Dialogue Tryphon, the representative of the
with Jews, is described (at the beginning

Tryphon. of the Dialogue) as having fled to
Ephesus to escape the hardships of
the war and persecution. In that city the debate is
suppcsed to have taken place; and Tryphon ap-
pears as a well-educated Jewish philosopher. On
the first day of the dispute only he and Justin are
present: but on the second day a few Jews from
Ephesus take sides with Tryphon in the discussion
(Dial. § 118). One is mentioned by the name of
Muaseas (= N'DJD ; Dial. § 385). Many scholars deem
the discussion to have been wholly imaginary, in-
asmuch as Tryphon makes concessions to Justin
which would have been impossible in reality.

Justin nowhere states that Tryphon was a cele-
brated rabbi; but Eusebius ("Hist. Eccl." iv. 18, § 6)
says that he was the most eminent Jew of his day.
Accordingly he has been identified by
Identity of Gratz and others with R. Tarfon ;
Tryphon. but the latter, who was born before
the destruction of the Temple, would
have been too old at the alleged time of the Dia-
logue to have taken part in it. The supposition,
however, is that Justin intentionally selected the
name of the celebrated rabbi in order to boast of
having defeated him in debate.

The writings of Justin contain some historical
material, as, for example, the statement that Herod
was a native of Ascalon (Dial. § 52) ; the account of
the persecution of the Christians by the Jews in the
Bar Kokba war (Ap. i. 31); the story of Simon
Magus {ib. 2(). 56) ; and in general much concerning
the history of Samaritan sects, Justin being a Samar-
itan. Still he has no certain knowledge concerning
antiquity, and he associates {ib. x. 31) the origin of
the Septuagint with the reign of Herod (see Gold-
fahn in "Monatsscb.rift," 1873, p. 56).

Since he was unacquainted with Hebrew, all his
arguments are based on the text of the Septuagint.
He thinks that the name " Abraham " has had an " al-
pha" added to it ( Afipaa^i) ; " Sarah." a " rho "{lappa) ;
and that a wholly new name was given to Joshua

Justin Martyr
Justinian

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

396

ben Naue, whom he calls Aiw) = "Hosea" (Dial.
§ 113). He liad matter iu his Bible te.vt which the
Jews did not have in theirs; and he urged this as a
reproach against them. In Ps. xcvi. (xcv.) he read
anoTovfvAovi^ "aligno," "from the wood"), and saw
therein a reference to the cross (Dial. § 73; Ap. i.
41; comp. Swete. "Introduction to the Old Testa-
ment in Greek," p. 424, Cambridge, 1900). He
charges the Rabbis with having expunged from
their Bibles much that is favorable for a conception
of Christianity (Dial. §^ 73, 73); for example, the
legend of the martyrdom of Isaiah (ib. % 120). That
point of perpetual dispute between Jews and Chris-
tians, the interpretation of Isa. vii. 14 — where the
Septuagint has -npBtvoq ("virgin"), but the Habbis
give the meaning of rtawf ("young woman")— was
already familiar to this first controversialist of the
Church {ib. % 43) ; but lie did not know that the lat-
ter explanation originated with Aquila. It is also
learned from Justin that the Rabbis attributed the
prophecy in question (Isa. vii. 14-25) to Hezekiah
(Dial. § 77). Another Messianic passage (Ps. ex.)
was likewise attributed by them to Hezekiali {ib.
§ 83). On the other hand, Isa. liii. was interpreted by
the Rabbis to refer to the suffering Messiah {ib.
§ 90). They taught, too, that Micah iv. 1-7 referred
to the Messiah {ib. % 110), but that he iiad not yet
come, and if he had come, lie would have remained
unrecognized {ib. § 8 ; comp. § 49), and Elijah would
have had to precede him {ib. % 49). Justin's con-
troversy with the representative of the Jews further
extends over Ps. Ixxii. {ib. § 34) and xxiv. (//;. i^ 36).
The observations of Tryphon concerning Deut. iv. 19
{ib. § 121) and Gen. i. 26 {ib. % 62) are also interest-
ing, as in them he opposes the Christian conception
of those passages.

Together with these examples of rabbinical exe-
gesis, the haggadot on Biblical history transmitted
by Justin deserve attention. He relates that the
Rabbis arranged that the two goats
Hagg-adot used on the Day of Atonement should
Familiar to be alike {ib. § 40; comp. Jonah vi. 1);
Tryphon. he evinces familiarity with the mean-
ing of the three angels who appeared
to Abraham, quite after the manner of the Hagga-
dah {ib. § 56; comp. B. M. 86b); and the haggadah
that the high priest Joshua (Zech. iii. 1) had not
prevented his sons from marrying unworthy women
(Sanh. 93a) also is reflected in a legend to the effect
that Joshua himself liad married a wanton (Dial.
§ 116). The story of the fall of the angels, whicii is
related by many apocrypha and whicii Justin also
teaches (Ap. ii. 5), is disputed by Tryphon. The
Jew in this connection uses the following character-
istic words: "God's words are holy ; but your inter-
pretations are artificial" (Dial. § 79). Such contro-
versies are found in the writings of the other Church
Fathers. Only in one particular does Justin stand
alone, and that is in his accusation that the Jewisii
teachers permitted four and even five wives, and
that they lusted after beautiful women {ib. § 114).
Possibly this is an expression of the inborn liatred
of the Samaritans toward the Jews.

BiBLiOGRAPHy : Griitz. in Mnnatxftchrift, iii. ia54 ; idem, Gnoa-
ticisiiiUK^nid Judrnilium, pp. 17 et spf/.; irtem, Gi.scli. W ed.,
Iv. 9.5 ; Goldfalii). .TiiM in Mnrtyr mid 'lie Af/fuln, in Moiials-
schrift, xxii. 1873 (also printed separately); E. C. Uichard-

son, Bihliographical Simnpsls to the Ante-Nicetie Fathers,
pp. ;il-2(). Buffalo, 18S7 ; S. Krauss, in J. Q. R. v. l:.';i-i:J4 ; and
Uie bibliography to Chlrch Fathers.
K. S. Ku.

JUSTINIAN : Emperor of the Eastern, or By-
zantine, Empire from 527 to 565. During his long
reign he issued many decrees relating to the Jews,
and his empire was the scene of bloody events wiiich
were of the greatest importance for both the Jews
and the Samaritans. In his dealings with the Jews
Justinian was guided, not by political and diplo-
matic jiriuciples, but rather by consideration for the
Orthodox Churcli. The unfortunate hi.story of the
Samaritans under Justinian is noteworthy. Tlieir
rebellious attitude under Zeno continued unchanged
under Justinian (Procopius, " De .^Edificiis," v. 7 [p.
325, ed. Bonn]). The Christian church built on their
sacred Mount Gerizim was especially an object of
offense. They were apparently very restless at this
time, for their name and deeds occur frequently in the
contemporaneous history of the empire. A Samar-
itan from Palestine, Arsenius by name, rose to high
honors through financial transactions
Rebellion with the empress Theodora, and was
of the Sa- made senator after having accepted
maritans. baptism. AVhen his father and brotiier
at Scythopolis oppressed the Chris-
tians, tiie Samaritans were cruelly killed by the
angry populace, and all the other Palestinians also
were harassed.

Although Arsenius was banished from the court,
he did not suffer otherwise at the time, and he was
crucified only after his intrigue at Alexandria
(Procopius, " Historia Arcana," ch. 27, p. 150). An-
other Samaritan, Faustinus, was a senator and be-
came proconsul; he managed the imperial domains
in Palestine and Phenicia {ib. ch. 27, p. 153).

In consequence of their favorable position and
tlieir numerical strength, the Samaritans were em-
boldened to take up arms. Tlie cause of this up-
rising is said to have been as follows: It was cus-
tomary in Palestine and everywhere in the East,
on every Sabbath, after the reading of the Gosjiel
lesson in church, for the Christian young men to
enter the synagogues of the Samaritans, mock
them, and throw stones at their houses. This hap-
pened about 530 in the capital of the Samaritan.s,
Neapolis, or Nablus, when the Christian young men
were driven with swords and knives out of the syn-
agogue, pursued to tlie Chureli of St. Basil by the
furious Samaritans, and killed. When Justinian
was informed of tliis occurrence, he ordered IrenaMis,
the commander of the town, to punish the Samari-
tans. Irenaeus had to apply to the "dux" of Pales-
tine, Theodoras the "great" (so called probably on
account of his victory over the Samaritans). The
governor killed many of them; otiiers were sold
throughout Palestine as slaves, and their houses de-
molished ; Julian, son of Sabarona, or Samaron,
whom the Samaritans had chosen as their "king,"
also was killed, and his head, together with the dia-
dem and other insignia of royalty, was sent as a
trophy to Justinian at Constantinople ("John of
Antiochia," printed in "Hermes," vi. 376). Tiiis
rebellion, but without the antecedent events, is sim-
ilarly referred to in an almost contemporaneous
chronit le ("Chronicon Paschale," 336 [p. 619, ed.

397

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Justin Martyr
Justinian

Bonn]). The claouick' fukls: "£111(1 many of them
aceepteil Cliiistianity ami were baptized, either from
fear or l)y force; but even to-daj' they vacillate in
their faith."

lyialalas (" Chronicle," xviii. 445) has a different
version ; according to liini, the (juarrel broke ont in
the hippodrome of Mablus, Avhere Jews and Samar-
itans were racing together, both of these condjiuing
against the Christians. "Dux" Thcodoins imme-
diately reported the quarrel to Justinian; the jue-
feet Bassus, who could not quell the di.sturbancc,
was dismiss(>d, and the insurgents were ultimately
vanquished; 20,UU0 fell on the tield, and 20.000 were
presented to the Saracen Phylarchus, Avho had as-
sisted in quelling the uprising. The final outbursts
of revolt were suppressed by Dux Irena'us. iSIala-
las evidently refers to an entirely different event,
and the story relating to the circus must be sepa-
rated from that relating to the synagogue. 'J'lie-
oplianes likewise (•' Chronogr." i. 274) relates, not the
rebellion beginning in the circus, but that under
Julian, giving the year 521, which, probably, should
be read 531. As an epilogue to the rebellion the
fugitive Samaritans endeavored to incite the Persian
king Chosroes to war against the Romans by offer-
ing him their country as well as an army of 50,000
Jews and Samaritans. Whatever may liave been
the details of these events, it is evident that the
Samaritans offended grievously against the emperor
and the empire. Procopius (" Historia Arcana,"
ch. 27, pp. 150-153) relates still another uprising,
in which the Jews and Samaritans fell upon the
Christians in a circus at Cffisarea and killed the gov-
ernor Stephen ; this uprising was suppressed m July,
556, by Adamantius, or Amantius.

The consequences of persistent rebellion were
soon felt. In 532 the emperor issued a decree to the
effect that in cases of dispute the Jews could act as
witnesses against one another, but not against Chris-
tians; heretics, including Samaritans, could not act
as witnesses even against one another (" Corp. Juris,"
i. 5, 21). "The synagogues of the Samaritans sliall
be destroyed, and if they dare to build others, they
shall be punished. They may liave no testamentary
or other legal heirs except Orthodox Christians" {ih.
i. 5, 17; comp. i. 5, 18-19). They were forbidden
to leave legacies or presents. In 551, Bishop Ser-
gius of Ctesarea succeeded in softening the emperor's
severity toward them and securing the
Oppressive repeal of these disgraceful laws (No-

Legisla- vella 129). In other respects the sta-
tion, tus of the Jews and Samaritans was
the same. Novella 45 of the j-ear 537
begins as follows: "Relating to the law that Jews,
Samaritans, or heretics are not to be exempt from
the office of magistrate on pretext of their belief,
but that, on the contrary, they shall hear the burdens
of the magistracy without enjoying its privileges."
In 545 it was ordained that no heretic should, under
any circumstances, acquire real estate from a church
or religious institution. "If an Orthodox Christian
has sold or willed to a Jew or pagan or Arian a piece
of land on which there is a church, the church of
that locality shall seize such property." "Heretics
may not build a ' spelunca ' for their heresies, nor may
the Jews erect any new synagogues" (Novella 131,

cii. 14), The following decrees were issued in favor
of the Orthodox Church in newly conquered Africa:
"Jews may not keep Christian slaves, nor may they
make proselytes by circumcision." "The'r .syna-
gogues shall be rebuilt in the style of churches."
"Jews, pagans, Arians, and other heretics may not
have 'speluncas ' nor observe any of the ceremonies
of the Orthodox Church " (Novella 37, of tlie year
535).

The emperor interfered also with the religious life
of the Jews. He forbade them to celebrate their
Passover if it fell on the same day as the Christian
Easter, because there was still a Christian sect, the
Quartodecimani, that celebrated Easter at the time
of the Jewish Passover. Jews in high positions who
did not conform to this law were lined (Procopius,
"Historia Arcana," ch. 28, p. 156).

The emperor's decree in regard to the reading of

the Greek translation of the Bible throws light on

the " Culturgcschichte " of the Jews of that tinie.

Some of the communities in the Byzantine empire

desired the lessons for the Sal)bathand

Reading for festivals read only in Hebrew,
of Greek in while others desired them read in Greek
the Syna- also. As these two parties could not
gogue. come to any agreement, they applied
to the emperor, who decided in har-
mon}' witli Christian views. In his first words he
exhorts the Jews not to take the Bible literally, but
in a prophetic sense, in order that they might be-
lieve in Jesus Christ. He recommended them
to use the Greek translation of the Septuagint, to
which he gave signal praise, but he permitted them
to use also the version of Aquila, which appar-
ently was preferred by the Jews. The Bible lessons
should also be translated into other languages — for
example, into Latin in the Italian countries. At
the same time he forbids the heads of schools (apxi-
(l>epextTat) or the elders, who are called also teachers,
to prevent this by cunning or excommunication.
These shepherds of the people were furthermore
forbidden to give the haggadic exposition (dev-ipoatg)
following the public reading of the Torah lesson,
since the spirit of Judaism was kept alive chiefiy by
this means. This decree was intended not only for
those communities that had requested the Greek
translation, but the emperor ordered his secretary
Areobindus to proclaim it in all the provinces also
(Feb. 13, 553 ; Novella 146, rrepl 'Efipaitjv). The em-
peror had personal relations with one of the leaders
of the Jews, a certain Theodosius, who was liighly
respected by the Christians; this Theodosius took
part in a disputation on Jesus and refused to be
converted (Suidas, s.v. 'Ir/aoix).

Justinian was just enough not to force the Jews
of his empire to accept baptism, with the single ex-
ception of the community of Boriou,

Attitude in a remote corner of the province
Toward of Africa. This community, which

Conver- claimed to trace its origin and the
sion. building of its synagogue back to Sol-
omon, had preserved its autonomy
against the Romans as well as against the Vandals;
Justinian, however, forced it to accept baptism
and changed its synagogue into a church (Proco-
pius, "De .ii^dificiis," vi. 2). When Belisarius con-

Justo
Juwel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

398

qiiered Africa, in 534, the sacred vessels of the Tern
pie were carried to Constantinople; but when a Jew
said tiiat these vessels hail brought misfortune upon
all those that had possessed them, the superstitious
Justinian sent Ihem to a church at Jerusalem (Pro-
copius, "Bellum Vandalorum," ii. 9). Since the
Jews had good reason to fear the Byzantine rule, it
is not surprising that they should oppose Justinian's
armies at Naples.

Justinian, whose reign so greatly affected the
Jews, is hardly mentioned in the Jewish sources.
A passage in a rcsponsum of the Geonim relating to
the interdiction of the reading of the Torah refers,
according to Grat/, to Justinian's decree, but it
may be more correctly referred to Yezdegerd's in-
terdiction (Halberstam, in Kobak's " Jeschurun," vi.
126). The Samaritans, for whom Justinian's reign
became fateful, do not mention him at all in their
chronicles. The Jewish chronicles copy from Chris-
tian sources the statement that he was a great and
just ruler, and they know nothing whatever of his
tyrannous treatment of the Jews. David Gans
quotes from the " Yuhasin" the statement that dur-
ing one whole year in the time of Justinian the sun
did not shine ("Zemah Dawid," anno 566).

Bibmography: Corptis Juris CiiiiU.% ed. Kriiger, Mommsen,
and Sflioll, Berlin, 1886-95; Justiniatii N(n-ellrt, ed. Zactia-
rlae von Lingenthal. Leipsic, 1881 ; Pfanniniiller. Die Kirrh-
liche Ge»etzgehung JiiMinianft, pp. 30, 90, Berlin, 1902;
Dielil, Jmtinien, pp. 328-329, Paris, 1901 ; Dus Dekret Jus-
tiniaiM vom Jahre 5r>3, in Ally. Zeit. <ies Jiid. 1841, pp. 137,
171; Zunz, G. V. p. 10; Jost, Gesch. der I^raeliten, v. 163-
186 ; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., v. 19-33.
G. S. Kh.

JUSTO (ZADDIK), JACOB BEN ABBA-
HAM: Portuguese chartographer; flourished in
Palestine (Wolf, "Bibl. Hebr."i., No. 1097) in the
first half of the -seventeenth century. He was the
author of a chart of Palestine, written in Portuguese
under the title " Relagao do Citiode Terra de Israel "
but published in Latin (Amsterdam, 1631 [Barto-
locci: 1621]). It was accompanied with a number of
historical data concerning the places noted in the
map. Shabbethai Bass ("Sifte Yeslienim," o, No.
271) mentions the work under the Hebrew title " Map-
pah," adding that in Latin it is called "Carta." It
was afterward (1685) republished by order of Isaac
b. Mattithiah Aboab, who himself wrote a preface,
the autlior contributing an introduction, both in
Portuguese. Ilottinger quotes Justo 's work in his
"Historia Orientalis," i., ch. viii.

Bibliography: Bartolocci, Bihl. Rab. iii. 86!); De Rossi-Ham-
berger, Hixt. WOrtcrh. p. 333; .Steinschneider, Hehr. Bihl.
iii. 52: idem, in Jerusalem, iii. 59; Zunz, G. S. i. 187; Kay-
serling, Bihl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. .55.

JUSTUS, DR. (jiseudonym of Aaron Briman,
otherwise Augustus Brimanus) : Convert to
Christianity and writer against the Jews; born at
Costinasti, Rumania, about 1860. Until the age of
twenty he lived at Buczacz, a small village in east-
ern Galicia. Leaving his wife and children, he
went to Berlin and studied rabbinica at the Rab-
biner-Seminar, where he posed as strictly Orthodox;
but, failing to obtain a position as rabbi, he became
a convert to Protestantism. From Berlin he went
to Paderborn and turned Roman Catholic. He
published anonymous pamphlets against the Jews.
In 1883 he wrote "Der Judenspiegel,"acompilatiou

of lOOlawstakeu from tlie Shulhaii 'Aruk, and pur-
porting to show the animosity of the Jews agaiu.st
Christianity, of which book three editions were
printed at Paderborn.

When a Catholic iiewsi)aper of Muuster, which
had published extracts from "Der Judenspiegel,"
was sued for libel, and Prof. Jacob Eeker was chosen
by the court as an exix'rr, Briman aided him in
writing his opinion (" Gulachten "), "Der Juden-
spiegel und die Wahrheit"; but in order to disguise
this fact, some criticisms of Briman 's "Juden-
spiegel " were inserted. Afterward Ecker published
" Die Hundert Gesetze des Judenkatechismus,"a lit-
eral reprint of the "Judenspiegel." In his ignorance
of Hebrew and of Talmudic writings, Ecker even
copied the passages which he had declared in his
opinion to be misinterpreted.

In 1884 Briman returned to Austria. He assisted
Rohling by furnishing material from Talmudic
sources for his anti-Semitic libels.

With the approbation of Archbishop Eder of Salz-
burg, Briman wrote under his true name a book
about the Cabala in which he said that the whole
anti-Semitic literature fioin Eisenmenger to the
" Judenspiegel " (his own work !) had been written by
stupid and ignorant people.

In .March, 1885, Briman was arrested on charges
of fraud not connected with his anti-Semitic wri-
tings. He was condemned to prison ; and when his
term was finished he was expelled from Austria.
He then took up medical studies in Paris.

Bibliography: Antixcmitenx)iiegcU 'pi\. 266 et xeq.; Einifie
TalniudfUl.'irher iind der Froze xx Roldinij Gefjeii Bloclt.a
reprint from the MittliciliDipen mix deiri Verein zur Ah-
icehr dex Antixcmitisnuix, Berlin, 1892; Oexterreichi.<<che
Wochenxchrift, 188.5. Nos. 12. l;j, 15, 17. 43 ; Kopp, Zur Ju-
denfrage, Leipsic, 1886.

G. S. Man.

JUSTUS OF TIBERIAS : Historical writer
and one of the leaders of the Jews against the Ro-
mans in Galilee in the year 66. What is known of
him comes mostly from his political and literary
enemy, Josephus Flavins; so that an exact biography
of him can not be given. He was a man of Greek edu-
cation and of moving eloquence. By his oratorical
ability he prevailed on the Tiberians, who felt them-
selves slighted by the favor which Agrippa II. and
Rome had shown at their expense to the people of
Sepphoris, to revolt. An unnamed brother helped
him in this task. With his followers Justus burned
the villages that belonged to Gadara and Hippos
(Josephus, "Vita," § 9), whose people
"With Jose- had alwaj's been ill-disposed toward
phus in the Jews. Soon afterward Josephus
Galilee. came as governor to Galilee, and he
persuaded the chief people of Tiberias,
among them .lustus, to demolish the palace of Herod
the Tetrarch because it was ornamented with figures
of animals. Josephus himself says he had to force
the people to it (ib. i^ 12). From this it follows con-
clusivelj' that the actual rebellion in Galilee was
instigated mainly by Josephus rather than by Justus.
Later, out of fear of the Romans, neither historian
wished to admit in his writings his part in the matter;
and each blamed the other. Even at the beginning
of the war the Tiberians, and especially Justus and
his father, Pistus, wished to break with Josephus and

399

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Justo
Juwel

to attiich tlieniselves to John of Giscala, hut Jose-
plius frustrated the plan {ih. ^ 11). Al one time
Josei)hus caused the Tiherians who liad heen ar-
rested, amouy tlieni Justus and Pistus, to be taken
out of prison; and Avliiie eating with tiieui he sug-
gested tliat it would be wiser for them to surrender
to the Romans at a suitable opporluuity. lie re-
minded Justus that before lie (Josejihus) had entered
on his oflice, the brother of Justus had had Ids
hands cut otf b}' the Galileans, who claimed that he
had forged letters, and that furthermore Jesus, Jus-
tus' sister's husband, liad had to suflFer from anarchy.
The next day he let Justus and liis followers go fice
{ib. ^ 3o). Jesus and the sister of Justus were killed
in Gamala (ih. § oT). Still Justus continued to agi
tate against Josephus {ib. § 54).

When Galilee was subdued, the inhabitants of
Decapolis, primarily those of Gadara and Hippos,
denounced Justus before Vespasian, and demanded
his punishment. Agrippa was ordered to put him
to death ; but on the plea of his sister Berenice he
merely imprisoned him {ib. §§ 65, 74). Justus had
previously tied to Agrippaat Berytus {ib. % 70), and
had apparently made himself sopoi)ular at court (/J.
^ 74) that Agri)jpa even gave him money {ib. 'i, 65).
For some unknown crime Agrippa twice put Justus
in prison; and the latter was often advised to escape
out of his native city. Nevertheless Agrippa made
him his secretary (rnf/f ettkjto'Auv), but when he proved
unreliable he was expelled b}' the king {ib.).

During his enforced leisure he wrote his history

of the Jewish war, in which, being a man of mean

nature, he very likely out of revenge

His His- made Agrippa appear in a decided!}'

tory of the imfavorable light. This was- proba-

Jewish bly the reason why he did not publish
War, his work until after Agrippa's death
(100), although he had then had it com
pleted for twenty years (^6.). Josephus with jus-
tice charges him with not daring to publish his
book during the lifetimes of Vespasian, Titus, and
Agrippa, and also that he did not use the records of
Vespasian. Even the events in Galilee, e.g., the
siege of Jotapata, are not exactly described ; yet
Justus thought himself to be the most reliable nar-
rator of these events. The "Vita," the autobiog-
raphy of Jo.sephus, was directed against this very
work of Justus {ib.). Justus' book was, of course,
written in Greek, and was probably entitled 'laropia
fj Tov 'InvdaiKoii Ylo/.Efiov tov Kara OveaTznaiavov (Stepha-
nus of Byzantium, s.v. Tifiepidg). It is mentioned
by Eusebius .(" Hist. Eccl." iii. 10, 8), by Jerome
("De Viris Illustribus," § 14), and by Suidas (s.r.
'Igvgtoc), probablj' not independentl}% but following
Josephus, since the latter's work, approved by Titus,
had caused that of his rival to be forgotten.

Furthermore, Justus was the author of XfmviKuv

'lovdaiijv BaaiXiuv ribv ev roZf "Lrsfifiaaiv, a chronicle of

the Jewish people from Moses to the

His death of Agrippa II. Photius (" Bibl. "

Chronicle. Cod. 33) describes it as being written

in a very curtailed form. Use was

probably made of this 'work by Sextus Julius Afri-

canus, from whom Eusebius in his chronicle and the

Byzantine historian Synccllusdraw material. Certain

notes in later historians which are not to be found

in'jo.seplms probably came from the chronick' of
Justus through the excerpts of Africanus (c..^., Syn-
cellus. ed. Dindorf, i. 5HK). It has been supposed
that the account of the heathen-Philistine origin f)f
the Herodian liou.se, related by Africanus, came
originally from Justus ("R. E. J." xlv. 45).

If "Justus" is to be read in a corrupted passage
of Suidas {s.v. •tAtywr), it would appear that the
former treated Jewish Jiistoryat greater length than
Phlegon; also that Justus dilated upon the moral-
ity and other virtues of tlie Jews, whereas Jose-
phus, according to Suidas, aimed to give the Greeks
no olTense. In Diogenes Laertius (ii. 5, § 41) is a
([notation from Justus' chronicle in the form of
an anecdote concerning Plato at the trial of Soc-
rates. It would seem, then, that Photius had seen
only an extract from the chronicle. If Justus ar-
ranged his book in the form of a royal genealogy
{iv -o/f arififiaaiv), he may have written objectionably
ot the Herodians. His remark about Plato seems
to show that he shared the Hellenistic belief that
Greek wisdom was borrowed from the Jews. Schlat-
ter believes that even Josephus made use of Justus"
work in his " Anticpiities." Jerome (^.c.) mentions
a third work by Justus, a short commentary on the
Scriptures; but nothing further is known of it.

In Hebrew, Justus was probably called "Zadok,"

though the name "Justus" was very common among

the Jews at that time. It is possible that, like

Josephus, he lived in Rome toward the close of his

life, and that he died there.

Bini.iotJRAPiiY : Fabricius, Bihlintlicca Grccca, ed. Harles, v.
61, .\. tJ'JI ; Miiller. Frayinoitn HMoi icorum Gnecofum, iii.
.")^:i; (iriitz, in Mi>iints.'<rhrift. 1S7", pp. $37 et seq.; idem,
<ifsch. 4tli ed., iii. .'kv.'i; Schlatter. Der Chrnnngraph ans <lem
Zelmten Jahve Aiitonhix, pp. 37^7, Berlin, 1894; SchQrer,
(idich. :W ed., i. 5H-6'3; coinp. ih. p. :.'S5, note 32.

G. S. Kr.

JUTRZENKA ("The Dawn"): Jewish weekly
l)ublished at AVarsaw in the Polish language. Its
fiist number appeared July 5, 1861 ; and the paper
continued to be issued until Oct. 23, 1863. Among
its principal contributors were LudwigGumplowicz
and Alexander Kraushar. The former published in
it his "PrawodawstwoPolskie," etc., on Polish leg-
i.slation concerning the Jews; Kraushar contributed
poems on Jewish life and articles on the history of
the Jews of Poland; and I. Rosenblatt wrote on
slavery according to Roman and Mo.saic law. Of
its Christian contributors may be mentioned Mikul-
ski and the poet Adam IVIaszewski. The discon-
tinuance of the publication was due to the fatal
end of the Polish insurrection.

II. u. S. Po.

JUVENAL. See Cl-^ssical, Writers.

JUWEL, MOSES MORDECAI: Galician

scholar; lived at Brody in the tirst half of the nine-
teenth century. He translated from the German into
Hebrew Hufeland's " Macrobiotik," or the art of pro-
longing human life, under the title " Ruah Hayyim "
(Lemberg, 1831) ; and a natural history, in four parts,
under the title " Limmude ha-Jeha' " (Czernowitz.
1836). Juwel also wrote some ethical studies (" Bik-
kure ha-'Ittim," xii. 117 ei seq.).

Bibliography: Steinsclineider. Cat. Bodl. col. 1838; Fflrst.
Bihl. Jud. ii. 158; Zeitlin, IiU>L Post-Mendds. p. 162.

s. I- Br.

Kab
Kaddish

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

400

[Note: For topics beginning with K, not found
in alphabetical order, see under C]

EAB. See Weights and Measures.

KA'B AIi-AHBAR: One of the most promi-
nent fathers of Moslem tradition, and one of those
who introduced into this branch of Arab literature
the method as well as manj^ details of the Jewish
Haggadah; died 33 or 35 a.ii. (652 or 655 c.e.). Of
his earlier life nothing is known except that lie was
a Jew, a native of Yemen. His complete name was
Abu Ishak Ka'b b. Mati" b. Haisu (Hosea ?). A
genealogy attributing to him a purely Arabic de-
scent also exists; it was probably invented after he
had embraced Islam. This he did during the calif-
ate of Abu Bakr (according to others, of Omar),
whom he joined at Medina. On account of Ids the-
ological learning he was styled "Al-Hibr" or "'Al-
Ahbar," which is an adaptation of the Hebrew
"haber. " He lectured on the Koran and the career
of Mohammed, not from the merely exegetical and
biographical points of view, but in a homiletic and
haggadic manner, just as Abdallah b. Salam liad
done. Both tiie.se men laid the foundation for the
legends which glorify Mohammed's youth and pro-
phetic call.

The most prominent of Ka'b's disciples were Ibn
'Abbas and Abu Hurairah, prolitic traditionists, who
developed the art of apotheosizing the prophet's life
to its utmost extent, and are therefore not very re-
liable authorities. Ka'b was a great favorite of the
calif Omar, who frequently consulted him, chiefly
on religious matters. As a politician Ka'b was a
partizan of Othman, and was once even flogged by
Abu Darr, who disapproved of the calif's adminis-
tration. There are many sayings attributed to Ka'b,
among them being the statement that "the world
will last six thousand years " (comp. Sanh. 97). Sev-
eral other sayings refer to the superiority of Egypt
over otlier countries. Ka'b retired toward the end
of his life to Emesa. He left a son named Tubai.
Bibliography : Tabari, AnnaUf, Index.

G. ■ H. HiR.

KA'B AL-ASHRAF: Jewish poet of Medina
and an implacable enemy of Mohammed. His father
was an Arab of the family of Nabhan (a branch of the
tribe of Tayy), but his mother was a Jewess of the
Banu al-Nadir. His father having died early, Ka'b
was brought up in his mother's family and in her
faith. Tradition relates that at one time he confessed
Islam, and even tutned his face in prayer toward
Mecca. After Mohammed's victory over the Mec-
caiis at Badr, Ka'b is supposed to have exclaimed
that the interior of the earth would be pleasanter
than its surface. He composed poems bewailing the
defeat of the Meccans and exciting the Kuraish to
revenge, but not all of these poems are properly au-
thenticated.

It is but natural that Moslem authors should as-
cribe many evil deeds to their arch-enemy; their

veracity is, however, questionable. Ka'b was
charged with having maintained sinful relations
with the wives of various Moslems, and with having
gone to ]\Iecca to induce the Kuraish to fight Mo-
hammed once more. The latter, in order to nullify
Ka'b's influence, hurled against him the following
passage: "Recite to them the history of him to
whom we have given our signs, but who turned
away from them ; had he wished, we would have
exalted him thereby, but he crouched upon the earth
and followed his own desire. He is likened unto a
dog, which, if thou drivest him away, hangeth out
his tongue, and if thou leavest him, hangeth out his
tongue likewise " (Koran, vii. 174-175). There are
two allusions to Ka'b in this passage ; the first is
contained in the reference to one possessing God's
"signs" {i.e., the Bible), the second in the word
"kalb" (dog), which by alliteration suggests the
name of the poet. Since he refused to be frightened,
Mohammed asked his friends: "Who will rid me of
the .son of Ashraf?" One of them, Mohammed b.
]\Iaslamah, declared himself ready to murder Ka'b,
but asked permission to tell a falsehood ; this was
readily granted. The murderer and two accomplices
entered Ka'b's house under a pretext and murdered
him. His death was bewailed in several poems by
the Jewish poet Sammak, who described him as a
man ever faithful to his word and never guilty of
treachery. The expulsion of the Banu al-Nadir
followed soon after Ka'b's death.

BiBi.iofiRAPHY : Ibn Hishain, Wakidi, and other sources;
Hirsclifeld, New Rc.seorc/(c.s into the Compositi/m and
E.icgesis of the, Qoran, p. 116.
G. H. HiR.

KABBALAH. See Cabala.

KABISI, ABRAHAM AL- : Printer in Con-
stantinople in the sixteenth century. Together with
Judah Sason and Moses ben Joseph Hamon he pub-
lished "Toledot Adam we-Hawwah" by Jeroham
ben Meshullam (Constantinople, 1516).

BiBLior.RAPHY: Steinschneider. Jildische Tupoip-aphie, in
Ersrh and (iruber, Encyc. section ii., part 27, p. 38, note 18 ;
idem. Cot. Bodl. No. 7643 ; idem, in J. Q. R. xi. 603.
J. M. Sc.

KABOS, EDTJARD : Hungarian journalist and
writer; born Dec. 2, 1864, at Nagy-Karoly. He en-
tered the University of Budapest for the purpose of
studying modern philology, intending to become a
teacher, but adopted journalism instead. He at first
accepted a position on the "Egyetertes," but his
abilities soon secured for him the position of parlia-
mentary reporter and writer of feuilletons for the
"Pesti Naplo." In 1897 he became contributor to
the "Orszagos Hirlap," and in 1898 editor of the
parliamentary column of the "Budapesti Naplo."
In 1902 he was elected a member of the most promi-
nent Hungarian literary society, Petofi Tarsasag,
in recognition of the services which he had rendered
to Hungarian literature.

Kabos' works include: "ElztillOttek " (1885), sto-
ries ; " Vasao " (1887), a novel; " A Kupehau " (1888),

401

THE JEWI:<H E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Kab
l^addish

a farce; "Evo " (1889), a dranm; ■' Ilarakiri " (1889),
stones; "Tautalusz" (1891), adraiua; " KoldusoU "
(1893), stones; "Feliev Epraktik " (189:5), a novel;
" A Hollo "(1895), a comedy ;"Mal) Kiralyno "(1895),
a comedy ; " Por " (1895), stories ; " VandoVok " (1897),
stories; "ACseu^-eri Kahpok " (1898), stories; "A
Verebek " (1900), a novel.

BiBMOfiRAPnv: Szinnyei, Mam/ar I'l'ili FJr.te; Pallna Lex.
X., xviii.

s. L. V.

KADDISH (lit. " lioly ") : Name of tlie do.xology
recited, with congregational responses, at the close
of the prayers in the synagogne; originally, and
now freiiuently, recited after Scripture readings and
religious discourses in schoolhouse or synagogue.
It is, with the exception of the last clause, composed
in Aramaic. The following is the translation :

" .Magnifled and sanctified [conip. Ezek. xxxviii. 23] be His
Great .Name in tbe world which He hath created according to
His will. May He establish His Kingdom during your life and
during your days, and during the life of ttie whole household of
Israel, even speedily and in a near time ! So say ye 'Amen.' "

jfVc.sprxi.sc ; " Let His Great Name be blessed forever and unto
all eternity !"

" Blessed, praised, and glorified, exalted, extolled, and hon-
ored, uplifted and lauded, be the name of the Holy One, blessed
be He 1 above all the blessings and hymns [benedictions and
psalms], the praises and consolations [the prophetic words],
which are uttered in the world. So say ye 'Amen.' "

■' May the prayers and supplications of all Israel be accepted
by their Father, who Is in Heaven ! So say ye ' Amen.' "

^taddish di-Rabanan : " Upon Israel, and the masters
and their disciples, and the disciples of their disciples, and upon
all those that occupy themselves with the Torah. whether In
this place or in any other place, come peace and favor, and
grace and mercy, and a long life and ample sustenance, and re-
demption, from their Father, in Heaven. So say ye 'Amen.'"

" May there be abundant peace from Heaven and life [the
Portuguese liturgy in.serts : "and plenty, salvation and conso-
lation, redemption and healing, forgiveness and pardon, free-
dom and safety "] for us and all Israel ! So say ye 'Amen ! ' "

i?i'.s-po)i,se; " He who maketh peace in His Heights, may He
make peace for us and all Israel ! So say ye 'Amen ! ' "

In place of the first paragraph, the Kaddish re-
cited after burial has the following:

" Magnifled and sanctified be His Great Name in the world
that is to be created anew when He will revive the dead and
raise them up into life eternal, and when He will rebuild the
city of Jerusalem and establish His Temple in the midst thereof,
and uproot all false worship from the earth, and restore the
worship of the true God. May the Holy One, blessed be He !
reign in His sovereignty and glory during your life and in your
days, and in the days of the whole household of Israel, speedily
and at a near time. So say ye ' Amen ! ' "

The Kaddish has a remarkable history. Origi-
nally, it had no relation whatsoever to the prayers,
and still less to the dead. It was the doxology re-
cited by the teacher or preacher at the close of his

discourse, when he was expected to
Origin. dismiss the assembly with an allusion

to the Messianic liope, derived espe-
cially from the Prophets and the Psalms. There-
fore Ezek. xxxviii. 23 is employed; and as the last
redemption of Israel was, like the first, brought in
connection with the Holj' Name (see Pes. 50a ; Pesik.
92a; Ex. iii. 15), the emphasis was put upon the
congregational response, "May His Great Name be
praised for all eternity ! " (see Sifre, Deut. 306). So
great was the value attached to this response that the
Talmud (Sotah 49a) declares: "Since the destruc-
tion of tlie Temple the world lias been sustained by
the Kedushshah of the littirgy and the 'yehe she-
meh rabba' [the Kaddish response] of the haggadic
VII.— 26

discourse." "Joining loudly and in unison in the
congregational respon.se 'yehe shemeh rabba' has
the powerof inlliieiieiiig the heavenly decree in one's
favor, or of obtaining for one forgiveness," assert
H. Joshua b. Levi and R. Johanan (Shab. 1191;:
comp. Midr. ]\Iishle x. 10, xiv. 4). When Israel
enters the synagogue or the schoolhouse and re-
sponds, " Let His Great Name be praised ! " the Holy
One, blessed be He! says: "Happy the king who is
thus lauded in his house! " (Ber. 3a).

The name "Kaddish" for the doxology occurs
first iu Masseket Soferim xvi. 12, xix. 1, xxi. 0;
the Kaddish at funerals is mentioned ib. xix. 12:
being addressed to the whole assembly, it was
spoken in the Babylonian vernacular (.see Tos. Ber.
3a). The two paragraphs preceding the last, which
is a late addition, were originally simple formulas of
dismis.sal by the preacher (comp. M. K. 21a). The
"Kaddish of the students" still shows its original
connection with the .schoolhouse, and is a prayer for
the scholars; occa.sionally, therefore, special prayers
were inserted for the " nasi " or the "resh galuta," or
for distinguished scholars like Maimonides (see Ibn
Verga, " Shebet Yehudah," ed. Wiener; " Sefer Yuha-
sin," ed. Filipowski, p. 219).

The Kaddish for the dead was originally recited at
the close of the seven da}'s' mourning, with the re-
ligious discourses and benedictions associated with
it, but, according to Masseket Soferim xix. 12, only
at the death of a scholar; afterward, in order not
to put others to shame, it was recited after every
burial (Nahmanides, "Torat ha-Adam," p. 50; see
]\Iourning).

In the course of time the power of redeeming the
dead from the sufferings of Gehenna came to be
ascribed, by some, to the recitation of the Kaddish.

In "Otiyyot de-R. 'Akiba," a work of the geonic

time, it is said, under the letter "zayin," that "at

the time of the Messiah God shall sit

Redeeming' in paradise and deliver a discourse on

Powers the new Torah before the assembly of

Ascribed the pious and the angelic hosts, and
to the that at the close of the discourse Ze-

Kaddish. rubbabel shall rise and recite the Kad-
dish with a voice reaching from one
end of the world to. the other; to which all mankind
will respond ' Amen.' All souls of Jews and Gen-
tiles in Gehenna will respond with ' Amen, ' so that
God's mercy will be awakened and He will give the
keys of Gehenna to Michael and Gabriel, the arch-
angels, saying: 'Open the gates, that a righteous
nation which observeth the faith may enter' [Isa.
XX vi. 2, "shomer emumim" being explained as "one
that sayeth ' Amen ' "]. Then the 40,000 gates of
Gehenna shall open, and all the redeemed of Gehen-
na, the wicked ones of Israel, and the righteous of
the Gentiles shall be ushered into paradise." The
following legend is later: Akiba met a spirit in the
guise of a man carrying wood ; the latter told Akiba
that the wood was for the fire in Gehenna, in which
he was burned daily in punishment for having mal-
treated the poor while tax-collector, and that he
would be released from liis awful torture if he had a
son to recite the Bareku and the Kaddish before a
worshiping assembly that would respond with the
praise of God's name. On learning that the man

faddish

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

402

had utterly neglected his son, Akiba cared for and
educated the youth, so that one day he stood in the
assembly and recited the Bareku and the Kaddish
and released his father from Gehenna (Masseket Kal-
lah, ed. Coronel, pp. 4b, 19b; Isaac of Vienna, "Or
Zariia'," ed. Jitomir, ii. 11; Tanna debe Eliyahu
Zuta xvii., where "R. Johanan b. Zakkai " occurs
instead of "R. Akiba"; "Menorat ha-Ma'or," i. 1, 1,
1; Manasseh ben Israel, "Nishmat Hayyim," ii. 27;
Bahya ben Asher, commentary on Shofetim, at end ;
comp. Testament of Abraham, A. xiv.).

The idea that a son or grandson's piety may exert
a redeeming influence in behalf of a departed father
or grandfather is expressed also iu Sauh. 104a; Gen.
R. Ixiii. ; Tanna debe Eliyahu R. xvii. ; Tanna debe
Eliyahu Zuta xii. ; see also "Sefer Hasidim," ed.
Wiztinetzki, No. 32. In order to redeem the soul
of the parents from the torture of Gehenna, which
is supposed to last twelve months ('Eduy. ii. 10; R.
H. 17a), the Kaddish was formerly recited by the
son during the whole year (Kol Bo cxiv.). Later,
this period was reduced to eleven months, as it was
considered unworthy of the son to entertain such
views of the demerit of his parents (Shulhan 'Aruk,
Yoreh De'ah, 376, 4, Isserles' gloss; see Jahuzeit).
The Kaddish is recited also on the Jahrzeit. The
custom of the mourners reciting the Kaddish in uni-
son is approved by Jacob Emdeu, in his "Siddur,"
and that they should recite it together with the
reader is recommended by Zebi Hirsch Hayot, in
"Minhat Kena'ot," vii. 1. That the daughter,
where there is no son, may recite the Kaddish was
decided by a contemporary of Jair Hayyim Baclia-
rach, though it was not approved by the latter (Re-
sponsa. No. 123; "Lehem ha-Panim," p. 376). A
stranger, also, may recite the Kaddish for the bene-
fit of the dead (Joseph Caro, in " Bet Yosef " to Yoreh
De'ah, I.e.). For the custom in Reform congrega-
tions see Reform.

Bibliography: M. Briick, PharUiiische VoJki^sitten nnd Ri-
tualieiu 1840, pp. 94-101 ; Hamburerer, R. B. T. ii.; Landshuth,
Seder Bihkur Holim, 1853, pp. lix.-lxvi.; Zunz, G. V. 1892,
p. 387.

A. K.

Ritual Use : There are five forms of the Kad-

dish: (1) Kaddish di-Rabanan (Scholar's Kaddish);

(2) Kaddish Yahid (Individual, or Private, Kaddish) ;

(3) Kaddish de-Zibbur (Congregational Kaddish ; this
form of the Kaddish has two divisions— the Hazi
Kaddish [Semi-Kaddish] and the Kaddish Shalem
[Full Kaddish]); (4) the Burial Kaddish (the Mourn-
er's First Kaddish); (5) Kaddish Yatom (Orphan's
Kaddish), or Kaddish Abelim (Mourner's Kaddish).

1. The Scholar's Kaddish is recited upon the com-
pletion of a division of the Mishnah or of a masseket

of the Talmud, or of a lecture by the

Forms of rabbi or maggid. The students of the

Kaddish various yeshibot, or private scholars,

and Their are frequently called upon to recite a

Use. chapter of the Mishnaii, after which,

as a rule, the baraita of R. Hananiah

b. 'Akashya (end of ISIakkot) is read, followed by

Kaddish di-Rabanan, for the repose of the souls of

the dead.

2, The Kaddish Yahid usually preceded a suppli-
cation for the satisfaction of worldly needs. The
beginning of the so-called "Lord's Prayer " is an ex-

ample of the formula used in early times, and resem-
bles that contained in Tanna debe Eliyahu Rabbah
(e.g., in cii. v. and xiv.). The Kaddish Yahid was
also a response to the Kaddish recited by the syna-
gogal reader. The prayer-l)ook of Amram Gaon of
the ninth century contains various forms (pp. 3, 10,
12, 13, 14, and 18, ed. Warsaw, 1865). The response
of the congregation has since been curtailed to
"Yehe Shemeh Rabbah."

3. The Kaddish de-Zibbur is recited by the haz-
zan at public prayer. This Kaddish consists of
Hazi Kaddish and Kaddish Shalem. The Hazi Kad-
dish, up to "Titkabbal," is .said by the hazzan : (1)
before " Bareku " ; (2) after the morning " Tahanun "
(prostration) ; (3) after the " Ashi-e " of the " Minhah "
(afternoon prayer); (4) before "Wehu Rahum"; (5)
before the " 'Amidah " (standing prayer), in the eve-
ning; (6) before " Wi-Yehi No'am," on Saturday
night ; (7) before the " Musaf " prayer ; (8) after read-
ing the Torah. The Kaddish Shalem is recited : (1)
after " U-ba le-Ziyyon," at morning prayer ; (2) after
the " 'Amidah " of " Minhah " ; (3) after the " 'Ami-
dah " for the evening; (4) before " Weyitten Leka,"
on Saturday night; (5) after the "Musaf" praj'er.

4. The Burial Kaddish, recited immediately after
the burial, is quoted in Soferim xix. (end). Accord-
ing to Maimonides this is the Rabanan Kaddish, and
should be recited after study; this is the present
practise of the Orient; but Western custom has re-
served it for burials, at which the assembly joins in
the recitation of the mourners up to the word "be-
hayyekon" (Baer, "Seder 'Abodat Yisrael," p. 588).

5. The Kaddish Yatom, like the regular mourn-
er's Kaddish, is the full Kaddish of the hazzan (with
the exception of the " Titkabbal " sentence), up to
" Yehe Shelama." The Kaddish after the " 'Alenu "
is usually recited by the orphan. The Kaddish Ya-
tom is said also after "Pittum ha-Ketoret," " An'im
Zemirot," the Daily P.salm, and "Bame Madlikin"
(on Friday night).

Concerning the precedence of the various classes
of mourners as regards the right of saying Kaddish,

there is a difference of opinion. The

Rules of Ashkenaziccustom gives the following

Prece- order: (1) Jahrzeit; (2) the first seven

dence. days of mourning; (3) the first thirty

days of mourning ; (4) the first year,
or rather eleven mouths, of mourning less one day.
The Jahrzeit mourner has the precedence over all
for one Kaddish. If several Jahrzeit mourners are
represented, the Kaddishim are divided among them
to the exclusion of others. If there are more Jahr-
zeit mourners than there are Kaddishim in the serv-
ice, lots are drawn. After each of the Jahrzeit
mourners has recited one Kaddish the rest go to the
seven-day mourners. If there are no seven-day
mourners, the thirty-day mourners recite them. The
first-year mourner, iu the absence of other mourners,
recites one Kaddish after the Daily Psalm, and the
Jahrzeit mourners all the rest. A minor who is an
orphan takes precedence over an older person. A
resident or a Jahrzeit mourner has the preference
over a newcomer, unless the latter be a seven-day
mourner, when their rights are equal. Mourners
whose rights of precedence are equal decide among
themselves by drawing lots.

403

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

faddish

The Sepliardic minhag, liowever, allows the
mourners to recite the Kaddish joiutly, but they are
so distributed in the synagogue that the congrega-
tion may distinguish their voices at various points
and respond "Amen." This custom is gradually
being accepted by the Aslikenazic synagogues.

In Seder R. Amram Gaon (p. 4) an explanation is
given of the custom of bowing five times during the
recital of Kaddish— at the words (1) "yitgadal,"
(2) "ba-agala," (3) "yitbarak," (4) "shemeh," (5)
" 'oseh Shalom " : the five inclinations correspond
with the five names of God mentioned in Mai. i. 11.
The seven synonyms of pi'aise — " blessed, " " praised,"
"glorified," "exalted," "extolled," "honored," and
"uplifted " (the word "lauded " is omitted) — signify
the seveu heavens above. See Jahkzeit.

Bibliography: Baer, Sfdcr 'Ahodat Yisraehp. 16, ROdel-
heiin, 18tjf<; 'Demhitz, Jewish Services in the Sniiafi'iiiueand
Home, pp. KW-in, Philadelphia, 180,H; Landshuth, Seder
Bikkxir Holim, Introduction, S :31, and p. lia, Berlin, 1867.

A. J. D. E.

Musical Rendering : From the position of

the Kaddish at the conclusion of each service, and
more particularly from the employment of its
shorter form, "Kaddish Le'ela," as marking off each
section of the service, more importance came to be
attached to the particular form of its intonation as
the accompanying circumstances varied, than was
due even to the nature of the doxolog}" and the re-
sponses necessitating its public intonation. Follow-
ing, too, the fundamental constructive principle of
all synagogal chants, explained under Cantilla-
TiON and Hazzanut, in consequence of which the
same text varies alike in tonality and in melodic
outline according to the importance of the occasion
and to the esthetic expression associated with it,
there have gradually shaped themselves in each of
the traditional uses a number of tuneful renderings
of the Kaddish which have become in themselves
typical melodies of the day or of the service. As early
as the fifteenth century such melodies were recog-
nized; and tlie utmost importance was attached to
their faithful reproduction at the point in the lit-
urgy with which they had become traditionally as-
sociated (comp. MaHaRIL, ed. Sabbionetta, 43b, 49a,
61a, b, etc.).

These were probably the settings of the Kaddish,
at least in outline, which are now most widely ac-
cepted; but most of those settings
Fixed which exhibit formal construction arc
Melodies, more likely later, introductions due to
the influence of contemporary folk-
songs (see Music, Synagogal). For, originalh% the
model vocal phrase which, when amplified and
developed to the text of the particular 'Amidaii
(comp. Hazz.\nut) with which it was associated,
formed tlie intonation to which that prayer was
recited, reproduced itself also in tlie Kaddish which
immediately jirecedcd the prayer. Such, indeed,
still are the intonations in the ordinary week-day
services, in the Sabbath afternoon service, tliose at
the close of the Psalms, etc., in the morning service,
or those before the " Musaf " of Tai, and Gkshkm or
the Atonement Nk'ilaii, in the Ashkenazic, as well
as most of the intonations in the Sepliardic use.

Other settings of this class continue the intonation

of the passage immediately preceding the Kaddish,
as that for Sabbath eve in the Sepliardic use (comp.
De Sola and Aguilar, "Ancient Melodies," No. 9,
London, 1852), or those of the New-Yearand Atone-
ment evening service in the Ashkenazic use. Otliers,
again, such as the powerful, if florid, recitative as.so-
ciated with the penitential "Musaf" (.see music),
have been developed from traditional material inde-
pendently of the associated service.

More formal in structure, and thus more nearly al-
lied to melody according to modern conceptions, are
the later, and more numerous, settings of the Kaddish
which have been adapted from, or built on similar
lines to, contemporary folk-songs. Several are far
from solemn in character, as, for example, national
or patriotic airs (the "Marseillaise" was employed
for the Kaddish in Lorraine about 1830; and still
more incongruous tunes have been used), or mere
jingles like the festival evening melodies still util-
ized in England (comp. Mombach, "Sacred ^lusical
Compositions," pp. 115, 117, London, 1881) or that
often used in Germany after the Festival of the Read-
ing of the Law (comp. Baer, "Ba'al Tefillah," No.
825, Goteborg, 1877; Frankfort, 1883). Others, en-
riched with characteristically Hebraic adornment,
majestic or pathetic in themselves, have in turn be-
come rcipresentative themes, like the praj'cr-motives
of the hazzanut, typifying the sentiment promi-
nent in the .service or occasion with which they are
associated. Such, for instance, are the
Repre- obviously Spanish air known among
sentative Sephardim as "La Despidida," and
Themes, sung as a farewell on the last day of
each festival, and the beautiful melo-
dies employed after the reading of the lesson from
the Law among the northern Jews (see music).

A very curious and unesthetic custom formerly
prevailed among the Ashkenazim of chanting the
Kaddish, after the lessons on the rejoicing of the
law, to a cento of phrases from melodies in use
throughout the rest of the year, the version once
employed in London (comp. Mombach, "Sacred
Musical Compositions," p. 137) introducing frag-
ments of no less than twelve such airs.

The congregational responses were originally
toneless, a mere loud acclaim. To Sulzer is due
the casting of them into the generally accepted
shape. Other composers also have presented suita-
ble definite melodic phrases. The tendency is prop-
erly to model the responses upon the tuneful mate-
rial of the particular Kaddish itself (comp. Eaer,
"Ba'al Tefillah," passim, and Cohen and Davis,
"The Voice of Prayer and Praise." pp. xx. et seq.,
London, 1899).

Bibliography : Most collections of synapopal melodies present
some form of the Kaddish or responses for It ; see particu-
larly those given in Baer, li(i'(rl TetiHafi. Of especial interest,
in addition to tliose enumerated al)ove, are : Consolo. Caiiti
d'Israele, Nos. l-'T, 3(t', Florence, 18K; rh^yi U'lnp as given
in Sulzer, Sfiir Ziiniou, No. 128, Vienna, 1840; Naumboiirg,
Ainiudat Shirim, No. l.'>, Paris, 1874 ; Baer, I.e. No. 1406 (lK>th
Polish and German forms): Marlisohn and Wolf, Sii>tag(Hja}-
Mibidicit, Nos. 11,1:5, Leipsic. 187."> ; Naumbourp, i.e. No. 23;
I'auer and < oheii, Trnditiminl Hihnir Melodies, No. 11,
London, 1892: Braham and Nathan, Huron's Hehreir Melo-
dies. No. :S, Londnii. 181"): Naumann. Hi.-'toni i>f Miisir. Eng.
ed.. p. 82, London, 1880; Vouim Isniel, i. 24^). ii. 104 and I.')2,
London. 1898-*t9; H. Zivi, Der Jultrhaddineh fUr Sitn-
eliaxtiiora, Leipsic, 1902; Nowakowsky, Schhtssueliet fUr
Join Kinunr, No. 1. _

A. F. L. C.

Kaddish

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

404

KADDISH (La Despidida)

A Jlegretto.

-^-

^i?

Yit

gad - dal .

we - yit

kad - dash .

D.C.

-m- 0-

she

meh.

rab

ba.

KADDISH (After the Pentateuchal Lesson— Sabbath)

LargheUo.

f-^--

^3^^^^m:

:?=^

:t=

^m=:ir^

-U- L_L^

:*=^H:

^ 1 ,-

K— :q — I-

1*«=q^=:|

2^z=5zi*=^=*

;i?^

-I »-

t:=p='-l k:

=*=^

1^=^=±

r^ififzit

:c2^4:

— ^-

-s"— =--

12^

KADDISH (After the Pentateuchal Lesson— Festival)

Andante sostemito. ^ -^ tr

=f==J^:

•^^ -^

t k:

r-f- ^

^r==t

li^Ez^:

pup^zmp:

y-(=^

-G>-

^^=1

H h

-iS^

-\ 13 1 1^

1 ^ i

-(S>-

:?E=_^^ \^ — ^ P:

405

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

KaddiBh

:di

-0—P—m-

-w — ^

-- b * — S* — ^ — &* — »-

~/r

-■•—^

:=1:

^ ^-v-d-

KADDISH (After the Pentateuchal Lesson— Penitential)

Larghetto.

li^^^:

-^-'*-

H ^-

:p;

r=g<

=p=¥=

F^"=p=g^

=1=F

H*-*-F-*=»^=^

-t— I — h-i-

Zfe

^-^ &<

3*=^

:*=iz=^z=:J:

-/» — m.

te^^^^^^^i^^^^^g^N

^=±_-=t:

:=t:

— I — I — ^ —

_i — I-

^ -^ — ^J-^ — ^

:^=^

-I ^

*- — ^ — -p-3'

r=t:=t:

— ^— — =5—5'

-,f=^- — ^

KADDISH (Penitential Musaf)

Andante non troppo.

^^^ — :H— 5«-|l^. — )•— ^— 4-^-

^^p^

1%; lv==si:

f=r-f:5«:

Yit - gad - dal we - yit

Mag - ni - fi ' - - - - ed and sane

kad - dash .

'n • fi •

slie-
ed be

iS=f=ij

-(S^

li^iizt?:

^=r=FF=^=

-^-==^-

-I 1 1 —

:q==1==1:

meh. .
Bis..

rab - ba be - 'ol

grtat Name through - out.

ma di.... be - ra

... the . . . world that

^-=^-

-<=2_L_n-

ki - re - 'u - teh.
He hath ere - a

•we - yam - - lik mal' - ku - teh. Be

ted ac - cord - ing. . to His wiU. His

Kaddish
Kaempf

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

406

^T\

i^<

ye - kon, u - be - yo - me - kon, u - be - hay
dom come icUh - in yoxir days and in the

:^=t^=^:

de - kol bet Yis - ra - el .
time ... of. . . all the house of Ts - ra - el .

ba - 'a

e - ven

.3 — I 1.

^ 1-

^1-

biz - man. . . .
at a

^g,-!?=^:^e*gp^=^g:

-I-

!^^^-

-f^)-

-^—•-

ra,.
2/e. •

:d2

-g^-

A - men.
A - men.

Yit - ba
Bless

rak.
ed..

ka - - - rib, we - im ■

near time, and say

we - yish - tab
and prais -

bah.
ed'..

we - yit - pa - 'ar we - yit - ro - mam we - yit - nas

and glo - ri - fi - ed and ex - alt - ed and ex

53:

-t-

=1:

se, we - yit - had - dar we - yit - 'al - leh we - yit - hal -

tol - led and hon - or - ed and ma<j - - ni - f. - ed and

fc3^

lal

laud - ed

-^--^

she - meh
the IIo

^-*-

de - kud - sha, . .
ly One's Name, .

hless

be - rik

ed be

I^T^"

-1 n^HS-

"*■ "

-^■^^"^"^r^^-

— * w —

rf ^ ^ ^ ^^ 1

. ^,..j q*D^

— 1 ^ — 1

^ k-

--^-W=^-^.-^

— 1

Hu, le - 'e - la u - le - 'e - la min kol bir - ka - ta we - shi - ra
He, though He., be far a - bove all the bless - vigs and

^=^

5i:

:35=^=

■+-

ta» tush - be - ha

hymns, aU the prais

ta we - ne - he - ma - ta

es and the con -so - la - tions

that

a -

are

407

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Laddish
>laeiupf

^ — I — I — P-i — F 1 ^--^ > 1 ^

we - im

and say .

- men.

KADELBURG, GUSTAV : German actor and
dramatist; born Jan. 26, 1851. He made his first ap-
pearance at Leipsic in 1869, and two j'ears later
piaj'ed at the Walhiertheater, Berlin. He was very
successful in comedy parts, but abandoned the
stage to write comedies and farces. Ilis best-
known plays (some written in conjunction with
Blumenthal and Von Schonthan) are: "In Civil";
"Die Berlihmte Frau"; " Grossstadtluf t " ; "Die
Orientreise " ; " Der Herr Senator"; "Zwei Wap-
pen"; "Der Wilde Baron"; "Migriine"; "Mauer-
bUimchen " ; " Zum Wolthiitigen Zweck " ; and " Im
Weisseu Rossi."

BiBLioGRAP}iY: Fluggen, BlUinen Lexikon; Meyers Kon-
versatioiis-Lexikun.
s. E. Ms.

KADESH or KADESH-BARNEA (:^^p [=
"sanctuary "J; J?J"i3 Ulp) '• A place on the western
frontier of Edom, in the "wilderness of Parau,"
"eleven days' journey from Horeb by the way of
Mount Seir " (Num. xiii. 26, xx. 16; Deut. i. 2). In
whole or in part, the same region was apparently
known also as the "wilderness of Zin " (Num. xiii.
21, XX. 1), as the " wilderness of Kadesh " (Ps. xxix.
8), and as the " country of the Amalekites " (Gen.
xiv. 7). The term "city" {-]>]}, Num. xx. 16) may
possibly refer to an Amalekite encampment. The
name "En-mishpat " — " well of judgment" (Gen.
xiv. 7) seems to point to the existence of an ancient
sanctuary which, as the seat of an oracle, was a
place of judgment (comp. Ex. xxi. G; xxii. 8, 9,
where, also, the Hebrew sanctuary is the place of
judgment). Just to the south, according to Num.
xxxi V. 4 (P), ran the boundary-line of Judah (see also
Josh. X. 40-42, XV. 3; Ezek. xlvii. 19, xlviii. 28).
Hither the Israelites came in the second year of the
Exodus (Num. xii. 16, xiii. 26; Dent.' i. 19: but
comp. Num. xx. 1, where the date given is, appar-
ently, the first month of the fortieth year). From
this place the spies were sent to " spy out the land
of Canaan." Here occurred the rebellion of Korah,
Dathan, and Abiram. Here, too, Miriam died and

was buried. At one time the springs failed, and
Moses, at the command of Yhwh, " smote the rock
twice; and the water came out abundantly." Ow-
ing to the rebellious conduct of the people on this
occasion the name " water of Meribah " (= " strife ")
was given to the springs (Num. xx. 2-13; comp.
Deut. xxxii. 51 and xxxhi. 2, where Wellhauseu
reads " Meribat Kadesh "). Moses and Aaron on ac-
count of the angry spirit they exhibited were for-
bidden by Yiiwu to lead Israel into the land of
promise (Num. xx. 12; Ps. cvl. 32-33).

The site of Kadesh was discovered in 1842 by John
Rowland, and has since been visited and described
by Trumbull. It lies midway between Al-'Arish
aud Mount Hor in a great treeless limestone plateau.
The spring of clear water, which rises at the foot
of a limestone cliff, is still called " 'Ain-Kadis" =
"spring of Kadesh."

Bibliography: Trumbull, ivades/i Baj-fica. New York. 18fti:
Pal. Explor. Fund Quarterly Statewent. li^»h p. i>]{} : Palm-
er, Desert of the Exvdus; Gray, Commentari) on Numtiers.

E. G. H. J. F. M.

KADISCH, ZERAH B. MEIR, OF
PRAGUE: Teacher in Rechnitz, Hungary, in the
first half of the nineteenth century. In the preface
of his " Ozar ha-Hayyim " (Prague, 18S2) he states
that, incapacitated by sickness after many years of
teaching, he embodied the results of his experience
in that book. The first and third parts give methods
of teaching in Jewish schools and suggest a curricu-
lum; they are written in German with Hebrew char-
acters; the second part contains the 613 command-
ments in Hebrew and German.

Bibliography: Zedner, Cat. Hehr. Bonks Brit. Mm. p. 407:
Benjacob, Oznr ha-Sefarim, p. 21 ; Zeitlin, Bill. Hebr. Putft-
J/e /uk'is. p. 161?.
s. s. P- " I-

KAEMPF, SAUL ISAAC : Austrian rabbi and
Orientalist; born at Lissa, Posen, May 6, 1818; died
at Prague Oct. 16, 1892. He received his first les-
sons from his father, Aaron Jacob Kaempf. a Tal-
mudic scholar, and then entered the gymnasium at

Kaempf
Kahal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

408

Berlin and continued the study of the Talmud under
E. liosensteiu. lu 1836 he returned to Posen and
prosecuted his studies under Akiba Eger. Four
years later he entered the University of Halle, took
up philosophy and philology, and became one of
the favorite pupils of Gesenius. He received the
degree of Ph.D. and his rabbinical diploma, and ac-
cepted a call to Mecklenburg-Strelitz as teacher and
preacher, in the same year (1844). Two yeai's later
he was called to Prague as preacher of the Temple
Congregation, succeeding Michael Sachs; he re-
mained there until his retirement in 1890. In 1850
Kaempf became privat-docent in Semitic languages
at the University of Prague, liis dissertation being
■' Ueber die Bedeutung des Studiunis der Semitisclien
Spraehen" (Prague, 1850); eight years later lie was
appointed as.sistant professor of Oriental languages
at tJie same university.

Kaempf was a prolific writer. His works include:
"Biographic des Hochberiihmten Hochseligen Herrn
Akiba Eger, Oberrabbiner zu Posen, Nebst einem
Hebriiischen Trauergedicht " (with other Hebrew
and German poems, Lissa, 1838) ; " Die Ersten Ma-

kamen aus dera Tach-
kemoni, oder Divan des
Charisi " (Berlin, 1845) ;
" Simrath Jah : Gottes-
dienstliches Gesangbucli,
Eiugefiihrt im Israelit-
ischen Tempel zu Prag "
(Prague, 1849); "Niciit-
andalusische Poesie An-
dalusischer Dichter aus
dem Elften, Zwdlften und
Dreizehnten Jahrhundert"
(vol. ii. printed under the
title "Zehn Makamen aus
dem Tachkemoni, oder
Divan des Charisi," ih.
1858) ; " Suleiman : Dra-
m.atisches Gedicht " {ih.
1859) ; " Mamtik S(«l : Be-
leuchtung des Frankel-
schen Werkes ' Hodegetik zur Mischna' in Dog-
matischer Beziehung," a defense of Frankel in his
controversy with S. R. Hirsch (rt. 1861); "Dielii-
schrift auf dem Denkmal Mesa's, Kijnig von Moab "
{ih. 1870); "Phonizische Epigraphik: Die Grab-
schrift Eschmunazars, Konigs der tSidonicr" {ih.
1874) ; " Das Hohelied ins Deutsche Uebertragen "
{ih. 1877). His collection of prayers for Jewish holi-
days and festivals, accortling to the ritual of the
Temple Congregation of Prague (<7;. 1854; also trans-
lated), has been frequently republished. In cooper-
ation with L. Philippsou and W. Landau he edited
the Bible for the Jewish Bible Society.

In addition to many single sermons delivered at
celebrations and on various special occasions, several
treatises of larger scope were contributed by him to
various periodicals: "Ueber die Vorstellung der
Aiten Hebriler von der Unsterblichkeit der Seele "
(in "Orient, Lit." 1843, Nos. 7-27); "Ueber Spino-
za's Theologisch Politischen Traktnt" {ih. 1843, Xos.
34-47); "Hillel der Aeltere" (//;. 1849).

IJini.io(;RAi'HY : F. S., .SVr)(/ Imnc Ktumpi : Eiiir nUmm-
phisclte-Skizzc, l'ra»,'ue, ISR") ; Hitirichsen, Jjas Litcrarische

Saul Isaac Kaempf.

Dcnti<chlan(l, pp. 283 ef .scq., Berlin and Rostock ; Kayserling,
liihUothek JUdischer Kanzclredner, il. 310 et acq.

s. M. K.

KAF (3) : Eleventh letter of the Hebrew alpha-
bet. The name is generally taken to mean " hollow
of the hand," to which the shape of the letter has a
near resemblance (see Alphabet). Kaf belongs to
the six consonants called "mutes," and has a two-
fold pronunciation: an explosive, wliich is indicated
by the "dagesli lene" placed in the middle of the
letter, and a spirant. In the former case it corre-
sponds to the English "k," and in the latter nearly
to the Greek x (by Avhich it is often represented i;i
Greek transliteration) or the German soft " ch "
(there is no English equivalent). As a palatal kaf
is related to J and p, with which it sometimes inter-
changes; in some rare cases it passes into the harsh
gutturals n and J?. The syllable " ke " (3) is a prep-
osition, meaning "at," "as," and is prelixcd to
nouns and intinitives. At the end of a word kaf is
written thus: "]. When used as a numeral it lias the
value for 20.

T. I. Br.

KAFFA or FEODOSIA (THEODOSIA) :

Town in the Crimea, Russia. It existed as a Greek
colony at the beginning of the common era, and, like
the rest of such colonies, It undoubtedly had .some
Jewish inhabitants. It was destroyed in the second
century, and was rebuilt as Kaffa. Inscriptions
bearing the dates 909 and 1018 have been found in
the Rabbinite synagogue; from these it is seen that
the older settlement had a well-organized Jewish
community.

In 1266 the new town was established by the Gen-
oese in the vicinity of the old one, and among its in-
habitants were both Rabbinites and Karaites, as is
indicated by an epigraph on a scroll of the Law,
preserved in the Karaite s^'nagogue, in which one
Shabbethai, the son of Isaac, announces his gift of
the scroll to the Karaite synagogue of Kirim (Sul-
chat) in 1374. The Ark of the'Covenant of the Rab-
binite synagogue of KalTa bears the date 1309. An-
other scroll of the Law, preserved in the same
synagogue, was dedicated by Eleazar ben Jacob to
tlie community of Sulchat, and bears the date
1320-50.

An inscription in the Karaite .synagogue, dated
1409, bears the signatures of Isaac, son of Moses, and
Sarah, daughter of Moses. A tombstone, bearing
the date 1457, is now used as a cover for the .syna-
gogue well at Katfa. Anothci'slab, preserved in the
mu.seum of KalTa, once served as the gravestone of
Raltbi Abraham, son of Xahmu, who died Feb. 1,
15U2. Still another tombstone, dated 1508, bears the
name of Rabbi Joshua, son of Jiabbi jMei'r Aslikcnazi
of Tanian. There arc also gravestones dated 1540
and 1553.

Joliann Schiiltbergcr, who from 1394 to 1437 trav-
eled in Europe, Asia, and Africa, states in his de-
scrijition of KalTa that there Avere two sects of Jews
there with separate synagogues, and that there were
4,000 Jewish houses in the suburbs. In the constitu-
tion of the Genoese colonies on Ihe Black Sea, issued
at Genoa Feb. 28, 1449, the bishops of KafTa are
directed not to oppress the Greeks, Armenians, Jews,

409

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kaempf
Kabal

and peoples of otlier deuoininatioiis. and not to in-
terfere in the affairs of other eonfessions, but to he
content with supervising the moral welfare of their
own communicants. In the event of tiie failure of
the bishops to complj^ with the decisions of the
councils the latter and the board of elders will, it is
announced, bv retjuired to furnish to Jews, Greeks,
and Armenians protection from robbery and from
unjust exactions.

Duiing the rule of the Tatars,- the Russian czar

Ivan III., Vassilivich, had his Jewish representative

Khoza Kokos at Kaffa. Zacharias

Under the de Guizolfi also resided at Kaffa, as

Tatars. is seen from the letters of Ivan III. to
his ambassadors. These letters show-
that the Kaffa Jews had intimate commercial rela-
tions with the Jews of Kiev.

Martin Bronevski, who visited the Crimea in 1578,
in his "Tatarias Descriptio " (Cologne, 1595), saj's
that the inhabitants of Kaffa — Turks, Jews, and
Christians — cultivated beautiful gardens and vine-
yards, extending over more than two miles. The
khan collected annual tribute from the Tatars, Jews,
Circassians, and others. For the ransom of prisoners
of war the foreign ambassadors engaged the services
of Jews and other merchants. The Dominican John
de Luca (1625) states that in his time Kaffa was in-
habited by Jews. The Crimean khan Mohammed
Girai (1654-66) ordered his representative not to
interfere with the Jew Mordecai, who intended to
sell three slaves in Kaffa or in Karasu, and who had
paid for his license.

Bibliography : JReycsfv, s.v.; Lowe, Die liestc dcr Gcrmancii
tun Scliicarzcii Meere, s.v., Halle, 1896.
II. K. J. G. L.

KAHAL : A Hebi'ew Avord meaning " assembly "
or "community," and applied formerly to the local
governments of the Jewish communities in Lithu-
ania, Poland, and Russia. Its organization had,
however, been established, in part at least, in west-
ern Europe before the Crusades (see Community).
The foundations of the kahal organization were laid
in the collective responsibility of the community to
the government in all matters of taxation. The
government preferred to deal with the kahal as a
body and not with its individual members, grant-
ing it autonomy in matters concerning the compo-
nent parts of the community. In its early history
(15th cent.) the kahal organization of Poland was
a popular institution. It watched over the in-
terests of the Jewish masses, and it was com-
paratively free from administrative abuse. The
Jewish communities had not had at that time a wide-
spread recourse to the Hazak.\h, or the "hezkat
yishshub " (priority of holding property); they were
still comparatively free from debt; and they were
firmly bound to one another by a solidarity of inter-
est. The purely administrative and the religious
functions of the kahal were maintained distinct
from each other, and when they did clash the dif-
ferences were adjusted within its own organization
and without recourse to the general government.
Disputes between one kahal and another and dis-
putes within the kahal itself between the administra-
tive and religious officials were referred for adjust-
ment to the Jewish synods or to the Colncii, of

Folk Lands. In extreme cases, however, the kahai
invoked the aitl of the civil authorities.

Originally the administrative bodies of the com-
munities ("zbory zhidovskiye "), and later the
kahais tiicniselves, were regarded as the govern-
ment's agents; and toward the end of the six-
teenth century they developed into uniform organi-
zations throughout the country. The nunc im-
portant communities each served as the center for
a certain territory through which were scattered
the smaller comnmuities and isolated Jewish fam-
ilies. The administrative body of the central com-
munity was called "kahal," while tho.se of the
smaller dependent connnunities were designated
■• prikahalki." The kahal consisted of
Organiza- a certain number of persons, usually
tion. proi)ortiouate to the JewLsh popula-
tion. In Cracow it was compo.sed of
40 members; in Wilna of 35; in the medium-sized
connnunities there were from 22 to 35, and in the
small communities not less than 8. Every kahal
annually selected by lot from among its members
five "electors," who in their turn elected the suc-
ceeding kahal, also by lot or by vote. These annual
elections usually resulted in the mere rearrange-
ment of the administrative functions among the offi-
cers of the preceding kahal, and the organization
therefore assumed the character of an oligarchy.
The administrative officers w^ere divided into f(jur
classes. At the head were four elders ("rashim"),
Avho were followed by from three to five "lionorary "
members (" tuvim," i.e., " tobim "). These two classes
formed the nucleus of the kahal and adjudged
all communal affairs. To the number of at least
seven they formed the official council of the kahal.
The ciders served by turns for a period of one month
as treasurers (" parnasim '') and, in general, as exec-
utive officers. In Lithuania there existed in the
eighteenth century a third class of kahal officials, the
active members (" 'ikkarim "), who in White Russia
were generally designated as headmen ("allufim'"),
their number varying from four to ten. From
among their number were chosen the candidates
who took the places of deceased or retired members
of the first two classes. There were also officials
assigned to specific duties, such as supervisors and
judges (" dayyanim"). To these should be added the
female members mentioned in the "pinkcses" of the
seventeenth century, who took part in the charitable
affairs of the connnunity and assisted illiterates in
their synagogal devotions. There were also minor
executive officers ("shamqiashim ").

The Cracow kahal statutes of 1595 recognized
three classes of kahal judges: the lower, middle, and
higher, each composed of three persons. The first
tried all suits wherein the amount involved did not
exceed 10 gold ducats; the second, suits for amounts
from 10 to 100 gold ducats. Both classtvs hcUl daily
sessions. The highest class of judges held at least
two sessions every week, and tried suits for sums ex-
ceeding 100 gold ducats. Apart from the collection
of taxes and the administration of conununal insti-
tutions, the kahal also regulated afTairs of commerce,
the accuracy of weights and measures, the treatment
of transient Jewisii visitors, the cleaning of the Jew-
ish streets, and the occupations of butchers, school-

fabal
ahan

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

410

teachers, servants, wine-dealers, printers, and mar-
riage-factors, as well as the office of the rabbi. It
regulated also the relations of landlord and tenant.

The annual election of the kahal officers took
place in the Passover week. The parnas called to-
gether the members of the kahal, who were required
to declare before the casting of the ballot that they
would choose according to their con-
Mode of sciences without previous agreement
Election, among themselves. The minor exec-
utive officers of tlie kahal then placed in
an urn slips of paper bearing the names of all per-
sons subject to the burden of ta.xation and of the
communal wants, and drew out the names of nine
persons not related to one another by marriage ties.
These nine persons were required under oath to select
according to the dictates of their consciences five
electors from the kahal administration ; and these
electors in turn chose the kahal elders.

The kahal organization was, as stated above, al-
ready established in Poland before the beginning of
the sixteenth century. The Lithuanian kahal was
organized, on the Polish model, in the middle of that
century. In a short time it succeeded in developing
along lines of its own a splendid administrative
system. During the period of prosperity before the
Cossack uprisings there were few complaints made
by the poor against the rich, and the kahal machinery
was still working rather smoothly. Toward the
end of tlie seventeenth century there came into
prominence the kahal debts, which strengthened
still further the power of the kahal over the indi-
vidual. Ruined by the Cossack wars, the Jews
were in great tinancial distress, and were obliged to
seek loans from the abbots, the only capitalists of
that time. These were willing to make loans only
on the responsibility of the entire kahal. The in-
creasing debts of the communities led, among other
things, to the abuse of the kahal prerogatives, and
created much dissatisfaction. This resulted in a
bitter struggle throughout the seventeenth cen-
tury between the kahal and the prikahalki, and be-
tween the kahal elders and the Jewish masses. The
Jews living in the villages, for the most part well
to-do, accused the kahal of placing the entire burden
of the kahal taxes on their shoulders. During that
time the kahal frequently found itself impotent to
protect the property and even the persons of the
Jews; its moral authority declined because of the
cupidity of the kahal administrations.

In the middle of tiie eighteenth century the kahals
of Lithuania l)ecame insolvent. When in 1766 the
commission appointed by the diet began the liquida-
tion of the Jewish debts, it found the
Insolvency tinancial affairs of the communities in
of the a very unsatisfactory condition. The
Kahal. kahal of Wilna, which community
numbered 5,316 Jews, had a del)t of
722,800 tlorins; that of Brest-Litovsk, with a Jewish
population of S.lTf), a debt of 222, 720 florins; that of
Grodno, with 2,418 persons, a debt of 386,571 florins;
and that of Pinsk, with a population of 1,277, a
debt of 309,140 florins. The resources of the ka-
hals for the payment of these debts were but mea-
ger; the annual income of that of Wilna, for in-
stance, was 34,000 florins, of Brest-Litovsk 31,200, of

Grodno 21,000, and of Pinsk 37,500 florins. This
income was derived mainly from indirect taxation,
as', for instance, the duty on salt, tobacco, herrings,
tar, and other merchandise; the graduated tax on
dowries ; the tax on Jewish artisans, on mill products
(one out of three measures) of mills rented from the
kahal, and on taverns and breweries; the meat
monopoly, etc. From these sources the kahal had
to cover all the government taxes, as the "giberna"
(tax for maintaining the army), the poll-tax for the
poor, etc. Then came the salaries for local Christian
oflicials in charge of Jewish affairs. These received
a fixed salary (780 florins in Wilna), and natural
products, such as meat, fish, vegetables, etc. When
soldiers were stationed in the neighborhood, the local
kahal had to supply them with candles, paper, seal-
ing-wax, meat, fish, etc. The kahal had to provide
also for the salaries of the rabbis, dayyanim, and
other members of the kahal administration. Unfore-
seen expenses were likewise devolved on the kahal.
When a papal nuncio visited the city the kahal usu-
ally presented him with a loaf of sugar; a Catholic
priest, with lemons and a pound of sugar; a con-
stable, with a bottle of liquor. When troops en-
tered a city the kahal had to supply them the items
mentioned above, and also to furnish them with fire-
men, chininej^-sweeps, etc., and even to provide
money for the capture of deserters.

When the magistrates presented to the diet any
project aiming to limit the rights of the Jews the
kahal had to send delegates to watch the proceed-
ings and to take the necessary steps to oppose the
threatened legislation. Frequently the rabbi and
the entire kahal administration had to journey to the
capital or to the district center on matters concern-
ing the community. For instance, in 1767 the whole
kahal organization of Wilna had to go to Warsaw
to protest against the intolerable burden of taxation
and other impositions.

The kahal had to pay for the maintenance of

Jewish prisoners in the town prisons, and to defray

the expenses of trial in case of acquit-

Various tal. The kahal had to spend lai'ge sums
Payments, of money for charitable purposes
also, such as the release of insolvent
debtors from jail, aid to local and wandering poor,
etc. In order to meet all its expenditures the of-
ficers of the kahal were obliged to seek new sources
of income, and to farm out various items of taxa-
tion. In this manner they made the constantly in-
creasing burden of the poor almost unbearable. The
sale of all objects of immediate necessity, particu-
larly meat, was farmed out to monopolists. The sale
of merchandise which brought the greatest profits
was also in the hands of monopolists, who paid large
sums for the privilege. The right of movement from
place to place was greatly limited. Every new-
comer had to pay a certain sum for the right of " hez-
kat yishshub." These conditions made it practically
impossible for the poor to change their residence.

The various taxes payable by the members of the
community to the kahal included the poll-tax, the
ten-per-cent property-tax, the taxes called "be-torat
zakali," "butim," etc., besides compulsory loans to
tiie kahal. There was no escape for the poor. The
well-to-do, however, managed to secure from tlie

411

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

lahal
Lahan

kaluil or from the civil government freedom from
excessive taxation on payment of a certain consid-
eration; they were thus invested with extraterri-
torial rights, and were not even responsible for the
debts of the kahal. The administration of the kahal
was also monopolized by the rich, who managed to
remain in authority through ties of relationsiiip and
common interest. At times (e.g., in the eighteenth
century) the administrative authority was retained
in the hands of a few powerful families.

Throughout the eighteenth century the Jewish
masses persistently clamored for the abolition of tlie
kahal as mediator between them and the general
government, for the removal of the communal guar-
anty, for the abolition of the kahal control in the
relation of landlord and tenants, and for the estab-
lishment of individual responsibility on the part of
every Jew for the payment of taxes and the liquida-
tion of kahal debts. These agitations of the Jewish
masses resulted in the constitution of 1764, which pre-
scribed a census of the entire Jewish
In the population in Poland and Lithuania;
Eighteenth thelev}- on the Jews of a poll-tax to be
Century, paid directly into the government
treasury; and the appointment of a
commission for the examination, consolidation, and
liquidation of the kahal debts. It was found neces-
sary, however, for the proper liquidation of these
debts, to retain the kahal system of taxation for
at least twenty years; and in 1775 the right was
again given to the kahal to make loans under the
guarantj^ of its entire body. From the constitution
of the same year it appears that, notwithstanding
the abolition of the collective kahal responsibility,
the arrears of taxes were claimed from the kahal.

In the region which was transferred to I?ussia
after the first partition of Poland the Jewish popu-
lace still continued to fight against the kahal. In
the reign of Catherine II. it was ordered that the
names of the Jewish residents be entered in the town
records, the power of the kahal with reference to free-
dom of removal being thereby abolished. Questions
on the validity of Jewish debts were referred to the
courts; and the newly established county and state
kahalswere not allowed judicial functions excejit as
regarded cases that concerned the rites of the Jew-
ish law. On the other hand, the law of 177G decreed
that the poll-tax be paid by the kahal, and the latter
Avas required to furnish passports to the members of
the community. In this way the county and state
kahals became, as it were, a continuation of the
former kahal organization. The " Regulations " of
1804, while they took from the kahal its relig-
ious and judicial functions, assigning them to the
rabbis, placed in its hands the supervision of the
proper payment of the government taxes and the
management of the funds entrusted to it by the com-
munity. Every town or village was to have one
kahal only, even though its Jewish population
was divided into several sects or denominations.
The number of kahal representatives — elected with
the sanction of the government for a period of three
years— was not defined by the Russian law. The
kahals were prohibited from lev3-ing new taxes with-
oiit the knowledge of the government; and in 1818
they were supplied from the administrative offices

with books in which to enter, among other things,
the collection and expenditure of the Basket-Tax
moneys, originally intended for the licpiidatiou of
the kaiial indebtedness. To the kahal were also
assigned the care of homeless Jews, the aid of Jew-
ish emigrants, etc.

The regulations of 1835 reestablished in its com-
plete form, within the Pale of Jewish Settlement,
the Polish kahal organization. In virtue of the.se
regulations ever}^ Jew, except those employed in
agriculture, was compelled to register in the Jewish
community of his township, even though his resi-
dence were in a village or hamlet. In the cities the
Jews elected, with the sanction of the state adminis-
tration, for a period of three years, three to five rep-
resentatives who composed the kahal. The duties
of the kahal included the supervision of the collec-
tion of government, city, and district taxes, as well
as of the specifically Jewish taxes (basket-tax); the
custody and expenditure of the kahal funds; the
care of old, crippled, and poor Jews ; and the dis-
couragement of vagrancy. The conscript statute
of 1827 decreed that the Jewish communities should
supply their quota of conscripts apart from the
Christian population, imposed on the Jewish conmiu-
nities the supervision of the supply of conscripts, and
gave them the power to draft as a conscript an}'
Jew in arrear with his taxes or guilty of vagrancy
or any other offense. In this manner the kahal was
given a power scarcely less extensive than that en-
joyed by it under Polish rule.

In 1844 the kahals were abolished and their
affairs transferred to the city administrations, except
in Riga and the towns in the government of Cour-
land, where the kahals continued to exist " for the
administration of taxes and duties" until 1893.

In 1869 a converted Jew, Jacob Braf.manx, seek-
ing notoriety, published "Kniga Kagala" (="The
Book of the Kahal "), in which he made
Brafmann many false statements with regard to

on the the secret continuance of the kahal in

Kahal. Russia, and to its harmful infiuences
on the native population. Although
his falsehoods were exposed by Shereshevski in "O
Knigye Kahala" (St. Petersburg, 1872), by I. Rabin-
ovich, M. Morgulis, I. Orshanski, and by others, the
anti-Semitic press of Russia made extensive use, for
the purposes of its propaganda, of Brafmann 's sensa-
tional inventions.

Bibliography: Complete Russian Code. x.. No. 80.54; xi.x.,
Nos. 13,805, 18,516; XX., No. 14,5~'2; xxi.. No. 15,4;J6; xxii.. No.
16.391; xxviii.. No. i!l,547; Bershadski, Litovshie Yevrei, pas-
sim, St. Petersburg, 188;j ,• Orshanski, Yccrei v Ko.'isii. passim ;
bibliograpliv on A'n/ia? in Sistcwatichei<ki L'kazatel Stiitei,
etc., Nos. 2267-Zm, ih. 1893; Mysh, liukovoil^tvo li Russkim
Zakouain, 2d ed., p. 54, ih. 1898.

H. R.

KAHAN, ABRAHAM : Russian Hebrew au-
thor; born Dec. 19, 1874, at Skomorochy, near Jito-
mir. He has written or edited the following works:
an anthology of S. D. Luzzatto's letters, tran.slated
from the Italian into Hebrew, Odessa, 1896; " Debar
Shemuel," Cracow, 1896, a collection of letters from
Samuel Vita Lolli to S. D. Luzzatto and I. S. Rcg-
gio, with the replies of Reggio and a biography of
Lolli by Castiglioni ; a Hebrew biography of Moses
Hayyim Luzzatto, Warsaw, 1899; "Korot ha-Yehu-
dim'be-Roma," ?7». 1901; " Dikduk Lashon 'Ibrit,"

Kahana
Kahn

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

412

after S. D. Luzzatto's Hebrew grammar, ih. 1901;
" Kabbi Yisrael Ba'al Sliem-Tob," Jitomir, 1901. He
is also the editor of a critical commentary, in He-
brew, on the Bible, to which he contributed the mat-
ter on Genesis (Jitomir, 1904). Kahan (in Hebrew
" Kahana ") is a frequent contributor to the Hebrew
periodicals "Ha-Meiiz," "Ha-Zeman," and "Hu-Shi-
loah," and is the editor of the literary reviews in
"Ha-Dor." r>-

KAHANA, ABRAHAM ARYEH LOB:
Russian rabbi of tlie eighteenth century; author of
"Or ha-Ne'erab," Talmudic commentary, with sup-
plementary notes by his son Solomon Zalman Ka-
hana (OstVog, 1804). He also left in manuscript

" Dibre Henied," sermons, etc.
Biblical connnentary.

and "Zer Zahab," a

Bibliography: Benjacob,
Kcnc^tt I'i^rad, V- ■^■
11. K.

Ozar ha-Srfariin, P

. 27 ; Fiienn,
J. G. L.
(Kaiiaxa),

BiBi.iOfiRAPiiY: Fuenn, Koir^ct YisracU
Ozar ha-IScfarim, pp. 211, 572.
s s.

KAHANA, DAVID. See Koiix
David.

KAHANA, ELIEZER BEN REUBEN:

Pieaelier and hoiniletic exegele in Karlin ut the
beginning of the eighteenth century. He wrote:
"Siah Sefunim" (Zolkiev, 1751-52), a commentary
on the Five Polls, each of them having its special
subtitle; and "Ta'ame Torah " (tb. 1752-65), on the
accents, the Masorah, and the recitation of the Pen-
tateuch.

12o ; Benjacoh,

M. Sc.

KAHANA, JACOB BEN ABRAHAM : Rab-
binical author; died in Wiina 1826. His father was
rabbi at Brestowitz, government of Grodno. Jacob
was the son-in-law of R. Issachur of AYilna, brother
of Elijah Wilua. He lived with his fatlu'r-iii-law,
and was supported by him for many \-ears, so that
he was able to devote his time to the study of the
Law; and he became one of the leading Talmud-
ical scholars in Wilna. After Issachar's death Jacob
was appointed trustee of the charities of the city.

Jacob was tiie author of "Shittot." a commentary
on the tractate 'Erubiu. The work is divided into
three parts, the first consisting of novellas on tlie
Gemara, the second of novelhe on the Tosefta, and
the third of novellas on the corresponding tractates
in tlie Yerushalmi. The manuscript was revised
and the work published in Lemberg, 1863, by Ra-
phael Nathan Rabbiuowicz.

Bibliography: Fuenn, ivc/icset Yisrad, p. .5j50; idem, Kir-
]iah Nc'cmnnali, p. 240.

s. s. N. T. L.

KAHANA, RAB (popular name of Hayyim
ha-Kohen) : Grand rabbi of Constantinople (1854-
1800); born 1785; died 1860 (Franco, ''Hist, des Isr.
de I'Empire Ottoman," 1897).

y. M. Fk.

KAHANA B. TAHLIFA : Babylonian amora
of the third century. He is mentioned only twice
in the Babylonian Talmud; viz., in Men. 66b, where
he refutes R. Kahana, and in 'Er. 8b, where he
([uotes a sentence of R. Kahana b. ilinyomi, who
seems to have lieen his teacher.

Kaliana b. Tahlifa apparently emigrated to Pales-

tine, perhaps in company with R. Zera; for Yer.
'Ab. Zarah ii. 9 mentions him together with Zera
and with Hanan b. Bo. This is not certain, how-
ever; for the passage reads : " R. Zera, Kahana b.
Tahlifa, and Hanan b. Bo," which may be rendered
also "R. Zera Kahana" ("the priest"), since Zera
was a priest (Yer. Ber. iii. 5). On this assumption
Bar Tahlifa can net be identical with Kahana b.
Tahlifa.'

s. s. J. Z. L.

KAHINAH DAHIYAH BINT THABITAH

IBN TIF AN : Jewish princess of a l^erber tribe
likewise called Kahinah; lived in the second half
of the seventh century. According to the ^loham-
medan historians, the most powerful tribe at the
time of the Arab invasion of the Maghreb was the
Jewish one named Kahinah (probably from the He-
brew \r\2), which extended its domination over
nearly all, the Berbers. It occupied Mount Aures
(Atlas) and was governed by the princess Kahinah
Dahiyah, who covered herself with glory in her fight
against the invading army. She defeated the Ara-
bian general Hassan ibn al-Nu'man, and compelled
the Arabs to withdraw. When, five years later (694),
Hassan received a large reeuforcemcnt, and ad-
vanced against the Berbers, Kahinah ordered all the
Berber cities to be destroyed, hoping that the Arabs
Avould then renounce fighting for the conquest of
a waste land. But they persisted in their attack;
and Kahinah fell near a well which, in memory of
the heroine, is still called " Bir al-Kahinah."

BHiLiooRAPiiY: Ibn Khaldun, Kitab Ta'arikli al-Duwal. i.
];i"); Kayserlinsr, Jiiili>tche Frituoi^ p. 73; Bloch, ics Tcr-
turs Militairc^ dcs Juift<, p. 50.
G. I. Bu.

KAHIYA: Title of a political representative
in Turkey. The word, i)ronounced "kehya" or
"kyahya,"is Turkish and is a corruption of the
Persian " ketkhoda." It means " head man," or rep-
resentative in a small village where the people usu-
ally appoint the oldest and richest one among them
to represent them in matters of state. He collects
the taxes, entertains any government officials who
may visit the village, and in return receives annu-
ally a certain part of the crops and live stock of the
villagers. In eveiy larger town and city of Turkey
each nation has a kahiya in its own quarter. Under
liim are subordinate officials, called " mukhtar " ; and
no police officer may enter a house unless he is ac-
companied by one of the latter. In addition, every
state in Turkey is represented at Constantinople by
its kahiya, who receives a regular salary from the
Porte and is known in official circles by his original
name "ketkhoda." For example, the ketkhoda of
Egypt receives £100 a month.

In connection with the Jews the office is first heard
of under Sulaiman the Magnificent. In his time the
kahiya was a person named Shealtiel. His position
appears to have been an honorable one; he was a
favorite at court, and had free entry to the palace.
If an injury or injustice was done to Jews anywhere
in the empire, no matter by whom, whether by gov-
ernment official, private citizen, or foreigner, it was
Shealtiel's duty to defend their rights. The office
has been continued ever since the days of Sulaiman,
but in a considerablv modified form. At nreseut in

413

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kahana
Kabn

Constantiiioi)lo tlie kaliiya is little more than a ,t;:uar-
dian of the peace; the sameoflicc being toundiu the
Jewish, Greek, and Armenian quarters.

BiBLiofiRAPiiv: M. Franco, Tdstoirc rfcs Txrai'Utcs dc VEm-
pirc t)tti)i)ian, pp. 40-47 ; Uriitz, Gcxch. ix. '&^-'Sii.

G. M. w. :\r.

KAHN, JOSEPH: German rabbi and preacher;
born at W'awern, a small village near Treves, Sept.
2, 1809; died at Amsterdam July 10, 1875. He lost
his father, the village teacher and cantor, early in
life, and, probabl}', woidd have lived and died a
cattle-dealer had notafall from a horse permanently
nntitted him for any active physical occupation.
Kahn ■went to ]\Ietz, where for four yetirs he stud-
ied Talmud under j\Ieir Lagard ; at IMannlieim he
continued his studies under Jacob Ettlingcr; he
then attended successively the universities of Hei-
delberg and Bonn. In 1841 lie was appointed chief
rabbi of Treves, where he officiated for more than
thirty years.

Kahn took part in the rabbinical conferences at
Erankfort-on-the-Main, Breslau, and Cassel. He was
an eloquent preacher, and a number of Ids sermons
have been published, including his " Antrittsrede,
18 Dez. 1841 " (Treves, 1842) and " Die Feier der Ein-
weihungder Neuen Synagogein Trier am 9. und 10.
Sept. 1859" (ib. I860), both being especially note-
worthy.

BiBLinoRAPnv : Kayserling, Bihliothck JVuUschcr Kanzd-
rediicr, ii. 298 et -seq., Berlin, 1872.
S. S. Sa.

KAHN, LEHMAN : Belgian educationist and
writer; born Sept. 9, 1827, at Breisach, Baden, Ger-
many; educated at; the Progj'mnasium of Breisach
and at the polj'technic school and the pedagogic
seminary of Carlsruhe. After occupying tlie position
of teacher in his native country and at the Jewish
school of Hcgenheim, Alsace, he was called to Brus-
sels as principal of the Jewish school there (1855).
In Oct., 1863, lie founded L'Institut International
Kahn, a .scliool of commerce and modern languages,
which is still in existence.

Kahn wrote: "Serie de Lettres sur le ]\Iariage
Mixte" (1877; translated into Dutch, English, and
German); "Le Droit Social, Applique a la Question
des Cimetieres" (1878; two pamphlets against tlie
plan of the Brussels city administration to close the
Jewish cemeteries); "Komains et Juifs, Etude Cri-
tique sur les Rapports Publics et Prives Qui Out Ex-
iste Eutre les liomains et les Juifi* Jusqu'a la Prise
de Jerusalem par Titus" (1894; this won a prize
awarded by the Academy of Sciences of Brussels);
"Ecole Confessionnelle ou NeutreV" twopampldets
(1896-97); "Assimilation" (1900); "Conciliation"
(1901).

s. S. M.\x.

KAHN, ROBERT: German composer and ])ian-
isL; born at ^Mannheim Jul}- 21, 1865; a pupil of
Ernst Frank and Vinceuz Lachner (Mannheim),
Friedrich Kiel (Berlin), and Joseph Kiieinberger
(Municli). After living for some time at Vienna and
Berlin he went in 1890 to Leipsic, where in the fol-
lowing year he founded a ladies' choral union and
gave concerts. In Oct., 1898, lie was ai)]n)inted
teacher of theory and composition at the Konigliclie
Hochschule fur Musik, Berlin.

Kahn has written a serenade for orchestra; tliree
pianoforte quartets, opp. 14, 30, and 41 ; three piano-
forte trios, opp. 19, 33, and 35; a string quartet in
A major; two sonatas for violin and jiianoforte, op]).
5 and 26; "Mahomet's Gcsang," for mixed clu^rus
and orchestra, op. 24; and some excellent terzets
and quartets for female voices.

Bihmograpiiy: Riemann, Musik-Lexikoii ;
Diet, of Musicia)!^.

Baker, Biog.
J. So.

Zadoc Kahn.

KAHN, ZADOC : Chief rabbi of France : born
Feb. 18, 1839, at Mommenheim, Alsace. In 1856 he
entered the rabbinical scliool of 3Ietz, finisliiiig his
theological studies at the same institution after it
had been established at Paris as tlie Seminaire Israe-
lite ; and on graduation
he was appointed di-
rector of the Talmud
Torah, the preparatory-
school of the seminary.
In 1867 he was ap-
pointed assistant to
Chief Rabbi Isidor of
Paris, whom he suc-
ceeded in the following
year, when Isidor be-
came chief rabbi of
France. As Kahn had
not 3'et reached the pre-
scribed age of thirty,
he had to obtain a dis-
pensation before he
could accept the office,
his election to which

had been largely due to his thesis "L'Esclavage
Selon la Bible et le Talmud" (1867; later trans-
lated into German and Hebrew). The community
of Paris attained to a high degree of prosperity and
enlightenment under Kahn's administration.

On Chief Rabbi Isidor's death in 1889 Kahn was
unanimously elected chief rabbi of France, and was
inducted ]\Iarch 25, 1890. He then entered upon a
period of many-sided philanthropic activity. He
organized the relief movement in behalf of the
Jews expelled from Russia, and gave much of his
time to the work of the Alliance Israelite Universelle,
which elected him lionorary president in recogni-
tion of liis services. He aided in establishing many
jirivate charitable institutions, including the Refuge
du Ple.ssis-Piquet, near Paris, an agricultural school
for abandoned children, and the liaison de Retraite
at Neuilly-sur-Soine, for young girls. He was ap-
pointed Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1879
ami Officer in 1901, and is Othcer of Public Instruc-
tion.

Zadoc Kahn was one of the founders, the first
vice-president, and, soon after, president, of the
Societe des Etudes Juives (1879). He is a brilliant
orator, and one of his most noteworthy addresses
was delivered on the centenary (May 11, 1889) of the
French Revolution — "La Revolution Francaise et
le JudaYsme. " He has published the following works:
"Sermons et Allocutions" (1875, 1886, 1894); "Ser-
mons et Allocutions Adresses a la Jeunesse Israe-
lite" (1878); "Etudes sur le Livre de Joseph le
Zelateur," a collection of religious controversies of

Kaidanover
Kair-wran

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

414

the Middle Ages (1887) ; " Biograpbie de M. Isidore
Loeb " ; " Discours d'Installatiou " (Mardi 25, 1890) ;
"Religion et Patrie," addresses; "Souvenirs et Re-
grets," funeral orations.

BrBLiOGRAPHT : Chantavoine, L'Elnqneiice Sncree dans la
Religion Juive, in Journal dcs Debats, 1898 ; Curinier, Dic-
tionnaire National.
s. I^- A.

KAIDANOVER, AARON SAMUEL, BEN
ISRAEL (kuowu also as Samuel Kaidanover) :
Polish rabbi; born atWilnalGU; died at Cracow
Dec. 1, 1676 (Michael; butAzulaiand Horovitzgive
1679 ; see bibhography). Among his teachers were
Jacob Hoeschel and his son Joshua Hoeschel. During
the Chmielnicki revolution (1648-49) the Cossacks
plundered Kaidanover's possessions, his valuable
library and his manuscripts among them, and killed
his two little daughters, and he arrived in Moravia
an impoverished fugitive. He was elected rabbi
successively of Langenloisin Lower Austria. Nikols-
burg, Glogau, Flirth, and Frankfort-on-the-Main,
and then returned to Poland, where he died as
rabbi of Cracow. He wrote: "Birkat ha-Zebah,"
annotations to the Talmudical tractates of Kodashim
(except HuUin and Bekorot), with a preface in which
he narrated the remarkable events of his life (edited
by his son-in-law Nalium Kohen, brother of Shab-
bethai Kohen ["I'e:'], Amsterdam, 1669; another edi-
tion, with the commentary " 'Omer Man," appeared
[at Berlin?] in 1773); "Birkat Shemuel," derashot
on the Pentateuch, partly cabalistic, with additions
by his son Zebi Hirsch, its editor (Frankfort-on-the-
Alain, 1682) ; " 'Emunat Shemuel," sixty responsa on
matrimonial cases, edited by his son {ib. 1683);
"Tif'eret Shemuel," novella3 to various Talmudic
tractates, also edited by his sou (ib. 1692). The an-
notations to Hoshen Mishpat contained in the last-
named work were printed in "Ture Zahab" (Ham-
burg, 1692).

BIBI.IOCRAPHY: Azulai, y/icm ha-Gedoliin, i. ]2tb, Warsaw,
1876; Benjacob, Uzar ha-Sefntim. pp. 41, 87, 88, 6.59; Jacob
Emden, MeoiUat Sefet\ p. 5, Warsaw, 1896 ; Fiirst, Bihl. Jiid.
i. 201, ii. 200; Griitz, GcscJi.x. 81; Horovitz. Fraiikfiirter
liabbiurn. ii. 49-.')3, 99; Kaufmann, Vcrtrcilnnia dcr Judcii
aus }Vii'ii, p. 02, note 6, Vienna, 1889; Michael. Or lin-I^aij-
yim. No. 317 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 772, 886.

D. S. Man.

KAIDANOVER, ZEBI HIRSCH : Native of
Wilua; died at Frankfort-on-the-^Iaiu March 23.
1712; son of Rabbi Aaron Samuel Kaidanover; pupil
of Joseph ben Judah Jeidel, rabbi of Minsk and
later of Dubno. Rabbi Joseph's teaching exercised
a considerable influence upon his pupil, especially
in the cabalistic trend of his .studies; whereas in the
Ilalakah, Kaidanover followed more closely his
father.

In his native place Kaidanover, with his whole
family, was thrown into prLson on account of a base
denunciation, and was forced to languish in chains
for years until he was pardoned, liis son being re-
tained in prison at Slutsk. Fearing another im-
prisonment, lie decided to settle in Frankfort-on-
the-Main.

In Frankfort he recovered from the trials through
which he had passed and found leisure to engage in
literary pursuits. Besides publishing his father's
works, wliicii he in part accompanied with notes
(as in the case of " Birkat Shemuel "), he wrote a

book on morals entitled " Kab ha-Yashar," being a
combination of ethics and asceticism.' It has passed
through numerous editions since its first appearance
at Frankfort in 1705. The book contains 102 chap-
ters, corresponding to the numerical value of 3p.
" Ha-Yashar " (")t;>^n) is an anagram of the author's
name (tiHM). Kaidanover also made a Judaeo-Ger-
man translation of his work which has often been
published together with the Hebrew text (as ed.
Sulzbach, 1815). A similar book on morals was writ-
ten by his son-in-law, Rabbi Manoah Hendel
Kirclihahn, under the title "Simhat ha-Nefesh."

The epitaph on Kaidanover's tombstone is given
in Horovitz, "Frankfurter Rabbinen," ii. 99.

BiBLiOGRAPnY : Fiirst, Bibl. Jiid. 1. 200; Horovitz, Fiaiik-
fvrter Rnbbineu, ii. 49 et spr/.; prefaces to Kab ha-Ya)shar,
Tifcret Shemuel, and "Emunat Shemuel.
s. s. M. L. B.

KAIDANSKY. See Sachs.

K'AI-FUNG-FOO, See China.

KAINAN : Sou of Arphaxad and father of
Salah; mentioned only in Gen. xi. 13 (LXX.), Book
of Jubilees, viii. 1-4, and Luke iii. 36 ; omitted in
all other versions of Gen. xi. 13, Salah being given
as the son of Arphaxad. According to the Book of
Jubilees (I.e.), Kainan, taught the art of writing by
his father, found carved on the rocks by former gen-
erations an inscription preserving the science of as-
trology as taught by the rebel angels, the Watchers,
who descended from heaven in the days of Jered
and led mankind away from God. Similarly, Jose-
phus (" Ant." i. 2, § 3) speaks of pillars of brick and
stone upon which the children of Seth had inscribed
their astrological knowledge for future generations.
The " Sefer ha-Yashar " describes Kainan, the pos-
sessor of great astrological wisdom, which had been
inscribed on tables of stone, as the sou of Seth and
not of Arphaxad.

Bibliography : Charles, The Bool: of Jubilees, pp. 66-67, Lon-
don. 1902.
E. G. 11. K.

KAIRWAN (Arabic. Al-Kairuwan ; Hebrew,
jNTT'p: called also Afrika, or, more correctly,
Afrikiya, in Hebrew sources) : City in the regency
of Tunis, thirty miles inland from Susa, and about
eighty miles south of the capital. Next to Tunis,
it is the largest and most populous city in the coun-
try, and is the " Mecca " of North Africa. Kairwan,
which soon became the metropolis of the province,
Avas founded in the year 670 by 'Ukba ibn Nafi', the
conqueror of the Maghreb, as a " fortified camp " :
hence its name, for " Kairuwan " is connected by the
Arabian geographers with the Persian " karawan "
(camp protection). Arabian. Egyptian, and Cyrenian
Jews hastened at once to the newly founded city,
and Arabian historians relate that the Ommiad calif
'Abd al-]\Ialik ibn Marwan (684-705) requested his
brother, 'Abd al-'Aziz, governor of
Foundation Egypt, to send 1,000 Coptic or Jewish

of City. families to settle there. At the end of
the seventh century a second band of
Jewisi: immigrants appears to have gone to Kairwan
under Hasan ibn Nu'man, the conqueror of the Ber-
ber Kahinah, and to have fused with the first settlers.

Tiie Jews of Kairwan, like those of the rest of the
Maghreb, doubtless had to suffer, in the following

415

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kaidanover
Kairwau

period, from the oppression of the governor Abu
Jafar, and from the fanaticism of the vindictive
Imamldris after his victory over his opponent Al-
Mahdi (see Tunis). In 793 Imam Idris was poi-
soned at the command of the calif Harun ai-Kashid
— it is said, by the governor's physician in ordinarj^
Shanima, probably a Jew (Al-Kairuwani, "Histoire
de rAfrique," trausl. Pelissier and IJemusat, p. 170,
Paris, 1845, in "Exploration Scientiiique de I'Al-
gerie," vol. vii.). Since the Jew.s had lost their
political power in consequence of their subjection
by Iman Idris, the freer tribes of the open countr\'
settled in the larger cities and devoted themselves
to trade. Thus Kairwan again received an addition
to its Jewish population. About the year 800 the
Aghlabite d3'nasty was founded ; and in 909 their
supremacy passed to the Fatimites. In 972 the
whole province declared itself independent imder
the Berber Zirites, who, in 1045, ruled over the en-
tire Maghreb.

The period of greatest prosperity for the Jewish
community in Kairwan extended from the end of
the eighth to the beginning of the eleventh century,
that is, during the rule of the Abbassids, Aghlabites,
Fatimites, and Zirites. The commu-
Under the nity was highly reputed among the
Abbassids. Jews of the East. It possessed a syn-
agogue, a seminary (the president of
which was called "rosh kallah," or simply "rosh"),
a cemetery, a poor-fund, and various other institu-
tions. It ransomed Jewish captives and contributed
toward the support of the academies of Sura and
Pumbedita as long as those academies were in a
flourishing condition, and was an important inter-
mediary point in the transmission of money from
Spain to those academies. Scholars in Kairwan
studied the Bible and both the halakicand haggadic
departments of the Talmud ; an old commentary to
Chronicles speaks incidentally of the " great schol-
ars of Kairwan " (R. Kirchheim, " Commentar zur
Chronik aus dem Zehnten Jahrhundert," p. 18,
Frankfort-on-the-Maiu, 1874). In questions of re-
ligious and civil life, during this period, appeal was
made, from Kairwan as from other places, to the
authority of the geonim in Babylon. In fact, a very
active correspondence was carried on between the
geonim and the scholars of Kairwan, and successive
discoveries of fragments of these letters in the geni-
zot have thrown more and more light on the intel-
lectual activities of the city.

It has been stated, with much probabilit}', that

Natronai b. Habibai, defeated as a candidate for the

exilarcliate, and whom the Sherira letter (Neubauer,

"M. J. C." i. 36) describes as having gone to the

"West" (xaiyro), went to Kairwan (Gratz, "Gesch."

v. 175; F. Lazarus, in BruU's "Jahrb." x. 176).

There he is said to have written the entire Talmud

from memory, and to have sent the congregations

in Spain a copy. While Natronai b.

Visit of Hilai was gaon of Sura (853-856), Na-

Na^ronai than b. Hanina and Judah b. Judah

b. Habibai. b. Saul were judges in Kairwan (comp.

"Sha'are Zedek,"p. 84a, No. 3; Zunz,

"Ritus," p. 190), both of whom corresponded with

Natronai (on the formc^r, see the additions of Samuel

ibn Jama' to the 'Aruk, s.v. DX3N [published by

Dukes in " Orient, Lit. " 1851, p. 358] ; Solomon Buber
in "Gratz Jubelschrift," p. 17, Hebr. part; on the
latter, see S. D. Luzzatto, "Bet ha-Ozar," i. 59b).
In 880 the remarkable Eldad ben Maiili ha-Dani
appeared in Kairwan, and attracted much attention
not only by his accounts of his travels and by his
new and unusual Hebrew expressions, but especially
by the halakic innovations in his ritual. In re-
sponse to the appeal of the perplexed Jews of Kair-
wan for enlightenment in regard to these changes,
Zemah ben Hayyim, gaon of Sura (882-887), merely
assured them that they need not feel disquieted (see
E. Epstein, "Eldad ha-Dani," pp. 4 et seq., 83 et
seq., Presburg, 1891). It was probably in Kairwan
that Eldad met the philologist Judah ibn Kuraish,
who appears to have removed to Kairwan from his
native city, Tahort.

In five exegetic citations from scholars of Kair-
wan contained in the old commentary on Chronicles
mentioned above (R. Kirchheim, I.e. pp. 16, 18, 22,
27), Judah ibn Kuraish is named in close association
with their authors. Isaac b. Solomon Israeli (832-
932 ; according to others, 832-942), who
Isaac was born in Egypt, also removed to
Israeli. Kairwan. In 904 he was court physi-
cian to the last Aghlabite in Kairwan,
Ziyadat Allah, retaining that position \inder the first
Fatimite ruler, 'Ubaid Allah al-Mahdi. From Kair-
wan, Israeli corresponded on scientific subjects with
Saadia, before the latter was called as gaon to Baljy-
lonia in 928 (Commentary on the " Sefer Yezirah " ;
see "Orient, Lit." 1845, p. 563). A famous pupil of
Israeli was the phj^sician and philologist Dunash ibn
Tamim, who was born at Kairwan about the begin-
ning of the tenth century and lived there all his life.
Like his teacher, he was physician in ordinary at the
court of the Fatimites; he dedicated an astronom-
ical work to one of them. Besides these physicians,
philosophers, and philologists, there were, doubt-
less, others whose very names, like the titles of tiieir
books, are scarcely known (Abraham ibn Ezra, Com-
mentary on Esth. vii. 4 [ed. Jos. Zedner, London,
1850], and Judah Hadassi, "Eshkol ha-Kofer," p.
86a, No. 224). Al-Kairuwani {I.e. p. 170) mentions a
Jewish historian by the name of Ibn al-Shamma.
Saadia, wlio knew Kairwan well, speaks in his
"Sefer ha-Galui " of a Hebrew book, written by
scholars living in Kairwan in his day, concerning
the "apocryphal writings" (if this be the correct
reading of the diflicult passage) which were to be
found among them (see A. Ilarkavy, "Zikkaron la-
Rishouim," v. 209, St. Petersburg, 1891). Unfor-
tunately, in his desire for brevity, Saadia gave no
citations, so that nothing more is known concerning
this work.

The study of the Talmud and of its ancillary lit-
erature was highly developed by scholars at Kair-
wan. It was probably there that a second recen-
sion of Simeon Kayyara's " Halakot Gedolot " was
arranged about 900 "(see "Zeit. fur Hebr. Bibl." vi.
99). The banished exilarch 'Ukba.
Talmudic who sought refuge there in 920 and
Study. remained there until his death, must,
like Natronai b. Habibai, have con-
tributed to these studies (see Lazarus, I.e. p. 178).
The Jews of Kairwan received him with great honor

Kaii-vran
Kalilah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

416

and made him their spiritual head (comp. " Ha-
Mauliig," p. 32a, § 58, with the "Sefor Yuhasiu,"
120b). During the time of Sherira (930-1000), ZL-mah
b. Mar Bahlul was president of the seminary tliere
(Harliavy, "Tesluibot lia-Geonim," No. 48). Some-
what later Jacob b. Nissim ibn Shaiiin, tlie author
of an Arabic commentary on the "Sefer Yezirah,"
occupied the same position. He corresponded fre-
quently with Sherira Gaon and witli Hai Gaon.
At Jacob's request, Sherira sent him a letter con-
cerning the composition of tlie Mishnah of the Tal-
mud and the way in wdiich it was transmitted to
the Talmudic teachers (see Siieriua; .see also the
interesting question addressed by Jacob's pupils to
Hai concerning the miraculous power of the name
of God, in "Ta'am Zekeuim," p. 54; comp. also
Harkavy, "Tesliubot ha-Geonim," Nos. 230, 364).

At the end of the tenth and the beginning of the
eleventh century Talmudic study in Kairwan re-
ceived an important stimulus by the arrival there
of Hushiel b. Elhanan, who probably was born in
Italy. He did not go there as a prisoner, as Abra-
ham ibn Daud states (" M. J. C. " i. 68),

Arrival but as a visitor to his friends in i\lo-
of Hushiel hammedan lands, as is shown by an
b. Elhanan. autograph letter published by Schech-
ter in "J. Q. R." (xi. 643).' He was
persuaded to remain there by his friends atid (prob-
ably immediately after Jacob b. Nissim 's death) was
made president of the academy. Hushiel left two
pupils, his son Hauaneel, and Nissim (son of the
Jacob ben Nissim ibn Shahin mentioned above), both
of whom became presidents of the academy after the
death of their teacher. Hananeel, famous as a Tal-
mudic commentator, aroused interest in the hitherto
neglected Jerusalem Talmud. Nissim wrote the
"Mafteah," a methodological work on the Talmud,
while his lo.st "Siddur" probably contained informa-
tion concerning the ritual of Kairwan. The only
things known concerning this service at this time
are that Nissim had a seat of honor beside the Ark of
the Law in the synagogue, and that, after the Kohen
and the Levite had finished reading the weekly les-
sons, the scrolls of the Law were taken to him, al-
though every one else was required to go to the
scrolls (Zunz, "Ritus," pp. 54 et seq.). In other
places references are made to the civic customs of
the people of Kairwan (Harkavy, "Teshubot ha-
Geonim," No. 1).

It is interesting to note, in connection with the
extensive commercial relations consequent upon the
city's importance as a caravan station on the route
from Spain to Bagdad and Damascus, that letters
and credentials given by the merchants of Kairwan
to tlieir business representatives in distant places, a
custom existing "from most anci(;nt times," empow-
ered the latter to collect money from their debtors
(Harkavy, "Teshubot ha-Geonim," No. 199). It is
also worthy of mention that Samuel ha-Nagid of
(Jordova used liis intiuence in bolialf of the commu-
nity of Kairwan (''Seder ha-Dorot," ed. Warsaw, i.
191). After the death of Ilunaneel and Nissim (1050)
the academy was deserted, and the political events
of the following period disorganized the community
and its intellectual life (see Al)raham ibn Daud in
"M. J. C." i. 73). In 1045, under the Zirile Al-

Mu'izz (1016-1002), all heterodox sects were severely
persecuted, and the Jews, with the rest, suffered

greatly. Five years later (1050) Kair-

Decline wan was overrun and ravaged b}'

in the hordes of Bedouins, under Hilul, from

Eleventh Upper Egypt. The Jews were much

Century, weakened by their depredations, and,

in fact, the communitj', to a great ex-
tent, appears to have been dispersed. The steady
increase in the Jewish population of the city of Tunis
during the twelfth century was due largely to im-
migration from Kairwan.

The fanatical Almohads, whom Al-Hasan, the last
of the Zirites, summoned to his aid in 1207, appointed
Abu ]Muhammed al-Hafs governor over the province
of Tunis. During the ruh; of the Hafsite dynasty,
which began in 1236, the Jews of Kairwan enjoyed
a short respite. When, however, during the reign
of Abu 'Abd-Allah Muhammed al-Mu.stansir Billah
(1249-77), St. Louis of France undertook a crusade
against Tunis (1270), the religious fanaticism of
prince and people, already intense, was set aflame,
and the Jews of Kairwan and Hamamat, the two
holy cities, were required either to leave or to aban-
don their faith; some preferred the latter course and
nominally embraced Islam. To-day there are said
to be Mohammedans in Kairwan who close their

shops on Saturday, clean the thresholds

Expulsion of their houses on Friday evening, and

or Re- observe other customs which appear

cantation. to indicate a Jewish origin. From

that time until the conquest of Tunis
by France, Jews and Christians were forbidden
to pass the night in either Kairwan or Hamamat;
and only by securing a special permit from the
governor could they enter them during the day.
The old Jewish tombstones still in existence there
bear witness to the presence in Kairwan at one time
of a flourishing Jewish community (Israel Chasan,
" lyye ha-Yam," No. 71, p. 30, Leghorn, 1869). See
Tunis.

Bibliography: Berliner, Mhiddl Hananfrl,\)p. Iv. ct scq.;
D. Cazes, Esmi sur rHistnirc den Israi'lites dc Tunit^ic,
Pari.s, 1S89; Gratz, Gesch. v. »':iti. 2-12, 289, 291 ; vl.6,9 ef frq.;
La (irande Kiicijchipcdif, xxi. :S79, xxxi. 47ti ; Miiller, Der
Mnm, i. 353, 419, 488; ii. 646, 657; Rapoport, Mahherct he-
^Anik. Introduction, I'resburg, 1844; idem, Tolcdot Ralihenu
H(vianeeU in Bikkiire ha-'Ittirn, xii. 12, 16; Steinschneider,
ill J. Q. R. xi. 608.
G. M. Sc.

KAISER, ALOIS : Hazzan and composer; born
Nov. 10, 1840, at Szobotist, Hungary. He received his
early education in the religious school of the Vienna
congregation under Dr. Henry Zirndorf, and then
studied at the Realschule and the Teachers' Sem-
inary and Conservatory of Music, Vienna. From the
age of ten he sang in the choir of Solomon Sulzer, and
in 1859 became assistant cantor in Flinfhaus, one of
tlie suburbs of the Austrian capital ; from 1863 to
1866 he was cantor at the Neusynagoge at Prague.

Kaiserarrived in New York city in June, 1866, and
in the following month was appointed cantor of the
Oheb Shalom congregation in Baltimore, Md., which
position lie still (1904) occupies. He was for several
years president of the Society of American Cantors.
Since 1895 he has been lionorary member of the
Central Conference of American Rabbis, which (1892)
entrusted him and William Sparger with the

417

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kairwan
Kalilah

compilation of the musical i)ortion of a Union
Hymnal, published in 1S97. With Samuel Welsh,
Moritz Goldstein, aud J. L. Rice, Kaiser published
the "Zimrat Yah" (1871-86, 4 vols.), containing
music for Sabbaths and festivals. Of ])is other com-
positions may be mentioned : " Confirmation Hymns "
(1873); "Memorial Service for the Day of Atone-
ment" (1879); "Cantata for Simhat Torah" (1890;
with William Sparger; preface by Cyrus Adler);
"Souvenir of the Jewish Women'a Congress at the
World's Columbian Exposition " (1893).

Bibliography: A Third of a Ceiiturii in the Service of God
and the Ohcb Shalom Congregation of Baltimore, Manj-
land, Baltimore, 1899 ; American Jewish Year Book, liKlS-
1904, p. 67.
A. S.

KALA'I, BARUCH BEN SOLOMON : Rabbi

of Sardokupis (Serai Keui?), Asia Minor; flourished

at the beginning of the seventeenth century. He

was the author of "Makor Baruk" (Smyrna, 1659),

responsa arranged in the order of the four Turim.

This work was published bj' his son Solomon Kala'i,

who added some responsa of Baruch 'steadier Aaron

Hason, some of his brother Mordecai Kala'i, and

some of his own. In the introduction Solomon Kala'i

declares that liis father left a commentarj^ on Ye-

bamot, Ketubot, Baba Mezi'a, and Shebu'ot, and a

number of sermons.

BiBLiOGRAPiiv : Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. ii. 162; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodl. col. 774 ; Wolf, Bib?. Hebr. iii., No. 4^7.
s. s. M. Sel.

KALA'I, MORDECAI B. SOLOMON : Turk-
ish rabbi and author; lived in the first half of the
seventeenth century. He was the pupil of R. Aaron
Hason, R. Aaron Sason, and R. Isaac Franco, and
was the chief teacher of the Portuguese yeshibah
at Salonica. R. Daniel Estrumsaand R. David Con-
forte were among his scholars. All his responsa and
sermons prior to 1625 were destroyed in the great
fire which devastated Salonica in that year. Kala'i
is mentioned in the responsa of Solomon ha-Levi
(Nos. 10 and 29; Salonica, 1652), at whose funeral
he delivered a sermon. He is also mentioned in
the responsa "Mekor Hayyim" of his brother R.
Baruch Kala'i (pp. 16, 17, 34, 45), and in those of R.
Joseph di Trani (No. 81) and of Judah Lerma, rabbi
at Belgrade ("Peletat Bet Yehudah," No. 2).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 130; Conforte,
Korc ha-Dorot, pp. Sfi, 44-48, 50-53. Berlin, 1846.

s. s. N. T. L.

KALA'I, SAMUEL BEN JOSEPH : Karaite
scholar of Chufut-Kale, Crimea; died Feb. 17, 1754.
He was the author of a work entitled " Me'il She-
muel," a commentary on Aaron ben Joseph's "Ha-
Mibhar." Kala'i did not live to finish the work, and
it was completed (Tuesday, Sept. 20, 1757) bySimhah
Isaac b. Moses, who wrote the preface to it.

Bibliography: Furst, Ge^ch. des Karilert. section v., p. 241;
Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. xi. 13; Neubauer, Cat. Bodl.
Hebr. MSS. No. 235;^.
K. M. Skl.

KALA'I, SAMUEL BEN MOSES : Italian
Talmudist; flourished in the first half of the six-
teenth century at Venice. He was a pupil of David
Cohen of Corfu. His father-in-law was Benjamin
ben Mattithiah, author of "Binyamin Ze'eb." Ka-
la'i was the author of " Mishpete Shemuel," contain-
VII.— 27

ing responsa, decisions, and novella" (Venice, 1599-
1600).

Bini.TOGRAPHY: Azulai, .S7ifm ha-Gedolim, i. 177; Mortara,
I lid ire, p. '.).

«• s. I. Beu.

KALAM. See Akaijic Philosophy.

KALAMAZOO. See :\Iiciiigan.

KALAZ (KHALLAS), JUDAH : Cabalist and
moralist; lived in Algeria, probably at Tlemf;en, at
the beginning of the sixteenth century. The sur-
name " Kalaz " is derived from the Arabic " khallas "
(= "collector of taxes"). Kalaz was descended
from a Spanish family, members of wliicli settled in
Algeria after the expulsion from Spain. A grand-
son of his, also named Judah, was rabbi at Tlem<;en
at the end of the .'sixteenth century. Kalaz was the
author of a valuable work on ethics entitled "Se-
fer ha-Musar" (Constantinople, 1536-37). He fre-
quently quotes the Zohar and other cabalistic
works, which he held in great esteem.

Bibliography : De Rossi, Dizionario, p. 89, s.v. Calz; Zunz,
Z. G. p. 253; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1300; idem, in
J. Q. R. xi. 125; Neubauer, in R. E. J. v. 47-52; Bloch, In-
f:criptio)is Tumidaircs, p. 20.

K. I. Br.

KALBA SABUA'. See Ben Kalba Sabbua'.

KALIFA, MOSES BEN MALKA : Poet and

controversialist; born at Safi, Morocco, toward the
end of the seventeenth century. He belonged on his
mother's side to the Bedersi family of Provence.
Left an orphan at an earlj'' age with an income suffi-
cient for his wants, Kalifa traveled through Morocco.
He stayed some time at Fez and studied there under
Judah ben 'Attar and his successor, Samuel Zarfati.
On his return home he continued his studies with the
rabbi Joseph Bueno of Mescuta. By his independ-
ence of language and manner, Kalifa had the misfor-
tune to displease the governor of Safi, and was
obliged to take refuge at Agadir, a fortress on the
coast. In 1728 the plague devastated this place,
and Kalifa lost in one day his wife Deborah and his
daughter Estrella.

Kalifa was the author of two works still extant in
manuscript: (1) "Kab we-Naki," a commentary on
the prayer-book, and poems, several of which are
connected with the author's personal adventures ; (2)
"Rak we-Tob," a treatise on religious controversy.

Bibliography: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ed. Benjacob, p.
26: Isaac Bloch, in R. E. J. xiv. 114-116.
G. I. Bk.

KALILAH WA-DIMNAH (known also as
Fables of Bidpai) : Book of Indi'an fables which
has been translated into most of the languages of
the Old World. It appears to have been composed
in India, about 300 c.e., as a Brahmin rival to the
Buddhist fable-books, and includes variants of sev-
eral of the jatakas, or Buddha birth-stories. It was
translated into Paldavi about 570, and thence trav-
eled westward througli Arabic sources. According
to Abraham ibn Ezra, quoted by Steinschneider ("Z.
D. M. G." xxiv. 327), it was translated directly from
the Sanskrit into Arabic by the Jew (Joseph':') who
is said to have brought the Indian numerals from
India. Whether this be true or not, the passage
from Arabic into the European languages was. in
each of the three chief chamu'ls, conducted by Jew-

Kalir
;^lisch, Isidor

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

418

isli scholars. The Greek version was done by
Simeon Seth, a Jewish physician at the Byzantine
court in the eleventh century (see, however, Stein-
schneider, "Hebr. Uebers." p. 873. No. 148), and
from this were derived the Slavonic and the Croat
versions. The old Spanish versioi was probably
translated about 1250 by the Jewish translators of
Alfonso the Good; this led to a Latin version. But
the chief source of the European versions of Bidpai
was a Hebrew one made by a certain Rabbi Joel, of
which a Latin rendering was made by John of
Capua, a converted Jew, under the title "Directo-
riumVite Humane "; from this were derived Spanish,
German, Italian, Dutch, and English versions. In
addition to this of Rabbi Joel's, another Hebrew
version exists — by Rabbi Eleazar b. Jacob (1283);
both these versions have been edited hy Joseph
Derenbourg (Paris, 1881), who issued also an edition
of the "Directorium Vite Humane" {ib. 1887).

It has been claimed that nearly one-tenth of the
most popular European folk-tales are derived from
one or other of these translations of the " Kalilah
wa-Diranah," among them being the story of Patty
and her milk-pail (" La Perrette" in Lafontaine), from
which is derived the proverb, " Do not count your
chickens before they are hatched." Many of the
popular beast-tales and some of the elements of
Reynard the Fox also occur in this Indian book of
tales. Much learning has been devoted to the in-
vestigation of the distribution of these tales through-
out European folk-literature, especially by Jewish
scholars: by T. Benfey, in the introduction to his
translation of the "Pantchatantra," a later Sanskrit
edition of the " Kalilah wa-Dimnah " ; by M. Lan-
dau, in his "Quellen des Decamerone"; by Deren-
bourg, in his editions of the Latin and Hebrew
texts; and by Steinschneider. The Hebrew ver-
sions are quoted by Zerahiah ha-Yewani, Kalony-
mus (in the "Eben Bohan"), Abraham b. Solomon,
Abraham Bibago, and Isaac ibn Zahula (who wrote
his "Meshal ha-Kadmoni " to wean the Jewish pub-
lic away from " Kalilah wa-Dimnah ").

Bibliography : Steinschneider, Hehr. Uebers. pp. 872-883 ;
Jacobs, Fables of Bidpai, Introduction, pp. xxvli.-xxviii.,
London, 1888.

KALIB, ELEAZAB (more correctly Eleazar
be-Rabbi Kalir, or Kallir, or Killir ; later called
also ha-Kaliri [^l^ppn] and less correctly the
Kalir [iVpn]): One of the earliest and the most
prolific of the payyetanim or liturgical poets. In
the acrostics of his hymns he usually signs his fa-
ther's name T?p, but three times he writes l^^^p.
Eleazar's- name, home ("ISD n^lp), and time have
been the subject of many discussions in modern
Jewish literature, and some legends concerning his
career have been handed down. The author of the
" ' Aruk " (s.v. "i^p, 8) derives the name " Kalir " from
the Greek /coA/i'YJa = "a small cake," and reports
that the poet obtained his name from a cake, in-
scribed with Biblical verses, which was given him to
eat as a talisman for wi.sdom when he began to go to
school. His scholarship having been attributed
later to that talisman, he was called "Eleazar the
Cake." While such a custom is known to have ex-
isted among the western Syrians and the Jews, the

explanation put forward by the " 'Aruk " is not ac-
ceptable, since " Kalir " is not the name of the poet,
but that of his father. Others see in the name that of
the Italian city Cagliari, or the Latin name "Celer."
The city "iDD Jl^lp has been identified both with
Cagliari (Civitas Portus), in Italy, and with the
Babylonian Sippara. In addition to Italy and
Babylonia, Mesopotamia and Palestine have been
claimed by different scholars as Kalir's
Place and native land. His time has been set at
Date different dates between the end of the

Doubtful, seventh and the end of the tenth con-
tury of the common era. Older au-
thorities consider him to have been a teacher of the
Mishnah and identify him either with Eleazar b.
'Arak or with Eleazar b. Simeon. He has been con-
founded with another poet by the name of Eleazar
b. Jacob; and a book by the title of "Kebod
Adonai " was ascribed to him by Botarel.

Kalir's hymns early became an object of study and
of cabalistic exegesis, as his personality was a mys-
tery. It was related that heavenly fire surrounded
him when he wrote the " Kedushshah " ; that he
himself ascended to heaven and there learned from
the angels the secret of writing, alphabetical hymns;
and that his teacher Yannai, jealous of his supe-
rior knowledge, placed in his shoe a scorpion, which
was the cause of his death. Modern research points
to the probability that he and his teacher were Pal-
estinians; and since Yannai is known to have been
one of the halakic authorities of Anan, the founder
of Karaism, and must therefore have lived a consid-
erable time earlier than Anan, Kalir's time may be
fixed with some probability as the second half of
the seventh century.

Kalir was the first to embellish the entire liturgy

with a series of hymns whose essential element

was the Haggadah. He drew his material from the

Talmudim and Midrashim, some of which latter are

now probably lost. His language.

Sources however, is not that of his sources,
and Style, but Biblical Hebrew, enriched with
daring innovations. His predilection
for rare words, allegorical expressions, and hag-
gadic allusions makes his writings hard to under-
stand. His linguistic peculiarities were followed by
many a succeeding payyetan; and they influenced
to some extent even early prose, especially among the
Karaites. With the awakening of linguistic studies
among the Jews and with the growing acquaintance
of the latter with Arabic, his linguistic peculiarities
were severely criticized (e.g., by Abraham ibn Ezra
on Eccl. v. 1); but the structure of his hymns re-
mained a model which was followed for centuries
after him and which received the name "Kaliric"
("•"Ivp)- While some of his hymns have been lost,
more than 200 of them have been embodied in the
Mahzorim, i.e., prayer-books for the cycle of the
festivals.

[The earliest references to Kalir seem to be in a
responsum of Natronai Gaon (c. 853 ; Weiss, " Dor, "
iv. 118), in the "Yezirah" commentary of Saadia
(see Graber, in "Ozar ha-Sifrut," 1., v.) and in his
"Agron" (Stade's "Zeitschrift," 1882, p. 83), as
well as in the writings of Al-Kirkisani (Harkavy, in
"Ha-Maggid," 1879, No. 45, p. 359a). The early

419

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

^alir

Caliscb, Isidor

" Hekalot Rabbati " of the Merkabah Riders were

used by Kalir, traces of tlieir mystic ideas and even of

their language being found in his poetry ("Monats-

schrift," xxxvii. 71). The theory tliat he lived in

Italy is based upon the fact tliat he wrote double

"Kerobof'for the festivals (Berliner, " Gesch. der

Juden in Rom,"ii. 15; Einstein, in " Monatsschrift,"

xxxvi. 529).

A peculiar development of the Kalir legend is seen

in the story that Saadia found in tlie tomb of Kalir

a recipe for making "kame'ot " in the form of cakes

(Goldziher, in " Berliner Festschrift," p. 150). On a

piyyut found in the Mahzor Vitry and ascribed by

Brody ("KontreshaPiyyutim," p. G7, Berlin, 1894)

to Kalir, see Max Weisz in "Monatsschrift," xli.

145. Solomon Delmedigo warns the student against

the writings of Kalir because "he has cut up the

Hebrew language in an arbitrary Avay " (Geiger,

"Melo Chofnajim," p. 15). Translations of some of

Kalir's hymns into German will be found in Zunz,

"S. P." pp. l^etal. (Berliner, "Synagogal-Poesieen,"

p. 24; De Lagarde, "Mittheilungen," 11. 138), in

Sachs's edition of the prayer-book, and in Karpeles'

"Zionsharfe," pp. 10-17; some have been rendered

into English by Nina Davis in "J. Q. R." ix. 29, and

by Mrs. Lucas in "Songs of Zion," p. 60.— g.]

Bibltography: J. Derenbourp, in i?. E. J. xii. 298; P. F.
Frankl, Fragment einer Kalir'schen Kcroha. reprint from
Zunz Juhelschrift, Berlin, 1884 ; A. Harkavy, Leben und
Werke Saadia Gain's, i. 109. Berlin, 1891; I^iraelitUche
Annalen, i. 85, ii. 320; Landshuth, 'Ammudc ha^'Ahndah, i.
27-44, Berlin. 1877; S. L. Rapoport, in Bikkurc ha-'Tttim, x.
95-123, xi. 92-102; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 913; Zunz,
Literaturgesch. pp. 29-64.
G. C. L.

KALISCH, BERTHA: Austrian actress; born
at Leraberg; made her debut in 1893 at the Scarbeck
Theater, Lemberg, In a minor role In "Mignon"
(given In Polish), her success winning her an engage-
ment shortly after at the Jewish theater there. She
next appeared in Budapest and Bucharest, at the
latter place attracting the attention of Wachinan,
the director of the Imperial Theater, who engaged
her for Rumanian plays. In 1895 she went to New
York city to act In Yiddish plays at the Thalia
Theater. Her greatest successes were made in
Jacob Gordin's plays.

s. E. Ms.

KALISCH, DAVID : German playwright and
humorist; born at Breslau Feb. 23, 1820; died at
Berlin Aug. 21, 1872. His Infancy and early child-
hood were spent in a home of comfort and culture ;
but when he was only seven years old his father
died, leaving the family without any means of sup-
port, and Kalisch was compelled to add to the fam-
ily resources by entering the employment of a dealer
in small wares, who later on entrusted him'with the
management of a branch establishment in Ratibor.
In 1848 he returned to Breslau, and in Oct., 1844,
went to Paris, where he gradually became on terms
of intimacy with a group of poets and socialists that
included Heine, Herwegh, Karl Griin, Proudhon,
Karl Marx, and Albert Wolff. He made at Leipsic
his first attempts as a farce writer with his "Die
Proletarier" and " Auf der Eisenbahn."

Kalisch was still bound to a mercantile career,
however, as neither literature nor the stage had yet
made a place for him ; and so in 1846 he found his

way to Berlin and took anotlier position as salesman,
lie found time to continue his literary efforts by
writing a number of the peculiar verses which,
under the name of "Couplets," were first employed
by him, and which he afterward utilized with great
success in his stage pieces. He also tried his hand
at adaptation from the French, the little farce "Ein
Billet von Jenny Lind " being produced at tlie sum
mer theater at Schonberg, near Berlin ; the principal
result of this was that it secured tor him an invi-
tation to write for tlie Konigsstildter Theater, where
his " Herr Karoline " was produced, and later (Dec.
23, 1847) his "Einmal Ilunderttausend Thaler."
which at once achieved a veritable triumph. There
followed in quick succession "Berlin bei Nacht."
" Junger Zunder, Alter Plunder," " Aurora im Oel,"
"Munchhausen,""Peschke,""Ein Gebildeter Haus-
knecht," "Der Aktienbudiker," "Berhn, Wie es
Weint und Lacht," "Einer von Unsere Lent," "Ber-
lin Wird Weltstadt," "Die Berliner in Wien," "Der
Goldonkel," and "Musikalische Unterhaltung."

Very soon lie practically dominated the German
farce stage of his time. At the old Wallner Theater
in Berlin and in the great comedy houses throughout
Germany there were years when none but his pieces
were produced, some of them having runs of hun-
dreds of performances. Nor was it in Germany
alone that his plays became famous, for by adapta-
tion and translation they were produced throughout
the world. A collection of his celebrated "Coup-
lets " was produced under the title " Berliner Leier-
kasten" (3 vols., Berlin, 1857; 5th ed., 1862; new
series, 1863 and 1866), while a number of his farces
were issued as " Berliner Volksbilhne " (4 vols., ib.
1864) and " Lustige Werke " (3 parts, ib. 1870).

Just as Kalisch was entei-ing upon the successful
phase of his dramatic career he made another fortu-
nate bid for fame by establishing (1848) the cele-
brated humorous sheet, "Kladderadatsch," the pub-
lication of which was suggested during his work on
the little paper issued by and for the members of the
" Rutli," a club composed of humorists. The well-
known "Milller und Schulze" couple, which have
become proverbial among Germans throughout the
world, and " Karlchen Miessnick " are among the
best of his contributions to the "Kladderadatsch."
In its early history he had many strange experiences
as its editor. He was prosecuted; the paper was
prohibited ; several times he had to fly to Leipsic,
Dessau, or Neustadt, and yet it survived. Later
he shared the editorial work with Ernest Dohm.
In 1852 he embraced Christianity in order that he
might marry a lady of that faith.

Bibliography: Max Rinjr, David Kalisch. Berlin, 18^;
Meiierft Konvermtion.t-Lcxikon ; Kurschner, Dai-id Ka-
mcL in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic, xv. 2:}-24.
s. M. Co.

KALISCH, ISIDOR : American rabbi and au-
thor; born Nov. 15, 1816, at Krotoschin; died May
11, 1886, at Newark, N. J.; studied theology, phi-
losophy, and philology at the universities of Berlin,
Breslau, and Prague. In consequence of giving
public expression to his too liberal views, In poems
and articles, he was compelled to leave Germany,
and after staying for a short time in London he
went to the United States (New York, 1849).

Ealisch
Kalischer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

420

Kalisch occupied rabbioalc'Siit Cleveland, Ohio(Tife-
reth Israel); Cincinnati, Ohio (Ahabalh Achini);
Milwaukee, Wis. (B'ue Jesliuruu) ; Indianapolis,
Ind. ; Leavenworth, Kansas; Detroit, Mich. (Beth
El); Newark, N. J. (B'uai Abraham); and Nash-
ville, Tenn. (Ohavai Sliali^m). He lectured fre-
quently, especially after 1875, when he had retired
from the ministry. He wrote a number of essays,
monographs, discourses, and disquisitions. In
Leeser's "Occident " (1851-52) he published a series
of "Exegetical Lectures on the Bible"; in the Cin-
cinnati "Israelite" (1854-55), "Contributions to
Philosophical Literature." The London "Jewish
Chronicle," the "Jlidisches Literatur-Blatt " of
Magdeburg, the Vienna monthly "Beth Talmud,"
and other periodicals, published articles from his
pen. Kalisch 's first work, " Wegweiser fur Katio-
nelle Forschungeu in den Biblischen Schriften "
(Cleveland, Ohio, 1853), was translated into English
by M. Mayer under the title " A Guide for Eational
Enquiries into the Biblical Writings " (Cincinnati,
1857); "Die Tone des Morgenlandes," a collection
of his German poems, appeared at Detroit in 1865;
in 1868 he produced an English translation of Les-
sing's "Nathan der Weise"; in 1877 an English
translation of the"Sefer Yezirah," with preface,
notes, glossary, and a" Sketch of the Talmud" ; in 1881
he translated into English S. Munk's "Philosophic
et Ecrivains Philosophes des Juifs." His last
work was a translation into English of "Ila-Tap-
puah," a treatise on the immortality of the soul,
supposed to be by Aristotle. He translated irom
the Hebrew " The Book of Antiochus " also, and a
" Discourse on the Advantages of tlie Mosaic Law "
(delivered in 1267 before King Jacob at Saragossa).
Kalisch was one of the leading spirits of the rabbin-
ical conference held at Cleveland in 1855, and one of
the editors of the " Minhag America " prayer-book.

Bibliography: Tii Metvoriam Rev. Dr. Lsidi))- Knli.sch,
Newark, N. J., 18stj; 8teinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. p. 268.

A. S. Man.

KALISCH, LXJDWIG: German novelist; born
Sept. 7, 1814, at Lissa; died March 3r 1882, at Paris.
When only twelve years of age he left his home and
became successively pedler, merchant, and teacher.
He saved enough money to carry him through ma-
triculation and the study of medicine and, later, lan-
guages and literature in Heidelberg and Munich.
Settling in Mayence in 1843, he became editor of the
"Narrlialla"(i843-46). A i)articipant in the revo-
lution of 1848-49, he was forced to leave Germany.
He went to Paris, in 1850 to London, and from 1851
onward lived in Paris.

Kaliscii's forte was the humorous ballad. Many
of his writings appeared in the feuilletons of the
newspapers and in magazines. Of tho.se pub-
lished separately may be mentioned : " Das Buch der
Narrheit," Mayence, 1845; "Schlagschatten," ib.
1845; "Poetische Erzilhlungen," ^7^. 1845; "Shrap-
nels," Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1849; "Paris und
London," tb. 1851; " Heitere Stunden," Berlin, 1872;
"Bilderaus Meiner Knabenzeit," Leipsic, 1872;
"Gebundenund Ungebunden," Munich, 1876; " Pa-
riscr Leben," Mayence, 1881, 2d ed. 1882.
Bibliography: Meuerx Konrersalious-Lexiknn.

s. F. T. H.

KALISCH, MARCUS M. : Hebraist and Bible
conunentator ; born atTreptow, Pomerania, INIay 16,
1828; died in Derbyshire, England, Aug. 24, 1885.
He was educated at Berlin University, where he stud-
ied classics, philology, and the Semitic languages,
and at the Rabbinical College of Berlin. In 1848 he
obtained degrees at Berlin and at Halle, and in the
same year took part in the European struggle for
freedom that resulted in theemeute of 1848. Going
to England, Kalisch contributed to the periodicals
of Great Britain and the Continent, and delivered
lectures on secular and archeological topics before
various learned bodies. He then obtained a perma-
nent appointment as secretary to Chief Rabbi N. M.
Adler. This position he held from 1848 to 1853, and
was then engaged as tutor and literary adviser to
the Rothschild family. In this capacity he found
leisure to produce a considerable amount of erudite
work.

Kaliscii's special object was to write a full and
critical commentary on the Old Testament, and at
this task he labored with indefatigable energj'. In
1855 he published the first volume, entitled "An
Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Tes-
tament, with a New Translation — Exodus " ; tlie
second, "Genesis," appeared in 1858; the third,
"Leviticus," part i. and part ii., in 1867 and 1872
respectively. These contain a resume of all that Jew-
ish and Christian learning had accumulated on the
subjects up to the dates of publication. In his "Le-
viticus" Kalisch anticipated Wellhausen to a large
extent. The interval between the issue of "Gen-
esis " and that of " Leviticus " was occupied with
the preparation of a "Hebrew Grammar" in two
parts, the second dealing witli tlie more difficult
forms and rules. In 1877 Kalisch issued the first
jiart of "Bible Studies," comprising annotations
on " The Prophecies of Balaam. " The second part,
on "The Book of Jonah," preceded by a treatise on
"The Hebrew and the Stranger," was issued in
the following year. In 1880 appeared his com-
prehensive work entitled "Path and Goal : A Dis-
cussion on the Elements of Civilization and the
Conditions of Happiness," consisting of an at-
tempt to bring together representative utterances
of adherents of all the chief religions of the
world.

Kalisch was a writer of exceptional erudition, with-
out, however, possessing an equal power of using
his resources for literary purposes. His views on
Biblical and Jewish subjects generall}' were of an
advanced type. He was prevented from completing
his projected comprehensive commentary on the
entire Pentateuch l)y the ill health which attended
liis last years.

Bibliography: Athcnaum, Sept. .'5, 18a5; Jew. Chron. and
Jew. IVoiid. Aug. 28, 188.t; The Times (London), Aug. 31,
1885; Jen\ Herald (Melbourne), Oct. 16, 1885; Morals, Emi-
noit Israelites, pp. 170-173.

J. G. L.

KALISCH, MOSES BEN BENJAMIN
WOLF MESERITZ : Polish physician of the sev-
enteenth century. He was the author of: "Yeni-
shat Mosheh " (2 vols., Frankfort-on-the-Main and
Wilmersdorf, 1677), a medical work in Juda-o-
German describing remedies for various diseases:

421

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kalisch
Kalischer

unci " Yiuuin Mosheli " (Amsterdam, 1679, and fre-
quently reprinted).

BiBi.K)(iRAPHY : Steinsfhneiiier, Cat. UikII. col. 1770; Benja-
c'ob, Ozar )ia-Scfarinu P- SW.
H. I{. I. Bk.

KALISCH, PAUL: Gerniiiii singer ; born at Ber-
lin ^"ov. 6, 18.J0; son of David K.vi.it^cii, founder of
tlie '• Kladderadatscli. " Kalisch was destined for an
areliiteet's career, but at a gatliering at the home of
ills lirother-iu-law Paul Liudau, Avhere Kalisch sang
a few selections from Schubert and Wagner, his
voice so impressed Polliui and Adelina Patti that
the}' urged liim to go on the stage. Shortly after-
ward Kalisch went to Italy to study under Leoni
and Lamperti, and he made his debut at Varese
in 1880 as Edgardo in "Lucia di Lammermoor."
Afteramost successful tour through Italy and Spain
he sang in 1883 at the royal operas at ^Munich, Ber-
lin, and Vienna, and at the Stadttheaters of Ham-
burg, Leip.sic, and Cologne.

He stayed a short time in Germany, and then to-
gether with Lil}' Lehmann, Avhom he later married,
went to London, where he sang in "Tristan and
Isolde" at Her Majesty's Theatre. From England
Kalisch went to the United States, Avhere he spent
six winter seasons: four seasons at the Metropolitan
Oper;i House, New York, while for two seasons he
toured the country together with Anton Seidl,
singing in many of Wagner's operas. Upon his re-
turn to Europe he again toured Germany, and also
sang at Vienna, Budapest, Paris, and London ; but
he achieved his greatest success at the Wiesbadeuer
Festspiele, where he sang before the royal family.
He was made " Kammersilnger " by Duke Ernst of
Saxe-Coburg. Kalisch's most successful roles are
The Propliet, Eleaznr, Othello, Slegmtind, Siegfried,
T(innh(iiisei\ and Tridan. Kalisch again appeared
in "Tristan " at Paris and Cologne in 1901.

BiHi.iofJRAPiiY : Eisenberg, Bioij. Le.r.

s. I. G. D.

KALISCHER, JEHIEL MICHAEL BEN
ARYEH : Polish rabbi of the seventeenth centur}- ;
(lied in 1713 at an advanced age. The name
"Kalischer" indicates either that he was born in
Kalisch, Poland, or that he acted as rabbi there.
He was the author of: "Sha'are Ziyyon " (Prague,
1657), being the first and only published part of his
ethical work entitled "Sha'are Hokmah " ; "Sha'are
Shamayim" {ib. 1675), miscellaneous sermons and
iiovelhv. Kalischer included in the latter work
novelhe of his father and grandfather, and of his
uncle Samuel Edels.

BlBi.ioriRAPiiv : .\ziiliu. >i)icin lin-Galolim, ii., .s.v. Sha'are
Sliainaiiiiii : Fiienn, Kriusrt Visrarl, p. .")2(j; Kiirst, Bilil.
J ml. ii. lf,+ ; SteinsclmL'idiT, (at. li<><U. col. 1272.

s. s. M. Ski,.

KALISCHER, JUDAH LOB BEN MOSES :

German Talnuulist; died April 18, 1822, at Lissa,
where he was dayyan. Kalischer was tlie head of
tlie yesliibah of Lissa for more than fifty years, dur-
ing which time he had a great number of ]>upils.
He wrote "Ha-Vad ha-Ha/.akah " (Breslau, 1820).
novella' on the laws of Ha/.akah.

BiBMOiJRAPiiv: Fiicnn. Kcncsct I'imtk ?, p. 41!); Steinsclinei-
der, ('(r(. Undl. w\. 1334.
s. s. 31. Skl.

KALISCHER, SOLOMON : German composer,
piaiiisi, and jihysicist ; born Oct. 8,-1845, at Thorn,
West Prussia, lie studied at the Jewisli Theological
Seminary of Breslau and the universities of Breslau
and Berlin (Ph.D. 1868, his dis.sertation being " De
Aristotelis Rhetoricis et Ethicis Nicomacha'is et in
Quo et Cur Inter Se quum Congruaut tum DifTe-
rant," awarded a prize by the philosophical faculty
of the University of Berlin). After acting as tutor
for a j'ear at Amsterdam he returned to Berlin to
study phy.sics and chemistry. In 1876 lie estab-
lished himself as privat-docent at the Bauakademie
of Berlin, subsequently connecting himself in the
same capacity with the Technische Hochschule at
Charlottenburg, at which institution he was ap-
pointed lecturer(1894)and professor(1896)of physics.
He has edited Goethe's scientific works, with notes
and introduction (ed. G. Hempel, vols, xxxiii.-
xxxvi., 1877-79); translated Faraday's "Experimen-
tal Researches in Electricity" into German (3 vols.
1889-91) ; and has published many essaj'son physics,
chemistry, and electricity in scientific periodicals.
He wrote also " Teleologie und Darwinismus "(1878) ;
"Die Farbenblindheit" (1879), etc. ; and contributed
the chapter on "Goethe als Naturforscher" to Biel-
schowsky's " Goethe-Bibliographie " (ii. 412-460,
Munich, 1904). S.

KALISCHER, ZEBI HIRSCH : German rabbi
and coloinzer; born March 24, 1795, at Lissa, Posen;
died Oct. 16, 1874, at Thorn, on the Vistula. Des-
tined for the rabbinate, he received his Talmudic
education from Jacob of
Lissa and Akiba Eger of

Posen. After
riage he left

Zebi Hirscti Kalischtr.

his mar-
Lissa and
settled in Thorn, where
he spent the rest of his
life. Here he took an act-
ive interest in the affairs
of the Jewish community,
and for more than forty
years held the office of
" Rabbinatsverweser" (act-
ing rabbi). Disinterested-
ne.ss was a prominent
feature of his character;
he refused to accept any
remuneration for his serv-
ices, his wife, by means of a small business, jiro-
viding their meager subsistence.

In his youth he wrote "Eben Bohan," commen-
tary on several juridical themes of the Shulhan
'Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat (Krotoschin, 1842), and
"Sefer Mozmiyim la Mishpat. "commentary, in three
parts, on the whole Hoshen Mishpat (parts i. and ii.,
Krotoschin and Konigsberg, 1855; part iii. still in
manuscript). He also wrote: glosses on Shulhan
'Aruk, Yoreh Deah, published in the new AVilna
edition of that work; "Sefer iia-Berit," commentary
on the Pentateuch; "Sefer Yezi'at Mizrayim," com-
mentary on the Pesah Ilaggadah ; "Hiddushim" on
several Talmudical treatises; etc. He also contrib-
uted largely to Hebrew magazines, as "Ha-Mag-
gid," "Ziyyon," "Ha-Ibri." and "Ha-Lebanon."

Inclined to philosophical speculation, Kali.scher

Kalischer
Kallir

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

422

studied the systems of medieval and modern Jewish
and Christian philosophers, one result beiug his
"Sefer Emunah Yesharah," an inquiry into Jewish
philosophy and dogma (2 vols., Krotoschin, 1843,
1871); an appendix to vol. i. contains a commentary
(incomplete) on Job and Ecclesiastes. In the midst
of his many activities, however, his thoughts cen-
tered on one idea — the colonization of
Palestine Palestiue, in order thereby to provide
Coloniza- a home for tlie homeless Eastern Jews
tion. and transform the many Jewish beg-

gars in the Holy Land into a useful
agricultural population. He proposed to collect
money for this purpose from Jews in all countries;
to buy and cultivate laud in Palestine; to found an
agricultural school, either in Palestine itself or in
France ; and to form a Jewish military guard for
the .security of the colonies. He thought the time
especially favorable for tlie carrying out of this idea,
as the sympathy of men like Cremieux, Montetiore,
Rothschild, and Albert Cohn rendered the Jews
politically influential. To these and similar Zionist
ideals he gave expression in his " Derishat Ziyyon "
(Lyck, 1862), containing three theses: (1) the salva-
tion of the Jews, promised by the Prophets, can
come about only in a natural way — by self-help;
(2) colonization in Palestine; (3) admissibility of
the observance of sacrifices in Palestine at the pres-
ent day. The appendix contains an invitation to
the reader to become a member of the colonization
societies of Palestine.

This book made a very great impression, espe-
cially in the East. It was tran.slated into German
by Poper (Tliorn, 1865), and a second Hebrew edi-
tion was issued by N. Friedland {ib. 1866). Ka-
lischer himself traveled with indefatigable zeal to dif-
ferent German cities for the purpose of establishing
colonization societies. It was his influence that
caused Hayyim Lurie, in Frankfort-on-the-Main in
1861, to form the first .society of this kind, and this
was followed by others. Owing to Kalischer's agi-
tation, the Alliance Israelite Universelle founded
the Palestinian colony Mikweh Yisrael (see Agri-
cultural Colonies), the rabbinate of Avhich was
ofiTered to him, but he was too old to accept it.
Although all these endeavors were not attended
with immediate success, Kalischer never lost hope.
By exerting a strong influence upon his contempo-
raries, including such prominent men as Heinrich
Griltz, Moses Hess (see "Rom und Jerusalem," pp.
117 et seq.), and others, he is considered to have been
one of the most important of those who prepared
the way for the foundation of modern Zionism.

Bibliography: Allg. ZeAt. dexJud. 1874, p. 757; JOdiiicher
Volfcikalender, pp. 143 et xeq., Leipslc, 1899; Sefer Anshc
Shem, pp. 31a et xeq., Warsaw, 18i)2.

8. M. Sc.

KALISKER, ABRAHAM BEN ALEXAN-
DER HA-KOHEN : Kabbi of Kaliska, Prussia, in
the eighteenth century. Kalisker .studied succes-
sively under Elijah Wilna and Bar of Meseritz,
becoming a fervent leader of the Hasidic party.
After the death of Bilr of Meseritz, Kalisker settled
with a senior fellow pupil, Meuahem Mendel of
Vitebsk, at Horodok, and in 1777 accompanied him
to Palestine as his assistant in the leadership of the

Hasidim ; he was ver}' active in the propagation of
Hasidism. They settled first at Safed ; obliged to
leave that town, they settled, about 1783, at Tibe-
rias. After the death of Menahem Mendel (1788)
Kalisker succeeded him as leader of the Hasidim in
Palestine. He maintained at that time an active
correspondence with his former fellow pupil Sheneor
Zalman of Ladier; and when, a little later, Kalisker
was suspected by the Hasidim of Volhynia and Po-
dolsk of having used improperly the funds en-
trusted to him for distribution among the poor, She-
neor Zalman defended him vigorously.

Kiilisker wrote mystical novelise to the Penta-
teuch, which form the second part of the " Hesed le-
Abraham " (Lemberg, 1858). Some of his letters are
to be found at the end of the "Peri ha-Arez " (Ko-
pys, 1814) and in the "Iggeret ha-Kodesh " (War-
saw, 1850).

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keiiexet Yisrael, p. 5Q: Horodetzki, in
Ha-Shiloah, viiL 487 et seq.; Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim ht-
Hadaxh, k13.

s. s. M. Sel.

KALISZ (German, Kalisch) : City in the gov-
ernment of the same name in Russian Poland; situ-
ated on the River Prosna, near the Prussian fron-
tier. Its Jewish community is one of the oldest in
Poland. In 1264 Boleslaw the Pious granted the
Jews of Kalisz charters of privileges ^hich were
used as models for similar charters by Casimir the
Great in 1334 and by Duke Withold in 1388.

During the fourteenth century the Jews of Kalisz,
like those of other cities near the German frontier,
suffered greatly from the attacks of mobs which ac-
cused the Jews of having poisoned the wells in times
of epidemics; and Casimir the Great handed to the
Jew Falk of Kalisz the charter of privileges secur-
ing to him and his coreligionists protection from
these false accusations (July 15, 1364).

The Jews of Kalisz are mentioned in an edict of
King Sigismuud August, dated Sept. 16, 1549, im-
posing a head-tax of one Polish florin on the Jews
of several communities ("Metrika Koronnaya," No.
77, fol. 214, v.). In 1666 the troops of the Polish
general Czarniecki killed 600 members of the Kalisz
community.

The earliest mention of Kalisz in Hebrew litera-
ture is probably that made by Solomon Segal, day-
yan at Kalisz in the first half of the thirteenth cen-
tury, in Menahem b. Solomon's "SekelTob," section
" Wayikra " (Dyhernfurth, 1735). Joel Sirkes in his
responsa "Bet Hadash" (ed. Cracow, 1617, No. 43)
refers to an accusation against the Jews of Kalisz of
stealing a small image of "the Redeemer" ("ha-
Go'el"). A Jewish hospital was founded at Kalisz
in 1863 by Louis Mamrath ; and a new synagogue
was built in 1879.

An anti-Jewish riot broke out in the city June 23,
1878, due to the erection of an " 'erub " by the
ultra-Orthodox rabbi Hayyim Wachs, which dis-
pleased the Christian inhabitants. A mob from the
neighboring villages demolished the synagogue, the
residence of the rabbi, and part of the Jewish hos-
pital ; three Jewish children were killed, several
Jews were wounded, and Jewish property to the
amount of about 200,000 rubles was stolen or des-
troyed. The riot was suppressed by the military

423

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kallscher
Kallir

the same evening. The city was placed under mar-
tial law, and was condemned to pay damages to the
amount of 80,000 rubles, while the surrounding
villages had to pay 40,000 rubles. Kabbi Hayyim
was forced by the Jewish community to resign.

The best-known rabbis of Kalisz have been : Solomon Se-
g-al (loth cent.,; Judah Nissan (17th cent.), author of "Bet
Yehudah '"; Jehiel Michael b. Aryeh (second half of 17th
cent.), author of " Sha'are Hokiuati " (Prague. 16.57), on religious
ethics, and of " Sha'are Shainayiin," a collection of sermons, in
two parts (part i., ih.. 167.5); Moses b. Benjamin Wolf
Bofe, author of " Yerushat Mosheh " (Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1677), and of " Yarim Mosheh " (Amsterdam, 1679); both books
contain medical prescriptions and "segulot" written in Judieo-
German (Benjacob, "(jzar ha-Sefariiii." p. 230); Abraham
Abele Gumbiner ; Eleazar Lazar (second half of 18tU
cent.); Abraham Abele lend of 18th cent, and beginning
of 19th); Elijah Rag-oler (born at Neustadt-Sugind 1794;
became rabbi at Kalisz 1!S40 ; died there 1849); Zebi Hirsch
Chajes (died at Lemberg Oct. 12, 1855); Meir b. Isaac
Auerbach (born at Dobia. near Kalisz, Feb. 10, 1815; held
the rabbinate of Kalisz from 1&55 to 1860, when he went to Pal-
estine; died at Jerusalem May 8, 1878); Hayyim Eleazar
"Wax (died at Kuznitza, near kalisz, June'30, 1889); Samson
Ornstein (born 1822 ; rabbi of Kalisz from 1886 until his
death, Dec. 1, 1903).

Other prominent Jews of Kalisz were Jacob
Prague, Lazarus Gutman, Wolf Lewi, Tobias Kop-
pel, Elias Koppel, Meir Sachs, ^latthias Mann, Jo-
seph D. Seizner, David Stein, Ezekiel Steinman, and
Wolf FuANKEL, the philanthropist.

In 1897 the Jewish inhabitants in the city num-
bered 8,026 in a total population of 21,680; in the
government, 70,907 in a total population of 846,719.
The community possesses the usual charitable or-
ganizations, which are in a prosperous condition.

Bibliography: Regesty, vol. 1., s.i\, St. Petersburg, 1899; the
list of rabbis has l)een gathered from Lewinstein, Du7-ot 'Ola-
tnim, Warsaw, 1899, and Benjacob, (Jzarha-Sefarim, passim ;
.4»y. Zeit. des Jud. 1878, pp. 458, 492.
H. R. J. D. E.— J. G. L.

KALKAR, CHRISTIAN ANDREAS HER-
MAN : Danish convert to Piote.slantism ; born Nov.
27, 1802, at Stockholm ; died at Gladsaxe, near Co-
penhagen, Feb. 3, 1886. He received his early educa-
tion from his father, a rabbi, and at the schools of
Copenhagen, where in 1818 he became a student of
law. In 1823 he became a Protestant and studied
theology, passing his e.xajninatiou in 1826. In 1833
he received the degree of Ph.D. From 1827 to 1841
he Avas teacher at Odeu.sce ; in 1842 he visited Spain ;
and from 1844 was a minister at Gladsa.xe and
Hcrloi.

Among Kalkar's many works may be mentioned:
"Evangelische Missionsgesch." 1857; "Gesch. der
Romisch-Katholischeu Mission," 1862 (German
transl., Erlangen, 1867); "Die Mission Unter den
Juden," 1868 (German transl., Hamburg, 1869):
" Gesch. der Christlichen Mission Unter den Heiden,"
1879 (German transl., Giitersloh, 1879); "Israel og
Kirken," Copenhagen, 1881.

From 1871 to 1880 Kalkar was editor of the
"TheologiskTidskrift."

Bibliography: De le Roi. Juden-Mission, ii. 315 et scq.:
Meyers Konvermtioiis-Lexilwn.

s. F. T. H.

KALLAH : Name of a teachers' convention
•which was held in Babylonian academies, after tiie
beginning of the amoiaic period, in the two months
Adar and Elul. The original meaning of the word

is not known. It is always written with n (nPD), as
the Hebrew word for" bride"; but tiie manner in
which this meaning has been connected with a con-
vention of teachers (Levy, " Neuhebr. Worterbuch."
ii. 321) has not been satisfactorily explained. Per-
haps the word is merely another form of the Ara-
maic ithh^ = "totality," although this word never

occurs in traditionary literature as a designation for
a cojlection or assembly of people. It may be con-
nected also with the Aramaic N^>^3 = "garland,"

the assembly of teachers being thought of as a gar-
land adorning the academy (comp. " Hazi ha-Goren "
and " Kerem " as designations of the circle whicli
the Sanhedrin formed). In Latin, also, "corona"
means "circle," "assemblj-." Kohut("Aruch Com-
pletum,"iv. 428a)hasasimilarexplanation, although
he adds an incorrect comparison with a Persian word.

The importance of the Kallah (referred to under
another name) is extolled in the Midrash Tanhuma
(Noah, § 3): "God has appointed the two academies
["yeshibot"] for the good of Israel. In them day
and night are devoted to the study of the Torah;
and thither come the scholars from all places twice
a year, in Adar and Elul. and associate with one
another in discussions on the Torah." The greater
the attendance at the convention, the greater was the
renown of the academy. Hence Abaye says (Ber.
6b): "The most important part of the Kallah is a
crowd." The unpleasant side of this crowd is char-
acterized by Abaye 's colleague Raba as follows {tb.
6a): "The crowd at the Kallah is caused by the
mazzikim " (the unseen tormenting spirits which
hover around people). There was a saying in Baby-
lonia that whoever dreamed of going into a forest
would become president of the Kallah (the Kallah
being likened to a forest).

That treatise of the Mishnah which formed the
subject of explanation and discussion at each sepa-
rate Kallah was called "the treatise of the Kallah"
according to Ta'an. 10b (see B. Hananeel in Kohut,
I.e. iv. 227b). The sentence in question is a tan-
naitic maxim, the latter part of which is: "...
among the scholars is to be counted he who is able
to answer every question concerning every halakah
which he has studied"; to this the words 1^'DS
n^D riDDOn ("even that referring to the treatise of
the Kallah ") are added on account of Babylonian
conditions. In Palestine there was no Kallah. It is
true that A. Schwarz ("Jahrbuch fiir Judische
Gesch. und Litteratur," 1899, ii. 102) claims that this
can not be asserted with certainty; but the sources
show that the Kallah was purely a Babylonian in-
stitution. As a matter of fact it resulted from the
circumstance that the Babylonian Jews were scat-
tered over an unusually extensive territory, and
felt the need of coming together at stated times to
study in common. See Academies ix Babyi.oxia ;

G.\ON.

G. ^V. B.

KALLIR, ELEAZAR B. ELEAZAR : Hun-
garian rabbi and author: died at Kolin, Bohemia, in
?805 : grandson of Meir Eisenstadt, author of " Panim
Me'irot." Kallir, who was rabbi of Hechnitz and
of Kolin, wrote: (1) "Or Hadash," in three parts:

Kalman
Kalonymus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

424

{(t) commentary on tlie Pentateuch which forms

a part of his grandfather's work "Kotnot Or"

(Fiirth, 1766); (*) novelke on Pesahim; and (c)

novelhB on Kiddushin (Frankfort - on - the - Oder

and Vienna, l'766-99); (2) " Hawwot Ya'ir Hadash "

(Prague, 1792), sermons; (3) "Heker Hahikah."

part i. (Vienna, 1838), responsa.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keiicsct Yi^rarJ, p. 142: Gans, Zc-
ninh Daiviih Supplement, p. 207 ; Zedner, Cat. Hchr. ZJoo/fs
Bnh3f..s.p.4ir. ^ ^ ^

KALMAN VEBMEISA (OF WORMS) : Po-
lish rabbi; died in Lemberg on April 28, 1560; the
first known rabbi of that community and one of
the earliest great rabbis of Poland. Though prob-
ably a native of Worms, as his surname suggests, he
was rabbi and head of a yeshibah in Lemberg for
forty-two j'ears, and is mentioned in responsa and
by his contemporaries as one of the foremost Tal-
mudical authorities of his time. R. Joseph ha-
Kohenof Cracow, author of "She'erit Yosef," states
in that work that he submitted a question to him
and was sustained in his opinion (Responsum No.
1, whereP. Eliezerb. Manoah, his son-in-law, is also
cited). One responsum by P. Kalman (dated 1558)
and another by R. Eliezer (Nos. 15 and 16 in the
responsa of R. Moses Isserles) contain all that has
been preserved of their writings.

Bibliography: Dembitzer, JTr/ifaf YnH, pp. 73-76, Cracow,
1888 ; Buber, Amhc Shenu pp. 200-201, Cracow, 1895; Suchas-
tav, Mazzebet Kodesh, ii.. No. 1, iv. 18a, Lemberg, 1863-69.

s. s. p. Wi.

KALMANKES. See J.\ffe.

KALOMITI, ABRAHAM BEN MOSES:

Turkish .scholar of the tifteenth century. To him
is attributed the rationalistic commentary on Job
found in manuscript in the Bodleian Library (Neu-
bauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 2243). In
this commentary (fol. 57) the author quotes the
"Sefer ha-Middot," a work of his on the "Ethics"
of Aristotle. Kalomiti's claim to its authorship is,
however, questioned by Steinschneider, who sup-
poses that the commentary on Job was only copied
for Kalomiti.

The surname "Kalomiti." which is the equivalent
of the Hebrew D^VJ »1N. was borne by several prom-
inent Turkish Jews. A certain David D^J?3 ?){< '-^^^^
one Samuel D"'yj eiX are highly praised by Ephraim
ben Gershon ha-Rofe in his sermons.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, in Hchr. BiW. xvii. 111,13.5;
xi.\. :il ; idem, Hchr. L'chcr.'i. p. 219, note 807b.
'■■■ I. Bk.

KALONYMUS : A prominent family (originally
from Lucca, Italy), which, after the settlement at
Mayeiice and Speyer of several of its members, took
during many generations a leading part in tiie de-
velopment of Jewish learning in Germany. The
name ought really to be spelled "Kalonymos," as
Kalonymus b. Kalonymus and Immanuel of Rome
both rime it with words ending in "-mos " (seeZunz
in Geigcr's "Zi'itschrift," iv. 199). The origin of the
name, wlu'ch occurs in Greece, Italy, and Provence,
is unceitain. Wolf thought it a translation of the
Hebrew "Shem-Tob " (Zunz. "G. S." ii. 33) : Zunz,
that it represented the Latin "Cleonymiis " (Geiirer's
"Zeitschrift." ii. 316). See also Steinschneider,

" Cat. Bodl. " col. 1372. Traces of the family in Italy
may be found as early as the second half of the
eighth century. As to the date of the settlement of its
members in Germany, the opinions of modein schol-
ars are divided, owing to the conflicting statements
of the Jewish sources (Eleazar of Worms, "Mazref
la-Hokmah," p. 14b; Solomon Luria, Responsa, No.
29; Joseph ha-Kohen, "'Emek ha-Baka," p. 13).
Rapoport, Zunz, and many others place the settle-
ment in 876, believing the King Charles (l^ixp),
mentioned in the sources as having induced the
Kalonymides to emigrate to Germany, to have been
Charles the Bold, who was in Italy in that year;
Luzzatto and others think that it took place under
Charlemagne, alleging that the desire to attract
scholars to the empire was more in keeping with the
character of that monarch; still others assign it to
the reign of Otto II. (973-983), whose life, accord-
ing to the historian Thietmar von Merseburg, was
saved in a battle with the Saracens by a Jew named
Kalonymus. The following table, compiled from
the accounts of Eleazar of Worms and Solomon
Luria, gives the Italian and German heads of the
family, which produced for nearly five centuries the
most notable scholars of Germany and northern
France, such as Samuel he-Hasid and Judah he-
Hasid (for another genealogical tree, see Kalonymus
BEN Isaac the Elder):

Meshullam I. (780)

I
(2) Ithiel I. (Sa))

I
Meshullam II. (825)

I
(11) Moses 1. (.^50)

I
Jekuthiel 1. (876)

I
Kalonymus I. (900)

I
Moses II. (926)

Jekuthiel II. (4) Kalonymus II. (950)
(9) Meshullam the Great of Rome or Lucca (976)
(.')) Kalonymus III. (1000)

(1) Haiuineel I.

(12) Moses III. (1020)

Kalonymus IV.

Hananeel II.

Ithiel II.

Moses IV.

(1(160)

(10) Meshullam
of Mavencc (1080)

(3) Jekuthiel
of Spever
(107(i)
i
Moses V. of
Spever
(1(170)

Althougii all of them are ineiitioned as having
been important scholars, the nature of the activity
of only a few of tlieni is Ivnowii.

1. Hananeel I. (ben Kalonymus) : Litur-
gical poet; nourished at Mayence or Speyer in the
eleventh century: l)rotlier (if Closes III. He was
the author of the piyyut nC^'lin ^2'C*V i:;nn to tlie
kerobot of the last day of Passover, to wliich his
brother wrote the -jTllSli: r\fD''ii-

2. Ithiel I.: A siiort seiihali in eight strophes,
beginning witli y22 nnCi'D rhlD and concluding

425

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kalman
Kalonymus

with DVn KJ nn*^Vn. I'cars tlienameof Itliiel with-
out any otlier iudicatioii us lo its auDioisliip. It was
translated into German by Zunz ("S. P." p. 289).

3. Jekuthiel ben Moses: Liturgical poet;
tlourisht'd at Speyer in 1070. lie was the author of
the reshut TIKT to Kalir's kerobah for the feast of
New-Year. A son of Jekuthiel named Moses of
Spever is quoted as a high Talniudical autliority
("Pardes," p. 48a; "Rokeah," p. 311; "Pirke Re-
kanati,"p. 189; "Maimoniyyot." n3t^'. xx.x. ; "Shib-
bole lia-Leket," p. 89, where the name is erroneously
given as Simhah instead of Moses).

4. Kalonymus II. (ben Moses) : Halakist
and liturgical poet; flourished at Lucca or at Rome
about 950. He was consulted on ritual questions
by Gershou Me'or ha-Golah ; and twelve responsa of
his are included in tiie collection compiled by Joseph
ben Samuel 'Alam Tob and published by D. Cassel
under the title "Teshubot Geonim Kadmonim "
(Nos. 106-118). Gershon Me'or ha-Golah remarks
("Shibbole ha-Leket," ^ 18) that there exists in rab-
binical literature a confusion concerning the identity
of Kalonymus and his sou Meshullam the Great, and
the saying of one is sometimes attributed to the
other. Thus Rashi quotes three emendations in the
Talniudical text in the name of R. Meshullam (Zeb.
45b), while Jacob Tarn (Tos., Men. 109b) gives them
in the name of R. Kalonymus. Kalonymus was the
author of a kerobah for feast-days ("Ma'aseh Ge-
onim," § 172). To him probably belong the rehitim
"JK"!^ N^'O which bear the signature "Kalonymus"
or "Kalonymus the Elder." Eleazer of Worms
attributes also to him the piyyut imy ^npmms^O-

5. Kalonymus III. (ben Meshullam) : Litur-
gical poet; flourished at ]\Iayence about 1000. He
figures in the Amnon legend as having written the
" U-Netanneh Tokef," which had been revealed to
him in a dream by the martyr A.mnon of ]\Iayence.

6. Kalonymus ben Isaac the Elder : Ger-
man halakist; lived at Speyer in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries ; father of Samuel he-Hasid, grand-
father of Judah he-Hasid, and great-grandfather of
.Judah ben Kalonymus, as the following pedigree
shows:

88, 245, 290), and in the "Mazref la-Hokmah " (p.
14a), it may be inferred that he was rabbi in Ma-
yence, and that during tiie First Crusade (1096) he
was compelled to flee to Speyer. He died in Dec,
1127. His body could not be buried because of the
investment of the city by Lothar, the burial-ground
being outside of the place. At a later time it was
interred at Mayence.

BiBi.iOGRAPHV: Michael, Or ha-Hauyim, p. 572; Wiener, in

Moiiatssclirift. xii. 161 : EpsU-ini i7>. xll. 448.

7. Kalonymus b. Judah or Kalonymus the
Elder: Lived in Mayence at the beginning of the
twelfth century. He was a contemporary of Elia-
kim b. Joseph, the teacher of Ekazar b. Nathan
(RaBaN).

8. Kalonymus ben Judah or Kalonymus
the Younger: Liturgical poet; flourislieci at
Speyer (?) about 1160; probably a grandson of Ka-
lonymus ben Isaac the Elder. He was a contempo-
rary of Isaac b. Shalom, grandfather of Isaac Or
Zarua', and was the author of many liturgical poems
in various styles, e.ff., ofan, zulat, and reshut, and
especially of selihot. Thirty of his poetical produc-
tions have been incorporated in the Mahzor. Among
his selihot the most noteworthy are: ~)^p^\ DH. in
which the author describes the readiness shown by
the Jews, in the persecutions of the Crusades, to
die for the faith of their fathers; the kinah jri'' 'D
D'D 'J^*S"1. on the sulTeiings of the Jews during the
per.sec\itionsof 1147 ("Monatsschrift," xx. 257); and
CIK*^ nimS, on the fate of the Jews from the times
of the Pharaohs to the destruction of the Temple by
Titus. The whole of the flrst selihah and the end
of the second have been translated into German by
Zunz.

Bibliography: Zunz. S. P. pp. 16, 196; idem, Literatur-
(jesch. pp. 164-ltjt), 2.').5; Epstein, in Monatsschrift, xli. 449.

9. Meshullam the Great (called also the Ro-
man, 'roTi K^'N) : Halakist and liturgical poet ; flour-
ished at Rome or at Lucca about 976. He carried
on with Gershon Me'or ha-Golah and Simon the Great
a scientific correspondence, which is included in
the "Teshubot Geonim Kadmonim" (13a), and was
the author of a commentary on Abot ("'Aruk," s.v.

(Ij) Kalonymus li. Isaac the Elder
(d. ll-'(5)

Samuel lie-Hasid

Judah

Meir

(iolde Abraham Judali he-Hasid

(Briill's "Jahrb." (aulhur "Sefer

i.N. 4.J) ha-Hasiiilm " ;

I 'd. 1-'17)

Eleazar ha- I

Darshan (c. 1240) Moses Saltnian

I I

Miise.s Azriel Tobiah
liii-Diirshan
ic. I;i. 0)

I I ill

(8) Kalonvmus Daughter = Kalouviuus Moses Samuel
(c. 1160) I (••ha-l'arnes") I

Mei'r Judah

(Zunz, "Z.G."
p. 53)

David

(c. I2;iii)

Meshullam
(c. 1240)

Simhah (c. 1223)

Kalonymus is quoted in the Tosafot (Hul. 47b), and
a responsum of liis is included in the collection of
responsa of MeTr of Rothenbing (No. 501). From
the account of Kalonymus given in the " Mordekai "
(Pes. nos h^b ^::'"nD, end), in the "Pardes" (s;^ 75,

nyO)- ]VIeshullam engaged in polemics with the
Karaites. From the Bible text he demonstrates that,
contrary to their opinion, one may quit one's house
on Sabbath and have one's house lighted on the
night of Sabbath ("Semag," No. 66; "Sefer Hasi-

Kalonymus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

426

dim," No. 1147). Meshullam was a prolific liturgical
poet. Of the piyyutim contained in the kerobah
of the "Shaharit " service of the Day of Atonement,
at least twenty (possibly thirty-two) belong to him.
He wrote also: an '"Abodah," recited after the
praj'er for the synagogue reader and containing a
cursory review of Biblical history from Adam down
to Levi; a yozer for Passover ; and two zulot. Al-
together thirty-eight piyyutim are attributed to him.
Altliough their language is labored, they are distin-
guished by their elevation of thought and concise-
ness. There was another payyetan called "Me-
shullam the Great," to whom probably belongs the
Aramaic poetical Targum on tlie Decalogue which
is generally attributed to Meshullam the Great
ben Kalonvmus (comp. Landshuth, "AmmudeJia-
'Abodah,""'5.f.).

10. Meshullam ben Moses: Liturgical poet;
lived at Mayence in 1080. He was the author of
the following five piyyutim: (1) DTI ^^r\ii nmDK
\)Du?, a yozer for a marriage Sabbath, based upon
IChron. xxix. 11-12; (2) "TTTlTX HDI^D Tl^UD. in
seven-lined strophes; (3) an Elijah poem, |»01X ^N
Hip; (4) an Aramaic illustration of the third com-
mandment, beginning with npK^ nnriDO "irnTN;
and (5) a kedushshah for the Musaf service.

Meshullam was among those who killed themselves
May 27, 1096, in order not to fall into the hands of
the Crusaders (Neubauer and Stern, "Hebraische
Berichte iiber die Judenverfolgungen," p. 6).

11. Moses I. (ben Meshullam): Liturgical
poet ; lived at Kome or at Lucca about 850. Two
tahanunim of his are incorporated in the Mahzor:
one, beginning with inyiKTl \n^N n NJN, comprises
thirty-eight lines of four words each ; the other, be-
ginning with ^X-ik;-" iipro, consists of forty-six lines,
with a double acrostic on the name of the author at
the beginning of the line ; translated into German
by Zunz ("S. P." p. 193).

12. Moses ben Kalonymus: Liturgical poet;
flourished at Mayence in 1020. He was the author
of ^TllNIU nCX and of a kerobah consisting of
various poems for the seventh day of Passover,
which used to be recited in the congregations of
Mayence. Citations from several of the kerobah
poems are given in various earlier Bible commen-
taries. (On the confusion existing in the rabbinical
sources concerning the identity of the author of the
ITIIN-IIJ nCN, see Zunz, "Literaturgesch." pp.
104-108.)

Bibuography: Rapoport, in Bikkure ha-'Ittim, x. 40 ef se<]
111 et seq.\ xi. 1(K); Canrioly, in Jost's AiDialau i. 222; Luz-
zatto, Oiudaisma llluKtrntd, p. 30; Zunz, G. V Index-
Idem, Literal riraesch. Index : idem. Z. G. Index ; Monatfi-
schrift, 1854, pp. 236 et 8C(/.; 1878, pp.2Met seq.; Gratz, Ge,sch.
V- .!»•'; Gudemann, Ge-sc/i. i. 11 elKcq.; Giesebrecht, KaUer-
zeit i. 849; Bresslau, in ZnUchrift fUr die Gesch. der
Jiulcn in Dexituchland, i. 156 et seq.; Aronius, ib ii 82 et
«e^.: Vogelstein and Illeger, Gexch. der Juden in liom, i.

G- L Br.

KALONYMUS. Sec Beaucaire.

KALONYMUS BEN DAVID BEN TO-
DROS : French translator; lived in the tirst half of
the fourteenth century. He translated (after 1328)
from the Arabic into Hebrew, under the title "Hap-
palat ha-Happalah," the treatise of Averroes against
Ohazali's "Tahafut al-Falasifah." The translation

is preceded by an introduction in rimed prose, in
which Kalonymus excuses himself for having un-
dertaken to propagate a work written by such a
heretic as Averroes, and alleges that the arguments
of the latter are sometimes so weak that they serve
to strengthen Ghazali's attacks against the philoso-
phers. Moreover, having been urged by his friends
to give a Hebrew version of the work, he felt un-
able to refuse, although there already existed a
Hebrew translation made by Isaac, or Bonisaac,
njnjl, and another had been commenced by Kalon-
ymus ben Kalonymus. The introduction was pub-
lished by Steiuschneider in the catalogue of the
Berlin Library. Kalonymus has been confounded
by many bibliographers with the Venetian physi-
cian of the same name, who was also a translator.

Bibliography: Carmoly, La France Israelite, p. 93; Stein-
schneider. Cat. Leyden, p. 88; idem, Berlin Cat. p. ISJ;
idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 332 ; Gross, in Monatsschrift, 1880,
p. 61 ; Benan-Neubauer, Les Ecrivains Juifs Franqais, p.
461.
G. I. Br.

KALONYMUS BEN GERSHON : German
Taimudist of the thirteenth century. He was a con-
temporary of Eleazar of Worms and Menahem ben
Jacob, with whom he disputed concerning a halakic
decision. The controversy is quoted by Mordecai
ben Hillel ("Mordekai," Yebamot ix., end) and in
the " Haggahot Maimoniyyot " ( " Hilkot Gerushim,"
xiii.).

Bibliography : Michael, Or ha-Hauyim, p. 572.
G. I. Br.

KALONYMUS BEN JUDAH (known as
Maestro Calo) : Italian physician; born in Naples;
lived at Venice in the first half of the sixteenth cen-
turj'. He attained a high reputation in the Chris-
tian world by the following translations into Latin
made by him: Zerahiah ha-Levi's Hebrew version
of Ghazali's "Tahafut al-Falasifah," published
under the title " Destructio " (Venice, 1527) ; Samuel
ibn Tibbon's Hebrew version of Averroes' treatise
on the intellect, published under the title "De Con-
versione Intellectus" {ib.); Moses ibn Tibbon's He-
brew version of Alpetragius' treatise on astronomy
(Venice, 1531). Kalonymus also translated into He-
brew, probably from Latin, Johannes Regiomon-
tanos' "Fundamentis," which is still extant in man-
uscript (Parma MS. No. 336, 9). He was the author
of a treatise on the Hebrew accents, entitled "Sha'ar
ba-Ta"amim," written as a supplement to Abraham
de Balmes' grammar, "Mikneh Abram" (Venice,
1523).

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1575; idem,
Hebr. Uebers. pp. 333, 341, 551, 641 ; Mortara, Indice, p. 9.

G. L Br.

KALONYMUS BEN KALONYMUS BEN
MEIR (called Maestro Calo) : Provencal philos-
opher and translator; born at Aries 1286; died after
1328. He was a descendant of a prominent Proven-
cal family, several members of which held high posi-
tions among the Jews. The father of Kalonymus
and Kalonymus himself each bore the title "Nasi"
(prince). The latter studied philosophy and rab-
binical literature at Salonica, under the direction of
Senior Astruc de Novcs and Moses ben Solomon of
Beaucaire. He also studied medicine, although he
seems never to have practised it.

r t: V c*t:; r ^jn ^rr^:^:: rr \:;^ ' it-D 'd-^ rcrro jx-p
r^'i rrr^ iji ;:^j-r ' jrcc: jrr'jp rr^ ^*cr> j^r^o

' ■ • « »

"«^u ■ r- ■ -'':..^r^^:p'T^»:=5J7>

FiKST Pa(;e from thk First Epitiox ok Kaloxymis' "F.hkn Boha\," Naples, um.

(From the Sulzbtrgfr colleaion in Ihe Jewish Theologicsl Seminary of AnieriJ*. New York.)

•^

Kalonymus
Kalvariya

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

428

About 1314 Kalonymus settled at Avignon, where
he later became associated with Robert of Anjou,
who sent liim, provided with letters of recommenda.
tion, on a scientific mission to Rome. Kalonymus'
learning and cliaractcr gained for him the considera
tion of the Roman Jewish notables; and when his
family, finding that his sojourn at Rome was longer
than had been anticipated, recalled him, the poet Im-
manuel ben Solomon of Rome wrote a letter to Nasi
Samuel of Aries, protesting in the name of the Jew-
ish community of Rome against Ka-
At Rome, lonymus' return (" Mahberot," p. 23).
According to Steinschneider and Gross,
Kalonymus was the poet referred to by Immanuel
(ib. p. 28) as having pleaded the cause of the Roman
Jews before the pope at Avignon in 1321. But this
assertion needs confirmation, inasmuch as the exact
dates of Kalonymus' stay in Rome can not be ascer-
tained. Graetz and, after, him, Neubauer believe
that Kalonymus went to Rome after his sojourn in
Catalonia, Avhich was in 1322 ; and the fact that he
does not mention Rome in his "Eben Bohan " con-
firms their supposition. In 1328 Kalonymus was in
Aries, where he probably remained until his deatli,
the exact date of which is unknown.

Kalonymus acquired a high reputation both as an
original writer and as a translator. He began his
literary career when only twenty years old. His
translations, which, with the exception of one that
was printed, are all still ia manuscript, include the
following (arranged in chronological order, the He-
brew titles being those of the translations) :

Ha-'Amraud be-Shoroshe ha-Refuah, translation of the Arabic
work " Kitab al-'Iniad fl Usui al-Tibb" of 'Ali ibn Ridwan.
This translation, completed at Aries Oct. 10, 1307, was the second
made by Kalonymus, the first havinsr been lost in 1306 during
the banishment of the Jews from France.

Safer Galyanus be-Hakna ube-Kulsa, Galen's work on clys-
ters and colic, from the Arabic version of Hunain ibn Ishak.

Sefer Galyanus be-Hakkazah, Galen's work on bleeding, prob-
ably made from the Arabic version of Hunain ibn Ishak.

Treatise on the five geometrical bodies by Euclid, in rela-
tion to the theory of Apollonius, and the commentary of h^im-
plicius.

Ha-I)ibbur ha-MeshulIash, treatise on the triangle, by Abu Sa-
'adan.

Sefer Meshalim be-Tishboret, on mathematical propositions.

Sefer ha-Temunah ha-Hittukit, a work on geometry, entitled
"Fi al-Shakl iil-Kutta," by Thabet ibn Kurrah.

Ma'amai; be-Iztawwonot ube-Hiddudim, treatise on cylinders
and cones.

Bi'ur Sefer Tobiki, Averroes' commentary on the topics.

Bi'ur Ruflstiki, Averroes' <'otiimentary on sophisms.

Hi'ur Sefer ha-Mofet, Averroes' large commentary on the sec-
ond analytics.

Sefer ha-Zemahim, treatise on the plants, attributed to Aris-
totle, with the commc^ntary thereon by Averroes.

Ma'amar be-Sekel vveha-Muskal, treatise on (lie inlellect and
the intelligible, by Al-Karabi.

Ma'amar hc-Mispar ha-Hokinot, on the division of the sciences,
by Al-Farahi.

Sefer ha-Peri ha-Nikra Meah Diliburini, cniinneniary on the
Kapn-o? of Ptolemy, Iranslateil fnmi the Arabic version of .Mm
..'a'far Ahmad l)en Vusuf ben Ihraliim.

Iggerel be-Kizzur ha-Ma'amar be-Moladut, short, treatise on
nativities, by Al-kindi.

Iggeret be-'Illot, treatise on the influence of the heavenly
bodies on rain, ny Al-Kindi.

Thi; miiidle commentary "f Averroes on physics.

Sefer lia-llawayh weha-IIii)pased. Avertiie>' uiiddle cdnimen-
tary on generatimi and corruption

Sefer Otot ha-Shamaylm, Averroes' middle commentary on
meteors.

Iggeret I'.a'ale Mayyim, "treitise on animals," tnin>;|!itcd
from the twetity-llrst treatise of the encyclopedia of tlie liti-tlircn

of Sincerity, published in 1557 at Mantua, and in 1701 at Frank-
fort-on-the-Main. This translation was rendered into Judaeo-
German by Enoch ben Zebi (Hanover, 171H) and into (ierman.
under the title " Abhandlung iiber die Thiere," by Julius
Landsberger (Darmstadt, 1882).

Sefer Mah-she-ahar ha-Teba', Averroes' middle commentary
on metaphysics.

Treatise on arithmetic by Nicomachus of Gerasa, accompanied
by a commentary of Abu Sulaiman Rabiya ibn Yahya.

Be-'Inyane ha-Kokabim lia-Nebukim, translation of Ptolemy's
treatise on the planets.

Sefer Arshmidah, Archimedes' treatise on the sphere and the
cylinder, translated from the .\rabic version of Costa ibn Lukah.

Iggeret be-Lahiyt ube-Matar, Al-Kindi's treatise on humidity
and rain.

Averroes' dissertations on the first book of the First Analytics.

Iggeret be-Siddur Keri'at ha-Hokmot, Al-Farabi's treatise on
the method of studying philosophy.

Destructio Destructionis, a Latin translation from the Arabic
" Tahafut al-Tahafut," written by Averroes against Al-Ghazali.

Kalonymus' original works are as follows:

(1) An answer in Hebrew addressed to En Bona-
foux ibn Caspi, in opposition to the latter's "Kim-
dresim" ( " Quinterniones "). The answer refers
ehietly to Ibn Caspi 's work on the Bible, entitled
"Tirat Kesef," or "Sefer ha-Sod." After having
paid hoiuage to tlie talent and learning of Caspi,
Kalonymus criticizes the book, in which he claims to

have detected many errors. He states
Original that in any case, even if the work were
Works. perfect, it ought not to have been pub-
lished, on accoimt of its disrespectful
treatment of Biblical personages. The answer was
published by Perles under the title " Kalonymosben
Kalonymos Sendschreiben an Joseph Caspi " (Mu-
nich, i879).

(2) "Sefer Melakim," a treatise on arithmetic,
geometry, and astrolog}', of which only a fragment
has been discovered by Steinschneider (Munich MS.
No. 290). This treatise was composed at the re-
quest of a "great king," whom Steinschneider be-
lieves to have been Robert of Anjou.

(3) "Eben Bohan,'' an ethical treatise composed
in the year 1322. The treatise is written in cadeuced
prose, imitating, though with less elegance, the
style of Jedaiah Bedersi in his "Behinat '01am."
The autlior intended in the "Eben Bohan " to show
tlie perversities of his contemporaries, as well as his
own. He passes in review all the social positions of

which men are proud, and proves their

The "Eben vanity. At the end he enumerates the

Bohan." sufferings of Israel and expresses the

hope that God will have pity on His
people who, in three years — 1319-22, dining which
time the "Eben Bohan" was written — had suffered
persecution at the hands of the shepherds and of the
leprous, besides an auto da fe of the Talmud at
Toulouse. The " Eben Bohan " was first published
at Naples in 1489, and passed through many edi-
tions. It was twice translated into German, first
by Moses Eisenstadt, or, according to Zediier, by
Ktit/enelleiibogen (Sidzbach, 1705), and then in ca-
deuced prose by W. ]\Ieiscl (Budapest, 1878).

(4) "Masseket Purim." a parody for the Feast of
I'urim. written at Rome. Caricaturing the rab-
binical style of argument, tlu; autlior humorousl\r
criticizes every one. not excluding himself. Later
this kind of ])aio(ly found many imitators. The
"Masseket Purim" was lii'st published at Pesaro
(l"iOT-20).

429

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

Kalonymus
Kalvariya

A great number of works have been wrongly at-
tributed to Kalonymus ben Kalonymus.

Bibliography: Zunz, U. S. iii. 150-155; Kaysi-rling. T.chvu
Kdhiiiiimuit bill KaJ'iiniiiius, iiretlxed to Mt'isel's (ieriiiun
transl. of the Ehoi Jidlurii; (iross, in MiiiKit.sschriU. IHTit,
pp. 470 ct cff/.; idem. (iiiUin Judaira. p. H ; Stein.sctincidcr,
in Ersfli and (iriitier, Unciiv. section ii., part :iH, pp. Itil) IVr);
(iriitz, fVcNc/i. vii. i^'^ ; Reiian-NeubauiT, Lix Ecrimiiis Juifs
Francaix. pp. 71 ct t<c<i. ^ ^

o. I. Bh.

KALONYMUS BEN MESHULLAM : Head
of the cominuuity of ]Mayence at tlie time of the first
Crusade. He is said to have sent a messenger to
King Henry IV. in Italy, iu consequence of which
the king promulgated an order throughout his realm
to the effect that the Jews were not to be molested.
On May 27, 1096, however, he, together with fifty-
three others, v.-ho had taken refuge in the bishop's
palace from the Crusaders, jnit themselves to death
rather than fall into the hands of the enemy.

Bii)LU)GR.\PiiY : Neubauer and Stern, Hihiiiisclie Berichtc
iihcr die JwlenvcrfoUiinuicii ^VaJinnid der KrcuzzViQC, pp.
3, 6, 1-t. .53; Salfeld, Mart\mihn}ium, p. 11(5.

G.
KALONYMUS NASI: Provencal liturgical
poet ; nourished at Beaucaire in the middle of the
thirteenth century. He was the autlior of a litur-
gical poem beginning "^ lyoC CJ^ for the Sabbath
preceding the Feast of Passover ("Shabbat ha-
Gadol "), in which are given all tlie ritual laws to be
observed at Passover. The poem contains thirty-
nine alphabetically arranged strophes, each of which
begins witli a Biblical verse and concludes with the
pizmon nn^JJ ^X "[rD- A dirge on Kalonymus'
death is found in the diwans of Abraham Bedersi.

BiBLiociRAPHV: Zunz, Litcraturuesch. p. 479.

G. I. Bk.

KALONYMUS BEN SHABBETHAI (called
also Kalonymus of Rome, "'DTI C"ii) • Halakist,
exegete, and liturgical poet ; born at Rome about
1030. His father was president of the Jewish com-
munity, and liis reputation as a Talmudic authority
extended far beyond the boundaries of his native
country. Halakic questions were submitted to
him from Worms, Aries, and many other places
("Pardes." p. 48b; "Mordekai," ii. 1175). At the
death of Jacob bar Yakar, in 1070, Kalonymus was
called to the rabbinate of Worms, which he held
until 1096, in which year he seems to have fallen a
victim to the persecutions of the Crusaders (comp.
Kohut, "Aruch Completum," Introduction, p.
xxxviii., where are described the relations that ex-
isted between Kalonj'mus and Jehiel of Rome).
Conjointly with Elea/.ar ben Judah. Kalonymus
directed the rabbinical school of Worms, and had
among his pupils Yakar ben Samuel ha-Leviand the
Frencli exegete Joseph Kara.

Kalonymus wrote commentaries on the Talmud
which are now no longer in existence, but are quoted
by Rashi (Bezah 24b"; Pes. 74a), Samuel ben IMeir
(Tos. 'Er. 65a), Jacob Tam ("Sefer ha-Yashar," 16a,
i5 116). Eliezer ben Nathan ("Eben ha-'Ezer," ii§ 24,
243, 2S1), and by many otiier rabbinical authorities.
He was the author also of commentaries on the Bible,
from which citations are made by Rashi (Deut.
xxxviii. 2; I Sam. xxv. 18; Isa. vii. 8), Joseph Kara
(Job xxxii. 25), and Sanuu'l ben Meir (Num. xi. 35).

A selihah by Kalonymus in thirteen strophes, begin-
ning '3^0 yha pytX. is incorporated in the Mahzor.

liiHi.iocRAPiiv : Zunz, Literaturqri'ch. p. 2.50; idem, S. /*.
p. 'M\: I.iizzatto, SaXialat SIkkUiI, in Berliner and Hoff-
mann. Ozitr Toh, v. 39; Mirliael, Or ha-Ihi]i\i'ni\, No. 1175;
Votrelsteiii and RieKer. iJeach. dcr Judcn in lioni, i. 25.5, and
Index.
G. I. Bu.

KALONYMUS BEN TODHOS : French

scholar; nourished at Narbonnc in the .second half
of the twelfth century. He bore the title "Nasi,"
and was the leader of the community when Benja-
min of Tudela visited Narbonne in 1165. He and
his cousin Levi b. Moses were jointly leaders at a
later time. From certain letters of Sheshet Benve-
uiste to Kalonymus, it seems probable that the latter
died in 1194. The letters are contained in a manu-
script of the historian Joseph ha-Kohen. Gross be-
lieves that Kalonymus is identical with " Clarimoscus
tilius Tauroscii," mentioned in a deed of conveyance
of 1195 reproduced bySaige("Les Juifs du Lau-
guedoc," p. 70).

BIBLIOGRAPHV : Gross, Gallia Judaica. p. 407; Kaufinann. in
i?. i,'. J. xxxix. 62.

I. Bu.— G.

KALTI, JOSEPH. See Joseph b. David ha-

Yewani.

KALVARIYA : District town in the govern-
ment of Suwalki, Russian Poland. In 1897 it had a
total population of 8,420, including about 7,000
Jews. The Jewish community was established
there in 1713, asapi)ears from a charter of jjrivileges
granted to the Jews of the town on Aug. 8 of that
year. According to Poluganski, in his historical
notes on Kalvariya published in 1857, Jewish weavers
lived in the place before it became a town and while
it was still known as the village of Traby. The
present synagogue, built of stone, was constructed
in 1803. Another house of prayer, also of stone,
Avas built in 1865: it contains a Talmud Torah es-
tablished by the widow of Asriel Sobolevich. The
community supports a number of charitable insti-
tutions.

Among its rabbis have been: Zebi ben Simhah ha-
Kohen, brother of Rabbi Naphtali of Shaty ; Aaron
Broda of Grodno (d. 1798); his son Lob (d. 1837);
Isaac Slonimer, author of " 'Emek Y^hoshua' "; L5b
Shapiro Smorgoner, a pupil of Manasseh Iliyer;
Mordecai Klaczko (called al.so "Mordecai 3Ielzer"),
author of " Tekelet IMordekai " ; and Jacob ben Solo-
ijion (d. 1835), who did much toward beautifying
the synagogue.

Other prominent scholars and communal workers
were: Arele Natas, ancestor of Mordecai Aaron
Ginzburg; Isaac ben Israel Laskes: 3Iordecai Zebi
Grodzinski; Nata Reinherz, descendant of Joel
Sirkes; ^Icnahem Efrat. brotlier of David Tebele
Efrat; Israel ben Jeremiah Ratner: Isaac Sterling
and Jacob Rosenthal, both poets; Zundcl Grodzin-
ski; Eliah ben :Mordecai Margoliot. rabbi at Raki-
shek; his son Aslier; Rabbi Jacob Wolfkovich (d. in
Jerusalem) ; Nahum Rotstein, dayyan at Kalvariya.
and later rabbi at Simva; Isaac Rittenberg, author
of "Nimukim "al Sefer ha-Maklul." and a prolitic
writer for Hebrew periodicals; Isaac ben J]lihu
]\I;irgoli()t. author of " Ma'oz ha-Talmud " ; Bar Rat-
ner. atithor of an introduction to and commentaries

Eamanker
Kamnial

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

430

on "Seder '01am" and of scholia to the Palestinian
Talmud; Isaac ben Meir Jlargoliot, author of "Har
Zalmon " ; Moses Aaron Vizanski, author of " 'Ez
lia-Da'at"; Samuel ben Nata Reinherz; Meir ben
Hayyim ; and Isaac Freid.

Bibliographt: Aktii Wilenskoi Aikhivnoi Kommuisii, v.
291 ; Bershadski. Litnvskie Yevrei, p. 26; Isaac Rittenberp.
Kchillat Kalvariya, in Yalkut M'farabi, p. 33, New \ ork,
1901. T n T

KAMANKER, MOSES MEIR: Polish Shab-
bethaiau; lived at Zolkiev in the tirst half of the
eighteenth century. An excellent Talmudist, and
possessing in the highest degree the art of dissimu-
lation, he was sent by the Polish Shabbethaians as a
secret emissary to Moravia, Bohemia, and Germany,
to establish relations with their sympathizers in
those countries. Kamanker visited Prague— where
he associated with Jonathan Eybeschutz— and many
other communities, endeavoring everywhere to
spread secretly Shabbethaian writings, and probably
also to collect money for the leaders of the sect.
His mission came to an abrupt end in Frankfort-ou-
the-Main. Betrayed by a Polish rabbi to whom he
had confided his schemes, Kamanker was induced
by specious promises to visit that city, where he
was publicly exposed and put under the ban by the
rabbinate.
Bibliography: Bet Yehnnatatup. 4; David Kahana, Eben

ha-To'im, p. To ; Gratz, Gesch. x. 328.

K. I- Br.

KAMENETZ-PODOLSK : Russian city ; cap-
ital of the government of Podolia. In 1900 it con-
tained a population of 34,483, about half being Jews.
Ampng its public edifices, the numerous Jewish in-
stitutions for charity and learning are conspicuous.
During the Cossack uprising (1648-58) the Jewish
community there suffered much from Chmielnicki's
Cossacks on the one hand, and from the attacks of
the Crimean Tatars (their main object being the ex-
tortion of ransoms) on the other. Kamenetz-Podolsk
witnessed, also, the execution of Chmielnicki's son
Yuri for his atrocious murder of a rich Jewess, be-
cause her husband, relying upon the influence of his
friends, had refused to pay a tax imposed by him
upon the Jews. The husband effected the seizure
of Yuri and took him before the Turkish pasha then
governing ; Yuri confessed, and was executed.

About the middle of the eighteenth century
Kamenetz-Podolsk became celebrated as the center
of the furious conflict then raging between the Tal-
mudic Jews and the Frankists; the city was the
residence of Bishop Dembowski, who sided with the
Frankists and ordered the public burning of the
Talmud, which sentence was carried into effect in
the public streets (1757).

Kamenetz-Podolsk was also the residence of the
wealthy Joseph Yozel Glinzburg. During the lat-
ter half of the nineteentii century many Jews emi-
grated from that city to the United States, especially
to New York, where they organized a number of
societies; among these are the Kamenetz Hebra
Kaddisha and the Kamenetz-Podolsk and Kamenetz-
Podolia Krankenverein.

Bibliography: Lltlnsky, Korat Podolia.
H. u.

KAMHI. See Kimhi.

M. Gar.

KAMINER, ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM:

Russian physician and Hebrew poet and satirist;
born at Levkiev, near Jitomir, in 1834; died at
Bern, Switzerland, March 30, 1901. His parents
gave him an exclusively religious education, and
caused him to marry when he was scarcely sixteen
years old. Soon after his marriage Kaminer began
to acquire secular knowledge, and sojourned for a
certain time at Wilna, where he associated with the
Maskilim. Compelled to earn a livelihood for his
family, Kaminer returned to his native place, and
after many struggles succeeded in obtaining the
position of Hebrew teacher at- the rabbinical semi-
nary of Jitomir. In 1857 Kaminer, although then the
father of fi^ve children, gave up his position, and
entered the University of Kiev, whence he gradu-
ated as M.D. For fifteen years lie served as assistant
to Professor Mering at Kiev. About 1875 Kaminer
was appointed physician at Monasterishche, govern-
ment of Chernigov. A few years later he was
made a member of a commission for the investiga-
tion of the conditions of the Russian Jews, and he
so displeased the officials by his impassioned defense
of his coreligionists that he was ordered back to the
government of Kiev. In 1901 Kaminer's health
broke down, and he went for medical treatment to
Bern, where he died as the result of an operation.

Kaminer was an able Hebrew writer, and an espe-
cially talented satirist; and his numerous contribu-
tions to Hebrew periodicals became very popular.
Among these the most noteworthy were: "Baraitot
de Rabbi Yizhak," a series of satirical articles, pulj.
lished in"Ha-Kol"; "Mi-Sidduro Shel Rabbi Yiz-
hak," in "Ha-Shahar"; and a series of elegies be-
wailing the sufferings of the Russian Jews, in
"Ha-Asif." In addition to his poetical contribu-
tions to the Hebrew periodicals, Kaminer wrote:
"Kinot mi-Sidduro Shel Bene Dan " (Vienna, 1878),
a satirical poem on the social condition of the Rus-
sian Jews, and "Seder Kapparot le-Ba'al Taksi"
(Warsaw, 1878), a satirical poem against the farmers
of the meat-tax in Russia. A poem written by him
on his death-bed, and entitled " Widdui," was pub-
lished in "Ha-Shiloah," Jan., 1902.

Bibliography: Zeitlin, Bib/. Post-Mendels. p. IBS; Ahicusaf,
1902. p. 44.
H. u. I. Bu.

KAMINKA, ARMAND: Russian scholar;
born at Berdychev May 5, 1866; educated at the
rabbinical seminary of Israel Hildesheimer, Berlin
(1880), at Hamburg, Riga, Berlin University (phi-
losophy. Oriental languages, political economy;
Ph. D. ), at the Berlin Hochschule f iir die Wissenschaf t
des Judenthums (theology), and at the Sorbonne and
the Ecole des Sciences Politiques, Paris, whither he
w^ent in 1887. In 1893 he became acting rabbi of
the congregation at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in
the same year (Sept.) succeeded S. I. Kiimpf as
rabbi of the Tempelgemeinde at Prague. From 1897
to 1900 he was rabbi at Esseg, Slavonia, and in
1901 went to Vienna, where he became preacher,
secretary of the Israelitische Allianz, and lecturer at
the bet ha-raidrash. In 1903 he was sent by the
Israelitische Allianz of Vienna to Kishinef to inves-
tigate the Jewish massacres.

Kaminka wrote: "Poesies Hebraiques" (Paris,

431

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kamanker
Kaninial

1888); "Stiulien zur Gescli. Galilaas " (Berlin, 1890);

" Die Geonim und Hire Scliriften " (Treves, 1892) ;

"Die Litteratur der Geonilisclien Zcit, 688-1038"

(Treves, 1894); "Der Diwan des Salomo Bon fed "

(1894); "Kritische Ausgabe des Tachkemoni von

Aleliarisi " (1899). To Winter and Wunsclie's " Die

Jlidisclie Literatur" lie contributed the article "Die

Rabbinisclie Literatur der Spanisch-Arabischen

Schulcn." " Keneset Yisrael," 1897, vol. ii., contains

an introductory essay by him on Greek poetry, with

a Hebrew translation of the twenty-first song of the

"Iliad."

Bibliography : N. Sokolow, in Sefer Zikharoii, p. 98, War-
saw, 1889. '

s. M. Mr.

KAMMERKNECHTSCHAFT : Expression
for the political condition of the Jews in the German
empire, signifying that the revenue derived from
them was a royalty of the emperor and belonged to
his private treasury ("camera"). Consquently the
emperor not only possessed jurisdiction over them,
but was also bound to grant them protection. The
first mention of the " Kammerknechtschaft " occurs
in the document (1157) in which Frederick I. rat-
ifies the charter granted to the Jews of Worms by
Henry IV. in 1090; in this document he confirms
their privileges "cum ad cameram nostram attine-
ant"("Mon. GermanitE, Scriptores," xvii. 178; "Zeit-
schrift fiir die Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland," i.
139). The same expression is used by Frederick
in a privilege granted to the church of Aries in 1177,
and in a charter granted (1182) to the Jews of Regens-
burg ( " qui ad imperialem cameram nostram dinos-
cuntur pertinere "). His grandson Frederick II. was
the first to use the expression "servi camerae nostras,"
in a charter granted to the Jews of Sicily in 1234 and
in one granted to the Jews of Vienna in 1238 (Scherer,
"Die Rechtsverhaltnisse der Juden in den Deutsch-
Oesterreichischen Landern," p. 135). From that
time on the expression was commonly used in speak-
ing of the political condition of the Jews, author-
ity over whom the emperors claimed, notwithstand-
ing the opposition of the feudal lords.

Duke Frederick II. (the Warlike) of Austria, in
his charter of 1244, was the first to claim this juris-
diction (see Jew. Encyc. ii. 322-323, s.v. Austria).
Similarly, Albert I. issued an order to the citizens of
Dortmund, in 1299, to receive the Jews, who were
under his, not under the city's, jurisdiction ("cum
vos noscatis, ipsos Judeos esse camere nostre servos " ;
"Zeit. fiir die Gesch. der Juden iu Deutschland,"
iii. 245). Charles IV. declared in 1347 that all Jews
came under his jurisdiction ("all Juden mit Leib
und mit Gilt in unser Kameren gehOren " ; Scherer,
I.e. p. 80). As, however, Charles, In his "Golden
Bull," granted to the electors the control of the
Jews (ib. p. 375), and as such grants became more
and more frequent, whereas previously they had
been exceptional (e.g.. as a compromise by Louis
III., in 1331, when the Austrian dukes recognized him
as German king), the condition of Kammerknecht-
schaft gradually became merely a nominal one.
It was treated as an actual one only at the Diet of
Augsburg, in 1550, when it was decided that no
state should have the right to expel the Jews when
the latter had received the privilege of residence

from the imperial authorities. Otherwise, the
Kammerknechtschaft meant that the Jews paid
taxes to the German emperor iu addition to the
taxes they paid to local territorial authorities.

With the gradual decline of tiie imperial jurisdic-
tion even the term fell into oblivion, although it was
used occasionally by the territorial powers ; e.g., Fred-
erick the Warlike, of Saxony, in a document dated
1425, speaks of the Jews as his " Kammerknechte "
(Levy, "Gesch. der Juden in Sachsen," p. 32, Berlin,
1901). As the Jews ceased to be Kammerknechte, and
their political condition was determined by the local
authority which gave them protection, they were
called ScHUTZJUDEN of this or that state ( " Oettingen-
Wallersteinsche Schutzjuden," for example); and
their status as such was abolished only through
modern liberal legislation, in some instances not
until the second half of the nineteenth century.

The medieval state was based on the feudal prin-
ciple by which every one was a member of an order
first and a citizen of the state next. The Jews, being
of no recognized class or order, were aliens, and as
such the property of the king, like

Origin. wayfaring foreigners or wild game.
On this principle, most likely, the
Frankish kings had granted safe-conducts to indi-
vidual Jews, copies of which are preserved in the
books of "Formulae " dating from the time of Louis
I. (le Debonnaire; 814-840), who took certain Jews
under his protection ("sub mundebordio et defensi-
onenostrosuscepimus"; Rozi^res, "Recueil General
des Formules Usitees dans I'Empire des Francs,"
i. 41-43, Paris, 1859; Simson, "Jahrb. des Frank-
ischen ReichsUnter Ludwig dem Frommen,"i. 393-
396). Later on the historic argument was adduced
that the German king, possessing the title of Roman
emperor, and being the political heir of the Roman
emperors, was lord over all Jews, inasmuch as his
predecessor Vespasian had taken them captive. In
this sense, according to a somewhat legendary re-
port, Albert I. (1306) claimed jurisdiction over the
Jews of France (Gratz, "Gesch." vii. 244). There
was, however, no derogatory meaning connected
with the word "Kammerknechtschaft," contrary
to the opinion of many people unacquainted with
medieval terminology.

Bibliography : Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland, pp. 8 et
seg., Brunswick, 1866; Schroder. I/e/ij/juc/i der Deutschen
Rechtsgesch. p. 451, Leipslc, 1889; Aronius, Ueber das Alter
der Allgemeinen Kammerknechtschaft in Deutschland. in
Zeitschrift fUr die Oesch. der Juden in Deutschland. v.
269; Scherer, Die Rechtsverhaltnisse der Juden in den
Deutsch-0e.'<tcrreichische7i Ldndern, pp. 69-80, 143-144. Lelp-
sic, 1901 ; Gratz, Gasch. vii. 90.
G. D.

KAMNIAL. (KAMBIL), ABRAHAM B.
MEIR IBN (known in Arabic as Abu al-
Hasan) : Spanish physician and patron of poetry
and literature ; protector of the Jewish communities
in Spain, Babylonia, and Egypt; lived in Saragossa
about the year 1100. He is known in the history of
Hebrew grammar by the mnemonic sentence pin
nOK ^'2t^ ("the way of truth was established "), in
which he joined the eleven servile letters of the He-
brew alphabet. The poet Moses ibn Ezra lauds hira
extravagantly in his "Tarshish," or" 'Anak," which
is dedicated to Kamnial, and in which the whole of
the first poem dilates upon his benevolence and upon

Kan si

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

432

the honor generally shown him. Judah' ha-Levi
praised him in several poems and composed his
epitaph. Of his relatives, Abu Omar Joseph ben
Karanial, also a physician, is known. Moses ibn
Ezra composed a wedding-poem for him, and, per-
haps, also dedicated to him his work on poetics—
"Kitab al-Muhadharah."

Bibliography : Moses ibn Ezra, Tarifhish, ed. Gunzburg. pp.
5-28 ; Joseph Kiinhi, Sefer Zikkarnn, ed. Bacher, p. 3 ; S. D.
Luzzatto, in Krrc'm Hemed, iv. 70; A. Geiper, Ozar X^eh-
mad, i. 10.5 ; Edelmann, Ginze Oxford, p. xiv.; Steinschnei-
der. Cat. Bodl. col. 1809.
G. A. K.

KAMZA and BAR KAMZA : Two persons
who, according to a Talmudic legend (Git. 55b-56a),
were the cause of the destruction of Jerusalem. A
certain man, having prepared a banquet, sent an in-
vitation bj- his servant to his friend Kamza. The
servant, by a mistake, delivered the invitation to
his enemy Bar Kamza, who came and was expelled
by the master of the house. Bar Kamza sought re-
venge for the outrage by denouncing the Jews of
Jerusalem as having revolted against the Roman
emperor, declaring, in support of his allegation, that
if the emperor were to send an offering to the Tem-
ple, the priests would refuse to accept it. The em-
peror therefore sent him with a calf which he or-
dered to be sacrificed on the altar, but Bar Kamza
made a blemish in the calf which caused it to be-
come unlit for the altar. The result was the siege
of Jerusalem by the Romans.

The identification of Kamza and Bar Kamza with
Hanania and Eliezer ben Hanauia b)' Zipser was
shown by J. Derenbourg to be improbable. The
latter recognizes in it the name of Kofxxpog, who, ac-
cording to Josephus {" Vita," §9), was one of the
notables of Tiberias and a strong adherent of the
Romans.

BiBLiOGR.vPHY : J. Derenbourg, E*\sai sur VHistoire et la
Geographie de la Palestine, Paris, 1867.
8. s. M. Sel.

KANAH ABIGDOR (ABENGDOR or
ABENGEDOR) : A cabalistic writer of the fif-
teenth century, who lived either in Spain (Graetz)
or in Italy or in Greece (Jellinek). In the intro-
duction to his book " Sefer ha-Kanah, " he describes
himself as "Kanah Abengedor, son of Nahum, of
the Ram family " ; but in the preface to his other
work, "Sefer ha-Peli'ah," he styles himself " Elka-
nah, son of Jeroham, son of Abigdor, of the Ram
family," and claims to be a descendant of the Mish-
nah teacher Nehunyah b. Hakana. The chief role
in both works (the te.\ts of which are very poor)
is played by a prodigy named Nahum (see Naiium
K.VTOFA), who, at the age of three, together with
his father, was tiiught the Cabala by his grandfather,
the last-named receiving the assistance and cooper-
ation of the prophet Elijah and various lieavenly
voices. From those circumstances it has been sug-
gested that Nahum was the real name of the author.
Abigdor's works are: (1) "Sefer ha-Peli'ah," printed
in 1784 at Korez under the double title of "Sefer ha-
Kanah, wehu Sefer ha-Peli'ah " and containing ob-
servations on tiie account of the Creation in Gene-
sis and on the Decalogue. (2) "Sefer ha-Kanah,"
printed in 1786 at Poretzk. This work, wliicli has
become extremely rare, is an explanation of the two

hundred and forty eight affirmative precepts of
Judaism. The introduction was published sepa-
ratel,y, under the title of "Sefer Keneh Binah," at
Prague in 1610 by Elcazar Perles, son of Abraham
Enoch. Although the author of the " Ha-Kanah "
never mentions the Zohar, he makes use of all its
methods, delighting in manipulations of the names
of God and of angels, and in the symbolism of num-
bers and letters, quite in the style of Abraham
Abulafia. His purpose is to show that the diffi-
culties in Bible, Talmud, and ritual can be solved
only by the teachings of the Cabala ; whereas the
rabbinical teachers, he claims, often fall into ab-
surdities in their explanatory attempts. He assails
the rabbis and Talmudists of liis period so vigorously
that it would appear they had been taking energetic
steps to prevent the spread of the Cabala, thereby
leading him to plead energetically for its value
and necessity. Abigdor seems to have been the first
to give a cabalistic turn to Talmudical hermeneutic
rules and maxims. For the rest, both of his works
are little better than compilations. In "Sefer ha-
Peli'ah" are liberal excerpts from Jonah Gerondi,
Abraham Abulafia, Recanati, Joseph ha-Aruk's
commentary on the "Yezirah," and the "Turim"
of Jacob ben Asher. " Ha-Kanah " follows closely
the " Semag " of Moses of Coucy, and cites a portion
of the " Sha'are Orah " of Joseph Gikatilla. See
Cabala.

Bibliography : Jellinek, B. H. iii.. Introduction, pp. 38 et seq.;
idem, Konti'cs Tartiag. pp. 40 et seq.; Gratz. Gesch.d.Juden,
3d ed., viii. '449; Steinschneider, Cat. of Hehr. MSS., Rni/al
Library of Munich, No. 42; Michael, Or Jta-Haynim, No. 17.
K. P. B.

KANITZ, AUGUST: Hungarian botanist;
born April 25, 1843, at Lugos; died July 12, 1896,
at Klauseuburg. While a student at the Univer-
sity of Vienna he wrote "Geschichte der Botanik in
Ungarn " (Hanover and Budapest, 1863), and soon
after, "Versuch einer Geschichte der Ungarischen
Botanik " (Halle, 1865). In 1866 he published a work
on the flora of Slavonia; in 1877 one on that of Mon-
tenegro, Bosnia, and Servia; and in 1879 one on
that of Rumania. For the last-named work he was
elected (1880) a member of the Academy of Sciences
of Budapest, and was made Knight of the Order of the
Crown of Rumania. He embraced Christianity.

In 1872 Kanitz was appointed professor of botany
in the University of Klausenburg. In 1877 he
founded the " Magyar NOvenytani Lapok " (Journal
of Hungarian BotanjO. "which he edited until 1892.
Bibliography : Pester Lloyd, July 13, 1896 ; Pallas Lex.

s. L. V.

KANITZ, FELIX PHILIPP : Hungarian ar-
cheologist and ethnographer; born at Budapest Aug.
2, 1829; died at Vienna Jan. 8, 1904. When only
seventeen years of age he entered the University of
Vienna, where he studied art. After 1850 he trav-
eled extensively and visited Germany, France, Bel-
gium, and lta\y. Settling in Vienna in 1856, he
made journeys through Dalmatia, Herzegovina,
Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Mace-
donia. These travels through the Balkan provinces
led him to become the ethnographer of the Southern
Slavs. He embraced Christianity.

Kanitz is the author of: "Die Riimischen Funde

433

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kansi

in Serbieu," Vieuna, 1861; "Serbiens Byzuutiuische
Monuinente," ib. 1862; "Reise in Siidserbien und
Nordbulgarien," zi. 1868; "Serbicn, Historisch-Etli-
nographische Roisestudien aus dun Jalircn 1859-
1868," Leipsic, 1868; " Donau-Bulgarien und dcr Bal-
kan, Historisch-Geographisch-Ethuographisclic Roi-
sestudien aus den Jalireu 1860-1875," ib. 1875-79 (3d
ed., 1882); "Katechismus der Ornamentik," 4th ed.,
ib. 1891; "Romische Studien in Serbien," Vienna,
1892.

BiBLiooKAPiiY : Mciifrs Konversations-Lcxikon; Brockhaux
Konvcrsationtt-Lerikoii; Wurzbaeh, liing. Lex. dcs Kai-
sertums Ocstcrreicli.

s. F. T. II.

KANN, EDOUARD: French musician; born
at Paris Feb. 28, 1857; pupil of Massenet and Du-
vernoy. In 1895, at Lyons, he produced "Ruth,"
an oratorio. This was followed by "Gaitanue,"a
two-act opera (1898), and " Maritorne, " a one-act
comic opera. Since then he has brought out several
musical compositions, among which maj' be men-
tioned: "Le Baptgme du Priuteraps," "La Syrinx,"
and "Le Lion Amoureux."

BiBLiOGR.^PHY : Curinier, Dictionnairc Xat.dex Contempn-
rains, ii. 271.

*^- F. T. H.

KANN, MOSES : German rabbi; bornatFrank-
fort-on-the-3Iaiu ; died there Dec. 1, 1762; son of
Lob Kann. He was chief rabbi of Hesse-Darmstadt
and Jiead of the Tahuudical school at Frankfort,
which had been founded and richly endowed by his
father-in-law, Samson Wertheimer, of Vienna. For
over lialf a century this school flourished under
Kann's guidance, and maintained the high reputa-
tion of Frankfort as a seat of Talmudic study. By
liis energy and activity in behalf of the Jews, Moses
Kann's name became celebrated throughout German
Jewry. He and his father-in-law furnished the
means for the publication of a new edition of the
Talmud (the Frankfort-Amsterdam edition); but
through the denunciations of a baptized Jew, Paul
Christian, this edition and a number of prayer-books
were confiscated. By the testimony of the Berlin
court preacher Jablon.ski and the consistorial coun-
cilor Scharden of Halle, supported by the opinion
of twenty-four Christian professors and preachers
who, in 1728, had declared that "neitlierthe Jewish
prayer-book nor the Talmud contained anything
derogatory to Christianity," Moses Kann proved be-
fore the Elector of Mayence the bad character of the
apostate. On Aug. 1, 1753, the Imperial Court re-
scinded the order of confiscation of these books.

Moses Kann's name is perpetuated in the me-
mor-book of the Frankfort congregation ; Meir ben
Eliakim Gotz, in "Eben ha-Shoham," rcsponsa,
praises him as his benefactor, and Eleazar Kallir, in
his preface to "Or Hadash," mentions him in terms
of admiration.

Jacob Joshua was called from Metz to the rabbin-
ate of Frankfort (1741) chiefly through Kann's in-
fluence. The hitter's sons Moses Kann and Bar
Kann administered the charitable foundations which
he had established during his life, in addition to his
bequest of $10,000, from the interest of which stu-
dents of tlie Torah wei-e to be supported. In 1763
tlie sons turned over this fund in trust to the con-
VH.-28

gregation, tlie seiniaiuiual interest, $275, to be dis-
tributed among beneficiaries proposed by the broth-
ers Kann and approved by the board of the congre-
gation.

Bihi.iocrapiiy: Horowitz, Fraiikfmter Rahbinen, il. 90; iji
H ct Kcq., SC-87, S<J, 9;j, Frankfort-on-ilie-.Main, 188.3-84 ; Kauf-
mann, Samson ^Vertllcimcr, pp. 72, 9J-'.»5, Vienna 1888

'^- S.' Man.

KANNA'IM. See Zealots.

KANSAS : One of the northern central states of
the United States; admitted to the Union in 1861.
In 1830 innuigrants settled in a spot which they
named "Kansas City." It is supposed that Jews
also settled thereat an early date; and they prob-
ably joined the other innuigrants of Kansas City,
Mo., in religious affairs.

Leavenworth was the first city in the state
which had a Jewish congregation. Its first town
lots were sold Oct. 9, 1 854. Within a year there were
enough Jews to form a niinyau, and in 1859 they
organized a congregation under the name "B'nai
Jeshurun," renting a room on Delaware street for
the purposes of worship. A lot five miles west of
the city was purchased at the same time and con-
verted into a cemetery. In 1864a lot was purcliased
at Sixth and Osage streets and a synagogue erected
on it; later, accommodations for a Sabbatli-school
and vestry-rooms were added. The name of Henry
Etteuson has been closely connected with the syna-
gogue from the beginning to the present day. The
following rabbis have officiated: Jacobs, Kalish,
Machol, Brill, Saft, Raphael, Stemple, Meyers,
Rubensteiu, Rosenspitz, Marks, Frey, and Kahn.
The Hebrew Ladies' Benevolent Society was organ-
ized in 1861. In 1881 an Orthodox congregation
was formed under the name "Hou.se of Jacob," tlie
older congregation having adopted the Reform
method of worship and the Jastrow prayer-book.
The Jewish population of Leavenworth is about 400.
Topeka, the capital of the state, has a small num-
ber of Jews; and servicesare held on holy days. The
community possesses a school, a cenieterj-, and a
ladies' benevolent society. A congregation was or-
ganized at Kansas City under the name of " Ohabei
Sholem" in 1900.

In Atchison, Cawker City, Hutchinson,
Lawrence, Salina, and "Wichita there are but few
Jews, holding holy day services only. At Atchison
there is a Jewish cemetery. At Helton, Wyan-
dotte City, and some other places there are three
or four Jewi.sh families, which attend holy day serv-
ices at the places named or at Kansas City.

The present (1904) Jewi.sli population of the state
of Kansas is estimated at 3,000.

Biiu,iorTR.\PHY: A. T. Andrea.s, HMnni of Kansa.-<: Aunnh
of the Stnte nf iva»,sa.s; Puhl. of the Kaiisa.s State Hua-
torirnl Societii. v.; Arehive.-< nf tlie Cntufreqatinri B'nai
.Teslnu-un, Leavenivorlh ; American Jewish Year Book,
1900-1.

A. S. Fr.

KANSAS CITY. See Missouri.

KANSI, SAMUEL (Provencal. Samiel As-
true d'Escola or Dascala) : French astronomer
of the fourteenth century. The surname " Kansi "
('DJ3) is an incorrectly forn;ed adjective of the Hv-
biew noun " keneset " (HDJD). i^nd is llie equivalent
of "D'Escola" (N71pL"X"I). a name borne by .<!everal

Kantor
Kapparah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

434

Provengal Jews. Kansi wrote the introduction to
the astronomical work " Shesh Kenafayim " of Im-
manuel ben Jacob of Tarascon. He is supposed to
be identical with Samuel Nasi d'Escola, whose com-
mentary on the astronomical tables of Jacob ben
David ben Yom-Tob Bonet (Bonjoru) is still extant.
A certain Samuel d'Escola, perhaps identical with
Kansi, copied, in 1406, at Avignon, the "Mishneh
Torah " of Maimonides.

BiBLiOGRAPHT: Renan-Neubaucr, Les Ecrivalm'Juifs Fran-
Qais, p. 359; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 147.
G. I. Br.

KANTOR, JUDAH LOB B. JOSEPH : Rus

sian journalist; born in Wilna 1849; government
rabbi of Libau, Courland. For a short time he stud-
ied at the rabbinical school of Wilna and later at
that of Jitomir, where he graduated as teacher. He
also studied medicine in Berlin, where he obtained
his doctor's degree; but he never practised. Kantor
early evinced considerable literary talent and soon
became known as a writer, in both Russian and
Hebrew. He contributed to " Ha-Zefirah " from
Berlin, and after he had settled in St. Petersburg as
a teacher in one of its gymnasiums he became a
constant contributor to, and the editor of, "Russki
Yevrei" (1883-84). He edited also, with H. M.
Rabinovitsch, the Russian monthly "Yevreiskoe
Obozryenie," of which only seven numbers appeared
(St. Petersburg, 1884). In Feb., 1886, Kantor started
the publication of " Ha-Yom," the first Hebrew daily
newspaper in St. Petersburg, and remained its editor
until its suspension (1887). In 1890 he was assistant
editor of "Ha-Meliz," and about 1893 became rabbi
of Libau, which position he still (1904) occupies.

Kantor was the editor also of a Hebrew monthly en-
titled " Ben 'Ammi," of which four numbers appeared
in 1887. He contributed to the "Voskhod" and
to other Russian-Jewish periodicals, as well as to
the purely Hebrew press, especially to " Ha-Shahar,"
in which he wrote under the pseudonym "Nahum
ben 'Ozer ha-Ziyoski." He was one of the com-
mittee that published the jubilee edition of J. L.
Gordon's poetical works, and is the author of the
biography of L. Rosenthal published in vol. ii. of
the records of the Society for the Spreading of
Knowledge Among the Jews of Russia (St. Peters-
burg, 1890), of which society he is an active mem-
ber.

Bibliography: Sefer Zikkaron, Warsaw, 1890; SUUmati-
cheski Ukazatel (see Index).
H. R. P. Wl.

KANTOR, DER jtJDISCHE, Wochen-
blatt fur die Gesammt-Interessen AUer Kan-
toren und Cultusbeamten : Weekly ; published
at Bromberg, Pru.ssia, beginning in 1879. Its editor
is A. Blaustein, the founder of the German Israeli-
tish Cantors' Society. It deals with matters of in-
terest to cantors (ha-^zanim), and contains articles
on synagogue music and Jewish pedagogics.

« A. M. F.

KAPLAN, ABRAHAM: Russian Hebrew
writer; born at Wilke July 25, 1839; died at Vienna
Feb. 2, 1897. Having acquired a reputation as a
good Hebrew writer at home, he removed to Vienna,
where he followed the profession of a publicist un-
til his death.

Kaplan was the author of the following works:
"Mistere ha-Yehudim " (Warsaw, 1865), a Hebrew
translation of the first volume of the historical novel
" Die Geheimnisse der Juden " of Hermann Recken-
dorf; "Hayye Abraham Mapu " (Vienna, 1870), a
biography of the Hebrew writer Abraham Mapu,
with two appendixes containing " Mosheh 'Immanu, "
a poem in praise of Moses Montefiore, and "Se'u
Zimrah," a hymn in honor of the ciioral society Kol
Zinirah of Cracow ; " Zarah we-Nehamah " (ib. 1872),
a Hebrew adaptation from the German novel " Die
Falsche Beschuldigung " by L. Weisel (ib. 1872);
"DibreYeme ha-Yehudim "(i'5. 1875), a Hebrew tran.s-
lation of the third volume of Gratz's "Gesch. der
Juden " (ib. 1875) ; " Kelimah we-Belimah " (ib. 1882),
two satirical poems; "Mosheh Mosheh" (ib. 1884),
poem on the celebration of the centenary of Moses.
Montefiore; and "Ha-Shemesh" (Cracow, 1889), re-
flections on the sun, its nature and substance.

Kaplan frequently contributed to the Hebrew
periodicals, and was involved in press polemics on
the merit of the works of Smolenskin, which he
defended against their critics. Kaplan's defense
provoked the publication of the pamphlet " Kohen
lelo-Elohim" (Warsaw, 1878), in which Kaplan was
violently attacked.

Bibliography: Zeitlin, Bihl. Post-Mendels. p. 167; Lippe,
Bibliographisches Lexicon, new series, i. 223.
H. R. I. Br.

KAPLAN, JACaUES : Russian painter and de-
signer; born at Sebastopol July 19, 1872. He went
to Paris, and in 1885 entered the Paris Ecole des Arts
Decoratifs, and, three years later, the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts. Kaplan was a pupil of Bonnat, and in
1890 exhibited at the Salon of the Societe des Beaux-
Arts. In 1894 a special exhibition of his paintings
was given, his " Champ de Ble " and " Soleil Cou-
chant," landscapes, and "Etudes de Femmes," a
charcoal drawing, being especially praised. At the
Societe Nationaledes Beaux-Arts Kaplan has exhib-
ited many works of noteworthy coloring. In 1901,
with "Le Terrassier," he obtained admission to the
Societe des Artistes Fran^ais. Among his paintings
may be mentioned the trio "L'Attente," "Le Re-
tour," and "La Rencontre," and many portraits and
pastels, including representations of the Prince de
Soltikoff, Carlos, former minister of the Argentine
Republic, Henri Brisson, Henri Fouquier, and
Mme. Rejane. Kaplan has also attracted attention
by his miniatures and his illustrations, among tlie
latter being those for the works of Guy de Mau-
passant.

Bibliography: Curinier, Diclionnaire National de^ Om-
tcmporains.
s. V. E.

KAPLAN, WOLF HA-KOHEN : Russian
teacher and Hebrew poet ; born at Trishki, govern-
ment of Kovno, in 1826; died at Riga June 14, 1888;
pupil of M. A. Ginzburg. Kaplan was an able edu-
cator, and his school at Riga became the model for
all the Jewish educational establishments in Russia.
He was an indefatigable communal worker and was
the very soul of tlie Progressive congregation of
Riga, to which he acted as secretary until his death.

To Kaplan's intervention with Count Shuvalov
in 1864 Avas due the liberal treatment by the author-

435

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kantor
Kapparah

ities of the Lithuaniau Jews residing at Riga, who
had thitlierto been persecuted bj' the Germans.
Kaplan carried on a correspondence witli tlic enii-
neut Russian publicist Katkov, whom he persuaded
to undertake the defense of the Jews in the Russian
paper " Russki3a Vy edomosti. " Kaplan was an able
Hebrew writer and contributed regularly to the
Hebrew periodicals. The most noteworthy of Ids
contributions was "Erez ha-Pela'ot," a poetical vi-
sion in 124 six-lined strophes with a prologue, pub-
lished in the " Keneset Yisrael," ii. (1887). Kaplan is
known in the Hebrew press under the anagram jpf.

Kaplan maintained a correspondence with the
Maskilim of his time, and especially with Leon Gcn'-
don. From the answers of the latter, found in the
"Miktabe Yalag," can be seen Kaplan's importance
as a classical writer of Hebrew and as a promoter
of the Russian Haskalah.

Bibliography : Keneset YuiracI, iii. 347 ; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-
Memlels.p. 168; Jiidah Lob Gordon, Togrrnt, ii., Warsaw,
1894; Ha-McUz, 1888, Nos. 95, 163, 169, 182, 1887.

H. R. I. Br.

KAPOSI (^D13N3),HAYYIM: Dayyan in Egypt
about 1600. He became known later as the "Ba'al
ha-Nes, " through a miracle which is said to have hap-
pened to liim. He became blind. Some time after-
ward, being sus-
pected of iiaving
taken bribes, he
called upon
Heaven, in the
presence of the
assembled con-
gregation, to
witness to his in-
tegrity. "If I
have done this,"
he said, " may
my blindness
continue for-
ever; but if not,
may my vision
be restored."
" Whereupon,"
Avrites Meir Ga-
vison, " his sight
came back to
him." Azulai as-
serts that he saw
Hayyim's signa-
tures written
both while the latter was blind and after he had re-
covered. His grave is still venerated in Cairo (see
Egypt). Hayyim wrote: "Sifre Haj'yim," a com-
mentary on the Mekilta, the Sifra, and the Sifre,
mentioned in Judah Najjar's "Shebut Y'ehudah"
(Leghorn, 1801); responsa, contained in Mei'r Gavi-
son's "Teshubot" (still in manuscript), in '"Teshu-
bot RaDBaZ," v. (Leghorn), and in " Teshubot Yom-
Tob Zahlun " (No. 129, Venice, 1694).

Bibliography: Michael, Or ha-J^auilim, No. 882; Azulai,
Shem ha-GedoUm, i. 59, ii. 98.
S. S. M. Sc.

KAPOSI (KOHN), MORIZ : Austrian derma-
tologist: born at Kaposvar, Hungary, Oct. 23, 1837;
died" March 6, 1902. After graduating (M.D., 1861)
from the universitj' at Vienna, lie settled there as a

Kapparot Ceremony Before the Day of Atonement.

(FVom a woodcut, Augsburg, 1530.)

jiliysiciaii. He became privat-doceut in 18G6 : assis*^-
ant professor in 1875; professor and chief of the der-
matologieal clinic and liospitixl in 1879, in succession
to Ilebra. In 1899 the title of " Hofrath " was con-
ferred upon him. He was a convert to Christianity.

Kaposi publi.siied over one hundred essays in the
leading medical journals, especially on dermatology
and syphilis: about lupus erythematosus, frambu?-
sia,rhinoscleroma,. xanthoma, zoster, etc. Among his
works may be mentioned : " Die Syphilis der Schleim-
haut der Mund-, Naseu- und Rachenhohle," Stutt-
gart, 1860; ''Die Syphilis der Haut undder Angren-
zenden Schleimhilute," Vienna, 1875 ;"Lehrbuch der
Hautkrankheiten," Stuttgart, 1876; "Pathologic
und Therapie der Hautkrankheiten," Vienna, 1879
(5th ed., 1899; it has been translated into French,
Russian, and English) ; " Pathologic und Therapie
der Syphilis," Stuttgart, 1891. In 1881 he published
in the "Wiener Medizinisclie Wochen.schrift" a bi-
ography of his teacher, entitled "Gedachtnissrede
auf Hebra."
Bibliography : Paget, Biog. Lex. 1901, s.v.

s. F. T. H.

KAPPARAH (plural, kapparot = "means of
atonement '') : An animal used as a sort of vicarious

sacrifice on the
day previous to
the Day of
Atonement. As
a rule, a cock is
taken by a male,
and a hen by a
female person,
and after the
recitation of Ps.
cvii. 17-20 and
Job xxxiii. 23-
24 the fowl is
swung around
the head three
times while the
right hand is
put upon the
animal's head.
At the same
time the follow-
ing is thrice said
in Hebrew:
"This be my
substitute, my
vicarious offering, my atonement. This cock [or
hen] shall meet deatli, but I shall find a long and
pleasant life of peace!" After this the animal is
slaughtered and given to the poor, or, what is
deemed better, is eaten by the owners while the
value of it is given to the poor.

The custom has been strongly opposed bj' such
authorities as Nahmanides, Solomon ben Adret, and
Joseph Caro as a pagan one in conflict with the
spirit of Judaism, wliich knows of no vicarious sacrL-
fice. But it was approved by Jehiel b. Asher and by
his son Jacob (T^u". Orah Hayyim, 95), and by Sam-
son b. Zadok and others who followed the author-
ity of Hai Gaon and other geonim (see the literature
in "Bet Yosef " to Tur, I.e.). The ritual appealed
especially to cabalists, such as Isaiah Horowitz and

Kapparah
Kara, Menahem

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

436

Isaac Luriu, who recommeuded the selection of a
while cock with refeieuce to Isa. i. 18, and who
fouud other m3'stic allusions in the prescribed for-
mulas. Consequently the practise became general
among the Jews of eastern Europe (see Isserles,
"Darke Mosheh" on Tur, ?.^.), and the word "kap-
parah," as a connotation for a thing that is sacrificed,
is quite prominent in tlie Judao-German dialect (sec
Tendlau, "Sprichworter und Kedensarten," 1860,
No. 198).

As tiie reason for the particular preference for a
chicken as a vicarious offering, it is stated by the
Geonim (quoted by Asheri on Yoma viii., No. 23)
that it was suggested by the use of the Aramaic
word " geber " for both "man" and "cock." Some
rich people, however, would occasionally take a
ram instead, with reference to the ram of Isaac (Gen.
x.xii. 13). It appears, moreover, from the passage
last cited that originally a "slieliah "
Sacrificed (=" an elect officer of the community")
by an officiated as the atoning priest at the
Elder. ceremony. Accordingly a saint or
elder of mystic power is still recom-
mended for the purpose in "Kol Bo," Ixviii.

Auothei' and apparently an older practise in
geonic times was that of planting beans or peas
iu palm-leaf baskets for each child in the house
two or three weeks before the New-Year. Then on
the day before New-Year the children would swing
the baskets containing the ripened plants around
their heads three times, saying, " This be in lieu of
me: tliis be my substitute and my exchange," and
would then throw them into the water (Rashi, Shab.
811)). This is obviou.sly a survival of the pagan
rite connected with the so-called "Adonis gardens,"
Woiji'uhg KTjTcoi. ="nit'e na'amanim " (Isa. xvii. 10;
see Marti 's and other commentaries). In Solomon b.
Adret's time the kapparot ceremony was performed
for the youths only (see " Bet Yosef, " I.e.). Accord-
ing to S. I. Curtiss, "Primitive Semitic Religion
To-Day," p. 203, Chicago, 1902, the Moslems of the
villages of the Syrian desert still sacrifice a cock
for each new-born son and a hen for each daughter
born.

Common practise has established the rule that in
case cliickens can not be procured, geese or fish or
even ])lanls may take their place; but doves or
other animals that were brought upon the altar of
the Temple should not be used (Abraham Abele,
in " Magen Abraham " ; Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hay-
yim. I.e.).

nrBi-iofiRAPiiY : M. Brack, Rahhinische Ceremonialge-
liviinrhr, pp. 2.')-3(), Breslau, 1837.

KAPPER, SIEGFRIED: Austrian poet and
physician; born at Smichow near Prague, March 21,
1821; died at Pisa June 7, 1879; educated at the
gymna.sium and University of Prague, and at the
University of Vienna (Ph.D. 1847). Starting in life
as a physician, he later embraced a literary career.

Kapper's more important works are: "Slavische
M<lodien," Leipsic, 1844; "Ceske Listy." Prague,
1846; " Befrcite Lieder dem Jungen Oesterreich,"
Vienna, 1848; " Lazar der Serbenzar," ih. 1851;
"Die Gesilnge der Serben " (in two parts), ifj. 1852;
"Flirst Lazar." Leipsic, 1853; "Falk." Dessau,

1853; "Sl'idslavische Wanderungen," 2 vols., Leip-
sic, 1853; "Christen und 'IHirken," 2 parts, ib. 1854;
"Die Bohmischen Biider," i/j. 1857; "Die Iland-
schriften Altbohmischer Poesien," Prague, 1859.
In his "Geneda" (printed 1846) Kapper pictured
early Jewish life in Prague. His " Wanderlied fur
Israelitischc Handwerker " and a number of Ids lyr-
ical poems were set to luusic by Solomon Sulzer and
Josef Dessauer.

BinLiOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biot/. Lcxikon, 186:3, x. i'hiArA;
Jlldi.sches Athi'tiUuiiu 1H51 ; Jimrnal deg Drhutf:, March
11, 1853; Briiminer, Lexicon der DcuUcheu Dlchtrr viid
I'rotiaisten des 19. Jnhrhundertu, p. 401.

s. I. G. D.

KARA, ABIGDOR BEN ISAAC : Bohemian
cabalist and liturgical poet ; died at Prague April
10, 1439. He lived for a time at Ratisbon, but set-
tled permanently at Prague after 1409. Kara en-
joyed a high reputation and associated with King
Wenceslaus, who liked to converse with him ou re-
ligious matters. Kara nevertheless led a life of
poverty, and collections were made iu several Jew-
ish communities to provide him with a livelihood.
He was the author of the following works, still ex-
tant in manu.script: haggadic notes and gematriot
on the Pentateuch (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr.
MSS."No. 2273); notes on Isaiah xlvi. 1% {ib. 186,
2); "She'elot u-Teshubot," responsa, allegorical in
character {ib. 1598, 4); "Kodesh Hillulim," a caba-
listic work (MS. Fuenn). Kara's liturgical produc-
tions are: a selihah, written on the occasion of the
persecutions of the Jews of Prague in 1389, begin-
ning with riN^nn h'2 DN (inserted in the Malizor for
the Minhah prayer of the Day of Atonement); a
hymn beginning nnVDI TTl' IPIN, on the unity of
God;"Shelosh 'I^sreh Hishtahawayot," a selihah be-
ginning with -"fjlp yrDC'n "Ipn ''JTN (inserted in the
ritual "Zebah Pesah," published at Prague iul615);
a poem beginning with nOX >K "'JnX, on the thir-
teen articles of belief (Neubauer, I.e. Nos. 2256
et seq. ).

Bibliography : Goldberg, In Ha-Mehasser, 1862, p. 207 ; Zunz,

Literatuivcsch. p. ;373 ; idem, Z. (i. p. 165, and Index ; Stein-

sclmeider, Cat. Bodl. col. 662; idem, .Tewish Literature, pp.

115, 145 ; Griitz, Gesch. viii. 52; Fuenn, Keneaet YixracJ, p. 5.

K. I. Bu.

KARA, ABRAHAM BEN ABIGDOR: Bo-
hemian chief rabbi, rosh yeshibah, and liturgist;
died at Prague Oct. 7, 1542. He wrote a super-
commentary on Rashi to the Pentateuch, mentioned
by David Gans (" Zemah Dawid, " p. 44a) ; and glosses
to the "Tur Orah Hayyim" (see Zunz, "Z. G." p.
273). According to Michael ("Or ha-Hayyim," p.
11), Kara wrote glosses to all the four Turim, a part
of which was printed in the Augsburg edition of
the Turim in 1540; and a selihah beginning with the
\vords "Ana Elohe Abraham," the verses of which
are in alphabetical order; at the end an acrostic
gives the author's name.

Bibliography : Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 31 ; Landshuth,
"Ammude ha-'Abodah, p. 2.
s. e. M. Sel.

KARA, JOSEPH BEN SIMEON: French
Bible exegete; lived in Troyes, where, probably, he
was born about 1060-70; died between 1130 and
1140. His uncle and teacher w^as Menahem ben

437

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kapparan
Kara, Menahem

Hc'lbo, whom Kuia often cites in his comnicutaiics,
these quotations being almost the only source of
knowledge concerning Menuhem's exegesis. Kara
frequented Kasliis house; it is even possible that he
was Kashi's pupil (Zuuz, "Z. G." p. 68), though this
is denied by Ei)stein. At least they quote each
other (comj). Joseph Kara on Prov. iv. 4, v. 14, vi.
28, xviii. 22; Rashi on Judges iii. 26; Num. xvii. 5,
xxiv. 14; Isa. x. 24). In Haslii's house Kara also
made the ac(}uaintancc of banuiel ben Meir (comp.
RaSIIBa^M on Gen. xxxvii. 13). Tliey likewise
quote each other (comp. RaSTIBalM on Gen. xxiv.
60 and Num. iv. 10; Rosin, "K. KSamuel ben Meir,"
pp. 12 t'^ seq., 12etseq.; Josepli Kara on Amos iii.
12; Job xi. 17; Gen. x. 15; Porges, in "Monats-
schrift," 1883, p. 169). Isaac Kara, of whose exege-
sis specimens are given in "Monatsschrift," 1864, p.
219; 1865, p. 384 (comp. Rosin, I.e. pp. 24 et seq.),
may be a son of Joseph.

The surname " Kara " is usually taken to be a pro-
fessional name, meaning "reader" or "interpreter of
the Bible" (sec Jew. Encyc. iii. 168, s.r. Bible Ex-
egesis). A. Jelliuek points out, however ("Com-
mentarien zu E.sther, Ruth," etc., p. vi., Leipsic,
1855), that "Kara," as contrasted with "Darshan,"
means the representative of the"Peshat" ("Pash-
tan ").

Kara w^as a prolific exegetical writer. When he
copied Rashi's commentary on the Pentateuch he
added numerous glosses and remarks in order to
supplement and revise it; and these glosses were
inserted by the scribes in the text of Rashi. They
have been collected by Geiger in " Nit'e Na'amanim, "
i. 1 et seq. ; idem in "Parschandatha," pp. 21 et seq. ;
and by Berliner in "Pletath Soferim " (Hebr. part),
p. 12.

The original or independent Bible commentaries
of Kara are :

(1) According to Berliner {I.e. p. 16), a commen-
tary on Dent, i.-iv. (printed I.e. [Hebr. part], pp. 6
et seq.).

(2) Commentaries on the Prophets published in
"Mikra'ot Gedolot," Lublin, 1897 (see Poznauski in
"Zeit. fur Hebr. Bibl." v. 68); extracts from these
commentaries were published by Wolf in "Ha-Slia-

har," ii. 289, iii. 688, iv. 55 (see, also,
Kara's Dukes in "Orient, Lit." 1847, p. 344);
Comtnen- by Littmann in "Josef ben Simeon
taries. Kara," pp. 26-82 (from Isaiah and
Ezekiel). Those on Samuel and most
of the Minor Prophets are not genuine (Porges, in
"Monatsschrift," 1883, p. 170; Rosin, I.e. p. 72, note
2). The Jeremiah commentary was published sep-
arately b3' Schlob.berg (" Commentaire sur Jeremie,"
Paris, 1881; comp. Li-mU's " Jahrb." vii. 170 et seq.;
see, also, Zunz, "Z. G." p. bo, C-'^er. I.e. i. 18); that
on Hosea, Breslau, 1861.

(3) Commentaries on most of the Hagiographa;
namely :(«) Proverbs; see the quotation in Kara"s
commentary on Eccl. vii. 12. (b) Job, published in
"Monatsschrift," vols, v., vi., and vii. (see, also,
Luzzatto in " Kerem Hemed," vii. 61 et seq. ; Geiger,
I.e. [Hebr. part], pp. 11 et seq.). (c) Canticles (i. 1-
vii. 13), published by Hlibsch ("Hamesh Megillot,"
Prague, 1866; see Salfeld, "Das Hohelied Salomo's."
p. 49). (d) Ruth, published by Hlibsch. I.e., ami by

A. Jellinek, I.e. (comp. A. Epstein in "Ilalloker,"
i. 31, note 2). {<) Lameiilalions, published in Na-
ples in 1486, and liy Hlib.sch (I.e.), Jellinek {I.e.),
and E. Ashkenazi ("Dibre Hakamim," jjp. 17 ct
seq., Metz, 1849), and by S. Buber in two diflerent
recensions in "Kaul'mann Gedenkbuch," i)p. Set
''^''f/- if) Ecclesiastes, published by Hlibsch {I.e.)
and Einstein (in Berliner's "Magazin," xiii. ["Ozar
Tob"]). {(/) Estiier, published l)y Hlibsch {I.e.}, Jel-
linek (^.f.), and Berliner {iO. 1878; comp. ib. 1876,
p. 158).

It is tjuite possible that Kara wrote also conunen-
taries on Ezra and Nehemiah, but that tlie commen-
taries on these books as contained in MS. Saraval No.
27, and asciibed to Josepli Kara, are not genuine
(Geiger, in "Ozar Nehmad," iv. 43 et seq.).

Some comments of Kara on Chronicles must have
existed, as is proved by tlie ({notations in pseudo-
Rashi to those books (see II Chrou. iii. 15, v. 9, xxv.
24).

According to Epstein {I.e. i. 29 et seq.), Kara wrote
(4) glosses to the pseudo-Rashi commentary on Gen-
esis Rabbah, and (5) a commentary on the Mahzor
(comp. Zuuz. "Ritus," p. 198).

While in his glosses on the Pentateuch and in his

commentaries on the Prophets Kara depends upon

Rashi to the greatest extent, his explanations of the

Hagiographa are more original. He

Charac- quotes Menahem ben Saruk, Dunasli

teristics. ibn Labrat, Judah and Moses ha-Dar-
shan, Kalir, Meir Sheliah Zibbur, Ka-
lonymus, and others. In his commentary on Job he
frequently uses the writings of Shabbethai Donnolo,
and gives very valuable extracts from the lost
Baraita of Samuel with Donnolo's commentary
(comp. Epstein, I.e. pp. 34 et seq.). His grammat-
ical standpoint is that of Rashi. Whole Hebrew
sentences are sometimes translated into French. In
his expressions he is not as terse as Rashi. He is
bold enough to express the opinion that the Book
of Samuel was not written by the prophet himself,
but later (Commentary on I Sam. ix. 9). He does
not go into grammatical or philological researcli,
and cares more for the sense of the whole sentence
than for a single word. He shows more common
sense than depth, and though he does not altogether
hold aloof from haggadic interpretations, lie takes
a leading place among the exegetes of northern
France, who in general preferred the rational ex-
egesis.

Bibliography : Gratz, Gcsch. vi. 145; Gross, Gallia Jwlaico,
p. 227; Einstein, in Berliner's Magazin, xiii. 206 ef sny.; Re-
nan-Neubauer, Les Rahbinx Fran^ai.% pp. -435, 438, 441. 48><.
558; Zunz, G. V. 2d ed., pp. 313, 410; idem, Z. G. Index:
idem, in Zeitschrift fUruie Wis$enschaft des JudcnOnims,
p. 318 : Berliner. Ple'tnth Soferim, pp. 19 et seq. ; Littmann.
Josef ben Simeon Kara, Breslau, 1887: Geiger, Pamehau-
datha, pp. 18 et seq. ; pp. 21 et seq. (Hebr. part) ; Kirchhelm.
in Orient. Lit. 1848, p. 433.
G. M. Sc

KARA, MENAHEM BEN JACOB: Bohe-
mian scholar; tlourished at Prague in the first half
of the fifteenth century. He was a near relative,
perhaps a half-brother, of Abigdor ben Isaac Kara,
whom he quotes in his writings as "my brotlier."
Kara was the author of the following works, which
are extant in manuscript: a commentary on Prov.
xxx., written at the request of Abigdor Kara, who

[ara, Simeon
Laraites

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

438

thought he recognized iu np" piliK the initials of
his own name (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS."
No. 1649, 7) ; a commeutaiy on the " Mar'ot Eloliim "
of Enocli al-Kiistautiut {ib. 1649, 1) ; a commentary
on Ghazali's " Kawwauot iia-Pilusufiin " and on vari-
ous parts of the"Moreh Nebukim." The author
quotes in tlie last-named commentary Samuel and
Moses ibn Tibbon, Moses of Narbonne, Levi ben
Gershon, and his own contemporary Moses |» 3. On
fol. 13 he mentions his imprisonment during eight-
een months (ib. 1649, 2).

Bibliography: Zunz, Z. G. p. 163; Steinschneider, Jeu'is7i
Literature, pp. 99, 115.
K. I. Br.

K ABA, SIMEON : French rabbi ; lived in Mans
in the eleventli century ; brother of Menahem ben
Helbo and father of Joseph Kara. For the meaning
of his surname see Kara, Joseph. Isaac de Lattes,
in his"Kiryat Sefer," counts Kara among the prom-
inent French rabbis, althC'?igh no work of his has
survived. Rapoport identified him with the com-
piler of the Yalkut Shim'oni, on account of the sim-
ilarity of some Midrashic cj notations in this work
with citations in Rashi's Bibie commentary. Abra-
ham Epstein lias, however, shown that in the man-
uscripts the name " Kara " does not [occur, and in
place of " Sinieon " the reading " Simson " at times is
found.

Bibliography : Zunz, G. V. p. 313 ; idem, Z. G. p. 61 ; Rapo-
port. Kerem Hemed, vii. 4 et seq.; Kirchheim, in Orient, Lit.
iv. 2.53 : Geiger, Nitc Na'amaiiim. German part, p. 8 ; idem,
in Z. D. M. G. xxviii. 300; Weiss, in Bet Talmud, ii. 35;
BriiU's Jahrb. viii. 113; Abraham Epstein, in Ha-Hoher,
i. »i5 et seq.
G. I. Br.

KARAITES AND KARAISM : The Karaites

(D-'Nnp, XIpD ''^ya, XlpO "-Ja = " Followers of the
Bible") were a Jewish sect, professing, iu its relig-
ious observances and opinions, to follow the Bible
to the exclusion of rabbinical traditions and laws.
But Karaisra in fact adopted a large part of rabbin-
ical Judaism, either outright or with more or less
modification, while at the same time it borrowed
from earlier or later Jewish sects — Sadducees, Es-
senes, 'Isawites, Yudghanites, etc. — as well as from
the Mohammedans. The founder of the sect being
Anan, his followers were at first called Ananites,
but as the doctrines of the sect were more fully de-
veloped, and it graduall}'' emancipated itself from
Auanism, they took the name of "Karaites," a term
first used by Benjamin al-Nahawendi ("Ba'ale
Mikra " at the end of his " Sefer Linim ") and in a
quotation in " Yefet."

On Anan's death, between 780 and 800, his son
Saul, and then his grandson Josiah, succeeded him
as head of the sect, but both of them were too in-
significant intellectually to leave many traces in Ka-
raism. But betw-een 830 and 890 men of greater mark
appeared among the Karaites, who, while differing
among themselves and creating various subdivisions
in the new sect, agreed in diverging from Anan's
doctrines, and even from his methods of teaching.
The leaders of that time whose names have come
down to us are: Benjamin al-Nahawendi, Ishmael
of 'Akbara, Musaal-Za'farani (called also Al-Tirtisi),
Mashwi al-'Akbari, and Daniel al-Kumisi (called

also Al-Damaghani). Anan was an eclectic, borrow-
ing various regulations of his code (a large part of
which has recently been discovered and published
by A. Harkavy) from rabbinical Judaism and from
Jewish sects; but he attempted to base all this bor-
rowed material, as well as the regula-

Modifica- tions which he himself drafted, on the
tions of Biblical text, resorting with that end

Ananism. in view to the most curious etymolo-
gies and exegetical rules. His ascetic
views throughout were, moreover, so ill adapted to
practical life that an unhampered secular life in
agreement with Anan's code was entirely impossible.
Anan's successors, therefore, set tiiemselves the task
of removing or modifying these shortcomings of
Auanism, thus insuring the practical existence of
the sect. AVIiile the strict Ananites lost more and
more ground in the course of the ninth century in
consequence of their asceticism, subsisting merely
for a time at Jerusalem as strict hermits and mourn-
ers for Zion (see Abele Zion), and while Ananism
entirely disappeared in the tenth century, Karaism
still exists, though it is stricken with intellectual im-
potence.

Anan's eclecticism, which at first did good serv-
ice to the heretis, since the members of various
anti-rabbinical sects apparently found congruous
ideas in the new heresy, caused after a time dissat-
isfaction in different quarters. While the liberals
did not take kindly to the aggravations and rigorous
ordinances of the new code, which entirely lacked
the sanction of national tradition, this code was not
strict enough for the rigorists in the sect, and
throughout the ninth centur\' and the first half of
the tenth there were continuous dissensions, as ap-
pears from the detailed accounts of Al-Kirkisaniand
Saadia. In some Karaite circles of the ninth and
tenth centuries there arose, perhaps under Gnostic
influence, an antagonism to the ceremonial law and
the dogma of traditional Judaism similar to the in-
imical attitude toward Jewish law found among the
first Christian Gnostic circles (the echo of which still
appears in the attacks of Christian theologians on
Jewish "legalism," although no one religion is ex-
empt from nomism). This antagonism went so far,
for instance, that the Sabbath and the feast-days
w^ere regarded merely as memorial days during the
existence of the Jewish state, their observance being
no longer obligatory in the exile, the resurrection of
the dead was interpreted in an allegorical and ration-
alistic sense, as Israel's deliverance from exile, this
view being probably borrowed from Sadduceeism ;
and the advent of the Messiah, as well as the resto-
ration of the Temple, was referred to the past epoch
of the Second Temple. The rigoristic Karaites, on
the other hand, even forbade any one to leave the
house on the Sabbath, to carry anything from one
room into another, to wash the face, to wear a coat,
shoes, girdle, or anything except a shirt, to make a
bed, to carry food from the kitchen into another
apartment, etc. In time, however, the extremists,
such as the Ananites, 'Isawites, Yudghanites, and
Shadganites, disappeared, and the moderate party
in the sect organized itself under the name of Ka-
raites.
Gradually the Karaite leaders abandoned their con-

439

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kara, Simeon

Karaites

troversies relating to individual laws and details re-
ferring to the cult, and turned their attention to
principles concerning dogma and the IMosaic Law
in contradistinction to rabbinical oral
Develop- law, visibly proceeding under the in-
ment of lluence of the Islamic "kalam"and
Dogma. "mu'tazilah," especially the "usul al-
fikh " of the Mohammedans. Al-
though Anan commonly applied the rabbinical rules
of Biblical hermeneutics ("middot"), yet even he
borrowed from Islam, chiefly from his contemporary
and fellow suilerer, Abu Nu'man Tliabit Abu Hani-
fah, the founder of the theological school of the
Hanalites, and also from the then newly-founded
Mohammedan sect of the Rawaudites, who trans-
planted the doctrine of the transmigration of souls
from India to Bagdad. This attitude of Anan was
closely connected with his personal circumstances
at the time of the founding of the new sect (see
Jew. Encyc. 1. 554, s.v. Anan). Benjamin al-
Nahawendi (c. 830-850), the first noteworthy Ka-
raite teacher in the period following Anan, did not
directly borrow from Mohammedan theology any-
thing relating to the religious law, being probably
too far removed from Bagdad, then the center of
Arabic scholarship; he borrowed instead the alle-
gorical method of Scriptural interpretation of
the Judao- Alexandrian (Hellenistic) school. This
method was at that time known partly through
Hebrew works still extant in the beginning of the
tenth century, and partly through Greek sources
made available by the Syrians, these works being
ascribed to the sect of the Maghariyyah (Al-Ma-
ghariyyah = "cave-dwellers," as the Essenes were
then called). Nahawendi even borrowed Philo's doc-
trine of the Logos. Anan's and Nahawendi's differ-
ing opinions regarding the Law have been noted
elsewhere (see Benjamin ben Moses Nahawendi).
The list of these differences can be materially in-
creased from the recently published fragments of
Nahawendi's code (A. Harkavy, "Studien und Mit-
theilungen," viii. 175-184), and also from quotations
of Al-Kirkisani, Al-Basir, Abu al-Faraj Furkan, and
later authorities.

Although no derogatory remarks referring to
Anan have been found in Nahawendi fragments, it
is. yet evident that Nahawendi silently disapproved
of Anan's extraordinary interpretation of Biblical
words and his glaring abuse of the rabbinical her-
meneutic rules, although he himself is not free from
eccentricity. Nor is his attitude toward Rabbinism
so harsh and absolutely inimical as that of Anan.
Nahawendi shows no trace of Anan's artificial op-
position to the Talmud ; on the con-
Benjamin trary he often defends the Talmudists
Naha- against Anan's attacks. He occupies
wendi. a highly important position in the his-
tory of Karaism, and he did much for
the consolidation of the new sect. He was, more-
over, the first Karaite writer to use the Hebrew lan-
guage; as far as is known, he composed at least
three of his works in Hebrew — "Sefer Dinim,"
"Seferha-Mizwot," and the commentary on Genesis.
He marks, therefore, a new epoch in the develop-
ment of Karaism.
Contemporaneously with Nahawendi and some-

what later in tlie ninth century appeared Karaite
writers and leaders who violently attacked the
founder of the sect and heaped vituperation upon his
method. Ishmael of ' Akbara, after wliom a subdivi-
sion of the sect, the Okbarites ('Akbarites), was
named, did not hcsitiite, for instance, to call Anan
"asinine." This contemporary of Nahawendi, who
took his name from 'Akbara, a place near Bagdad,
abrogated several of Anan's severe measures; and
he was the only one among the Karaites who had
aptitude or liking for Biblical criticism. He did not
hesitate to say that errors had crept into the tradi-
tional text of Scripture and tiiat .some of the readings
of the Samaritan text and the Septuagint were pref-
erable to the Masoretic text. Other subdivisions
of the Karaite sect, as the Mashwites ('•. 850; so
called after their founder Mashwi al-Balabakki, a
pupil of Ishmael of 'Akbara), the Tiflisites (the fol-
lowers of Al-Titlisi, c. 850), the Ramlites or Malikites
(called after their founder Malik al-Ramli), and va-
rious other smaller groups, which have been fully de-
scribed by A. Harkavy in his Karaite studies (in
"Voskhod," 1898-99), differed considerably from
Anan not only in regard to single religious laws, but
also in leading doctrines. A somewhat later and
very important Karaite writer, Daniel ben Moses
al-Kumisi (toward the end of the ninth century), who
at first was an enthusiastic follower of Anan, and
called him " Head of the Sages " (" Rosh ha-Mas-
kilim "), sub.sequently felt entirely disillusioned, and
then styled Anan "' Head of the Fools " (" Rosh ha-
Kesilim "). On his divergences from Anan in detail
see Jew. Encyc. iv. 433, s.v. Daniel ben Moses al-
KuMisi ; the account there can now be supplemented
in agreement with recently published fragments of
his code (idem, "Studien und Mittheilungen," viii.
187-192). His leaning toward rationalism in theo-
logical matters is noteworthy.

These divergences contributed not a little to the
undermining of Anan's authority among the Ka-
raites, and his faithful followers, the Ananites, were
pushed to the wall; as their rigorous observances
were entirely unsuited to ordinary life, they were
finally obliged to emigrate to Jerusalem and adopt
the hermit life of the old Essenes, as mourners for
Zion. Gradually disappearing, they left the field
free for the great noontide of Karaism in the tenth
and eleventh centuries. The representatives of this
epoch are: Abu Yusuf Ya'kub al-Kirkisani, Sahlibn

Mazliah, Solomon ben Jeroham, Yafith
Flood- Tide, ibn 'All, David al-Fasi, Abu al-Faraj

Harun, Yusuf al-Basir and his pupil
Abu al-Faraj Furkan. The first-named, Abu Y'usuf
Y'a'kub al-Kirkisani (called incorrectly by later au-
thors and even by Steinschneider, " Y'usuf " instead
of "Abu Yusuf"), Avrote in the third and fourth
decades of the tenth century ; he is a unique figure
in Karaite literature on account of his historical
sense, his comprehensive survey of the development

of the Jewish sects, and his acute, even

Abu Yusuf if partial, criticism of his predecessors.

al-Kirki- For the historical part of his work

sani, he consulted the works of David ibn

Merwau al-Mukammas (see Jew.
Encyc. iv. 466, where he is confounded with a
later David al-Mukammas) and the accounts of Mo-

Karaites

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

440

iKuaiiK'daa writers, whose works, however, have not
beeu liauded down. Although a great admirer of
Anau, whom he frequently defends, Ya'kub seldom
agrees with him, and generally endeavors to miti-
gate the severity of the heresiarch's legal inter-
pretations. Al-Kirkisani went very far in regard to
forbidden marriages, being one of the chief repre-
sentatives of the so-called "system of extension"
("rikkub").

Al-Kirkisani was, so far as is known, the first Ka-
raite writer to defend the dictates of common sense
and of knowledge in religious matters; the second
part of his chief work," Kitab al-Anwar" (Book of
Lights), treats of the necessity of investigation and
of reason, and of the determination of the proofs of
reason and analogical conclusions. He adopts for
Karaism without modification the views of the Mo-
tekallamin and the Motazilites. Since that time
there has been a wide schism in Karaism between the
followers of scientific investigation, who patterned
their theology on the Mohammedan kalam and the
Motazilite doctrines, and the Orthodox, who would
have nothing to do with philosophy and .science.
Among the former are some Karaite scholars of the
tenth century mentioned by their contemporary the
Arabian polyhistor 'Ali al-Mas'udi, and Yusuf al-
Basir, the foremost Karaite philosophical writer, to-
gether with his pupil Abu al-Faraj Furkan (Jeshua
b. Judah ; about the middle of the eleventh century).
Among the latter are the important Karaite authors
Sahl ibn Mazliah, Solomon ben Jeroham, and Yafitli
ibn 'Ali, all three of whom lived during the middle
and the end of the tenth century. The Karaites
produced no original author in this field after the
middle of the eleventh century, but merely transla-
tors from the Arabic, compilers, and imitators, such
as Israel Maghrabi and his pupil Yafith ibn Saghir
(;i3th cent.), Solomon Nasi (Abu al-Fadl; 18th
cent.), Samuel Maghrabi (14th cent.), and others.

The following Karaite writers of this epoch culti-
vating other fields are noteworthy: Exegetes : Al-
Kirkisani, Sahl ibn Mazliah, Solomon ben Jeroham,
Yafith ibn 'Ali, and Yusuf ibn Nuh (10th cent.);
Abu al-Faraj Harun, Abu al-Faraj Furkan, and 'Ali
ibn Sulaiman (Uth cent.). Lexicographers: Abu
Sulaiman Daud al-Fasi (end of the 10th cent.) and
his editors Abu Sa'id (probably identical with Levi
ha-Levi, beginning of the 11th cent.) and 'Ali ibn
Sulaiman ; the first-named knows nothing as yet of
the triliteral roots of the Hebrew language, and the
last-named hardly uses the new system, although
acquainted with Hayyuj's works. As Hebrew
grammarians, only tiie above-mentioned Yusuf ibn
Nuh and Abu al-Faraj Harun (called " the gramma-
rian of Jerusalem " by Ibn Ezra) need be noted; the
latter wrote first his "Kitab al-Mushtamil," a com-
prehensive work iu seven parts, which also includes
a largo part of Hebrew lexicography, and then made
a compendium, "Kitab al-Kafi," so that (1026) Ibn
Ezra mentions eight works. Codifiers (of Karaite
religious law): Ya'kub al-Kirkisani, in the third and
fourth decades of the tenth century, whose "Kitab
al-Anwar " may be considered as the most impor-
tant Karaite work written in the Arabic language;
Sahl (called "Ben Zita" by Ibn Ezra), whose code
was entitled "Sefer Dinim," although written in

Arabic; Yafith ibn 'Ali, known only through cita-
tions, and his son Levi ha-Levi, one of the most
noteworthy codifiers, who often agrees with the Rab-
binites; Yusuf al-Basir, author of the "Kitab al-
Istibsar," of which the "Sefer ha-Abib " and "Sefer
ha-Mo'adim," mentioned by Piusker, are subdivi-
sions; Abu al-Faraj Furkan, Sahl ibn Fadl Tusturi
(called in Hebrew "Yashar b. Hesed " ; end of the
11th cent.), and others.

Although the Oriental Karaite authors since
Nahawendi wrote in Hebrew with more or less
fluency, there were no noteworthy poets among
them. The orthodox and a.scetic views of the ear-
lier Karaites did not encourage secular poetry, which
was held to profane the holy language ; nor did they
produce anything noteworthy iu liturgical poetry
(" piyyutim "), for according to Anan, with the ex-
ception of short benedictions, praj^ers could be taken
only from the Psalter (see specimens in Harkavy,
"Studien und Mittheilungen," Viii.). Even in later
times they generally either borrowed Rabbin ite
poems or resorted to imitations of them. The only
Karaite poet who left secular poems, Moses Dar'i
{18th cent.), either imitated or simply borrowed from
the Judaeo-Spanish poets. It goes without saying
that polemics against Rabbinism were obligatory
upon every Karaite author in the period of propa-
ganda and extension. The writ<;rs mentioned herein
attacked the Rabbinites on every occasion and in al-
most all their works, and also wrote special polem-
ical pamphlets, as Solomon l)en Jeroham against
Saadia Gaon, Sahl and Yafith against Saadia's pupil
Jacob b. Samuel, Yusuf al-Basir against Samuel
ibn Hofni. Some Karaite writers may also be noted
who are known only as polemicists, as Ibn Mashiah
and Ibn Sakawaihi; some details have recently been
discovered regarding the latter's " Kitab al-Fada'ih "
(Book of Infamies), which was refuted by Saadia.

In formulating the principles of primitive Kara-
ism concerning the doctrine of the Law the leaders

of the sect generally followed Moham-

Principles medan patterns. Anan, as has been

of seen, was influenced by Abu Hanifah,

Karaism. and added to the three sources of

Islamic law — the Koran, the " sunnah "
(tradition), and "ijma'" (the agreement of all Is-
lam)— a fourth source, namely, "ra'y,"2.e., specu-
lation, or the speculative opinions of the teachers of
the Law and of the judges, which are deduced by
analogy ("kiyas"; Talmud, "hekkesh") from the
laws originating in the other three sources. Anan,
opposed on principle to Rabbinism, could not recog-
nize tradition as a source of law, nor could he, the
founder of a new sect, consider agreement as a basis
for religious law ; hence he found it all the more nec-
essary to seize upou analogical speculation. But he
introduced two important modifications, based on
rabbinical precedent, into the principle of Abu Hani-
fah: (1) instead of logical analogy, of chief impor-
tance with Abu Hanifah, Anan gave preference to
verbal analogy (the rabbinical "gezerah shawah"),
and frequently even resorted to literal analogy; (2)
for the religious laws which he based on his specula-
tions he endeavored to deduce support from the
Biblical text: he did not hesitate at the most forced
interpretations, but followed rabbis who made deduc-

441

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Karaites

tious ("asmakta") iu support of ancient traditions.
Hence this heresiarcli believed himself justified in
asserting that he took all his teachings directly from
the Bible. Later, however, when Ananism with its
opposition to traditional Judaism and itsartilicial sys-
tem was gradually disappearing, and Karaism was so
well established that it need hesitate no longer to
call things by their right names, the Karaite leaders
adopted openly the Mohammedan principles concern-
ing canons of the Law. Thus iSahl ben Mazliah,
according to Judah Hadassi, adopted outright Abu
Hanifah's principles, with the .single motlification
that instead of tradition he considered speculation and
analogy as authoritative. Yusuf ibu Nuh entirely
rejected speculation, like the nou-Hanifitic Moham-
medan theological schools; Levi ha-Levi (probably
the reading iu Hadassi should be " Abu Sa'id " in-
stead of "Sa'id "), again, agrees with Abu Hanifali,
though of course excluding tradition. Abu al-Fara j
Furkan similarly determines three categories of the
Law, which agree with Abu Hanifah's categories, ex-
clusive of tradition. However, many Mohammedan
fakihs also have excluded tradition from the so-
called roots of the doctrine of the Law (" usul al-fikh").
Tradition was included among the nomocanons,
under the curious designation "the inherited bur-
den " (" sebel ha-yerushshah "), at a much later date,
during the Byzantine epoch of Karaism.

During the first centuries of the existence of the
sect, Karaism was widely extended among the Jews,
and could boast of making many converts among
the followers of the parent religion, gathering them
in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Babylonia, and Persia.

Several cii'cumstances contributed to

Expansion its success. Firstly, sectarianism was

of then rife in the East iu consequence

Karaism. of the great changes brought about

by Islam, and numbers of the adher-
ents of different confessions throughout the califate
eagerlj' accepted any new departures. In the sec-
ond place, Anan's proclamation of the unrestricted
study of the Bible as the only source of religion was
most attractive, not onl}^ to the members of earlier
anti-rabbinic sects, which had by no means been
uprooted, but also to the more liberal elements
within traditional Judaism that were dissatistied
with the stagnation shown in the methods of the
Babylonian academies. In the third place, the direct-
ors of the academies (the Geonim), who were at
that time out of touch with science and all secular
matters, were too short-sighted to recognize the
tlangers threatening traditional Judaism on the part
of the new sect, and believed that by simply ignoring
it they could destroy it. They were, moreover, in-
capable of engaging in religious polemics with their
adversaries, as they were familiar only with weap-
ons which the latter refused to recognize, namely,
arguments taken exclusively from the traditional
writings, and did not distinguish critically between
lialakic and haggadic and mystical elements in rab-
binical literature. Hence none of the attacks on tradi-
tional Judaism, not even those that were unfounded,
were properly refuted, nor was the true state of affairs
explained. Small wonder, then, that the new sect,
filled Avith the zeal of propaganda, generally had the
upper hand and Avent from victory to victory.

At the end of the ninth and iu the lenth century,
however, there was a decided change, for several
rabbinical scholars took np the study of the Biblical
books, Hebrew grammar, and secular science, as in
the case of Saadia's teacher Abu Kathir Yahya ibn
Zakariyya of Tiberias (d. 932), David ibn Merwan
al-Mukammas, and other Jewish schol-
Reaction or arsof that time. Men like these, wiio
Rabbinism were well fitted to take up the sy.stem-
— Saadia. atic defen.se of their belief, presu-
mably did engage in that work. Thus
it has recently been discovered that a Palestinian
scholar, Jacob b. Ephraim by name, of the begin-
ning of the tenth century, wrote at least one polemic
in Arabic agains.t Karaism and in behalf of Kabbin-
ism, and he probably was not the only one in the
field. All these Jewish scholars, however, were
eclipsed by Saadia al-Fayyumi (892-942), who sub-
sequently became famous as the director of the
Academy of Sura. As in many other branches of
Jewi.sh science, he was successful also in his polem-
ics against the Karaites, Avhich he began in 915, re-
turning to the subject again in 926, and also, prob-
ably, later. Thanks to his forceful intellect and his
scientific attainments, he entirely averted the danger
threatening traditional Judaism and assured its vic-
tory over Karaism ; he has therefore been the object
of attack by all the leading Karaite writers, even of
later periods. Saadia's pupils followed in his foot-
steps. One of these, Jacob b. Samuel {c. 950), -wrote
polemical works in Hebrew, and possibly also in
Arabic, against the Karaites, calling forth replies
by Sahl and Yafith.

With the beginning of the second half of the
eleventh century the field of Karaite activity was
transferred from Asia to Europe by Abu al-Faraj
Furkan's (Jcshua b. Judah's) pupils from Spain and
Byzantium. Karaism had been introduced into Spain
by a certain Ibn Altaras, who carried it to Castile,
where his successors, and chiefly his widow (!), ap-
parently were too outspoken in their attacks upon
Rabbiuism, for the new heresy was soon suppressed
by two influential Judajo-Spanish statesmen — Joseph
Farissol and Judah ibn Ezra. This is the sole in-
stance in Jewish history where the temporal powers
interfered on behalf of the faith. This ephemeral
appearance of Karaism on Spanish soil was fruitful
for Jewish historical literature, for it induced the
philosophically trained Abraham ibn Daud of Toledo
to write his "Sefer ha-Kabbalah " (1161), which is
invaluable for the history of the Jews in Sjiain.
The new sect enjoyed a longer life at Byzantium.
Two pupils of Abu al-Faraj of Constantinople,
Tobias b. Moses (called " the Translator ") and Jacob
b. Simon, devoted themselves after their return home
to translating into Hebrew the Arabic works of
their teacher Abu al-Faraj Furkan, those of the iat-
ter's teacher Yusuf al-Basir, and other works, adding
glosses of their own and their teacher's replies to
their questions.

It seems that these scholars iu turn had pupils
and imitators. Although the translators were very
unskilful, interpolating many Arabic or Greek
words and phrases, their work was yet important
for the European Karaites, who were unacquainted
with Arabic. Karaism owes to these translations

Karaites

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

442

its original Hebrew stj'le— on the whole an acquisi-
tion of doubtful value — and the appearance of its

leading European exponents. Among

Karaism in these are Judali Pladassi (beginning

Europe. in 1149), Jacob b. Reuben (12th

cent.), Aaron b. Joseph (end of the
13th cent.), Aaron of Nicomedia (about the middle
of the 14th cent.), Elijah Bashyazi and his brother-
in-law Caleb Afendopolo (second half of the 15th
cent.), and Moses Bashyazi (first half of the 16th
cent.). The first-named is the author of the"Es]i-
kol ha-Kofer," a comprehensive work iu the form of
a commentary
on the Deca-
logue , ar-
ranged alpha-
betically and
in acrostics,
and written in
quasi-rime, all
sentences ri-
ming with
"kaf." As the
author in-
tended this to
be a kind of en-
cyclopedia, he
not only in-
cluded all the
opinions and
doctrines of
religious law
of Karaite
authors known
to him, to-
gether with
the continual
attacks upon
the Rabbinites,
but he also
covered the en-
tire field of Ka-
raite dogmat-
ics, religious
philosophy,
hermeneutic
rules, Hebrew
grammar (with
unacknowl-
edged borrow-
ings from Ibn
Ezra's gram-
matical works),
etc. ; he inclu-
ded also pas-
sages relating to natural science, partly fabulous,
from Arabic and Byzantine sources. This work
was until recently the chief authority for informa-
tion regarding the earlier Karaite writers, and it has
still some value, although the original sources of a
large portion of the encyclopedia are now accessible.
Hadassi composed, in addition, a few smaller works,
including a compendium of the Karaite religious
laws, of which there have been preserved only
fragments — unless these fragments represent all that
the author had accomplished. Jacob b. Reuben,

whose birthplace and circumstances of life are un-
known, used, in his Hebrew commentary on the
Bible ("Sefer ha-'Osher"), the exegetical works of
Yafith, Abu al-Faraj Harun, Abu al-Faraj Furkan,
and ' Ali ibn Sulaiman. As the last-named tlourished
at the end of the eleventh and the beginning of the
twelfth ccntur3% Jacob can not have written his
book before the twelfth centurj-. He consulted also
Ibn Janah's lexicon. The Greek words occurring
in his commentary point to his B^'zantine origin ;
he frequently uses the current technical terms of
the Byzantine Karaite translators, although his He-
brew style is in
general more
fluent and de-
veloped.

AaKON BEjST

Joseph (called
"the Elder") is
more indepen-
dent in his ex-
egesis tlian his
predecessor,al-
though in his
Bible commen-
tary ("Sefer
ha-Mibhar")
he follows ear-
lier scholars,
chiefly Ibn
Ezra, whose
pregnant style
he endeavors
to imitate. He
often quotes
early rabbin-
ical views,
without po-
lemical inten-
tion, salving
his Karaite
conscience
with the say-
ing of Nissi b.
Noah (a Kara-
ite author of
Persia ; 11th
cent.) that it
was obliga-
tory upon the
Karaites to
study early
rabbinical lit-
erature, as the
larger part of
their teachings was based on the true national tradi-
tion (on his theology see Jew. Encyc. i. 14-15).
He is also highly esteemed for his arrangement of
the Karaite liturgy, being called " the Holy " by his
coreligionists in recognition of this work. Nothing
is known of the circumstances of his life except that
he disputed in 1379 at Solchat (now Stary Krilm),
tlien the Tatar capital in the Crimea, with the Rab-
binite Jews of that city, and that fourteen years later,
in 1293, he wrote his commentary on the Pentateuch.
He probably lived at Constantinople.

Karaite Types.

(From Arlamof, " La Russie Historique," 1862.)

443

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Elaraites

Aaron bex Elijah of Niconiedia (called " the
Younger ") was born in 1300 at Nicomedia, in Asia
Minor. He composed liis first work,
Aaron ben dealing with religion and philosoplij',
Elijah. entitled "'Ez Hayyim," in 1846; his
second work, the Karaite code, enti-
tled "Can 'Eden," in 1354; and the " Keter Torah,"
a coninieutary on the Pentateuch, in 1362. Some
liturgical and secular poems by him or relating to
him are printed in the Karaite prayer-book and in
the editor's preface to his works. His system of re-
ligious philosophy, in which, while imitating Mai-
monides, he attempts to refute his "Moreh Nebu-
kim," is discussed bj' Franz Delitzsch in the intro-
duction to " Ez Hayyim " and in Jkw. Excyc. i.
9-10. Aaron's return to Yusuf al-Basir's Motazi-
lism, for Karaite patriotic reasons, in opposition to
the Jud;eo-Spanish Aristotellauism, must be consid-
ered as a retrogression. His above-mentioned code
"was entirely displaced by the works of his succes-
sors, especially of Bashyazi, this being the common
fate of the earlier coditiers.

Elijah b. Moses Bashyazi (1420-90), the scion of
a family of Karaite rabbis, studied first with the
famous rabbinical scholar Comtixo, from whom he
derived his love for secular science. In 1460 he be-
gan to officiate as a Karaite rabbi, first as the suc-
cessor of his grandfather and father in his native
city, Adrianople, and then in Constantinople, where
he founded a kind of Karaite academy. In his
chief work, the Karaite code of laws (" Adderet Eli-
yahu " ; for its contents see Jew. Encyc. ii. 574-575),
lie collected all the views known to him of Karaite
legalists, attempting to glean and harmonize the
most expedient of them. And he likewise endeav-
ors to justifj', by means of Nissi's saj'ing, quoted
above, the Karaite borrowings from Rabbinism.
This work, written in the last decades of the fif-
teenth century, left incomplete by the author, and
then partially continued by his brother-in-law and
pupil, Afendopolo, is still considered by the Kara-
ites as the final and most important authority in
religious matters. Elijah carried on an extensive
correspondence with his coreligionists in eastern
Europe, and at his instance several young Karaites
from Lithuania and southern Russia were sent to Con-
stantinople to be educated by him. In the Imperial
Public Library- at St. Petersburg there are several
polemical letters bj^ Bashyazi against contemporary
rabbinical scholars, and some which he induced his
brother-in-law Afendopolo to write (see " Hadashim
gam Yeshanim," i.. No. 2, pp. 18-16).

Caleb b. Elijah Afexdopolo (end of the 15th
cent.) lived first at Adrianople, and subsequently
in Constantinople. He is the au-
Caleb Afen- thor of various theological, homiletic,
dopolo. mathematico-astronomical, and polem-
ical treatises, and liturgical and poet-
ical works. His moderate attitude toward Jesus he
borrowed from Hadassi, who in turn had borrowed it
from Kirkisani ; this attitude had previously been
taken by the heresiarch Abu 'Isa and, following
him, by Anan, to attract the good will of the Mo-
hammedans, who worship Jesus as a prophet. His
poetic compositions contain interesting details of
contemporaneous history — as the references in the

elegies (in "Gan ha-Melek") to the expulsion of the
Jews from Spain (1492) and Lithuania (1495); in the
•• Patshegen Ketab ha-Dat " to the forcible transposi-
tion of the Jews of Adrianople and Provato to Con-
stantinople (1455) — and various personal details re-
ferring to contemporary Karaites, Karaite customs
and observances, etc.

Moses b. Elijah Bashyazi (1544-72), great-grand-
son of the above-mentioned Elijah Bashyazi, was a
man of great mental activity, who in a short life of
twenty-eight years (later Karaites say eighteen years)
produced a goodlj' number of works (on his liter-
ary activity see Jew. Excyc. ii. 575-576). On his
travels through the East, especially Egypt, he had
the opportunity of learning Arabic, becoming ac-
quainted with various old Karaite works in the
Arabic original, and translating pas.sages from them
into Hebrew. He succeeded in finding and copy-
ing fragments of Anan's code, though it seems not
in their original form. He also studied rabbinical
literature. These favorable opportunities, how-
ever, did not improve his historical judgment, for
he, too, blindly accepted the untruthful inventions
of the later Karaites as well as their spurious gene-
alogies.

Abraham ben Jacob Bali, contemporary of Elijah

Bashyazi, and his opponent in the question of the

burning of candles on Friday evening, and Judah

GxBBOu, a liturgical poet of the beginning of the

sixteenth century, are also of some

The importance in the Karaite literature of

Byzantine the Byzantine period; as also are Ju-

Period. dah Poki Tchelebi {c. 1580), author of
"Sha'ar Yehudah," on marriage pro-
hibitions among the Karaites, and others. The
friendly intercourse between Byzantine Kabbinites
and Karaites during the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies is noteworthy, the latter not seldom being in-
structed by Rabbinic Jews. Comtino's pupils have
been mentioned above ; Abraham Bali studied with
the Rabbinite Shabbethai b. Malchiel. Afendopolo
refers to a Karaite ceremony (1497), on the occasion
of the dedication of a Pentateuch roll, in which
several Rabbinites took part. The more moderate
views regarding the Karaites held by the famous
rabbi of Constantinople, Elijah Mizrahi, are known
from his responsa; nor was he the only rabbi hold-
ing such views, for as early as the beginning of the
fourteenth century Shemariah of Crete endeavored
to incorporate the Karaites with the Jewish nation.

The Oriental Karaites were rapidly declining dur-
ing the Byzantine period, especially after Moses
Maimonides went to Egypt, at that time the chief
seat of Karaism in the East. Although this famous
scholar was on the whole tolerant toward the Ka-
raites, permitting, for instance, the Rabbinite Jews
to circumcise Karaite childreu on Saturday accord-
ing to the rabbinic ritual, he yet endeavored to keep
Karaite influences away from his congregation and
to abolish the Karaite customs which had crept in
among the ignorant Jews. Maimonides' influence
on the Oriental Karaites was so great that his code
(under the title of "Hibbur," without any specifica-
tion) is often quoted as a fully recognized authority
in the Karaite rcligio-legal works of that time. The
authority and reputation which Maimouides-enjoyed

Karaites

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

444

among the Jews and Mohainnicdans liad a depress-
ing and disintegrating influence on Oriental Kara-
ism; the few Oriental writers of that period were
frequently obliged to borrow from the Byzantine
authors the same material which the latter had pre-
viously borrowed from the earlier Oriental Karaites.
Henceforth Karaism, of course, could no longer
gain ground by new acquisitions; on the contrary,
various Karaite communities in Egypt, Palestine,
Syria, Babylonia, Persia, and northern Africa grad-
ually disappeared, partly by being converted to
Islam — initself a sign of internal weakness and intel-
lectual decay — but mostly through being annexed
by Rabbinism. Estori Farhi mentions a wholesale
conversion of Egyptian Karaites to Rabbinism in
1313, when a descendant of Moses JMaimonides was
Jewish governor (" uagid ").

The third and last epoch of Karaism is the Lithu-
anio-Russian epoch. As early as the twelfth cen-
tury the traveler Pethahiah of Ilegensburg found
Ananite rigorists in southern Russia,
Lithuanian occupied at that time by Mongolian

Epoch. Tatars. After the Taurian peninsula
was conquered by the Mongols in the
thirteenth century, several Oriental Rabbinites and
Karaites, and the so-called " Krimchak.s," settled
there. The epigraphs at the end of some Pentateuch
rolls now in the St. Petersburg Imperial Public
Library, and dating from the fourteenth century,
are the earliest Crimean documents. At the end of
that century the Lithuanian grand duke Witold set-
tled some Crimean Karaites," together with captive
Crimean Tatars, as colonists in Lithuania. A part
of the city of Troki, in the government of Wilna,
was assigned to these settlers, whence some of them
subsequently emigrated to other Lithuanian cities,
to Lutsk, in Volhynia, then belonging to Lithuania,
and to Halitsch, in Galicia. These Karaites, on com-
ing in contact with the European Rabbinites and
developing their literary taste, began to correspond
with their Byzantine coreligionists, and at the end
of the fifteenth century Lithuanian pupils were
studying with Elijah Bashyazi.

The Karaites of Troki were the first to achieve
distinction, among tlie most noteworthy of them
being Isaac b. Abraham Troki (1533-94), pupil of
Zephaniah Troki and author of the well-known anti-
Christian " Hizzuk Emunah " (1593), which was com-
pleted by his pupil J(»scph Malinowski. This work
evidences the author's acquaintance with the doc-
trines of the Christian churches and sects, Isaac
acquiring this knowledge chiefly through his ac-
quaintance with the clericals and theologians of the
various Christian confessions. Apart from this
book, which in Wagenseil's Latin translation made
the author's name famous, Isaac's work is unimpor-
tant, including onl}^ some liturgical hymns, and com-
pendiums of the religious laws in Aaron ben Elijah's
"Gan 'Eden." His above-mentioned pui)il, Joseph
Malinowski of Troki, produced the .same kind of
mediocre work. Zerah b. Nathan, a contemporary
and correspondent of thepolyhistor Joseph Solomon
Delmedigo, studied mathematics and physics, and
by his questions induced Delmedigo to write the
"Iggeret Ahuz." Solomon Troki wrote for Pro-
fessor Puffendorf a detailed treatise on Karaism en-

titled '' Appiryon " {c. 1700), and also some polemical
essays against Rabbinism and Christianitj'. Abka-
HAM BEN JosiAH OP JERUSALEM, who lived in the
Crimea, was also probably a native of Troki; lie is
the author of a work on Karaite dogmatics which
contains many polemical passages against Rabbin-
ism (-'Emunah Omen," 1712).

The example of the Karaites of Troki was fol-
lowed by the Karaites in Galicia and Volhynia, and
by some in the Crimea, most of the latter having
come from the two former countries. Among the
best-known of these is Mordecai b. Nisan Kokisow,
who replied to questions regarding the nature of
Karaism addressed to him by the Swedish king-
Charles XII. ("Lebush ]\Ialkut ") and by Professor
Trigland ("Dod Mordekai," 1699), these answers, in
the commonplace Karaite style, being for the great-
er part compilations from Afendopolo and Moses
Bashyazi. Simhah Isaac Lutski (flourished c. 1740-
1750) went from Lutsk to the Crimea, where he com-
posed his works, compiling a bibliographical sum-
mary of Karaite literature ("Orah Zaddikim"),
which is noteworthy as a first attempt in this direc-
tion, in spite of its many shortcomings. Isaac b.
Solomon, Karaite hakam living at Chufut-Kale in
the beginning of the nineteenth century, wrote sev-
eral books, including a work on Karaite dogmatics
("Iggeret Pinnat Yikrat"), and a work on calendar
science (" Or ha-Lebanah ") after Immanuel's " Shesh
Kenafayim." Joseph Solomon Lutski, hakam at
Eupatoria in the third and fourth decades of the
nineteenth century, annotated the works of both
the Aarons, and wrote an account of the exemption of
the Russian Karaites from military service (" Teshu-
'at Yi.srael," 1828), and some hymns. The publica-
tion of several earlier Karaite works, part of them for
the first time, is due chiefly to him. David b. Mor-
decai Kokizow wrote on calendar science and Karaite
marital law, and also composed liturgical hymns
and various treatises ("Zemah Dawid," ed. 1897).
Mordecai b. Joseph Sultanski, hakam at Chufut-Kale
in the fifth and sixth decades of the nineteenth cen-
tury, is the author of two works, " Petali Tikwah "
and " Tetib Da'at " (1857-58). Solomon Beim, ha-
kam at Odessa, wrote in Russian a historical treatise
on Chufut-Kale and the Karaites (1863), in which
the spurious and forged documents are treated as
genuine history. Elijah Kasas published Hebrew
poems ("Shirim Ahadim," 1857) and a Hebrew
grammar in the Tatar Karaite dialect ("Le-Rcgel
ha-Yeladim," 1869), and translated various works
from the French. Judah Sawuskan published two
works by Aaron ben Elijah of Nicomedia, for which
he wrote introductions (1866) ; some Hebrew essays
and poems by him have also been printed in Hebrew
periodicals.

All these writers were, however, surpassed by
Abraham Fiukovich (1786-1874), wiiose literary ac-
tivity covered nearly fifty years, and who calls for
more extended notice, because his name is closely
associated both with the development
Abraham of Karaite science and with one of the
Firkovich. greatest historical forgeries. The
finding of Karaite antiquities in the
Crimea happened as follows, according to impartial
accounts (comp. Harkavy, " Altjildische Denkmaler

445

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Karaites

aiis der Krini," 1876, pp. 206 et seq.): When Em-
peror Nicholas I. visited the Crimea for the first
time, in 1836, the governor-ireneral ot soutliern Rus-
sia, Prince 3Iichail Worouzow, undertook to restore
and furnish in truly Oriental style the old castle of
tlie khans at Bakhchiserai. He entrusted the neces-
sary purchases to the Karaite merchant Sinihah
Bobowitsch, a man of affairs who liad business rela-
tions in Constantinople. Bobowit.'icii went to that
city and received dining an audience with the sul-
tan permission to select what lie needed from the sul-
tan's castles and warehouses. On his retuin to
Bakhchiserai,
Bobowitsch also
had charge of
furnishing the
castle, remain-
ing even after
the czar iiad ar-
rived. At that
time a deputa-
tion of the
Crimean Ral)-
binite Jews (the
Ivrimchaks) was
presented to the
czar, and, like
the other natives
of the Crimea,
they submitted
their petition to
be released from
military service.
The czar asked
the delegates :
"You believe in
the Talmud?"
"Yes, your maj-
esty ; we believe
in it." they re-
pHed. "Then
you must fur-
nish soldiers,"
the czar replied
curtly. On this
occasion Piince
Woronzow said
to Bobowitsch :
" You see, Bobo-
witsch, that you
Karaites have
done a very sen-
sible thing in
cutting loose
from the Tal-
mud; when did this happen?" Bobowitsch there-
upon replied that the Karaites never had had any-
thing to do with the Talmud, that their religion was
older than the Jewish religion, that the Karaites had
taken no part in persecuting and crucifying Jesus,
and made other statements current among the Kara-
ites. " Can you prove this ? " asked the prince. " Cer-
tainly," replied Bobowitsch.

When subsequently, in 1839, a society for historj''
and antiquities was formed at Odessa, Woronzow re-
membered Bobowitsch's ]ironns<'. Bobowitsch had

Karaite Mother and Children.

(From Arlaiiutf, *' La Riissie Historifiue," I8*>2.)

in the meantime been elected chief of the Crimean
Karaites, and conuni.ssioned his tutor Firkovich, who
was known as an inveterate foe of Kabbinism, to
furni.sh the necessary documents proving the great
age of Karaism, especially in the Crimea, giving
him, in addition to tiaveling expenses, a definite sal-
ary while occupied in this work. He furthermore
procured for Firkovich an authorization from the
government to collect all the necessary records and
historical documents among the Karaites and Jews.
Armed with this authority Firkovich traveled
through the Crimea and the Caucasus: he took from

their owncjrs
whatever docu-
ments he deemed
necessary, plun-
dering especi-
ally the rabbinic
Kriinchaks; fab-
ricated various
epitaphs (among
them that of
Isaac Sangari
and his wife)
and epigraphs
in manuscripts;
tampered with
the dates of doc-
uments, and in-
terpolated the
names of Cri-
mean localities
and Karaite per-
sonages in many
of them. He did
all this for the
.sole purpose of
representing the
Karaites in the
Crimea as a
highly devel-
oped people
dwelling there
since the time of
the Assyrian
king Shalmane-
ser, in the sev-
enth century
B.C., andof prov-
ing that the Rab-
bi n i t e Jews
owed all their
culture to the
Karaites, especi-
ally Hebrew
grammar, punctuation, Masorah, poetr}-, etc. E.\-
travagant and surprising as these alleged facts
seem nowadays, they yet found credence at that
time in Russia, especially in government circles,
though not for unselfish reasons. Attempts were
even made to defend these forgeries on quasi-
scientific grounds. They paved the way for the
emancipation of the Russian Karaites, who ac-
cording to the alleged documentary evidence were
shown to have lived in Russia long before the birth
of Jesus, and had therefore taken no jvut in the cru-

t/.^'j^Ij

Karaites
Karfunkelstein

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

446

cifixion. This argument, however, is not original
with the Karaites, for it is well known that various
old Jewish communities in Spain and Germany
brought it forward in their defense
The during the Middle Ages. In several

Argument cases the Russian Karaites had resorted
from to it previously, of course backing it
Antiquity, with silver, to advance their separa-
tion from the Rabbinites — in 1795, for
instance, when they were exempted from the double
taxation imposed upon the Rabbinite Jews at the in-
stance of the venal Count Zubow, and in 1828, when
they were exempted from military service. But in gen-
eral they Avere considered in Russia, as everj^where
else, as a relatively late Jewish sect, until Firkovich,
on the strength of his "discoveries," renounced all
connection with Jews and Judaism, and even with
the name of " Hebrew," claiming the name of " Rus-
sian Karaite. " Thanks to iiis labors and pretensions,
which, as was then customary, were accompanied by
considerable gifts to influential persons, the Russian
Karaites received full civic liberty in 1863, which
was confirmed with special emphasis in 1881 bj' the
well-known anti-Semitic minister Nicholai Iguatieff.
The recognition of the human and civic rights of
the followers of any confession need not be depre-
cated ; yet it is deeply to be regretted that the fore-
most champions of theriglitsof the Russian Karaites
and their Christian fellows at tlie same time endeav-
ored, and still endeavor, to cast slurs upon Judaism
and to vilify the Rabbinite Jews, empliasizing tiie
weak points of Rabbinism in order to show the al-
leged superiority of Karaism to better advantage.
This inimical attitude of Russian Karaism and its
paid protectors was occasioned by Firkovich. Never-
theless, it must be noted that Firkovich, with his
industry in collecting much valuable material, ren-
dered great services not only to Karaite literature
(the material discovered by him and edited scientific-
ally by S. Piusker and others marking an important
epoch of this literature), but also to the history and
literature of the Rabbinite Jews and Samaritans. In
conclusion it may be observed that Karaism, in op-
posing and criticizing the part}' of the Rabbinites,
has done good service to the latter. The Karaites
are estimated to number about 10,000 in Russia and
about 2,000 in other countries.

Bibliography: The historical works hv Jost, Geieer, and
GrStz; Steinsehneider, JUdLsche Liieratur, in Ersch and
Gruber, Enci/c. section ii., part 27: irtcnu catalogues of the
libraries at Leyden (1H58), Oxford (18(50), and Berlin (1878-97);
idem, Hehr. BiliL: idem, Pulcmischc Literatur, 1877; idem,
Hilir. Uchcrs. 1893 ; idem, ArahiscJic Literatur dcr Judcii,
19(«: S. Pinsker, Lihlaitc Kadmoiiiinint (one of the auUiori-
lies in thi.s field); Fiirst, Grsch. de.'i Kariurtuins (must be
used very circumspectly, as it is unreliable): Neubauer, Auk
dcr Peta-Khiirucr BdiUolhik, 18«G; Gottlober. BiTi/vorcf Ic-
Tulcdot ha-Knra'im, mW; Harkaw. Altjiulixclie 'Jjcnk mil-
ler nus dcr Krim, 187t); idem. Xoteii und Beihnicn zu
(irfltz'H Gesch.: idem, Kirhisaui's Karhrichten iUicr Jli-
di.<ehe Sectcn. 1894; idem, Stiidicti rnid Mitthcilxngcu aiis
der Bibliothek zu Peters], uni, part viii.. 190:i: P. Frankl.
Kardisrlie Studietu \^2-)<^i: UU'tu. Knrriitcu, in Ersch and
(iruber. Knew, section ii., part :«; documents in Bershad-
ski's liu.sno-Hehr. .Irc/iiiv.--, i. 0882), and in Z. Firkovich's
collectionof Tatar documents and Kussian laws for Karaites
(1891, with introduction by a .Juda-ophobe entirely incompe-
tent Uj deal with the subject). Karaite texts have been ed-
ited also by Franz Delitzsch, HarpL-s. Margoliouth, Poznanski,
Schreiner, and others. Statistical notes are piven by Frankl
in Ersch a.id Gruber, Lc. to which the notes in Schiidfs.//!-
ditelic Denlnvlirdifikciteii must be added. On the latest or-
panization of Karaite religious matters in Russia see Kut-
zikloiiedichettki Slovar, xlv. 431-432.

K- A. II.

Karaism is not, as asserted by its opponents, the^
outcome of mere personal ambition, but the natural
reaction and counter-movement against Talmudism
brought to a state of stagnation in the Saborean and
early geonic period. In pointing to the written Law
or Scripture as the only divine source of authority,
it gave to Judaism a healthy stimulus in the direc-
tion of renewed Bible study and research and in-
augurated a new epoch in Jewish history. Its
weakness, however, consisted in its being an alto-
gether retrogressive movement, deriving support
from remnants, literary or otherwise, of seemingly
long extinct Sadducean and Esseue doctrines, and
ignoring the progressive element represents by the
rabbinic Halakah, in favor of Sadducean adherence
to the letter of the Law (see Geiger, " Gcsammelte
Schriften," iii. 283 et seq. ; Gratz, "Gesch." iii. 413-
429). However bold and original Anan's combina-
tion of the Satlducean and rabbinic methods in his
system of hermeneutics, the longing for the past
glory of Zion, for the restoration of the Temple with
its sacrificial and Levitical laws of purity, lent
Karaism a somber, ascetic, and world-shunning
character. " Only when and where wine and meat
can be offered upon the altar may they be used at
the table," was made the maxim of the Karaite
"mourner for Zion," even though later Karaism did
not adliere to it (Harkavj', " Likkute Kadmoniyyot,"
ii. 1903, Nos. 4, 128, 138); jurisdiction in civil as
well as in criminal cases, outside the Holy Land, is
suspended, though he who does not act in conform-
ity with the Law should be excommunicated (Nos.
14-18); perfect separation from the

Rules of Gentiles is enjoined, and no meal pre-

Cleanli- pared in any form by them shoulii be
ness. eaten (Nos. 6-7, 196). Rigorous Es-
sene rules are inculcated in regard to
married life; menstrual fluid, human excrement,
blood, and any other unclean issue must be covered
with earth; privies must be kept distant from the
limit of human dwellings; ablution of both hands
and feet after every easement of the body, and be-
fore entering the synagogue or reading from the
Law, is required ; both the water and the laver must
be kept holy (Nos. 22, 26-34, 130, 200-204). None
is allowed to enter the synagogue or read from the
scroll of the Law with shoes on his feet, or after hav-
ing taken wine; to irreverent treatment of a single
Law there is attached the penalty of death by God's
hand or of excommunication b}^ man (Nos. 13-17,
21-22, 198). Tefillin are not recognized as Biblical,
Deut. vi. 8 and xi. 18 being taken symbolically; all
the more sacredness is ascribed to the zizit, wliich
must be twisted, spun, and attached by an Israelite
expressly trained for the purpose (Nos. 8-10, 196).
Circumcision must be performed by a Jewish be-
liever, with a consecrated instrument (scissors), and
after tlie person ha? been consecrated ; for proselytes
the eighth, and for other adults the eleventh, day
of the month is set apart, and in the case of both
Periaii is omitted (Nos. 75-89).

Regarding the Sabbath, the rules enforced are the
same as those of the Samaritans and Falashas, and
as tlioso prescribed in the Book of Jubilees: No
light or fire is allowed; marital intercourse and leav-
ing tlie house are forbidden (later, it was permissi-

447

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Karaites
Karfunkelstein

ble to go as far as 2,000 j-ards) ; light burdens, how-
ever, may be carried in the hand (No. C9). No kind
of work may be done by a non-Jew for a Jew
(No. 189). The act of circumcision on the eiglitli
day should be performed upon the child at the close
of the Sabbath, so that the work of healing may take
place on Sunday (Nos. 76-77) ; nor may the Passover
lamb be sacrificed on a Sabbath (Nos. 72, 130). All
work except preparation of food is prohibited also
on the holy days; so is the slaughtering of animals
(No. 74). The "mazzah," as the bread of affliction,
should be made of barley (Nos. 129, 133). Shabu'ot
mustahv'aj's be observed on the day after Sabbath, as
the Sadducees and Samaritans interpret the Biblical
"the morrow of the Sabbath" (Lev. xxiii. 16). The
" Sukkah " should be made of the plants mentioned
in Lev. xxiii. 40 and Neh. viii. 15. The 1st of Tishri
is a day of "contrition," not of the blowing of the
shofar; the beginning of the year is the 1st of Ni-
san; and a second Shebat (not Adar) is the inter-
calary mouth in a leap-year. Hanukkah is not cele-
brated; Purim is a two days' fast; and there is a
seventy days' fast in remembrance of the Haman
persecution, and a fast on the seventh day of every
month (Nos. 130, 149; the source is unknown as yet).
Instead of the 9th, the 10th of Ab is the fast-day
in memory of the destruction of Jerusalem. The
New-Moon is fixed by observation.

The levirate marriage is extended to the wife or
rather the betrothed of any deceased relative (Nos.
106-112); the refusal to marry her entails "nezifah"
(seven days' confinement). Both man and woman

must be willing, as in any other mar-
Marriage riage (No. 113). The number of in-
and. Diet- cestuous marriages in Lev. xviii.-xx.
ary Laws, (to which popular or Soferic rule

added " secondarj' incests " ; " sheniy-
yot " ; Yeb. ii. 4; Tosef., Yeb. iii. 1 ; Yeb. 21a, b) Ka-
raism extended upon the principle gf equal relation-
ship of the agnates and cognates in the ascending
and descending scales ("rikkub"), so that later au-
thorities opposed the prohibitive sj-stem as imbear-
able ; in regard to a niece, however, Anan was less
rigorous (Nos. 90-106, 129). Priestly sanctity is
attached to the rite of slaughtering (No. 57; but see
No. 144); none but a perfectl}^ healthy animal is
permitted ; defiling contact with the carcass must
be avoided. Among fowls, for which the sacrificial
" melikah " (the pinching off of the head with the
nails) is prescribed, only the dove and the turtle-
dove should be eaten; the male bird is forbidden
(Nos. 141, 144, 155, 159, 164, 188). The prohibition
against the eating of the ischiatic sinew (Gen. xxxii.
33; Ibn Ezra, ad loc.) or of meat with milk is not
recognized as Biblical (Ex. xxiii. 19; No. 151; see
Ibn Ezra, ad loc); all the more importance is at-
tached to the prohibition against mixing together
wool and linen and other stuffs (" shaatnez " and
"kila'im"; Nos. 5, 195).

Tithes should be given from everything the soil
offers, including metals (No. 131). God alone should

be sought as physician, and no human
Liturgy, medicine should be resorted to (No.

148). Before and after reading from
the Law, as well as before and after eating and
drinking, benedictions are recited, but always with

reference to Zion (Nos. 12-19). Instead of the
traditional liturgy, the Psalms of David and other
l)ortions of the I3ible should be used for prayer
and song, and the Law should be read each day (Nos.
20, 158, 200). Simple llobrew formulas for divorce
(No. 119) and for the marriage ceremony are pre-
scribed (No. 112).

In the course of time the innovations of Anan
have been greatly altered and modified, and later
Karaism adoi)ted many rabbinical customs. The
liturgy especiallj', originally based more or less upon
the Temple "Ma'amadot," was greatly augmented
and enriched by compositions made after the pat-
tern of the Rabbinite liturgy. On the whole, Kara-
ism lacks the element of poetry and inspiration, and
is merely imitative when it is not in opposition.
Instead of the thirteen Maimonidean "articles of
faith," Karaism, since Judah Hadassi, has had only
ten. See Auticles of Faith. K.

KARAMZIN, W. M. See Russia.

KAREIS, JOSEF: Austrian electrician and
deputy ; born at Scmic, Bohemia, Feb. 14, 1837 ;
studied at the technical institute in Prague. From
1858 till 1896 he was in the service of the state, first
in the department for triangular survey in Tyrol
and Croatia until 1863, and thereafter in the tele-
graph service in nearly all the provinces of Austria.
When electrotechnics first became known, Kareis
devoted himself to its study, and from 1883 to 1896
edited the "Zeitschrift fiir Elektrotechnik." He
also wrote several treatises on the subject, founded
the Elektrotechnische Verein in Vienna, and busied
himself with many undertakings along this line.
He represented his native country in 1883 as secre-
tary of the Internationale Elektrische Ausstellung
in Vienna, and in 1889 as vice-president of the Inter-
national Electrotechnical Congress in Paris.

From 1890 to 1896 Kareis represented Leopold-
stadt in the city council, and from 1897 until the end
of 1899 was delegate from the same district to the
Reichsrath.

s. L. Y.

KARET. See Excommunicatiox.

KARFUNKEL, AARON BEN JTJDAH
LOBHA-KOHEN: Bohemian rabbi. After hav-
ing successively filled the rabbinates of Gawart-
schew, Lask, Dasparschi, and Widowa, he was called
iu 1801 to Nachod, where he remained until 1806.
Karfunkel was the author of "She'eltot ABiYaH,"
containing dissertations on Talmudical subjects,
and divided into twelve parts, having for their re-
spective titles the names of the precious stones in
the high priest's breastplate. Of these parts only
two have been published (Berlin, 1806). They are
divided into "kelalim," subdivided into paragraphs,
with glosses entitled "Millu'at Ebeu " and disserta-
tions called "Meshuah :\Iilhamah." Karfunkel was
the author also of "Zanif Tahor," a commentary on
Ecclesiastes, a manuscript of which is iu the British
Museum.

BiBi.ioCrRAPHT : Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. ii. 171 ; Zedner, Cat. Hehr.
Books BiU. Jtht.f. p. 4W.

s. s. I- Br.

KARFUNKELSTEIN, SIEGFRIED: Ger-
man soUlier; born at Beuthon, Silesia, Feb. 21.

Kargrau
Karman

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

448

1848; died ou the field of battle at Le Bourget Oct.
30, 1870. He volunteered in 1866 and went through
the Six Weeks' war. In the Franco-Prussian war
he distinguished himself so conspicuously that on
Oct. 28, 1870, he was decorated with the Iron Cross
of the second class. Two days later he was mor-
tally wounded while rescuing the regimental flag
from the hands of the enemy. He was, however,
able to liand it to General Budrisky.

Bibliography : Juden als Soldaten, 1897, p. 104.

s. J.

KARGAU, MENDEL: German Talmudist ;
born 1772 at Prostibor, Bohemia ; died 1842 at Furth.
He was a disciple of Ezckiel Landau in Prague
and of Phinehas Horwitz in Frankfort-on-the-Main.
He lived for some j'^ears in Paris, where he was in
business as a merchant; the rest of his life he passed
in Fiirth, where by his lectures he greatly promoted
the study of the Talmud. His work "Giddule To-
horah," edited after his death by Jonah Rosenbaum
and Anschel Stcin (later chief rabbi of Hamburg),
treats of the laws relating to the ritual bath ("mik-
Aveh "). In 1840 he celebrated in a Hebrew poem
the return of Sir Moses Montefiore from Damascus.

Bibliography : Preface to Giddule Tohorah, Fiirth, 1845.
s. s. A. Fe.

KARIGEL. See Carreg.\l.

KARLIN. See Pinsk.

EABLSBAD: Town rn Bohemia; famous for
its mineral springs; first made popular by the em-
peror Charles IV. in 1350. When King Ladislaus
II. confirmed, in 1499, the privilege granted to the
town by Charles IV., he added, "as an especial
favor," that no Jew should be allowed to settle
there; this feature in the privilege remained in
force until 1793, when the emperor Francis II. en-
joined the city to obey the general laws of the coun-
try in its attitude toward the Jews; the city, how-
ever, paid little attention to this new decree. The
"Patent" of Feb. 18, 1860, removed most of the
Jews' disabilities. The records and documents of
the town give ample evidence of the rigor with
which it opposed the settling of the Jews within its
walls. The neighboring Jews of Lichtenstadt espe-
cially made many futile efforts to enter. Although
they were permitted to stay at Karlsbad during the
summer on pedlers' licenses or for treatment, no
Jew was allowed there from Sept. 15 to iVIay 15
except for treatment and with a physician's cer-
tificate, the police being commissioned to pay special
attention to such " winter Jews." The onl}' other ex-
ception was in favor of the farmer of the government
Tobacco monopoly. In 1830 the restaurant-keeper
David Moser of Lichtenstadt succeeded in obtaining
permission, not from the city, but from the govern-
ment, to settle at Karlsbad for the sake of the Jews
who might repair to the city during the winter for
treatment. But down to 1860 the other Jews doing
business in Karlsbad lived at Lichtenstadt.

In 1847 philanthropists of Prague, by special per-
mission of the government, founded the first Jewish
hospital at Karlsbad. In this hospital services were
lield on Sabbaths and festivals, notwithstanding the
objections of the municipal authoiities; the hospital

l)ecame, also, the meeting-place of the first Jewish
families settling after 1860. The first rabbi of the
growing community. Dr. J. H. Oppenheim, was
elected in 1870. He was succeeded by Dr. Rudolf
Plant (1872-82), Dr. Nathan Porges (1882-88), and
Dr. Ignaz Ziegler (present incumbent). The syna-
gogue was dedicated in 1877. In 1901 the commu-
nity founded the Kaiser Franz Josef Regierungs-
Jubilaum Hospiz, which was opened May 1, 1903.
The societies include a B'uai B'rith lodge, a women's
philanthropic society, several religious and educa-
tional societies, a choral society in connection with
the sj'nagogue, and a Zionist society. In 1903 the
community numbered 500 tax-paying members.
D. I. Z.

KARLSRUHE (CARLSRTJHE) : German
city; capital of the grand duchy of Baden. Jews
began to settle there soon after its foundation (1715)
b}'^ Margrave Carl Wilhelm of Baden-Durlach ; they
were attracted by the numerous privileges granted
by its founder to settlers, without discrimination as to
creed. Official documents attest the presence of
several Jewish families at Karlsruhe in 1717. A
year later the city council addressed to the margrave
a report in which a question was raised as to the pro-
portion of municipal charges to be borne by the
newly arrived Jews, who in that year formed an
organized congregation, with Rabbi Nathan Uri
Kohen of Metz at its head. A document dated 1726
gives the names of twenty-four Jews who had taken
part in an election of municipal officers. As the
city grew permission to settle tliere became less
easily obtained by Jews, and the community devel-
oped more slowly.

In 1750 there were seventj'-five Jewish families in
Karlsruhe ; in that year Nathan Uri Kohen died, and
was succeeded in the rabbinate by Jacob Nathanael
Weil, who held the office until 1769. A memorable
date in the annals of the Jews of Baden, especially
memorable to the Jews of Karlsruhe, was the year
1783, when, by a decree issued by Margrave Carl
Friedrich (1746-1811), the Jews ceased to be serfs,
and consequently could settle wherever thej' pleased.
The same decree freed them from the "Todfall" tax,
paid to the clergy for each Jewish burial. In com-
memoration of tliese happy changes special prayers
were prepared by the acting rabbi Jedidiah Tiah
Weill, who, succeeding his father in 1770, held the
office until 1805.

In 1808 the government issued regulations con-
cerning the administration of the spiritual affairs of
the Jewish community, by which the chief rabbi of
Karlsruhe became the spiritual head of the Jews of
the country. The first chief rabbi was Asher LOw,
who was nominated in 1809 and held the office until
1837. The community of Karlsruhe took a leading
part in the long struggle for the emancipation of the
Jews of Baden, which ended successfully in 1860:
at that time the community numbered 1,062 persons.
A new synagogue was erected in 1875; its services
are liberal in tendency. Since the death of Asher
Low, the office of chief rabbi has been successively
held by Elias Willstadter, Adolf Schwarz, and Meyer
Appel. About 1870 the Orthodox members seceded
and formed an Israelitische Religionsgesellschaft,

449

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kargrau
Karman

witli a roll of about one hundred faniilies, tlie ]iie.s-
ent(1904) rabbi of Avhich is Sinai SchifFer. Karls-
ruhe has a population of 94,030, including about
2,300 Jews.

Bibliography : Fecht. Gcsr/i. drr Haiipt inid Residenz Stadt
ii^(ir(,s)'H/i(', p. 47, ami Index; WeecU, J iadi.sc he Ge.sc/). pas-
sim ; Leopold Lowenstein. Bcitriigc zur Ucsch. der Judcn
in Dcutsildand, ii., passim.
E. C. I. Bk.

Typography : The first Hebrew book issued

at Karlsruhe was printed in 1755 in Jacob Held's
printing estab-
lishment; it was
the chief work
of Rabbi Natha-
nael Weil and
was known as
" Korban Netan-
el." In 1757 the
same establish-
ment printed
H e z e k i a h da
Silva's commen-
tary on the first
part of the Shul-
h a u ' A r u k .
After Held's
death the privi-
lege went to his
young children,
for whom Lotter
conducted the
business, issuing
in 1763-77 sev-
eral valuable
works, inclu-
ding JehielHeil-
prin's historical
work and two
books by Jona-
than Eybe-
schiitz. When
Lotter fled from
his creditors in
1777, the court
printer Michael
Maklot, and Ju-
dah Low "Worm-
ser, a printer
employed for-
merly by Lotter,
contended for
the latter's priv-
ileges. After
eighteen years
the matter was
decided in
Wormser's fa-
vor, who printed chiefly ritual and Biblical works.
The "Privileged Hebrew Printing-Press " was dis-
continued in 1793, but was afterward started again
by an enlarged company, which continued printing
until 1839. From 1814 David Raphael Marx con-
ducted a second "privileged press," which in 1836
issued the Rosenfeld-Willstittter edition of the Bible.
Since 1839 Marsch and Vogel have printed Hebrew
books at Karlsruhe.
VIL— 29

HiBi.iOfiKAPTiv : nil)erfel(l. in Zeit. fl'ir Hebr. Bibl. l.-lii. (also
pnblishi'd separately); SeliRmann, ih. v.
.1. A. F.

KARLSTADT. See Cuoati.v.

KARMAN, MORITZ (originally Klein-
mann) : llungiiriuii educator; born Doc. 25, 1843,
at Szegedin. He was brought up under the influ-
ence of Leopold Low. "While preparing for the
rabbinical career he studied philosophy and philol-
ogy at the University of Budapest (Ph.D. 1866).

Deeply inter-
ested in peda-
gogics, he was
sent (1869) by
the minister of
education, Bar-
on Joseph E&t-
vos, on a scholar-
ship to Leipsic,
to study meth-
ods of training
teachers for sec-
ondary schools.
Returning to
Hungary in
1872, he estab-
lished himself at
the University
of Budapest as
privat-docent in
pedagogics, eth-
ics, and psychol-
ogy, and was
appointed at the
same time pro-
fessor at the ^lit-
telschullehrer-
Bildungsanstalt
there. He in-
duced the gov-
ern ment to
establish a gym-
nasium in con-
nection with this
school for the
practical train-
ing of teachers,
of which he was
appointed di-
rector. This
marked the be-
ginning of Kiir-
man's great in-
fluence on the
education of the
entire country
through the
numerous pupils who disseminate his ideas. Since
1903 Karman has been " padagogischer Berater" in
the Ministorium filr Culten und Unterricht.

Karman has translated into Hungarian the follow-
ing works: Jolly's "Philosophische Propadeutik"
(1883); Lotze's"Logik" (1884); Browning's "His-
tory of Education" (1885); " Psyehologie " (1887);
Gow's "Greek and Roman Antiquities" (1890);
Wilkins' "History of Roman Literature" (1894).

Synagogue at Karlsbad.

(From a phctograph.)

Karinel
Kasxaunah

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

450

His " Bcispiele eines Rationellen Leluplans f iir Gym-
nasien" (Halle, 1890) has been published in Frick's
"Sammlung Padagogischer Abhaudlungeu."

Bibliography: Volf-Waldapfel, En'h'lM'iuuv Karmnn Mor
25 t'ves Taiulri Munkassdodnak Unmperc, Budapest, 189" ;
PalUis Lex.
B. L- V-

KARMEL, HA-. See Periodicals.

KARMI : Family name, the Biblical " Carmi "
(Num. xxvi. 6); it was used, according to Gross, as
a gentilic adjective to the French "Cremieu" or
"Cremic'u.\"(= "Kerem Tob"), name of a county
of the department of Isere, where many Jews were
living in the Middle Ages, and to "Cremiacum,"
a place in the Dauphine; it was changed at the be-
ginning of tlie seventeenth century to "Cremleux."

Karmi : Copied, in 1583, MS. No. 1424 of the
Codex de Rossi.

Abraham Karmi. See Jassuda and Abraham
Kakmi.

David ben Joseph, Karmi : Lived at Carpen-
tras, France, where he often delivered public dis-
courses in the synagogue on the Sabbath, in 1621
and 1622, during the rabbinate of his teacher Solo-
mon Ezobi.

Elhanan David Karmi : Died at Reggio, Kislew
8, 1643. He wrote glos.ses to the Shulhan 'Aruk,
which were praised by Benjamin Coon in the funeral
oration which he preached at Elhanan 's death
("Gebul Binyamin," p. 29).

D. A. Pe.

Elijah Karmi: Teacher at Carpentras, France;
lived at the end of the seventeenth century. Elijah
Karmi collected, under the title " Seder Tamid," the
prayers in use among the Jews of the four com-
munities of Avignon, Carpentras, L'Isle, and Cavil-
Ion (Avignon, 1767).

Bibliography: Furst, BiM. Jud. i. 143; Gross, Gallia Juda-
ica, pp. ;i62, 263.
s. s. I. Br.

Isaiah Karmi : Lived at Reggio about the same
time as Jacob Israel Karmi; pupil of R. Israel Ben-
jamin Bassan, who died there about 1790. Isaiah
was, apparently, a teacher of the Talmud. He is
praised as a poet and preacher by his pupil Hana-
niah Elhanan Hai Coen, rabbi of Florence.

Jacob Israel Karmi : Rabbi at Reggio in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; pupil of Jacob
Moses 'Ayyas, rabbi at Ferrara, in whose house he
met Hananeel Neppi, subsequently rabbi of Ferrara,
who was an intimate friend of Jacob.

Jassuda and Abraham Karmi : Two wealthy
and educated brothers living at Carpentras about
the middle of the eighteenth century. Abraham,
rabbinical judge there, devoted himself throughout
his life to the development of Hebrew poetry.

Joseph Jedidiah ben Benjamin Jekuthiel
Karmi : Went to Modena in 1612; in 1623 was ap-
pointed hazzan and teacher at the synagogue of the
brothers Ausilio in that city. Although his brother-
in-law Aaron Berechiah had published at this time a
collection of prayers for vigils, Joseph undertook a
similar work, but consisting of liis own composi-
tions only, to which he added a commentary, print-
ing the book at his own expense under the title
"Kenaf Reoanim " (Venice, 1626). These prayers

have a haggadic, mystical tinge, and are for all tlie
week-days and festivals.

Leon Karmi of Hamburg : Wrote the apolo-
getic work entitled " De Charitate et Benevoleniia a
Christianis erga Juda'os Habenda ab Evangelica Lege
Extractus" (Amsterdam, 1643).

Menahem Karmi : Author of Talmudic collec-
tanea contained in Luzzatto's MS. No. 66.

Mordecai Karmi : Son of Abraham Karmi ; died
ut Aix in 1825. He was one of the most learned rab-
bis of France, and was distinguished for the nobility
of his character as well as for his writings. His " Ma-
'ainar Mordekai " is a conmientary on Shulhan 'Aruk,
printed at Leghorn in 1784. His " Dibre Mordekai,"
a Talmudic polemic against his friend Azulai, was
also printed at Leghorn, according to Nepi.

Moses Karmi : Son of Solomon Karmi ; died at
Aix in 1837. In 1790 he accompanied his father and
his uncle Mordecai ben Abraham, who was also his
father-in-law, to Aix, where he was appointed rabbi.
Between 1829 and 1836 he was engaged on his "Ho'il
Mosheli Be 'er, " written in rabbinical Hebrew. Vols.
i.-vi. contain a commentary on the daily prayers
and the prayers for special occasions; vols, vii.-x.
form a supercommentary to Ibn Ezra on Genesis,
Exodus, Numbers, Proverbs, and Job. The whole
work has not yet been printed.

Samuel ben Yoma Karmi : Was living at Car-
pentras in 1631.

Saul Raphael Karmi : Jonah Gerondi dedicated
to him, in 1586, his " Iggeret ha-Teshubah."

Simson Karmi : Emigrated in the fifteenth cen-
tury from Chambery, department of Savoy, to Ital}'.

Solomon Karmi : Son of Abraham Karmi ; rabbi
of Carpentras after the death of his father. At the
age of eighteen he wrote "Heshek Shelomoh,"
notes to Rashi's commentaries and to the Penta-
teuch Midrashim (Leghorn).

Bibliography : R. E. J. ix. 343, 254-2,5.5 : xi. 114 ; xii. 203-221 ;
Steinsclineider, Hehr. Bihl. xii. 118 : Wolf. Bihl. Hehr. li.
132; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrnel, pp. 2:3, 36, 104,
115, 186; Zunz, Liter aturge^ch. p. 423; idem, Z. G. np. 239
(note 6), 365; Mortara, Indice AlfaJietico, p. 10: Litera-
risch€!i Beihlatt to AUg. Zeit. dex Jud. 1839, No. 8, p. 29;
Carmoly. in Ally. Zeit. des Jud. 1840, p. 411 : Steinsohneider,
Cat. Bndl. cols. 1198, 1448, 1657; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp.
261-263.

A. Pe.

KARMION (KIRMION): One of the four
principal rivers of Palestine (Yer. Kil, ix. 5; Yer.
Ket. xii. 3; B. B. 74b). Owing to its small tribu-
taries, its water is turbid and consequently unfit for
sacrificial use (Parah viii. 10; comp. Tos. to B. B.
74b). Schwarz (" Das Heilige Land, " p. 31) identi-
fies the Karmion with the Biblical Amana, the mod-
ern Baradah ; but Neubauer (" G. T. " p. 32) supposes
that "Karmion" should be amended either into
"Kadmion," the Talmudic equivalent of "Nahal
Kedumim," the Biblical "Kishon" (Judges v. 21),
or into " Karsion " (Xapoiov), which also seems to be
another name for " Kishon."

s. s. M. Sel.

KARP {nee SEGAL), SOFIA : Rumanian Jew-
ish actress; born at Galatz, Rumania, 1861; died
in New York March 31, 1904; the first actress to
appear on the Yiddish stage. She made her debut
in 1877, in Goldfaden's "Die Bobe mit'n Enikel,"
and soon won distinction in the dramas and operas

451

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Karmei
]^asxnunah

that author prochicetl at Bucharest, Jassy, Galatz,
and other cities. Sofia Karp tlicn went to Russia,
and appeared at Odessa in the ]\Iaryinski and the
Koval theaters, taking part in the classical plays
"Ziiidovka," "Uriel Acosta," and "Deborah." She
played also in various cities in Germany and Gali-
cia. In 1882 she went to New York, where she ap-
peared first at the Rumanian Opera-IIouse, then at
the Oriental Theater. In 1903 she established there,
in conjunction with other actors, the Grand Theater.

Bibliography : H. Hapgood, The Spirit of the Ghetto, p. 154,
New York, 1902.

II. K. A. S. W.

KARPELES, ELIEZEB (generally called R.
Lazar Karpeles) : Austrian rabbi; born at Prague
about 1754 ; died April 27, 1882, at Lieben, near
Prague. For nearly forty years he was district
rabbi of Kaurzim, with residence at Lieben. Kar-
peles was the author of " Me-Abne ha-Makom," no-
vella?, chiefly to Horayot and to some passages of
Maimonides (Prague, 1801), and " 'Erki 'Alai," notes
to 'Arakin and Hullin (ib. 1815).

Bibliography : Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ii. 177 ; 'Erki 'Alai, Preface.
s. S. E.

KARPELES, GUSTAV : Historian of litera-
ture; editor; son of Elijah Karpeles; born Nov. 11,
1848, at Eiwanowitz, Moravia; studied at the Uni-
versity of Breslau, where he attended also the Jew-
ish theological seminary. He embraced the profes-
sion of journalism, and was successively attached to
the editorial staffs of "Auf der H6he," the "Bres-
lauer Nachrichteu," the "Breslauer Zeitung," the
"Deutsche Union," and Westermann's "Deutsche
Monatshefte " ; in 1870 he was also coeditor with
S. Enoch of the " Judische Presse." In 1883 Kar-
peles settled in Berlin, where in 1890 he became edi-
tor of the " Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentliums."

Karpeles stimulated into active life the Jewish
literary societies in Germany, but has made himself
most widely known through his writings on Hein-
rich Heine. In addition to several editions of
Heine's works (1885, 1887, 1888, 1902) he has pub-
lished the following monographs: "Heinrich Heine
und das Judenthum " (Breslau, 1868) ; " Heinrich
Heine, Biographische Skizzen" (Berlin, 1869);
"Heinrich Heine und Seine Zeitgenossen " {ib. 1887);
"Heinrich Heine und der Rabbi von Bacharach "
(Vienna, 1895) ; " Heinrich Heine's Autobiographie "
{ib. 1898); "Heinrich Heine: aus Seinem Leben und
aus Seiner Zeit" (Leipsic, 1899). The following
are among his general writings: "Ludwig Borne"
(Leipsic, 1870) ; " Goethein Polen " (ib. 1890) ; " Allge-
meine Gesch. der 'Weltliteratur " {ib. 1891); "Li-
terarisches Wanderbuch" (Berlin, 1898). He also
edited the works of Schiller (Leipsic, 1895), Lenau
{ib. 1896), and Eichendorff {ib. 1896). His special
contributions to Jewish literature include: "Die
Frauen in der Jildischen Literatur" (Berlin, 1870;
2ded., ib. n.d.); "Gesch. der Jiidischen Literatur"
{ib. 1386); "Die Zionsharfe " («i. 1889); "EinBlick
in die Judische Literatur" (Prague, 1895); "Jewish
Literature and Other Essays" (P)iiladelphia, 1895);
" A Sketch of Jewish History " {ib. 1897).

Karpeles also entered the dramatic field, in vyhich
he has written: "Deutsches Leben" and "Deutsche

LJebe," comedies (1873); "Im Foyer " (1876) ; and
a dramatization of Grabbe's " Don Juan und Faust "
(1877).
s. M. K.

KASABI ('3Vp), JOSEPH BEN NISSIM :

Turkish Talmudist,of the seventeenth century ; died
between 1696 and 1698. In 1650 he is mentioned as
a distinguished dayyan ("Pene Mosheh," ii., §^ 77).
He seems to have been a pupil of Joseph Trani (Re-
sponsa. No. 1), and his halakic discussions with
Abraham Rosanes evidence the acuteness of his mind
(Azulai, "Shem ha-Gedolim," s.?\ "Rosanes"). He
was known for the liberality of his decisions; he
endeavored, for example, to secure permission for
the remarriage of an 'agunah, and permitted the
drinking of wine that had been prepared by a con-
vert to Islam. Kasabi was arbitrator in matters of
taxation at Salonica and Soria (Responsa, Nos. 18-
19). In 1680 he was chief rabbi at Constantinople,
succeeding Moses Benveniste. His responsa and
sermons, annotated by Jacob Alfandari, were pub-
lished by his grand.sou Moses Kasabi ("Rab Yosef,"
Constantinople, 1736). A responsum of his is printed
in the " Pene Mosheh " of Moses Shilton {ib. 1712).

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1496; J. Q. R.
xi. 607 ; Fiirst, Bifjl. Jud. ii. 181.
G. H. HiRS.

EASHER (-iK'a): Original meaning, "fit,"
"proper" (as in Esth. viii. 5; Eccl. x. 10, xi. 6);
later, in rabbinical literature, it took the meaning
of "fit," " permitted," in contradistinction to " pasul "
and " terefah " (= " unfit," " forbidden "). Extensive-
ly used in the Halakah, the word crept into the com-
mon parlance of the Jews, and the verb "kasheren"
was formed to denote any process by which food or
vessels for food are made ritually fit for use. Thus
the process of cleansing vessels used for the Passover
festival (see Leaven) is known by that term ; also
the process of immersing in a ritual bath new met-
al vessels bought from a non-Jew (see Purity).
" Kasheren " is especially applied to the ritual prep-
aration of meat. In order to soften meat before it
is salted, so as to allow the salt to extract the blood
more freely, the meat is soaked in water for about
half an hour. It is then covered with salt for about
an hour, and afterward washed three times (ShuHian
'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 69 ; see Melihaii). This whole
process is designated by the term "kasheren." See
also Dietary Laws.

K. J. H. G.

KASMTJNAH (sometimes called Xemone):
Jewish poetess, Andalusian by birth; lived in the
twelfth or thirteenth century and wrote in Arabic.
Al-Makkari included her in his list of Arabian poets
in Spain. According to him Kasmunah's father,
Ishmael, also was a poet and took great pains with
the education of his daughter. He was in the habit
of beginning a strophe and calling on her to finish
it. Al-Makkari has preserved only two of her
verses.

Bibltography: Al-Makkari, Analecte!< i^tr VHistoirc ct la
Litteratiire des Amines d'Espaunc, ii. 356 ; J. Q. Ii. xi. 128;
Kayserling, Die JUdi-^chen Frauen, P- 1*2. Leipsic. 18,9:
Bac'her, in MoiwtKnchrift, xx. 186; Steinschneider, Aia-
7>i.^c)ie Literatur, 8 228.
G. M. W. M.

Kassowitz
Katzenellenbog-en

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

452

KASSOWITZ, MAX : Austrian physician ;
born at Presburg, Huugarj-, Aug. 14, 1842; M.D.,
Vienna, 1863. For many years assistant to L.
Politzer in Vienna, lie became his successor as chief
of the First Children's Hospital iu 1881. In 1885
he became privat-docent, in 1891 assistant professor
in paidology at tlie Vienna Universit}-. Kassowitz
has written many essays for the medical journals and
is editor of the "Beitnige zur Kinderheilkunde aus
dem Ersten Oeffentlichen Kiuderkrankeninstitute
zu AVien." Among his works ma}^ be mentioned:
" Die Xormale Ossification luid die Erkraukungen dcs
Knochensystems bei Rachitis, '' etc. , Vienna, 1881-85 ;
"Die Symptome dcr Rachitis," Leipsic, 1886; " Vor-
lesungen fiber Kinderkrankheiten iin Alter dcr Zah-
nung." Vienna, 1892; ''Allgcmeine Biologic, "?7». 1899.
BiBLiOGR.iPHY : Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v.

s. F. T. II.

KATSCHER, BERTHA (pscndonyins: Lud-
wig TJngar ; Albert Kellner ; Ludwig Kdlle ;
Ludmilla Kolle) : Hungarian writer; boruatTreut-
schin, Hungary, June 12, 1860. She was educated
by her aunt, by wliom she was taken to Herzego-
vina, where in 1881 she was married to her cousin
Leopold Katscher, the novelist. Up to this time her
mind and time had been occupied mostly with house-
hold affairs, but at tlie wish of her husband she em-
barked on what proved to be a successful literarj-
career. Her first attempts were fairy-tales for chil-
dren, but she soon turned her efforts to the advocacy
of universal peace and various economic reforms. She
wrote al.so against cruelty to animals. She has con-
tributed articles on a great variety of subjects to the
"Frankfurter Zeitung," the "Wiener Mode," "Die
Ileimat," "]\Iunchener Allgemeiue Zeitung," "Kijl-
nische Zeitung," "Procliaska's Monatsbande," etc.
Her first work in book form was " Die Kunst ciu
Mensch zu Sein," written in 1887 with John Hardy.
Her other works are : " Weinachtsgeschichte " (1890) ;
"Aus Badern und Sommerfrischen " (1890); "Her-
mann Vamberys Leben und Reiseabenteuer " (1892) ;
"Soldatenkinder," a romance of universal peace
(1897) ; " Die Studentin " (1900) ; and " Der Stychoos "
(1901). She has also translated novels by Hardy, Don-
nelly, Boyesen, Meadows, Stevenson, and Buckley.

BiBLiOfiRAPHY: Lexicon Deutscher Frauen der Feder, i.
41 1— il;i.

s E. Ms.

KATTINA : Babylonian amora of the second
generation (8d cent.); known both as halakist and
as haggadist. He Avas a pupil of Rab (Abba
Arika); and his lialakot are frequently mentioned
in the Babylonian Talmud, as transmitted either by
himself (Ta'an. 7b; Yoma o4a; et al.) or in his name
by Hisda (Bek. 35a; 'Ar. 32a) and Rabbah b. Iluna
(Bek. 44b). It was Kattina wdio inferred from Isa.
xli. 11 that the existence of the world is divided into
periods of 6,000 years e.ich, with intervals of 1,000
years of chaos (R. H. 31a; Sanh. 97a).

Bibliography: Bacher, Ag. Bab. Amor. p. 71; Heilprin,
.Ner/er ho-Dorot, 11.

»• s- M. Sel.

KATZ, ALBERT: Rabbi and author; born Jiilv
17, 1858, at Lodz (Russian Poland). He studied at
tlie yeshibot of Lublin and Wilua and then (1881)
went to Berlin, where he still resides. He officiated

as preacher at Fursteuwalde from April. 1883, to
1886, and in the Congregation Olu-l Yizhak at Berlin
from April, 1886, to 1887. Since 1887 he has devoted
himself exclusively to writing.

He was one of the founders of the Verein fur
Jlidische Geschichte und Literatur of Berlin, and of
the Verband der Literatur- Vereine at Hanover (1894),
whose secretary he still is.

Katz's works include : " The Jew and the Country
of His Fathers" (in Hebrew), Berlin, 1883; "Die
Seele des Judischen Volkes," Furstenwalde, 1886;
"Die Blutllige" (transl. of I. B. Levinson's "Efes
Damim'), Berlin, 1892; " Der Wahre Talmudjude,"
ib. 1893; "Die Juden im Kaukasus," ib. 1894; "Aus
Alter und Neuer Zeit " (a collection of stories),
Prague, 1896; "Die Juden in China," Berlin, 1900.

S.
KATZ, LUDWIG: German otologist and laryn-
gologist; born at Loslau Jan. 1, 1848; graduated
(M.D.) from Berlin University iu 1872. He began
to practise as a specialist in Berlin in 1878. In 1892
he became privat-docent at the University of Berlin.
Katz is the author of "Atlas der Normalen und
Pathologischen Anatomic des Ohres," Berlin, 1890,
and "Stereoscopischer Atlas des Menschlichen Ohres
nach Durchsichtigen Macroscopischen Priiparaten,"
ib. 1892.
Bibliography : Pagel, Biny. Lex. s. v.

^. F. T. II.

KATZENELLENBOGEN (more correctly Kat-
zenelnbogen, sometimes with the epithet Ash.-
kenazi) : An old, widely ramified family counting
many rabbis among its members, who were and are
still found in Italy, Poland, Germany, Alsace, and
also in America. It derived its name from the
locality of Katzenelnbogen in the Prussian province
of Hesse-Xassau. In 1312 Count Diether of Katzen-
elnbogen received permission from Emperor Henry
VII. to keep twelve Jews at Katzenelnbogen; and
Ludwig the Bavarian in 1330 permitted Count Wil-
helm and his heirs to keep twenty-four Jews in their
dominions (Boh mer. "Regesten," No. 501; Wiener,
"Regesten," pp. 23, 33). M. K.

The following pedigree of this family is given
on the 'title-page of Xaphtali Hirsch Katzenellen-
bogen's " Sha'ar Naftali " (1797) :

Meir of Padua = daughter of Abraham Minz

Samuel Judah Katzenellenbogen

Saul Wahl

Meir of Brest-Litovsk (1031) = daughter of Phinehas Horowitz

Moses of K hoi in = daughter of Benjamin Auerbach of Poseri

Saul of Pinczow — daughter of Jacob Shor of
Brest-Litovsk (1655)

Naphtall Hlrsoh Moses of Ansbach = daughter of Eliezer

Heilprin of Fiirth (d. 1700)

Phinehas of Boskowitz

Eliezer (Alsace) = Jached. daughter
of Samuel Helman of Metz

I
Naphtall Hirsch (of Frankfort-on-
the-Oder) = Rachel, daughter
of Feiwel of Glogau

453

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kassowitz
Katzenellenbogen

Abraham Abush. ben Zebi Hirsch Katzen-
ellenbogen : Geiniiin Taliuiulist of tlic eightoi'iitli
cciitiuy. Katzenellenbogen had been a wealthy
merchant, but, having been impoverished by a lire,
he accepted the office of preacher at Sachtschew.
He wrote, in 1784, a work entitled "Birkat Abra-
ham," a philosophical commentary on Ecclesiastes
(Warsaw, 1815). In this work he mentions two un-
published works, "Yen ha-Kekah," a mystical com-
mentary on Esther, and "Darke No'am."

Bibliography : Michael, Or Im-Hainiimy No. 210 ; Fiirst, Bihl.
Jud. ii. ITf!.

M. Sel.

Abraham ben David Katzenellenbogen :

Polish rabbi; born about the beginning of the eight-
eenth century; died after 1787. His father was the
son of Ezekiel Katzenellenbogen, rabbi of Keidani,
Lithuania, and later of the Three Communities
(Altoua- Hamburg -Wandsbeck). In 1736, wiien
Abraham was in Wilua, living under the roof of his
father-in-law, Joseph Etkes, he met there the child
Elijah b. Solomon, who later became the famous
gaon. Abraham took young Elijah home with him
to Keidani to his father's house, and kept him
there several months. In 1746 Abraham was rabbi
of Slutsk, and at the synod held at JMir, in 1752,
signed, as rabbi of Slutsk, the proposition to excom-
municate II. Jonathan Eybeschutz. He became
rabbi of Brest-Litovsk about 1760, and his name oc-
curs in the approbations to various works, the latest
being dated 1787. He had seven sons, one of whom,
Joseph, succeeded him as rabbi of Brest-Litovsk
and was in turn succeeded by his son Aryeli Lob
Katzenellenbogen. A " hespecl " or sermon preached
on the occasion of Abraham's death is contained in
Eliezer ha-Levi's "Reah ha-Sadeh " (Shklov, 1795).

Bibliography: Feinstein, 'Tr TehiUah. pp. .30, 170, 204, War-
saw, 1886; Lewin, '^iii/i/ot BJii/n/ii(,ed. Stettin, p. 55; Eisen-
sladt-AViener, Da'at Kedoskini, pp. 14-15.

P. Wi.

Abraham (Joseph Jacob) ben Joel Katzen-
ellenbogen : Polish rabbi; born in 1549; died at
Lemberg April 30, 1637; grandfather of Ezekiel
Katzenellenbogen, author of "Keneset Yehez-
kel." Together with his brother Mattithiah Lieber-
mann he studied under his uncle Isaac Katzenel-
lenbogen, rabbi of Neustadt, and author of "Moledot
Yizhak. " At first rabbi of Yanow, near Lemberg (c.
1593), he was elected in 1615 at Lemberg, to succeed
Moses Harif, who, recognizing Katzenellenbogen 's
scholarship, voluntarily resigned. Katzenellenbogen
remained in Lemberg till his death. Some of his
novelliE are quoted in " Birkat Tob " by R. Moses of
Metz, and he is mentioned in the responsa of Meir
of Lublin and in the " Etan ha-Ezrahi " of Israel
Jehiel Rapoport.

Bibliography: Michael, Or ha-nauyim. No. 118; Nepl-Ghi-
rondi, ToZedof Gcilole Yisrael^ p. (5; Buber, ^7i>7ie Shenu
pp. 2-4, Cracow, 1895; Elsenstadt-Wlener, Da'at Kedoshitn,
pp. 87, 92, 93.

Aryeh Lob b. Joseph Katzenellenbogen :

Russian rabbi; born at Brest-Litovsk, where he died
Aug. 13, 1837. Both his grandfather and father
were rabbis there; he succeeded the latter in 1797,
while still a young man, and held the position until
his death. He was considered one of the great
rabbis of his time. He left no written works, but
his name is found appended to a large number of

ai)probations to Avorks of contemporary authors.
His signature is second on the resolution adopted by
the convention tiiat assembled at Wilna in 1818 to
select, by order of Alexandeu I., three Jewish
deputies to reside in St. Petersburg as representa-
tives of the Jews.

BuiLiOGRAPHY : Feinsteln, 'ic TehiUah, x>.'M. Warsaw, 1886;
Fuenn, Kiryah Ne'ematiah, pp. 3.5, 47-48, Wilna, imi.

M. K.— N. T. L.

Benjamin b. Saul Katzenellenbogen : Rab-
binical author of the eighteenth century ; a pupil of
Samuel Heilman and later rabbi of Saniter, Prussia.
He wrote: "Or HaUamim" (Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
1752) and " Leb Hakamim," both novelke (the second
ed. of the latter was republished, with additions,
at Dyherufurth in 1773); and "Menorat Zahab," a
general title, the work including "Or '01am," com-
mentary on the Pentateuch, "Or Hadash," com-
mentary on the Haftarot, and "Or Torah," sermons
on the Pentateuch {ib. 1775).
Bibliography : Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Boohs Brit, ^fus. p. 410.

s. s. N: T. L.

Ezekiel b. Abraham Katzenellenbogen :
Polish-German rabbi; born in Lithuania about 1670;
died at Altona July 9, 1749. At first rabbi at Kei-
dani, he was called to Altona in 1714. This call he
owed to the efforts of Issachar Kohen, an influential
member of the Altona congregation ; and Katzenel-
lenbogen in returrf secured the election of Issachar
Kohen's son-in-law to the rabbinate of Keidani.
Jacob Emden, who reports this story in liis " Megil-
lat Sefer" (pp. 121-140), seems, however, to have
been prejudiced against Katzenellenbogen, whom
he describes as a man of very low moral character,
an ignoramus, and a poor preacher.

Ezekiel ben Abraham Katzenellenbogeu's descend-
ants for four generations occupied rabbinates in
various Polish communities. His epitaph is found
in Blogg's "Sefer ha-Hayyim " (p. 337; Hanover,
1862). He wrote: "Keneset Yehezkel," responsa,
Altoua, 1632; " Tefillot le-Yarzait," prayers and rit-
uals for Jahrzeit, ib. 1727; "Zawwa'at R. Yehez-
kel," his will, Amsterdam, 1750'; "Mayim [Mi-Yam?]
Yehezkel," homilies on the Pentateuch, Porick,
1786; "Lehem Yehezkel," Talmudic novella (men-
tioned in his preface to "Keneset Yehezkel," but
never published). According to Steinschneider
("Cat. Bodl."), Katzenellenbogen is probably the
author of the "Me'orer Zikkaron " (Altona, 1727),
an index to Talmudic passages with an abstract of
the decisions of Rashi, the toaifists, etc.

Bibliography: Emden, Megillat Sefer, pp. 121-140. Warsaw,
1897 ; Fiirst, Bihi. Jud. ii. 179; Griitz. Gcfeh. x. 375: Kolmn
(Katiana), In Ha-Shahar, 1874, p. 299; Steinschneider, Vat.
Bodl.: Walden, Shem ha-Gedoliin he-Hada-fh, p. 29. War-
saw, 1864; Duckesz, Iioioah le-Moshah, Cracow, 1903: Ben-
jacob, Ozar lia^Sefarim.
D. ■ H. M.

Hayyim Lob b. Hirsch Katzenellenbogen :
Russian Jewish educator; born in Wilna about
1814; died Jan. 13. 1876. He was one of the fore-
most teachers in the rabbinical school of Wilna,
where he taught Bible, Talmud, and theology in
the two highest classes. He succeeded his father,
who died in 1868, as inspector of that institution,
holding the position until the school was closed
in 1873. Later he became financially embarrassed
and went to Vilkomir, where he died in abject

Katzenellenbog-en

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

454

poverty. With S. J. Fuenn lie compiled the He-
brew original of the " Mirovozzreniye Talniudis-
tov" (Talmudisfs View of the World), which was
translated into Russian under the editorship of L.
Lewandaand J. L. Gordon (3 vols., St. Petersburg,
1876). He also contributed articles to " Ha-Karmel "
and other Hebrew periodicals.

Bibliography: Gurland, Kchod ha-Bayit, p. 32, Wilna,
18.58; Ha-Kar-md. viii.. No. 23; lagernt YeLaG (J. L. Gor-
don's letters). No. 321.
H. K. P. Wl.

Hayyim ben Moses Katzenellenbog-en :

Physician ; son of the physician Moses Katzenel-
lenbogen, who received the title of "gaon" on ac-
count of his profound knowledge of rabbinical
writings. Hayyim ben Moses, who practised his
profession in Lublin, united worldly wisdom and
prosperity with rabbinical scholarship. He had al-
read}^ been robbed of all his property when the sec-
ond Cossack persecution of the Jews broke out, dur-
ing which he nearly lost his life. The Co.ssacks had
given him six hours to raise the sum demanded as a
ransom ; at the end of that time, the ransom not
being forthcoming, he and his whole family were to
be slaughtered in the public shambles of the city.
He was saved by the proprietor of the Zamosc estate,
eight miles distant from Lublin, who brought the
requisite sum, twenty thousand gulden, and removed
Hayyim, his mother, three brothers and three sisters,
as well as other relatives, to a place of safety at
Zamosc. Hayyim, who formerly had himself as-
sisted the poor, was now obliged to appeal to the
charity of his coreligionists. In 1656 he went to
Lemberg, whence, provided with letters of introduc-
tion from the rabbi there, and from some physicians,
he went (1657) to Italy, where he found ample sup-
port, being warmly recommended by the physician
Samuel Meldola in Mantua, Abraham Joseph Gra-
ziano in Modena, Moses Zacuto in Venice, and Abra-
ham Ortona in Verona. He at last returned to Lublin
and resumed his niedical practise.
BiBMOGRAPHY : Monat^schvift, xli. 554 et seq.

J- M. K.

Isaac b. Moses Katzenellenbogen : Kabbi ;
lived at Prague, where his work "Moledot Yizhak,"
on the computation of the calendar, appeared in
1623. He says in the preface that he lost all his
manuscripts through the soldiers of Count Mansfeld
(Zunz, "Z. G." p. 232).

Jacob Katzenellenbogen : President of the bet
din and head of the yeshibah of Lemberg in 1648;
died Feb. 28, 1660 ; son and successor of Abraham
(Joseph Jacob) Katzenellenbogen of Lemberg.

Jacob Katzenellenbogen : Rabbi at Oettingen
and then at Lemberg; son of Phinehas Katzenel-
lenbogen; left five large collections of novelise and
ritual decisions, which are still extant in manuscript
at Oxford.

Bibliography: Edelmann, Nir U-Dawid, p. 34b, London,
18o2; Buber, Aiuhe Shem, pp. 101, 110.

Jacob Katzenellenbogen : Sufifered martyrdom
in early manhood ; son of Saul Katzenellenbogen,
rabbi of Pinczow. He left novelise and ritual deci-
sions, under the title "Nahalat Ya'akob."

»• M. K.

Me'ir ben Isaac Katzenellenbogen (Meir of
Padua): Italian rabbi ; born at Katzenellenbogen,

Germany, about 1482; died at Padua Jan. 12, 1565
(see his epitaph in "Kokbe Yizhak," xv. 14). Meir
ben Isaac, Avho was generally called after his native
town, was the founder of the Katzenellenbogen
family. After studying at Prague under the well-
known casuist Jacob Polak, he went to Padua and
entered the yeshibah of Judah Minz, whose grand-
daughter he afterward married. He succeeded his
father-in-law, Abraham Minz, in the chief rabbinate
of Padua, which oflice he held until his death. Meir
was also nominal rabbi of Venice, whither, as appears
from his Responsa (Nos. 43, 48, etc.), he went sev-
eral times a year; but he had his fixed residence at
Padua. Me'ir was considered by his contemporaries
a great authority on Talmudic and rabbinical mat-
ters, and many rabbis consulted him, among them
being Moses Alashkar, Obadiah Sforno, and his rela-
tive Moaes Isserles (who addressed him as "rabbi of
Venice"). It may be seen from his responsa (ninety
in number, published by himself, with those of
Judah Minz, under the title of "She'elot u-Teshu-
bot," Venice, 1553), as well as from those of Isserles,
that he was disposed to be liberal in his decisions.
Another indication of his leaning toward liberalism
was his use in his Responsa (Nos. 38, 49, 72) of the
civil names of the months, a thing not done by other
rabbis of his time.

Joseph b. Mordecai Gershon says ("She'erit Yo-
sef," No. 1) that Me'ir, in one of liis responsa, told
him not to rely at that time on his opinion, because
he could not verify his decision by the Talmud, all
the copies of which had been burned. This burn-
ing is mentioned by David Gans ("Zemah Dawid,"
p. 56, Warsaw, 1890) and by Heilprin ("Seder ha-
Dorot," i. 245, ed. Maskileison) as having occurred
in 1553 or 1554 under Pope Julius III., at the in-
stigation of certain baptized Jews. Me'ir states
also (Responsa, No. 78) that in Candia the hafta-
rah for Yom Kippur Minhah was, with the excep-
tion of the first three verses, read in Greek (comp.
Zunz, "G. V." p. 413, note). In Responsum No. 86
he speaks of the plague that raged at Venice, but
without indicating the year. Many of his responsa
are to be found in the collection of Moses Isserles.
Me'i'r added to the edition of his responsa his father-
in-law's "Seder Gittin wa-Halizah," and a detailed
index. He edited also Maimonides' "Yad," with
some commentaries, to which he added notes of his
own (Venice, 1550; see Isserles).
Bibliography: Azulal, Shem ha-Gednlim, 1.; Eisenstadt-

Wiener, Da'at Kedoshim, p. 83; Frankel, in Ch'ient, Lit. vil.

609-613; Furst, Bibl. Jud. 11. 179; Ghirondi, in Kerem. Hc-

med, iii. 93 et seq.; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1702; M.

Stra-schun, in Fuenn's Kiruah Ne'emanah, pp. 321 et se(j.;

Zipser, in Orient, Lit. ix. 367.

M. Sel.

Moses ben Saul Katzenellenbogen : Polish
rabbi and author; born at Pinczow 1670; died at
Furthl733; grandson of Moses Katzenellenbogen,
rabbi of Kohlm. At the age of twenty-four he be-
came rabbi at Podhajce, Galicia. In 1699 he was im-
prisoned in consequence of a charge of murder against
the Jews of Podhajce, On being released he was
elected to the rabbinate of Schwabach, Bavaria. He
left in manuscript halakic novella) and responsa, now
in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (collections of Hei-
manu Michael). Moses had four sons, three of whom
entered the rabbinate: Phinehas, rabbi at Leipnik,

455

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Katzenellenbogren

avitlior of " Ycsli Manhilin," the hisrory and goneal-

ojiy of the Katzonellenbogen family ; Eleazar, niblii

of Bamberg, Bavaria; Naphtali Hirsch, rabbi at

Heidelberg.

Bibliography: Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da'at I^edosMm, p. 100;
KUeliiiaiin, Gedullat Slta'iiL PP- -^b, SAa.
t<. s. N. T. L.

Naphtali Hirsch Katzenellenbogen : German
rabbi; died after 1S13; sou of Eiiezer (Lazarus)
Kat^^cuellenbogen of Bamberg and subsequently of
Ilagenau, IToo-Tl. He was educated by his grand-
father K. Samuel Ilelmann of Metz, and was rabbi
(1794) at Frankfort-on-the-Oderaud thenatWiuzen-
lieim, Alsace, and at the same time president of the
consistory' of the Upper Rhine. He was one of the
rabbis at the Paris Sanhedrin, 1806, and had the
reputation of being an excellent preacher. He pub-
lished "Sha'ar Naftali" (Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
1797), a commentar}^ to a part of Eben ha-'Ezer,
together with seventeen responsa. On t)ie title-page
he traces back his descent through nine generations.
He left in manuscript "Sha'are Binah," a commen-
tary to Hoshen Mishpat, and another commentary to
Eben ha-'Ezer, as well as a volume of sermons and
ritual decisions, which are still in manuscrii^t in the
Strasburg Library.

BuiMOfiRAPHY: Nepl-Ghirondi, Tolcdot Gedolc YisracU pp.
:iTo ct seq.; It. E. J. xli. 1-5.

Naphtali Hirsch Katzenellenbogen : Au-
thor and poet; born in 1790; died at Wilna March
10, 1868; son of Simhah Katzenellenbogen. He was
the editor of the baraita of the thirty-two middot,
which appeared with notes under the title "Netibot
'01am," Wilna, 1832. He published also "Gib'at
Sha'ul," a funeral oration on the death of his relative
Saul Ka,tzenellenbogen {lb. 1825); " Nahal Dim'ah "
{ib. 1821), dirges on the death of the learned Hayyim
Volozhin, with notes on the Pentateuch, entitled
"Nahal 'Adanim"; and "Megillat Sefer" (ib. 1825),
elegies on the death of Hayyim Farhi.

Bibliography: Fiirst, Bibl. Jiul. il. 178; Zedner, Cat. Hcbi:
Books Brit. 3/iw. p. 411 ; Zunz, Monatstage des Kalcnder-
jahres, p. 12.

Naphtali Hirsch Katzenellenbogen : Ger-
man rabbi; born at Schwabach, where his father,
Moses Katzenellenbogen, was rabbi. He attended
the yeshibah of R. Jacob Kohen Poppers of Frank-
fort-ou-the-Main, where he distinguished himself
for his ability, gaining the favor of his teacher, who
gave him his only daughter in marriage. In 1741
he was appointed rabbi of Mergentheim and of the
communities of the Tauber and Neckar districts,
holding this office down to 1763, when he was
elected chief rabbi of the Jews of the Palatinate,
with his seat at Leimen, which in 1768 he transferred
to Mannheim. In the latter city he, in spite of his
age and ill health, was surrounded by many pupils.
While still living with his father-in-law he published
Moses b. Nahman's novellfB to Yebamot, after an
old manuscript, under the misleading title "Toledot
Adam " (Homburg, 1740). For a large collection of
his responsa in manuscript see Neubauer, "Cat.
Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No. 2190.

BiBLioc.RAPnY : Lowenstein, Gesch. der Juden in der Kur-
pfalz. pp. 240, 242 et seq., Frankfort-on-the-Maln, 1895 (gives
his epitaph).

Phinehas Katzenellenbogen : Rabbi succes-
sively at Leipuik, Boskowitz in Moravia, Wallersteiu,

and Markbreit in Bavaria; born 1691; died about
1760; .sou of Mosos Katzenellenbogen of Seliwa-
baeh. His derashot, iVntateuch commentaries, no-
vellic to Talmud treatises, respon.sa, etc., are extant
in manu.script at Oxford.

BniLiOfiUAPHY: Edelmann, Gedullat Sliahih p.l; NirU-B<v-
irid, p. ;t41); Waldeti, Shcm )ia-(Ji;dolini, i. 04.

Phinehas Katzenellenbogen: Rabbi at Krako-
wie and then for tiiirty-one years preacher at Lem-
berg; died in the latter cily March 19, 1750; son of
the martyr Jacob Katzenellenbogen.

Bibliography : Buher, Anshe Shem, pp. 184 et seq.

Phinehas Katzenellenbogen : Rabbi at Hegen-
heim from 1821 to about 1828; son of Naphtali
Hirsch Katzenellenbogen of Winzenheim.

Samuel Judah Katzenellenbogen : Italian
rabbi; born in 1521 at Padua; died there ]March 25,
1597 ; son of R. Meir b. Isaac of Padua (]\Icir Padua).
He Avas distinguished even in his youth for his
scholarship and his oratorical gifts. He was asso-
ciated, both as rabbi and as writer, with his father,
after whose death, in 1565, he was elected rabln at
Venice. He had many pupils, one of %vliom had a
bust made of his beloved teacher, who was of impo-
sing appearance, and set it up in the schoolhouse so
as to have it constantly before his eyes (Eisenstadt-
Wiener, " Da'at Kcdoshim," p. 82, St. Petersburg,
1897-98). Azulai ("' Shem ha-Gedolim," s.v.) speaks
of this fact in connection with Samuel Judah Kat-
zenellenbogen's great-grandfather, Judah Minz.

Katzenellenbogen was highly respected by his co-
religionists throughout Italy, and, because of his
wide scholarsiiip, was honored by Joseph Caro, Sol-
omon Luria, and Moses Isserles. Non-Jews also es-
teemed him highly: Paul Weidner, a converted
Jew, dedicated his works to him. He is said to
have accorded a hospitable reception to the Polish
prince Radziwill when the latter visited Padua.
When the prince found himself in need of money
he appealed to Katzenellenbogen, who lent him the
necessary funds for continuing his journey, request-
ing in return that he deal leniently with the Jews
in his country, and protect them against the accu-
sation of ritual murder.

On Katzenellenbogen 's death Leo Modeua deliv-
ered the funeral oration, which has been printed in
the"Mibhar Yehudah" (p. 63b). Samuel left one
son, who is known under the name of Saul Wahl.
Katzenellenbogen is the author of several responsa,
which are included in the responsa collection of
Moses Isserles (Nos. 23, 126, 127, 129) and in that of
Samuel Kala'i ; and of twelve derashot, published by
his pupil (Venice, 1594; reprinted Lemberg, 1811,
where the author's name is erroneously given as J.
Minz). Katzenellenbogen also contributx?d some of
the notes to the annotated edition of Maimonides'
"Yad ha-Hazakah" (Venice. 1550), which notes
Azulai ("Sliem ha-Gedolim," s.r.) ascribes toMeYrof
Padua.

Bibliography: Keren Rented, Hi. ^ et seq.; Steinsehneider,
Cat. Bodl. No. 7047; EdeUnann, Gedidlat Slurid. pp. xlli.
(where Katzenellenbogen's epitaph is o noted), 2b, 29 cf seq.,
London. 1854; h'urst, Bihl. Jxtd. ii. 179; Zunz, Monatstage
des Kalenderjahrci, p. 15; S. Kahan. M«a/_ EifAhot,p.
31, Cracow, 1903; Elsenstadt-Wiener. Da'at Kedoshun, pp.

T'"'- M. K.

Katzenelson
Kaufmann

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

456

Saul b. Joseph Katzenellenbogen : Russian
rabbi- born at Brcst-Litovsiv about 1770; died at
Wilna Jan. 12, 1825. He was one of the four sous
of Kabbi Joseph b. Abraham Katzenellenbogen of
Brest-Litovsk. After living for some time in Polotzk,
he went to Wilna, and became a disciple of E. Eli-
jah Gaon and one of the assistant rabbis of Wilna.

He was also a prominent communal leader, and
the stories which are still related about him, espe-
cially in connection with the gaon, by the older in-
habitants of Wilua bear testimony to his great pop-
ularity, which is made evident also by the two
special' works about him that appeared after his
death- "Ebel Kabed," by the poet A. B. Lebeusohn
(Wilna-Grodno, 1825), and "Gib'at Sha'ul," by a
relative, Hirsch Katzenellenbogen {ib. 1825). R.
Saul was a man of ascetic habits and ruined his
health by much fasting. He is the author of anno-
tations on the Babylonian Talmud, which appeared
in the first Wilna edition and were republished in
most of the subsequent editions. He wrote also
several approbations of the works of others. Some
of his novellte appeared in Hirsch Katzenellen-
bogcn's "Netibot '01am" (Wilna, 1822, 1858).

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kirjiah Nc^maunli. pp. 2.'58-240;
Lewin, \4.lhniot EUiiahu, p. (>'), Stettin; Eisenstadt-W lener,
Dn-at Ked'oshim, p. 20, St. Petersburg, l«t;-98; Yazkan,
Rahhcnu EUxiahu mi-Wihia, p. 127, St. Petersburg, 1900.
H. R. P- Wl.

KATZENELSON, JTJDAH LOB B. ISRAEL

(pen-name Bukki ben Jog-li) : Russian physician;
born in Bobruisk 1848. He studied in the rabbin-
ical school of Jitomir and in the Imperial Medico-
Surgical Academy of St. Petersburg, and graduated
from the latter in 1877. He took part in the war
against Turkey and was twice decorated by the
czar. After serving some time in the cHnical hos-
pital attached to the Voycnnaya Akademia, he was
appointed physician in ordinary to the Aleksaudrov-
ski Hospital of St. Petersburg. He wrote: "Svye-
dyeniye o Gemofilyi v Talmudye " (St. Petersburg,
1884); "ReMaH Ebarim," on anatomy {ih. 1888);
" Anatoiniya v Dreynoyevreiskoi Pismennosti " (his
dissertation on taking his doctor's degree; ib. 1889);
"Die Rituellen Reinheitsgesetze in der Bibel und
im Talnmd," in "Monatsschrift," xliii. and xliv. ;
" Vavilonskove Plyeneniyl," on the Babylonian dis-
persion, in "Voskhod," 1900; "Religiyai Politika v
Istorii Drevnikh Yevreyev," in "Sbornik Budushch-
nosti," vol. i. He wrote also, in Hebrew, "Shirat
iia-Zamir," a novel, Warsaw, 1895.

Katzenelson lias contributed numerous articles to
Russian and Hebrew periodicals, especially to the
"Russki Yevrei," "Ha-Shiloah," "Budushchnost,"
and "Ha-Yom," most of them being signed "Bukki
ben Yogli."

BiBMOfjRAPiiY : Vita (appended to his doctoral dissertation);
Sistcinalicheshi Ukazatel, s. v.
II. u. P. Wi.

KAUDERS, SAMUEL JUDAH LOB BEN
DAVID: Bohemian rabbi; born at Prague about
1702 ; died there May G, 1838. After having finished
his studies in that city, he devoted his time to Tal-
mudics without holding a rabbinical position. About
1810 he was called to Kaladei as district rabbi of Bud-
weis, and in 1834 lie succeeded Samuel Landau as

"Oberjurist " (acting chief rabbi) of Prague, a posi-
tion which he held until his death. While a Talmud-
ist of the old school and rigorously Orthodox, he was
tolerant in his views and favored secular education.
He was the author of: "'Olat Shemuel," respousa
on Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim,.of which the first
part only, containing 112 respousa, has been pub-
lished (Prague, 1823); "Pe'ullat Emet," halakic es-
says in two parts {ih. 1828-29); "Ahabat Emet,"
homilies and essays {ib. 1829).

Bibliography: Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. ii. 180; Steinsclineider, Cat.
Bodl. col. 2433; Allg. Zcit. dcs Jud. 1838, No. ti".
S. S. M. Sel.

KAUFMAN, ALEXANDER ARKADYE-
VICH: Russian political economist; born 1864.
After graduating in law irom the University of St.
Petersburg, he was commissioned (1887-90) by the
minister of domains to investigate the economic life
of the peasants in the governments of Tobolsk and
Tomsk. In 1894 he made a study of the economic
condition of the new settlers in a part of the gov-
ernment of Tomsk, and published his investigations
under the title " JMaterialy dlya Isucheuiya Ekono-
micheskavo Byta Gosudarstvennykh Krestyan Za-
padnoi Sibiri." Kaufman likewise contributed to,
and edited, " Krestyan.sk oye Zemlepolzovaniye i
Khozyaistvo v Tobolskoi i Tomskoi Guberniyakh"
(St. Petersburg, 1894). Other works by Kaufman
are : " Khozyaistvennoye Statisticheskoye Izslyedo-
vaniye Tobolskoi Gubernii " (" Yuridicheski Vyest-
nik," 1890, vol. x.); " Oclierk Obschinnykh Poryad-
kov Ishimskavo Okruga" ("Russkaya Mysl," 1890,
vol. xi.);"VliyanigePereselencheskavoElementana
Razvitiye Selskavo Khozyaistva 1 Obschinnoi Zhizni
V Zapadnoi Sibiri " (" Syeverny Vyestnik," 1891, vol.
iv.); "Zastyvshaya Istoriya Obschiny " ("Vyestnik
Yevropy,"1893, vol. vi.) ;""Obzor SposobaPolevod-
stva 1 Syevooborotov v Zapadnoi Sibiri" ("Sels-
koye Khozyaistvo i Lyesovodstvo," 1893, vol. vi.);
"Ocherk Krestyauskavo Khozyaistva v Sibiri"
(Tomsk, 1894); "Obscliina i Uspyekhi Selskavo
Khozyaistva v Sibiri" ("Russkoye Bogatsvo," 1894,
vol. X.). Kaufman's investigations have won him
the gold medal of the Imperial Geographical So-
ciety.

Bibliography : E7itzihlnpedlche8ki Slovar, xiv. 773.
H. H. J- G. L.

KAUFMAN, ARKADYA (AARON): Rus-
sian communal worker; born at Grodno early in the
nineteenth century; died at St. Petersburg April
19, 1893. While receiving a thorough Talmudic
education he acquired also by his own unassisted
efforts the French and German languages. He
made a study of forestry in its relation to ship-
building and was appointed by the government
overseer of shipyards. Kaufman was an author-
ity on sculpture and painting, and possessed a valu-
able art collection, as well as a collection of rare
Hebrew books and manuscripts. He took a deep
interest in the affairs of the St. Petersburg com-
munity, and it was as a result of his efforts that it
received permission to establish a Jewish cemetery
and erect a synagogue.

Bibliography : Ha-Asif, iv. 164.

II. R.

J. G. L.

457

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Katzenelson
Kaufmann

KAUFMAN, ILLARION IGNATYEVICH :

Russian political economist; born at Odessa 1847.
He graduated from the University of Kharkof, and
entered the government service in 1870.

Kaufman's writings deal chiefly with problems
of currency and loans, especially of state debts.
When he became connected with the central statis-
tical commission Kaufman's investigations were
first published in the " Vremennik " of the commis-
sion (series ii.). They contain much valuable mate-
rial on the history of Russian finance, particularly
his "Statistika Gosudarstvennykh Finansov Rossii
V 1862-1884" (St. Petersburg, 1886). Among his
other writings may be mentioned : " Teoriya Kole-
baniya Tsyen," Kharkof, 1867; "K Ucheniyu o
Dengakh i Kreditye, " ib. 1868 ; " Statistika Russkikh
Bankov," St. Petersburg, 1872-76; "Kreditnyye
Bilety, Ikh Upadok 1 Yozstanovleniye," ib. 1888;
" Vekselnyye K\irsy Rossii za 50 Lyet, 1841-90," ib.
1892. He has also published a number of articles in
" Vyestnik Yevropy " (1872-85).

Since 1893 Kaufman has been professor of statis-
tics in the University of St. Petersburg. He was
a member of the board of directors of the Land-
owners' Bank for fifteen years, and is at present
(1904) a member of the directorate of the Imperial
Bank, St. Petersburg.

Bibliography: Entziklopedichesld Slovar. xiv., St. Peters-
burar, 1895 ; BoWiaya Entziklopedia, ib. 1902.
u. u. J. G. L.

KAUFMANN, DAVID: Austrian scholar;
born at Kojetein, Moravia, June 7, 18.-)2; died at
Karlsbad, Bohemia, July 6, 1899. He was educated
at Kojetein; and from 1861 to 1867 he attended the

gymnasium at Krem-
sir, where he studied
the Bible and Talmud
with Jacob BriiU, rabbi
of Kojetein, and with
the latter's son Nehe-
miah. In 1867 he went
to the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary at
Breslau, where he
studied for ten years,
attending at the same
time the university of
that cit3^ In the sum-
mer of 1874 he received
his Ph.D. from the
University of Leipsic;
and on Jan. 29, 1877,
he was ordained rabbi.
In the latter year he de-
clined the offer of a professorship at the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary, Cincinnati, preferring to accept in-
stead the chairs of history, philosophy of religion, and
homiletics at the newly founded rabbinical school
at Budapest, which he continued to hold till his
death. He also at tlie same time taught Greek and
German in the preparatory school of the same insti-
tution, carrying on this work in the Hungarian lan-
guage, which he had rapidly mastered. As libra-
rian of the seminary he acquired the large library of
Lelio della Torre of Padua, the library of the sem-
inary becoming by this addition one of the most val-

■ g

i.'.yr!;,.i|„ji;Mi,-i:;::..;f:-,it.fflfl

Hr^f^3^^^^H

David Kaufmann.

uable Hebrew libiaries of Europe. As a teacher

Kaufmann was highly successful ; and his relation

to his students was that of friendly ad-

His Life, vi.ser. He maintained a lively corre-
spondence not only with the most emi-
nent Jewish scholars, but also with the leaders in
other branches of science. Kaufmann was a corre-
sponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences
of Madrid and a member of the executive commit-
tee of the Budapest branch of the Alliance Israe-
lite Universolle.

Kaufmann displayed a many-sided literary ac-
tivity. The bibliography of his works which M.
Brann compiled for the "Gedenkbuch zur Erinner-
ung an David Kaufmann " (ed. M. Brann and F.
Rosenthal, Breslau, 1900) includes 546 items, cover-
ing nearly every branch of Jewish science. His
voluminous contributions to the periodical literature
of the last two decades of the nineteenth century
show him as a finished writer both of German and
of Hebrew. His first and most important works,
dealing with the philosophy of religion, include:
" Die Thf'ologie des Bach ja ibn Pakuda, Yerfasser
des ni32^n nnin," a prize essay written while a
student at the seminary (in "Berichte der Kaiser-
lichen Akademie der Wissenschaften,"
His Yienna, 1874) ; " Geschichte der At-

Works. tributenlehre in der Jiidischen Reii-
gionsphilosophie des ^littelalters von
Saadia bis Maimuni " (Gotha, 1877-78), his chief
work, being a survey of the Jewish and Arabic
religious philosophy of the Middle Ages; "Die
Spuren al-Batlajusi's in der JudischenReligionsphi-
losophie Nebst einer Ausgabe der Hebr. Uebersetz-
ung Seiner Bildlichen Kreise " (Budapest, 1880; also
in Hungarian) ; " Die Sinne. Beitrage zur Gesch. der
Physiologic und Psychologic im Mittelalter. Aus
Hebraischen und Arabischcn Quellen " (Budapest,
1884 ; also in Hungarian) : an edition of the " Minhat
Kena'ot " of Jehiel b. Samuel Pisa (Berlin, 1898, form-
ing a part of the Mekize Nirdamim collection);
"Studien fiber Salomon ibn Gabirol" (Budapest,
1899; also in Hungarian) ; a large number of essays
in various periodicals, noteworthy among which is
the paper "Der Fuhrer Maimuni's in der Weltlit-
teratur" (reprinted from "Archiv fur Gesch. der
Philosophic," by L. Stein, xi., No. 3).

His most important historical monographs are:
"Die Letzte Vertreibimg der Juden aus Wien, Hire
Yorgeschichte (1625-70) und Hue Opfer" (Yienna,
1889; also in Hungarian); "Zur Gesch. Jiidischer
Familien; Samson Wertheimer, der Oberhoflfactor
und Laudesrabbiner, 1658-1724, und
Contribu- Seine Kinder '" (Yienna, 1888); "Ur-

tions to kundliches aus dem Leben Samson

Jewish Wertheimers " (Budapest, 1891 ; also

History, in Hungarian) ; " Die Familien Prags
nach den Epitaphien des Alten Jii-
dischen Friedhofs in Prag. Zu.sammengestellt von
Simon Hock, aus Dessen Nachlasse Hcrausgegeben,
mit Anmerkungcn Yersehen und Biographisch Ein-
geleitet von Prof. Dr. D. Kaufmann " (with Hebrew
title-page, Prcsburg, 1892); "Zur Gesch. Jiidischer
Familien : I., R. Jair Chajjim Bacharach, 1638-1702,
und Seine Ahnen" (Treves, 1894); " Dr. Israel Cone-
gliano und Seine Verdienste um die Republik Yene-

Kaufman n
Kayser

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

458

dig bis nach dem Frieden von Carlo witz " (Buda-
pest, 1895; also in Hungarian); "Die Erstlirnuiug
Ofens und Hire Vorgescbichte nach dom Bcriclite
IsaakSchullioffi[Megillat Ofcn], 1650-1732; Hcraus-
gegeben und Biographiscli Eiugeleitet " (Treves,
1895); "AusHeinrich Heine's Ahnensaal " (Breslau,
1896); "Die Menioiren der Gli'ickel von Hamclu "
(Frankfort-ou-tlie-3Iaiu, 1896, with Hebrew title-
page) ; " Die Chronik des Achimaaz aus Oria " (re-
print from "Monatsschrift," 1896).
Kaufmann was the first to tal;o up the liistory of

Jlidisclie Gelelirsamkeit " (Leipsic, 1887), a defense
of his friend and master Zunz ; " Wie Heben Wir den
Religiosen Sinn Unserer ]\Iadchen und Frauen "
(Treves, 1893); introduction to S. Heller's "Die
Echtcn Hebraischen :Melodien " (ib. 1893). He was
also an active member of the Mekize Nirdamim, a
society for the publication of old Hebrew manu-
scripts.

Kaufmann was the possessor of a large library,
which contained many valuable manuscripts, in-
cunabula, and first editions, and of which the 3Iarco

THK tUKSS-PLAYKRS.
(From the paintin}j by Isidor Kaufnianii.)

art in the synagogue. The following works of his
in this field may be mentioned: "Zur Ge.sch. der
Kunst in den Synagogen " (Vienna,
On Jewish 1897); "Zur Gesch. der Judischen
Art. Handschriften-Ilhistration " (contribu-

tion to the edition de luxe of "Die
Haggada von Sarajewo ' by D. H. Muller and I. v.
SclUossar, Vienna, 1898); "Sens et Origines des
Symboles Tumulaires de I'Ancien Testament dans
I'Art Ciiretien Primitif " (" R. E. J." xiv. 33, 217).

Kaufmann also polemized much in behalf of Ju-
daism. Noteworthy among liis writings along this
line are: "Ein Wort im Vertrauen an Herrn Hof-
prediger StOcker von Einem, Dessen Name Nichts
zur Sache Thut " (Berlin, 1880) ; " Paul de Lagarde's

MouTARA library, acquired by Kaufmann, formed
the nucleus.

BiBLiOGRAPHV : All entire Kaufmann literature lias arisen, of
whicli the following works may be mentioned : F. RosentJial,
biography in the Kaufwann Gcdenkbuch; S. Krauss, Da-
vid Koufiiianii, Berlin, 1903; H. Bloch, in Abendblatt of the
Pester LUvjd, July 10, 1899; D. H. Muller, in Jahrb. des Ve-
reinea fllr JUd. Gesch. und Literatur, Berlin. 1900; L.
Blau, in Jahresbcricht der Landesrahbiiierschide, 19(X).
s. M. W.

KAUFMANN, ISIDOR: Hungarian painter;
born March 22, 1853, at Arad. He was originally
destined for a commercial career, and could fulfil
his wish to become a painter onlj' later in life. In
1875 he went to the "LandesZeichenschule" in
Budapest, wliere he remained for one yei>r. In 1876
he went to Vienna, but being refused admission to the

459

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kaufmann
Kayser

Academy of Fine Arts there, he became a pupil of
the portrait-painter Aigner. He tlien entered the
"Malcrschule" of the Vienna Academy, and hxter
became a private pupil of Professor Trenkwald.
He devoted himself especially to genre painting.
Particularly notcworth}' are his paintings from
Polish Jewish life. Among his works the follow-
ing maybe mentioned: " Der Besucli des Rabbi"
(the original of wiiich is in possession of the em-
peror Francis Joseph, in the court museum of Vi-
enna); "Schachspieler"; "DerZweifler" (for which
he received the gold medal at the Vienna exhibi-
tion). Some of the otiier honors awarded to him
are: the Barou Konigswarter Klinstier-Preis; the
gold medal of tlie Emperor of Germany; a gold
medal of tlie International Exhibition at Munich ;
and a medal of the third class at Paris.

BiBLTOGn.^PiiY : Kohut, Berllhmtc Israelii i-sclic Miiiuieriuid
Frauen.

s. L. La.

KAUFMANN, MOSES JEKUTHIEL

(known also as Kaufmann Kohen Krotoschin) :
Polish Tahnudist; born at Krotoschin about tiie
middle of the seventeenth centur}-. He was a son-
in-law of Abraham Abele Gombincr, and was rabbi
at Kutuo, Poland. He wrote "Hukkat Torali," or
"Yismah Yisrael," annotations to Shulhan 'Andi
and to later halakic works, in four parts, published
between 1693 and 1701 at various places. He wrote
also "Lehem ha-Panim I.," annotations to Yoreh
De'ah (Hanau, 1716; twice reprinted), and "Lehem
ha-Panim II.," a new recension, with additions,
published by his son Abraham and printed with
Abraham Abele Gombiner's glosses to Tosefta Ne-
zikin (Amsterdam, 1732). He left in manuscript:
"Hayyim Arukkim," on Orah Hayyim; "Hukkat
ha-Pesah," on the Pesah Haggadah; "Kele ha-Day
yanim," on Hoshen Mishpat.

BiBLioGRAPHV: Benjaoob, Ozarha-Sefnrim, pp. 187, 232, 261;
Ftirst, Jiilil. Jwt. li. 180-181 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols.
1380-1381.

D. S. Man.

KATJLA AL-YAHTJDI : Jewish general of the
eighth century ; appointed by Tank ; fought val-
iantly at Xerez against the Visigoths at the head of
his army of Jews and Berbers, and occupied a part
of Catalonia. He rose against the tyrannical Al-
Hurr ibn 'Abd al-Rahman, governor of Spain. Al-
Hurr attacked him with a superior army and com-
pelled him to retreat toward Lerida. There he was
defeated, taken, and executed (718). The Jews in
his army, pursued by Al-Hurr, were hospitably re-
ceived by their coreligionists in the cities of Cata-
lonia.

BiBLiooRAPHY : Rlos, Hist. 1. 117 et seq., 344 et seq. ; Qratz,
Oes:ch. V. 186.
G. M. K.

KAULLA : Wllrttemberg family, distinguished
for patriotism and benevolence. The leading mem-
bers have been :

Jacob Raphael Kaulla : German court banker ;
born at Buchau on the Feder-See about the middle
of the eighteenth century ; died at Hechingeu May
1, 1810. By a decree dated June 27, 1806, King
Frederick of Wiirttemberg, "in view of the various
services that the Kaulla family lias rendered to the
country in critical periods," conferred upon Jacob

and a number of liis immediate relatives and their
descendants of both sexes all rights of citizenship
in "\Vuitteml)erg. Jacol) Kaulla and Jiis sister Frau
Kiefe Auerbacher (d. Ilechingen March, 1809)
were distinguisiied as piiilantJiropists.

Leopold von Kaulla : Attorney at the supreme
court of liavaiia; director of the Ilofbank at Stutt-
gart; born i\Iarch 25, 1813; died Jan. 16, 1886. He
reorganized some of the institutions founded by his
family, transferring them to Stuttgart, where thej-
were incorporated luider the name of " Kaulla'sche
Familien-Stiftung " by King 'William I. of Wiirttem-
berg March 18, 1856. He was an honorary mem-
ber of the Jewish consistory of Wllrttemberg.

i^- J. Stos.

KAVALA or CAVALA : Settlement in Mace-
donia, on the uEgean Sea opposite the island of
Thasos. It is nine miles southwest of Old Kavala,
the ancient Neapolis. Kavala has 4,000 inhabit-
ants, one-fourth of whom are Jews, original!}' from
Salonica and Serres. T))e community was foimded
in 1860. It possesses a Jewisli school attended by
forty boys; a synagogue, erected in 1883; and a
benevolent society, Ahawat ha-Ger. The Jews of
Kavala are engaged mostly in the manufacture of
tobacco products, the Avork being done only dur-
ing the summer. The industry is fostered and sub-
sidized by Jewish firms in Salonica. The rabbi
(Abraham ]\Iolko in 1901) is also reader in the syn-
agogue, mohel, and shohet.

D. ■ ■ E. Ms.

KAWWANAH (plural, kawwanot) : Aside
from the general idea of devotion conveyed by this
Hebrew word (see Devotion), the term is used in
the plural form by cabalists to denote ideas sug-
gested by certain letters and words. In some prayer-
books these are contained in marginal notes; in
others they are inserted in the body of the text.
They are generall}' traced to Rabbi Isaac Luria
(16th cent.) ; and tiie title of such prayer-books con-
tains the phrase ^'f ''"-iNn ^D ^y niJ13 = " thoughts
according to the view of R. Isaac Luria of blessed
memory" (e.g., "Seder 'Abodah u-Moreh Derek,"
Stawita, 1821; and "Seder Tefillah mi-Kol ha-Sha-
nah ke-Minhag Kehillot Sefaradim," Vienna, 1819).

With regard to certain religious acts pre-
scribed by the Law, kawwanah (i.e., the intention
to carry out a divine precept) is required; and the
question arises whether, for example, one who has
accidentally heard the sounding of the shofar on the
first day of Tishri without thinking of the divine
command (Num. xxix. 1) may be considered as hav-
ing satisfied the Law (being " yoze "). The Talmud-
ical authorities are divided on the question (R. H.
iii. 7-8; Ber. 13). All agree, however, that kaw-
wanah in the performance of a " mizwah " is desir-
able ; wherefore it became a general custom before
saying the blessing to make a distinct declaration, " I
am ready and prepared to perform the divine com-
mand of . . ." Regarding intention as a decisive
factor in violations of the Law, see Ignorance of
THE Law; Intention.

K. M. F.

KAYSER, PAUL : German jurist and diplo-
mat ; born at Oels, Silesia, Aug. 9, 1845 ; died at

Kayserling
Kayyara

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

460

Leipsic Feb. 13, 1898. He was admitted to the bar
in 1872: became city judge in Berlin in 1875; was
appointed " Regieruugsratli " in tlie department of
justice in 1880, and " Gelieimer Regierungsratli " in
the imperial department of insurance (" lieiclisver-
sicherungsamt ") in 1885. In tliat same year he was
transferred as " Wirlvliclier Legationsratli" and " Vor-
tragender Rath " to tlie department of state. He be-
came " Geheimer Legationsrath " in 1888, assistant
chief of the colonial department in 1890, and " Wirk-
licher Geheimer Legationsratli " in 1891. In 1894 lie
was made chief of his department. Having been
connected for more than ten years with the colonial
department, he received (1896) the appointment
of " Senats-Prasident " in the " Reichsgericht " (the
highest judicial court of Germany) at Leipsic. He
embraced the Protestant faith. Kayser wrote : " Ab-
handlungen aus dem Prozess-und Strafrecht," Ber-
lin, 1873; "Die Strafgerichtsverfassung und das
Strafverfahren," Paderboru, 1879; "Die Gesamteu
Reichsjustizgesetze," Berlin, 1879-80, 5th ed. ih.
1894; "Die Aktiengesetzuovelle von 18 Juli, 1884,
mit Erlauterungen," ib. 1884, 2d ed. 1891 ; "Die Ge-
werbeordnung mit Erliiuterungeu," ih. 1883, 2d ed.
1884.

BiBLiOGRAPny : Meyers Konversations-Lexiknn.

s. F. T. H.

KAYSERLING, MEYER : German rabbi and
historian ; born in Hanover June 17, 1829 ; educa-
ted at Halberstadt, Nikolsburg (Moravia), Prague,
Wtirzburg, and Berlin, in the university of which
last-named city he devoted himself to history and
philosophy. Encouraged in historical researches by
Leopold von Ranke, Kayserling turned his attention
to the history and literature of the Jews of the

P3'renean peninsula.
In 1861 the Aargau
government appointed
him labbi of the Swiss
Jews, which office he
held until 1870. Dur-
ing his residence in
Switzerland he devel-
o])eda zealous activity
in favor of civil equal-
ity for his coreligion-
ists, both then and
later valiantly facing
the charges brought
against them. In 1870
he accepted a call as
preacher and rabbi to
the Jewish community
of Budapest. Kayser-
ling, who is a member
of the Royal Academy in Madrid, of the Trinity
Historical Society, etc., is the author of the follow-
ing works:

Moses Mendelssohn's Philosoptiische und Religiose Grund-
satze mit Ulnbliclt iiuf Lessing, Leipsi<'. 1H.5C.

St'pharditn. Romani.scbe I'oesien der Jnden in Spanien. Ein
Beitrag zur Literatur und Gescli. der Spanisch-l'ortugiesischen
Juden, Leipsic, laW; Hebrew Iransl. in " Ha-Asif," iv., v.

Ein Feiertag in Madrid. Zur Gesch. der Spanisch-I'ortugie-
siscben Juden, Berlin, 18.59.

Gesch. der Juden in Navarra, den Baskeniandern und auf den
Balearen, Oder Gesch. der Juden in Si)anien, I., Berlin, 1«61.

Meyer Kayserling.

Menasse ben Israel. Sein Leben und Wirken. Zugleicb ein
Beitrag zur Gesch. der Juden in England, Berlin, 18(51 ; English
transl. by F. de Sola Mendes, London, 1877.

Moses Mendelssohn. Sein Leben und Seine Werke, Leipsic,
1862; a second edition of this work, enlarged and revised,
beai-s the title "Moses Mendelssohn. Sein Leben und Wirken,"
Leipsic, 1888.

Der Dichter Ephraim Kuh. Ein Beitrag zur Gesch. der
Deutschen Literatur, Berlin, 1864.

Zum Siegesfeste. Dankpredigt und Danklieder von Moses
Mendelssohn, Berlin, 18(5(5.

Gesch. der Juden in Portugal, Berlin, 1867.

Die Rituale Schlachtfrage, oder 1st Schachten Thierqualerei ?
Aargau, 18()7.

Hibliothek Jiidischer Kanzelredner. Eine Chronologische
Sanuiilung der Predigten, Biographien und Charakteiistiken
der Vorziiglichsten Jiidischen Prediger. Nebst einein Homile-
tischen und Literarischen Beiblatte, 2 vols., Berlin, 1870-72.

Die Judeninsel und der SchilTbruch bei Koblenz, Baden, 1871.

Die Jiidischen Frauen in derGeschichte, Literatur und Kunst,
Leipsic. 1879 ; translated into Hungarian by M. Reismann, Buda-
pest, l8s;3.

Das Moralgesetz des Judenthums in Beziehung auf Faniilie,
Staat und (iesellschaft, published anonymously, Vienna, 1882.

Die Blutbeschuldigung von Tisza-Eszlar Beleuchtet ; also in
Hungarian, Budapest, 1882.

Der Wucher und das Judenthum ; also in Hungarian, Buda-
pest, 1882.

Moses Mendelssohn. Ungedrucktes und Unbekanntes von
Ihm und iiber Ihn, Leipsic, 1883.

Refranos e Proverbios de los Judios Espanoles, Budapest, 1889.

Biblioteca Espanola-Portugueza-Judaica. Dictionnaire Bib-
liographique, Strasburg, 1890.

Dr. \V. A. Meisel. Ein Lebens- und Zeitbild, Leipsic, 1891.

Sterbetage aus Alter und Neuer Zeit, Prague, 1891.

Gedenkbliitter. Hervorragende Jtidische Personlichkeifen
des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts. In Kurzen Charakteristiken,
Leipsic, 1892.

Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the Jews in
the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries, translated from the
author's manuscript by Charles Gross, New York, 1894 ; German
ed., Berlin, 1894; Hebrew transl., Warsaw, 1895.

Die Jiidische Lltteratur von Moses Mendelssohn bis auf die
(iegenwart, reprinted from Winter and Wiinsche, "Die Jiidische
Lltteratur seit Abschluss des Kanons," Treves, 1896.

Ludwig Philippson. Eine Biographie, Leipsic, 1898.

Die Juden als Patrioten, a lecture, Berlin, 1898.

Die Juden von Toledo, a lecture, Leipsic, 1901.

Isaak Aboab III. Sein Leben und Seine Dichtungen, in
IIel)rew, Berdychev, 1902.

Besides these works and a number of sermons
published at different times, Kayserling lias contrib-
uted to the dilferent Jewish magazines published in
Hebrew, German, English, and French; he has also
issued a new revised edition of Hecht's "Handbuch
der Israelitischen Gesch." (1874; 7th ed., 1901); and
since 1884 he has prepared that part of the " Jahres-
berichte der Geschichtsforschung " (Berlin) which
treats of the Jews.

Bibliography; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; Men of
the, Time, London ; Morals, Eminent Israelites nf the Nine-
teenth Century, Philadelphia; Pallas Lex.; Das Litera-
risehc Dcutschlaud, Berlin, 1887.

KAYSERLING, SIMON: German educator
and writer; lioru at Hanover Aug. 31, 1884; died
there Ai)ril22, 1898; brother of Meyer Kayserling.
He attended the Talmud school in Wiirzburg and
the University of Berlin. He was the principal
teacher and inspector of the M. M. David'sche Frei-
schule from 1861, and taught for several years in the
Jewish teachers' seminary in Hanover.

Kayserling translated into German from a French
version, which had been corrected by Lelewel, J.
J. Benjamin's "Yewen Mczulah " (Hanover, 1863),
an account of the Polish-Cossack war and of the
sufferings of the Jews in Poland during the period

461

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kayserling'
Kayyara

1648-53; also F. D. Mocatta's " The Jews of Spain
and Portugal and the Inquisition " {ib. 1878).

s. M. K.

KAYYARA, SIMEON: Babylonian halakist
of the first half of the ninth century. Tiie early
identification of his surname with "Kahirah," the
Arabic name of Cairo (founded 980), was shown by
Rapoport("Teshubotha-Ge'ouim,"ed. Cassel, p. 12,
Berlin, 1848) to be impossible. Neubauer's sug-
gestion ("M. J. C." ii., p. viii.) of its identification
with Kayyar in Mesopotamia is equally untenable.
It is now generally and more correctly assumed that
"Kayyara" is derived from a common noun, and,
like the Syro-Arabic "kayyar," originally denoted
a dealer in pitcli or -wax.

Kayyara's chief work was the " Halakot Gedolot,"
or, as it is called by some Spanish authors, to dis-
tinguish it from later halakic codices
The of a similar nature, "Halakot Kisho-

" Halakot not" (see " Ha-Ma'or," Ket. v. ; Hul.
Gedolot." i. ; RaMBaN, "Milhamot" to Shab.
iii. ; I. Halevy, " Dorot ha-Rishonim,"
Hi. 103). It gives the entire halakic and practical
material of the Talmud in a codified form, and seems
to represent the first attempt to treat it according to
its contents rather than according to the arrange-
ment of its treatises (for further details see Law,
Codification of).

As to the time of its composition all the older au-
thorities are silent. Abraham ibn Daud alone has
an allusion to this problem, which has caused much
perplexity. According to him ("Sefer ha-Kabba-
lah," in "M. J. C." i. 63), "Simeon Kayyara wrote
his work in the year 741, and after him lived Yehudai
Gaon, author of the 'Halakot Pesukot,' which he
compiled from Simeon's ' Halakot Gedolot. ' " Ac-
cording to Epstein, there can be no doubt that Simeon
Kayyara wrote the "Halakot Gedolot," although
some authors ascribe this work to Yehudai Gaon.
Ancient authorities, like the geonim Sherira and
Hai ben Sherira ("Teslmbot ha-Ge'onim," ed. Har-
kavy. No. 376; Isaiah di Trani, "Ha-Makria'," No.
36; "Teshubot Ge'onim Kadmouim," ed. Cassel, No.
87, Berlin, 1848), Samuel ben Jacob JJOXl of Kabez,
author of Arabic rules for slaughtering;' (see Stein-
schneider in Geiger, "Jud. Zeit." ii. 76), Israel ben
Abba Mari of Marseilles ("'Ittur," ed. Warsaw, p.
65a; comp. "Halakot Gedolot," ed. Warsaw, 191b;
ed. Hildesheimer, p. 387), and others, testify to this
fact. It is also evident from the statements of these
authorities that Simeon Kayyara's chief sources
were the "She'eltot" of R. Aha of Shabha and the
" Halakot Pesukot " of Yehudai Gaon.

The Hildesheimer edition of the "Halakot Gedo-
lot," Index, p. 140, gives no less than eighty-three
passages in which the "She'eltot" has been cited
(Reifmann, in "Bet Talmud," iii. Wlet seq., gives 109
passages); and it has in addition more than forty lit-
eral though unacknowledged quotations from this
same source. It is more difficult to trace material bor-
rowed from Yehudai Gaon's "Halakot Pesukot,"
since the original form of that work has

Sources. been lost. A comparison with the re-
daction of Yehudai Gaon's composi-
tion, which has been preserved as the " Halakot I'esu-
kot" or "Hilkot Re'u " (ed. Schlossberg, Versailles,

1886), shows that most of the halakot in that recen-
sion are found in tlie "Halakot Gedolot," although
tliey deviate from it both in wording and in arrange-
ment. Simeon Kayyai'a, however, used j'et another
recension of the "Halakot Pesukot," and at times
cites both. There were of course otlier sources at liis
disposal which have not been preserved. Not only
does the fact that both the "She'eltot" and the"Ha"-
lakot Pesukot " were used, but also certain passages
in the " Halakot Gedolot" of themselves, prove that
the work was composed about the year 825, appar-
ently at Sura, since many exjdanations and usages
of the "Halakot Gedolot " are elsewhere cited under
the names of Geonim of that place.

In the course of time the " Halakot Gedolot " un-
derwent many changes. In Spain and in North
Africa tl:e legal decisions of the Geonim were incor-
porated into the book, and its whole appearance was
so changed tliat gradually a different recension was
developed. The original or Babjdonian redaction
exists in printed form in the editions of Venice (1548),
Amsterdam (1762), Vienna (1810), etc., and finally in
that of Warsaw (1874, with an index of passages and
notes by S. A. Traub). This redaction was used by
the Babylonian geonim and by the
Interpre- German and northern French schol-
tations and ars; for the citations of the latter
Redactions, from the "Halakot Gedolot," which
work they ascribe to Yehudai Gaon,
refer to this recension. The second or so-called Span-
ish redaction (K'^DDX mnno) exists in a manu-
script in the Vatican, and has been edited by I.
Hildesheimer in the collection of the Mekize Nir-
damim (Berlin, 1888-92). The material of this re-
cension is much richer and more comprehensive,
since it contains many passages from the Talmud,
mnemonic introductory words (" simanim"), the order
of the weekly lessons, and, most important of all, legal
decisions of the Geonim, usually indicated by the
term" shedar"(=" he sent"), which are lacking in the
earlier redaction (see I. Hildesheimer, " Die Vatica-
nische Handschrift der Halachoth Gedoloth," in
"Beilage ziun Jahresberichte des Rabbinerseminars
zu Berlin," 1885-96, and Schorr in "He-IIaluz," xii.
100). The first gaon of whom a " teshubah " is men-
tioned in this recension is Yehudai Gaon ; the last,
Zemah ben Paltoi (d. 890). Epstein has concluded,
accordingly, that this redaction was made, or rather
finished, about the year 900, in some place wluiethe
Jews were in close literary correspondence with the
Babylonian seminaries. This was either in Spain or
in northern Africa — probably in Kairwau, the center
of Talmudic studies at that time. Evidence in favor
of Kairwan is supplied by a passage in the " Hala-
kot Gedolot "(ed. Hildesheimer, p. 175), which men-
tions a usage as being common among the " Bene
Afrika"; for it is known that " Afrika " frequently
connotes Kairwan. From northern Africa or Spain
this recension was carried into Italy : it was used by
the scholars of these three countries ; and all of thera
regarded Simeon Kaj'vara as its author.

In the twelfth century the recension was brought
to northern France, and in the thirteenth to Ger-
many, where it is sometimes cited by tlie scholars of
both countries as " Halakot Gedolot shel Aspamia "
(see R. Tam, "Sefer ha-Yashar,"No. 509; "Or Za-

Kedushshah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

462

rua,"B. M. No. 276; Sanh. No. 23). On the other
hand, the Bab'jionian redaction in the thirteenth cen-
tury readied Italy, where it was used by Isaiah di
Trani (see "Ha-Makria*," No. 31).

Bibliography: A. Epstein, in Ha-Oorou iii. 46 et seq.; Har-
kavy, Teshuhnt ha-(Tc'onim, pp. xxvii.,374e< sec/.; Rapoport,
in Kerem Hemcd, vi. 2;W; Schorr, in 7junz Juhebichrift
(Hebr. part)| pp. 127 ct seq.: Hc-Hah(Z. xii. 81 et ncq.: Weiss,
Dor, iv. as, 33 et Keq.,lU7, 2(>4 ; Briill, in bis Jalirh. U. 138 ct
seq.; Gratz, Gewh. v. 231; idem, in Monalsxchr i f t, vii. 217
et seq.; S. T. Halberstam, ih. viii. 379 et seq., xxxi. 472 et
.se'/.: I. Halevy, Domt hn-Rislionim, iii. 200 et seq.; see also
tbe bibliograpby of the article Yehudai be.\ Nahman.
G. M. Sc.

KAZ : A frequent Jewish family name, spelled
also "Katz,"and found in similar forms, such as
" Katzer. " It is an abbreviation formed from the ini-
tials of tlie name " Kohen Zedek " (^"D), and has been
used since tlie seventeenth century, or perhaps some-
what earlier, as an epithet of the supposed descend-
ants of Aaron. Tlie collocation is most likely de-
rived from Melchizedek ("king of righteousness"),
who is called " the priest [" kohen "] of tlie most high
God" (Gen. xiv. 18), or perhaps from Ps. cxxxii. 9:
" Let thy priests be clothed with righteousness
["zedek"]."

If the leading is correct, tliis abbreviation occurs
on a tombstone, dated 1536, in the cemetery of
Prague (Hock, "Die Familien Prag's," p. 175); it is
found also on a tombstone of the year 1618 in Frank-
fort-on-the-Main (M. Horowitz, "Die Inschriften des
Alten Friedhofes der Israelitischen Gemeinde zu
Frankfurt-a.-M." 1901, p. 63), in the books of the
Soncino family of Prague of the seventeenth cen-
tury (Zunz, "Z. G." p. 362), and in one of the pref-
aces to Shabbethai ben Meir ha-Kohen's notes on
the Hoshen Mishpat (Amsterdam, 1663). See Cohen.

KAZIMIERZ. See Cracow.

KEAN, EDMUND: English actor; born in
London Nov. 4 (?), 1787; died at Richmond, near
London, May 15, 1833. He was the natural sou of
Aaron Kean, a Jew (Stirling, "Old Drury Lane."
ii. 131). Contemporary writers have alluded fre-
quently to Kean's Jewish physiognomy. Kean was
deserted by his mother in infancy and was reared
by a Miss Tidswell, while his uncle Moses gave him
perfunctory instruction in mimicry. In ^lay, 1801,
Kean appeared in " King John " as Prince Arthur to
the King Joliri of Kemble and the (Jonfitanre of Mrs.
Siddons. Finding his mother, Kean went into the
provinces with her; later he was adopted by a Mrs.
Clark, but ran away in 1803 and joined a traveling
circus, in which he broke both his legs. On his recov-
ery he was summoned to Windsor to recite before
the king. Refusing an offer to join the Drury Lane
Tlicatre on the ground of lack of experience, he
traveled through the provincial towns, at one time
with Mrs. Siddons. The turning-point of Kean's
career occurred on Nov. 14, 1813, when his acting
drew the attention of Dr. Arnold, a director of the
Drury Lane Theatre, who engaged him for three
years at a salary' ranging from eight to twelve
guineas weekly. On Jan. 26, 1814, Keau appeared
in "The Merchant of Venice." His performance of
the part made him famous immediately. He took
rank as the first actor of the day, and even displaced

John Philip Kemble, wliose powers were now de-
clining. For eleven years he maintained his posi-
tion, but in 1825 was made corespondent in a divorce
suit instituted by Alderman Cox, and when he next
appeared before the public he was hooted off the
stage ; from this period his popularity sensibly de-
clined.

In 1820 Kean went to America, and appeared in
New York (Nov. 29). He scored great successes in
New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. In 1825 here-
turned to America to escape the unpopularity which
the suit had created, but Boston mobbed and stoned
him, and he had to be smuggled out of the city at
night. He remained in America, however, to the
end of 1826; on his return to England he was cor-
dially received, but dissipation had wrecked his
health, and on ]March 25, 1833, he broke down while
playing Othello to the Iikjo of his sou Charles. He
died a few weeks later. Kean was a master of high-
tensioned emotion. In level scenes he was very in-
different. He was admirably adapted for such char-
acters as Shi/lock, Othello, and llichanl 111. Romeo,
as he himself confessed, was beyond his powers.

BiBUOGRAPiiY : J. Doran, In and Ahnut Dnirn Lane, p. r29,
London, 1881 ; Binqrayihu of the British S!taije, 1824. pp. 93-
131; Proctor, Life of Ed)nnjid Kean, 18:5.'): J. F. Malley,
Life and Adventures of Edmund, Kean. 1888; Diet. Na-
tional Bioq. XXX. 258-205; Chamhers's Cyclo)xcdin.

J. E. Ms.

KECSKEMET. See Hungary.

KEDAR : One of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. xxv.
13; I Chron. i. 29). The name is also applied in
Scripture to the tribe that sprang from him, and is
likewise used for the Bedouins geuerall3^ whose
characteristic traits are ascribed to Kedar (Cant. i. 5;
Isa. xxi. 16. xlii. 11, Ix. 7; Jer. ii. 10, xlix. 28;
Ezek. xxvii. 21). While very little is known of
Kedar, the liead of the tribe, his posterity, called
also the "Bene Kedar" (Isa. xxi. 17), are described
as barbarous tribes in connection with Mesech.
"Woe is me," says the Psalmist (Ps. cxx. 5), "that
I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of
Kedar ! " According to other passages, they appear
to have been rich in flocks of sheep and goats, in
which they traded with the Syrians (Ezek. xxvii.
21 ; Jer. xlix. 49). They dwelt in tents of black hair
(Cant. i. 5) in the midst of the wilderness of Arabia,
and were known as skilful archers (Isa. xxi. 17).
But they also settled in villages or towns (Isa. xlii.
11). According to Mohammedan tradition, Kedar
(" Kaidhar ") was the ancestor of Mohammed ; and it
is through him that Mohammed's descent is traced
to Ishmael (Caussin de Perceval, "Essai," i. 175).

E. G. II. B. P.

KEDESHAH (plural, Kedeshot) : The kede-
sliot were sacred prostitutes attached to the Temple
as priestesses of Ashtoreth or Astarte. The worship
of Ashtoreth was introduced by Solomon (I Kings
xi. 5); and it is possible that the obscene rites con-
nected therewith were practised near the Temple,
which was practically a chapel royal while the king-
dom lasted. It is even stated that Tamar adopted
the professional dress of a kedeshah to ensnare Judah
(Gen. xxxviii. 21). The male counterparts of the
kedeshot, the kedeshim, are mentioned in the reign
of Rehoboam (I Kings xiv. 24) ; they were removed

463

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kedushshah

by Asa {ib. xv. 12) and by Jehoshaphat {ib. xxii. 47);
and Josiah even found it necessary to break down
their houses at the time of his reforms (II Kings
xxiii. 7). Hosea (iv. 14) refers to kedeshot. The
Deuteronomic legislation, which represents Josiah's
reformation, declared against the practise of such
rites. "There shall be no kedeshah of the daugh-
ters of Israel, nor a kadesh of the sons of Israel "
(Ueut. xxiii. 18, Hebr.). It is doubtful, however,
whether the rites were altogether abolished; for
Ezekiel gives a full account of them, obviously
from scenes witnessed during his lifetime (Ezek.
xxiii. 36-48). It is even probable that there was
reversion to these rites by Jehoiakim (II Kings xxiii.
37), Jehoiachiu {ib. xxiv. 9), and Zedekiah (ib. 19).
It has been suggested by Jacobs that the Netuinim
were the descendants of these kedeshot.

Bibliography : Jacobs, Studies in Biblical Arclweology, pp.
114-110, London, 1891.
E. G. H. J-

KEDUSHSHAH (lit. "holiness"): The third
benediction of the ' Amidah is called " Holiness of the
Name" (R. H. iv. 4), to distinguish it from "Holi-
ness of the Day," the benediction which refers to
the Sabbath or a festival ; but " Kedushshah " in pop-
ular speec-h means the body of the Third Benedic-
tion, as recited aloud by the reader in the 'Amidah,
with the responses, in which the congregation joins.
Of responses there are at least three: (1) "Holy,
holy, holy, is the Lord of hosts: the whole earth is
full of his glory " (Isa. vi. 3) ; (2) " Blessed be the
glory of the Lord from his place " (Ezek. iii. 12); (3)
"The Lord shall reign for ever, even thy God, O
Zion, unto all generations. Praise ye the Lord " (Ps.
cxlvi. 10). In the Additional Service for Sabbaths
and festivals, and in all the Atonement services,
there are two further responses, evidently of later
origin: (4) "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the
Lord is One," and (5) "I am the Lord your God."
The privilege of joining in these responses is con-
sidered to be among the chief inducements for wor-
shiping in public. The authorities speak of three
kinds of Kedushshot— the Kedushshah Me'uinmat,
the Kedushshah Meyushshab, and the Kedushshah
de-Siddur, each of which has a separate history (for
which see Zunz, "G. V." p. 382 [2d ed., Note D],
and Baer's " Prayer-Book").

The shortest "form of the Kedushshah, that for
work -days and for the afternoons of Sabbaths and
festivals, runs thus:

Reader : " We will hallow Thy Name in this world,
as they hallow it in the heavens on high [so the
Germans; the Sephardiin use words nearly like the
German form for the Additional Service for Sab-
baths]; as it is written by the hand of Thy prophet:
'And one calls to the other and says ' " :

Congregation : Resp. 1 ;

Reader: "Opposite to them they say [Sephardic
form, "praise and say "]":

Congregation: Resp. 2;

Reader : " And in Thy holy words it is written
thus " :

Congregation: Resp. 3.
In the Morning Service for Sabbaths and festivals
the Germans enlarge the introduction to the second
and third responses in a devout and poetic vein ;

Avhile their Kedushshah for the Additional of Sab-
baths and festivals runs thus:

" We will revere and sanctify Thee, as in the secret whisper
of the Holy Seraphim, who sanctify Thy Name in holiness, as it
is written ..." (Resp. 1). "Of His priory the earth is full;
His ministers ask each other. Where is the place of His glory V
Opposite ..." (Resp. 2). "May He from His place turn in
mercy and show favor to the people who unify His name, who
evening and morning, each day, unceasingly in love cry twice.
Hear!" (Ilesp. 4). "One is our God: One, our Father:
One, our King; One, our Saviour; He will proclaim to us in
His mercy again in the presence of all that liveth ; to be your
God" (Resp. 0). "And In Thy holy words ..." (Resp. 3).

The Sephardim introduce the first response in the
Additional Service thus:

"The crown ["keter"], O Lord, our God, the angels, the
throngs on high, offer to Thee ; also Thy people Israel, who are
gathered below.; all of them, as one, .sound the 'Thrice Holy'
to Thee, as it is written," etc. The Hasidim
Sephardic and the South-Russian .Jews have adopted this
Form. among other features of the Sephardic ritual.
After the last response the reader proceeds, in
the German ritual : " To all generations we will tell of Thy great-
ness, and to all eternity we will sanctify Thy holiness; and
Thy name, our King, shall never cease from our mouth; for
Thou art a great and holy God and King ; blessed . . ."; while
among the Sephardim the reader proceeds with the benediction
as in the silent prayer.

Neither the Mishnah in the above-cited section,
nor the Babylonian Talmud, which (Meg. 17b) sets
forth the order and contents of all the benedictions,
nor the Palestinian Talmud says anything about the
responses; and the references in Mishnah and Ge-
mara to the " Holiness of the Name " would be satis-
fied by the benediction in the silent prayer: "Thou
art holy and Thy Name is holy, and the Holy Ones
praise Thee every day ; Selah ; blessed ... be the
Holy God." But it is highly probable that the re-
sponsive Kedushshah in the modern sense is very
old, and that it was known to Hillel and Shammai;
for it could not have been introduced later on with-
out causing a dispute that would have left its traces
in the Talmud. Moreover, the Jerusalem Talmud
(Ber. V. 4), in referring to the passage in Ezekiel
known as " Ofannim " (wheels), speaks of a benedic-
tion before the morning Shema' in which the first
and second responses are introduced as coming from
two classes of angels; this passage must therefore
have been written in or before the third century,
probably in order to give to the private worshiper
some substitute for the Kedushshah, which is re-
cited only in public. An idea of the importance at-
tached to it may be gathered from the statement
(Sotah 49a), " Since the destruction of the Temple the
world is sustained by the Kedushshah." Moreover,
the "Thrice Holy " is found in the earliest Christian
rituals, and must have been borrowed by the Church
from the Synagogue at an early day (see Didasca-
LiA and Liturgy).

In the Siddur of R. Amram not only is the Kedush-
shah fully developed, but much space is given to
wildly legendary compositions, for the use of those
who miss hearing it at the synagogue. The collec-
tion "And a Redeemer conieth to Zion," in which
the verses containing the three responses (Ex. xv.
20 taking the place of the third) are recited along
with an Aramaic paraphrase, was put at the end of
the morning services to console those who miss the
Kedushshah.

L. N. D.

Keefar-Nahum
Kempner, Friederike

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

464

KEEFAR-NAHUM. See Capernaum.
KEFAR-SALAMA (CAPHAR-SALAMA) :

Scene of Nicauor's unsuccessful attack upon Judas
Maccabeus (I Mace. vii. 31 ; comp. Josephus, " Ant. "
xii. 10, ii 4). The exact site is somewhat doubtful.
There are several names of places in modern Palestine
between Jaffa and Jerusalem which may be identi-
fied with this one. Kefar-Salama has been supposed
to be identical with the Carva Salim mentioned just
before the Crusades as being near Ramleh, where
later was a casal of the Knights Hospitalers. It has
been identified also with the Kefar Shalem men-
tioned in the Talmud ('Ab. Zarah 31a); but this lat-
ter is regarded by Neubauer as the place Salim near
-which John was baptizing (John iii. 23).

Bibliography: Schiirer, Gench. i. 169, note: Le Strange, Pal-
estine Under the Moslems, pp. 471 et seq.; Neubauer, G. T.
p. 173 ? Buhl, Geographic des Alien PaUlstina, p. 196.
G. J.

KEHILLAH. See Community, Okganiza-

TION OF.

KEILAH (Ilebr. nWp) : 1- A city of Judah in
the Sliepiielah, commonly identified with the mod-
ern Kliurbat Kila, seven miles east of Eleutheropolis.
The city is first mentioned in the Bible in the list of
Judah's cities "in the valley" (Josh. xv. 44). The
city, threatened by the Philistines, was taken by
David (I Sam. xxiii. 1-13). Nehemiah (iii. 17, 18)
incidenially mentions Keilah, naming among those
Avho assisted in building the wall at Jerusalem the
rulers of the two parts into Avhich the city was
divided in his day.

2. A Garmite (I Ciiron. iv. 19). His name was
more properly Abi-Keilah (Hebr. ny^p ^3S)- He is
mentioned in a chronological list in conjunction
with Eshtemoa the Maachathite as a son of Hodiah,
the sister of Naliam. The passage is obscure;
" Garmite " (Hebr. ^OTJH) occurs here only.

E. G. H. C. J. M.

KELIM (" Utensils ") : Treatise in the Mishnah
and in the Tosefta, dealing chiefly with a more
precise definition of the rules in Lev. xi. 32 et seq.,
Num. xix. 14 et seq., and xxxi. 20 et seq. The name
" Kelim " is found in the Mishnah itself (Kelim xxx.
4). In most editions of the Mishnah, and in the
Tosefta, this treatise stands first in the series Toho-
rot, and is divided into thirty chapters, containing
altogether 252 paragraphs.

Ch. i. : The chief kinds of unclean things (" abot ha-
tum'ot") which defile men and vessels when these
touch them, but not when carried (§ 1). Different
degrees of uncleanness, the highest being that of a
corpse, which defiles everything in the same room
with it (g§ 2-4). The ten degrees of uncleanness in
connection with the person (55 5). The ten degrees
of sanctity— from the Holy Land to the Holy of
Holies (§§ 6-9).

Ch. ii. : Utensils of wood, leather, bone, and glass
that can become unclean ; those that can not. How
earthen vessels may become unclean (§ 1). How-
large an earthen vessel must be before it becomes
susceptible of defilement (§ 2). Earthen vessels that
can not become unclean (^§ 3-6) ; those that can (S^
7-8).

Ch. iii. : How large a liole must be made in an

imclean earthen vessel in order to render it clean
(§§ 1-2). Conditions under which a vessel ceases
to be legally a "utensil," and becomes, therefore,
incapable of defilement (^§ 3-8).

Ch. iv. : Details concerning broken earthenware
vessels. How long earthen vessels may be used
before they should be discarded as
Clean and liable to defilement.
Unclean Ch. v. : The size and duration of an

Earthen- oven in regard to its liability to defile-
ware, ment (§ 1) ; the size of a fireplace (§ 2).
Further details concerning ovens (si^
3-6). How a defiled oven may be purified (ij;§ 7-9).
The oven of Akhnai ; the baking-holes of the Arabs ;
the oven of Ben Dinai (§ 10). Stone and metal ovens

(§ 11).

Ch. vi. and vii. : Further details concerning ovens
and fireplaces ; how the Kazarite fireplaces in Jeru-
salem were made.

Ch. viii. : How the oven may become unclean,
and when its contents also become unclean (^§1-11).

Ch. ix. : Regulations concerning objects which are
contained within other objects {e.g., liquids held in
sponges), which come within the area contaminated
by an unclean vessel, or which are in a tent contain-
ing a dead body.

Ch. x. : Vessels which, by means of a cover fastened
over them (comp. Num. xix. 15), protect their con-
tents from defilement (§§ 1, 7-8). How such a cover
must be secured to the vessel (g§ 2-6).

Ch. xi.-xiii. : Metal vessels that can be defiled
and metal vessels that can not.

Ch. xiv. : How large metal ve.ssels must be be-
fore they are liable to defilement (§ 1). Other kinds
of metal utensils, some of which
Metal can become unclean, while others

Vessels, can not (^§ 2-6). When a metal ves-
sel that has been broken becomes
clean again (^§ 7-8).

Ch. XV. : The shapes and sizes in vessels of wood,
leather, bone, and glass which render them liable to
defilement. In this connection it is stated that all
copies of the Scriptures, -witii the exception of that
in the forecourt of the Temple, rendered the hands
unclean.

Ch. xvi. : The period of time after which various
wooden utensils may become unclean (§§ 1-3); the
period after which various utensils of leather may
become unclean (§ 4). An enumeration of different
utensils, some of which can become unclean, while
others can not (§§ 5-8).

Ch. xvii. : The size of the hole in various utensils
which will render them clean. The dates, olives,
pomegranates, etc., used as measures must be of
medium size (§§ 1-8). In this connection it is noted
that both cubit measures in the Temple were larger
than those in use at the time of Moses (§ 9). Fur-
ther details concerning measures (^§ 10-12). Ves-
sels made from the skins of marine animals, except-
ing the seal, can not become unclean (§ 13). Other
utensils. Regarding utensils made for purposes of
deceit, R. Johanan b. Zakkai says: "Wo is me
if I mention these things [because many may thus
learn how they are made] ! Wo is me if I mention
them not [because it must be known how such uten-
sils are to be used to avoid defilement] ! "

465

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Keefar-Nahum
Kempner, Friederike

Ch. xviii.-xx. : Beds and other objects which may

become unclean through "midras" {i.e., tluough

lying, sitting, or stepping upon them),

Beds and and the various utensils which may
Furniture, become unclean in other ways.

Ch. xxi. : On composite utensils —
looms, plows, saws, and carpenters' presses.

Ch. xxii. : On tables, benches, bridal seats, etc.

Ch. xxiii. : Enumeration of those articles used in
riding which may become unclean. Diil'erence be-
tween their uncleauness when so used and their un-
cleanness when used as seats.

Cli. xxiv. : On those things which, according to
tlieir composition, become thrice liable to detilement.

Ch. XXV.: The outside and the inside, the stands,
edges, and handles of utensils. Utensils may be-
come unclean merelj- by being intended for a certain
purpose, losing their uncleanness only when a ma-
terial change is made in them.

Ch. xxvi. : On sandals, pouches, skins, and cover-
ings. Cases in which the mere intention to use cer-
tain vessels for certain purposes renders them un-
clean ; other vessels that can not become unclean
because of such intention.

Ch. xxvii.-xxviii. : How large clothing, sacks,
skins, etc., nuist be in order to become capable of
defilement; further details concerning
Clothing, uncleanness in these and similar ob-
jects.

Ch. xxix. : To what extent a cord shares the un-
cleauness of the object to which it is attaclied ; de-
tails concerning the measuring of cords. Particu-
lars concerning the dimensions of the handle of an
ax, of a spade, etc.

Ch. XXX. : Regulations concerning utensils of
glass. The treatise concludes with an exclamation
of R. Jose : " Hail to thee, O Keiim ! Thou began-
est with ' Impure ' and endest with ' pure." " This
sentence is of interest as showing that Kelim in
its present form was written before Judah ha- Nasi,
since Jose belongs to the generation next to the last
of the Tannaim.

In the Tosefta the treatise Kelim, probably be-
cause of its size, is divided into three parts (" babot "),
comprising twentj'-five chapters in all.

Tosefta. The Tosefta Kelim contains much that
may serve to elucidate the Mishnah ;
for example, in Tosef., B. K. i. 14 the exegetical
basis of Mishnah i. 8 is given. Especially note-
worthy is the saying of R. Jose (B. M. v. 2), which
attempts to explain the contradiction between I
Kings vii. 26 and II Chron. iv. 5.

Bibliography : Z. Frankel, Hodeyetica in Mischnam, p. 263,

Leipsic, 1859.

J. J. Z. L.

KELLER, NAPHTALI: Austrian scholar;
born at Tarnow, Galicia, Jan. 25, 1834; died at
Roznau, Moravia, Aug. 5, 1865; son of Israel Men-
del Keller, a well-to-do innkeeper. Naphtali as
a mere youth practised speaking Hebrew with his
friend M. Weissmann and began to write poems
in that language. He also acquired a certain
amount of modern culture by means of Hebrew
educational literature. After losing in business
the marriage portion given him bv his father-in-
law, he went w'ith his wife and four children to
VII.— 30

Vienna, and there eked out a toilsome existence as a
broker.

In 1864 lie published with great care and impar-
tiality the first volume of the Hebrew periodical
BiKKuni.M. In the spring of 1865, on the advice of
his iihysician, he went to RoJ^nau, a watering-place,
to seek relief from an illness which had attacked him
in the previous year; but he died there.

Keller was the author of two stories: (1) "Sullam
ha Hazlahah," written in imitation of the "David
Barnay " of Julius Rodenberg, and first printed in
"Ila-Maggid" (1863), and (2) " Debek lo Tob." a
tale of Galician .lewish life, which first appeared in
" Bikkurim " (1866). These stories were published at
Warsaw in 1880 under the collective title "Sippure
Naftali."

Bibliography : liikkurim. ii.. pp. xvi. et seq.: Sz!lnt6. Jahr-
M(ch flu- IsraeUteti, 1866-67, p. .52: M. Weissmann, in Ha-
Maggid, 1869.

^- M. Sc.

KELLNER, LEON : Austrian scholar; born at
Tarnow 1859. He studied Bible and Talmud up to
the age of eighteen, then academic subjects at the
Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau and at the
gymnasium of Bielitz, and subsequently Germanic
philology, especially English, at the University of
Vienna (Ph.D. 1884). In 1890 he became privat-
docent in English philologj' at the University of
Vienna, being at the same time professor at a " Real-
schule " in Vienna. In 1904 he was appointed as-
sistant professor of English language and litera-
ture at the University of Gzernowitz.

Kelluer's works include an edition of Caxton's
" Blanchardyn and Eglantine " (for the Early Eng-
lish Text Society), 1890; "Historical Outlines of
English Syntax," London, 1892; "Shakespeare,"
Leipsic, 1900; "Ein .lahr in England," Stuttgart,
1900; and a new edition of Thieme's "Englisches
Worterbuch," Brunswick, 1903. ' S.

KELMER MAGGID. See MosES Isaac of
Chelm.

KELTER, ARTHUR: American athlete; born
in New York city March 3, 1869; went to San Fran-
cisco, Cal., when nine years old. Kelter became a
gymnast and also took up roller-skating as a profes-
sion. He holds the record for jumping on skates,
which lie established at San Francisco in 1887, when
in a competition he cleared twenty-two chairs at
one jump. Kelter was the winner of the all-round
g3'mnastic competition of the state of California for
five years in succession (1887-91), and in 1890 he
also won the wrestling championship of that state at
125 lbs. Subsequently' Kelter took to running,
jumping, pole-vaulting, and putting the shot.

In Oct., 1897, Kelter accepted the management of
the new Manhattan Athletic Club in New York city.,
and retained his position until the club closed its
doors. He then took charge of the Educational
Alliance Gymnasium, New York, where he has been
active during the past five j-ears. He is now en-
gaged as a professional wire-walker.

A. F. H. V.

KEMPNER, FRIEDERIKE: German poet;
born at Opatow, Posen. June 25, 1836; died at Frie-
derikenhof Feb. 23, 1904. She early developed an

Kempner, Gabriel
Kentucky

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

466

interest in general humanitarian questions and espe-
cially in hygiene, and urgently advocated the intro-
duction of morgues and crematories, and the abo-
lition of solitary confinement. Some years before
her death she was stricken with blindness. She re-
sided on her estate of Friederikenhof, near Reiclis-
thal, where she wrote: "Gedichte," 2d ed., Breslau,
1852 (frequently republished); "Novellen," 1861;
"Denkschrift uber die Nothwendigkeit einer Ge-
setzlichen Einfiihrung von Leichenhausern," 1867
(republished five times); "Nettelbeck als Patriot
und Kosmopolit," a novel, 1868; and the following
dramas: "Berenice," 1860; "Rudolf der Zweite,"
1867; "Antigonos," 1880.

Bibliography : Briimmer, Lexikon Deutscher- Dichte.r und
Prosaisten des Neuiizehnten Jahrhunderts, p. 409; AUg.
Zeit. des Jud. xMarch 18, 1904.
8. M. K.

KEMPNER, GABRIEL : Polish jurist and
author; born at Kalisz, Poland, July 4, 1855. After
having finished his curriculum at Kalisz he studied
law in the University of Warsaw, where he was
graduated.

Kempner has written lyric verses and translated
the works of Heine, Richepin, Shelley, De Amicis,
Ibsen, and others, and also Byron's "Manfred," Pon-
sard's "Enamored Lion," and Fulda's "Talisman."
He is the dramatic critic of the " Przeglad Tygod-
niowy."

H. K. S. Po.

KEMPNER, MAX (pseudonyms: Max
Hochstadt, Max Kempner-Hochstadt, Eck-
art) : German author ; born at Breslau March 5,
186:3. He began his literary career when twenty-
five, with a volume of poems, "Buch der Liebe,"
published in 1888. His next venture was "War-
beck, "a tragedy, published in 1891. Then followed
" Briefe der Zeitgenosseu " (1892) ; " Feine Havanna "
(1893); " Stinden Unserer Gesellschaf t " (1894) ; "Stu-
dierten-Proletarier " (1894) ; " Kouig Rhampsinit "
(operetta, 1894); "Unsere Lieblinge " (1895) ; "Me-
dea" (drama, 1895); "Harakiri" (drama, 1895);
"Mon Plaisir" (1896); "P. Krafft " (comedy, 1897);
" Der Herr von Pilsnitz " (farce, 1898) ; " Die Jahres-
zeiten " (dramatic poem, 1898); "Dorawskys Ehe-
gliick " (1899). At present (1904) Kempner is editor
of the " Grosse Modenwelt " and publisher of " Mode
und Haus."

Bibliography : Adalbert von Hanstein, Das Jttngste Dcutsch-
land, 1901, p. 316.
s. E. Ms.

KEMPNER, STANISLAW ALEXAN-
DER: PoHsh economist and publicist; born in
1857 at Kalisz, Poland ; studied law in the University
of Warsaw, and was graduated thence in 1882.
AVhile at the university he employed part of liis
time during 1879-81 in journalism. He subse-
quently became chief editor of the "Gazeta Hand-
Iowa," which he still (1904) conducts and in whicli he
publishes numerous political and economic articles.
Kempner is specially active in matters concerning
commerce and commercial associations. He takes
a lively interest also in the welfare and reform of
the Jews.

Among the numerous writings of Kempner are:
"Bismarck," a political sketch (1890); "Money"

(1897); and "Monetary Crises," an economic sketch;
and he has also contributed many important articles
on different subjects to various encyclopedias. He
is coeditor of the "Encyklopedja Powszechna "
and of the "Eucyklopedya Rolnicza," and editor
of the economic department of the " Illustrated Uni-
versal Encyclopedia."

11. K. S. Po.

KENAZ (TJp) : 1. Son of Eliphaz, and grandson
of Esau; one of the dukes of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 11,
16. 42). His clan, called " the Kenizzite " (^TJpn), is
mentioned once only, after the Kenites (Gen. xv. 19).
2. A descendant of Judah, and father of Otlmiel (I
Chron. iv. 13). "Father" here certainly means "an-
cestor"; for Othniel's elder brother, Caleb (Judges
i. 13), is several times called "the Kenizzite " (A. V.
"Kenezite," Num. xxxii. 12; Josh. xiv. 6, 14), that
is, "descendant of Kenaz." 3. A grandson of Caleb
(I Chron. iv. 15).

E. G. H. M. SeL,

KENEDEUS. See Adiabene.

KENESET HA-GEDOLAH. See Synagogue,
Great.
KENEZITES. See Kenaz.

KENITES.— Biblical Data : A tribe of Pales-
tine, mentioned in the time of Abraham as possess-
ing a part of the promised land (Gen. xv. 19). At
the Exodus it inhabited the vicinity of Sinai and
Horeb ; and to it belonged Jethro, the father-in-law
of Moses (Judges i. 16). In Ex. iii. 1 Jethro is
said to have been " priest of Midian " and a Midian-
ite (Num. iv. 29); hence the conclusion seems justi-
fied that the Midiauites and Kenites are identical.
The Kenites journeyed with the Israelites to Pales-
tine (Judges i. 16); and their encampment, apart
from the hitter's, was noticed by Balaam (Num.
xxiv. 21-22).

At a later period some of the Kenites separated
from their brethren in the south, and went to north-
ern Palestine (Judges iv. 11), where they existed in
the time of Saul. The kindness which they had
shown to Israel in the Avilderness was gratefully
remembered. "Ye showed kindness to all the chil-
dren of Israel, when they came up out of Egypt,"
said Saul to them (I Sam. xv. 6) ; and so not only
were they spared by hiin, but David allowed them
to share in the spoil that he took from the Amalek-
ites {ib. XXX. 29).

E. G. 11. B. P.

Critical View : According to the critical in-
terpretation of the Biblical data, the Kenites were a
clan settled on the southern border of Judah, origi-
nally more advanced in arts than the Hebrews, and
from whom the latter learned much, In the time of
David the Kenites were finally incorporated into the
tribe of Judah (I Sam. xxx. 29; comp. ib. xxvii. 10).
Tlieir eponymous ancestor was Cain (Kain), to whose
descendants J in Gen. iv. attributes the invention of
the art of working bronze and iron, the use of in-
struments of music, etc. Sayce has inferred (in
Hastings, "Diet. Bible," s.v.) that the Kenites were
a tribe of smiths — a view to which J's statements
would lend support.

Jethro, priest of Midian, and father-in-law of
Moses, is said (Judges i. 16) to have been a Kenite.

467

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kempner, Gabriel
Kentucky

This indicates that tlie Kenites originally formed
part of the Midianite tribe or tribes. In Ex. xviii.
13 et seq., according to E, Jethro initiates Moses and
Aaron into the worship of Ymvii. Several modern
scholars believe, in consequence of this statement,
that Yiiwii was a Kenite deity, and that from tlie
Kenites through the agency of Moses his worship
passed to the Israelites. This view, first proposed
by Ghillany, afterward independently by Tiele, and
more fully by Stade, has been more completely
worked out by Budde; and is accepted by Guthe,
Wildeboer, H. P. Smith, and Barton.

The Kenites, then, were a nomadic tribe, more
advanced in the arts of life than Israel. Their habi-
tat, according to the first Biblical reference to them,
was in tlie Sinaitic peninsula (unless Horeb is to be
sought in Edom), and a part of tliem, viz., Jethro
and his family (Xum. x. 29-32; Judges I.e.), mi-
grated with the Israelites to the neighborhood of
Jericho, afterward settled in the south of Judah,
and were finally absorbed by that tribe.

Bibliography: Stade, Gcachichte des Vnlkes Israel, i. 136 et
.sec/., Berlin, 1889 ; Moore, Jwdyes, in International Critical
Cnmtneyitary, pp. .51-5.5, New York, 1895; Budde, Religion
of Israel to the Exile, pp. 17-38, New York ; Barton, Semitic
Oriqins, pp. ;>T1-:J78, ib. 1903.
E. G. II. G. A. B.

KENNICOTT, BENJAMIN: English Chris-
tian Hel)raist;' born at Totness, England, April 4,
1718; died at Oxford Aug. 18, 1783. He was, at
first, master of the "Blue Coat," or charity, school
at Totness. Attracting the attention of the local
gentry by some poems, he was sent to Wadham
College, Oxford, where he became interested in He-
brew through the lectures of Professor Hunt, becom-
ing Hody (Hebrew) Exhibitioner (1745-47) and taking
the degree of B.A. (1747). He took holy orders, and
ultimately became canon of Christ Church, Oxford
(1770), and vicar of ]\Iynlienyote, Cornwall (in the
same year). Soon after he had taken his degree,
Dr. Lowth suggested (1751) to him that he should
do for the Old Testament what Mills had done for
the New, and collect the " \ar\x lectioncs " of the
text. He sot to work, and in 1753 published a pam-
phlet on "The Study of the Hebrew Printed Text
of the Old Testament," Avliich attracted attention,
and caused a number of persons to agree to sup-
ply liim with funds for the collection and collation
of Hebrew manuscripts. He began serious work
in this direction in 1758, after nearly £10,000 had
been collected from numerous patrons of learning,
including the kings of Denmark and Sardinia, and
the stadholder of Holland. In 1760 and 1769 he
printed reports for them on " The Collation of the He-
brew ^lanuscripls of the Old Testament," and in 1776
published at Oxford the first volume of his " Vetus
Testamentum " ; the publication of the second vol-
ume, with a " Dissertatio Generalis " on tlie text, in
1780, completed the work. The " Dissertatio Gen-
eralis " was republished separately by Bruns, at
Brunswick, in 1783.

Kennicott's collations were by no means thorough,
and were later supplemented by Do Rossi, but they
represented the first systematic examination of the
manuscripts, and brought out clearly the practical
uniformity of the Masoretic text. In England liis
method of editing was attacked by several jicrsons,

including Julius Bate, Fowler Comings, George
Home, and Prof. T. Rutherford, all of whom were
answered by Kennicott or his friends. On the Con-
tinent his methods were severely criticized by O.
C. Tychsen, and by J. D. Michaelis in his "Biblio-
theca Orientalis" (part 11). In Paris a number of
letters attacking Kennicott's text were published in
1771, and were said to have been written by a Jew
named Dumay. who had assisted Kennicott in his
work: an English translation of these letters ap-
peared in 1772.

Bibliography : Dictionary of National Biography.
T.

KENTUCKY: One of the south central states
of the United States; admitted in 1792. Its most
important Jewish community is at Louisville
(population, in 1900, 204,731, of which about 7,000
are Jews). Two brothers named Heymann, or Hy-
man, from Berlin, seem to have been the first Jews
iu Louisville (about 1814). An organized Jewish
society appears in the directory for 1832 ; there are
ten names, but no family of the present time claims
descent from them. About 1836 there arrived some
Polish Jews from Charleston, S. C, and some Ger-
man Jews from Baltimore, Md., and some direct from
Germany; they united in religious work, bought
a gravej'^ard, built a mikweh, and engaged a sho-
het. A few wealthy Jews came from Richmond,
Va., but they did not associate with the others and
were absorbed by the non-Jewish element.

The first regular minister was J. Dinkelspiel,
whose signature to a neatly written " ketubah "
dated 1841 is still shown. In 1842 the Adas Israel
congregation was chartered; the famil\' names of
its incorporators still survive. In 1848 it elected B.
H. Gotthelf as cantor and shohet, and when a secu-
lar school was established in 1854 he became its He-
brew teacher. In 1850 a synagogue was built on
Fourth street between Green and Walnut streets,
which was consumed by fire in 1866. A regular
preacher, L. Kleeberg, from Elberfeld, Prussia, was
then engaged, who remained till 1878. The secular
school was abandoned in 1868, in which year a tem-
ple was finished, with a sexton's dwelling, and with
Sabbath-school and meeting-rooms. In 1878 Dr. E.
G. Hirsch became its preacher, but left in 1880,
and, after a short interval, was succeeded by Dr.
Adolph Moses (d. 1902). The present (1904) incum-
bent. Dr. H. G. Endow, for a short time Dr. Closes'
assistant, succeeded him.

Adas Israel began with the West German min-
hag, but went further and further in the direction
of Reform. It now uses the Union Prayer-Book,
and has Sunday services in addition to the Sabbath
worship. In 1851 the legislature granted a charter
to "The Polish House of Israel"; but it was not
until 1856 that a congregation availed itself of it,
changing the name to "Beth Israel." From 1876 to
1881 only it had a regular pieaclier.
Syna- A secession from it in 1880 of its West

gogues. German members led to the formation
of the B'rith Sliolom congregation
(Conservative), of which Dr. Ignatius Mueller is
rabbi and preacher, and which worships in perhaps
the finest church edifice in Louisville, at the corner
of Second and College streets. A secession from Beth

Kentucky
Kerobot

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

468

Israel of some Russian members in 1881 led to the
establishment of the Bnai Jacob congregatiou.
The Beth Israel synagogue was sold in 1894; the
remaining members reorganized as the Adas Jeshu-
run congregation, acquiring a small church build-
ing at the corner of Cliestnut and Floyd streets.
Their mmister, Dr. S. F. Salinger, conducts a He-
brew school for the sons of the members. The old
B'rith Sholom synagogue, on First street, near
Walnut street, has been acquired by tiie Anshci
Sfard, most of whom are South-Russians, worship-
ing after the ritual of the Hasidim. There is also,
besides the live congregations owning their syna-
gogues, a Russian "Minyan," with daily services.
A. L. Zarchi of Des Moines, Iowa, acts as rabbi for
four congregations, including this minyan.

There are at Louisville an active section of the
Council of Jewish Women, two lodges of the
I. O. B. B., many lodges of the smaller insurance
orders, and a Young Men's Hebrew Association. A
Jewish hospital is being built. There is a social
settlement founded by Christians, though Jews
share in its activities and largely contribute to its
funds ; most of Its " neighbors " are Jewish, but there
is no trace of attempts to proselytize.

The proportion of manufacturers and mechanics,
professional men (mainly lawyers), and wholesale
and i-etail traders among the Jews of Louisville is
about the same as in other American cities; but
there are no Jewish bankers, and the manufactur-
ers are mainly distillers. There is no very great
wealth in the city and comparatively little pov-
ertv.

A. L. N. D.

In Owensboro, in 1865, the Adath Israel congre-
gatiou was founded (present rabbi, Nathan Krasno-
witz); at Paducah, in the same year, the Temple
Israel congregation was established (present rabbi,
David Alexander). Henderson has a congregation
that was founded in 1879, and Bowling Green, Lex-
irgton, and Shelby villa have holy day services.
There are several smaller communities.

Kentucky has a total population of 3,147,174,
about 12,000 being Jews. L. N. Dembitz, lawyer
and scholar, is a well-known Jewish resident of the
State.

BIBLI0GR.4PHY: American Jcwish Year Book, 1900-1901.

A.
KEPHAS. See Peter.

KERE AND KETIB. See Masorah.

KEREM. See Periodicals.

KEREM HEMED (for the name see Amos v.
11): Hebrew periodical, edited and published in Vi-
enna in 18^3 and 1836 (vols. i. and ii.) and in Prague
from 1838 to 1843 (vols. iii. to vii.) by Samuel Lob
GoLDENBERG. A Continuation or new series was
edited and published in Berlin from 1854 to 1856
(vols. viii. to ix.) by Senior Sachs, having also a
German title, "Briefe und Abhandlungen, die Jil-
dische Literatur und die mit Ihr Verwandten Wis-
senschaften Betreffend." The "Kerem Hemed "
was intended to be the continuation of the period-
ical "Bikkure lia-'Ittim," which ceased to appear in
1832. In the introductory statement contained in
the first number Goldenberg announced that the

publication would be devoted primarily to Hebrew
literature, and that its articles would be written in
the form of letters: his idea in choosing this form,
was, doubtless, that articles so published would be
less subject to the severities of the censor. The " Ke-
rem Hemed " contains studies in Biblical and Tal-
mudical criticism, archeology, and poems, the his-
tory of literature, and critical reviews of new books.
It is opposed to Hasidism and pilpulism, the spirit
of the Austrian Haskalaii being predominant.

A rival Galiciau annual, "Ro'eh," published in
Lemberg, had only a short existence.

Bibliography: M. Weissberg, Die Neuhehrciische Anfkh'i-
riiii{jfi-Literatnr, pp. IK et seq.; AVlnter and Wiinsche, Die
Jlldiache Littcrafnr. iii. W3; Jost's Annalen, 1841, pp. :i94
ct seq., in which a review of Kerem Hemed, vol. vi., appears :
(ieiger, TI'i.s.s'. Zeit. Jild. Tlieol. iv. 401 etseq., v. 472 ct neq.;
Monataschrift, i. 40 et seq. ; coinp. Geiger in Z. D. M. G. xi.
3:34.

G. M. Sc.

KERMANSHAH (Persian, Kermanshahan ;
Arabic, Karmisin) : Capital of the Persian prov-
ince of Ardilan, on the road between Bagdad and
Hamadan. Benjamin II. found there forty Jewish
families ("Eight Years in Asia and Africa," p. 205,
Hanover, 1859). About the year 1894, through the
persecutions of the governor Ziah al-Daulah, the
Jewish quarter was sacked and twenty families of
Jewish physicians became Moslems (" Jadidis "). In
Oct., 1902, two Jews of Kermanshali were assassin-
ated near Feruzi Abad, and the community was in
great danger. The matter was taken up by the Al-
liance Israelite Universelle, and representations were
made to the grand vizier at Teheran.

In 1903 there were 1,406 souls in the Jewish com-
munity. The Jewish quarter is situated near the
eastern wall and is separated from the rest of the
city by a stream which carries off the general sew-
age. There are 135 houses in the quarter; the
Jews are not allowed to acquire property beyond
the stream. There are three synagogues, a Talmud
Torah, but no charitable society. Together with
other non-Moslems the Jews are presided over by a
" karguzar, " or special envoy of the minister of for-
eign affairs. The community pays no special tax.
The Jews are largely occupied in spinning; only
about thirty are active in commerce. In the street
the women cover their faces with a thin black net —
a Bagdad custom. In case a husband divorces his
wife, he must pay her 12 tomans (about §12). There
are a number of Jewish physicians in the city.

Near Kermanshali there are certain hamlets which

contain Jewisii families, e.f/., Gavareh (18 families).

Kerrideh (30). Ka§r (12), Zoab (16), and Sarpol

(14).

BiBLiOfiRA.PHY : Bassan, in Bulletin Meni^uel Alliance Israe-
lite Universelle, Oct.. 190^, p. 230; Revue des Ecnle^ de V Al-
liance, 1903, No. 8. p. 53; Biill. All. Isr. 1902, p. 73.

KEROBOT (lit. "prayers of approach," i.e.,
to God"; comp. Jer. xii. 2; Yer. Ber. 8b: "bo
we-kareb " ; Lev. R. xxx. : "karob u-payyetan";
comp. Jastrow, "Diet." cols. 1410 and 1413):
A term applied to the scheme of Piyyutim in
the earlier part of the repetition of the morning
'Amidaii on sjjccial Sabbaths, on the Three Fes-
tivals, and on New-Year, in the Ashkeuazic lit-
urgy. The Neo-Hebraic verses in the repetition of
the " 'Amidot " on the Day of Atonement follow the

469

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kentucky
Kerobot

same scheme. The word is sometimes spelled
"KeROBoZ," utilizing the initials of the Hebrew of
Ps. cxviii. 15a. The scheme developed between
the tenth and fifteenth centuries, as the hazzanim
introduced their rimes into the public recital of the
prayer (comp. Zuuz, "B. P." pp. 60, 113). E. Jacob
ben Moses Molin ha-Levi of Mayence (MaHaRIL;
1365-1427) gave the final redaction. He laid down
tlie principle for the officiant at divine worship
that " the tradition must not be varied in any place,
even in regard to melodies to which the people there
are not accustomed " (cd. Sabbionetta, p. 61b).

The living tradition evidences a well-grounded
stability, as might have been expected from the
authority attached to MallaRIL's liturgical deci-
sions by the standard code of the
Antiquity Shulhan 'Aruk (see Moses Isserles on
of Orah Hayyim, 619, 1). The tradi-

Melodies. tional melodies for the Kerobot, in-
deed, are distinguished from all other
strains associated with piyyutim in that while the
latter are usually derived from the folk-soug of late
medieval or modern Europe, the former have a more
ancient character of their own. This distinction
was already noted by Simeon b. Zemah Duran
C'Magen Abot," p. 52b) about the year 1400. The
melodies, too, which are named in the rubric to so
many hymns in the older liturgies (comp. Zunz, "S.
P." p. 116) refer more often to verses in the Kerobot
than to any others.

The scheme of the Kerobot always opens with a

"re.shut,"or prayer of the cantor for

"Reshut." divine guidance and an expression of

consciousness on liis part that he is

unworthy of fulfilling his task. The strain in which

the reshut is intoned runs through the whole Kero-

bah, reappearing in the final verselets of each poem,
which, .since the printing of the Mahzor placed copies
of the text in the hands of ordinary congregants, have
alone been chanted at length, the body of the piyyu^;
being read through in an undertone. Such silently
read verses form the main succeeding portion of the
Kerobot, but were originally chanted at length.
Some older tunes, quoted as models for later intro-
ductions, were lost when the excessive length of the
cantor's chanting led to complaints and to the omis-
sion of the time-absorbing .singing (Glldemann,
"Quellenschriften zur Gesch. des Unterhchts und
der Erziehung bei den Deutscheu Judcn," jip. 85,
105, 118, 300).

The strain for the reshut and the versicles follow-
ing it is, whether festival or penitential, a melody
of definite character and antique tonality. The fes-
tival form is obviously based on the
Versicle Oriental chromatic scale (Bourgault-
Themes. Ducoudray, " Jlelodies Populaires de
Grece et d 'Orient," p. 21) in which
the Sabbath service (Hazzanut) is chanted, a prayer-
motive utilized on the festivals as well. The versi-
cle theme for New-Year and Atonement is not so
closely allied to the hazzanut of the day, which is
in the third mode (" E " to " e ") of the Catholic
plain-song; for it falls in the first church mode (" D "
to "'d" in the natural .scale). But this last was the
favorite scale-form for melody generally in northern
Europe during the early Middle Ages, from which
the strain obviously dates. It will'be noticed in the
accompanying example how much beauty is added
bj'' the accidental, which the church musicians, who
deemed this mode adapted to "grave, majestic, and
sublime" subjects, would not have permitted, even
as a grace-note.

J<EROBOT (Melody of A'apid)

Andante moderato.

:t=:

1 — I — I-

-i»^ — >-

:*=*=!

:fi*-:

s>-

1^--

Wzzz:W=*=^^a-f=3ta-^

:q=n=:

I<EROBOT (Reshut and Versicle Theme— Sabbath and

Festival)

Andantino.

IKerobot
&ertch

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

470

KEROBOT (Reshut and Versicle Theme— Penitential Days)

Orave.

-'=^

H H—

:^==1^

— s-

^^^

Ad lib.

-1^ ^-

-»< — ^-

H ^ 1-

*^z*:*3tjz

«^— '-*-

Ah!.

Ij:EROBOT (Melodies for Kaliric Strophic Hymn)

1. Moderato.

-^-^-^

^4=^:

zdr

:*=:*:

-<S'-

-I — I-

latt

-*-^-

«~s'-

:q-::-^

j^-JzM

't=q=

^=«:

-izqz=::|:

"*~^i^~'*~^"

-I — ' — I — ^ — ^

x=^~x=x

^-^

=isir

-s^

■■•--^

-^^-

5. Moderato.

:3=q:

:^-^

;=q:

:#itzzi^

-h-

^=i^=*=^

-^-^— ^-

-(S"-

:^=zt=i:

^ — ^-1-^-

--1-

^*=§^=

g* ]

5. -4?irfa«if'rto.

-<S'-

i^:

3=3=d=q=q:

3t=i:

itiut

-^-

-^-*-

! — g^-

^ — ^ — :^: — -H-

^^^^^

-s*-

-^ ^— ^-

:q=^=4

-■m—j^

-^-

:=1-

z=q=q=.

-* ■•-

-f

qz:q:

:^-J ^ ^-^-

— 71^ '^^ 3^-

» — I 1 — h

:*=z=:1=

471

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

^Lerobot
Kertch

J<:ER0B0T (Refrain Triplets Endingr in Kadosh)

1. Andantino.

— I 1 1 — H ] '—^ ^^-— P-]-# J ^ I

2, Moderato

-A^\-<

H h

— I-

:^^^-j-_^Mir

:i;pE

:S=^

1C=^9^'

-<s>-

Versicles founded on Ps. cxlvi. 10 and xxii. 4
lead to the next division of the Kerobot scheme,
which is pervaded by verse-forms due to Eleazar Ka-
LiR (c. 800), and presents, from inter-
Kaliric nal evidence, some of the antique mel-
Forms. ody which Duran (I.e.) attributed to
him. The section is ushered in by
a short group of triplets concluding with the word
{''np- These are followed by acrostic strophic
hymns written by Kalir or his imitators, in which,
on the penitential days, after the rime scheme,
"a a a, b b 6, c c c" (the italicized member being
recited by the congregants in response to the two
members chanted by the officiant), the triplet end-
ing in "kadosh " is introduced as a refrain. For all
such hymns, and others from the same sources
chanted at tliis point in the Ashkenazic liturgy,
there are utilized traditional melodies which, al-
though divergent in a number of variants, bear
traces of a common early medieval origin, and of a
primal tonality agreeing with the third mode of the
Catholic plain-song ("E" to "e" in the natural
scale), with the semitones characteristically falling
between the first and second and between the fifth
and sixth degrees. This quaint archaic scale-form
("tertius mysticus") is that in which the prayers
for the penitential mornings are, in the northern
tradition, likewise cast. The original model tune
was most probably due to one of the earliest writers
of synagogal hymnody, who, like Kalir himself,
composed and recited botli verses and melody, and
handed them on to distant congregations by means
of their ever-wandering pupils (Zunz, "Ritus," pp.
7 et seq.). In one form it was particu-
Model larly widely quoted in old ritual man-
Melody, uscripts as an inherited air to be util-
ized also for other ])oems (Zunz, "S.
P." p. 115; Dukes, in "Orient, Lit." iv. 540), the
rubric TDKN ]i:j2 ("to the tune of A'apid,' " which

happens to be among the first of this class of piy-
yutim met with as the liturgy is gone through)
being one of the most frequent of such superscrip-
tions. Another variant of the melody is known and
prized in the Reform liturgj'. It is the original of
the tune for the hymn "To Thee We Give Our-
selves To-Day," No. 103 in the American "Union
Hymnal."

But these original melodies, whose identity is
plain under all their modern variations, are not
the only melodies which have been followed in the
chant for the refrain triplets ending in "kadosh,"
since Polish cantors often utilize a later but not less
effective secondary theme, recalling Levantine tonal-
ity as the other also does.

The Kerobot finally come to an end in a long
meditation ushering in the Kedushshah, which is
aptly entitled the "Silluk" (= "conclusion" or
"cessation," i.e., of the singing).

Bibliography: The chants are assembled in Baer, Ba'al Te-
Mlah, Nos. 650-660, 1057-1107, et passim, Goteborp, 1887,
Frankfort, 1883. The two forms of the refrain triplet are
contrastingly arranged in T}te Toiee of Prayer and Praixe,
Nos. 203 and 203, by F. L. Cohen and D. M. Davis, London,
1889. For the variants of the antique hvmn-tune see espe-
cially Baer. I.e. Nos. 1099, 1102. and 1274 : Marksohn and Wolf,
Synaqnyal-Mclodien, No. 13, Leipsic. 1875; Pauer and Cohen,
Traditional Hebrew Melodies, No. 17, Loudon, 1897.
A. F. L. C.

KERTCH: Russian seaport at the eastern ex-
tremity of the Crimean peninsula; the ancient Pan-
ticapa?on. A Greek inscription on a marble slab
found in Kertch and preserved in the Imperial "Er-
mitage " in St. Petersburg shows that a Jewish com-
munity and synagogue existed in Kartell in 80-81
B.C. A number of tombstones unearthed near Kertch
in 1867 bear the representation of a "menorah," with
Greek inscriptions, showing that they belonged to
Jews. In a message of the patriarch Fotius to
Archbishop Antony of Kertch (858-891), the former
thanks the archbisliop for his efforts to convert the

Kesitah
Ketubah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

472

Jews of Kertch. In a letter of Joseph, king of the
Chazars, to Hasdai ibn Shaprut (c. 960), Kertch is
mentioned as among the possessions of the Chazars.
The presence there of Jews in the seventh century
is confirmed by inscriptions found in the earliest
Christian catacomb known in that region (Brun,
"O Raznykh Nazvauiakh Kertchi," etc., p. 13,
Odessa, 1877).

With the addition of Kertch to the territories of
the Chazars the condition of the Jews there was
markedly improved. The Chazars established a
military post there to guard against the attacks of
the Russians and Uzes. In 1318 Kertch was ceded
to the Genoese, but in 1340 it was compelled to ac-
knowledge the supremacy of the Mongols, who
offered the Venetians the privilege of settlement
in Bosporus under the same conditions that the
Genoese were offered in Kaffa. In the fifteenth
century Kertch was taken by the Turks; in 1773
it was added to the territory of Russia. During the
Crimean war it was destroyed by the French and
the English.

Kertch has a total population of 28,982, including
2,650 Jews, about 40 of whom are Karaites. Its
Jewish community is well organized, and possesses
a large synagogue and a number of charitable insti-
tutions. Its members are prominently connected
with the oil-refineries and with the salt and dried-
fish industries.

Bibliography : Ecgesty i Nadpisi.
II. K.

KESITAH. See NrMisiiATics.

J. G. L.

KETUBAH (or Ketubbah).— Legal : A mar-
riage contract, containiug among other things the
settlement on the wife of a certain amount payable
at her husband's death or on her being divorced.
This institution was established by the Rabbis in
order to put a check on freedom of divorce, to ob-
tain which no consent is required on the part of the
woman (see Divorce). Some of tiie rabbis con-
sidered the ketubah of a virgin to be of Mosaic origin
(Yeb. 89a; Ket. 10a; Tos. s.v. "Amar"; comp. Tobit
vii. 14).

The minimum amount payable under a ketubah
was 200 zuz (a zuz = about 15 cents) for virgins,
and 100 zuz for women who were not virgins at
marriage; the priests and the noble families of Jeru-
salem doubled these sums (Ket. 12a). The amount
could be increased by the husband and mentioned
either in the ketubah itself or in a special deed
(Tosafot Ketubah; Ket. 54b; Shulhan 'Aruk, Ebcn
ha-'Ezer, 66, 7). Besides these items, the ketubah
mentioned also the amount of the dowry and the
addition thereto made by the husband (tiie custom at
present is to add 100 per cent to the amount of the
dowry), as well as the ordinary obligations of a
husband to his wife.

The ketubah, like other legal documents, was
written in Rabbinic language. It is given in full in
Maimonides, " Yad," Yabam, iv. 33; and with a few
unimportant modifications occasioned as by .slips of
copyists it reads as follows (for Hebrew text see
Betrothal) :

"On . . . [day of the weekj, tli(> . . . day of the month . . .
in the year . . . since the creatidii nf iiie wiprld, the em accord-

ing to which we are accustomed to reckon here in the city of . . .
how . . . son of . . . said to this virgin . . . daughter of . . .
' Be thou my wife according to the law of Moses
Form of and Israel, and I will work for thee, honor,
Ketubah. support, and maintain thee in accordance with
the custom of Jewish husbands who work
for their wives, honor, support, and maintain them in truth.
And I will set aside for thee 200 zuz, in lieu of thy virginity,
which belong to thee (according to the law of Moses), and thy
food, clothing, and necessaries, and live with thee in con-
jugal relations according to universal custom.' And . . . this
virgin consented and. became his wife. The dowry that she
brought from her father's house, In silver, gold, valuables,
dresses, and bedclothes, amounts to . . . [100 silver pieces], and
. . . the bridegroom consented to increase this amount from his
own property with the sum of . . . [100 silver pieces], making
in all . . . [200 silver pieces]. And thus said ... the bride-
groom, r I take upon myself and my heirs after me the responsi-
bility of this marriage contract, of the dowry, and of the addi-
tional sum, so that all this shall be paid from the best part of
my property, real and personal, that I now possess or may here-
after acquire. All my property, even the mantle on my shoul-
ders, shall be mortgaged for the security of this contract and of
the dowry and of the addition made thereto.' . . . the bride-
groom has taken upon himself the responsibility for all the obli-
gations of this ketubah, as is customary with other ketubot
made for the daughters of Israel in accordance with the insti-
tution of our sages — may their memory be for a blessing !
It is not to be regarded as an illusory obligation or as a mere
form of document. We have followed the legal formality of
symbolical delivery ["kinyan"] between . . . son of . . . , the
bridegroom, and . . . daughter of ... , this virgin, and have
employed an instrument legally fit for the purpose to strengthen
all that is stated above, and everything is valid and established.

.Bridegroom.

AVitnesses."

Thus tiie ketubah formed a lien upon all real es-
tate owned b}' the husband during his lifetime, aud
if at his death, or when he divorced

Lien on his wife, he possessed no estate, it
Husband's could be collected out of an}- property
Property, he had sold or gifted since the ketubah
had been written (Git. 48b, 5ob ; Eben
ha-'Ezer, 100, 3). This, however, was not originally
the case; and it was only after a series of changes,
tending toward the restriction of arbitrary divorce,
that this became the rule. At first the marriage set-
tlement was deposited with the wife's father; then
it was converted into some valuable household uten-
sil, of which the husband also could make use, and
entrusted to the wife ; and when this regulation also
was found unsatisfactory, Simeon b. Shetah or-
dained that the amount of the ketubah should re-
main with the husband, but become a lien on his
property (Ket. 82b; Tosef., Ket. xii. 1; comp. com-
mentaries ad loc). The Geonim still further
strengthened the security of the ketubali by making
his personal estate also liable for the ketubah (" Yad,"
Ishut, xvi. 7; "Maggid ]\Iishneh," ad loc. ; Ebcn ha-
'Ezer, 100, 1).

There could be no conjugal relations between hus-
band and wife before the ketubah was j)repared, or
if it contained a sum less than that stipulated by the
Rabbis (Ket. 54b). If the ketubah was lost, a new
one had to be written. In such a case, the docu-
ment to replace the lost one (KD^I^XI n3in3) was
drawn up by two (according to some authorities,
three) witnesses, constituting a court, who Avere re-
([uired to sign the document and to recoi'd the fact
that the original ketubah was lost and tiiat the hus-
band had askeil them to write another. If the date
of the first ketubah was known, the same date had
to be given in the second document; but if it was

473

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Kesitah
Ketubah

not known, the date of the j^repanition of the second
ketubah was inserted ("Nahalat Shib'ah," § 13 and
notes; Adler, "Tikkun Shetarot," J; 0; conip. Ebeu
ha-'Ezer, 66, 3, Isserles' glosses and coinnientaries).

The ketubah was the inalienable right of the woman,
and even if she possessed no written document, she
could collect the iniuiinuni sum (Ket. 161)). In a
case where the luisband refused the wife her con-

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-^AF

KKTIBAII, OK MAKKIA(iF. COXTKACT. DaTKI) MaMIA, .kW = IKSS.

(In the Nfw York I'llblic Lihrary.)

Although the woman could sell or give away her
right to a stranger, she could not release her hus-
band from his obligation or even from part of it
(Ket. 51a; "Yad," Lc. x. 10; Ebeu ha-'Ezer, 60, 9).

jugal rights, the amount of the ketubah was in-
creased by the court thirty-six grains of silver every
week during the time of his default. If the wife
spitefully refused her husband conjugal rights, Ihe

Ketubah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

474

court sent her warning that if she persisted in her
spitefulness she would lose her ketubah ; and if she
still remained obdurate, the fact was announced iu
the synagogue for four successive Sabbaths. Another
warning was then administered, and if she still per-
sisted, the husband was relieved from his duty to
support her, and after twelve months he might di-
vorce her. There were, however, various modifica-
tions made by later authorities with regard to such
a case, which took into consideration the conditions
and circumstances that induced the wife to take such
a persistent course (Ket. 63a; "Yad," I.e. xiv. 8-15;
Eben ha-'Ezer, 77, 1-3, Isserles' gloss, and com-
mentaries ad loc).

The woman forfeited her right to the settlement
made upon her in the ketubah not only when she
was found guilty of adultery or of antenuptial
incontinence, but also when she committed wrongs
or follies of a less serious character. If she gave
her husband food that was ritually forbidden, or if
she permitted cohabitation during the

Ketubah period when she was ritually unclean.
Forfeited, or if she broke her vows, her husband
could divorce her and was not obliged
to pay her the amount of the ketubah. Similarly, if
she transgressed the laws of decency — e.g. , if she went
with uncovered head in the street, or if she flirted with
strangers, or if she cursed her husband's parents iu
his presence — she forfeited her right to the ketubah.
If she had subjected herself to vows before her mar-
riage and did not speak of them to her husband, or
if she had physical defects of which the husband
had no knowledge before marriage, she also lost her
ketubah. The woman who refu.sed to follow her
husband from one place to another in the same
country, or from any country to Palestine, or from
any citv in Palestine to Jerusalem, lost her ketubah
(Ket. 72a, b, 110b; "Yad," I.e. xxiv. 10-25, xxv.;
Eben ha-'Ezer, 115-117; see Domicil).

With the ketubah in her possession, the woman
could collect the amount many years after her hus-
band's death or her divorce, even after
Conditions she had been married to another. If
of she did not have the ketubah, and

Collection, if she left his house or was married to
another, she could collect the money
only within twenty-five years after her husband's
death, and not after that; for it was presumed
that if she did not collect it during that period, she
waived her claim. In case of divorce, however,
this presumption did not hold good, and she might
always collect the amount due to her by the ketubah
(Ket. 104a; " Y^ad." I.e. xvi. 23; Eben ha-'Ezer, 101,
1, 4). When the widow came to collect her ketu-
bah, the court made her swear that her husband had
not given her anything in payment thereof and that
she had not taken anything without his knowl-
edge. The heirs, however, could relieve her from
this oath (Ket. 87a; "Yad," I.e. xvi. 16-19; Eben
ha-'Ezer, 96, 1-3).

There were various conditions included in the
ketubah, or implied in it by the decree of the Rabbis,
which had to be fulfilled by the husband or by his
heirs; for example: the male children inherited the
ketubah even if their mother died before the death
of their father; if there were children by other

wives, the amounts of. the ketubah were first sub-
tracted from the inheritance and distributed among
the respective heirs on the mother's side, the residue
of the property being then divided equally among
all the sons ("ketubat benin dikrin"; Ket. 52b;
see Inheritance); the daughters had to be sup-
ported from the estate until they were married or
until they reached their majority {ib. ; sec Daugh-
ter) ; tlie widow also had to be supported from the
estate until she remarried or until she left the hus-
band's house. In some places the phrase "until
the heirs shall be willing to pay her the amount of
the ketubah " was inserted in the contract (ib. ;
"Yad," I.e. xii. 3; Eben ha-'Ezer, 69,2; 93,3;
94, 1 ; 111; 113). By a decree of the sages of To-
ledo (n^'lD"'^1t3 ""Mn) tiie widow could collect only
one-half of the property, even when her ketubah
amounted to much more. The second half was
divided among the heirs (Eben ha-'Ezer, 118).

Bibliography : Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v.; Nahalat Shib'ah,
§§ 13-2(), Warsaw, 1884; Mayer, Die llechte der Is7-aeliten,
Atlicner mid Ri'imei:, part ii., § 236, Leipsic, ISSti ; Bloch, Der
Vertraa. § 10(), Budapest, 1893; idem, Dan ErhrecM, §§ 33-
37, i/j. 1890; idem, mjpnn mm nyi:*, series ii., part i.. §§
6, 7 ; part ii., §§ 25, 84, 99, rh. 1900 ; Weill, La Femme Juive,
partii., ch. vi., Paris, 1874; Buchholz, Die Fawilie, Breslau,
1867 ; Mielzlner, The Jervish Law of Marriage and Di-
vorce, §§ 48--50, Cincinnati, 1884; Amram, The Jewish Law
of Divorce, ch. .x., Philadelphia, 1896; Kaufmann, Znr
Geiich. der Khethubha, in Motmtsschrift, 1897, xli. 213-221.

A. ' J. H. G.

Archeologic and. Paleograpliic : It is dif-
ficult to trace the origin of the ketubah. Rashi (on
Gen. xxv. 6) claims that the difference between the
status of Keturah's sons and that of Isaac consisted
merely in that the latter's mother, as the lawful
wife, had a ketubah while Keturah had none — a dis-
tinction drawn in the Talmud (Sanh. 91a) also be-
tween David 's wives and his concubines. Tobit (vii.
14) bids Edna, his wife, bring him a
Early tablet, on which he writes the deed of

History, marriage, sealing it before witnesses.
This cvyypa^lj, Grjltz suggests, was the
ketubah which differentiated the marriage from an
aypucpog yd/io^ (Neubaucr's Chaldaic text reads "ke-
tubta "). The whole Talmudical treatise Ketubot
deals chiefly with this subject, and pages 10a and
82b record that " the wise men, long before Simeon b.
Shetah, instituted the ketubah for the daugliters of
Israel." Maiinonides ("Yad," Ishut, xvi.) also refers
to it as having been established by " the Great San-
hedrin in order that a Jewish wife should not be
light in her husband's eyes."

An early form of Palestinian ketubah, though not
the earliest, is quoted in Tosef., Ket. xi. 9, and B.
M. 104a, with the suggestion that Hillel the elder
adopted it as a safeguard against the matrimonial
irregularities of the Alexandrians. The Jlishnah
(Ket. iv. 9-11) distinguishes the forms used respect-
ively by the men of Jerusalem, Galilee, and Judah.
The Jerusalem form provided for the succession of
the wife's property to her male children, and con-
tained an additional proviso compelling the husband
to redeem his wife if taken captive by Gentiles, and
to take her back. It is thus clear that the ketu-
bah was a regular institution among the Jews even
in pre-Christian times; but there can be no doubt
that its language became settled under Greco-Roman

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(In the UtiiU*il States National Museum, Washington, D. C.)

Ketubah

THE JEWISH E^'CYCLOPEDIA

476

influence. In the " Corpus Papyrorum " of the arch-
duke Rainer several Greek contracts dating between
the second and sixth centuries are given. In a
pagan marriage contract of the earlier date the
husband agrees to give Jiis wife the necessaries of
life, clotlies, and what beseems a wife, who, on her
part, must conduct lierself blamelessly and without
reproach. A Christian formula, four centuries later,
follows this, but adds an obligation on the wife's
part to "love, cherish, and honor " her husband, who
has to do all that "beseems a free-born wife from a
worthy Imsband. " Substituting " Jewish " for " free-
born " and "worthy," this is the Aramaic formula,
still in vogue
among Jews, an
almost literal
translation of
its prototype in
Roman law.
That there is ex-
tant no Byzan-
tine marriage
contract after
the sixth cen-
tury is not sur-
prising, as the
emperor Justin-
ian did away
with "dotaliaiu-
s t r u m e n t a "
("Const." 22, 23,
vii.c.54), though
they were after-
ward regarded
as necessary in
the case of mar-
riages between
persons of high
rank. The
Jews, conserva-
tive in all things,
have proved
themselves espe-
ciallj' so in tlie
matter of mar-
riage settle-
ments.

The spoils of
the Cairo Geni-
zah contain nu-
merous exam-
ples of ketubot

from the tentli century downward. These Egyptian
documents often add some relic of the early licjman
empire in a detailed list of the bride's parapher-
nalia; but such lists were afterward discarded for
the sake of uniformity and to avoid shaming the
poor. During the height of Karaite controversy
Maimonides introduced a clause obliging the parties
to observe the "dine tohorah"or traditional rules
of ritual i)urification (Maimonides' Responsa, No.
149). A manuscript in the Cambridge Library,
written in 1295, contains sucli a ketubah. The
concerning clause runs: "And we, the undersigned,
have warned the bride and made known to Jier that
she shall keep tlie purification regulations accord-

Ketubati Blank, Amsterdam, 5419= lt>j9.

(In the possession of A. \Volf, Dresden.)

ing to Rabbinite rules, and that if she does not
she will lose the whole ketubah." In this document
there is also a clause in which the bridegroom
pledges himself not to take another wife, nor to
keep in the house a servant-girl of whom the bride
disapproves.

Another important ketubah from the Cairo Geni-
zah is that marked T. S. 141, also in the Cambridge
Library (published by Schechter in "J. Q. R." v.
xiii. 122). It is dated 1082, and is a contract be-
tween the Rabbinite, the nasi David, and the daugh-
ter of the Karaite Mcses ben Aaron ha-Kohen. In
this the bridegroom pledges himself not to compel

his future wife
to have light on
Friday eve
(which is forbid-
den according to
the Karaite in-
terpretation of
Ex. XXXV. 3),
nor to eat certain
kinds of animal
fat, prohibited
by the Karaites ;
while the bride
pledges herself
to observe with
him the feasts
according to the
Rabbinite calen-
dar without pro-
faning her own.
A peculiar
characteristic of
many ketubot
is a more or less
elaborate pre-
amble; but there
does not seem
to have been any
uniformity in
this regard.
Thus ketubot of
1034 and 1242
have none, nor
has an ancient
Egyptian for-
mulary, nor the
jMahzor Vitry,
nor tlie "Ez
Hayyim " of R.
Jacob ben Judali Hazzan of London of the thir-
teentli century. And when there is a preamble it
varies from the most ornate poetry to
The the .simplest brevity. A ketubah of

Preamble. 1079 has five words which may be
translated " In the Creator's name may
they build their house and prosper"; another, only
two, signifying "In a good hour." Others, and
those the most common in modern times, especially
in Italy, have three letters, tO C3, meaning "With
good luck. " A Cretan one of 1806 is headed by verse
22 of Prov. xviii., "Whoso tindeth a wife findeth
a good thing." The Yemenite fcirmulas of modern
times, like tlie Persian ones of medieval days, and

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Ketubah
Ketubot

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

478

those of the Egypt of Saadia and Maimonides, are

generally much more elaborate, and combine a

prayer for good luck with one of

Date and good wishes for the rosh yeshibah or

Ornamen- nagid of the time and his college with

tation. those for the bride and bridegroom.

The date given in the ketubah is in
Oriental countries invariably the " minj'an shetarot "
— the Seleucidan era, beginning 313 B.C. In Eu-
rope it is gener-
ally the "annus
mundi " which
is used; but in a
ketubah execu-
ted in Metz iu
1820 the year
(6th) of Napo-
leon is given,
showing an ap-
parent intention
to start a new
era with him as
the modern Al-
exander.

The place of
the marriage is
always given
with geograph-
ical accuracy.
Thus in preex-
pulsion times
Paris is stated
to be on the
rivers Seine and
Bi^vre ; London,
on the Tamesis
and Galbrook
(= Walbrook).

The ketubah,
as the external
symbol of so
auspicious an
event among so
domestic a peo-
ple, lent itself to
decoration of
the most varied
kind. The Ital-
ian specimens of
the seventeenth
and eighteenth
centuries were
specially ornate.
Some choice ex-
amples are in

the Musee Cluny and in the Smitli.souiau Institu-
tion. Earlier ornamentation was generally in the
nature of illumination, writing in gold, etc., and
calligraphy. Sometimes, as in Masoretic Bibles,
the decoration is supplied by designs in which lines
are replaced by minuscule writing. Tlius in one
beautiful specimen of a marriage contract at Co-
lorno near Parma of 1688 the whole of Canticles
makes up the elaborate floral design surrounding
the body of the deed. Turkish ketubot generally
rely on the embellishment provided by Moorish and

Ketubah, or Marriage Contract, Uatfd Rome, 5.56:2

(In the possession of A. Wulf, Drestl.?n.)

Mosaic designs. Later Italian specimens often in-
corporate illustrations more or less appropriate to
the contracting parties. Thus, where the bride is
named Esther, a picture of Ahasuerus holding out
his scepter to Queen Esther is given. So, too, when
an Isaac is the bridegroom, there is given a repre-
sentation of the sacrifice of Abraham's son of that
name. Occasionally, however, conventional pic-
tures of two hearts pierced by a dagger, a pair of

love-birds, or a
true-lovers' knot
take the place
of such personal
pictorial allu-
sions. But an-
gels and coro-
nets, flowers and
fruits, are the
most usual of
the Italian dec-
orations. Often
"tena'im" or
pecuniary stipu-
lations, more or
less complicat-
ed, are written
alongside of the
ketubah.

Bibliography: M.
Bloch, Dan Mnsa-
isch-Talinud Uschc
Eherecht, Buda-
pest, 189(); idem,
Sha'are Toratlta-
Talihanot, Cra-
cow,' 1894; Kauf-
mann, Zin- Gesch.
der Khcthnhha,
in Monatsschrift,
1897; idem, Aus
cinem Briefe El-
kaii N. Adlers,
ib.

A. E. N. A.

KETUBIM.

See Hagiogua-

PHA.

KETUBOT :

Treatise in the
Mishnah,theTo-
sefta, and in the
Babylonian and
Jerusalem Tal-
muds. In the
Mishnaic order
of the Seder Na-
shim, Ketubot
stands second. It
is divided into
thirteen chapters, containing in the aggregate 101
paragraphs, of which the following is a synopsis:

Ch. i. : Wednesday is the appointed wedding-day
for virgins, and TJmrsday for widows (§ 1) ; the
amount of the settlement is 200 zuzim if the bride
be a virgin on her wedding-day, and
100 zuzim iu other cases (§§ 2-4) ; in
the case of the marriage of a priest's
virgin daughter the amount of the ke-
tubah is fixed by the court of the priests at 400 zuzim
(^ 5) ; the cri'dibility of a woman regarding her own

180:i.

Ch. i.
and ii.

479

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ketubah
Ketubot

statement as to the loss of hor virginity (^§ 6-7) ;
whether a woman may be believed concerning the
lineage of the man with whom she has had intercourse
or concerning the paternity of her child («^^ 8-9).

Ch. ii. : How far the ceremonies observed at the
wedding of a virgin serve as evidence when she
comes to demand her ketubah (§ 1); credibility of
those who declare an act to be invalid or annulled
by another in case the act in question is known only
through their own statements (see Miggo ; §§ 2-5) ;
credibility of those who testify to their own or to
one another's advantage (§§ 6, 7, 9) ; credibility of a
witness in regard to priestly descent (§ 8) ; cases in
which adults may be trusted to testify to what they
saw when they were minors (§ 10).

Ch. iii. : Punishments for seduction of a virgin
(Ex. xxii. 15-16) and for assaidt on one (Deut. xxii.
25 et seq.); the classes of women to
Ch. iii.-v. which the laws contained in Deut.
xxii. 28-29 are applicable (g§ 1-3);
difference between a seducer and one who commits
assault (§§ 4-6); method of estimating the fine (§ 7);
certain civil laws varying with the age of the victim
(§8); how far punishment is reducible by volun-
tary confession (^ 9).

Ch. iv. : To whom the fine belongs (§§ 1-2); of
the female proselyte (§ 3) ; rights of a father ; rights
and duties of a husband (Jj 4); when the husband's
duties begin (g 5) ; duties of the husband to the wife
or her heirs ; what belongs to the widow and her
daughters after tlie death of the husband and father,
even when there is no distinct provision (§§ 6-12) ;
differences in the form of the ketubah adopted re-
spectively by the people of Judea and by the Gali-
leans (§ 12).

Cli. V. : Additions made by the husband to the
minimum amount of the ketubah, mentioned above
(§1); tlie time to be allowed the woman wherein
to prepare for the wedding (§§ 2-3) ; extent of the
control of the husband over the earnings of his wife,
and whether he may assign them to the Temple (§ 4) ;
what work must be performed by the wife, since it is
considered advisable that she have some employment
lest idleness lead her to an evil life (§ 5); the mutual
duties of husband and wife in their conjugal and
other relations (§§ 6-9).

Ch. vi. : To what extent a husband is entitled to

share in money belonging to his wife, whether

earned by work or acquired by inherit-

Ch. vi.-ix. ance (§ 1); the wife's dowry; the

responsibility of the husband for the

dowry brought to \nn\ is decided by the custom of

the land (§§ 2-4) ; dowry of a daughter (§§ 5-7).

Ch. vii. : The following are grounds for the dis-
solution of marriage: vows, certain diseases, faith-
lessness to the marriage vow on the part of the wife
(§§ 1-8); by transgres.sion of certain IMosaic laws
or Jewish customs, the wife forfeits all rights to
her ketubah (§ 6) ; cases in which marriages may be
annulled in consequence of the sickness or disreputa-
ble status of the husband (§§ 9-10).

Ch. viii. : Property of the woman before and dur-
ing wedlock, and the rights of tlie husband over it
(§§ 1-5); of the rights of the man over the property
of his deceased brother's widow witli whom he has
contracted a levirate marriage (jj^ 6-7).

Ch. ix. : How tlie husband may surrender his
rights to his wife's possessions (i^ 1); rights of the
wife to property left by her liusband, and the cases
in which she must take oath tliat she lias not re-
ceived her ketubah (g>5 2-8); cases in which the wife
may obtain her ketubah without showing her bill
of divorce (§ 9).

Ch. X. : Laws applicable to cases where the hus-
band dies and leaves more than one wife.

Ch. xi. : Rights of the widow to
Ch. x.-xiii. property of the heirs (§ 1); right of
the widow to sell, pawn, or give away
her ketubah (§§ 2-4); cases in which sales by auction
are invalid (g 5); what women have no claims to
the ketubah (§ 6).

Ch. xii. : The rights of an adopted daughter (§§
1-2); riglitof a widow to remain in her husband's
house or to be supported in her father's house by
her husband's heirs (^ 3); cases in which the require-
ments of the ketubah lapse.

Ch. xiii. : Opinions and maxims of Admon and
Hanan, j udges of Jerusalem (§§ 1-9); cases in which
the wife is obliged to follow her husband to foreign
lands; superiority of the land of Israel over other
lands, and of Jerusalem over the other cities of Pal-
estine (§§ 10-11).

The Tosefta contains much which serves to illus-
trate and supplement the Mishnah. Especially
noteworthy is its description of the
Tosefta and ancient marriage customs of Judea

Gemara. and Galilee (i. 4), the peculiar mode
of betrotlial in Alexandria (iv. 9), and
the plan of Simeon b. Shetah to make divorces more
difficult (xii. 1).

Both Gemaras discuss and explain the statements
of the Mislinah, and contain, moreover — especially
the Babylonian Gemara — a mass of stories, legends,
aphorisms, and proverbs, as well as other important
haggadic interpretations and comments.

The following passages from Ketubot may be
cited: " When impure words are spoken, close thine
ears" (5b); "He who useth impure speech will for-
feit all the rewards of his life" (8b); "The creditor
need not keep the paid bill" (19b); "Thou shouldest
have neither a savage dog nor a broken stairway in
thy house, lest people come to harm "

Maxims (41b) ; " ' His righteousness endureth
and for ever ' (Ps. cxii. 3) refers to him

Haggadot. who learns the Torah and teaches
others, and to him who has books and
lends them to his fellow students in order to make
their study easier" (50a); "Do not act as judge
in the case either of thy friend or of thine enemy,
for thy sentiments will not allow thee to be just to
botii" (105b); "It were better to submit thyself to
the torture of a deatii by fire than to cause shame to
thy neiglibor in public" (67b).

Special mention should also be made of the enu-
meration of the benedictions customary at a wed-
din-T (7a-8b), of the Hebrew words of consolation
(8b), of the catalogue of the ordinances which were
established at Usha (49b-50a\ of the narratives of
several teachers wlio were absent from their families
an unusually long time for the sake of studj' (62b-
63a), of tlie detailed account of tlie death of R. Judaii
ha-Nasi (103a-104a), and of the words of many teach-

Keturah
Kherson

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

480

ers "who extolled the superiority of Palestine, ex-
pressing their longing for the land of their fathers,
and who, when they had reached their goal, kissed
the stones and cast themselves in the dust (UOb-
112b).
8. s. J. Z. L.

KETURAH (miOp. lit. "incense"): Abraham's
second wife, whom he married after the death of
Sarah (Gen. xxv. 1 ; I Chron. i. 33). She was the
ancestress of sixteen tribes, among which were Ara-
bian and Midianite ones. In I Chron. i. 32 Ke-
turah is called "the concubine of Abraham," and,
probably for this reason, she is identified in the
Midrash (Gen. R. Ixi., quoted also by Rashi) and in
the Palestinian Targumim with IIagar, who was
the first concubine of Abraham. The Midrash
explains the name " Keturah " as based on her acts,
which were pleasant like frankincense. In Gen.
xxv. 5 the Midrash (i^.^". ) reads the term "ha-pillag-
shim " (=:"the concubines") without the yod.
which is the sign
of the plui-al
(D^TJ^Sn), ox-
plaining that
tiiere was only
one concubine,
as Hagar and
Keturah were
one person.
Still it seems
that such was
not the opinion
of the Talmudic
doctors; for the
children of Ish-
mael and the
children of Ke-
turah are kept
distinct in the
story of their

complaints against the Jews before Alexander the
Macedonian (Sanh. Ola).

E. G. TI. M. SeL.

KEY (nnso) : In Biblical times the key, as its
Hebrew name indicates (" mafteah" = " the opener "),
was used chietiy to open the door which was locked
by means of a bolt (" beriali "). This bolt, like that
used in the Orient to-day, had a number of holes
into which fitted iron points in the door-post, so ar-
ranged that they dropped into the corresponding
holes as soon as the bolt was pushed into the open-
ing made for it in the door-post. The key, made of
wood, was provided at the end with a similar num-
ber of nails, arranged to correspond with the iron
points holding the bolt. Introducing the key from
the side into the run of the bolt, one was able by
these nails to push up from below the iron points
and then draw the bolt back. Thus Ehud could
lock the door of Eglon's palace without the aid of
a key, while only P^glon's servants "took the key
and opened" (Judges iii. 2o). The expression "to
bear the key on his shoulder " denotes possession
of office (comp. Isa. xxii. 22). In the time of Ezra,
four Levites, the chief porters, were in charge
of the key of the Temple (I Chron. ix. 27). The

Bolt and Key Used
1. Locked. 2

key as a symbol of authority is also met with in the
Talmud: "Three keys are in God's ovt^n hand which
He never entrusteth to any angel : the key of rain ;
that of childbirth; and that of the resurrection of
the dead. The Western (Palestinian) Talmudists
say also the key of nourishment" (Sanh. 113a;
Ta'an. 2a).
E. G. II. M. Sel.

KEYSER, EPHRAIM : American sculptor;
i)orn at Baltimore, Md., Oct. 6, 1850; educated at
the City College of Baltimore and at the art acad-
emies of Munich (where he won a silver medal for
a bronze statue of a page) and Berlin. In 1880 he
settled in Rome, Italy, where he maintained a studio
for six years and where he received a prize for a
statue of Psyche. In 1887 he returned to the United
States, and lived in New York until 1893. Since
then he has resided in Baltimore, where he is now
(1904) instructor in modeling at the School of Fine
Arts. Among ins works may be mentioned : the

statue of Gen-
eral de Kail),
erected by the
government at
Annapolis, Md. ;
the design for
the tomb of
Chester A. Ar-
thur, President
of the United
States, at Al-
bany, New
York ; and va-
rious busts,
a m o n g t ii e m
those of Cardi-
nal Gibbons,
Sidney Lanier,
and Henry Har-
land.
Appleton, Cucln. of American Biottrnphii.

F. T. H.

in Modern Syria.
. Unlocked.

Bibliography :
A.

KHAIBAR : Fortified town of Arabia in the dis-
trict of Hejaz, and four days' journey northwest
of the city of Medina. In the time of Mohammed,
the name " Khaibar " was borne by a whole prov-
ince, which was inhabited by various Jewish tribes;
the name became famous in consequence of the
prominence of the town in the Islamic wars. Ac-
cording to Mohammedan historians, the first inhab-
itants of the district of Hejaz were the Amalekites,
who had been expelled by the Israelites. There are
various traditions in regard to the settlement of
Khaibar by the Jews: that they settled there in the
time of Moses; of Joshua; of Saul (who was sent by
Samuel to exterminate the Amalekites) ; of David,
when he fled before his son Absalom. But the most
probable supposition is that of Rapoport (in "Bik-
kure ha-'Ittim," 1824, p. 53), that the Jews of Khai-
bar are the descen'l;;nts of Jonadab b. Rechab, on
who.se recommendation they continued to live like
nomads. They settled in that fertile place after the
destruction of the First Temple, and, having no inter-
course with Jews in other parts, they were entirely
ignorant of the existence of the Talmud. As the

481

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Keturah
Kherson

Rechabites were of one family with the Kenites (I
Chron. ii. 55), Eapopoit identifies the name "Khai-
bar " (laTi) with " Hebcr " (l^n). the name of the
chief of the Keuites. The Jews in the province of
Khaibar in the time of Mohammed had seven for-
tresses or castles, similar to those of the Christian
knights (the Arabian geographers, among them
Yakut, derive the name from a Hebrew word mean-
ing "fortress"), the strongest of which was Kamus,
built by the chief Ibn Hukaik ; these fortresses pro-
tected tlie Jews against tlie predatory incursions of
the Bedouins.

In regard to the history of Khaibar prior to Mo-
hammed, the historians report only the single fact
that Al-Harith al-A'raj, King of Ghassan, made an
incursion into it in 524. One hundred years later,
during ^Mohammed's war in Hejaz, a Jewish tribe,
the Banu Nadir, deserted the prophet's camp and
sought refuge in the town of Khaibar. This war-
like tribe e.xhorted its coreligionists there to resist
Mohammed in the event of his besieging them.
Mohammed invaded the district in 628, and the
Jews retreated to their fortresses, where they
bravel}' defended themselves. Tlieir leaders were
Kinanah ibu Rabi', aNadirite, and Marhab, of Him-
yarite origin. The greatest resistance was offered
by the fortress of Kamus, v.hich, in spite of the
overwhelming numbers of Mohammed's forces, held
out two months. Finallj', the Jews capitulated,
but they were allowed to remain on paying a certain
tribute.

Omar, the second calif, violated the treaty of Mo-
hammed and drove the Jews from Khaibar about
640, assigning them a strip of land near Al-Kufah,
on the Euphrates. Benjamin of Tudela reports 50,-
000 Jews in the city of Khaibar, among whom were
many learned scholars; but Ibn Sappir (book i., ch.
XV.) corrects his mi.stake. It is hardly probable
that Jews ever returned to the place. The expres-
sion " Yahud al- Khaibar " has remained as a term of
reproach. Travelers of the eighteenth century, as
Niebuhr and Seetzen, reported merely hearing of
Jewish nomads in Khaibar.

Bibliography: Abu al-Fida, Aniialcs.ed. Artier, i. 65: Yakut,
Mn'.jam, li. oM; Niebuhr, Vonagc en Arahie, p. 336; S.' de
Sacy, m Memnires deVAcadeniie des Inscriptions et Belles-
Lett res, xlviii. 670; Caussin de Perceval, B.s-.sai sur VHis-
tnire des Arabes, li. 237, 642-64.5; iii. 87, 12:3, 130, i:32, 1.59,
160, 193-195, 444; Rapoport, in Bikkure lia-'Ittinu iv. 51-6:3;
Brull's Jahrh. vii. 53; Gratz, Ge*c7i. 3d ed., v. 66, 67, 100-
108; vi. 2.50; Benjamin of Tudela, Itinerani, ed. Asher, p.
72: Benjamin II., Mas'e Yisrael, p. 80, Lyck, ia59; Weil,
Mohammed der pT'ophet, pp.171, 186, 413; Hirschfeld, in
R. E. J. viii. 167 et seq.

G. M. Sel.

EHERSOX: Russian city; capital of the gov-
ernment of the same name ; situated on the right
bank of the Dnieper, near its mouth. It was
founded by Prince Potemkin in 1778. When per-
mission was given the Jews to settle in New Russia
by a ukase of Nov. 16, 1769, a number established
themselves in the district which later included
Kherson ; some of these were among the first inhab-
itants of Kherson. By 1781 the Jews in Kherson
had become numerous enough to organize a commu-
nity, and the pinkcses show that the by-laws of the
hebra kaddisha Avere prepared in that year. Ac-
cording to these records, the head of the brotherhood
was elected for life, and the governing body was
VII.— 81

chosen from among the members by ballot. From
1839 to 1859 there were ninety-three members.
When a comniission was organized (Aug. 1, 1840) in
Odessa by order of the government to consider the
feasibility of establishing the office of government
rabbi, the Kherson community voluntarily elected
Moses AVarshavski, a local merchant, as delegate to
represent it before the commission. According
to the official repnrt (1856) of the "learned Jew"
Marcus Gurovich to the governor-general of New
Russia, there were at that time in the city of Kher-
son eight Jewish prayer-houses, including one large
new synagogue, one Talmud Torah supported by
private funds, and one Jewish hospital supported
partly by the contributions of the wealtliy merchant
Feker and partly from funds derived frf)m the bas-
ket-tax. The Talmud Torah was founded in 1860 ; its
course of instruction at first included Hebrew sub-
jects only, but later, owing to the efforts of the young
rabbi, Faitel Blumenfeld, a graduate of the Jitomir
rabbinical school, was expanded to include the
study of general non-Hebrew subjects. In 1865
Blumenfeld succeeded in adding industrial classes
to the Talmud Torah, and in 1867 he secured per-
mission to open a technical school in Kherson,
though, in consequence of the indifference of the
community, it was never opened.

The income of the community in 1881 from its
meat-tax was 31,000 rubles; from this sum 3,800
rubles were assigned to the two large synagogues,
and an equal sum to the ten prayer-houses. A fixed
proportion of the meat-lax was assigned for the use
of the Jewish hospital. On Oct. 6, 1881, a commis-
sion of twenty-eight, appointed to consider " the
Jewish question," was convened in Kherson. It
included three JeAvish members — Dr. Zetkin of Yeli-
savetgrad, Blumenfeld of Ananyev, and Buuzelman
of Kherson. In a paper presented to the commis-
sion by the Christian merchants of the govern-
ment, the latter praise the Jewish agriculturists of
Kherson as peaceful and honest neighbors, who till
the soil b\- their own labor, show no disposition to
evade military service, and are seldom guilty of in-
subordination. They perform their duties faith-
full}', and furnish the smallest proportion of crimi-
nals. The commission voted in favor of permitting
to Jews unrestricted rights of residence throughout
Russia.

The Jews of Kherson have contributed to the de-
velopment of the trade in timber and other forest
products Avith White Russia, and have been influen-
tial in the expansion also of the export trade in
grain. In 1881 there Avere in the city 4 Jewish
merchants of the "first gild" in a total of 6: 66
JcAvish merchants of the "second gild" in a total
of 136; 55 Jewisli merchants licensed for retail trade
in a total of 134; and 54 JcAvish clerks in a total of
139. Of the 40 lumber-yards of Kher-

Institu- son, 36 Avere OAvned by JeAvish mer-
tions. chants. The lumber trade in 1880
amounted to 2,500.000 rubles. The
members of the Kherson comiuunity are distinguished
for their progressive s]>irit and their recognition of
the value of a modern education. In 1899 Kiierson
had eight prayer-houses, five synagogues (one of
them Karaite), one Jewish technical .school, one Tal-

Khin
^iddush

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

482

mud Torah, one Jewish dispensary, and a number
of hadarim. Among the prominent members of the
Jewish community in Kherson have been Nahum
Finkelstein, Julius Kranzfeld, Julius and Solomon
Rosenthal, Tobias Felzer, Dr. Marcus Popich, Dr.
Herzenstein, Mordecai Feker, Jacob Reznikov, Moses
Hyam Serebrennik, Jacob Posner, Eliezer Lipman
Golizki, Rabbi Faitel Blumenfeld, his son Herman
Bluraenfeld, Rabbi Isaac Judah Deutscliman, Rabbi
Pesker, P. Bunzelman, Nahum Gorodetzki (who was
made hereditary honorary citizen), Abraham Jacob
Bruk (who from 1861 was for many years teacher of
the Hebrew government school, and who in 1862
founded on very liberal lines a Jewish school for
girls ["Ha-Maggid," 1862, p. 300]), and Judah
Behak, the writer (who went to Kierson in 1856).
Behak exerted a beneficial influence on the edu-
cation of the Jews in the city; the community
erected a school in commemoration of his eightieth
birthday, and named it Bet Yehudah. In 1890
Kherson had a total population of 72,451, of which
about 25,000 were Jews.

Bibliography : Lemer, Yevrei v Novornssiskom Kraye, pp.
24, 73, 92, Odessa, 1901; Vonkhnd, 1881, ix. 173; Levanda,
Polny Kltron. SborniU Zakonnv, p. 33, St. Petersburg, 1874 ;
Mysh, Bukovodstvo k Russkim Zakonam o Yevreuakh, p.
175, St. Petersburg, 1898 ; Razsvyei, 1879^0, Nos. 4, 21, 26, 29,
31, 34, and 36.
H. R. J. G. L.

KHIN, RACHEL MIRONOVNA: Russian
authoress; born in White Russia in 1863; educated
at the Women's gymnasium, Moscow; studied medi-
cine at St. Petersburg and history and literature at
Paris. Her novels and sketches first appeared in the
"Vyestnik Yevropj%" "Russkaga Mysl," "Nedye-
lya," and" Voskhod," and were later issued in book
form under the titles " Siluety " (Moscow, 1894) and
" Pod Goru " {ib. 1900).

Her novels deal mostly with the life of the middle-
class Russian landlords and the wealthier Jewish
merchants. She vigorously criticizes the tactless
manners of the Jewish upstarts, and pictures the
unenviable position of the intelligent- Jew who has
to choose between the love of Russian culture, in
which he has been educated, and the love of his
downtrodden coreligionists, who are deprived of
their rights.

Bibliography : Entziklopedicheski Slovar, xxxvli., St. Pe-
tersburg, 1903.
H. R. M. R.

KHOLIVC (CHELM) : Russian district town in
the government of Lublin. Its Jews are mentioned
in various documents of 1550 to 1569. In the latter
year the delegate from Kholm to the Diet of Lublin
complained of the growing power of the Jews and
proposed that "the Jews and Gipsies be treated ac-
cording to the Constitution." On Easter Day, 1580,
while a church procession was in progress the
burgher Timosh, with many companions, all armed
with various weapons, attacked the synagogue dur-
ing religious service. They threw .stones through
the windows, fired shots into the building, broke
down the doors, damaged the roof, and wounded
many of the congregation. A formal complaint
against the rioters was lodged by the Jewish elders
Pinkus, Saul, Avram Pestich, and Kalman, their
statement being corroborated by the noble Foma

Stano. The estimated loss to the synagogue was
2,000 gold ducats.

On May 1, 1582, Saul Novakhovich, Shlioma Ya-
kubovich, Marek, Jacob the Doctor (Rabbi), and
Bysko complained of the principal of the Kholm
school, stating that he came drunk to the synagogue
while the Jews were engaged in prayer, and that he
shouted, mocking the singing.

During the Cossack uprising of 1648-49 most of
the inhabitants of Kholm were killed, among them
about 400 Jews. In 1666 the delegate from Kholm
to the Diet of Warsaw was instructed to demand
the confiscation of land owned by the Jews without
legal title thereto, and formerly the property of the
Dominican monks.

In 1897 the Jews of Kholm numbered about 12,500
in a population of 19,236. The town is a commercial
center of considerable importance ; and practically
all the commerce is in the hands of Jews.
Bibliography : Regesty i Nadpisi, 1., Nos. 284 et passim.

H. R. J. G. L.

The following is a list of the rabbis who officiated in
Kholm since the second half of the sixteenth century :

Simon Auerbach ; Solomon Zalman (mentioned in
Solomon Luria's Responsa, No. 101); Elijah b. Ju-
dah Aaron (called Elijah Ba'al Shem; pupil of
Solomon Luria); Samuel Edels (1610-14); Eliezer
Perles; Isaac b. Samuel ha-Levi (until 1627); Moses
Katzenellenbogen (son of Me'ir Wahl ; d. 1689) ; Saul
Katzenellenbogen (son of Moses Katzenellenbogen ;
d. 1691); Jekuthiel b. Hosha Aaron of Lublin (d.
1697) ; Hillel b. Jonah ha-Levi (called from Kholm to
Wilna in 1690; grandson of Eliezer Ashkenazi; d.
1690); MeVr b. Benjamin Wolf (d. 1718); Solomon
b. Simhah Rapoport (d. 1763); Zebi Hirsch b. Selig;
Saul Margolioth (d. 1801) ; Samuel (gave his appro-
bation to the "Lehem Yehudah " in 1704) ; Solomon
(author of " Merkebet ha-Mishnah " ; d. 1756); Isaac
b. Mordecai ha-Levi (until 1776; d. 1799; grandson
of Joshua Reitzes, "the martyr"); Hirsch b. Joseph
(author of a treatise on the improvement of the posi-
tion of the Jews in Poland and on the ways to make
them useful citizens of their fatherland; 1789);
Hayyim b. Jacob (author of " Kokebe Ya'akob " ; d.
1820); Isaac b. Joseph (author of "Mishnat Haka-
mim ") ; Joseph Kezis (d. 1830) ; Lob Neuhaus (son
of Joseph Kezis).

Bibliography : L. Rabinowitz, in Ha-Meassef, p. 154, St. Pe-
tersburg, 1903; J. Lewinstein, Dor Dor we-JDorshaw, War-
saw, 1898.
H. R. V. R.

KHORASAN ("The Land of the Sun"): One
of the five great divisions of Persia, bounded on the
east by Afghanistan ; on the north by Zakaspie, the
transcaspian territory of Russia; and on the south
by Kirwan. In ancient times it was the territory
immediately east of that ruled by the Sassanids, who
occasionally exiled political offenders thither. Thus,
in 930 Saadia's friend Josiah the anti-exilarch was
banished to Khorasan.

The cities of the province in which Jews are most
numerous are Meshed and Herat. In Meshed there
is a colony of about 2,000 crypto-Jews, known as
" Jadidin," who were nominally converted to Islam
early in the nineteenth century under the cruel
reign of Shah Nur al-Din's father. Some have mi-

483

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Khin
Kiddush

grated to transcaspian territory, and practise Juda-
ism at Merv, Aschabad, Bokhara, and Samarcand.
D. E. N. A.

KHTJDAIDAD. See Jud^o-Persian Litera-
ture.

KHURILKAR, JOSEPH DANIEL: Beni-
Israel soldier; bahadur subalidar in the Anglo-
Indian army. He enlisted in the Sixteenth Regi-
ment Bengal Native Infantry, and >vas successively
promoted to the ranks of jemidar (July 14, 1856),
subahdar (Jan. 1, 1858), and subahdar major (Jan.
1, 1872). He was decorated with the Indian Mutiny
medal (1857), and with the star of the Order of
British India (3d class).

J. J. Hy.

KHURILKAR, SAMUEL EZEKIEL : Beni
Israel soldier; subahdar in the Anglo-Indian army.
He enlisted in the Sixteenth Native Infantry of
Bengal in 1790, and was made subahdar May 21,
1802. He was decorated with a bronze medal da-
ted May 4, 1799, on one side of which is the figure
of the British Lion subduing the Indian Tiger
(Tipu Sahib); the reverse represents the entry of a
British army into Seringapatam, and bears an in-
scription in Persian, dated "37 Zilkad, a.h. 1213."

Bibliography : Catalogue of Anglo-Jewish Historical Ex-
hibition, p. 45, London, 1887.
J. J. Hy.

KIAMIL PASHA : Turkish official ; born at
Nicosia, Cyprus, in 1832. Educated on that island
and in Egypt, he at the age of seventeen entered
the service of the Egyptian government, afterward
passing into that of Turkey, under which he has
successively held the following important political

positions: mayor of
Touzla (1859); presi-
dent of the administra-
tive council of Saida;
subprefect of Beirut,
of Damascus (1866), of
Aleppo (1867), of Phil-
ippopolis (1868), of
Jerusalem, of Cyprus
(1874), and again of
Beirut (1875) ; and vali
of Aleppo (1876). Re-
signing in 1878, he re-
turned to office in 1881,
being successively ap-
pointed councilor to
the ministry of the in-
terior, minister of pious
foundations (1883), and
minister of public in-
struction (1883). In 1884 he was elevated to the
rank of grand vizier (" Sadriazam "). He resigned,
but was recalled to the same functions in 1891.

Kiamil Pasha is now (1904) governor of the vila-
yet of Aidin, with residence at Smyrna. In recog-
nition of his services he has received the Turkish
orders of Imtiaz, Osmanie, and Medjidie, the medal
of Crete, and other decorations. Born in the Jew-
ish faith he has been a professed Mohammedan since
his boyhood.

EiBLiOGRAPHv: Salnamch (Official Annual) for 1309 a. ii.
8. M. Fr.

Kiamil Paslia.

KIBHOTH-HATTAAVAH (niNnn m3p) : A
station of the Israelites in the wilderness on the
journey from Sinai to Kadesh (Num. xi. 34, xxxiii.
16). The name, which means "the graves of lust,"
was given to the place on account of its being the
burial-ground of the multitudes that died through
glutting themselves with quail flesh (Num. xi. 34).
It would seem from Num. xi. 3, 4, that Kibroth-
hattaavah was identical with Taberah, which was
three days' journey from Sinai (comp. ib. x. 33).
In Deut. ix. 22, however, the two stations are men-
tioned as distinct places. Kibroth-hattaavah is
identified by Schwarz ("Das Heiiige Land," p. 213)
with the modern 'Ain al-Shihabah, in the interior of
the desert (comp. Robinson, "Researches," i. 264).

K- G. H. M. Sel.

KID. See Goat.

KIDDUSH : Ceremony and prayer by which the
holiness of the Sabbath or of a festival is pro-
claimed. For the Sabbath the Scripture imposes
this duty in the words: "Remember the Sabbath
day to keep it holy," which, according to Shab.
86a, means that its holiness must be recognized in
speech during the day. It is a positive duty and
connected with a set time; yet women as well as
men are bound by it; for the "remember" of Ex. xx.
8 is coextensive with the "keep " of Deut. v. 12 (see
Ber. 20a). The middle benediction of the prayer
ends with the words : "Blessed . . . who sanctifieth
the Sabbath; blessed . . . who sanctifieth Israel
and the seasons . . . ; blessed . . . the King over all
the earth who sanctifieth Israel and the day of
Memorial " ; this is deemed a fulfilment of the Scrip-
tural command as to the Sabbath (Ber. 52b). How-
ever, under an old custom, recognized by the Mish-
nah (Ber. viii. 1), the Sabbath and the festivals are
sanctified in another cheerful and impressive way
— over a glass of wine before the evening meal,
even though the benediction has already been re-
cited in the prayer. The drinking of the wine,
with the recitation of the accompanying words, con-
stitutes the ceremonj'^ of Kiddush, in which husband,
wife, children, and dependents take part together.
According to Ber. 33a, the origin of the ^iddush
can be traced back to the time of the Great Syna-
gogue; indeed, from the controversies between the
schools of Shammai and Hillel on various points
connected with the Kiddush, it is clearly seen that
the ceremony is very old. For Passover evening
the Yemenite prayer-book has a different Kiddush,
reproduced in the "Eben Sappir" of the traveler
Jacob Satir.

Although the Talmud (Pes. 107a) declares strong
drink other than wine improper for the Kiddush,
such drink, of necessity, takes the place of wine to
a great extent in northeastern Europe. It is re-
garded, however, as more dignified,
Substitutes where wine can not be had, to pro-
for Wine, uounce the Kiddush over the bread
(see Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayj'im,
271, 26) than to substitute beer or brandy. At the
beginning of Sabbath two whole loaves of bread are
laid down in memory of the double measure of
manna that was gathered on Friday (Shab. 117b),
with a white cloth under and over them (Orah Hay-

Kiddush
Kiddushin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

484

yim, 271, 9). There is no true Kiddush except at
the place of the meal (implied in Ber. viii. 2, and ex-
pressly asserted by Samuel in Pes. 101a). However,
there is a custom (which Samuel reproves) of pro-
nouncing the Kiddush at the end of the evening
service in the synagogue. Abudarham, in his work
on the services, in tiie chapter on the beginning of
Sabbath, wonders how this custom ever took root,
and quotes Hai Gaon, the last of the Geonim,
against it. It was defended on the ground that at
one time travelers were housed and took supper in
a room adjoining the synagogue, and that thus the
Kiddush was really celebrated near the place of the
meal ; the custom persisted among the Ashkenazim
because no one would take the responsibility of
abolishing it, though the occasion for it had long
ceased. The Kiddush for the Sabbath is made up
of two benedictions: that for the wine (or bread,
when wine is not used) and that for the day. Fol-
lowing the opinion of Hillel's school, that for the
wine is said first: "Blessed be Thou, O Lord, our
God, King of the World, the Creator of the fruit of
the vine. Blessed be thou, O Lord,
The Bene- our God, King of the World, who hast

dictions, sanctified us by Thy commandments
and wast pleased with us, and hast
given us for a heritage, in love and favor. Thy holy
Sabbath, a memorial of the Avork of creation. For
it precedes all the holy convocations in memory of the
going forth from Egypt. Thou hast indeed chosen
us above all nations, and hast given us, in love and
favor. Thy hoi}' Sabbath for a heritage. Blessed be
Thou, O Lord, who hailowest the Sabbath."

Before these benedictions it is customary to re-
cite Gen. ii. 1-3, the accoimt of the Sabbath of
Creation, in obedience to the saj'ing of the Talmud
(Shab. 119b) that one who recites it makes him-
self, in a sense, a partner with God in the work of
creation. In the German ritual these verses are
preceded in a low voice by the last words of Gen.
i. : "And the evening and the morning were the
sixth day." The indirect reference to the departure
from Egypt is probably based on Pes. 117b, though
this is primarily meant for the Kiddush on the Pass-
over. On the three festivals the benediction for the
day takes this form, the words in brackets being
inserted on the Sabbath : " Blessed . . . , who hast
chosen us from every tribe and lifted us over every
tongue; Thou gavest us, O Lord, our God [in love
Sabbaths for rest,] set times for gladness, feasts, and
seasonsfor joy, [this Sabbath day and] this . . . day
of the feast of unleavened bread, the season of our
liberation ... in memory of our going forth from
Egypt ; for Thou hast chosen us, and hast hallowed
us, and hast given us [in love and favor] in gladness
and joy [the Sabbath and] Thy holy set times for a
heritage; blessed be Thou, O Lord, who hailowest
[the Sabbath and] Israel and the seasons. " (On Pen-
tecost, the Feast of Booths, and the eighth day of
Solemn Assembly necessary changes in wording are
made.) On New-Year's night the benediction pro-
ceeds thus: "Blessed . . . Thou gavest us . . . this
Day of Memorial, a day of sounding the shofar, a
holy convocation, in memory of the going forth from
Egypt; and Thy word is true and standeth forever;
blessed be Thou, O Lord. King over all the earth.

who hailowest [the Sabbath and] the Day of
Memorial."

On all the festivals other than the last days of
Passover, the celebrant thus gives thanks for having
reached the joyful time: "Blessed . . . who hast let
us live and sustained us, and made us reach this
season." When the festival night follows the Sab-
bath, the Kiddush embraces two other benedictions
by way of " separation " (" habdalah ") between the
higher sanctity of the Sabbath and the lower one of
the festival, the place of these benedictions being
before the giving of thanks for having reacheil
the day : " Blessed be ... , Creator of the light-rays
of the fire. Blessed be ... , who distinguishest be-
tween holy and profane, between light and darkness,
between Israel and the nations, between the seventh
day and the six work-days. Between the holiness
of the Sabbath and the holiness of the holy day Thou
hast distinguished, and Thou hast distinguished
and hallowed Thy people Israel in Thine own holi-
ness. Blessed be Thou, O Lord, who distinguishest
between Holy and Holy." See Habdalah.

The full text of this benediction is not given in
the Talmud, but its nature is discussed (Pes. 102b,
105a). The idea of distinguishing between Holy
and Holy is derived from the veil in the Temple
which divided the Holy from the Holy of Holies.
After reciting the Kiddush the master of the house
sips from the cup, and then passes it to his wife and
to the others at the table; then all wash their hands,
and the master of the house blesses the bread, cuts
it, and passes a morsel to each person at the table.

Beside the Kiddush at the evening meal there is
another of later origin and of less importance, called,
by inversion, the "Great Kiddush." It consists sim-
ply of the recitation of some Bible verses referring
to the Sabbath or the current festival, and of the
benediction for wine, and precedes the first morning
meal (see Orah Hayyim, 271-272). Regarding the
origin of the Kiddush see Liturgy.

A. ' L. N. D.

KIDDUSH LEBANAH. See New-Moon.

KIDDUSH HA-SHEM and HILLUL HA-
SHEM ("Sanctification " and " Desecration of the
Name"): Terms denoting the highest positive and
negative standards of Jewish ethics, the one indica-
ting that everything within man's power should be
done to glorify the name of God before the world,
the other that everj'thing should be avoided which
may reflect discredit upon the religion of Israel and
thereby desecrate the name of God (see L. Lazarus,
"Zur Charakteristik der Talmudischen Ethik," p.
40). The terms are derived from Lev. xxii. 32:
" Neither shall ye profane my holy name ; but I will
be hallowed among the children of Israel ; I am the
Lord which hallow you " — the verse called by Jel-
linek ("Predigten," 1862, i. 225 e««ef/.)" Israel's Bible
in miniature." Referring in the text to the priests
as the appointed guardians of the Sanctuary, the
commandment, in its positive and in its negative
forms, was applied at an early time to the whole peo-
ple of Israel as the priest-people, whose very lives
and history stand for the belief in the world's holy
God. Sifra, P^mor, xiii. reads: " I have brought you
out of Egypt upon the condition that j'ou sacrifice

486

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kiddusb
Kiddushin

your very lives should the honor of My name require
it " ; hence every Israelite is enjoined to .sui-render his
life rather than by public transgression of the Law
desecrate the name of God (Sauh. 74a, b ; Slndhan
'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, clvii.).

Throughout Jewish history niartyrdoui in the
cause of religion is called " sanetitieation of God's
name." Hananiah, Mishael, and Aza-
Jewish. riah (Dan. iii. ; Pes. 58b; Sauh. 93a;
Martyr- Sotah 10b), the nuiu who in Maeeabean
dom. times were " for the Lord's sake killed
all day long " (Psalms xliv. 2'S [A. V.
22], Ixxix. 2), the generation of martyrs in Bar
Kokba's time (Ber. 20b; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xvi. 4),
are singled out as preeminent among those who
glorilied the name of God by their ileath, and as
models for all the coming generations of Israel, the
martyr-people. Only of the non-Jew, even when
an observer of the Noaehiau laws common to all hu-
manity, it is not expected that he sanctify the name
of God by martyrdom (Sauh. 74b). Very dramat-
ically R. Nathan describes the Jewish sentiment pre-
vailing in a time of (Hadrianic?) persecution : " Why
art thou brought out to be killed?" — "Because I
have performed the rite of circumcision ui)on my
son." "Why art thou. to be stoned to death?"—
"Because I have observed the Sabbath." "WJiy
art thou led out to die by fire?" — "Because 1 have
studied the Law." " Why art thou to be crucified? "
— "Because I have observed the law of the unleav-
ened bread on Pesah." "Why art thou to be beaten
with sticks? "— " Because I have swung the lulab on
sukkot. All these things happen to me because I
am the beloved one of my Fatlier in heaven " (Mek.,
Yitro, 6; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xii. 5). After martyi-
dom had begun to imperil the existence of the Jew-
ish nation in Palestine the council of Lydda decreed
that only with regard to the three fundamental laws,
against idolatrj', incest, and murder, should death
be preferred to tran.sgression (Sanh. 74a). But
when the transgression is demanded as a public
demonstration of apostasy or faithlessness tlie rule
is that death should be preferred for the sake of the
sanctification of God "s name (see Maimonides, " Yad , "
Yesode ha-Torah, v.). The 'Akedah read on New-
Year was taken by the Jewish peojile as a i)attern
of martyrdom which Isaac was to offer to all his
descendants (Git. 57b; IV jVIacc. xiv.-xvii.; Lam.
R. i. 16; Schreiner, " Die Jungsten Urtheile liber das
Judeuthum," 1902, pp. 179-180).

But the familiar term Kiddush haShem assumed
for the Jew in the course of time a still wider mean-
ing. Every act of humanity and gen-
Works a erosity done to tiie non-Jew appeals to
Powerful the Jew as dictated by the impulse to
Spell. hallow God's name before the Gentiles.
Just as the prophet Ezekiel (xx. 31,
xxxix. 27) emphasizes the necessity to hallow God's
name in the eyes of the nations, so did the Jew at
all times pay especial regard to what the i)eople
around him would say (Gen. xxxiv. 30-31 ; Ex.
xxxii. 12; Ps. cxv. 2); and he felt all the more con-
strained to observe the law of integrity and purity
in the sight of the non-Jewish world. Simeon b.
Shetah was held up foraiiexami)le; when he bought
an ass from the Arabs and his servants expres.sed de-

light at discovering a necklace of jewels around its
neck, 'lie immediately returned the necklace to the
owner, who exclaimed: " Blessed be the God of the
Jews, who renders His peopU^so scrupulous in their
dealing with other men! " (Yer. B. M. ii. 8c; Deut.
R. iii.). It is the Jew's deep feeling of responsibil-
ity for his religious faith that works such a power-
ful spell upon him and inspires him to manifest by
noble deeds of righteou.sness and love his allegiance
to the God of his fathers.

Still more powerful as a deterrent from evil acts
is the expression "hillul ha-shem," instilling fear

lest the name of Israel and of Israel's

Hillul God be brought into contempt by the

ha-Shem. nnsconduct of the Jew. A theft com-

nutted against the non-Jew is more
heinous than a theft against the Jew, because to the
transgression of the Law is added the sin of desecra-
ting the Name (Tosef. , B. K. x. 15). "All sins
may be atoned for by repentance, by means cf the
Day of Atonement, or through the chastening power
of affliction, but acts which cause the desecration of
the name of God will not be forgiven, for "Surely
this iniquity shall not be purged from you till ye
die, saith the Lord God of hosts" (Isii. xxii. 14;
Mek., Yitro, 7; Yoma 86a; Matt. xii. 32 et al. has,
for "the Holy Name," "the Holy Ghost"). The
greater the man. the more he must guard against
causing hillul ha shem by the slightest deviation
from the path of strictest rectitude and moderation
(Yoma 84a, 86a ; Pes. 49a). To this day the warning
again.st hillul ha-shem tends to keep the commonest
Jew from conunittiug any act that might disgrace
the Jewish community.

Bibliography : L. Lazarus, Zur Charakteristik derTalmndi-
xcheii Etltilu pp. 4()-48, Breslau, 187"; M. Lazarus, Ethik den
Judenthums, i. 196 et seq.; J. Perles, Bou.>i,ser.v Heliyiov des
Judcnthumx. Kritixch Unfersucht, pp. 68-71, Berlin, 1903;
Silireiner, Die JVni{j»ten Urtheile Viher dm Judenthum,
Benin, 1903.

KIDDUSHIN (t't:mp = " Betrothal ") : Name of
a treatise in the Mislmah, Tosefta, and the Babylo-
nian and Jerusalem Tahnuds; it is devoted chiefly
to discussion of the various modes of betrothal and
the conditions which must be fulfilled to make a
marriage valid. " Kiddushin " is the rabbinical term
for betrothal, because the wife becomes thereby the
sacrosanct possession of the husband. In the mish-
naic order of Seder Nashim this treatise is the sev-
enth and last. Strictly, it should precede Gittin,
but the Mislmah follows the Scriptural order, which
mentions marriage after divorce (Deut. xxiv. 1-2).
In the Mi.slinah, Kiddushin isdividedinto fourchap-
ters, and comprises, in all, forty-seven paragraphs.

Ch. i.: The husband obtains his wife in three ways :
by money, however small the sum; by a written an-
nouncement; by sexual intercourse: the wife be-
comes free by divorce or the death of her husband
(^ 1). This leads to a discussion of
Contents, the acquisition and emancipation of
Jewish and heathen slaves of both
sexes (5;§ 2-3), of the acquisition of cattle (g 4) and
real or personal property (i:§ 4-6), and of the dis-
tinctions between man and woman regarding fulfil-
ment of the laws, those pertaining only to a definite
time not being binding on a woman (JJi; 7-8); laws
dealing with real estate apply only to Palestine (§ 9).

£idduBhin
Kiev

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

480

In the last paragraph, which is haggadic in nature
(§ 10), the reward for the observance of a law is de-
scribed, and it is further stated that he who is learned
in the Scriptures, possesses a knowledge of the
Mishnah, and has good manners is fairly guarded
against sin, whereas he that knows neither the Scrip-
tures nor the Mishnah, and is devoid of manners,
can not be regarded as a civilized being.

Ch. ii. : Rules and conditions for marriage by

proxy. A man may wed through a representative;

so may a woman (§ 1); but any error or fraud on

the part of either invalidates the union (§§ 3-3, 5-

6) ; so does any failure of the proxy to

Marriage follow exactly his instructions (§ 4).

by Proxy. In case the marriage is effected by

the gift of some article of value, it

must be an object the use of which is not forbidden

(S§ 8-10).

Ch. iii. : Further rules and conditions for mar-
riage by proxy (§§ 1-7); regulations for cases in
which a father betroths one of his daughters while
they are yet minors, but without stating definitely
which one (§ 9), or in case either the man or the
woman denies that a marriage ceremony has been
performed (§§ 10-11); circumstances under which
the custody of the child is granted to the man (or
the woman), or under which the child is regarded
as illegitimate (§§ 12-13).

Ch. iv. : Enumeration of the ten families of di-
verse origin that removed from Babylonia to Pales-
tine, and as to which of them may intermarry (§§ 1-3) ;
the tests by which purity of lineage is proved (§§ 4-
5); rules for the attestation of marriages contracted
in distant lands (§§ 10-11). Ethical injunctions: a
man must not remain alone with a woman (g^ 13-13) ;
a father must teach his son one of the honorable
trades enumerated and discussed, though the pre-
eminence of the study of the Law over every
other occupation is emphasized (§ 14). Special
interest attaches to the exclamation of Simeon b.
Eleazar: "The beasts, created to serve me, find
nourishment easily; therefore I, created to serve
God, should find nourishment still more easily; yet,
for my sins, it is hard for me to gain my food. " The
chapter closes with the statement that Abraham had
observed all the precepts of the Torah even before
it was revealed.

In the Tosefta this treatise is divided into five
chapters. Particularly noteworthy are the eulogy
of craftsmanship (i. 11) and the assertion which was
made by Akibatliat the Biblical prohibition against
intermarrying with certain nations even after con-
version to Judaism (see Deut. xxiii. 4-9) had been
abrogated, since the conquests and deportations by
the Assyrian kings (cotnp. II Kings xvii.) had so dis-
persed the peoples that none of them remained in its
original abode (v. 4).

Both the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Gemaras
contain elucidations of the individual mishnayot, in
addition to discussions and decisions of questions not
contained in the Mishnah itself. The Babylonian
Gemara has, furthermore, numerous interesting com-
ments and maxims, of which the following specimens
may be cited: "Who teacheth not his son a trade
teacheth him robbery" (39a); "Rewards for good
deeds come not in this world " (39b) ; " It is the duty

of a father to have his son instructed in the Scriptures,

the Mishnah, and the Talmud, as well as in halakot

and haggadot. " The ancients were called " Soferim "

because they counted the letters of the Torah ; they

said that the " waw " in the word pnj (Lev. xi. 43)

divided the letters of the Torah into two equal

groups, as does the "'ayin" in the

Masoretic word "ly^D (Ps. Ixxx. 14). The word

Divisions. tJ^lT (Lev. x. 16) divides the words,

and Lev. xiii. 43 the verses, of the

Pentateuch in half, while Psalm Ixxvii. 38 plays a

similar part in the Book of Psalms (30a).

These Masoretic observations are of special impor-
tance, inasmuch as they differ from tlie present Maso-
rah (comp. the marginal notes to the Wilna edition
of the Talmud). A very interesting characterization
of certain nations is found in 49b, which says that
the highest wisdom is the possession of Israel, and
the most perfect beauty the heritage of Jerusalem ;
the ancient Romans possessed the greatest wealth,
while the direst poverty is found in Babylon ; the
Persians are the bravest nation; magic flourishes
best in Egypt, and wantonness in Arabia; women
are most inclined to loquacity and slaves to laziness.
There is an account of the conflict between John
Hyrcands (here called " Yannai ") and the Pharisees
in 60a, and in 73b it is related that when Akiba died,
Judah ha-Nasi was born ; when he died, Rab was
born ; when Rab died, Raba was born ; and when
Raba died, Ashi was born. Another reference to
Akiba is found in 81b, where it is related that when-
ever he read Lev. v. 17 he wept: "If he that has un-
wittingly transgressed must make atonement for his
transgression, how much more he that has sinned
consciously. " It must be noted that the passage from
" Ha-ishah niknit " (2a) to " We-en dabar aher kortah "
(3b), at the beginning of the Gemara to the first
chapter, is a later addition of the Saboraim (comp.
the letter of Sherira Gaon in Neubauer, "M. J. C."
p. 26).

Bibliography: Z. Frankel,' Hodogetica in Mischnam, p. 260,
Leipsic, 1869.

s. s. J. Z. L.

KIDNAPING. See Abduction.

KIDRON (piTp) : A ravine on the east of Jeru-
salem, separating the city from the Mount of Olives
(comp. II Sam. xv. 23, 30). Except in II Kings
xxiii. 4, "Kidron " is always preceded by "Nalial,"
which, like the Arabic "Wadi," has the double
meaning of " brook " and " valley. " For a part of the
winter onlj', after heavy rains, the Kidron indeed is
a torrent, for which reason it is called by the Septua-
gint XeifiappovQ Kedpuv. The latter word, wliich
means "dark," relates to the dark color of the stream
or ravine; but the translation of the Septuagint in
II Sam. XV. 23 and I Kings xv. 13, Xei/iappovg tuv
KffJpwv, suggests a Greek name given to the place
on account of the cedars abounding there.

The Kidron is first mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment as having been crossed by David in his flight
(II Sam. XV. 23); then as having been indicated by
Solomon to Shimei as the limit beyond which he
might not go, under penalty of death (I Kings ii.
37). Later it became the repository of the imple-
ments of idol-worship when removed from the Tem-
ple. It was there that Asa burned his mother's idols

487

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

LidduBhixL
L.iev

(I Kings XV. 3; II Chron. xv. 16) and that Josiah
destroyed the Ashcrali (II Kings xxiii. 4, 6, 12; II
Chron. xxix. 16, xxx. 14). It would appear that in
the time of Josiah, Kidron was the cemetery of the
common people (II Kings xxiii. 6; comp. Jer. xxxi.
39 [A. V. 40]), hence the statement of Josephus
("Ant." ix. 7, § 3) that Athalia was executed in the
Valley of Kidron. It is also mentioned as having
been crossed by Jesus on his way to Gethseraane
(John xxiii. 1, A. V. Cedkon). The Valley of
Kidron is generally identified with the Valle}' of
Jehoshaphat (see Jehosiiaphat, Valley of). For
the Hebrew inscription found there in 1880, see
SiLOAM Inscription.
E. G. H. M. Sel.

EIEBA (ESTHER) : Jewish favorite of the sul-
tana Baffa, who was the wife of Murad III. and the
mother of Mohammed III. (not, as Graetz desig-
nates her, the mother of Mohammed IV.); died
1600. The widow of one Elias Chandali, Esther
gained great influence in the palace as the protegee
of Baflfa. In a firman of Osman II. issued in 1618
the privileges granted to Esther by his predecessors
are confirmed and secured to her grandchildren.
From this firman it appears that Esther was first re-
warded by Sultan Sulaiman II. in 1548 for services
rendered by her to his mother.

The extent of Kiera's influence with Baffa may
be seen fi'om the following facts, undoubtedly au-
thentic: When Catherine de Medici wrote in 1584
to Baffa asking her support for the promotion of
the waywode of Wallachia, Esther was employed by
Baffa to see that the Turkish translation accompany-
ing the Italian text of the letter was correct. Again
in 1587 Baffa wrote a letter of recommendation and
approval in regard to a certain lottery started by
Kiera. The favorable attitude of the Venetian repub-
lic toward this lottery was the cause of the issuance
of seven firmans granting certain privi-
Her leges to the republic. This shows that

Influence, the business transactions carried out
by Esther were made possible by the
cooperation of the harem through tlie personal in-
fluence of Baffa.

Many important diplomatic transactions and many
appointments to military and administrative offices
were made through Kiera; and her long career
under three sultans testifies to her ability and inge-
nuity. The representatives of the European powers
often applied to Kiera and secured concessions
through her. They variously refer to her in their
writings as " Kiera, " " Chiera, " " Chierara. " " Chiraz-
za," or " Chiarazza " The name " Kiora " is of Turk-
ish origin, Kiera's Jewish name being Esther; and
it appears that toward the end of her life she adopted
the Mohammedan faith and was then given the
name "Fatima," as she is so styled in the firman of
Osman II. Her sons were not converted with her,
as is shown by the statement that one of them later
saved his life by becoming a Mohammedan (he was
called " Aksak Mustafa," and he died in the reign of
Ibrahim I. [1640-49]) ; and her grandchildren also are
styled Jews in the firman referred to.

Kiera was not always scrupulous in her dealings.
Many of the appointments made through her in-

volved bribery and created bitter animosity. The
Turkish soldiers known as the Spahis resented the
appointment through her of some mili-
Her tary officers, and plotted to kill her.

Assassina- Gatiiering near the palace they de-
tion. manded her surrender to them, and
the deputy grand vizier Khalil, wish-
ing to save her life, ordered her and her sons to be
brought to his own palace. The mob, led by the
Spahis, overcame the guard, and taking Kiera and
her sons (Aksak Mustafa excepted) from the very
steps of the pal?.ce killed them (1600). Cutting off
Kiera's limbs they nailed them to the doors of the
dwellings of those officials who had obtained posi-
tions through her influence. The sultana Baffa was
very indignant and accused Khalil of unwilling-
ness to protect her favorite, and in consequence
he was removed. The historian Katib Tshelebi, in
his "Pheslike" (ed. Constantinople, i. 128), gives a
somewhat different version of the affair. Accord-
ing to him, Khalil Pasha had Kiera brought to his
palace and with his own hand thrust a dagger into
her and killed her. Her entire fortune (estimated at
about 100,000 ducats) was confiscated by the Turk-
ish government.

The contemporary Jewish historians speak highly
of Kiera for her readiness to help her coreligionists.
While there was a considerable number of well-
to-do Jewish merchants in Constantinople in those
days, they were always subject to the greed of the
sultan's body-guard, which plundered the Jewish
houses in times of municipal disorder and at fires.
At such times Kiera came to the aid of the sufferers.
She also very generously aided Hebrew writers in
publishing their books. The Spanish physician
Samuel Shulam published Zacuto's chronicle " Yu-
hasin " at Kiera's expense.

Kiera became the heroine of European fiction.
Thus she undoubtedly appears in " Byegly Vzglyad
na Nastoyashchi i Prezhni Serai " in Chistyakov's
"Zhurnal Dlya Dyetei," 1864, Nos. 5 and 6.

BiBLiofiRAPHY : Vngtochnui/a Zamyetki, Sbnmik Statei i
Izslyedovani, p. 35, St. Petersburg, 1893: Hammer. Gesch.
des Osmanischen Reiches, iv. 156, 159: Akrish. Preface to
Commentaries on the Sana of Snlomnn : Samuel Shulam,
Preface to Yuhasin, Constantiuople, 1566.
H. R. J- G. L.

KIEV : " The mother of Russian cities " ; situated
on the right bank of the Dnieper, in the government
of the same name. In 1903 it had a population of
249,830, including about 20,000 Jews.

It is difficult to decide when Jews first settled in
Kiev. The city was probably built by the Chazars
not later than the eighth century, and it is likely
that Jews from the Byzantine empire, the Crimea,
Persia, and the Caucasus settled there with the
Chazars about the .same time (see Malishevski, in
"Trudy Tretyavo Arkheologicheskavo Syczda,"
Feb. 12, 1878; "Kievskiya Gubernskiya Vycdo-
mosti," 1878, No. 24). Bruim is of the opinion
that the Chazars derived "Kiev" from "Kioba"
or "Kiaba,"the name of three brothers ("Trudy
Tretyavo Arkheologicheskavo Syezda," Feb. 12,
1878^ p. 89). Zakrevski (in "Opisaniye Kieva," p.
311, Moscow, 1868) is also of the opinion that the
Chazars were the means of bringing the Jews to

Kiev

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

488

Kiev; this being so, the Jews antedate the Russians
as citizens of that place. Malishevski, in "Yevrei
V Kievye i na Yugye Rossii," published in the
"Trudy Kievskoi Dukhovnoi Akademii," says that
Jews from the Orient (776) and from the Cau-
casus emigrated to Chazaria, and thence to Kiev,
where they found a community of Crimean Jews.
Joseph ha-Koheu (in '"Emekha-Baka") is authority
for the statement tliat Jews entered Russia in 690,
after the defeat of the Persians by the

Settled Arabs. When Kiev was taken by the
Under the Varangians many of the Jews escaped

Chazars. to Chazaria and to the countries on the
Volga and the Don, and after the de-
feat of the Chazars by Svyatoslav in 969 many Jews
emigrated to the Crimea. According to Theophanus
a numerous Jewish community existed in Kiev in the
eighth century (Malishevski: 10th cent., ib. p. 44).

The Grand Duke Vladimir found there a large
Jewish community, and although he was averse to
adopting their religion, yet, according to the Arabic
writer Ibn Haukal, he was favorably inclined toward
the Jews. In the chronicles whose authorship is as-
cribed to Nestor it is related that Chazarian Jews
went to Kiev in 986, immediately after the Bulgars
and Germans, in order to induce Vladimir to accept
their religion. Tatishchev remarks in regard to this
that it does not exclude earlier arrivals of Jews, for
the Jews taken captive by Svyatoslav were settled
by him in Kiev, on the River Ross, and in numerous
other places, and that their number was considerable
("Istoriya Tatishcheva," ii., note 176). Unfortu-
nately there is no other source to corroborate Tatish-
chev's statement, as Harkavy has already pointed out
("Voskhod," 1881, i.).

Gatzuk mentions the current traditions according
to which settlements of Jews in the vicinity of Kiev
existed in the tenth century. In the eleventh cen-
tury Jews from Germany settled in Kiev. When
Russia celebrated the one thousandth anniversary
of the founding of Kiev (1865), the Jews in an ad-
dress mentioned that Jews had lived in Russia be-
fore the empire was founded. During the reign
of Vladimir (d. 1015) and under Svyatopolk after
liim the Jews lived in Kiev undisturbed. The first
bishop appointed by Yaroslav, in 1035, was called
"Lucas, the Little Jew" ("Luka Zliidyata"), who
evidently was either of Jewish descent or had .some
connection witli the history of the Jews in Kiev.
He always preferred in his teachings to dwell on
the Decalogue, and often used Biblical quotations
common among the Talmudic Jews (Harkavy, in
"Voskhod," 1881, i. 78).

A Russian cleric, Philaret, in a review of Russian
theological literature (in "Uclionyya Zai)iski II Ot-
delyeniya Akademii Nauk," iii. 8, St. Petersburg,
1865), remarks that from the work of Illarion of
Kiev it is evident that the Jewish missionaries from
the Chazars, who had failed to convert him to Ju-
daism, did not reiin(|uish tlieir hope of making
proselytes among the Itussians. Feodosi Pecherski
(1057-74) certifies to the existence of a considerable
Jewish community in Kiev in his time. During the
reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav, the bazaar of Kiev
was removed from the lower part of the city
(" Podol ") to the Kiev heights, where the Jews were

settled. At that time the Jewish community was
augmented by new arrivals, probably driven from
Germany and other western countries by the perse-
cutions of the Jews immediately before the First
Crusade. In 1097 the Jews of Kiev are mentioned
in connection with the salt monopoly, when Svyato-
polk closed the road from Galicia and the Jews in-
creased the price of salt (Zakrevski, ib. p. 28;
Malishevski, ib. p. 102). Benjamin of Tudela (12th
cent.), in his "Massa'ot shel Rabbi Binyamin," re-
fers to Kiev.

In the " Sefer ha-Yashar " (pp. 52a, 522, Vienna,
1811) Rabbi Moses of Kiev is mentioned as one of
the pupils of the tosafist Jacob Tam (d. 1170), the
grandson of Rashi. This shows that in the twelfth
century Russian Jews studiecl at the famous Tal-
mudic academies of northern France. It is known
that the Russian Grand Duke Svyato-
In the polk (1093-1112) held the Jews of

Twelfth Kiev in favor. After his death, the

Century, rabble revolted against his widow and
the supporters of her husband and at-
tacked the Jews of Kiev (1113). but Vladimir Mono-
mach induced the rioters to disperse. In 1124 the
Jewish quarter in Kiev was destroyed by fire. In
the "Ipatiev Chronicle" the "Jewish Gate" is men-
tioned (1146 and 1151). From facts collected from
different sources it is quite evident that in the
twelfth century Kiev was the center of trade be-
tween the East and the West, and that the Jews and
the Italians controlled most of it. From the his-
tories of South Russia it appears that Jews lived in
Kiev in the thirteenth century, but when in 1239 the
Tatars overwhelmed the southwestern cities of Rus-
sia and destroyed them the Jews shared the fate of
the otlier inhabitants. In the following year (Dec.
6, 1240) Batu Khan captured and destroyed Kiev,
which resulted in the subjection of Russia to the
Tatar yoke. The Jews of Kiev suffered with the
rest of the inhabitants, but when the "Grand Khan,"
after conquering South Russia, appointed the Rus-
sian Prince Dauiil Romanovichas the regent of Kiev
and South Ru.ssia, Daniil called (1259) Germans,
Jews, Poles, and other foreigners to settle in Kiev.
His son Mstislav Daniilovich also invited Germans
and Jews to settle in his land. That Vladimir Vasil-
kovich also favored the Jews is evident from the
fact that, according to the chronicles, in 1288 they
were among those that lamented his death "as
much as they had lamented the capture of Jerusa-
lem." Kiev being a Tatar dependency at that time,
the Jews there were allowed the privileges given
them in other Tatar countries, and for this reason
the other inhabitants of Kiev Avere ill-disposed
toward the Jews.

When the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gedimin (d.
1325) conquered (c. 1320) South Russia, including
Kiev, and founded the Lithuanian Russian empire,
the Jews received many privileges (Solovyev, "His-
tory," book i., part iv., ch. iii.). According to Zak-
revski (ib. ii. 216), the number of Jews in Kiev at
that time increased considerably. During the reign
of Withold (1392-1430), who granted privileges to
all the Jews of Lithuania, they enjoyed great pros-
perit3\ Casimir IV. (1444-92) granted them addi-
tional privileges, knowing that through their com-

489

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kiev

mercial skill they would replenish his depleted funds
(Zakrevski, I.e. ii. 313). In 1486 Mordecai Gadaye-
vich and Perka Yudinovich, Jews of Kiev, are
mentioned as the farmers of the customs duties at
Bryansk.

In 1488 the Jewisli tax-farmers Simkha, Rya-

bichka, Daniilovich, and Samodyelka are mentioned

in a message of Czar Ivan Vasillivich to King Casi-

mir, in which the czar complains that the Moscow

merchants were taxed too heavily ("Sbornik Imp.

Istoricheskavo Obschestva," xxxv. 10-12). About

1425 the JuDAiziNG Heresy originated among the

Russians in Kiev, and spread thence

In the to Novgorod and Moscow through

Fifteenth. Zechariah of Kiev, who went from

Century. Kiev to Novgorod in the suite of the
Prince Mikhail Alelkovich (Solovyev,
ib. book i., part v., ch. v.; see Aleksei). In the
fifteenth century the Jewish community of Kiev
contained many scholars, and the saying became
current that "from Kiev learning is spread."
Among these scholars was ]Vloses ben Jacob Ash-
kenazi ha-Gole (b. 15th Kislew, 1449; d. Kaffa
1529). He wrote in Kiev his notes to " Gan 'Eden "
and his work "Shushan Sodot." When the Jews
were expelled from Lithuania by Alexander Jagel-
lon in 1495, Moses ha-Gole with the rest of the Kiev
Jews emigrated to the Crimea. As is evident from
the statement of Abrahain ha-Rofe of Troki, the
Tatars invaded and plundered Kiev (1482) and car-
ried many Jewish captives to the Crimea.

In the sixteenth century (according to Zakrevski,
ib. ii. 317) Jews lived in Kiev in great numbers.
Zakrevski mentions also the grant to them by King
Sigismund I. of Poland of a tract of land for burial
purposes near the gate of Lvov, formerly known as
the "Jewish Gate," by the bazaar which is even now
called the "Jewish Bazaar." The Jewish quarter
was at that time in the portion of the city known
as "Stary-Gorod," extending as far as the Kudrya-
vetz Hill. By a deed dated Cracow, March 4, 1507,
King Sigismund farmed out the taxes of Kiev to
the Jew Shamak Daniilovich, who farmed the taxes
also of Lutsk and other places. In the same year
Abraham Jesofovich is mentioned as tax-collector of
Kiev ; he was made a member of the hereditary nobil-
ity. In the latter half of the sixteenth century the
condition of the Jews of Kiev underwent a change
for the worse. Thus in 1576 King Stephen Bathory
had to remind the way wode of Kiev, Prince Ostrov-
ski, not to place foreign mcrciiants, Christians as
well as Jews, under the jurisdiction of the local cas-
tle court, since, according to the Magdeburg Rights
granted to them by Alexander, they were imder the
jurisdiction of the municipal authorities. The for-
eigners had no right to conduct a retail business in
Kiev, for that right belonged only to the citizens of
Kiev (" Sbornik Mukhanova," No. 221; "Acty Za-
padnoi Rossii," iii. 97).

In 1585 the noblemen of the Greek Orthodox faith
made a complaint before the Metropolitan of Kiev
about the disorder reigning in his bishopric, and
petitioned him to protect their coreligionists from
the oppressions of the Roman Catholics and the Jews
("Acty Zapadnoi Rossii," iii. 88, Govorskavo. 1865).
In 1618, and again in 1619, the merchants of Kiev

made complaint to King Sigismund III. that tiie
Jewish merchants who arrived in Kiev did not stay
at the " Gostiuny Dom"(the inn as-
During the signed to them) and trade with other
Sixteenth outside merchants; that they had
and Seven- built houses in Kiev, had taken the

teenth local trade in their hands, and were
Centuries, getting rich at the expense of tlie local
merchants. In response to this petition
the king decided that as the frontier town of Kiev
would be protected, not by Jews, who would do
nothing to repel the enemy, but by the Ukrainian
merchants, and since Jews had not before lived in
Kiev, where they had no right to live, " they must
henceforth stay at the town inn to trade exclusively
with local merchants; that they may not remain
more than one day ; and that they may not settle
there permanently, on penalty of losing their mer-
chandise, half of which would be turned over to the
crown and the other half to the merchant gild of
the place." Notwithstanding these restrictions and
the privileges granted the Christian merchants, the
Jews gained possession of the most important trade
of Kiev and other South-Russian cities. Being ex-
cluded from participation in the affairs of the city
by the Magdeburg Rights, the Jews were placed
directly under the jurisdiction of thewaj'wode. In
the frequent absence of this official his power reposed
in his assistant, who regarded it as a source of in-
come; in this way the Jews managed to attain their
ends in spite of the restrictions (" Starozytno.sci
Polskie," ii. 257).

In 1628 a decree of Sigismund III. in part con-
firmed the decision of the Kiev municipal court in
the suit of the Jew Missan Josephovich, the farmer
of the water-taxes, against the burgher Khmel for
unpaid water-taxes. By this decision Missan's de-
mands were partly allowed, and Khmel appealed to
the king, who confirmed the decision of the court.
It is well known that, notwithstanding the restric-
tions imposed upon them, Jews lived in considerable
numbers in Kiev during the first half of the seven-
teenth century, owning lands, houses, and factories
there (Zakrevski, ib. ii. 315).

The uprising under Chmielnicki destroyed the
Jewish community in Kiev. Samuel Phoebus, the
author of "Tit ha-Yawen." is the only Jewish wri-
ter who mentions Kiev among the cities which suf-
fered in the Chmielnicki uprising. He states that
Chmielnicki went to the "great city
Ruined by of Kiev," where he found a man

Chmiel- named Eliezer who was very wealth}-
nicki. ("like Konvh"); that the Cossacks
killed him and his family and took all
his property. From Ru.ssian sources it is known
that Chmielnicki and his Cossiicks raged in Kiev for
four days and killed off most of the Poles and the
Jews. Even the graves in the cemeteries were
opened and the bones thrown to the dogs. Only
those Jews and Poles who had hidden in the vaults
of the Greek Orthodox monasteries escaped death
(Solovyev, ib. ii., book x., ch. iii.). According to
the truce concluded by Chmielnicki with King John
Casimir, the Jews were not to be permitted to live
in Kiev or in the Ukraine. In the peace agreement
made in 1661 at Byelaya Tzerkov, the king de-

Kiev
Kibaya

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

490

manded that the Jews be allowed to return to the
Ukraine and to own property in Kiev. The Jews
returned accordingly, but Chmielnicki soon turned
over the Ukraine to Czar Alexis Mikhailovich, and
they were again driven out from Kiev and the
Ukraine. Thus from 1655 until near the end of the
eighteenth century only a small number of Jews were
to be found in Kiev, or in any part of the Ukraine.

Toward the end of the reign of Catherine II., by
an order dated June 23, 1794, Jews were again per-
mitted to settle in Kiev, and even to acquire prop-
erty, conditionally, however, on their paying double
the tax imposed on the Christians. From that year
the Jews began to resettle in Kiev, and in the reign
of Catherine's son Paul Petroviclx the Jewish com-
munity numbered 452. At that time Judah LOb
LOwenberg was granted by the governor-general
Sherkov a tract of laud for a cemetery ; the gov-
ernor-general, upon his representations, gave per-
mission also for the building of a synagogue. The
tract known as "Zwyerinetz," just outside of Pe-
chersk, was assigned for a cemetery. At that time
also a hebra kaddisha was organized and a constitu-
tion adopted (1797 or 1798). Among those resting
in the old Kiev cemetery may be mentioned Meir
Lebush Malbim and Raphael Nata Rabbinovicz,
author of the "Dikduke Soferim."

With the accession to the throne of Alexander I.
Jews were permitted to reside in Kiev unhindered
by any restrictions. They were registered by the
city magistrates with other citizens and received
passports from them. As the Jews increased rapidly
the Christian citizens of Kiev petitioned the govern-
ment in 1810 to expel them, claiming
Under Al- that the privileges granted to the citi-
exander I. zens of Kiev by Sigismund in 1619
excluded the Jews from residence in
Kiev. Notwithstanding this petition and the money
spent in its furtherance by the citizens (see Baratz,
" Den," iii., No. 22), their attempts were not success-
ful. The reply which they received (Jan. 13, 1810)
pointed out that in the fifteen years which had elapsed
since the permission of settlement by Catherine the
Great the Jews had acquired property, and that
justice did not permit the government to expel
them, since they would thereby have lost their pos-
sessions: it is the business of government to see
that justice is done between man and man. The con-
flicts between the Jews and Christians of Kiev were
found by the government to be due more often to
the Christians than to the Jews, and the administra-
tion of Kiev was ordered to see that no disturbances
occurred between Jew and Gentile (ib.). The anti-
Semites of Kiev made no further complaint for the
time being.

In 1815 the Jewish population of Kiev numbered
4,500, and then a synagogue was built by special
permission of the emperor. At the head of the Jew-
ish community at that time stood Judah L5b ben
Jacob LOwenberg, Ozer ben Bezaleel Rosenfeld, and
Zeeb ben Abraham Segal. At the head of the hebra
kaddisha was Moses ben Abraham. Beside the syn-
agogue, the Jewish community built at that time
two large houses of prayer, one on the Podol near
the Prolovski monastery, and the other on the Pe-
chersk, not far from the synagogue that burned down

in 1829 (Zakrevski, ib. ii. 316). When Nicholas I.
ascended the throne in 1825 he withdrew from the
Jews the right of residence in Astrakhan and the
concessions granted them in 1804 by Alexander I.
The Christian inhabitants of Kiev availed them-
selves of the opportunity to petition the czar to
expel the Jews from Kiev, basing their petition on
the same ground as in 1810 ; the petition was granted,
and a ukase was issued by Nicholas on Dec. 2, 1827.
It reads as follows :

" (!) Jews are strictly prohibited from building any house of
prayer in Kiev, and the old building is to be sold at auction at
once ; (2) Jews who are registered with the city magistrates of
Kiev must immediately leave the city and register in some town
inside of the Pale. Those Jews who have residences, business
houses, or factories in Kiev are given two years in which to
settle their affairs ; all the others to leave the city within six
months."

The governor-general Zheltukhin did all he could
to render unbearable the life of the Jews remaining
in Kiev; the latter, however, applied
Under to the czar through two of their prom-
Nicholas I. inent merchants, Berner and Kerner,
and received permission to settle out-
side the city limits in the village of Lyebed ; and
through the efforts of the new governor- general,
Levashev, who pointed out their usefulness in the
development of commerce in Kiev, the czar was in-
duced to write in his own hand a permit for them to
stay until Feb., 1835, but he withdrew permission
from them to settle in Lyebed. When Feb. 1, 1835,
arrived, the Jews, who had hoped for a change for
the better, weie greatly disappointed. The admin-
istration would make no further concessions, and
they were compelled to leave Kiev immediately and
to sell their property for whatever they could get.
Exception was made only in favor of the few Jewish
contractors who had built the fortress of Kiev and
the University of St. Vladimir.

The next governor-general, Bibikov, watched
carefully to see that no Jews settled in Kiev. He
organized a special gendarmerie to look after the
Jews who came there on business, and who re-
ceived permits to stay only from one to five days.
To facilitate police supervision, two exclusively
Jewish hotels were established, one in the Podol and
the other in the Lyebedskaya; and all incoming
Jews were compelled to stay in one of the two. The
guests were obliged to pay exorbitant prices for
food and drink, and the hotel-keepers, both Chris-
tians, could afford to paj^ the heavy license, which
was soon raised from 3,600 to 6,500 rubles. When
a Jew was found in the city without a permit to
reside there he was dealt with as a criminal witliout
passport. At ten in the evening every Jewish guest
was obliged to return to the hotel, where as many
as ten would be crowded into one room, and when
the time of departure came the hotel servants would
rudely hurry them out.

In 1856, about a year after Alexander II. ascended
the throne, the condition of the Jews throughout
Russia began to improve, and those of Kiev, in
particular, felt the liberal spirit of the new legisla-
tion. The regulation requiring incoming Jews to
stay at specified hotels was abolished and Jewish
artisans were permitted to establish themselves in
the city. Prince Vasilchikov, the governor-general.

491

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kiev

KLhaya

and Hesse, the civil governor of Kiev, advocated
■warralj'- the amelioration of the Jews' condition, and
the abolition of Jewish disabilities in so far as circum-
stances would permit. An edict was issued Oct. 30,
1861, which made it permissible for Jewish gradu-
ates of universities, Jewish merchants of the first
gild, and foreign Jewish merchants, with thiiir fam-
ilies, clerks, and servants, to establish themselves in
Kiev. The community of Kiev received a still
larger accession through the ukase of 1866, which

granted Jewish artisans the right to

Under Al- reside outside the Pale. The prosper-

exander II. ity of tlie Jewish community added

materially to the prosperity of the en-
tire city. The activity of the Jewish merchants of
Kiev stimulated the development of the sugar in-
dustry. Kiev became a prominent sugar market
and an important general commercial center. Its
Jewish merchants played a leading part in the es-
tablishment of banks, stimulated the development
of navigation on the Dnieper, increased the export
trade in grain, and thereby conferred a direct bene-
fit on the farming communities of the entire govern-
ment.

This prosperity continued until the outbreak of
the anti-Jewish riots in South Russia. On May 8,
1881 (April 26) anti-Jewish riots broke out in Kiev,
as thej^ had elsewhere, and there is sutticient evi-
dence to show that the riots were premeditated.
Prominent members of the Jewish community had
been warned personally by Von Hilbbenet, the chief
of police, who advised them to take measures for
their protection, and even offered, in some cases, to
place cannon at their doors. Rumors that anti-Jew-
ish riots were being planned were circulated in Kiev
several weeks before Easter, and Von Hiibbenet him-
self had informed members of the community that a
trainload'of Great Russians, all wearing red shirts,
had arrived in the city, the purpose of their coming
being the organization of the riots. The police in
the synagogues on May 7 thought it would not be
safe for the Jews to keep their stores open on the
following day. When the outbreak began on that
day the police and military were evidently in
sympathy with the rioters, and some of tlie Chris-
tian merchants looked on with pleasure while prop-
erty valued at about 2,000,000 rubles was being
destroyed. This does not take into account the
enormous loss incurred through the enforced idleness
of the Jewish artisans. Not content with the de-
struction of stores and houses, the rioters attacked
tlie synagogue and tore into shreds the scrolls of tlie
Law. Thousands w^ere rendered homeless, men once
wealthy were reduced to poverty and despair, and
many were seriously injured. In all 3,150 persons,
or 750 families, were reduced to absolute want,
among them being 403 families of artisans and la-
borers. The riots spread to the neighboring towns
and villages, particularly Smyela, where 20 Jews
were killed and 40 wounded.

The riots were followed by repressive police
measures— directed against the victims of the riots.
The military tribunal, whose duty it was to examine
the persons accused of attacking the Jews, openly
sympathized with the suspects instead. The pro-
cureur general, Major Strielnikov, repeatedly evaded

his duty during the trials, and instead of raising his
voice against the authors of the disorders spoke
against the victims. He went so far on one occa-
sion as to express a desire to see all the Jews driven
over the frontier. The openly expressed wish of
the procureur general was followed by numerous
expulsions, by the police, of Kiev Jews. A depu-
tation of Jews from Demiyevka, a suburb of Kiev,
which went to seek the intervention of Drenteln, the
governor-general, was dismissed with the sneering
remark that they were at liberty to emigrate to
Jerusalem if not satisfied with existing conditions.
A member of the deputation retorting that they
could not even leave the country without the per-
mission of tlie government, the governor-general
replied hastily that the government was quite ready
to grant the authorization.

The measures of the police authorities led to the
emigration of a considerable number of Jews from
Kiev and vicinity in July and August of the same
year (1881). Some of these were enrolled as mem-
bers of the first Jewish agricultural colony estab-
lished in Louisiana in the fall of 1881. Forced emi-
grations continued throughout the latter part of
1881 and during 1882, and factory employees and ar-
tisans were continually expelled by the police with-
out any authorization by existing laws. The emi-
gration assumed much larger proportions after the
issue of the " May Laws " in 1882.

Since 1881 the condition of the Jews in Kiev ha8
not improved. A large proportion of the Jewish
population is subject to expulsion at the pleasure
of the police authorities, and the Jews are often in
dread of anti-Jewish disorders, as at the time of the
Kishinef massacre (1903), when the members of the
Kiev community entertained well-grounded fears of
similar disorders.

Among the Hebrew scholars of Kiev may be
mentioned Herman (Hirsh) Baratz, Abraham Baer
DoBSEwiTCH, Judah Lob Levin (now resident at
Tomashpol), Max Mandelstamm, M. A. Shatzkes,
Eliezer Schulman, Lsaac Jacob Weissberg, Joshua
Zuckerman (government rabbi). Among other
prominent members of the Kiev community may be
mentioned the Brodski family, Abraham Kupernik
and his son Lev, Moses Weinstein, Max Rathaus,
Mayer Greben, and Leon Ashkenazi.

Bibliography : Harkavj', in Vnshhod. Jan., 1881. and Jan.,
1882; Berkliin. in Vnskhod, 1887, vii.-viii. 213; 1888, xli. 182;
Darevski, Le-Korot ha-Yehudim be-Kiyov, i., Berdychev,
1902; Kostomarov, Bogdan Chmielnicki, St. Petersburg. 1884;
Zakrevski. in Opisaniye Kieva, Moscow, 1868; Trudy III
Arhheolofiichc^kavo Smzda. i., Kiev, 1878; Baratz. hirHo-
Mefodovskiye Voprosy, in Trudy Kiev»koi Dukhovnoi Aka-
deinii, Kiev, 1891 ; Harkavy, in IJa-Miz}Mih. 1. andil.; Mall-
shevski. in Trudy Kieovkoi Dukhovnni AkadennU Kiev,
1878 ; Bershadski. Litovskiue Yevrei, passim ; Begesty i ^ad-
pm, i., St. Petersbun?, 1899; Ha-Shahar. vi. 547; Zarya,
April 27-May 30. 1881; Razsvyet, 1881. passim: Levanda,
PiiUiy Klironologicheski Sbornik Zakonov, p. 23. St. Peters-
burg. 1874. ^ ^

KIHAYA or KAPU KIHAYA: Title of
the political representatives of the rayas, i.e., the
non-Mohammedan Turkish subjects, at the Porte.
TliA Jewish representative is proposed by the chief
rat&i of the central consistory of the Jews of Con-
stantinople, his nomination being confirmed by the
minister of public worship. The Jewish Kapu
Kihaya accompanies the chief rabbi on all his visits

Kikkar
Eizahi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

492

to the palace or to the ministers, speaking in his
name and presenting the official petitions of tlie
Jewish community to the grand vizier or to the
other ministers at the palace. At the instance of
his colleagues he receives honorary insignia from
the sultan. Formerly, when the chief rabbis were
unable to speak Turkisli, the functions of the Kapu
Kihaya were more important than at present.

The office was created about 1530 by Sultan Sulai-
man the Magnificent; and the first incumbent was
Rabbi Shaltiel, who rendered invaluable services to
the Ottoman Jews on various occasions by making
use of his privilege of free entr}' into the palace.
No list of the Jewish Kapu Kihayas has been pre-
served. A certain Jacob Gabbai held the office in
the reign of Sultan 'Abd al-'Aziz (1861-73) and at
the beginning of that of Sultan 'Abd al-Hamid II.
He was succeeded by Joshua Agiman, who is still
in office (1904).

Bibliography : M. Franco, Hist, des Israelites de VEmpire
Ottoman, pp. 46, 47.
s. M. Fr.

KIKKAB, (-1D3, "round"): 1. The central and
more extensive part of the Jordan valley, referred
to in Gen. xiii. 10, 12; xix. 17, 25, 28, 29; Deut.
xxxiv. 3; II Sam. xviii. 23; I Kings vii. 46; II
Chron. iv. 17; Ezek. xlvii. 8. At a later period
Kikkar may have included the neighborhood of
Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 22, xii. 28 [A. V. "plain,"
"plain country "]; see Buhl, "Geographic des Alten
Palastina"; Driver, "Commentary on Deuteron-
omy," xxxiv. 3; Hastings, "Diet. Bible," s.v.;
Ridgeway, "Origin of Metallic Currency ").

2. Talent (apparently the " gaggaru " of the El-
Amarna tablets; in Greek, Ta?.£avToi>), a Babylonian
denomination of weight = 60 minas = 3,600 shekels;
the heavy talent weighing about 130 lbs. avdp., and
the light, about 65 lbs. avdp. As a medium of ex-
change among the ancient Hebrews, for which pur-
pose both gold and silver were used, the heavy gold
talent contained 758,000 grs. troy, or about 103 lbs. ;
the light contained 397,000 grs. troy, or a little over
54| lbs. The heavy silver talent contained 673,500
grs. troy, or about 961 lbs. avdp., and the light,
336,750 grs., or about 48/j lbs. avdp. The Mishnaic
-)3D contained 315,000 grs., or 45 lbs.

Bibliography : Cheyne and Black, Eiici/c. Bihl., and Hastings,
Diet. Bible, s.v. Money and Wei(jlits and Meanurr:i;
Nowack. Leh7-?)uch der HehrCiischen Archcloloqic; Benzin-
ger,Arch.
E. «. H. A. R.

KIL' AYIM (•' O f T wo Sorts" ; " Heterogeneous" ) :
Name of a treatise of the Mishuah, Tosefta, and the
Palestinian Talmud. It belongs to the order Zera'iin,
and deals with the exact definition of the Pentateuch-
al prohibitions (Lev. xix. 19; Deut. xxii. 9-11) which
forbid the mingling of different kinds of seeds and
vegetables, the pairing of dilTerent kinds of ani-
mals, the mixture of wool and flax in the same gar-
ment, etc.

In the Mishnaic order this treatise is the fourth,
and is divided into nine chapters, containing sev-
enty-seven paragraphs in all.

Ch. i. : Enumeration of the different sorts of grain,
legumes and other vegetables, herbs, and trees,
which do not constitute kii'ayim together (§g 1-4);
herbs and animals whicii do form kii'ayim (§§ 5-6);

how the different trees form kii'ayim with one an-
other and with plants, and how the plants form
kii'ayim with one another (§§ 7-9).

Ch. ii. : What is to be done when different seeds
are mixed ; concerning the merging of one variety in
the other (§§ 1-2) ; what must be done when one de-
sires to plant grain in a field already sown with dif-
ferent grain, or to plant trees in a grain-field (§i; 3-5) ;
the distances to be observed between the different
beds, when one wishes to plant different things in
separate beds in the same field (§§ 6-11).

Ch. iii. : Of the distances between beds of cab-
bage, onion, and other vegetables (§§ 1-6) ; of the
distances between grain and herbs (§ 7).

Ch. iv. : Of vineyards: how large a space must
be left in the middle of the vineyard or between the
vineyard and its hedge if other seed is to be sown
here (§§ 1-3, 8-9); how the hedge must be made, so
that one may plant outside it (§ 4).

Ch. V. : The vineyard continued : cases in which
a ruined vineyard may still be used (§§ 1-4); how
far the herbs in a vineyard spoil the
Vineyards, taste of the wine (§ 5); what herbs
must be removed from a vineyard
when they grow wild there, and the cases in which
this must be done (g^ 6-8).

Ch. vi. : The vineyard continued : concerning the
vine-rows, and the leaning of a vine against a tree
that bears fruit or one that bears no fruit.

Ch. vii.: Vines and cuttings: vines which do
not spoil the grain, although one may not plant the
two together (^^ 1-3, 7-8) ; payment of damages
for spoiling another's grain by planting vines (ii 4).

Ch. viii. : How far the various forms of kii'ayim
are forbidden (§ 1); animals which constitute kii'a-
yim and may not, therefore, be harnessed together
either to the plow or to carts (;i>^ 2-4) ; concerning
hybrids and other animals (i$^ 4-6).

Ch. ix. : Kii'ayim of clothing: goods or stuffs
which constitute kii'ayim with one another (§^ 1-2);
articles of clothing forbidden on account of kii'ayim
(§§ 3-4); concerning clothes-dealers, tailors, and
imported ready-made clothing (§§ 5-7); explanation
of the word "sha'atnez " (Deut. xxii. 11); how stuffs
must be .sewed together to become kii'ayim (j^jj 8-10).

In the Tosefta, Kii'ayim is the sixth treati.se, and

is divided into five chapters. The Gemara of the

.Ieru.salem Talmud (there is no treatise Kil'aj'im in the

Babylonian Talmud) discusses the

Jerusalem definitions contained in the Mishnah,

Gemara. and explains also many of the names
of plants and animals which are men-
tioned there. It contains, moreover, many interest-
ing comments, two of which may be cited here.
" By the term ' statutes ' in the passage, ' Ye shall
keep my statutes ' [Lev. xix. 19], are meant the nat-
ural laws which God has established. Kii'ayim is
forbidden, therefore, because a mixture of things
different by nature is unnatural, and is a transgres-
sion of tlie law of nature" (i. 7). "Although R.
Judah ha-Nasi was very modest, he said he was
ready to obey everybody in everything, and to per-
form every command, except to renounce his rank
as patriarch and to consecrate another, as the sons of
Batliyra once did in favor of his grandfather Hillel "
(iii. 3).

493

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kikkar
Eimhl

For Jewish " Kulturgeschiclitc " tliis treatise con-
tains much of interest, esi)ecially concerning agri-
culture, viticulture, and costume.

E. c. J. Z. L.

KI LO NA'EH : A hj'mn, beginning thus, in the
honie-rituul for Passover eve, and one of the latest
constituents of the Seder Haggadah, dating from the
fifteenth century (see HACuiADAii). It was origi-
nally intended for the tirsi night of the Passover only,
and Apdiu Hu was selected as its pendant for the
second night; but, as shown in connection witli that
hymn (see Jew. Encyc. i. 186), for more than two

most alluring of tliese, and
in modern notation, with
that may serve to make

is therefore given here
an English paraplirase
clear tlie alphalntical

scheme of acrostic employed i)y liie composer of the

Hebrew verses.

Biiu.iofiUAPny : Ziinz, Litfvaluruexch. p. 88; Wiener. liihli-
odtaphie der Oxtrr-Hatniddali. St. rctersburg. liKH ; Jrw
Climn. April 24, 1891; HitlanK.-l. Lilxr [{itinim I'nsrhn-
JiHHJ, Konipsherp, ItiM; I.audsliiitli. Mimipil Mirrxliit. Her-

KI LO NA'EH

Andante.

•Tis

seem

-tSh-

X-

r^ii

God

lone

to praise:

1^-
X-

Awe

His

throne

is;

Dread

round His

throne

is;

Glo -

His

throne

is;

Judg -

ment

His

throne

is:

Mer -

His

throne

is;

Powei

His

throne

is;

Hplen-

dor

His

throne

is;

Vig -

His

throne

is;

Blest

a ■

lone

is:

His

cho -

sen ones

End -

less

- lone

is:

His

faith

- ful ones

High

a -

lone

is:

His

in -

no - cents

King

a ■

lone

is:

His

lov -

ing ones

No -

ble

- lone

is:

His

own

great hosts

Quick

'ner

- lone

is:

His

right -

eous ones

Truth

- lone

is:

His

up -

right ones

Wise

- lone

is:

His

zeal -

ous ones

loud the chant raise, 'Tis

Thine, ,

Lord,

'tis Thine, yea. Thine,

Thine, And

Thine.

ly Thine; O fjord, the Kingdom Thine own

IS.

centuries both h3-mns have been used together on
each occasion. Somewhat similarly to "Addir Hu,"
"Ki lo Na'eh" is constructed in eight stanzas, iden-
tical save for the three varying words which suc-
cessively bear as their initials the twenty-two (or,
with the last thrice utilized, twenty-four) letters of
the Hebrew^ alphabet.

In strange contrast to " Addir Hu," " Ki lo Na'eh ''
lias been associated with but one all-pervading
tune, despite the melodious value of several of the
airs to which it has been traditionally sung. The
melody in Rittangel's "Haggadah "of 1644 is the

KIMBERLEY. See Soith Africa.

KIMHI : Name of a family of scholars, the ear-
liest known members of which lived at theeud of the
eleventh and in the twelfth century. The name was
so common that it was used by K. Michael in his
" Seder ha-Get " as a paradigm word. It is evident-
ly not unconnected with the feminine form "Kim-
hit " in the Talmudic literature (.see Yer. Meg. i. ISa;
"Hen Kimhit " and "Simeon b. Kimliit," Yer. Yo-
ma, iii. 47d, v. 42b; "Ishmael b. Kimhit," Tr>sef.,
Yoma, p. 189, 1. 13 [ed. ZuckcrmandclJ). In a pun-

^:imhi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

494

ning way it is connected by Zacuto ("Sefer Yu-
hasin," p. 235, ed. London) with the verse in Pirke
Abot, "Im en Keinah en Torah," and Joseph b.
Todros wittily calls David Kimhi " Ha-Hitti." In a
manuscript of the commentary of David Kimhi to
the Prophets, dated 1347, in the National Library at
Madrid, the name is punctuated "Kamhi" (Stein-
schneider, "Hebr. Bibl." xi. 133), as also in three
manuscripts of the " Miklol " in the Bibliothdque Na-
tionale of Paris. This must have been the pronun-
ciation in Arabic-speaking countries (from the Ara-
bic " Kamh "). Steinschneider has called attention to
the Arabic name "Al-Kamhi" found in a Bodleian
manuscript ("Monatsschrift," xxxiv. 528). The
Hebrew pronunciation was "Kimhi" (from "Ke-
mah "), as was perhaps indicated by the fact that
Immanuel of Rome rimed it with " Sinihi " (see the
discussion in the "Athenajum," March 22, 1884;
"Hebraica," ii. 116; B. Felsenthal, in the Kohut
Memorial Volume, p. 126). The modern Italian
form of the name is "Chimichi." In Provence the
name " Petit " was added to " Kimhi. " From Spain
and Provence the family spread into Italy, Turkey,
Syria, and England. The genealogy of its remotest
members runs as follows: Isaac {c. 1090); Joseph {c.
1125); David (c. 1160); Isaac; Mordecai (c. 1290);
Solomon (c. 1300); Joseph; Isaac (c. 1400). The
more important of the later members of the family
are noted below, in alphabetic order:

Abraham Kimhi : Rabbi in Constantinople
(1710-20; see Roest,'"Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl."i. 265.
564, 579,'986).

Benjamin Kimhi : Printer and editor at Salonica
about 1770. He edited and annotated the " Sha'are
Rahamim" of Hayyim ha-Kohen and Solomon Ab-
badi (Nepi-Gliirondi, "Toledot Gedole Yisrael," p.
62; Benjacob, "Ozarha-Sefarim,"p. 605, No. 1139).

Conprado (?) Kimhi: Rabbi in Constantinople
during the fir.st half of the eighteenth century.
Frankl identifies him with the Samuel Kimhi men-
tioned in the "Shem ha-Gedolim."

David Kimhi (ReDaK ; surnamed Maistre
Petit) : French grammarian ; born in Narbonne
1160; died there 1235; youngest son of Joseph
Kimhi, and brother of Moses Kimhi. His father
having died while David was yet a child, the latter
was brought up by his elder brother Moses. Later
he supported himself by teaching Talmud to the
young. He was well versed in the whole range of
Hebrew literature, and became the most illustrious
representative of his name. Later generations ap-
plied to him the saying from Abot (iii. 21), "AVith-
out kemah [= "tlour," the etymon of the name
"Kimhi "] no Torah " ; and he exerted an influence
which is felt even to-day.

Kimhi's most important work is his "Miklol," in
two parts: the first containing a comprehensive ex-
position of Hebrew grammar; the see-
As Gram- ond, a dictionary of the Bible. The

marian. second part, however, having been
later considered as a separate work, un-
der the title " Sefer ha-Shorashim," the title " Miklol "
has been given exclusively to the grammar. In
these works Kimhi, while not original, can not be
considered a mere compiler. He digested and as-

similated his material most thoroughly ; and every-
where there is evident the remodeling and rearran-
ging hand of one who is conversant with the entire
range of his science and who surveys the whole with
the glance of an adept. Above all he possesses in
a high degree the power of systematization and of
popular exposition. He excerpted from his prede-
cessors copiously and circumspectly, and arranged
his material with such comprehensiveness, clearness,
and lucidity of exposition that, while he popular-
ized the opinions of his illustrious forerunners, he
at the same time made their works superfluous and
helped to sink them into an oblivion from which
they were not rescued until the nineteenth century.
Kimhi was, however, conscious of his position as
an epigone, as is evident from his short preface to
the "Miklol." His grammatical material is drawn
chiefly from the works of Haj^yuj and Ibn Janah
and from the writings of his own father. He tries
to understand the language from itself, seeking
analogies in later Hebrew, less frequently in Aramaic
and Arabic. Joseph Caspi and Protiat Duran fre-
quently attack him, but Elisha b. Abraham defends
him in his work " Magen Dawid " (Constantinople,
1517). The " Institutiones " and the " Thesaurus " of
Sanctus Pagninus are essentially nothing else but
elaborations of Kimhi's " Miklol " ; and Reuchlin and
Sebastian Milnster have also made considerable use
of his work. The latest important work on Hebrew
grammar, by E. KOnig, is written "with constant
reference to Kimhi."

Also connected with grammar is Kimhi's work
"'Et Sofer," containing rules for the writing of
Bible-rolls, Masoretic notes, and accents.

His "Book of Roots," the second part of the
"Miklol," shows Kimhi to be even more independ-
ent. Although based primarily on the
As Lexi- dictionary of Ibn Janah, he is quite
cographer. self-reliant in the treatment of his sub-
ject. Besides Ibn Janah he quotes as
authorities Jacob b. Eleazar and his own father.
He refers frequently in his dictionaiy to Masorah
and grammar. He increased lexicological material
through numerous fresh etymologies as well as
through new comparisons with modern Hebrew and
Aramaic. Many words he translates into his Pro-
ven<;'al vernacular, and at times compares this latter
with Hebrew.

Kimhi wrote commentaries on Genesis, the Proph-
ets, the Psalms, and Chronicles. Some scholars
ascribe to him also commentaries on
As the remaining books of the Bible. He

Exeg-ete. wrote, too, a philosophic explanation
of the cosmogony and of Ezekiei's vi-
sion. In the introduction to his commentary on the
Prophets he explains the duty of expounding the
Bible from a religious standpoint. In a general way
he adheres to the literal meaning of Scripture ; and
his exegesis is based on grammar and rationality.
At times, however, he introduces into his expla-
nations philosophy; and some Biblical narratives
he, following Maimonides, explains as visions. His
commentarj'' on the Psalms is especially noted for
its polemics against Christianity. The numerous
quotations from the Targumim scattered through-
out his writings furnish valuable material for a fu-

496

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kimhi

ture critical edition of these works. In the Middle
Ages Kimhi's commentaries were held in high
repute among Christians as well as Jews, and nu-
merous Latin translations were made of them : the
influence of his commentaries on the English Bible is
evident on every page (comp. Abrahams, "Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages," ch. xix.). Besides his
commentaries he wrote " Bi'ur Shemot ha-Nebu'ah "
and "Bi'ur Sheloshali 'Asar 'Ikkarim."

Kimhi's polemics against Christianity, contained
in his commentary on the Psalms, were, after they

had been omitted by the censor in later

As Contro- prints, published separately under the

versialist. title "Teshubot la-Nozerim." His

" ' Wikkuah," against Christianity, is
contained in " Milhemet Hobah " (Constantinople,
1790). In the quarrel between the Maimonists and
the anti-Maimonists, Kimhi took a very active part,
defending Maimonides. At an advanced age he
traveled as a delegate from the cities of liUnel and
Narbonne to Spain to induce the Jewish communi-
ties there to side with the Maimonists. Having
fallen sick in Avila he could not complete his journey,
and entered into correspondence with Judah al-
Fakhkhar, but with little success.

Bibliography: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i. and iii.. No. 495; stein-
schneider. Cat. Bodl. No. 4831 ; De Rossi-Hamberger, Hi»t.
WOrterb. pp. 164 et seq.; Geiger, Ozar ychmad. ii. 157 et
seq.; P. F. Frankl, in Ersch and Griiber, Eiicyc. section ii.,

?art 36, p. 54 ; Schiller-Szinessy, in Encyc. Biit. 9th ed., xiv.
4; J. Tauber, Staiidpunkt und Leistung des R. David
Kimchi als Crrammatiker, Breslau, 1867; W. Bacher, in
Winter and WQnsche, DieJlldischeLitteratur, ii. 191 e( seq.;
E. Bluth, in Berliner's Magazin, xviii. 269 et seq. (gives a
comparison of the MikJol with Joseph Kimhi's Se.fer Zihka-
ron); MikloJ. 1st ed. 1525, in Italy; with notes by Elijah Le-
vita, Venice, 1544-45 ; with notes by Hechim also, FQrth, 1793,
and, with additional notes by J. Rittenberg, Lyck, 1862;
a new edition is being prepared by H. L. Strack ; Agalho
Guidacerio, Liber- Miklol (gives the first section of the gram-
mar, fols. 1-28, in vocalized text with a Latin translation);
*Et Safer, Lyck, 1864; Eppenstein, in Moitatsschrift, xW. 165
et keq. (gives a list of Kimhi's original comparisons of Hebrew
and Arabic words); Sefer ha-Shorashini, tlr&t e6. in Italy,
n.d., n.p. (before 1480); with the notes of Elijah Levita, Ven-
ice, 1-546 (the best edition is that by J. H. R. Biesenthal and F.
Lebrecht, BerUn, 1847) ; W. Bacher. in Winter and Wiinsi:he,
I.e. ii. 306 et seq.; Luzzatto. Kerem Hemed, v. 26; Briill's
Yahrb. vii. 116. Commentaries: Genesi^s, ed. A. Ginzburg,
Presburg, 1842 ; Earlier Prophets. 1st ed. Guadalaxara. 1482 ;
X,a(crPr(»p/ief,s, Soncino, 1485; Psalms, Bologna, 1477 (a crit-
ical edition of the First Bank of Psalms was edited by M. S.
Schiller-Szinessy, Cambridge, 1883); Chronicler, in the Rab-
binic Bible, ed. 1547 ; the Haftarot, 1505. All commentaries,
except the last two, are given in all rabbinic Bibles since
1516 with various omissions. On the question of a commen-
tary to Job, comp. A. Geiger's JUd. Zeit. vii. 145; against it,
Frankl, Mouatsschrift, 18^5. p. 144; Graetz, Hist, of the
Jews, Eng. transl.. Index : Briill's Jahrb. iv. 1-33 ; Te^hnbot
la-Nvzerim, at the end of Kimhi's commentary to PsaJms,
Isny, 1542, at the end of Lippmahn's Nizzahun, Altorf, 1644,
and frequently.
G. C. L.

David Kimhi : Lived in France about 1350; for
him JVIoses b. David Kimhi (see below) wrote, in
1383, Vatican Manuscript No. 221, 4(SteinscImeider,
"Hebr. Bibl." xi. 135).

David Kimki : Lived in Constantinople prior to
1738.

David b. Joseph. Kimhi : Lived at Frascati,
Italy, in 1326 (Berliner's "Magazin," i. 45).

Flaminio Kim^hi : Died in Rome in 1717; liis
epitiiph was published by Berliner in "Mouats-
schrift" (xxxiv. 382) and in " Hildesheimer Jubel-
schrift" (p. 105).

Hayyim Kimhi : Father of Sinai Kimhi ; rabbi
in Constantinople about 1700.

Isaac Kimhi : Lived in Castiglione, Italy, about
1378 (seeBuber, "Sifre de-Agudta," p. lb, Wilna,
1880; Berliner, in "Mouatsschrift," xxxiv. 382).

Isaac b. David Kimhi : Rabbi in Constanti-
nople, where, in 1736, he wrote an approbation for
the "Reshit Hokmah " (Roest, I.e. p. 337).

Isaac b. Joseph Kimhi : Lived in Aries in
1394 (Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 89).

Isaac b. Joseph Kimhi : Lived in Aries about
1393 (see Gross in "Mouatsschrift," xxix. 174).

Isaac b. Mordecai Kimhi : Casuist and litur-
gist at Nyons (France) during the fourteenth cen-
tury; known also as Mestre Petit de Nyons.
He was the author of a responsum, of "azharot"
found in the Avignon and in the Carpentras mah-
zors, and of a commentary upon the azharot of
Solomon ibn Gabirol. A number of respnnsa of Sol-
omon b. Adret are addressed to Isaac. He is said to
have written other Talmudic works, and is in general
highly spoken of by his contemporaries (.see Zunz,
" Z. G. " p. 466 ; Landshuth, " ' Ammude ha-'Abodah,"
p. 124; Renan-Neubauer, "Les Rabbins Frangais,"
p. 680; Gross. "Gallia Judaica," p. 385).

Isaiah Solomon Kimhi : Rabbi in Hebron
about 1783.

Israel Kimhi: Author of " Abodat Yisrael"
(Smyrna, 1736), of an explanation of the 'Abodah of
the Day of Atonement, and of a responsum found in
"Mayim Rabbim " (see Azulai, "Shem ha-Gedolim,"
ii. 50; Benjacob, "Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 427).

Jacob Kimhi : Hebraist and pedler ; born at
Constantinople 1720; died in London about 1800; a
son of Samuel Kimhi, and a descendant of the an-
cient and noted family of Kimhi. He was a well-
known character in the city of London, where, as an
itinerant vender of Oriental slippers, he frequented
the vicinity of the Royal Exchange.

Kimhi was the author of " Shoshannat Ya'akob," a
commentary on the tractates Bezah and Ta'anit
(Constantinople, 1748). His portrait was painted by
Oseas Humphreys (1799), who was attracted by Kim-
hi's picturesque appearance.

BiBLioGRAPHT: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, s. v. ^n~p "^nicc ;
Leisure Hour, London, Aug., 1886 ; Cat. Anglo-Jewish Hist.
Erh.p. 54.

J. S. Le.

Joseph b. Isaac Kimhi (RIKaM ; surnamed
Maistre Petit) : Grammarian, exegete, poet, and
translator; born in southern Spain about 1105; died
about 1170. Forced to leave his native countr}' ow-
ing to the religious persecutions of the Almohades,
he settled in Narbonne, Provence, where he prob-
ably spent tlie rest of his life. The report that he
was buried in Mayence deserves no credit.

He lived in poor circumstances, and in addition
to his literary labors he was active as a teacher. Of
his many students the names of only a few have
come down. Besides his own son Moses there are
mentioned R. Joseph ibn Zabarah, R. Menahem b.
Simon of Posqui^res, and R. Solomon b. Isaac ha-
Nesiah. His son David, though but a child at the
time of his father's death, may also be considered
one of Kimhi's pupils, either directly through his
works, or indirectly through the instruction he
(David) received from his elder brother Moses.

Abraham ibn Ezra, who in his wanderings visited

Kimhi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

496

Narbonne in 1160, must have met Joseph. The lat-
ter followed Ibn Ezra in some particulars, e.g., in
the use of the stem -iDK* for the paradigm of the
verb. Ibn Ezra, on the other hand, quotes Kimhi
in his commentaries on the Bible. Both scholars
worked at the same time and along

Relations the same lines to popularize Judaeo-
with Arabic science among the Jews of

Ibn Ezra. Christian Europe by excerpting from
and translating Arabic works. Al-
though Ibn Ezra was Kimhi 's superior in knowl-
edge, the latter can rightly claim to have been the
first successful transplanter of Judaeo-Arabic sci-
ence in the soil of Christian Europe. His diction is
elegant and lucid, the disposition of Jiis material
scientific, his treatment of his subject even and
without digressions; so that his works are much
better adapted for study than those of Ibn Ezra,
which lack all these qualifications.

Another famous contemporary of Kimhi was R.
Jacob b. Meir, surnamed "R. Tarn," of Ramerupt,
who was the greatest Talmudic authority of the
day. This scholar, wishing to settle the literary
quarrel between the followers of Menahem b. Saruk
and of Dunash b. Labrat, had written

R. Tarn, a book of "hakra'ot" (decisions), in
which he took the part of Menahem.
These decisions did not satisfy Kimhi; and, feeling
himself better able than R. Tarn to pass judgment in
the case, he wrote (1165) his " Sefer ha-Galui." This
work falls into two parts : the first treats of the differ-
ences between Menahem and Dunash; the second
contains independent criticisms on the former's dic-
tionary. In the introduction Kimhi apologizes for
daring to come forward against so eminent a man as
the leading Talmudic authority of his time. Hear-
ing that the ignorant among the people will attack
him on that account, he puts into their mouths tlie
words which Abner, the captain of Saul, spoke,
when David cried out to the king: "Who art thou
that criest to the king?" (I Sam. x.wi. 14). His
fears were realized ; for Benjamin of Canterbury, a
pupil of R. Tam, made observations on the "Sefer
ha-Galui," defending his teacher. He also called
Kimhi in a contemptuous sense " Ha-Kore " (= "The
Crier "), because the latter ventured to cry his con-
tradictions to the "king," i.e., R. Tam.

In Kimhi's grammatical works "Sefer Zikkaron "
(edited by Bacher, Berlin, 1888) and "Sefer ha-
Galui " (edited by Matthews, ih. 1887) he is depend-
ent on Hayyuj for the treatment of his subject, but
in his explanations of words he relies mainly on Ibn
Janah. On the Avhole, he is not orig-
As Gram- inal ; in minor points, however, he
marian and goes his own way, becoming therein

Lexicog'- the model for future generations.
rapher. Thus he was the first to recognize that
the hif'il has also a reflexive and an
intransitive meaning ; he was also the first to arrange
a list of nominal forms, to indicate eight verb classes,
and to classify the vowels into a system of five short
and five long ones. In his works he pays frequent
attention also to the language of the liturgy. In
his etymological explanations he seeks for analogies
in liible, Talmud, Targum, and in Arabic. In cases
where such analogies are wanting or unsatisfactory

he is guided by the principle, •'The unknown must
be deduced from the known." Not seldom he ex-
plains difficult words on the basis of phonetic laws
laid down by himself.

Of his exegetical works few have been preserved.
Mention is made of his "Sefer ha-Torah," a commen-
tary on the Pentateuch ; his "Sefer ha-Miknah," a
commentary on the Prophets; and his "Hibbur ha-
Leket," of unknown contents. A commentary by
him on Canticles exists in manuscript;
As his coranieufary on Proverbs has been

Exeg-ete. published by Bar Dubrowo under the
title "Sefer Hukkah " (Breslau, 1868);
and variants to the badly printed text are given by
Eppenstein in "Zeit. flir Hebr. Bibl." v. 143 et seq.
A fragment of his commentary on the Book of Job
has been published by Schwarz in his "Tikwat
Enosh" (Berlin, 1868); the remaining portions, by
Eppenstein in "R. H J." xxxvii. 86 et seq. Many
exegetical remarks are scattered throughout Kim-
hi's grammatical works. His method is mostly that
of the peshat, i.e., literal interpretation. He fre-
quently follows the Spanish school, without, how-
ever, reading into the Scriptural text the scientific
knowledge of his own time. He pays a great deal
of attention to the context, a point usually neglected
by haggadists. His explanations are short and terse.
Wliile criticizing at times some untenable explana-
tions of his predecessors, he accepts such as seem
to him to be correct. He is the first eclectic of the
Provencal school of exegetes.

Kimhi tried his hand also at writing poetrj-. His
liturgical hymns and other poems which have come
down aie indeed distinguished by beauty of form
and elegance of language. In spirit, however, they
can not be compared with the works
As Poet, of the great Spanish poets. Neverthe-
less he retains importance as one of
the Provenyal poets. His poems met with consider-
ation at the hands of later generations and were fre-
quentl}' quoted by them.

He translated Bahya ibn Pakuda's ethical work
"Hobotha-Lebabot " from Arabic into Hebrew ; and
he turned Ibn Gabirol's "Mibhar ha-Peninim" into
metrical form under the title "Shekel ha-Kodesh."
Of the translation only a fragment has been preserved,
which has been published by Jellinek
As Trans- in Benjacobs edition of Ibn Tibbon's
later. translation of that work (Leipsic, 1846) ;
the " Shekel " is still unprinted. In his
translation, aiming chiefly at elegance of expres-
sion, Kimhi does not keep to the original. He works
too independently and, carrying into the work his
own spirit, he often obscures the thought of the
author. Notwithstanding its defects, his transla-
tion is not without merit. It has contributed to a
better understanding of the Arabic authors, and is,
tlierefore, to be considered in a certain sense as sup-
plementing the works of the Tibbonides.

Finally mention must be made of Kimhi's apolo-
getic work "Sefer ha-Berit," a fragment of which
was published in "Milhemet Hobah " (Constan-
tinople, 1710). This work was written at the re-
quest of one of his pupils who wished to have a
collection of all the prophetic passages in Scripture
that might serve as aids in refuting those persons

497

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Klmhi

who denied the Torah. It is in the form of a dialogue
between a loyal Jew and an apostate. Tlie loj'al

Jew claims that the true religion of

As the Jew may be recognized by the

Apologete. moral conduct of the individual ; all

Jews are intent on carrying out in their
lives the Decalogue; they give no divine honors to
any one besides God; do not perjure themselves;
commit no murder; and are not robbers. Their
children are educated in the fear of God; their
women are chaste; the Jews are hospitable toward
one another, perform works of charity, and redeem
captives — all virtues which are not found in such a
high degree among non-Jews. The apostate admits
all these claims, but points out that Jews demand
high interest on loans. This objection the loyal
Jew meets with the statement that non-Jews also
are usurers, and that they impose upon members of
their own faith, while rich Jews lend money to their
coreligionists without any interest whatever. The
"Sefer ha-Berit" is of importance as showing the
moral condition of the Jews at that time, and as
bearing testimony to the conditions of those days,
in which the Jews in the Provence could freely ex-
press themselves not only with regard to their own
religion, but also with regard to the religion of their
neighbors.

Bibliography: Bluth, in Berliner's Mcmazin, xviii. 1, xix.
89; Eppenstein, in Mmiatsschrift, xl. 173, xll. 83; i?. E. J.
xxxvii. 86 ; Zeit. fUr Hehr. BihI. v. 143.

G. C. L.

Joseph b. Saul Klmhi : Author of a commen-
tary to the astronomical tables of Jacob Bonet (1361 ;
Reuan-Neubauer, "Ecrivains Juifs," p. 701).

Judah Baphael Kimhi : Lived about 1671, in
the East. A responsum of his is cited in Moses
Benveniste's "Pene Mosheh," ii., t^ 123 (see Ben-
jacob. I.e. p. 30).

Mordecai b. Isaac Kimhi : Grandson of David
Kimhi; lived in Provence toward the end of the
thirteenth centurv. For him the cabalist Jacob b.
Jacob ha-Koheu wrote his " Perush ha-Otiyyot " (see
Steinschneider, in "Monatsschrift," xxxiv. 528).

Moses Kimhi: Father of Samuel ; perhaps iden-
tical with Moses ha-Zaken Kimhi ; lived about 1342
in Sicilv (see Zunz. "Z. G." p. 516; Steinschneider,
"Hebr.'Bibl." xi. 135).

Moses b. Abraham Kimhi : His epitaph,
dated Rome, 1726, has been published by Berliner,
in "Monatsschrift" (xxxiv. 382), and in the " Hildes-
heimer Jubelschrift " (p. 105).

Moses b. David Kim^hi : Wrote the Vatican
manu.script No. 221, 4, in 1383, in Rodez, France
(Steinschneider, I.e. xi. 135).

Moses b. Joseph Kimhi (BeMaK) : Commen-
tator and grammarian ; elder brother and teacher of
David Kimhi. He presumably lived together with
his father and his brother in Narbonne, and must
have died about 1190. The works of his which have
been preserved are: commentaries on Proverbs,
Ezra, and Nehemiah, printed in the rabbinic Bibles
as the work of Abraham ibn Ezra; a commentary
on Job, published by Schwarz in his "Tikwat
Enosh" (Berlin, 1868); "Sekel Tob," a grammatical
treatise, published by Castelli in "R. E. J." xxviii.
VII.— 32

213, xxix. 100; and "Mahalak Shebile ha-Da'at,"
the first concise methodical text-book of Hebrew
grammar. His terminology deviates in some essen-
tial points from that of his father, a phenomenon
probably due to the influence of Ibn Ezra. As par-
adigm for the verb appears here for the first time
the verb "pakad"; also the following order of the
conjugations: "kal," "nif'al," "pi'el," "pu'al,"
"hif'il," "hof'al," "po'el," "hitpa'el." Both these
innovations influenced the later text-books on He-
brew grammar.

Kimhis "Mahalak " became of importance in the
first half of the sixteentli century, when it formed
the shortest and most useful text-book for the study
of Hebrew by non-Jews. It was edited many times,
and was translated into Latin by Sebastian Munster.
Elijah Levita wrote annotations to it. Besides the
works enumerated above, some liturgical poems of
Kimhi's have been preserved. Mention is made of
his "Sefer Tahboshet," probably a work on anoma-
lous grammatical forms, and of "Ta'anug Nefesh,"
a work on ethics.

Bibliography : A. Geiger, in Ozar Nehmad, ii. 17-24; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. IS-SS ;' Lebrec'ht and Biesenthal. D.
Kimhi's Liher Radicum, col. xxxviii.: Bacher, in E. K. J. xxi.
281, xxix. 292; idem, in Winter and Wiinsche. JildxKche Li-
terature ii. 198, 306; Dukes, in Ozar Nehmad. ii. 101, 182;
Orient, Lit. viii. 25, ix. 11; Epstein, in R. E. J. xx. 138;
Lippmann.inZi'on, ii.ll3; Reifmann, in OrierU. Lif. Ii. 750;
Ha-Hoker. i. 43; Berliner, in Kobak's Jeschunin, vi., Hebr.
parts, pp. 102-104 ; idem, in Magazin, i. 76, Ix. 129; aod Ozar
Tob, p. 35.

G. C. L.

Moses b. Nissim Kimhi : Lived in Rome in
1413.

Nissim Joseph David Kimhi : Rabbi in Con-
stantinople; died 1836; father of the author of
"Meleket Shelomoh."

Samuel Kimhi : Wrote, in 1346, a philosophical
and allegorical commentary to the " Perek Shirah "
(Steinschneider, I.e. xiii. 105).

Sam.uel Kim.hi : Rabbi in Constantinople in the
time of Judah Rosanes (d. 1727). Some of his re-
sponsa are to be found in Moses Israel's "Mas'at
Mosheh" (Constantinople, 1734; see Azulai, I.e.).

Shabbethai Kimhi: His epitaph, dated Rome,
1712, is given by Berliner, in "Monatsschrift"
(xxxiv, 382) and in "Hildesheimer Jubelschrift" (p.
105).

Sinai b. Hayyim Kimhi: Edited the "Hid-
duslie Rasliba " to Kiddushin (Constantinople, 1717).

Solomon Kimhi : Great-grandson of David
Kimhi; lived in Provence about 1300.

Solomon Kimhi : Son of Nissim Joseph David
Kimhi (see above).

Bibliography: P. F. Frankl, Die Fatnilie Kimchi, In Afo-
natitschnft, xxxiii. 552 f f ,«ef;.; idem, in Ersch and Gruber,
Encjic. section ii., part 36, pp. 54 et mcq.; Berliner, in ilonata-
schrift, xxxiv. 382.

KIMHI, SOLOMON : Turkish rabbinical au-
thor; lived at Constantinople in the middle of the
nineteentii century. In 1862 he published "Mele-
ket Shelomoh," in which he tried to prove that
the Karaites are animals, that it is forbidden to teach
them the Law, and that it is permitted to kill them.
When the Karaites protested, the chief rabbi of Con-
stantinople commanded that all the copies of the
work which could be found should be burned. Kimhi

^nah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

498

wrote two other works : " Yahel Shelomoh "(Smyrna,
1870) and " Yeme Shelomoh " (Salonica, 1874).

Bibliography: Franco, Histoire des Israelites deVEmpire
Ottoman.
s. M. Fr.

EINAH (plural, kinot) : Lamentation chanted
in honor of the dead; it has a halting movement
peculiar to itself, and ranges from a dirge or wail to
the elegiac form (comp. David's elegies on the deaths
of Saul and Jonathan [II Sam. i. 17] and on the
death of Abner [ib. iii. 33]). The term is derived,
according to Wetstein, from the Arabic "kana"
(= "to form artistically "); it occurs once, in Ezek.
ii. 10, as " kinim. " Among the Hebrews, as in many
Semitic lands at the present day, the kinah was sung
by professional mourning-women (Jer. ix. 17). In
prophetic literature such elegies were chanted also

over inanimate objects poetically per-

Classes of sonified. To this class belong the

Kinot. kinot on the arid plains, deserted by

all living things (Jer. ix. 10), on fallen
cities (Ezek. xxvi. 17, xxvii. 1), and on lands and
peoples (seeBudde, "Das Hebraische Klagelied," in
Stade's "Zeitschrift," ii. 1 et seq. ; idem, "The Folk-
Songs of Israel in the Mouths of the Prophets," in
"The New World," pp. 28 et seq., Boston, 1893).

Even in the Talmudic period a kinah was sung at
a burial by at least one mourning-woman, who was
accompanied by two flute-players (Yer. M. K. i. 5;
Ket. 46a; comp. Shab. 153a). Fragments of elegies
of this period, composed by the "safdana" (funeral
orators), have been preserved (M. K. 28b; comp. I.
Perles, "Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten im Nachbi-
blischen Judenthume," in "Monatsschrift," x. 382 et
seq.). To the kinah was soon added the Funeral
Oration, which steadily increased in importance as
compared with the kinah, until the latter was
omitted entirely. But although the kinah was thus
excluded from the public funeral rites, it still sur-
vived as an individual expression of grief for the
loss of friends or kinsmen (see Poetry, Biblical).

From the individual, or personal, kinah must be
distinguished the national, or general, kinah, the
subject of which is the misfortune of the whole
nation or of a single community. The national

kinah was created by Amos, the oldest

National of the prophets whose writings have

Kinot. survived, on the occasion of a harvest

festival in Beth-el, about 760. Fore-
seeing the impending destruction of the Northern
Kingdom, he chanted in the midst of the populace,
as though destruction had already overtaken it,
" The virgin of Israel is fallen ; she shall no more
rise " (Amos v. 2). But the national kinah found its
most perfect expression in the "lamentations" which
both Talmud and Midrash ascribe to the prophet
Jeremiah (B. B. 14b; Yer. Shab. xvi. 15c; Lev. R.
XV. 4).

Even as early as the Talmudic period, the kinot
of Jeremiah were recited on the eve of the 9th of
Ab, the anniversary of the destruction of the Tem-
ple and of the Jewish state (Yer. Shab. I.e. ; Lev.
R. I.e.). It seems that, at least in Palestine, the
Epistle of Baruch (the portion of the Book of Baruch
written originallj' in Hebrew — i. 1-iii. 8), which was
a national confession of sins and a justification of

the divine punishment, was read also during the
public service of this day (see Jew. Encyc. ii. 557,
s.v. Baruch).

The more intolerable conditions became for the
Jew in the following centuries the more he loved to
commemorate the events of the happier past. New
wos created new kinot, and therefore the Jew could
not confine himself to the recitation of the Lamen-
tations of Jeremiah on the 9th of Ab. Even the
Hellenistic period, poor as far as national poetry is
concerned, brought into existence an elegy on the
destruction of Jerusalem (Greek Apoc. Baruch, x.
6-8). This was originally written in Hebrew, but
it is not known that it had a place in the ritual of
the Synagogue (see Jew. Encyc. ii. 556, s.v. Ba-
ruch).

Early in the geonic period the poets of the Syn-
agogue began to compose selihot, kinot, and hosh'a-
not, although very little of that literature has
survived (Delitzsch, "Zur Gesch. der Jildischen
Poesie," p. 51; MahzorVitry, ed. Hurwitz, p. 226).
Among the older Spanish, North-African, and Pro-
vencal poets the national or general elegies for the
service of the 9th of Ab were the product of innate
poetical*feeling, while among the Roman-German
poets it was distress and desperation that brought
new kinot into existence. "I must speak; I must
have air; my soul, embittered by grinding slavery, is
overwhelmed," says the German synagogal poet of
the thirteenth century (Zunz, " S. P." p. 176). Thus
the essence of the kinot consists in a lamentation
over the loss of the nation's past greatness, as well
as (in the Roman-German rites and among the
younger poets) over the disastrous events of the
present.

In the Siddur of Amram Gaon (ed. Warsaw, 1884,
p. 43b), aside from the Lamentations of Jeremiah,
there are no special kinot prescribed
Early Use for the 9th of Ab, although, according
in Ritual, to Luzzatto, some of the kinot con-
tained in the present ritual were prob-
ably used in Amram's time; they are not mentioned
by Amram because, perhaps, their recitation was
not obligatory (see Luzzatto, " Amram Gaon Baruch
ben Sheshna," in "Orient, Lit." viii. 296). Accord-
ing to Amram and other reliable sources, in the
geonic period in Babylon, however, selihot were
read on the morning of the 9tli of Ab, since that
fast-day was dedicated to penitence and contrition
(see Zunz, "Ritus," p. 125). Saadia's prayers for
this day likewise are called "selihot," though in
content and form they are very similar to the kinot
of Kalir. But even the selihot were afterward re-
placed by the more melancholy kinot. Traces of
these selihot are preserved in the Sephardic ritual.

Kalir, however, was probably the first to give the
name of kinot to some parts of the great elegy
which he composed for the 9th of Ab. At any rate,
they were so called not later than the eleventh cen-
tury. Beginning with the contrast between the
happiness of the past and the misery of the present,
Kalir describes in this elegy several scenes from the
history of the destruction of the Jewish state, such
as the burning of the Temple, the slaughters in
Jerusalem, and the death of King Josiah. Sometimes,
breaking out into prayer and lamentation, the poet

499

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kinah

expresses his conviction of liisown guiltiness and of
the justice of the Lord, laments the power of Edom,
and mourns the misery of Zion, for the restoration
of which he prays; he closes with a description of
tlie final redemption of Israel and the future salva-
tion. This elegy, consisting of about 12,000 words,
beginning with the Eighteen Benedictions ("Kero-
bah") and concluding with prayers of comfort
("nehamot"), has been preserved almost in its orig-
inal form in the older Roman rite. Whereas the lat-
ter uses Kalir's kerobah "Zekor Ekah," the German
ritual has Kalir's second kerobah, beginning with
" A'abik," which is of a more general character, and
which was, perhaps, originally destined by Kalir
for the service on the afternoon of the 9th of Ab.
Moreover, in the German rite consolations are
wanting; they are replaced, however, by other kinot
composed between the twelfth and sixteenth centu-
ries. In the German rite then follow the " Zionides, "
which are named after the well-known elegy on
Zion of JuDAH ha-Levi, beginning with "Ziyyon
Halo Tish'ali." This elegy is to be found in every
Jewish ritual for the 9th of Ab, and from it a special
"Zionide " meter and rime have been developed (see
Dukes, "Zur Kenntniss der Neuhebr. ReligiOsen
Poesie," p. 71 ; Delitzsch, "Zur Gesch. der Jiidischen
Poesie," pp. 159-163). The "Zionides" are not
usually recited by the hazzan himself, but by mem-
bers of the congregation, alternately; at one time
they were recited by the most prominent member.

In the German Mahzorare to be found sixty kinot
for the 9th of Ab, and the authorship of about fifty
of them is known. The more important are as fol-
lows :

Abraham Hozeh ("Astronomer"): " Ziyyon Kehi Kol Zori Gil-
e'ad" (Zunz, "Literaturgesch." p. 490; translated into German
by J. Freund, in Karpeles. " Zionsharfe," p. 43). By some
scholars this elegy is ascribed to Solomon ibn Gabirol, and by
others to Elijah ha-Zaken.

Abraham ben Jacob : " Ziyyon Asher Yomeru " (Zunz, I.e.
Supplement, p. 26).

Abraham ben Meir (perhaps a contemporary of Abraham ben
David): "Esh'ag mi-Nahamat Libbi we-Et'onen," describing
the punishment of a Jewish community such as was often visited
upon the communities of Germany and England In the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries (Zunz, I.e. p. 464).

Eleazar ha-Kalir : *' Kerobah " and the first seventeen kinot
(from "Shabat Suru Menni" to " Amarti She'u Menni"; see
Luzzatto, " Mebo le-Mahzor ke-Minhag Bene Roma," pp. 34
et scq.).

Eleazar b. Judah b. Kalonymus of Worms (author of " Ha-
Rokeah"): "Ziyyon Halo Tish'ali li-Shelom 'Alubayik " (first
Zionide), on the slaying of his wife and children in Erfurt in
1214 (Zunz, I.e. p. 320).

Eleazar b. Mosheh ha-Darshan of Wiirzburg : " Ziyyon 'Ateret
Zebi Simhat Hamonayik " (Zionide).

Baruch b. Samuel (died in Mayence in 1321) : " Ezbe'otal
Shafelu we-Oshyotai Nafelu, Oyah."

David ha-Levi ben Samuel (contemporary and correspondent
of Rashi): " Emunim Shararu be-Tok Yam 'Aberu" (Zunz, I.e.
p. 164).

David b. Alexander (date unknown): " Ezkerah Neginotai"
(Zunz, I.e. p. 483).

Judah b. Moses ha-Kohen (c. 1240; German rabbi): " We-Et'-
onen wa-Akonen Marah," on the riot in Frankfort-on-the-Main
in 1241 (Zunz, I.e. p. 479).

Judah ha-Levi of Castile: "Ziyyon Halo Tish'ali " (Zionide);
" Yom Akpi Hikbadti " (Zunz, I.e. p. 306).

Joel ha-Levi ben Isaac of Bonn : " Yibkeyun Mar Mal'ake ha-
Shalom," lamentation for the victims of the Second Crusade,
which occurred during his lifetime (Zunz, I.e. p. 269).

Joseph ben Kalonymus ha-Nakdan (c. 1238): " Amorer ba-
Beki" (Zunz, !.c. p. 98).

Jehiel b. Jacob of Eisenach (who witnessed the persecution at
Fulda): " Asirim be-Shir Yeze'u," contrasting the time of the

wandering of the Israelites in the desert and that of the de-
struction of the Temple (Zunz, I.e. p. 29).

Jacob: " Ziyyon Yedldut Yadid " (Zionide).

Isaac (12th or 13th cent.): "Azklr Rahab" (Zunz, I.e. p. 552).

Yakar ben Samuel ha-Levi (contemporary of Melr of Rothen-
burg; lived In Cologne and Mayence): "Ziyyon Adonai La-
kem."

Kalonymus ben Judah of Mayence (11th cent.): " Ml Yltten
Roshl Mayim " ; " Amarti She'u Menni " ; both dedicated to the
victims of the Second Crusade (Zunz, I.e. p. 166).

Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg : " Sha'ali Serufah," on the
public burning of the scrolls of the Law fn I'arls about 12.54 (see
Gratz, " Gesch." vil. 405 ; translated into German by A. (ieiger,
"Jiidische Dichtungen," Leipsic, 1856). Having the atrophic
rhythm of the Zionides, it found a place among them.

Meir ben Jehiel : " Arze ha- Lebanon," describing the death
of the ten martyrs and based upon Mldrash Eleh Ezkerah (Zunz,
I.e. p. 489; Landshuth, " 'Ammude ha-'Abodah," p. 161).

-Michael b. Perez (before 1.5.50): "Ziyyon Menat Shalom "»
" Ziyyon Kedosh Mishkene 'Elyon " (Zionides ; Zunz, I.e. p. 580).

Menahein ben Jacob of Worms (d. 1203): " Me'one Shama-
yim" (Zunz, I.e. p. 294).

Menahem b. Makir of Regensburg (survived the First Cru-
sade): " Ebel A'orer" (Zunz, I.e. p. 1.58).

Menahem Zion b. Meir (c. 1430; author of the "Zlyyunl"):
"Ziyyon Me'on IJeshkl" (Zunz, I.e. p. 523; idem, "S. P." p.
IW).

Moses ben Jacob: "Ziyyon Me'oz Klryat Melek" (Zionide;
Zunz, " Literaturgesch." p. 388; Landshuth, I.e. p. 225).

Solomon ibn Gabirol : " Shomeron Kol Titten " (Zunz. " Rltus
der Synagoge von Avignon," In "Allgemelne Zeitung des
Judenthums " [1838], ii. 454 ; comp. also J. L. Gordon, " Let-
ters," pp. 98, 216); "Shekurat Lo ml-Yayin."

This list is based upon Baer's edition of the kinot; see espe-
cially the introduction, Berlin, 1865.

The kinot of the Spanish, North- African, and
Provencal rites, again, form a group by themselves.
In the simpler Spanish rite, especially, several
Psalms have been used for the ritual for the 9th of
Al), among them Ps. Ixxix. and cxxxvii. ("By the
rivers of Babylon, there we sat down,
Kinot of yea, we wept, when we remembered
Spanish Zion "). They are composed in the
Mahzor. rhythm of the kinah, and are used to
open the service on the eve of that
fast-day in the Sephardic ritual. The kinot of this
group of rituals confine themselves on the whole to
the themes fuinished by the history and»legends of
the destruction of Jerusalem. The rite of Fez, how-
ever, contains a kinah on the persecutions of the
Jews in Toledo, Seville, Majorca, etc., in 1391.

With the exception of the rite of Avignon, the seli-
hah " Eleh Ezkerah " is common to all these rites, as is
the " Zionide " of Judah ha-Levi. In the former each
chapter of the Lamentations of Jeremiah is preceded
by small poems (see Zunz, " Ritus der Synagoge von
Avignon," in "Allg. Zeit. des Jud." 1838, ii. 454).
In Jerusalem an Arabic elegy was recited, and in
Persia Hebrew-Persian kinot were used (Zunz,
"Ritus," p. 89). As writers of kinot for these rites
may be mentioned :

Abba Marl b. Moses Yarhl of Montpellier (lived in Aries In
1306): "Abo Le'esof Mahanot " (Avignon; Zunz, "Literatur-
gesch." p. 492).

Abraham ha-Levi ben Isaac: Three kinot (Zunz, he. p. 513).

Isaac ben Sheshet of Valencia (died in Algiers about 1406):
Four kinot (Zunz, I.e. p. 514).

Isaac ibn Zabarra (c. 1400): "Ziyyon ha-Tede1 Zeman"
(Zionide ; Zunz, I.e. p. 514).

Israel Najjara (rabbi of Gaza in the sixteenth century ) : One
kinah (Zunz, f.c. p. 419).

Joseph (date not known): Two kinot (Avignon; Zunz, /.c. pp.
569-574).

Judah ben David Yahya (lived in Castile about 1400): " Yehu-
dah we-Yisrael De'u Mar LI Me'od " (Sephardic ; Proveni^l ;
Zunz, I.e. p. 514 ; Landshuth, I.e. p. 67).

^inah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

500

Judah b. Jacob : " Yomam we-Layelah Ebkeb " (Carpentras ;
ZuDZ, Lc. p. 567) .

Judiib hu-Levi : The same as in the Hoinan-Gerinan ritual.

Moses Nathan : " Mi-Cjain Bakem " (Avignon ; there are two
synapogal poets of this name; Zunz, Lc. p. 517).

Moses Zacuto (of Spanish descent ; lived and died In Italy):
" Arim Kol Bikyi " (Sephardic; Zunz, Lc. p. 440; Landshuth,
f.c. p. 218).

Samuel (time unknown): "Oyah Erez Zilzul" (Avignon;
Zunz, Lc. p. 593).

Sheshet: " Ekah Ya'lb " (Avignon; Zunz, f.e. p. 475).

Simeon ben Zemah Duran (lived in Algiers, 1361-1444): Three
kinot (Zuuz, I.e. p. 522).

Solomon ibn Gabirol : " Shomeron Kol Titten " (Avignon,
Roman-German, Polish, etc.).

Solomon b. Bonfed : Six kinot (Zunz, I.e. p. 518).

Zerahiah ben Isaac Gerundi of LuneKauthor of the " Ma'or ") :
"Ze'ebe 'Ereb" (Provencal; Sephardic; Zunz, Lc. p. 461;
Landshuth, Lc. p. 63).

In the Karaite ritual also are found kinot for the
anniversary of the downfall of the Jewish state.
Local history and local preferences operated to vary
the selection of kinot, so that those preferred in one
synagogue or district were comparatively unused
in another.

By no means all national or general kinot found a
place in anj' single niahzor, and not all the kinot
found in the mahzor of any congregation were re-
cited; a selection was made, as the heading "Kiuah
Aheret," sometimes attached to the collection, may
indicate. Nor was it 0UI3' on the 9tli of Ab that kinot
were read in the synagogue; on the three — in the
Karaite ritual on the live — preceding Sabbaths also
piyyutim or kinot were recited (Zunz, "Ritus," p.
88; ifiem, "S. P." p. 72).

The "Tikkun Hazot," the ritual of whicli was es-
tablished in Palestine about three hundred years
ago. whence it spread over Europe, also contains
several kinot. One of them, used in all Italian and
German rituals, was composed by R. Moses Alsheh
ben Hayyim, who flourished in Safed in the six-
teenth century.

In the Reform congregations, which still celebrate
the 9th of Ab, only a very few of the kinot for that
day are recited. Geiger, in his " Plan zu einem Neuen
Gebetbuche," p. 15, includes only Ibn Gabirol's" Sho-
meron Kol Titten " for the evening service, and Ju-
dah ha-Levi's "Ziyyon Halo Tish'ali "and Meir of
Rothenburg's "Sha'ali Serufah " for the morning
service. For editions and translations of kinot see
Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl."cols. 452 etserj. ; Zedner,
"Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus." pp. 469 et seg. ; Van
Straalen, "Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus." pp. 148-151
et seg. See Ab, Ninth Day of.

G. M. Sc.

EINANAH : Opponent of Mohammed ; son of
the poet Al-Habi' ibn Abu al-^ukaik, who flour-
ished at Medina in the seventh century, prior to the
appearance of Mohammed at that town. He had two
brothers— Al-Rabi' and Sallam ; all three were de-
clared enemies of the Prophet. Kinanah is said to
have urged Mohammed to give up the custom during
prayer of turning his face toward Mecca ("kiblah")
in favor of Jerusalem, as had been the custom in
Islam at first. After the expulsion of the Banu al-
Nacjir, of which tribe he was a member, he and his
family retired to Khaibar, where they possessed a cas-
tle called Kamus. The Jewish strongholds at Khai-
bar were soon after conquered by Mohammed, and
Kinanah was made a prisoner of war. There were

two reasons why Mohammed desired Kiuanah's death:
Kinanah was accused of having hidden the treasure
of the Banu al-Nadir, and Mohammed coveted his
wifeSafiyyah, the daughter of Huyayy, a rabbi who
had been murdered on a previous occasion. Kinanah
died under torture. He is erroneously confounded by
Tabari with Kinanah ibn Rabi', the brother-in-law
of Mohammed's wife Zainab.

Bibliography : Hirschfeld, in R. E. J. x. 29.

G. H. HiK.

KINDBETTBRIEF. See Childbirth.

KINDERFREUND, ARYEH LOB : Polish
scholar; born at Zamosc, government of Lublin,
1798 ; died at Lemberg 1873. In the earlier part of his
life he was in very good circumstances, but he soon
lost his fortune and had to make use of his knowl-
edge of classical philology and the modern lan-
guages. He went to Galicia, where he earned his
livelihood by teaching.

Kinderfreund was the author of " Shirim Shonim "
(Lemberg, 1834), poems relating to various subjects,
and distinguished both for purity of style and for
richness of ideas. In addition Kinderfreund left in
manuscript the following works: Hebrew poems,
among which one compares the Jewish New-Year
with that of other creeds ; a work in Latin in which
is demonstrated the priority of the Hebrew language ;
an apologetical treatise in which are reproduced
religious controversies between the author and a
prominent Christian whose children he instructed.

Bibliography: Jost's Annalen, 11. 143; Zeitlln, Bibl. Post-
Mendelfi. p. 171.

H. 11. I. Bk.

KINDLING OF LIGHTS. See Lights.

KING : Chief ruler of a nation. — Biblical Data :

In Jewish history the first ruler called "king" was
Saul, son of Kish, but in Palestine almost every chief-
tain bore this title. According to Josh. xi. 1-2, the
country contained numbers of kings, and in the
Song of Deborah (Judges v. 19) reference is made to
the "kings of Canaan." These can have had little
more power than a modern sheik. Some of them,
doubtless, held more extensive sway than others,
and the ruler of the federation of the five cities of
the Philistines might more deservedly be dignified
with the name. The special need of a military
leader in primitive times was due to the constant
warfare in which even the more settled population
of the country passed its existence, and while in
the nomad state the Israelites needed a warrior chief
like Moses or Joshua to keep them united and under
discipline. As soon as the Israelites were settled in
the Holy Land decentralizing tendencies became
paramount, and the local jurisdiction of the ciders
superseded the earlier regime. This led to various
attempts at reconstruction under the Judges. In
two cases, those of Gideon and Abimelech, attempts
were made to found petty kingdoms. Similarly,
Jephthah seems to have established a minor king-
dom east of the Jordan, in Gilead (Judges xi. 6-11) ;
but none of these attempts were sufliicient to unite
the whole of the Israelitish tribes for warlike pur-
poses against their enemies in plain and mountain.

In the time of Samuel, however, the tribes were
for a time united. The manifest advantages of this

501

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kinah
King

union led Samuel himself to arrange later for a sec-
ular head of the Israelite forces, who should be sanc-
tified by the choice of the oracles of God ; Saul,
therefore, became, by election, the first King of
Israel. Dissatisfied with Saul's conduct, the impe-
rious Samuel selected David to replace him, who,
after Saul's death, immediately succeeded in ruling
over Judah, and some years later was acknowledged
king of all Israel. David had takeu possession of
the great fortress of Jerusalem, aud, possibly influ-
enced by the career of the king-maker Samuel, at-
tempted to combine the ecclesiastical and the mili-
tary headship by making his chapel royal, or Temple,
the center of the national worship. This policy was
carried out by his son Solomon, who attempted
further to break down the old tribal divisions by di-
viding the whole country into twelve or thirteen
districts (I Kings iv. 7), severally presided over by
one of his officers; each of these officers, it has been
conjectured, was required to supply the court or
the army with provisions during one mouth of each
year. But this attempt proved premature, and after
Solomon's death his kingdom was divided into two
parts (see Iskael; Judah). The advantages of aral-
lying-poiut for the national forces was nevertheless
thenceforth clearly recognized, and both divisions
were ruled by kings till the superior forces of the sur-
rounding nations destroyed for a time the national
independence.

As indicated by the sketch above, the chief duty
of the king was to act as war-lord and commander-
in-chief of the army. One result of the establish-
ment of the kingship was the foundation of a stand-
ing army, which began with the three
Functions, thousand men kept by Saul in the
field against the Ammonites (I Sam.
iii. 2). The "Gibborim," or the mighty men who
formed the body-guard of the king, constituted the
nucleus of this force. War being regarded by the
Hebrews as a sacred occupation (see Schwally,
" Kriegsaltertiimer," 1901), the king was intimately
connected with the religious organization of the peo-
ple, and it is possible that at an early stage he was re-
garded as the center of it, though there are no such
traces of taboos around Hebrew royalty as are found
among other primitive nations (see Frazer, " Golden
Bough," i., passim). It is certain that the king per-
formed priestly functions. Saul offered sacrifices
(I Sam. xiii. 9-11), and David wore the ephod (I
Sam. vii. 19) ; Solomon addressed the people in the
Temple (I Kings viii. 14) ; the high priests received
their appointment from the king, at any rate in the
earlier stages of the monarchy (II Sam. viii. 17; I
Kings ii. 26-27). The fact that Solomon built a
temple aud dedicated it shows the intimate relation
of the king with the national sanctuary, which was
attached to his palace. In addition to their military
and ecclesiastical functions, the Jewish kings, like
all Oriental monarchs, discharged those of judges
(comp. I Kings iii. 16 et seq.), and in the palace there
was a special porch for judgment (I Kings vii. 7).
How far the king had the right to originate laws is
doubtful. Later legislation required him to agree
to abide by the Deuteronomic Law (Deut. xvii. 18,
19), but he must have had considerable latitude in
interpreting it.

In the cases of Saul and David, the fact that they
had already proved themselves redoubtable leaders
in warfare was doubtless the reason why Samuel
chose them for the kingly office when he had reluc-
tantly come to the conclusion that such

Selection a liead for the nation was necessary,
and When once the kingship had been

Anointing, established, the hereditary princi|)le
arose naturally. For nearly eight years
Saul's son Ishbosheth retained the position of his
father among the more northern tribes. The king
appears to have hiid the right to select his successor
from his descendants, as was done by David in the
case of Solomon (I Kings i.), who seems to have
been the yoiuigest among his sons (see JiNioii
Right). Although the act of selection was the
monarch's, the priestly caste seems to have had some
voice in the decision, while the elders and the peo-
ple generally expressed by acclamation their satis-
faction at the result (II Kings xiv., xxi., xxiii. ; see
also Josephus, "B. J." i. 33, ^ 9).

The chief ceremony by which a ruler was conse-
crated king was that of anointing, mentioned in
the cases of Saul (I Sam. x. 1), David (II Sam. ii. 4),
Jehu {II Kings ix. G), and Joash (II Kings xi. 12).
In all these cases, excepting the last, the function
appears to have been a private one, and hence it has
been suggested that it was performed with the be-
ginning of a new dynasty. The general reference
to the king as "the anointed one," or "the Lord's
anointed " (I Sam. ii. 10; Ps. ii. 2; Lam. iv. 20), seems
to show that anointing was the normal and charac-
teristic part of a king's inauguration, though it oc-
curred also in the appointment of a high priest
(see Anointing ; Messiah ; see also Wellhausen in
" Archiv fiir Religions wissenschaft," 1904).

The chief external signs of dignity were the
crown (II Kings xi. 12), which was worn by Saul
even on the battlefield (II Sam. i. 10; see Ckown),
and the scepter (Ps. xlv. 7 [A. V. 6]). It is doubt-
ful whether the spear, so often mentioned in connec-
tion with Saul (I Sam. xx. 33, xxii. 6, xxvi. 7), was
used by him as a sign of his dignity ; it is not men-
tioned elsewhere in connection with the kings,
though modern sheiks use it for that purpose (Tris-
tram, " Land of Israel," p. 59). Naturally, the king's
house was of larger dimensions and of more preten-
tious architecture than that of any of his subjects,
and special accounts are given of the palaces of Sol-
omon (I Kings vii.), Jehoiakim (Jer. xxii. 13, 14),
and Ahab (I Kings xxii. 39). The king's scat was
known as the "throne" or "judgment-seat." An
elaborate description is given of that of Solomon
(I Kings X. 18 et seq. ; see Throne).

The chief officer of the king was the "captain of
the host"{II Sam. ii. 8). Another high military
officer was the captain of the body-guard (II Sam.
viii. 16, XX. 23), who, for prudential rea.sons, was
not placed under the orders of the commander-in-
chief. Of the officials connected with

Ofl&cers. the royal household the chief appears
to have been the high chamberlain, or
the officer "over the household " (II Kings xviii. 18).
Next come the "sofer," or scribe, who acted as sec-
retary of state {ib.). and the "mazkir," or historiog-
rapher {ib.y An official less frequently mentioned

King

King's, Books of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

502

Seal of Obadiah, " Servant of
the King."

(After Benzinger.)

was the "king's servant" (II Kings xxii. 12); a seal
that belonged to one of these king's servants, Avhose

name was Obadiah, has
recently been dis-
covered. Besides these,
several minor officials,
as "keeper of the ward-
robe" (II Kings xxii.
14) and "chamberlains"
(II Kings xxiii. 11), were
connected with the royal
household. Other titles,
like those of "king's
friend " and " counselor, "
can scarcely be regarded
as official.
The means by which this state was maintained
were various, and doubtless differed with the period.
The royal domains and flocks (partly
Revenue, obtained by escheat) must have con-
tributed much to its support (I Chron.
xxvii. 25-28). The kings may have claimed a tithe
of the produce of the land (I Sam. viii. 15-17), but
no later evidence is given of this, and such a claim
would conflict with the similar claims of the priest-
hood. Regular presents, doubtless, were made by
the king's chief vassals (I Kings x. 25), and tributes
were brought in by conquered tribes (I Kings iv. 21 ;
II Chron. xxvii. 5). Solomon pmbably derived
some profit from his trading ventures (I Kings ix.
28), as well as from the customs levied on the for-
eign merchants trading in Palestine (I Kings x. 14).
Resources such as these enabled the king to keep up
considerable state. He dressed in royal robes (I
Kings xxii. 10; II Chron. xviii. 9), drank from gold
vessels (I Kings x. 21), and possessed a large harem
(II Sam. xvi. 21). All who approached him bowed
down and touched the ground with the forehead
(I Sam. xxiv. 8; II Sam. xix. 24). After the de-
struction of the monarchy, memories of its glory still
remained in Israel, and Ezekiel regarded roj^alty as
inseparable from the ideal Jewish state (Ezek.
xlvii.). The term "king" was applied symbolically
to any great leader, even to death (Job xviii. 14); but
above all it was applied to God as the "King of
Kings " (see Theocracy). It is likewise applied to
a crocodile {ib. xxiv. 34).

Bibliography : Benzinger, Hebrdische Archilologie, pp. SOS-
SIS ; K. Budde, Schdtzung des KOnigtums im Alien Testa-
ment, Marburg, 1903.
E. G. n. J.

In Rabbinical Literature : In Talmudic

times every official position on earth was regarded
as of divine appointment, and the rule of the king
was compared with that of God (Ber. 58a). One
had, therefore, to pray for a good king (Ber. 55a)
and for the good of the king (Abot iii. 2). The office
was regarded as hereditary (Hor. lib; comp. Zeb.
102a). There was a special benediction to be
pronounced on seeing a king, and no one should
avoid greeting him appropriately (Ber. 58a). Even
prayers may in certain cases be interrupted to an-
swer a king (Ber. 32b). Intriguers against the royal
majesty lost in certain cases their property and were
put to death (Sanh. 48b), while any disrespectful
gesture was punished (Pes. 57b). To defraud the cus-

toms was a great crime against the king (Ned. 28a),
and he received one-thirteenth of all booty captured
in war (B. B. 122a). The anointingof the king was
done with balsam before he was crowned (Hor. 12a).

But a king must stand during the reading of the
Law (Sotah 41b), and must not arise from his knees
until he has finished his prayer (Ber. 34b). The
glory of a king is truth (Ta'an. 32a), and, therefore,
his word must be irrevocable (B. B. 3b). He should
set an example to all in his obedience to the Law
(Suk. 30a).

The relations of a king to his courtiers was a fa-
vorite subject of the Rabbis in their parables. I.
Ziegler has collected no less than nine hundred and
thirty -seven parables of this kind, scattered through
Midrashic literature, but it is clear from the descrip-
tions of the king's regalia that the model before the
Rabbis was the Roman emperor with his purple
mantle, laurel crown, and curule chair. These par-
ables, though interesting in their way, seldom throw
light upon the rabbinical views about kings, being
more of the nature of folk-tales.

Bibliography : Lewysohn, in Orient, Lit. 1850, No. S3 : I.
Ziegler, Die Kdnigsgleichnisse des Midrasch, Breslau, 1903.
s. s. J.

KINGDOM OF GOD ("Malkuta de-Adonai":
Targum to Zech. xiv. 9 and Ob. 21 ; "Malkut Shad-
dai " : 'Alenu ; and " Malkut Shamayim " : Ber. ii. 2,
and elsewhere in Mishnah and Haggadah): Reign
or sovereignty of God as contrasted with the king-
dom of the worldly powers. The hope that God
will be King over all the earth, when all idolatry
will be banished, is expressed in prophecy and song
(Ex. XV. 18; Zech. xiv. 9; Isa. xxiv. 23, Iii. 7;
Micah iv. 7; Ps. xxix. 10), and with special em-
phasis in the later Psalms (xciii.-xcix.). God's
Kingdom is spoken of in Ps. xxii. 29 (A. V. 28),
ciii. 19, cxlv. 11-13; Ob. 21; Dan. iii. 33 (A. V. iv.
3) ; Tobit, xiii. 1 ; Sibyllines, iii. 47-48, 767 ; Psalms
of Solomon, xvii. 3; Wisdom, x. 10; As.sumptio
Mosis, X. 1; Song of the Three Holy Children, 33;
Enoch, Ixxxiv. 2. The words " The Lord shall be
King " are translated in the Targum, " The King-
dom of God shall be revealed " ; and the ancient lit-
urgy culminates in the prayer that " God may estab-
lish His Kingdom speedily " (see 'Alenu ; Kaddish).
The Kingdom of God, however, in order to be es-
tablished on earth, requires recognition by man ; that
is, to use the Hasida?an phrase borrowed from Baby-
lonia or Persia, man must " take upon himself the
yoke of the Kingdom of God " (" '01 Malkut Shama-
yim " ; " Heaven " is a synonym of " God " ; see
Heaven). This the Israelites do daily when reciting
the Shema' (Ber. ii. 2); so do the angels when sing-
ing their " Thrice Holy " (Hekalot) ; and in the
future "all men shall take upon themselves the yoke
of the Kingdom of God when casting away their
idols" (Mek., Beshallah, 'Amalek, 2). Accordinglj',
says the Midrash (Cant. R. ii. 12), "when the King-
dom of Rome has ripened enough to be destroyed,
the Kingdom of God will appear."

Upon the Red Sea, Israel first sang the praise of
God's Kingdom (Ex. R. and Targ. Yer. to Ex. xv.
19), and at Mount Sinai they accepted the yoke of
God's Kingdom (Sifra, Kedoshim, xi.), just as
Abraham did (Book of Jubilees, xii. 19), making

603

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

King
Kingrs,

Books of

Him King upon earth (Sifre, Deut. 313); eacli
proselyte, in joining Judaism, "takes upon liimself
tlie yoke of God's Kingdom " (Tan., Lek Leka, ed.
Buber, p. 6). The Hebrew slave who declares his
wish to be a slave for life has his ear pierced, be-
cause " he casts off the yoke of God's Kingdom to
bend to the yoke of another sovereignty" (Tosef.,
B. K. vii. 5; Yer. Kid. TjOb). The yoke of God's
Kingdom — the yoke of the Torah — grants freedom
from other yokes (Abot iii. 4). Especially was it
the pviuciple of one party of the Hasidieans, the
Zealots, not to n^cognize as king any one except
God (Josephus, "Ant." xviii. 1, i^g 1, 6; comp. Philo,
"Quod Oninis Probus Liber," p§ 12-13, and the
prayer Abinu Malkenu — " Our Father, our King,
we have no King except Thee ! "

The greater, then, the oppression of the Worldly
Kingdom (Rome), the more eager the Jewish people,
particularly the pious ones, were for " the Kingdom
of Heaven," as they called it, to come speedily.
This is the ever-reiterated object of the prayers in
the liturgjr (Masseket Soferim, xiv. 12; et al.). It
was even laid down that no benediction would be
effective without reference to the Kingdom (Ber.
12a). It is the approach of this King-
Christian dom of Heaven, in opposition to the
and. Jewish Kingdom of Rome, which JoiiN the

Concep- Baptist announced (Matt. iii. 2 ; comp.
tions. Luke i. 71-74, iii. 17). Jesus preached
the same Kingdom of God (Matthew
has preserved in " Kingdom of Heaven " the rabbin-
ical expression "Malkut Shamajim"), and when he
said, "the kingdom of God cometh not by obser-
vation [that is, calculation] . . . for, behold, the
kingdom of God is among [not within] you " (Luke
xvii. 21, Syriac version), he meant, " It does not come
through rebellion or by force " (see Jew. Encyc. iv.
51, s.r. Christianity).

When, however, the trend of events led early
Christianity to make a decided disavowal of all
political expectations antagonistic to Rome, the
conception of the Kingdom of God was made an
entirely spiritual one, and was identified with the
" 'olam ha-ba" (= "the world to come"), the spiri-
tual life, in Avhich " there is no eating and drinking,
but righteousness and peace and joy in the lioly
spirit" (Rom. xiv. 17, Greek; comp. John xviii.
36). Rab speaks of it in the same way: "In the
world to come there is neither eating, nor drinking,
nor procreation, nor strife; but the righteous sit en-
crowned and enjoy the splendor of the Shekinah"
(Ber. 17a).

Bibliorraphy: Bousset. Die Religion des JudentTiums, pp.
199-201, Berlin. 1903 ; Dalraan, Die Worte Jesu, pp. 75, 119,
Lelpsic, 1898 ; Schechter, In J. Q. R. vl. 640-643, vli. 195-304.

KINGS, BOOKS OF.— Biblical Data: Fourth
book of the second canonical division of the He-
brew Bible, the Prophets (D'N^3J)- It contains a
history of the kings of Judah and of Israel from the
last daj's of David till the capture of Zedekiah by
Nebuchadnezzar. This work is divided into tw^o
books, I Kings Ck D'd!50) and II Kings ( 2 D^D^JD) ;
the former consisting of twenty-two, tlie latter of
twenty-five, chapters.

The following is a synopsis of their contents:

First Book of Kings : Cli. i. : David having
grown old, his sou Adonijah forms a plot with Joab
and Abiathar to .seize the kingdom. But Solomon's
mother, Bath-sheba. helped by Nathan tiie propliet,
bafHes Adonijah 's design, and Solomon is anointed
and crowned with great solemnity. Hearing of
tins, Adonijah and his guests, who are banqueting
at the time, retire precipitately.

Ch. ii. : David's charge to Solomon, whom lie en-
joins to let neither Joab nor Shimei die a natural
death. On the other hand, he is to show kindness
to the children of Barzillai the Gileadite. Adonijah
asks Solomon for David's concubine Abishag, and
pays for his imprudence with his life. Abiathar is
deposed from the high-priesthood, and Joab is killed
by Benaiaii at the command of Solomon. Shimei,
ignoring a command of the king, is killed by Benaiah
in fulfilment of David's charge to Solomon.

Ch. iii.: Solomonmarriesthedaughterof the King
of Egypt. God appears to liim in a

Solomon, vision by night at Gibeon, and prom-
ises him extraordinary wisdom and
great riches. Solomon's judgment in the case of the
two harlots, in which he discovers the real mother
of the living child.

Ch. iv. : Solomon divides his kingdom into
twelve commissariat districts, and appoints officers
over them; each district being required to support
the royal house during one month every year.

Ch. V. : Account of Solomon's kingdom, his daily
provision, the number of his horses, his great wis-
dom, the prosperous state of Israel imder his rule,
his alliance with Hiram, and his preparations for the
construction of the Temple.

Ch. vi. : A full account of the Temple, the con-
struction of which lasted seven years.

Ch. vii. : Description of Solomon's palace, the
erection of which occupied thirteen years, and of
the Temple vessels made by Hiram the artificer.

Ch. viii. : Inauguration of the Temple. After the
Ark and the vessels are brought in, Solomon ad-
dresses to God a long prayer and blesses the people.
He then dedicates the Temple with numerous peace-
offerings, and the people hold a feast of fourteen
days.

Ch. ix. : Second appearance of God to Solomon.
He admonishes the king to observe His command-
ments, otherwise the Temple will be of no avail.
Solomon makes another treaty with Hiram, builds
several cities, and imposes a heavy tribute on the
descendants of the former inhabitants of the land.
Solomon's navy, under the direction of Tyrians,
sails to Ophir for gold.

Ch. X. : The Queen of Sheba comes to Jerusalem
and admires Solomon's wisdom; she gives him
costly presents. A description of his golden tar-
gets, his ivory throne, his vessels, the great number
of his chariots and horses.

Ch. xi. : Decline of Solomon ; his numerous wives
and concubines draw him into idolatry, for which
God threatens him with the loss of his kingdom.
An account of Solomon's adversaries; namely,
Hadad, who flies to Egypt; Rezon and Jeroboam,
to the latter of whom Ahijah prophesies that he
will become king. Solomon dies after a reign of
forty years, and is succeeded by his son Rehoboam.

Kingrs, Books of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

504

Ch. xii. : Division of tlie kingdom. The Israelites
assemble at Shechem for the purpose of crowning
Rehoboam. Headed by Jeroboam, they ask the
king to relieve them of the burdens placed on them
by his father. Rehoboam, refusing the advice of
the old men, and following that of the young ones,
answers the people roughly. All the tribes of
Israel, with the exception of Judah and Benjamin,
revolt ; they kill Adoram, and cause Rehoboam to
flee. The latter is made king over Judah and Ben-
jamin, while the other ten tribes follow Jeroboam,
who strengthens himself by building Shechem and
Penuel and places therein two golden calves as ob-
jects of worship.

Ch. xiii. : Jeroboam's hand, as he is about to strike
a man who has prophesied against the altar, withers,
but at the prayer of the prophet is restored. This
same prophet, deceived by an old prophet of Beth-el,
eats at the latter's house in defiance of
King's and God's command and is slain by a lion.
Prophets. He is buried by the old prophet, who
directs his children when he himself
shall die to bury him by the prophet's side. Jero-
boam, in spite of the miraculous restoration of his
hand, persists in his idolatry.

Ch. xiv. : Abijah, Jeroboam's son, being sick,
Jeroboam sends his wife, disguised, with presents
to the prophet Ahijah of Shiloh. The latter, on
seeing Jeroboam's wife, annovmces to her the exter-
mination of Jeroboam's family and the death of
Abijah. Jeroboam is succeeded by his son Nadab.
Rehoboam, falling into idolatry, is attacked by
Shishak, King of Egypt, who despoils the Temple
and the royal house. Rehoboam is succeeded by
his son Abijam.

Ch. XV. : Abijam, during a wicked reign of three
years, is continually at war with Jeroboam. He is
succeeded by his son Asa. The latter, a worshiper
of Yhwh, is forced on account of his war with
Baasha, King of Israel, to make a league with Ben-
hadad. He is succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat.
Nadab, after a wicked reign of two years, is assas-
sinated by Baasha, who succeeds him and whose
reign is an evil one.

Ch. xvi. : Jehu prophesies against Baasha, who
after a reign of twenty-four years is succeeded by
his son Elah. The latter is assassinated by Zimri,
who succeeds him and exterminates the whole fam-
ily of Baasha, thus carrying out Jehu's prophecy.
Seven days later the soldiers make their general
Omri king, who forces Zimri to destroy himself by
fire. The kingdom of Israel is divided between
Omri and Tibni, the former of whom finally becomes
sole king. After a. sinful reign of twelve years,
during which he builds Samaria, Omri is succeeded
by his son Ahab, who does "evil in the sight of the
Lord above all that were before him."

Ch. xvii. : Elijah the Tishbite, having foretold a
drought, hides himself at Cherith, where he is fed
by ravens. He is then sent by God to Zarephath ;
he sojourns at the house of a widow, whose son he
raises from the dead.

Ch. xviii. : Elijah is commanded to go to Ahab to
announce that God will send rain ; he meets Oba-
diah, who brings Ahab to him. Elijah, having re-
proved Ahab for bis wickedness, convinces him

of the superiority of Yhwu by calling down
fire from heaven. Having .slain all the prophets of
Baal, Elijah obtains rain by prayer and accompanies
Ahab to Jezreel.

Ch. xix. : Elijah, threatened by Jezebel, flees to

Bcer-sheba ; he then goes into the wilderness, where,

being wearj^ of his life, he is com-

Elijah and forted by an angel. At Horeb God

Elisha. appears to him and sends him to
anoint Hazael, Jehu, and Elisha. The
last-named takes leave of his parents and friends
and follows Elijah.

Ch. XX.: Ben-hadad besieges Samaria, demanding
of Ahab all that he possesses. Encouraged by a
prophet, Ahab is successful in two battles, slaying
many Syrians. The Syrians submit to Ahab. Ahab
sends Ben-hadad away free with a covenant, and in
consequence a propliet pronounces God's judgment
against Ahab.

Ch. xxi. : Ahab, demanding Naboth's vineyard,
meets with a refusal. At Jezebel's instigation, Na-
both is condemned to death for blasphemy, and
Ahab takes possession of the vineyard. EHjah fore-
tells God's judgment against Ahab and Jezebel, but
as Ahab repents, the punishment is deferred.

Ch. xxii. : Ahab, visited by Jehoshaphat, urges
the latter to accompany him to the war with Aram.
Encouraged by false prophets, Ahab, contrary to the
advice of Micaiah, starts for the war, and is slain at
Ramoth-gilead. He is succeeded by his son Aha-
ziah. A summary of Jehoshaphat's beneficent reign
and acts; he is succeeded by his son Jehoram; short
account of Ahaziah's evil reign.

Second Book of Kings : Ch. i. : Moab rebels
after Ahab's death. Ahaziah, being sick, sends to
Baal-zebub; the messengers meet Elijah, who fore-
tells Ahazia^i's death. Elijah, sent for by Ahaziah,
destroys by fire from lieaven two captains of fifty
with their men ; he spares the third captain and his
fifty, and comes to Ahaziah, whose death he fore-
tells.

Ch. ii. : Account of Elijah's translation. Having
divided the Jordan with his mantle, the prophet
takes leave of Elisha, granting him his request that
a double portion of Elijah's spirit may rest upon
him; Elijah is then taken up in a fiery chariot to
heaven. Elisha is acknowledged as Elijah's suc-
cessor; he heals the waters of Jericho, curses chil-
dren who mock him, and returns to Samaria.

Ch. iii. : Jehoram, Ahab's second son, succeeds
his brother Ahaziah, and, accompanied by Jehosha-
phat and the King of Edom, marches against Moab.
Being distressed for lack of water, the allied kings
obtain it through the intervention of Elisha, who
also promises them victory. The Moabites, de-
ceived by the color of the water, come to plunder
the allied armies, and are overcome. The King of
Moab, by sacrificing his eldest son, raises the siege.

Ch. iv. : Account of the miracles performed by
Elisha. He multiplies the widow's oil; gives a son
to a Shunammite woman ; brings to life her dead
son; heals at Gilgal the deadly pottage; and satisfies
100 men with twenty loaves.

Ch. V. : Naaman, on the advice of a captive maid,
asks Elisha to cure him of his leprosy. Elisha sends
him to bathe in the Jordan ; Naaman does so and is

605

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kiugrs, Books of

cured. Elisha refuses Naaman's gifts, but his serv-
ant Gehazi takes them, for which he is smitten
with leprosy.

Ch. vi. : Elisha, giving leave to the young proph-
ets to build a dwelling, causes the ax of one of them,
which has fallen into the Jordan, to lioat on the sur-
face of the water. He discloses to the KiJg of
Ismel the Syrian king's secrets; he smites with
blindness the army sent to apprehend him, brings it
to Samaria, and then dismisses it in

Elisha's peace. Samaria, besieged by Ben-
Career, hadad, suffers from a severe famine in
which women eat their children. The
king sends a messenger to slay Elislia.

Ch. vii. : Elisha foretells plenty in Samaria; but
announces to an officer, who expresses disbelief in
the prophecy, that he shall not participate therein.
Four lepers, having visited the camp of the Syrians,
bring word of their flight. The King of Israel
sends men to spoil the tents of the enemy; abun-
dance of food is secured. The officer who has
doubted Elisha's prophecy is trodden to death.

Ch. viii. : The Shunammite, in order to avoid the
predicted famine, leaves her country for seven years ;
when she returns she finds her land seized by other
people. The king, in recognition of Elisha's mira-
cles, orders her land to be restored to her. Ben-
hadad, being sick, sends Hazael with presents to
Elisha, who prophesies that Hazael will succeed his
master. Hazael kills Ben-hadad and ascends the
throne. Short account of the evil reign of Jehoram,
King of Judali. Edom and Libneh revolt. Jeho-
ram is succeeded by his son Ahaziah ; account of his
sinful reign.

Ch. i.x. : Elisha sends a young prophet to anoint
Jehu at Raraoth-gilead. Jehu, made king by the
soldiers, kills Joram, Ahab's son, in the field of Na-
both, and Ahaziah in Gur. Jezebel is thrown out
of a window and eaten by dogs.

Ch. X.: Jehu exterminates Ahab's family; he
causes seventy sons of Ahab to be beheaded, kills
forty-two of Ahaziah's brothers, takes
Jehu's up Jehonadab into his chariot with
Iniquities, him, and destroys all the worshipers
of Baal. Jehu himself follows the
sinful practises of Jeroboam, as a punishment for
which Israel is oppressed by Hazael. Jehu is suc-
ceeded by his son Jehoahaz.

Ch. xi. : Athaliah destroys all the royal family
with the exception of Joash (Jehoash), who is hid-
den by his aunt Jehosheba in the house of God for
six j-ears. In the seventh year Joash is anointed
king by Jehoiada, and Athaliah is slain. Jehoiada
restores the worship of Yhwh.

Ch. xii. : Joash is a worshiper of Yhwh all the
days of Jehoiada. Account of Joash's activity in
repairing the Temple. Hazael is diverted from
Jerusalem by a present from the sacred treasury.
Joash, after a reign of forty years, is assassinated
by his servants and succeeded by his son Amaziah.

Ch. xiii. : Account of Jehoahaz's evil reign. Je-
hoahaz, oppressed by HazaeJ, prays to God, who
relieves him. He is succeeded by his son Joash,
who, after a wicked reign of sixteen years, is fol-
lowed by his son Jeroboam. Elisha dies; his bones,
by the touching of them, bring to life a dead man.

Hazael is succeeded by his son Ben-hadad, from
whom Joash recovers the cities which his father lost.

Ch. xiv. : Amaziah's reign; his victory over
Edom, and his defeat by Joash. Amaziah, slain by
conspirators, is succeeded by his son Azariah. Ac-
count of Jeroboam's reign; he is succeeded by his
son Zechariah.

Ch. XV. : Short account of Azariah's good reign;
he dies a leper, and is succeeded by his son Jotham.
Zechariah, the last of Jehu's dynasty and an idolater,
is slain by Shalhim, who succeeds him and who, after
a reign of one month, in turn is slain by Menaliem.
Account of Meuahem's victories; he secures the as-
sistance of Pul, King of As.syria. Menahem, dying,
is succeeded by his son Pekahiah. The latter is slain
by Pekah, during whose reign Tiglath-pileser .seizes
a part of the land of Israel. Pekah is slain by
Hoshea and is succeeded by him. Jotham after a
good reign of sixteen years is succeeded by his son
Ahaz.

Ch. xvi. : Account of Aliaz's wicked reign. As-
sailed by Rezin and Pekah, he bribes Tiglath-pile-
ser to help him against them. Ac-
The Later count of the altar built by Uriah

Kings. for Ahaz and of the latter's spolia-
tion of the Temple. Ahaz is suc-
ceeded by Kezekiah.

Ch. xvii. : Account of Iloshea's wicked reign.
Being subdued by Shalmaneser, he conspires against
him, the result of which is the capture of Samaria
as a punishment for the sins of Israel. Account of
the strange nations transplanted in Samaria by the
King of Assyria; lions being sent among them,
they make idols and set them in the high places.

Ch. xviii. : AccountofHezekiah's beneficent reign;
he destroys idolatrj^ and prospers. Israel is carried
away into captivity. Sennacherib, invading Judah,
is at first pacified by tribute; but he afterward sends
Rab-shakeh, who reviles Hezekiah and incites the
people to revolt (see Isa. xxxvi.).

Ch. xix. : Hezekiah requests Isaiah to pray for his
kingdom, and is comforted by the prophet. Sen-
nacherib, obliged to leave Jerusalem in order to en-
counter Tirhakah, sends a blasphemous letter to
Hezekiah. Hezekiah 's prayer and Isaiah's prophecy
are followed by the annihilation of Sennacherib's
army (see Isa. xxxvii.).

Ch. XX. : Hezekiah, being sick, is told by Isaiah
that he will die ; in answer to his prayer his life is
lengthened. The shadow goes ten degrees back-
ward. Merodach-baladan's embassy to Hezekiah,
and Isaiah's prophecy with regard to it (see Isa.
xxxviii.-xxxix.). Hezekiah is succeeded by his son
Manasseh.

Ch. xxi. : Account of Manasseh's reign and of his
flagrant idolatry'. He is succeeded by his son Anion,
who, after a reign of two years, is slain by his serv-
ants; he is succeeded by his son Josiah.

Ch. xxii. : Josiah during his long and good reign
is very active in repairing the Temple. Hilkiab
having found a scroll of the Law, Josiah sends to
consult Huldah concerning it; she prophesies the
destruction of Jerusalem, but not until after Josiaii's
death.

Ch. xxiii. : Josiah, having read the Law in a sol-
emn assembly, renews the covenant of Yhwh. Jo-

King's, Books of
^innim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

506

siah's activity in the destruction of idolatry; he
celebrates the Passover. Having provoked Pharaoh-
nechoh, Josiah is slain by him a^ Megiddo. Jehoahaz,
Josiah's son, succeeds to the throne. Pharaoh-nechoh,
having imprisoned Jehoahaz, makes Jehoiakim king ;
the latter reigns indifferently lor eleven years.

Ch. xxiv. : Jehoiakim, subdued by Nebuchadnez-
zar, rebels against him. He is succeeded by his son
Jehoiachin, during whose vpicked reign the King of
Egypt is vanquished by the King of Babylon, Jeru-
salem also is taken, and the royal family, inclu-
ding the king, and most of the inhabitants are car-
ried captive to Babylon. Zedekiah is made king
and reigns till the destruction of Judah.

Ch. XXV. : Account of the siege of Jerusalem and
of the capture of Zedekiah. Nebuzar-adan destroys
the city and the Temple, carries away the Temple
vessels, and deports most of the people to Babylon.
Gedaliah, who has been made ruler over those who
remain in Judah, is slain, and the rest of the peo-
ple flee into Egypt. Evil-merodach, King of Bab}'-
lon, releases Jehoiachin from prison ; and the latter
is honored at court.

s. M. Sel.

Critical View : A superficial examination of

the Books of Kings makes clear the fact that they
are a compilation and not an original composition.
The compiler, or editor, constantly cites certain of
his sources. In the case of Solomon it is " the book
of the acts of Solomon" (I Kings xi. 41); for the
Northern Kingdom it is " the book of the chronicles
of the kings of Israel," which is cited seventeen
times, i.e., for all the kings except Jehoram and
Hoshea (see, e.g., ib. xv. 31); and for the kings of
Judah it is " the book of the chronicles of the kings
of Judah," which is cited fifteen times, i.e., for all
the kings except Ahaziah, Athaliah, Jehoahaz,
Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah (see, e.g., ib. xv. 7).
Whether the editor had access to these "chronicles,"
as they were deposited in the state archives, or sim-
ply to a history based upon them, can not with cer-
tainty be determined. It is generally assumed that
the latter was the case (comp. Kuenen, "Historisch-
Kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testa-
ments," p. 68, and Cornill, "Einleitung in das Alte
Testament," p. 123).

It was not the purpose of the compiler to give a
complete history of the period covered by his work ;
for he constantly refers to these sources for addi-
tional details. He mentions as a rule a few impor-
tant events which are sufficient to illustrate the atti-
tude of the king toward the Deuteronomic law, or
some feature of it, such as the central sanctuary and
. the "high places," and then proceeds

Object and to pronounce judgment upon him ac-

Method cordingly. Each reign is introduced
of Work, with a regular formula; then follows
a short excerpt from one of his sources ;
after which an estimate of the character of the mon-
arch is given in stereotyped phraseologj' ; and the
whole concludes with a statement of the king's death
and burial, according to a regular formula (comp.,
e.g., I Kings xv. 1-9 for the formula used for the
kings of Judah, and ib. xv. 25-33 for that used
for the kings of Israel).

The standpoint of the judgments passed upon the

various kings as well as the vocabulary of the com-
piler (comp. Driver, "Introduction," 1891, p. 190,
for a list of his words) indicates that he lived after
the reforms of Josiah (621 b.c.) had brought the
Deuteronomic law into prominence. How much
later than this the book in its present form was com-
posed, may be inferred from the fact that it con-
cludes with a notice of Jehoiachin's release from
prison by Evil-merodach (Amil-Marduk) after the
death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562. The book must
have taken its present form, therefore, during the
Exile, and probably in Babylonia. As no mention
is made of the hopes of return which are set forth in
Isa. xl.-lv., the work was probably concluded be-
fore 550. Besides the concluding chapters there
are allusions in the body of the work which imply
an exilic date (see, e.g., 1 Kings viii. 34, xi. 39; II
Kings xvii. 19, 20; xxiii. 26, 27). To these may be
added the expression " beyond the river " (I Kings
V. 4), used to designate the country west of the Eu-
phrates, which implies that Babylonia was the home
of the writer.

On the other hand, there are indications which

imply that the first redaction of Kings must have

occurred before the downfall of the

Time of Judean monarch^'. The phrase " unto
Redaction, this day " occurs in I Kings viii. 8, ix.
21, xii. 19; II Kings viii. 22, xvi. 6,
where it seems to have been added by an editor who
was condensing material from older annals, but de-
scribed conditions still existing when he was wri-
ting. Again, in I Kings xi. 36, xv. 4, and II Kings
viii. 19, which come from the hand of a Deuteronomic
editor, David has, and is to have, a lamp burning in
Jerusalem; i.e., the Davidic dynasty is still reign-
ing. Finally, I Kings viii. 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 38, 42,
44, 48; ix. 3; and xi. 36 imply that the Temple is
still standing. There was accordingly a pre-exilic
Book of Kings. The work in this earlier form must
have been composed between 621 and 586. As the
glamour of Josiah's reforms was strong upon the
compiler, perhaps he wrote before 600. To this
original work II Kings xxiv. 10-xxv. 30 was added
in the Exile, and, perhaps, xxiii. 31-xxiv. 9. In
addition to the supplement which the exilic editor
appended, a comparison of the Masoretic text with
the Septuagint as represented in codices B and L
shows that the Hebrew text was retouched by an-
other hand after the exemplars which underlie the
Alexandrine text had been made. Thus in B apd L,
I Kings V. 7 follows on iv. 19; vi. 12-14 is omitted;
ix. 26 follows on ix. 14, so that the account of Solo-
mon's dealings with Hiram is continuous, most of
the omitted portion being inserted after x. 22. II
Kings xxi., the history of Naboth, precedes ch. xx.,
so that XX. and xxii., which are excerpts from the
same source, come together. Such discrepancies
prove sufficient late editorial work to justify the as-
sumption of two recensions.

In brief outline the sources of the books appear
to have been these: I Kings i. and ii. are extract-
ed bodily from an early court history

Sources, of David's private life, which is

largely used in II Sam. ix.-xx. The

editor (Rd) has added notes at ii. 2-4 and 10-12.

For the reign of Solomon the source is professedly

507

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

King's, Books of
Kinnim

"the book of the acts of Solomon" (xi. 41); but
other sources were employed, and much was added
by Kd. Ch. iii. isa prophetic narrative of relatively
early origin, worked over by Rd, who added verses
2, 8, and 14, 15. Ch. iv. 1-19 is presumably derived
from the Chronicle of Solomon. Ch. iv. 20-v. 14
contains a small kernel of prophetic narrative which
has been retouched by many hands, some of them
later than the Septuagiut. The basis of v. 15-vii.
51 was apparently a document from the Temple
archives; but this was freely expanded by Rd
(comp. Stade in his "Zeitschrift," 1883, pp. 129 ei
seq.), and vi. 11-14 also by a later annotator. Ch.
viii. 1-13, the account of the dedication of the Tem-
ple, is from an old narrative, slightly expanded by
later hands under the influence of P. Ch. viii. 14-66
is in its present form the work of Rd slightly re-
touched in the Exile. Ch. ix. 1-9 is the work of
Rd, but whether before the Exile or during it is
disputed. Ch. ix. 10 -x. 29 consists of extracts from
an old source, presumably " the book of the acts of
Solomon," pieced together and expanded by later
editors. The order in the Masoretic text differs from
that in the Septuagint. For details seeKittel, "Die
Konigsbilcher," in Nowack's "Handkommentar."
Ch. xi. 1-13 is the work of Rd ; xi, 14-22 is a con-
fused account, perhaps based on two older nar-
ratives (comp. Winckler, " Alttest^mentliche For-
schungen," pp. 1-6); and xi. 26-31 and 39, 40 prob-
ably formed a part of a history of Jeroboam from
•which xii. 1-20 and xiv. 1-18 were also taken. The
extracts in ch. xi. have been set and retouched by
later editors (comp. Kittel on I Kings xi. 23-43).

From ch. xii. of the First Book onward these
books are characterized by an alternation of short
notices which give epitomes of historical events, with
longer narratives extracted from various sources.
The following sections are short epitomes: I Kings

xiv. 21-xvi. 34; xxii. 41-53; II Kings

Narratives viii. 16-29; x. 32-36; xii. 18-xiii. 13;

and and xiii. 22-xvii. 6. In some cases

Epitomes, short extracts are even here made in

full, as in xiv. 8-14 and xvi. 10-16.
The longer narratives, which are frequently re-
touched and expanded by Rd, are as follows: I
Kings xii. 1-20, xiv. 1-18, from an older narrative
of Jeroboam, to which xii. 21-32 and xiv. 19, 20 are
additions; xii. 33-xiii. 34, a comparatively late story
of a prophet; xvii.-xix. and xxi., an early pro-
phetic narrative written in the Northern Kingdom
(comp. xix. 3); xx. and xxii. 1-40, an early north-
Israelitish history of the Syrian war in which Ahab
lost his life; II Kings i.-viii. 15 and ix. 1-x. 31,
north-Israelitish narratives, not all from one hand,
which are retouched here and there, as in iii. 1-3, by
Rd; xi. 1-xii. 17, a Judean narrative of the over-
throw of Athaliah and the accession of Joash ; xiii.
14-21 and xiv. 8-14, two excerpts from material
written in the Northern Kingdom (comp. xiv. 11);
xvii. 7-23 is Rd's commentary on the liistorical no-
tice with which the chapter opens; xvii. 24-41 is
composite (comp. verses 32, 34, and 41), probably
written in the Exile and retouched after the time of
Nehemiah; xviii.-xx. is compiled by Rd from three
sources (comp. Stade, I.e. vi. 174), Rd himself pre-
fixing, inserting, and adding some material; xxi. is,

throughout, the work of Rd; xxii.-xxiii. 25 is an
extract from the Temple archives witli slight edit-
ing; and xxiii. 29-xxv. 30, the appendix of the ex-
ilic editor, is based on Jer. xl. 7-xliii. 6. From Jer-
emiah, too, the exilic editor drew his information,
which he presented in briefer form.

BrBi.iofiRAPHY : Kuenen, nittorigch-KrUvsche Einleitung in
die liUclter dcs Altai Tcxtamcntu, pp. 02-99. Lelpslc, 1H9();
Cornill, Kinlcituiiq in dnx AUc Ttxtamcnt, 1H91, pp. 12(>-i:ii;
Driver, [ntrnduction to t)ie Literature of the Old Tcsta-
we/l^ 1891, pp. 175-193; Kittel. Die KfrnignMlcher, 19(X), in
Nowack's IfandkonimoUar; Benzlnger, Die BUcher der
K/Diige, 1899, In K. H. C; Silbersteln, in Stade's Zeitschrift,
xiii. 1-76.
E. G. H. G. A. B.

KINGSTON. See Jamaica.

KINNIM ("Birds' Nests"). Name of a treatise
of the Mishnah in the series Kodashim. The Penta-
teuchal law ordains the sacrifice of two turtle-doves
or of two young pigeons for a person that has been
cured of an issue (Lev. xv. 14-15, 28-29). A similar
sacrifice is prescribed for poor lepers when they have
become clean again (Lev. xiv. 22, 30), for poor
women after childbirth (Lev. xii. 8), and for such of
the poor as have trespassed in regard to Lev. v. 1
et seq. Of the two turtle-doves or pigeons of which
this sacrifice consists, the one is for a sin-offering,
the other for a burnt offering. The Law further-
more provides (Lev. i. 14) that one who has vowed
an offering of fowls may bring turtle-doves or young
pigeons. This is the so-called "free-will offering."
The treatise Kinnim discusses these regulations in de-
tail. In this connection are instanced a number of
cases, some of them being hypothetical and care-
fully elaborated, of confusing pigeons brought by
different persons for different sacrifices.

In the Mishnah of the Babylonian Talmud this
treatise is the ninth in the series Kodashim, but in
most editions of the Mishnah it is the eleventh and
last. It is divided into three chapters, containing
fifteen paragraphs in all.

Ch. i. : The blood of a sin-offering of fowls is
sprinkled below the line which divides the altar,
that of a burnt offering of fowls, above; the free-
will dove-offerings can be brought only as burnt
offerings; difference between the vowed offering
("neder") which, if it dies or is stolen, must be re-
placed, and the free-will offering (" nedabah "), which
can not be replaced (§ 1). Concerning the confu-
sing of a sin-offering with a burnt offering, and vice
versa, and concerning the confusing of different pairs
of sacrificial birds (§§ 2-4).

Ch. ii. : Cases in which one of a pair of fowls for
sacrifice flies away before it has been decided which
was to be the sin-offering and which the burnt
offering (§§ 1-3); cases in which one escapes after
the decision has been made (§ 4). An offering may
consist either of turtle-doves or of young pigeons,
but not of one turtle-dove and one young pigeon.
Cases in which heirs must supply the offering (^ 5).

Ch. iii. : Further details concerning the confu.sion
of different sacrifices ; a more precise treatment of
matter discussed in ch. i. (§§ 1-5). R. Joshua ex-
plains the proverb, "The ram has one voice during
its life, and seven after its death," by pointing out
that his horns, skin, thigh-bones, and intestines are
used in the making of musical instruments (§ 5).
The chapter, and the treatise, ends with a saying of

£inship
Kirkisani

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

508

R. Simeon ben 'Akasliya, that "the folly of the
ignorani increases with age, while the intellect of
scholars becomes clearer and firmer." This hagga-
dic conclusion is a confirmation of the view that
the treatise Kinnim terminated the series Kodashim.

Bibliography: Z. Frankel, Hodegetica in Mischnam, p. 262,
Leipsic, 1859.
J. J. Z. L.

KINSHIP. See Family and Family Life.
KINSMAN. See Family and Family Life.
KINYAN. See Alienation and Acquisition.
KIPPURIM, TOM HA-. See Atonement,

DXY OF.

KIR : A people and country subject to the Assyr-
ian empire. In II Kings xvi. 9 and Amos i. 5, ix.
7, Kir is mentioned as the place wliither the Syrians
went before they settled in the regions north of Pal-
estine, and to which Tiglath-pileser sent the prison-
ers after the conquest of Damascus. In Isa. xxii.
6 Kir is mentioned in connection with Elam: "And
Elam bare the quiver with chariots of men and
horsemen, and Kir uncovered the shield." The
Septuagint translates the last clause awayuy?/ napn-
roffwc, omitting " Kir " altogether and taking my
for ni]!. hence awayuyij. Hitherto it has not been
possible to identify the place.

E. G. H. B. P.

KIRALFY, IMRE: Musical composer; born
in Budapest, Hungary, Jan. 1, 1845. He received
his musical education at Budapest, Vienna, and
Paris. Kiralfy, who commenced composition of
music at the age of twelve, is the author, originator,
and producer of a series of spectacular exhibitions
given in the United States and in England. Among
these maybe mentioned: "America," produced at
the Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 1893; "Ven-
ice in London," 1895; "Victorian Era Exhibition,"
1897; "Military Exliibition," 1901; "Paris in Lon-
don," 1902. He is also tlie author of: "Our Naval
Victories," produced in New York, 1898; "Women
of all Nations," 1900; "China, or the Relief of the
Legations," 1901. Of his compositions the follow-
ing have been published : " Nero," " Venice, the Bride
of the Sea," "Columbus," "Our Naval Victories,"
"America," "China, "and "India."

Kiralfy, who now (1904) resides in London, has
two brothers, Arnold and Bolossy Kiralfy, who
are both conducting theatrical companies, with
which they are touring the United States. The
Kiralfy Brothers built in 1876 tlie Alhambra Palace,
the present South Broad Street Theater, in Phila-
delphia, where until the early part of 1877 they pro-
duced their spectacular exhibitions.

Bibliography : Morals, The Jews of Philadelphia, pp. 382-
383; Who's Who, 1904.
A. F. C.

KIRCHHEIM, RAPHAEL: German scholar ;
born in Frankfort-ou-the-Main 1804; died there
Sept. 6, 1889. For some time he was shohet in the
Orthodox congregation of Samson Raphael Hirsch
in Frankfort, in which city he spent his whole life.
He assented to the protest of the seventy-seven
Orthodox rabbis against the decrees of the Rabbin-
ical Conference at Brunswick (1844), and attacked

in an open letter ("Offener Brief," 1845), signed
"K m," A. Adler, rabbi of Worms. When Abra-
ham Geiger became rabbi at Frankfort, Kirchheim
developed into a radical partizan of Reform. He
had then to give up his position as shohet, but being
a partner in a banking firm he had ample means.
Kirchheim was of a pugnacious disposition and took
a very active part in the general attack on the Am-
sterdam administration of the Halukkah in 1843-44,
which was especially directed against Hirsch
Lehren of Amsterdam, president of the board of
administration (see "Orient," iv. 391 et seq.).
Kirchheim severely criticized Samson Raphael
Hirsch's " Der Pentateuch " in a pamphlet entitled
" Die Neue Exegetenschule : Eine Kritische Dornen-
lese " (Breslau, 1867).

Kirchheim published: S. L. Rapoport's "Toka-
hat Megullah, Sendschreiben an die Rabbinerver-
sammlung zu Frankfurt-am-Main " (Hebr. and Ger-
man, the translation being by Kirchheim him-
self), Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1845; Azulai's "Shem
ha-Gedolim" and "Wa'ad la-Hakamim" with tlie
annotations of A. Fuld and E. Carmoly, ib. 1847 ;
" Karme Shomeron," an introduction to the Talmud-
ical treatise " Kutim," with an additional letter by S.
D. Luzzatto, ib. 1851 (the appendix gives the seven
smaller treatises of the Jerusalem Talmud, accord-
ing to a Carmoly manuscript); Eliezer Ashkenazi's
"Ta'am Zekenim," i*. 1854; B. Goldberg's edition
of Jonah ibn Janah's "Sefer ha-Rikmah," with addi-
tional notes of his, ib. 1856; "Perush 'al Dibre ha-Ya-
mim, Commentar zur Chronik aus dem X Jahrhun-
dert," 26. 1874; Abraham Geiger's " Nachgelassene
Schriften," v. 1, Berlin, 1877.

He wrote also additional notes to: A. Ginzburg's
"Perush ReDaK 'al ha Torah," Presburg, 1842; S.
Werblumer's edition of Joseph ibn Caspi's"'Am-
mude Kesef," ib. 1848; and Filipowski's "Sefer
Teshubot Dunash ben Labrat." Besides he pub-
lished many articles in German magazines.

Kirchheim left a valuable collection of Hebraica
and Judaica, which at present belongs to the relig-
ious school of the M. Horovitz Synagogue at Frank-
fort.

Bibliography : Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1889. p. 587; S. Bemfeld,
Tnledot ha-Reformazion, p. 314 ; Zeitlin, Kiryat Sefer, p.
171 ; Zedner, Cat. Heir. Books Brit. Mus. p. 413.

8. M. So.

KIRIMI, ABRAHAM : Crimean rabbi of the
fourteenth century. According to Firkovitch (" C.
I. H." No. 50), Kirimi was a proselyte and a pupil
of Aaron ben Joseph the Karaite. He derived
his name from his native town Kirim, or Sulehat, in
the Crimea.

Kirimi was the author of "Sefat Emet," a com-
mentary on the Pentateuch, in which he tries to
refute the interpretations of the Karaites when they
are in contradiction to those of the Rabbinites.
Kirimi says in the preface that he wrote the work
at the request of many notable Jews and especially
of his Karaite pupil Hezekiah b. Elhanan ha-Nasi,
whom he held in liigh esteem. A part of the pref-
ace is in verse, the last two lines of which may be
translated : " To the one who asks for the author's
name, answer 'Abraham who was born at Kirim.
His date is 5118 [1358].'" Steinschneider and

509

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kinship
Klrkisani

Fnenn consider this date to be that of the composi-
tion of the work ; but it seems rather to be tiiat of
the author's birth.

Bibliography: Stelnschneider, Helir. Hihl. xi. 38,39; Fuonn,
Ha-Karmcl, iii. 53 slseg.; idem, Kencset Yiieraeh p. fi^.
s. 8. M. Skl.

KIRJATH-ARBA. See Hebron.

KIRJATH-JEARIM ("city of forests"): 1.
A descendant of Cak'b, the sou of Hur (I Ciiron. ii.
50, r)2, 53). 2. One of the towns of the Gibeouites
(Josh. ix. 17), whieli belonged to the tribe of Judah
(ib. XV. 60; Judges xviii. 12), on the border of Ben-
jamin (Josh, xviii. 15; I Cliron. ii. 50), to wliicli it
was finally assigned (ib. xviii. 28). At Kirjath-
jearim tlie Arli was kept before its removal by
David to Jerusalem, liaving been brouglit from
Beth-.sliemesh after its return from the land of the
Philistines (I Sam. vii; I Chron. xiii.). After the
Captivity Kirjath-jearim was repeopled (Ezraii. 25;
Neh. vii. 29). Its site appears to have been not far
from Beeroth (Ezraii. 25). The prophet Urijah, the
son of Shemaiah, put to death by King Jehoiakim,
was a native of Kirjath-jearim (Jer. xxvi. 20 et serj.).
Other names for the same place are "Baalah " (Josh.
XV. 9, 10; I Chron. xiii. 6) and " Kirjath-baal "
(Josh. XV. 60).

E. G. H. B. P.

KIR JATH-SEPHER : City in the hill-country
of Judah (Josh. xv. 49), situated to the south of He-
bron (x. 38), on a prominence not very far from
that city (ib. xv. 15). It Avas the former name of
Debir (ib. xv. 15; Judges i. 11), and was also known
as " Kirjath-sannah " (Josh. xv. 49), for which the
Septuagint gives 7v6?uc ypafifidruv ("city of letters "),
the usual translation of " Kirjath-sepher. " Debir
was among the cities which were assigned to the
priests (Josh. xxi. 15; I Chron. vi. 58). It is iden-
tified with the present Al-Dahariyyah. The name
seems to indicate that it was the "city of the roll,"
i.e. , for enrolment or enlisting purposes ; but the sec-
ond element, "sepher," may possibly be the name of
a deity. To explain it as " Library-city " appears
to be assuming too much.

E. G. II. B. P.

KIRJATHAIM (R. V. Kiriathaim, DTinp
= " two cities ") : 1. City on the Moabite plateau,
assigned by Moses to Reuben; mentioned with
Heshbon and Elealeh (Num. xxxii. 37) as well as
with Kedemoth and other cities which had previ-
ouslj' belonged to Sihon (Josh. xiii. 18-20). It is
spoken of as a Moabite town in Jer. xlviii. 23, Ezek.
XXV. 9, and in the inscription of Mesha (line 10),
who, calling it " Kiryatan " (jn'lp). declares that he
had built or fortified it. Kirjathaiin gave its name
to the plain Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. xiv. 5). In
the " Onomasticon " (s.i\ Kaplaf^nel^, KapiaOa) it is de-
scribed as a Christian village situated ten Roman
miles west of Medeba. It is identified by many
scholars with the ruins now called "Kariyah," south-
west of Machaerus (see Conder in Hastings, " Diet.
Bible," and the bibliography there given).

2. A city in Naphtali assigned to the Gershonite
Levites (I Chron. vi. 61 [A. V. 76]). In the parallel
list of Josh. xxi. 32, it is called " Kartan."

E. G. H. M. Sel.

KIRKISANI, ABU YTTSTTF YA'l^UB AL-

(accdiding to Stciiisclincidci-, Yusuf Abu Ya'-
kub) : Karaite dogmati.st and exegete; flourished in
the first half of the tenth century; a native of Cir-
cassia (whent'c the name of Kirkisani). He seems
to have traveled throughout the Oiient, visiting the
centers of Mohammedan learning, in which lie was
well versed. In 937 Kirkisani wrote an Arabic work
on tlie precepts— under the title "Kitab al-Anwar
wal-Maiakib" (known in Hel)iew as "Sefer hc-
Me'orot," or "Sefer lia-Ma'or"), with the subtitle
"Kital) al-Shara'i' " ("Sefer Mizwot Gadol")— and
a commentary entitled "Al-Riyad wal-Hada'Hj "
("Sefer ha-Gannim we-Pardesim," or "Sefer lia-
Nizzanim "), on tliose portions of the Pentateuch
whicii do not deal with the laws.

Of these two volumes the more interesting is the
former, which not only provides valuable informa-
tion concerning the development of Karaism, but
throws light also on many questions in rabbinical
Judaism. It comprises thirteen treatises, each di-
vided into chapters, and the first four treatises form
an introduction to the whole work. In the first
treatise, of eighteen chapters, Kirkisani gives a com-
prehensive survey of the development of the Jewish
sects, the material for whicli he drew not only from
the works of his predecessors, as David ibn Merwan
al-Mukammas, whom he mentions, but also from his
personal experiences in the learned circles in which
he moved. The enumeration of the sects is given in
chronological order, beginning with the Samaritans,
and concluding Avith the sect founded by Daniel al-
Kumisi. Kirkisani declares the Rab-
Contents of binites to be a Jewish sect founded by
" Kitab al- Jeroboam I., although it did not make
Anwar." its appearance until the time of the
Second Temple. Zadok, the founder
of the Sadducean sect, in his excursuses against the
Rabbinites, revealed part of the truth on religious
subjects, while Anan disclosed the whole. How-
ever, in spite of Kirkisani's admiration for Anan,
he often disagrees with him in the explanation of
the precepts.

It is noteworthy that Kirkisani includes Christian-
it}' among tlie Jewish sects. In the third treatise
(ch. xvi.) he saj'S that "the religion of the Chris-
tians, as practised at present, has nothing in com-
mon with the teachings of Jesus." It originated
with Paul, who ascribed divinity to Jesus and pro-
phetic inspiration to him.self. It was Paul that
denied the necessity of carrying out the Command-
ments and taught that religion consisted in liumility ;
and the Nicene Council adopted pre-
view of cepts w hich occur neither in the Law,
Chris- nor in the Gospels, nor in the Acts of
tianity. Peter and Paul. Kirkisani devotes a
great portion of the first treatise to
attacks upon the Rabbinites, in which he does not
show himself impartial; but he is not blind to the
faults of the Karaites. In the last chapter he draws
a sad picture of the spiritual condition of Karaism
in his time. "You can scarcely find two Karaites
of one and the same opinion on all matters; upon
almost any point each has an opinion different from
those of all the rest." He deplores the neglect by
the Karaites of the studv of rabbinical literature,

Kirlpsani
Kish

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

510

which, according to hifn, would furnish them Avith
weapons for their controversies witli the Rabbinites.
Here Kirkisani is referring to the discrepancies fre-
quent in haggadic and mystic literature, such as the
"Shi'ur Koniah," wliich, indeed, he often uses in his
attacks against the Rabbinites.

The second treatise, of twenty-eight cliapters, dis-
cusses the duty of applying critical methods to the
study of religious matters. Kirkisani is the first
Karaite known to have been a firm believer in the
study of the sciences, and he criticizes those who,
although accepting the fundamental principle of in-
dependent inquiry and research, are against the
demonstrative sciences of dialectics and philosophy.
Reason is the foundation upon which every article
of faith is based, and from which all knoAvledge
flows. The third treatise, of twenty-three chapters,
is a critical review of adverse religious sects and
Christianity. In the seventeenth and eighteenth
chapters Kirkisani refutes the doctrine of metem-
psychosis, though among it's exponents was Anan,
who wrote a work on the subject. For Kir-
kisani, the solution of the question, much debated
by the Motazilite Kalam, concerning the punish-
ments inflicted upon children is not to be found in
the doctrine of metempsychosis, but in the belief
that compensation will be given to children in the
future world for their sufferings in this.

In the fourth treatise Kirkisani expounds, in sixty-
eight chapters, the fundamental principles leading
to the comprehension of the particular religious
prescriptions. The remaining treatises are devoted
to the precepts themselves, which are arranged in
systematic order. Kirkisani quotes the views of the
earliest Karaite authorities (as Anan, Benjamin
Nahawendi, Daniel al-Kumisi, etc.), which he often
refutes. Belonging to theBa'ale ha-Rikkub, he is
particularly severe in his views on the laws of In-
cest, and he combats the opinion of his contempo-
rary Jacob ben Ephraim al-Shanii, who permitted
marriage to the daugliter of one's brother or sister.

Most of the " Kitab al-Anwar " and the beginning

of the"Al-Riyad wal-Hada'ik" are still extant in

manuscript, in the Firkovich collec-

Ey.tant tion in the Imperial Library of St.

Manu- Petersburg (Nos. 1142-1444)! The

scripts. first treatise of the " Kitab al-Anwar,"
dealing with the Jewish sects, was pub-
lished by A. Harkavy in the memoirs of the Orien-
tal section of the Archeological Society (viii. 1849).
Various fragments of seven treatises (ii.-vi., viii.,
ix.-xii.) are found in the British Museum (Oriental
MSS. Nos. 2,524, 2,536, 2,578-2,582). They were
analyzed by Poznanski, who published the text of
chapters xvii. and xviii. of the third treatise, dealing
with the doctrine of metempsychosis, and chapter
XXX v. of the fifth treatise, in which Kiriiisani dis-
cusses the question whether it is permitted to read
on the Sabbath books written in other than Hebrew
characters (Kohut Memorial Volume, pp. 435-462;
"Steinschneider Festschrift," pp. 195 et seq.). The
text of the sixteenth chapter of the third treatise,
dealing with the criticism of Christianity, was pub-
lished by H. Hirschfeld in his chrestomathy. A dis-
sertation on the Decalogue by Kirkisani, and which
Steinschneider supposes to be the first chapter of the

sixth treatise, beginning with proofs of the existence
of God, is found in the Bibliotheque Nationale (No.
755). Both the " Kitab al-Anwar " and the " Al-
Riyad wal-Hada'ik" were abridged, the former by
a certain Moses ben Solomon ha-Levi ""J^vn. Har-
kavy deduces from quotations that Kirkisani trans-
lated the Bible into Arabic, wrote commentaries on
the Book of Job and on Ecclesiastes, and wrote a
work on the unity of God ("Kitab al-Tauhid").

Bibliography : Geiger, Mclo Chofnajim. p. 74 ; Munk, in Is-
raelitische A^male^t, iii. 76, 93; Delitzsch, to Aaron ben Eli-
jah's 'Ez ha-Hauyim, p. 313 ; Dukes, Beitrilge, i. 28 ; Stein-
schneider, Cat. Leyden, pp. 181, 185 ; idem, Hchr. Bibl. xx.
107, xxi. 13; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 449; idem, Die Ara-
bische Literatur der Juden, §43; Pinsker, Likkute Kadmo-
niyyoU i. 169, ii. 201; Furst, Gesch. des KdrdeH. ii. 140;
Firkovich, Bene Reshef, pp. 20, 21 ; Harkavy, Measaef Nid-
dnhim, pp. 2, 16 ; idem, Studien und Mittheihingen, iii. 44;
idem, in Memoiren der Orientalischen Abtheilung der
Archceologischen GeseUschaft zu St. Petersburg, 1894, viii. ;
Poznanski, Die Qirqisa7ii Handschrifteyi im Brit. Mus.
in Steinschneider Festschrift, 1896, pp. 19.5-218; idem,
Aus QirqimnVs Kitah al-Anwar, in Kohut Memorial Vol-
ume, pp. 43.5-462; idem, Jacob ben Ephraim, in Kaufmann
Gedenkbuch ; Bacher, in J. Q. R. vii. 687 et seq.
K. L Br.

KIBK-KILISSEH : City in Thrace, European
Turkey, 102 miles north of Constantinople. The
name signifies in Turkish "forty churches."

Kirk-Kilisseh is an ancient Greek city, and it con-
tained no Jews when Sultan Murad II. conquered it
in 1436. Archbishop Melissinos Christodoulo relates
that in 1674 Sultan Mohammed IV., after having
taken Bessarabia from the Poles, brought a large
number of Jews from Kaminiec to Kirk-Kilisseh,
where he placed a garrison of 2,000 spahis. The
descendants of these Jews are called "Eskenazi,"
which seems to prove that Kirk-Kilisseh originally
contained Jews of Spanish-Italian origin, if one may
judge from their names — Mitrani (from Trani in
Italy), Rodrigue, Castiel, Hasdai, and Shaprut. The
oldest epitaph in the local cemetery, dated 5423
(=1663), is that of a rabbi, Abraham Molina, origi-
nally from Uskup.

During the Turco-Russian war of 1877-78, the
Jews of Kirk-Kilisseh joined with their fellow citi-
zens, and with the Jews from Yambol who had taken
refuge in the city, in bravely defending the place
against the attacks of Circassian pillagers.

At present the community numbers about 1,000
Jews in a total population of 15,000. It possesses
an ancient sj'nagogue, two schools containing 200
pupils (boys and girls), two benevolent societies,
and a reading-room.

Kirk-Kilisseh being very rich in vineyards, the
Jews, like their fellow citizens, are engaged in the
autumn in wine-making. During the remainder of
the year they follow different trades. Three Jews
of the city are officials of the local government.

At Lule-Burgos in the neighborhood of Kirk-
Kilisseh there are sixty Jewish families, and atBaba-
Eski ten families.
Bibliography: Melissinos Christodoulo, Uepi.ypa(l>ri 'laro-

pLoypaif>iKri rris' 'En-ap^ias 2opai'Ta ^EkkKyicthov, Athens, 1881.

D. M. Fr.

KIRSCHBAUM, ELIEZER SIMON: Aus-
trian physician and writer; born at Sieniawa, Gali-
cia, 1797; died at Cracow 1860. After studying
philosophy and medicine in Berlin, he settled as a
physician in Cracow, and as " Der Berliner Doctor "

611

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kirkisani
Kish

soon acquired an extensive practise and accumulated
a considerable fortune.

In order to be able to secure the estate of Siemota,
near Chrzanow, he adopted the Christian religion,
and assumed the name of " Sigismund. " As a mar-
ried man he permitted his wife to remain a law-
abiding Jewess throughout her life.

Kirschbaum was the author of a long Hebrew es-
say, entitled " Hilkot Yeme ha-Mashiah. " In the Ger-
man language he published "Der Jiidische Alexan-
drinismus," Leipsic, 1841, and "Der Familie Apo-
theose," Cracow, 1858.

s. M. We.

KIBSTEIN, MOBITZ : German physician ;
born at Filehne 1830; died in Berlin July 12, 1896.
He studied at the Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster,
in Berlin, and later at the university of that city,
obtaining his M.D. degree in 1855. The same
year he went to Vienna and Prague to taiie a post-
graduate course imder Oppolzer, Skoda, Dittel,
Schuh, and Hebra. Kirstein then settled as a phy-
sician in Berlin, where, in 1860, he was the first
practitioner to make use of the laryngeal mirror in
exploration of the larynx and the thoracic cavities.
At the time of his death he was a member of the
Berlin board of health. He contributed to various
specialist publications.

Bibliography: Anton Bettelhelm, Biographisches Jahr-
buch, 1897, p. 154.
s. E. Ms.

EISCH : Family of some distinction ; migrated in
the 16th century from Chiesch in Bohemia ; the found-
er of the family lived in Prague in the eighteenth
century, and the members are now spread through-
out Europe. The most prominent members are :

Abraham Kisch : Physician, and one of the
teachers of Moses Mendelssohn ; born at Prague in the
firsthalf of the eighteenth century (1720?); died June
5, 1803. Compelled to leave Prague with his core-
ligionists in 1745, he went to Germany. During
his sojourn at Breslau he founded a hebra kaddisha
and a hospital, both of these being modeled after
similar institutions at Prague. Theuce he went to
Berlin, where he completed his studies under the
guidance of Aaron Gumperz; here he instructed
Moses Mendelssohn in Latin. In 1749 he received
from the University of Halle his degree of Ph.D.,
and in the same year that of M.D. for his disserta-
tion, "Theoria et Therapia Phthiseos Pulmonalis."

The empress Maria Theresa having in the mean-
time permitted the Jews to return to Prague, Kisch
was elected physician of the community and di-
rector of the Meisel Hospital. These offices he re-
tained until 1763.

Bibliography: Kavserling, Jioses3fejide?fiso?ui, p. 1.5; HocK--
Kaufmann, Die Familien Prags, p. 314, Presburg, 1872 ;
Carmoly, Les Medecins Juifs.
D. A. Ki.

Alexander Kisch : Austrian rabbi and writer ;
born Oct. 5, 1848, at Prague. From 1863 to 1872 he
studied at the Jewish Theological Seminary of Bres-
lau. He then went to Paris as tutor to tlie family
of Baron Horace de Gilnzburg. In 1874 he was
called as rabbi to Brlix, Bohemia, and subsequently
to Zurich ; in 1886 he was called to the Meiselsyna-
gogue at Prague, succeeding Dr. A. Stein.

Kisch has published: "Der Septuagintal-Kodex
des Ulfilas," Breslau, 1873; Prague, 1902; "Papst
Gregor des IX. AnklageGegen den Talmifd," Leip-
sic, 1874; "Hillel I.," Prague, 1875; "Das Testa-
ment Mordecai Meisel's," Frankfort, 1893; "Das
Mosaisch Talmudische Eherecht R. Ezechiel Lan-
dau's," Leipsic, 1900. S.

Enoch Heinrich Kisch : Austrian balneother-
apist; born at Prague May 6, 1841. He received
his education at his native town, graduating as M.D.
in 1862. The following year he established liimself
at Marienbad, where he is still (1904) practising.
He became privat-docent in balneotherapeutics at
Prague University in 1867, and was appointed assist-
ant professor in 1884.

Since 1868 Kisch has edited the " AUgemeine Bal-
neologische Zeitung" and the "Jahrblicher fiir Bal-
neologie, Hydrologie und Kliniatologie," and is
collaborator for oalneotherapeutics to the " System
of Physiologic Therapeutics," a cyclopedia pub-
lished in Philadelphia, Pa. He has written several es-
says in the medical journals. Among his works
may be mentioned: "Ueber denEinflussder Fettlei-
bigkeit auf die Weiblichen Sexualorgane," Prague,
1873; "Das Climacterische Alter der Frauen und
die Behandlungen der Leiden der Menopause," Er-
langen, 1874; "Handbuchder Allgemeinen und Spe-
ciellen Balneotherapie," Vienna, 1875; "Die Lipo-
matosis Universalis," ib. 1888; "Die Sterilitat des
Weibes,"^■6. 1895; " Grundriss der Klinischen Balne-
otherapie," ib. 1897; "Uterus und Uerz, " ib. 1898.

Bibliography : Pagel, Biog. Lex.

P. T. H.

Hermann M. Kisch : Postmaster-general of
Bengal; born in 1850. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in
1883. Entering the Indian Civil Service in 1873, he
became undersecretary to the Bengal government,
and assisted in the work of relief in Bengal duiing
the famine of 1874, and at Madras in the famine of
1877. As postmaster-general, to which position he
was appointed in 1884, Kisch organized the posts for
the Sikkiin campaign of 1888. He represented In-
dia at the International Postal Congress of Vienna,
1891, and at that held at Washington in 1897. He
attended also, in the same capacity, the Imperial
Penny Postage Conference at London in 1898.

Bibliography: Jewish Year Book, 1901-2.
J. M. W. L.

KISH : The father of Saul, the first king of
Israel (I Sam. ix. 3, xii. 21, xiv. 51; I Chron. ix. 39,
xii. 1, xxvi. 28). He was a wealthy and powerful
Benjamite, the son of Ner (I Chron. viii. 33, ix. 39)
and the grandson (I Sam. ix. 1 reads "son'") of
Abiel. The home of Kish and of his family was at
Gibeah, according to I Sam. x. 5, 10 (rendered "the
hill of God " and " the hill " in the English versions),
but according to II Sam. xxi. 14, at Zelah, where
the bones of Saul and Jonathan were buried " in the
sepulcher of Kish." The text is no doubt corrupt.
The only incident mentioned respecting Kish is that
he sent Saul in search of some of his asses (I Sam.
ix. 3). In the New Testament (Acts xiii. 21) Kish
is called "Cis."

E. G. H. B. P.

Kishlnef

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

512

KISHINEF (KISHINEV): Russian city;
capital of the government of Bessarabia; it has a
population of 147,962 (1904), including about 50,000
Jews. The Jewish community of Kishinef has
taken an important part in the commercial and in-
dustrial grow til of the city since the eighteenth cen-
tury, when it became prominent as a trading center.
Jewish merchants are intimately connected with the
local and export trade in grain, wine, tobacco, lard,
wool, hides, fruit, etc., and the trade with Odessa
and Austria is largely controlled by Jews. Still
more conspicuous is the part taken by Jews in the
industries of the city. It appears from the reports
of the Jewish Colonization Association (1898) that
Kishinef has 6,837 Jewish artisans, of that number
2,115 being masters; and the total number of per-
sons supported by their labor is at least 10,000.
About one-third of the artisan population is com-
posed of tailors and seamstresses, whose annual in-
come does not average more than 250 rubles each.
Numbers are engaged in shoemaUing (925), cabinet-
making (625), and in other crafts, their average in-
come being between 250 and 300 rubles each per
annum. Most of the other departments also of
skilled labor are represented by Jews, as, for in-
stance, photography, printing , engraving, watch-
making.

A large number of Jews (877) is employed as
day-laborers, as porters, drivers, etc. During the
harvest season many take charge of the thrashing
machines in the neighboring villages, and aid in the
gathering of the harvest of grain and fruit, both in
the gardens in the city and its environs, and in the
neighboring villages. At least 500
Commer- are employed during the .season in
cial and pressing grapes, and about 500 more
Industrial work in their own vineyards and gar-
Activity dens, which comprise altogether about
of Jews. 377 deciatines of land. But the most
important agricultural occupation
among the Jews is that of market-gardening, which
occupies about 200 families. About 115 are engaged
in the cultivation of tobacco. The land used for
this purpose is partly within the limits of the city
(60 deciatines), but the majority of tobacco-growers
living in theciij' own plantations outside it. Dairy-
ing occupies about 63 persons. The number of shops
and factories belonging to Jews is about 35. and in-
cludes tobacco-warehouses, distilleries, vinegar-fac-
tories, cigar- and cigarette-factories, and flour-mills.
The majoritj'of the factories are small and employ
from 20 to 30 hands; but a few of them employ 60
or more. There are in these shops and factories
598 Jewish laborers, almost exclusively men. The
women and children take little part in the work of
the factories.

The number of Jewish poor in Kishinef in propor-
tion to the entire Jewish population is considerable,
and increases from year to year. In 1895 the num-
ber of destitute Jewish families applying for aid
was 808; the number in 1896 was 1,131; in 1897 it
was 1,006. The increase of poverty appears even
more clearly in the number of families that apply
for aid for Passover : 1,200 in 1895; 1,142 in 1896;
1,450 in 1897; 1,494 in 1898; 1,505 in 1899; 2,204 in
1900.

This rapid increase in the number of Jewish poor
is explained, aside from the legal and economic con-
ditions of Jewish life in Russia, by personal admin-
istrative oppression at the hands of the governors of
Bessarabia. Among the innumerable cases whicii
illustrate the tyraunj'of the administration it is suf-
ficient to cite one, in which Jewish merchants and
laborers are prohibited from going to the stone-quar-
ries situated ten versts from Kishinef, the prohibi-
tion being justified by tlie assertion that Jews have
no rigiit to live outside cities or boroughs!

In 1898 the various charitable institutions of Kish-
inef united, with official sanction, vmder the name of
"the Society in Aid of the Poor Jews of Kishinef."
The activities of the society include the supply of
cheap fuel to the poor and the distribution of aid for
the Passover. There are four committees of char-
ity : the committee in charge of the dining-hall and
tea-house for the poor; the orphan asylum commit-
tee ; the committee for the care of sick women ; and
the committee for the care of poor children. The
total income and expenditure of the society for 1900
were each 32,220 rubles. The sum assigned from the
B.\SKET-TAX for charitable work in Kishinef (ac-
cording to the census of 1900) was 58,526 rubles. Of
this sum, 35,000 rubles were expended on the sup-
porlf of a Jewish hospital and dispensary, and about
10,000 rubles on the support of a Talmud Torah
with its industrial school.

H. R. M. R.

A serious anti-Jewish outbreak occurred in Kish-
inef April 19-20, 1903, during which 47 Jews were
killed, and 92 severely, and 500 slightly, injured.
Great material losses were inflicted on
Anti- the Jewish community : 700 houses

Semitic were destroyed ; 600 stores were pil-
Riots. laged; 2,000 families were utterly
ruined. The outbreak undoubtedly
had been planned beforehand, and was not in any
degree spontaneous. For six j'ears previous to the
outbreak a certain Pavolachi Krushevan, the Mol-
davian editor of the only daily paper in the city,
the "Bessarabetz," had carried on a campaign
against the Jews, publishing various false accusa-
tions against them, and not even hesitating to accuse
them of ritual murder. Having poisoned the minds
of the Christian population, Krushevan availed
himself of the opportunity created by the murder of
a bo}' (by his own relatives) in an adjoining village,
and tlie suicide of a Christian girl in the Jewish
hospital of Kishinef; he laid both tragedies at the
door of the Jews, declaring emphatically that both
were murders committed for ritual purposes; he
described the incidents of these "ritual murders"
with a wealth of sickening detail, and in inflam-
matory articles appealed to the people for venge-
ance.

The local government authorities, while aware of
the utter falsity of the accusations and of the grave
danger of such appeals to passion and ignorance,
did nothing. That they were guilty of having con-
tributed to the outbreak is evident, since the "Bes-
sarabetz " was subsidized by the government for
the printing of official news, and was thus made an
official organ; the vice-governor, Ostrogov, while
occupying the position of censor, was himself a col-

613

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kisbinef

laborator ou the paper; moreover, the police were
iu open sympathy with the rioters, and made no at-
tempt to interfere; and Davidovich, one of the ofli-
cials appointed to investigate into tiie causes and
course of the outbreak, liad himself participated in
the formation of an anti-Jewish organization. The
rioters were mostly Moldavians, with a small pro-
portion of Great Russians ; some of the latter un-
doubtedly had been sent to Kishinef for the occa-
sion, under the leadership of a few seminarists and
students disguised as laborers.

These events called forth expressions of indig-
nation throughout the civilized world, and repre-
sentations on the subject were made to the Russian
government, which refused to take otticial notice
of them. A petition to the czar was prepared
in the United States, signed by many thousands
of all beliefs, and entrusted to President Roose-
velt for transmission to St. Petersburg. The peti-
tion, although its text was transmitted to. the Rus-
sian government in an otficial despatch, was never
sent, for the Russian Foreign Office intimated that
it would not be received. During the trials of the
numerous persons indicted as participators iu the
riots the judiciary was openly hostile to the Jews,
and most of the rioters received trivial sentences.
Tiie unfair attitude of the government officials dur-
ing these trials created grave apprehensions among
the Jews of South Russia ; great loss was inflicted
upon commerce throughout that region, and hun-
dreds of Jewish families were impelled to emigrate
to other countries.

The cry of horror which went up from the whole
civilized world in reference to the massacres at Kish-
inef was followed by a cry for justice and by a de-
mand that the affair be investigated and the guilty
ones punished. Public opinion in Europe and
America was aroused to such a pitch that the Rus-
sian government was obliged to institute legal in-
quiries.

"Justice will take its course,'' said Murawyev,
minister of justice, who desired to pacify indignant
Europe; but in this case justice could take only the
course carefully marked out for it. Anything else
would have meant disaster to the definite anti-
Semitic policy of the government, and
Trial would have implicated high govern-
of the ment officials. This, of course, was

Rioters, not to be thought of. Russian policy
is known to be persistent, though it
sometimes appears to give way to the representa-
tions of others. Accordingly legal proceedings were
instituted, but the conduct of them proved only a
mockery of justice.

The trial was to be kept strictly secret ; and no
newspaper might publish the slightest mention of
the proceedings. Russian subjects were not to be
led to doubt their right to persecute Jews witli im-
punity, nor to conceive of any other explanation of
the atrocities than that diligently spread by anti-
Semitic pap«2rs in the pay of the government,
namely, that the uprising at Kishinef was an out-
break of popular hatred against the Jews. The
judge in charge of the case was ordered on no ac-
coimt to incriminate either the prime movers in the
affair or the civil and military officials who were
VII.— 33

the real instigators of the riots. He was to punish
only those persons who, as it appeared later, had
received explicit secret instructions as to liow they
should act at the time of the riots. Finally, iu order
to remove all appearance of preconcerted action, tlie
court, instead of treating all the events of Ajiril 19
and 20 as a single case, was ordered to dcid with
them as separate cases. The request of the lawyers
ou both sides to combine all accusations into a single
case was refused by the president of the court, who,
in order to minimize the importance of the trial, de-
cided that it should be conducted as one involving
twenty-two separate cases.

A session of the special department of the Odessa
Chamber of Justice (Sudebnaya Palata) was held at
Kishinef for the purposes of the trial from Nov. 19 to
Dec. 21, 1903. The first case, the murders of the boy
Baranovich and of Benzion Galanter, Drachmann,
and others was begun on the finst-mentioned date.
Thirty-seven defendants, fifty-three injured persons,
and 547 witnesses were cited. The public prosecu-
tor stated that the crime had been perpetrated during
the Christian Easter days. He pointed out also
that the Christian populace was incited against the
Jews by certain articles in the "Bessarabetz." He
ignored the story given out by Minister von Plehve
and published in the "Pravitelstvenny Vyestnik,"
the government organ, to the effect that the Jews
themselves had caused the riot by jostling a Chris-
tian woman and her child near a carousel. It Avas
brought out in the preliminary examination that the
carousel was not in operation on that day, and that
no such jostling took place.

From the evidence of the witnesses, including
ex-Mayor Schmidt, who was in office at the time of
the massacre and had filled the mayoralty for twenty-
seven years; General Beckmann, commander of the
garrison at Kishinef; Dr. Sizinsky, the mayor of
Kishinef elected after the riots; the military sur-
geon Dr. Miller, and others, it was proved that the
Jews and Christians in Bessarabia had always lived
together in perfect harmony, and that the Molda-
vians— the native population of Bessarabia — even
held the Jews in high esteem; that the hostility
toward the Jews had manifested itself only since
the foundation of the anti-Semitic paper, tiie "Bes-
sarabetz " ; that the riots had been planned before-
hand and systematically arranged by the authori-
ties ; that the rioters were careful to spare Christian
houses; and that Krushevan, the editor of the
"Bessarabetz," had expressed himself as being sure
of the protection of the government. It was further
proved that during April 19 and 20 there had been
in the city at least 5,000 soldiers, who could easily
have quelled the riots had orders to that effect been
given. Only when Governor von Raaben had ex-
pressed the fear that the rioters might attack even
the Christian population were preventive measures
taken ; and order was then restored inmiediately. It
was proved also that the accused were merely the
tools of certain agitators belonging to the so-called
cultured classes. On behalf of the Jews the ad-
vocate Zarudni demanded of the court that the real
instigators of the riots should be brought to justice.
He was joined by four lawyers for the defense. Only
the anti-Semitic counsel, Shamakov. shared the view

Kishinef

Kiss and Kissiugr

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

614

of the government prosecutor that the organization
of tlie riots should in no case be inquired into. The
court acceded to tliese demands. Attorney at Law S.
Shamouin in his address said that the facts which had
been brought out during the proceedings compelled
the defense to request the court, in agreement with
paragraph 549 of the criminal code, 'that the whole
matter be referred back for preliminary examination.
He pointed out that before April 19 the governor
knew of the coming riots; that an anti-Je wish prop-
aganda was encouraged, and proclamations inviting
to lawlessness by the promise of indemnity to the
participants in tiie outbreak, and by threatening
those who kept aloof, were publicly distributed.
The excesses, he said, began at the same hour in
about 300 different places; the gangs of rioters were
numbered; 120 young men were even armed in the
same manner ; the chief of police, Levendall, mingled
with the gangs, exhorting them to attack the Jews.
Levendall also kept troops for special purposes, and
even terrorized the governor of Bessarabia, compel-
ling him to do his bidding. Shamouin then announced
liis conclusion that Levendall himself had organized
the excesses, and in doing so liad merely carried out
the plans of those in higher circles. It had been
proved that the riots were permitted by the authori-
ties, and that previous to Easter Day agents of the
police had informed the populace that during three
days the Jews were to be massacred. Attorney at
Law Karabtschewski threw more light upon the in-
stigators of the riots.

As the presiding judge emphatically denied the
demands of counsel for both parties (with the ex-
ception of Shamakov and Romanenko) that the real
instigators of the riots be cited, nearly all the lawyers
retired from the case on Dec. 7. After this the ex-
amination of the numerous Jewish witnesses became
a mere farce, as they were not permitted to say
anything in reference to the general character of
the riots, nor to the way in which they had been
planned. Sentence was pronounced on Dec. 21 on
the first group of the accused. Twenty-five out of
the thirty-seven accused were found guilty of hav-
ing attacked Jewish property with intent to rob, and
of having made a compact to that effect with one
another and with other persons whose guilt was not
proved. Twenty-one of these twenty-five were
charged with murder also, namely, Girtchin, the
slayer of Baranovich, and Marasyuk, slaj'er of
Galanter, who were sentenced to imprisonment at
hard labor, the former for seven years, and the lat-
ter for five. Twenty-two of the accused were sen-
tenced to hard labor for periods ranging from one to
two years, and one was sentenced to six months'
imprisonment. Twelve of the accused were dis-
charged. No notice was taken of the forty-eight
civil cases brought before the court.

The next session of the Chamber of Justice began
on Feb. 22, 1904. A. Kuiban and K. Rotar, accused
of murdering Abraham Cohen, were both acquitted
on that charge, but were found guilty of taking
part in the riots, and were sentenced to hard labor.
The civil suit for damages was dismissed. Other
cases were disposed of as follows:

Feb. 23, 1904. O. Dubchak and M. Polyakov,
accused of murdering Kella Koza on April 20, 1903.

Adjourned on account of the non-appearance of
witnesses.

Feb. 24, 1904. Nikita Gutz and Isai Gitziu, con-
victed of inflicting heavy wounds upon Israel Ull-
man which caused his death. Gitziu was sentenced
to imprisonment with hard labor for two and one-
half years, and Gutz to imprisonment for one year.
The civil suit for 25,000 rubles damages was won by
the complainants.

Feb. 25, 1904. Jacob and Daniel Petresko, ac-
cused of murdering Judka and Itzek Cruclmikov,
and of inflicting wounds upon Moisha Ushomirski.
Sentenced to four years at hard labor in the mines.

Feb. 26, 1904. Fiftj^-eight persons, of whom nine-
teen were accused of taking part in the killing of
Jankel Tupik Sura and Sisya Panarassi ; the others,
for taking part in the riots. The court adjourned
without finishing the case. Six other cases of anti-
Jewish riots in Kishinef were divided into three
groups, and postponed until the next session of the
court. May, 1904.

Bibuography: Michael Davitt, Within the Pale, New York
and Philadelphia, 1903 ; Leo Errera, Lcs Massacres de Kisli-
inev, Brussels, 1903 ; Isidore Singer, Russia at the Bar of the
American People, New York, 1904; Told. Juclenmassacres
in Kishinev, Berlin, 1903 ; Cyrus Adler, Ttie Voice of America
on Kishineff, Philadelphia, 1904.

H. P.

KISHON (\]\i'''p br\:): River in central Pales-
tine; it rises to the south of Mount Gilboa, flows
through the middle of the plain of Esdraelon, trav-
erses a narrow pass north of Mount Carmel, de-
scends into the plain of Acre, and enters the sea a
little north of Haifa. Its general course is north-
westward. It drains nearly the whole of the fertile
plain of Esdraelon and the adjacent hills, receiving
its chief tributaries from the south. In Judges v.
19 it (or some of its tributaries) is spoken of as the
"waters of Megiddo," and in Josh. xix. 11 (R. V.)
it is, probably, the "brook that is before Jokneam"
(comp. ib. xii. 22). The Arabs call it El-Mukatta', a
name which some identify with the ancient Megiddo
(see G. A. Smith, "Historical Geography of the Holy
Land," pp. 386-887; against this view see Moore,
"Commentary on Judges," p. 158). The upper
streams of the system are dry early in summer, ex-
cept near the springs, much of the water being used
in irrigation. After entering the plain of Acre, the
Kishon flows sluggishly through thick jungles and
extensive marshes. In the rainy season it is subject
to sudden and dangerous floods, when the fords are
often impassable.

The neighborhood of Megiddo (probably the mod-
ern Lejjun) is extremely treacherous. It was there
that the host of Sisera was defeated by Barak, " in
Taanacli by the waters of Megiddo" (Judges v. 19).
It was at the "brook Kishon," at the foot of Mount
Carmel, that Elijah slew the prophets of Baal (I
Kings xviii. 40). The place of Elijah's sacrifice has
been identified with El-Mahrakah ("place of burnt
sacrifice "), a rockj' plateau near the east end of
Carmel, from which a steep path descends to the
river.

BiBLiOGRAPny : Pal. Explor. Fund, Memoirs, ii.; Conder,
Tent-Work in Palestine; Thomson. Tfte Land and the
Book: Smith, Historical GeoQixtplm of the Holu Land;
Robinson, Researches ; MacGreeror. Rob Roy on the Jor-
dan : Moore, Commentary on Judges.

E. G. II. J. F. M.

515

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kishinef

Kiss and Kissing

EISLEW : The ninth month of the Jewish cal-
endar, corresponding to December. It has either
twenty-nine or thirty days. In the Septuagint
Kislew is called Xaae?.Ev; in the Macedonian, 'A-n-e?.-
Tialoc; on Palmyrene inscriptions, ^1^D3 ; and in As-
sy ro-Baby Ionian, "Kislivu." Kislew is twice men-
tioned in the Old Testament; namely, in Zcch. vii.
1 and Neh. i. 1. On the twenty-fifth of Kislew the
Hanukkah festival (tlie 'EyKaivca of the New Testa-
ment, see John x. 22) commences. According to II
Mace. X. 6, the festival was celebrated in the man-
ner of the Feast of Tabernacles; viz., by carrying
branches and singing songs of praise ; indeed, in II
Mace. i. 9 the festival is specificallj' mentioned as
"the feast of tabernacles in the month Casleu [Kis-
lew]." According to the Mishnah (R. H. i. 3) the
month of Kislew belongs to those six months in
which messengers were sent out. See also I Mace,
iv. 36-59; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 7, §§ 6-7.

E. G. H. B. P.

KISS, JOSEPH: Hungarian poet; born Nov.
8, 1843, at Mezocsat. Being obliged by the death
of his mother and financial ruin of his father to give
up his college studies, he engaged in teaching. As
tutor in the country he had an opportunity to be-
come acquainted with the village Jews and the
peasants; and this experience furnished him with
the material for his poems. In 1868 he went to
Budapest, as corrector in a printing-office ; and in
the same year he published a volume of poems,
"Zsido Dalok," or "Jewish Songs." Between 1870
and 1873 he edited a literary journal, " Kepes Vilag. "
This was suspended shortly after his marriage
(April 28, 1873), and Kiss, desperately in need of
mone}', wrote a sensational story, "Budapesti Rej-
telmek," or " Secrets of Budapest," in eight volumes,
under the pen-name "Szentesi Rudolf." Kiss's for-
tunes clianged in 1875, when his ballad "Simon
Judith " fell into the hands of the art critic and his-
torian Franz Toldy, who introduced the unknown
poet to the public. This poem marks the beginning
of his popularity throughout the country.

From 1876 to 1883 Kiss was secretary of the Jew-
ish community at Temesvitr; then he accepted a
position with the Hungarian-French Insurance Com-
pany, and on its failure, in 1889, he founded the pop-
ular literary periodical " A Het" (" The Week"). His
collected poems and his longer poetic tales have passed
through numerous editions. Many of his poems
have also been translated into German by Neuge-
bauer, Albert Stunn, and especially by Joseph Stein-
bach, a physician at Franzensbad, who has issued
two volumes of them, " Das Lied von der Nahma-
schine " (Leipsic, 1884), and " Gedichte von Joseph
Kiss" (Vienna, 1886, dedicated to Crown Prince
Rudolph).

In his most important ballads Kiss deals chiefly
with types of the Jewish and Hungarian people.
The poem that Kiss wrote on the strong anti-Sem-
itic movement in 1882, "Az ar Ellen" ("Against
the Stream "), created such a sensation that it was
translated by Max Falk into German, and found its
"way in a Hebrew translation into Russia, where it
was sung even in many synagogues. Kiss's ballad
"Jehova" also attracted unusual attention, being

recited in 1893 by the actress Marie Jaszai in thirty-
five cities of Himgary.
Bibliography : Pallan Lex.

s. L. V.

KISS AND KISSING : The custom of ki.ssing
is not found among savage races, among whom other
forms of greeting, such as rubbing of noses, take
its place. Among Orientals, who keep tlie sexes
strictly separated, kissing on the moulli is not prac-
tised, except as an expression of strong affection
(Cant. i. 2; comp. Gen. R. xc. 3). It is doubtful
whether any reference to kissing on the mouth as a
mere salutation can be found in the Old Testament,
Gen. xli. 40 and Prov. xxiv. 26 being susceptible of
another interpretation. Tlie Oriental method was,
and is, to kiss the cheeks alternately, placing the
right hand sometimes upon the shoulder, sometimes
under the chin, as <lid Joab with Amasa (II Sam.
XX. 9). Kissing is, therefore, usually reserved as
an expression of aifection between relatives. Isaac
desires to kiss Esau; Esau falls upon Jacob's neck
and kisses him ; Josepli kisses his brethren and the
face of his dead father (Gen. xxvii. 27, xxxiii. 4,
xlviii. 10, 1. 1). Similarly, Orpah kisses Naomi
(Ruth i. 14), and Laban his sons and daughters
(Gen. xxxi. 55). Elisha desires to kiss his father
and mother before following Elijah (I Kings xix. 20).
Raguel kisses Tobit (Tobit vii. 6). The kiss ^occurs
also, however, as a salutation between persons not
closely related, but united by affection, as were Jona-
than and David (I Sam. xx. 41). Hence

Biblical roj'al or highly placed persons may
Instances, desire to express their favor by kissing,
perhaps the more formal salutation
with the hand on the shoulder and the cheeks placed
together, as in the case of Absalom or David (II Sam.
XV. 5, xix. 39). The response to such a mode of salu-
tation would be of the more respectful kind : in the
case of Samuel kissing Saul (I Sam. x. 1) he ma\- have
kissed him either on the cheek as a mark of affection
or (m the hand as an expression of reverence. Kissing
the feet is mentioned in the New Testament (Luke
vii. 45). and, probably, is referred to in the Old Testa-
ment by the metaphorical expression to "lick the
dust"(Ps. Ixxii. 9; Isa. xlix.23; Micah vii. 17; Isa.
xlix. 23 seems to imply actual contact between feet
and lips).

The same reverence ^own toward a king or
conqueror was displayed toward gods as repre-
sented by their idols or sj'mbols. Schwalij- ("Das
Leben Nach dem Tode," p. 8) suggests that the kiss
given by Joseph to Jacob when he saw that his
father was dead was of the nature of worship of a
divine being, as in Ilosea xiii. 2, where reference is
made to those who, when sacrificing, kissed the
golden calf. According to I Kings xix. 18. Elijah
could find only 7,000 men in all Israel that had not
kissed Baal. A similar custom was found among
the Arabs (see Wellhausen. "Reste," p. 109\ and is
retained to the present day in the ^lohammedan cer-
emony of kissing t.iie Kaaba at Mecca. When Job
denies that his mouth has kissed his hand (Job xxxi.
27) he refers to an idolatrous practise in which the
hand was kissed toward the object of worship, as
the rising sun was greeted in ancient Greece. The
idea appears to have been that in some way the

Kiss and Kissing:
Klaczko

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

516

breath was the life of man, and that giving a part
of the breath to the object adored was in tlie nature
of a sacrifice (corap. Adoration, Foums of).

According to the Rabbis, kissing was to be avoided
as leading to lewdness; but it was permitted as
an act of respect for dignity, as the kiss given by
Samuel to Saul; after prolonged absence, as Aaron's
kiss to Moses (Ex. iv. 27); and on parting, as in
the kiss of Orpah (Gen. R. clxx. ). Rabbi Tanhuma
added the kiss of relationship, as in the case of
Jacob and Rachel (Gen. xxix. 11; Ex. R. v.). On
the kiss as a salutation in the early Christian Cliurch
see Peace, Kiss op.

By a beautiful image the death of God's favorites
was supposed to be produced by a kiss from God
("bi-neshikali")- Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Aaron,
Moses, and Miriam were taken in this manner (B. B.
17a; Deut. R. xi.). This mode of de-
Death by parture is considered the easiest of all
God's Kiss, deaths, and is reserved for the most
pious (Ber. 8a). According to the
Rabbis, kissing an idol was not punishable by death
(Sanh. 60b), and it would appear that the custom of
kissing the feet, mentioned in the New Testament,
was current among the Pharisees (B. B. 16a) ; it is
mentioned that Rabbi Johanan was treated in this
way (Yer. Kid. i. 61c). The Rabbis interpreted
Cant. i. 2 as meaning that if one spends his time
with teachers in whose presence he must keep his
lips closed— the teachers of mystical law— all men
will later kiss him on the mouth (Cant. R. 5b).

A curious explanation is given why every letter
of the word 'inpK'''1 (Gen. xxxiii. 4) is marked by the
Masorites with dots. Some of the rabbis explain
that the kiss given by Esau was insincere (see Sifre,
Num. 61), and even at the present day the expres-
sion "a kiss with dots" is used by Jews in Slavonic
countries for an insincere kiss. According to Akiba
the Medes kissed the hand only (Ber. 8b), and for this
practise Simeon ben Gamaliel, who was opposed
to kissing on the mouth, gives praise to all Oriental
peoples (Gen. R. Ixxiv. 1). The Zohar represents the
son and disciples of Simeon b. Yohai as kissing his
hand during life (i. 83b), while at his death his son
Eleazar kissed his hand and Abba kissed the dust
at his feet. Tlie story is told that of two athletes
who were struggling, the one about to be overcome
kissed the hand of his adversary, and thereby saved
himself by making the latter feel more kindly dis-
posed (Tan., Wayiggash). Legend asserts that
when Isaac Alfasi was at tlie point of death the
young Maimonides, aged five, entered and kissed
his hand (Gavison on Prov. xvii. 6). To this day it
is customary in Smyrna for the relatives to kiss the
hand of the dead when taking a last parting (" R. E.
J." xxiv. 152).

Kissing still survives among Jews as a mark of
reverence. It is a religious custom among them to
kiss the zizit of the tallit when putting it on, the
mezuzah at the door when entering and leaving,
and the scroll of the Law when about to read or pro-
nounce a blessing over it ("Bet Yosef," on Shulhan
'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 28, in the name of Abudar-
ham). On Simhat Torah it is customary for the
congregation to touch the scrolls of the Law with
the zizit as they are being carried round, after

which the zizit is kissed ; in the old Sephardic ritual
this was done when the scroll was carried round be-
fore Kol Nidre. Russian Jews are accustomed to
use the index-finger for the mezuzah and the little
finger for the scroll of the Law. If a Hebrew book
is dropped it is customary, though not necessary, to

kiss it.

Bibliography: Neil, Khsing, Itx Curiuu'i Bible Meiitimis,
London, 1883; (iesenius, r?i.,and Levy. Neuhchr. nOrtcrb.,
s.v. pit'j ; W. Bacher, in li. E. J. xxii. 137, xxlii. 13( .

A. ^■

KISSINGEN : Bavarian health-resort ; it has
a total i)opulati()n of 4,024, including 333 Jews.
Jews lived in Kissingen as early as the thirteenth
century, and they sutfered greatly from persecu-
tions under Rindfieisch in 1298 (Salfeld, "Martyro-
logium," pp. 64-66).

In the town hall of Kissingen there is a helmeted
and bearded figure of a man carved in stone. Re-
port declares it to be in memory of a Jew who,
during the siege of Kissingen by the Swedes, cast
for the defenders bullets that never missed their
mark. From that time he aud his descendants went
under the name of " Schwed. " In 1650 and 1656 the
Kissingen butchers complained in regard to the
slaughtering of cattle and selling of meat by the
Jews living in houses under the jurisdiction of the
manorial lords; in 1725 the Kissingen citizens ob-
jected to the buying of property by the Jews. In
1775 and again in 1791 disagreements occurred be-
tween the Jews of the bishopric of Wiirzburg and
the Jewish representative of Kissingen, Herz Low.

There were three classes of Jews in Kissingen:
Jews of the principality of Erthal, of Von Heller,
and of the bishopric of Wiirzburg.

In 1792 the Jewish representative of Kissingen
charged the Jews of Erthal with unwarranted inter-
ference, in matters of ritual, with the local syna-
gogue; six years later the citizens of Kissingen com-
plained of the increase in the Jewish population.

The present synagogue was dedicated in 1902.
The synagogue built in 1853 is still standing, but is
not used at present; it occupies the site of an earlier
house of worship the history of whose origin is not
known. In the year 1892 the Bavarian Jews of
the district of Gersfeld were placed under the juris-
diction of that of Kissingen, which now includes
about thirty communities. Of the rabbis who ottici-
ated there the names of the following are recorded :
R. Moses (1799-1809), who was also hazzan; L.
Adler (1840-52); Gabriel Hirsch Lippman (1852-64),
who edited several works of Ibn Ezra; Moses Lob
Bamberger (1867-99), who left many manuscripts
(see the oration delivered at Rabbi Bamberger's
funeral by Dr. S. Bamberger of Schrimm [Paks,
1900], his successor). The last-named edited the Mid-
rash Lekal.i Tob to Ruth, and "Zikron Abraham,"
Abraham Ring's glosses to the Shulhan 'Aruk, and
wrote a commentary on the Pirke Abot, to be used

as a text-book. ,, „

D. S. Ba.

KITE. See Vulture.

KITTSEER, MICHAEL: Talmudic author;
born in Kittsee (Kopcseny), Hungary, about 1775;
died at Presburg Sept. 28, 1845. He was a disci-
ple of Marcus Benedict, and. while not an ofHcia-

517

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kiss and EisBing'
Elaczko

ting rabbi, lie devoted liis time to rabbinical studies.
Strictly observant in his religious practise, he was
tolerant of those ■who differed from him. He wrote
"Shalme Nedabah" (see Ezek. xlvi. 12), Presburg,
1838, notes on various Talmudic treatises. The
second part, published in Presburg in 1843, con-
tains, besides notes on Talmudic treatises, notes on
the Shulhan 'Aruk and homilies.

BlBi.iOfiRAPHY : Benjacob, Ozar lia-Stfarim, p. .589 (whore
the name is given as " Kitse "; the same spellinf? is found also
in Zedner, Cat. Hchr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 414, and in Fiirst,
Bihl. Jml. ii. 190): Allq. Zeit. ilea Jud. 1845, p. 680; Weiss,
Abnc Bet ha-Vnzer, pp. 63 et seq., Paks, liXK).

KITZINGER, JACOB BEN JOSEPH : Au

thor and poet; lived in the second half of the six-
teenth and at the beginning of the seventeenth
century. He wrote "Hag ha-Pesah " (Cracow,
1597), a commentary on the Passover Haggadah, with
glosses by his father, a poem on the Passover ritual,
and a long introduction. Thereto is added "Kez
ha-Pela'ot," on the end of the Exile and the com
ing of the Messiah.

Bibliography: Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ii. 190-191; Benjacob,
Ozar h<i-Sefarim, p. 169.
b. S. Man.

KIZWEH(= "Kizbah"): In popular parlance,
the weeklj' portion allotted to the local poor ; also
charity in general. The word " kizbah," in New He-
brew (Pes. 71b), connected with the Biblical Hebrew
"kezeb " (Jonah ii. 7), means " limit," so used of the
toll (B. K. 113a) and of God's infiniteness {e.g. , " There
is no limit to Thy years," in the "Musaf " prayer for
New-Year). Lampronti does not give the word,
nor does it occur in the older legal literature con-
tained in the Shulhan 'Aruk.

ELAAB, ALFRED: Austrian writer; born
at Prague Nov. 7, 1848; studied law and, later, Ger-
man philology at the universities of Vienna and
Prague (Ph.D. 1870). In 1868 he became assistant
editor of the "Tagesbote aus Bohmen," and in 1873
was made dramatic and art critic of the "Boiie-
mia " at Prague, in which city he settled. In 1885
he became privat-docent in German literature at the
German technical high school at Prague. In 1901
he removed to Charlottenburg, near Berlin.

Of Klaar's numerous works may be mentioned:
"Die Litteratur des Auslaudes," Vienna, 1873;
"Jos. Victor Scheffel," Prague, 1876; "Joseph II."
ib. 1880; " Das ]\Ioderne Drama, Dargestellt in Seinen
Richtungen und Hanptvertretern," Prague and
Leipsic, 1883-84; "Franz Grillparzer als Dramati-
ker.'" Prague, 1891; " F. Schmeykal," ib. 1894;
"Borne's Leben und Wirken," ib. 1899; "Der Faust-
cyclus." ib. 1899. He has written also several dramas,
among which are: "Fahrende Komftdianten,"
Prague, 1876; "Der Empfang," Dresden, 1888;
"Diskretion," and "Wer Schimpft der Kauit," ib.
1890.
Bibliography: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.

8. F. T. H.

KLACZKO, JULIAN ( JTJDAH) : French
publicist ; born in Wilna, Russia, Nov. 6, 1835. His
father belonged to one of the best Jewish families of
Wilna, and instructed his son in Hebrew and in
Polish. Klaczko early developed poetical ability,

and a Hebrew song addressed to his parents, com-
posed for the occasion of his bar mizwah, was pub-
lished us " Minhat Todah" (Wilna, 1838). A collection
of his Hebrew i)oems entitled " Ha-Duda'im," mostly
imitations of Polish masters or direct translations,
was published in Leipsic (1842), and a few songs
from his pen appeared in "Pirhe Zafon " (No. 2,
1844). He left Wilna, never to return, about 1840,
and studied in Heidelberg and at the K5nigsberg
University, graduating as Ph.D. (184G). Settling
in Paris (1849), he became assistant librarian in the
Bibliotheque du Corps Legislatif and a constant
contributor to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." His
writings, in which he displayed great abilitj' and an
intense hatred for both Russia and Prussia, attracted
the attenti(m of the Austrian premier. Count Beust,
who invited him to Vienna (1869) and appointed
him Aulic Councilor in the Ministry of Foreign Af-
fairs. Klaczko was also elected (1870) a member of
the Galiciau Landtag, where he delivered a memor-
able speech advocating the cause of France and in-
sisting that Austria should take her part in the war
against Prussia. Failing in his purpose he left
Austria in the same year and went to Italy, where he
remained until 1875; then he returned to Vienna,
where he now (1904) resides. In 1887 he was elected
a corresponding member of the Academie des
Sciences Morales et Politiques of the Irstitut de
France. He severed his connection with Judaism
early in his career.

Klaczko is considered one of the foremost repre-
sentatives of Polish thought and aspiration in west-
ern Europe. He. edited the weekly "Viadomosci
Polski " in Paris (1858-60) and the correspondence
of Mickiewicz ; translated Piotrowski's "Memoirs
of a Siberian " ; and wrote : a short history of Polish
literature in the nineteenth century, an English
translation of which appears as an introduction to
the English edition of Krasiuski's "A Divine Com-
edy "; " Roczniki Polskie " (Polish Year-Book), a col-
lection of his Polish writings in four volumes (Paris,
1865); "Etudes de Diplomatic Contemporaine "
(1866); "Les Cabinets de I'Europe en 1863-64"
(1866); "Une Annexion d'Autrefois: I'Union de la
Pologne et de la Lithiouanie " (1869); "Les Prelimi-
naires de Sadowa" (1869); "Les Deux Chanceliers"
(1876); "Causerie Florentine" (1880); "Rome et la
Renaissance, Jules II." (1898); etc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1839, p. 589 : 1842. p. 402 ;
Bodek and Mohr, Yeru.-<h(danim, ii.. Lemberp, 184.5; La
Grande hUicucloijedie. s.v.; youveau Laroiissc Illustre,
S.V.; Meiiert Konversatio)is-Le.rikim. s.v.; Wiernik, An
Eminent R^ts.'iian Jcu\ in Jewish Gazette (English supple-
ment) March 24, 1899.
H. R. P. Wl.

KLACZKO, LEVI JERAHMEEL : Russian

educator; born in Wihia June 28, 1840. Formerly
a school-teacher in Berdyansk, Crimea, he now fol-
lows the same calling in Odessa. He wrote " 'Erek
Tefillah," a critical investigation of the history and
the language of the prayers (Wilna, 1868): "Tal-
mud Torah," a religious and historical primer
in Hebrew and Russian (Warsaw, 1884; 4th ed.,
1890) ; " Ha-Omcn," elementary Hebrew primer, with
a Russian glossary {ib. 1889); "Rishon le-Hiiinuk,"
Hebrew and Russian {ib. 1892) ; and " Mesillat Ye-
sharim," a Russian-Hebrew school-book (3d ed., i6.

Klapp
Klausuer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

518

1898). He has also contributed numerous articles
to Hebrew and Russian periodicals, notably one on
the Siddurof the Jews of Crimea, in "Ha-Karmel,"
viii. 133 et neq.

Bibliography: Ha-f>hahar. ix. 13G, 335; Sokolow, Sefer Zik-
karnn, p. 100, Warsaw', 1890; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-McndeU.
p. 173.
H. R. P. Wl.

KLAPP, MICHAEL : Austrian journalist and
author; born in Prague 1834; died Feb. 25, 1888.
He removed in 1855 to Vienna, where he devoted
himself to journalism. In 1859-60 he was editor of
the literary section of Kuranda's " Ostdeutsche
Post," and later special correspondent in Italy and
Spain of the"Neue Freie Presse." Subsequently,
together with Jacob Herzog, he founded the "Mon-
tagsrevue, " with which he continued to be associated
till his death.

Of Klapp's works may be mentioned : " Komische
Geschichtenausdem Judischen Volksleben," Berlin,
1859 ; " Die Flagellanten " ; " In London Unter den
Feniern," Troppau, 1869; "Revolutionsbilder aus
Spanien, " Hanover, 1869 ; " Reisetagebuch des Schah
vonPersien," 1874; the novels: "Zweierlei Juden,"
Vienna, 1870, and "Die Bankgrafen, Roman aus der
Schwindelzeit," 2 vols., Bern, 1877. He wrote also
several comedies, among which was "Rosenkranz
und Guldenstern" (Vienna, 1885), which was pro-
duced on all the stages of Germany after its pres-
entation at the Vienna Burgtheater, where it could
be played only without mention of the name of its
author.

8. L. Y.

KLATZKO, MORDECAI BEN ASHER

(surnamed Meltzer) : Russian rabbi and author;
born in Wilna 1797; died in Lida July 2, 1883. He
was a descendant of Rabbi Mayer Katzeuellenbogen
of Padua. Klatzko received the usual Talmudical
education and soon distinguished himself by his
keen mind and retentive memory. After lecturing
privately for some time in his native city he was
appointed (1831) chief teacher in the newly estab-
lished yeshibah founded by Mayla. The stories
circulated about difficulties between him and the
great TalmVidist Israel Lipkin, who for a short time
"Was a subordinate teacher at the yeshibah, are now
mostly discredited.

In 1844 Klatzko was chosen dayyan of Wilna;
he retained his positions at the yeshibah and in the
rabbinate until 1852, when he was called to Kal-
variya, government of Suwalki, to succeed Lob
Shapiro of that place, who had become rabbi of
Kovno. Klatzko I'emained in Kalvariya till 1864,
when he was elected to the rabbinate of Lida, gov-
ernment of Wilna, which position he held until his
death.

Klatzko was considered one of tiie most eminent
rabbis of Russia. He had many pupils, and prob-
ably ordained more j^oung rabbis than any of his
contemporaries. He was the author of novella? on
the Talmud and the Shulhan 'Aruk, some of which
were published posthumously by his son under the
title " Tekelet Mordekai " (Wilna, 1889). This work
contains his novellae on Berakot, Mo'ed, and the
first part of the Shulhan 'Aruk. The work was

compiled by his pupil Aba Joseph Triwosch, who
wrote down what he received from him orall}'.

Bibliography : H. N. Steinschneider, in Ozar ha-Sifrut, iv.
.531-541; idem, '7r Wilna: Triwosch, biography of Klatzko
appended to Tekelet Morxlekai.

L. G. N. T. L.

KLAUS (German, "Klause," from the medieval
Latin " clusa " = cloister) : An institution where
Talmudic scholars are given free lodging, and often
a stipend in addition, in order that they may devote
all their time to the study of the Talmud (sometimes
also to teaching and lecturing). From the seven-
teenth century it became a custom for wealthy peo-
ple to donate funds for the perpetual maintenance
of such institutions (called sometimes Bet ha-Mid-
R.\sn). It is said (Gans. "Zemah Dawid," part i.,
ad 5352 [1592]) that Rabbi Low ben Bezaleel
founded the klaus of Prague, which is still in exist-
ence, though used only as a synagogue. The klaus
at Vienna was founded by Zechariah Levi in 1656
(Kaufmann, "Letzte Vertreibung der Juden aus
Wien," p. 67, Vienna, 1889); and a similar institu-
tion was established at Altona about 1690, when
Zcbi Ashkenazi was in office (Emden, "Megillat
Sefer," p. 11, Warsaw, 1896), to which Benjamin
Levy of London bequeathed a legacy in 1704
("Jewish Chronicle," July 31, 1903). Bermann
(Berent Lehmann) of Halberstadt founded in 1703
the klaus still existing in that city (Auerbach,
"Gesch. der Judischen Gemeinde Halberstadt, "pp.
61 etseq., Halberstadt, 1866); Lemle Moses Reinga-
num founded that of Mannheim, 1706 (Lowenstein,
"Gesch. der Juden in der Kurpfalz," pp. 170 et seq.,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1895) : its funds are at pres-
ent used for the maintenance of a second rabbi.
About the same time Samson Wertheimer founded
a klaus at Frankfort-on-the-Main (Kaufmann,
"Samson Wertheimer," p. 72, Vienna, 1888). Jost
Liebmann and his wife, Esther, founded in Berlin a
klaus for their nephew and son-in-law, Aaron ben
Benjamin Wolf, about 1701, which was discontinued
about 1712. Somewhat later Veitel-Heine Ephraim
founded in the same city a klaus which is still in
existence, although under entirely different rules,
and known as the "Veitel-Heine Ephraim'scho
Lehranstalt." The Breslau, Hanover, Lissa, and
other German congregations possess institutions of
the same kind. In Wolfenbiittel various members of
the Samson family founded similar institutions;
these in 1807 were united to form a school which
is still in existence as a Jewish high school (Ehren-
berg, "Die Samson 'sche Freischule," in "Orient,
Lit." 1844, No. 5; separately printed, Leipsic, 1844;
Zunz, "Samuel Meyer Ehrenberg," Brunswick,
1853). In Leghorn, which had a wealthy Jewish
community, various institutions existed intended to
support prebendaries who should devote their lives
to Talmudic studies, occasionally delivering lec-
tures ; as was often the case in other parts of Europe,
with such an institution, called " midrash " or " bet
ha-midrash," a synagogue was usually connected.
In the midrash founded by Franco, Elijah Benamo-
zegh held a position (Sokolow, " Sefer Zikkaron, " pp.
128 et seq., Warsaw, 1889). Wealthy members of
the Leghorn community often supported such a
midrash in Jerusalem (see Hagiz, Jacob, and H.A.-

619

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Elapp
Klausner

Giz, Moses), aud Oriental Jews still niaiutaiu simi-
lar institutions there (Luncz, "Luah Erez Yisrael,
5661," p. 140, Jerusalem, 1900).

A modern institution of a similar character was
founded by Sir Moses 3Iontefiore in Ramsgate in
1869. It was for a short time a college for the edu-
cation of rabbis; but now, altliough still maintained
under the name " Judith Montefiore Theological Col-
lege," it is merely a home for rabbinical scholars
{Harris, "Jewish Year Book," 1903).

The Ha.sidim call their synagogue "klaus"; and
each of their miracle-workers maintains a klaus of
his own, as do also his followers in other cities.

Bibliography : Besides the works cited in this article, BUttter
aus dcr Michael David'schcn Stiftung, Hanover, 1870.

KLAUSENBURG (KOLOZSVi.Il): Royal
free cit\' of Kolozs county, Hungary ; formerlj' cap-
ital of the grand duchy of Transylvania (1691-1848).
Until 1848 no Jews were legally allowed to live in
Klausenburg; but the law of 1526, by which the
Jews were expelled from Hungary and Transyl-
vania, was not strictly carried out. In 1578 the
Transylvanian Diet decreed that the Jews might
stop temporarily in the cities when visiting the fairs.
Goods are mentioned as being imported by Jews into
Klausenburg as early as 1591. When Klausenburg
was captured by the imperial general Georg Basta,
Sept. 13, 1600, all the Jews in the city were slain.
This did not deter others from visiting the fairs
there ; for in the annual balance of the city custom-
house for the year 1631 the "Jews' linen" is espe-
cially mentioned. About the middle of the seven-
teenth century an edict of the ruler ("Approbatae
Constitutiones Regni Transylvania'," pars v., ed.
82) assigned to them for their exclusive habitation
Carlsburg, the temporary residence of the princes
of Tran.sylvania. Thence they continued to visit
the fairs of Klausenburg so frequently that the gen-
eral city council on March 7, 1693, set apart for them
an especial place in the market.

With the act of exclusion still in force, a Jew,
Lobl (Leopold) Deutsch bj" name, succeeded in set-
tling in the city about 1770-80. This marks the
beginning of a lengthy struggle for the right to
settle and trade in Klausenburg between the Jews
and the municipal authorities, the latter being in
league with the state government. Supported by an
imperial decree of 1781, which iu accordance with one
of an earlier date restricted the right
Beginnings of settlement of the Jews in Transyl-
of Jewish vania to Carlsburg, the authorities
Residence, steadily refused to admit Jews into
Klausenburg. But the latter had ob-
tained a footing in the cit}'. Although LObl Deutsch
and those that followed him even fifty years later
were threatened with expulsion, this threat was only
partially carried out, and a certain number of Jews re-
mained permanently in the city, though merely on
sufferance. This struggle ended only in the stormy
days of 1848.

The number of Jews in Klausenburg gradually
increased. In 1780 there is no official record of a
single Jew in the city, although in the county of
Kolozs eight Jews were found. But in 1785 there
were twelve Jews in a population of 9,703 person^.

Within fifty years (1835) the number rose to 109;
in 1846 there were fifty-six Jewisii families, sixteen
of which, however, being new arrivals, were to be
expelled. About fifty years later (1891) the Jews
iu Klausenburg numbered 2.414 in a pojiulation of
32,750, and in the county of Kolozs 4,313 in a popu-
lation of 192,443. Ten years later again (1901) there
were 4, 730 Jews iuthe city inapopulation of 49,295.

The first traces of communal life date from the
second decade of the nineteenth century. At that
time Joseph Kain, reputed to have been versed in
the Talmud, is mentioned as "ecclesiasticus." An
actual rabbi, however, was out of the question,
since even in 1830 the community itself was not offi-
cially constituted. But .since the hebra kaddisha
was founded in 1837, the formal organization of the
community must be placed somewhere between these
two dates. It was only a branch congregation,
which, like the other congregations of Transylvania
since the middle of the eighteenth century, was sub-
ordinated to the general rabbinate of
Organiza- Carlsburg. When in 1852 Hillel (Hein-
tion. rich) Lichtenstein was called as first
rabbi to Klausenburg, the district
rabbi, Abraham Friedmann, protested, recognizing
Lichtenstein merely as deputy rabbi. The latter
left Klausenburg two years later. Until 1861 the
cantor, Marcus Klein, who was versed in the Talmud,
officiated as rabbi. He was succeeded by Philipp
(Feisch) Fischmann (1861-62). From 1863 to 1877
Abraham Glasner of Monor (formerly at Gyonk)
filled the position. After his death there was a split
in the community. At the time of the Jewish Con-
gress of 1868-69, the members believing in Reform
had separated from the rest of the congregation,
which adhered to the Orthodox tenets, and had
formed a distinct congregation, which, however,
existed for a short time onlj'. The present Reform
congregation, founded in 1880 was served by Alex-^
ander Rosenspitz (formerly in America), 1887-88;
by Jacob Klein, 1888-90; and since 1891 by :Mathias
Eisler. In the Orthodox congregation Moses Glasner
succeeded his father. Their synagogue was built in
1851 ; the temple of the Reform congregation iu 1887.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the
Jews of Klausenburg had no cemetery, since they
could acquire no real estate. In 1843 they were al-
lowed to fence in, together with an adjacent piece
of land which thej' had purchased, the place where
they buried their dead. The Reform congregation
has its own cemetery.

The following institutions are supported by the
Jews of Klausenburg : a parochial school (since 1860) ;
a Talmud society, "hebrat shas"; a literary society;
aud a women's philanthropic society. It is worthy
of notice that the University of Klausenburg is one
among the few universities of Europe where lectures
on post-Biblical Jewish literature are delivered; such
lectures have been delivered there since 1893.

D. M. Er.

KLAUSNER, ABRAHAM : Austrian rabbi
and ritualist; fiourishedat Vienna in the second half
of the fourteenth century. He .shared the rabbin-
ical office at Vienna with MeYr b. Baruch ha-Levi
(Jacob Weil, Responsa.No. 151). Aaron Blumlein
and Shalom, rabbi of AViener-Ncustadt, were among

Klausner
Klein

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

520

his contemporaries. Two of his pupils were Isaac
Tyrnau and Jacob Molln. His collection of ritual
customs ( " minhagim"), with his notes,was publislied
at Riva di Trento in 1559. The editor of Mollu's
" Minhage Maharil " added in several cases some of
the minhagim collected by Klausner. His responsa
are referred to by Isserlein in his " Pesakira u-Keta-
bim " (No. 6).

Bibliography: Fuenn, iTcnesct Ftsrael, p. 63 ; Gratz, Gesc/i.
M ed., viii. 11 ; Micbael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 213.
G. M. Sel.

KLAUSNER, JOSEPH : Russian Hebrew wri-
ter; born at Olkeniki, government of Wilna, Aug.
14, 1874. In 1885 he went to Odessa and became
a pupil in the yesl .oah there, studying both Tal-
mudic and secular subjects. From 1897 to 1902 he
studied philosophy and Semitic languages at the
University of Heidelberg, and, returning to Russia,
became (1903) editor of the Hebrew monthly " Ha-
Shiloah " and of other publications of the Ahiasaf
Society. In 1904 he was appointed editor of the
"Warsaw department of the "Ozar ha-Yahadut," a
Hebrew encyclopedia. Klausner is a versatile and
prolific writer and a sound critic, and there are few
Hebrew publications to which he has not contrib-
uted. He is one of the champions of the moderni-
zation of the Hebrew language and literature.

Klausner has written the following: "Ziyyun la-
Meshorer Gordon," on J. L. Gordon as a poet, 1895;
"Sefat 'Eber Safah Hayyah," on Hebrew philol-
ogy, in "Ozar ha-Sifrut," Cracow, 1896; "Ruhot
Menashshebot," criticisms, in "Ha-Zeman," War-
saw, 1896; "Ha- Adam ha-Kadmon," on anthropol-
ogy, Warsaw, 1900; "Millon shel Kis," pocket-dic-
tionary of modern Hebrew (with Grazowski), ib.
1903. In Yiddish, he has written "Joseph Nassi,"
Berdychev, 1901; and in Russian, "Novo-Yevrei-
skaya Literatura," on the Hebrew literature of the
nineteenth century, ii. 1900; "Duchovny Sionism,"
on spiritual Zionism, St. Petersburg, 1900. He is the
author also of "Die Messianischen Vorstellungen
des Jildischen Volkes im Zeitalter der Tannaiten,"
Cracow, 1903.

H. R. A. S. W.

KLEEBERG, CLOTILDE: Pianist; born at
Paris June 27, 1866, of German parents. She stud-
ied with Mmes. Retz and Massart at the Conserva-
toire, where, at the age of eleven, she received a
medal as well as the highest honors in the competi-
tive examination. The following year she made her
debut at the "Concerts Populaires," plaj'ing Bee-
thoven's C Minor Concerto and several difficult com-
positions by Chopin. In 1881 she made a success-
ful tour through Denmark, Russia, Austria, and
Holland, and in 1883 appeared in London, where she
soon became a popular favorite. After establish-
ing her reputation abroad she, in 1887, made her
debut in Germany, where her graceful and poetic
interpretation of the great masters insured her a
warm welcome.

In 1894 she was named "Officier de I'Academie,"
and in 1898 she revisited England, where she achieved
a series of brilliant triumphs. Her repertoire is very
extensive, including works of composers ranging
from Bach to Liszt.

Bibliography : Ehrlich, Celebrated Pianists of the Past and
Present Time; Baker, Bioy. Diet, of Musiciayis, New York,
1900.

S. J. So.

KLEEBERG, MINNA COHEN: German-
American poetess; born in Elmshorn, llolstein, Ger-
many, July 21, 1841; died in New Haven, Conn.,
Dec. 31, 1878. Her father, Marcus Cohen, a physi-
cian, gave her a careful education. Her poetic en-
dowment showed itself early. At fourteen she
wrote for a journal in Hamburg, and later for one
in Budapest and for L. Stein 's " Der Frei tag- Abend. "
After her marriage in 1862 to Rabbi L. Kleeberg,
she lived in Rhenish Prussia, where she moved in a
circle of literary men, chief among them Emil Rit-
tershaus.

In 1865 her poem, "Ein Lied vom Salz," a plea
for the renlbval of the tax on salt in Prussia, spread
her reputation to wider circles. Her abiding inter-
est in public and patriotic questions was charac-
teristic. The Franco-Prussian war, the Fifteenth
Amendment, Friedrich Hecker, the emancipation of
women, and the cause of liberty and democracy were
among the themes that stimulated her muse. Jew-
ish national and religious feelings were equally a
source of inspiration. The aspersions cast upon the
Jewish race by Wagner and Billroth she repelled
with indignant vigor. The most attractive of her
verses, however, are those on the joys and sorrows
of domestic life, especially the poems addressed to
her children.

In 1866 Minna Kleeberg emigrated to the United
States, living until 1877 in Louisville, Ky., where
Dr. Kleeberg had been elected rabbi of a congre-
gation, and removing thence to New Haven. A col-
lection of Minna Kleeberg's poems, "Gedichte," was
published in 1877 ; and she was a frequent contribu-
tor to "Das New-Yorker Belletristische Journal."

Bibliography : Appleton's Cyclopaedia of American Biog-
raphy; Morals, Eminent Israelites of the Xineteenth Cen-
tury ; Nahida Remy, Das Jlldische Weih ; KayserlinK. Die
Jildischen Frauen, p. 343; Das Neiv-Yorker Belletris-
tische Journal, Jan. 10, 1879 ; Deborah, 1879.

A. H. S.

KLEIN, ADOLPH: German medical author;
born at Merseburg-on-the-Saale May 18, 1829. He
was educated at Leipsic (M.D. 1851), and practised
medicine at Konigsberg from 1859 to 1870. In the
latter year he adopted a journalistic career, becom-
ing successively editor of a large number of papers,
among them " Das Rothe Kreuz," " Deutsche Frauen-
blatter," " Berliner Eisenbahn-Zeitung," and "Gross-
Lichterfelder Wegweiser." Most of Klein's contri-
butions to literature have been on medical and
sociological topics. His more important writings are :
" Anthropologie und Makrobiotik " ; " Ueberwindung
des Wissenschaftlichen Materialismus " ; "Pliilo-
sophie und Anthropologie " ; " Der Chemisch-Me-
chanische Theil des Menschlichen Organismus und
Seine Lebenskraft " ; "Geheimnissvolle Funktionen
der Sympathischen Ganglien"; " Die Magnetischen
Funktionen des Eisengehaltes im Blute"; "Die
Geistbewusste Personlichkeit und Hire Unvergang-
lichkeit als Weltprinzip " ; " Wissenschaf tliche Bei-
trage zum Hypnotismus"; "Religions-Einigung";
" Weshalb Theologie, Materialismus und Spiritualis-
mus in Bezug auf das Menschenrathsel zu Falschen

521

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Elausner
Klein

Schlilssen Gelangen?"; " Sozialpolitische BeitrSge
zur Judenfrage."

A few of his works, of marked liberal tendencies,
have been printed in New York under the pseudo-
nym "Dr. NielkFloda."

Bibliography : Das Oeistige Berlin, i. 244-245, Berlin, 1897.
8. I. G. D.

KLEIN, CHARLES : English dramatist ; born
at Loudon Jan. 7, 1867 ; educated at the North Lon-
don Collegiate School. Klein is the author of " A
Mile a Minute " (produced by Minnie Palmer) ; " The
District Attorney"; the libretto of "El Capitan"
(produced by De Wolf Hopper); "Dr. Belgraff"
(produced by Wilton Lackaye) ; " Heartsease " (pro-
duced by Henry Miller); "The Charlatan" (pro-
duced by De Wolf Hopper) ; "Hon. John Grigsby "
(produced by Sol. Smith Russell); "A Royal
Rogue " ; " The Auctioneer " ; " Mr. Pickwick " ; and
a number of other plays.

A. E. Ms.

KLEIN, EELIX : German mathematician ;
born at Dusseldorf April 24, 1849; educated at the
University of Bonn, where he became assistant in
the institution of physics in 1866. In 1868 he re-
ceived his degree of Ph.D. and took a postgraduate
course at Berlin and Gottingen. He became privat-
docent at Gottingen in 1871, and in the following
year was elected professor of mathematics at the
University of Erlangen. In a similar capacity he
went to the technical high school at Munich in 1875,
to the University of Leipsic in 1880, and to the Uni-
versity of Gottingen in 1886. In 1893 he repre-
sented the German empire as a member of the edu-
cational department at the Columbian Exposition at
Chicago, and in 1898 he represented his country at
the conference in London which established the In-
ternational Catalogue of Scientific Literature.

Klein was appointed one of the editors for the
publication of Pliickler's unpublished works. Since
1875 he has been coeditor with A. Mayer of " Die
Mathematischen Annalen. " Of his many works may
be mentioned : " Vergleichende Betrachtungen uber
Neuere Geometrische Forschungen," Erlangen, 1872;
"Ueber Riemann's Theorie der Algebraischen Funk-
tionen und Ihrer Integrale," Leipsic, 1882; "Vorle-
sungen iiber das Ikosaeder und die Auflosung der
Gleichungen vom 5. Grad," ib. 1884; "Vorlesungen
iiber die Theorie der Elliptischen Modulfunktionen,"
with Fiicke, ib. 1890-91; "Einleitung in die Hohere
Geometrie," Gottingen, 1893; " Vortrage iiber Aus-
gewahlte Fragen der Elementar-Geometrie," Leipsic,
1895; with Sommerfeld, "Ueber die Theorie des
Kreises," ib. 1897.

Bibliography: Meyers KonversatioTis-Lexlkon; Brock-
haus Konversations-Lexikon.
8. F. T. H.

KLEIN, HERMANN : English musical critic ;
born at Norwich July 23, 1856. He studied singing
under Manuel Garcia from 1874 to 1877, and in 1888
was appointed professor of singing at the Guildhall
School of Music, London. Having begun his career
as a musical critic as early as 1876, he was appointed
to "The Examiner" in 1879, and in 1881 to the
"Sunday Times." He was also connected in a sim-
ilar capacity with the " Manchester Guardian " and

"The Scotsman." Klein is the author of "Musical
Notes," London, 1886-89, and joint editor of Man-
uel Garcia's "Hints on Singing," 1894. Klein has
composed several vocal pieces. He is a fellow of
the Institute of Journalists of London. In 1902
Klein removed to New York.

Bibliography : Harris, Jewish Year Book, 1901-2.

J. M. W. L.

KLEIN, HUGO: Hungarian writer; born at
Szegediu July 21, 1853 ; educated at the University of
Budapest. He was for several years editor of the
"Ungarische Lloyd," and later dramatic and art
critic of the "Neue Pester Journal." In 1883 he
removed to Vienna, where he became connected
with the leading journals, and is at present (1904)
editor of the "Schone Blaue Donau."

Klein is the author of: "Das Rendezvous in
Monaco" and "Der Blaustrumpf," operettas, 1883;
"Im Puszta Lande." 1884; "Blinde Liebe" and
"Zauberkunste," 1890; "Die Hexenpfeifcr," 1900.
He has written also the librettos to "Der Liebe
Augustin " (music by Brandl) and " K5nig und Spiel-
mann" (music by Kerner), which latter has been
translated into Hungarian. He embraced Chris-
tianity.

Bibliography: Eisenberg, Das Oeistige Wten, Vienna,
1893, i.
s. F. T. H.

KLEIN, JOSEPH. See Kiss, Joseph.

KLEIN, JULIUS: Hungarian rabbi; bom
Aug. 2, 1850, at Zichyfalva; died July 24, 1895, at
Alt-Ofen; educated at the gymnasia at Kecskemet
and Nagy-Karoly, the Talmud schools of Mayer
Perls and Israel Hildesheimer, and the universities
of Vienna and Tubingen. At the age of twenty-
two he was called as rabbi to Szigetvar, and thence,
in 1887, to Alt-Ofen.

Klein was one of the first to introduce preaching
in Hungarian into the synagogue service. His chief
work, besides his collection of material for a history
of the Jewish community of Alt-Ofen, which ap-
peared in the periodical "Magyar Zsido Szemle,"
was his translation of the Talmud into Hungarian,
with notes. Of this only the first part, the treatise
Berakot, was published (Budapest, 1885).

L. V.

Bibliography : EgyenlOseg, 1895, No. 30.

KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD: Hungarian
poet and writer; convert to Christianity ; bom at Mis-
kolcz, Hungary, 1810; died at Berlin Aug. 2, 1876;
educated at the gymnasium at Budapest and the
universities of Vienna and Berlin. After an extended
trip through Italy and Greece, he returned to Berlin,
where he completed his studies and graduated as
doctor of medicine. He established a practise in the
German capital, but soon relinquished it and de-
voted his time entirely to literary work.

He wrote several dramas, which did not have
much success. His influence as a critic was more
pronounced, although his greatest work, " Gesch. des
Dramas" (13 vols., Leipsic. 1865-76; Index by
Ebner, 1886), was never finished. Klein's collected
works appeared in seven volumes under the title
" Dramati.sche Werke," ib. 1871-72. Among his
tragedies may be mentioned "Maria von Medici,"

Klein
Kletzk

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

522

1841; "Luines," 1843; "Zeuobia," 1847; "Moreto,"
1859; "Maria," 1860; "Strafford," 1862; and "Heli-
odora," 1867; and among his comedies, "Die Her-
zogin,"1848; "Ein Schutzling," 1850; "Voltaire,"

1852.

Bibliography : Brockhmis Konversations-Lexikon; Meyers
Koiiversatioits-Lexikon.
s. F. T. H.

KLEIN, MAX: Hungarian sculptor; born
Jan. 7, 1847, at Gbucz ; son of a poor country school-
teacher. He was apprenticed first to a grocer at
Kaschau, and then to a watchmaker at Miskolcz ;
but his love for art caused him to give up his trade
in 1861, and he went in the most indigent circum-
stances to Budapest, where he entered the studio
of the sculptor Professor Saudhaz. In 1863 he
went to Berlin, and then to Rome, and, in spite of
the utmost difficulties, finally succeeded in achiev-
ing an honored position among modern sculptors.
His group "Old Germans in the Roman Circus,"
exhibited at the Kunstausstellung at Berlin in 1878,
created a sensation by the boldness and energy of
its realism, which is a characteristic of Klein's work.
This group attracted attention at the Paris Salon
also, and was awarded a gold medal at the Inter-
nationale Kunstausstellung at Munich, assuring
Klein's position in the art world. Klein's sketches
received the first prize in the competition for statues,
in heroic size, of the ancient philosophers, for the
Joachimsthaler Gymnasium at BeTlin. He executed
also the two large busts of Field-Marshal Manteuffel
and General Werder in the Ruhmeshalle at Berlin.

The following are the best known of Klein's
works: " Hagar and Ishmael " ; " Samson at the Feet
of Delilah " ; " The Anchorite " ; " The Conquered " ;
"The Fisher's Dream"; "The Deluge"; and the
fine fountain group in the court of the first National
Savings-Bank building at Budapest.

Bibliography : Pallan Lex. x.
s. L. V.

KLEIN, MORITZ: Hungarian rabbi; born
July 7, 1842, at Miskolcz ; studied philosophy at
the University of Prague, attending at the same
time lectures on Jewish theology by Chief Rabbi
Solomon Rapoport. In 1863 he received his Ph.D.
degree and his rabbinical diploma, and was appointed
director of the Jewish communal school in his native
city, where he officiated also as preacher at tlie Great
Synagogue. In 1869 he was called as rabbi to
the Reform congregation (" Congress-Gemeinde ") of
Ungvar ; in 1876 he went to Papa ; and in 1880 he
accepted a call as chief rabbi to Nagy-Becskerek,
which office he still (1904) holds. He is a member of
the board of examiners of the Rabbinical Seminary
at Budapest.

Klein's works include Hungarian translations of
(1) Maimonides' "Moreh Nebukim," under the title
"A TevelygOk Utmutatoja," in three volumes, with
notes (1878-91), and (2) Jedaiah Penini's "Behinat
'01am," under the title "A Lelek Tragediaja"
(1901).

Bibliography : Klszlingstein, Kdnyveszet; Szlnnyei, Magyar
Irak Elete, vl. 513.
S. L. V.

KLEIN, PHILIP : American rabbi ; born May
22, 1848, at Baracska, Hungary. He was educated

in the Talmudical schools of his native country and
continued his studies in the gymnasium of Presburg
and in the universities of Vienna, Berlin (Ph.D.),
and Jena. After receiving his rabbinical diploma
from B. H. Auerbach of Halberstadt, he became
rabbi at Libau, in Courland, Russia (1880-90). In
1890 he emigrated to New York, where he was ap-
pointed rabbi of the Hungarian congregation Oheb
Zedek, perhaps the most important position among
the East Side congregations of New York. This
position he still (1904) holds.

Bibliography : American Jewish Year Book, 1903-4, p. 69.

KLEIN, SOLOMON : Austrian oculist ; born
at Miskolcz, Hungary, Aug. 12, 1845; M.D., Vi-
enna, 1870. Since his graduation he has practised
in the Austrian capital. In 1883 he became privat-
docent of ophthalmology, and in 1895 department
chief at the General Dispensary, and oculist at the
Rothschild Hospital, as well as at the Institute for
the Blind at the Hohe Warte, near Vienna. In 1902
he was appointed assistant professor at the Univer-
sity at Vienna.

Klein has written many papers in the medical
journals, as well as articles for Eulenburg's "Real-
encyklopadie der Gesammten Heilkunde," Nagel's
"Jahrbuch fiir Ophthalmologic," etc. Among his
independent works may be mentioned: "Die An-
wendung des Augenspiegels," Vienna, 1876; "Au-
genspiegelstudien bei Geisteskranken," ib. 1877;
"Grundriss der Augenheilkunde," ib. 1886; and
"Das Auge und Seine Diatetik," Wiesbaden, 1892.
Bibliography : Pagel, Biog. Lex. 1901.

s. F. T. H.

KLEIN, SOLOMON : French rabbi ; born at
Bischheim, Alsace, Oct. 14, 1814; died at Colmar,
Alsace, Nov. 10, 1867. He was successively district
rabbi at Bischheim (1839-41), Durraenach (1841-48),
and Rixheim (1848-50). From 1850 to 1867 he was
grand rabbi at Colmar, which rabbinate had been
occupied by Hirsch Katzenellenbogen, Simon Cahn,
and Seligrnann Goudchaux.

Klein was the author of the following works:
" Nouvelle Grammaire Hebrai'que Raisonnee et Com-
paree," Durmenach, 1846; "Traduction Fran^aise
et Annotation du Sefer Yesodot ha-Maskil de R.
David ben Bilia du Portugal, XI V SiScle," in the
"Dibre Hakamim" of Eliezer Ashkenazi, Metz,
1849; "Notions Elementaires de la Grammaire He-
brai'que " ; " Guide du Traducteur du Pentateuque,"
1851 ; rules for the Hazzan and for the Shohet,
in Hebrew and German, 1855; "Le Judai'sme ou la
Verite sur le Talmud " (German transl. by Mann-
heiiner), Mtilhausen. 1859; "M. Philippson et Sa
Traduction de la Bible," in "Univ. Isr." 1860; "Re-
cueil de Lettres Pastorales et de Discours d'lnaugu-
ration," Colmar, 1863 ; " Cours de Thames et de Ver-
sions HebraYques a I'Usage des Commengants,"
Mulhausen, 1866; "La Justice Criminelle chez les
Hebreux," published posthumously in "Arch. Isr."
1898.

s. J. K.*.

KLEIN, THEODORE : French physician ; born
in Durmenach, Upper Rhine, May 30, 1845; died in
Paris May 4, 1902 ; son of the chief rabbi of Colmar.
After completing his studies at the college of Col-

623

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Klein
Kletzk

mar, Klein went to Paris, where he engaged in the
study of medicine. While still a student he to-
gether with Emil Javal translated iuio French Helm-
holtz's "Handbuch der Physiologischeu Optik."
In 1873 he took his degree of M.D., his thesis being
^'L'lnfluence de I'Eclairage sur I'Acuite Visuelle,"
which was awarded a prize by the medical faculty
of Paris. In 1871 he published "La Therapeutique
de I'OEil au Moyen de la Lumiere Coloree," a French
translation of the German work by Boehm. He
contributed to "L'Opinion Nationale," editing its
scientific page from 1872 to 1876, and also to the
" Rev ue des Sciences Medicales " and other medical
journals. He further wrote : "Le Diabfete Sucre,"
1876; "Le Psautier du Dr. Graetz," 1877; "La
Circoncision," 1888; Surl'Originede Quelques Id^es
des Delirantes dans la Paralysie Generale," 1888;
"Polemiques Nombreuses dans I'Univers Israelite."
The minister of the interior decorated him in 1900
with the Golden Medal for his long and disinter-
ested services in behalf of the poor.

Klein was a member of the Jewish Consistory of
Paris, and during eighteen years president of the
Societe de 1 'Etude Talmudique. He was the rep-
resentative, both within and without the consistory,
of ultra-Orthodoxy ; and as he was a profound Tal-
mudist, his views carried great weight in the delib-
erations of the various societies of the Jewish com-
munity in the French capital.

Bibliography : A laMemoire duDr. N. Th. Klein. Membre
du Cnnsistoire Israelite de Paris, published by the Soci^t^
de I'Etude Talmudique, Paris, 1903.

s. E. A.

KLEIN, WILHELM : Austrian archeologist ;
born Nov. 28, 1850, at Kariinsebes, Hungary. He
first studied Jewish theology and then philosophy at
Vienna and Prague. The Austrian government
subsequently sent him to Italy and Greece, where
he engaged in archeological investigations, studying
especially antique pottery. Klein is professor of
archeology at the German Universit}^ of Prague,
and a member of the Gesellschaft zur Forderung
Deutscher Wissenschaft, Kunst, und Literatur in
Bohmen, as well as of the German Arclieological
Institute. He has published : "Euphronius"(1886);
"Die Griechisehen Vasen, mit Meisterinschriften "
<2d ed., Vienna, 1887); and " Praxiteles " (1897).

s. A. Kr.

KLEMPERER, GEORG : German physician;
boruatLandsberg-on-the-Warthe May 10,1865; son
of Wilhelm Klemperer; studied at the universities
of Biesiau, Halle, and Berlin (M.D. 1885). From
1887 to 1896 he was assistant to Professor von Ley-
den ; he was admitted, as privat-docent in 1889, to the
medical faculty of the University of Berlin, where in
1895 he became professor.

Klemperer has written many essays in the pro-
fessional journals, and since 1899 has been editor of
the " Therapie der Gegenwart. " Among his works
may be mentioned: "Grundriss der Klinischen
Diagnostik," Berlin, 1890 (8th ed. 1900); "Unter-
suchungen liber Infection und Immunitilt bei Asia-
tischer Cholera," ib. 1894; " Untersuchungen tlber
Gicht und HarnsSure Nierensteiue," ib. 1896; "Jus-
tus von Liebig und die Medizin," ib. 1899.

Bibliography : Pagel, Biog. Lex. 1901.
s. F. T. H.

KLEMPERER, GUTTMANN : Austrian
rabbi ; born 1815 at Prague ; died at Tabor, Bohe-
mia, Jan. 20, 1882. On his mother's side he was a
descendant of Yom-Tob Lipmann Heller. He com-
pletea his Talmudic studies at Presburg as a pupil
of Moses Sofer, and he also passed the gymnasium
examinations at the lyceum (Protestant gymnasium)
in the same place. On his return to Prague he at-
tended courses in philosophy at the university and
the Talmudic lectures of Solomon Judah Rapoport.
In 1844 he went as rabbi to Tabor, where he labored
until his death. At Tabor he introduced the regu-
lated worship of the Prague Temple.

Of Klemperer's numerous published writings
the following may be mentioned: (1) Speech on
the occasion of the abolition of the Jews' tax in
Bohemia, Prague, 1847; (2) "Hayye Yehonatan,"
biography of Jonathan Eybeschlitz, ib. 1858; (3)
" Jildischer Geschichtskalender " (" Pascheles Volks-
kalender," 1855-59) ; (4) " Der Patriarch R. Juda II..
ein Charakterbild," Prague, 1861; (5) "R. Salomo
Luria.," ib. 1862; (6) " Das Armengesetz nach Tal-
mudischen Prinzipien," ib. 1863; (7) "Das Erzie-
hungswesen nach den Prinzipien Unserer Altvor-
dern," ib. 1864; (8) "R. Lowe ben Bezalel, Lqbens-
l3ild eines Prager Oberrabbiners," ib. 1873; (9) "Das
Wesen der Jiidischen Geheimlehre," ib. 1875-79. Of
his German translation of David Gans's "Zemah
Dawid," with notes, only parts i. and ii. have been
published, by Moritz Grilnwald.

8. A. Ki.

KLEMPERER, WILHELM : German rabbi ;
born March 30, 1839, at Prague ; son of Guttmann
Klemperer. After attending the gymnasium of his
native cit}', he studied (1856-1863) at the univer-
sity and the Jewish theological seminary in Breslau
(Ph.D., Leipsic, 1861) and was ordained rabbi in
1863. He was successively rabbi at Landsberg (1864-
1885) and Bromberg (1885-91); he was called in 1891
as preacher to the Reform congregation of Berlin.

Klemperer has published: "Fest- und Gelegen-
heitspredigten," Breslau, 1866; "Christian Thoma
sius"; "Voltaire und die Juden"; "Beitrage zur
Vergleichenden Gnomologie."

s. M. St.

KLETZK : Russian town, in the government of
Minsk. It is believed to have been founded in the
eleventh century, but the earliest known mention of
the Jewish community there refers to 1523. A doc-
ument dated Sept. 5, 1522, was issued by King Sig-
ismund, in which he awarded for three years to
Isaac Jesofovitch, a Jew of Brest-Litovsk, for the
sum of 300 "kop groschen," a lease of the inns and
other sources of revenue in Kletzk. The next men-
tion of the Kletzk community is found in a docu.
ment dated Jan. 21, 1529, which imposes military
duties on its inhabitants, as well as on those of other
towns. On June 15, 1542, the boyar Grishko Koche-
vich brought suit against Zachariah Markovich, a
Jew of Kletzk, the latter's oxen having broken into
Grishko's field and injured the growing grain; the
court awarded to Grishko twelve " ruble groschen "
damages. A census taken in 1552-55 shows that
the Jewish householders lived chiefly on Wilna
street, on the Sloboda, and owned gardens in the

Kletzk
Knot

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

524

suburbs. Kletzk is mentioned in the assessment on
the Lithuanian communities in 1566, and from its
small proportionate assessment it appears that the
community was not important at that time.

In 1670 the Jews of Kletzk were accused of hav-
ing murdered a baptized Jewess, the wife of Gelia.sh
Yevchich. She had gone to the fair of Kletzk and
had stopped first at the house of a Christian, and
then at the house of the Jew Goshko Tzeperski,
wiiere she was last seen. At the time she disap-
peared she had a large sum of money in her posses-
sion. Her body was not found, and it is probable
that she was induced by her former coreligionists to
leave her husband and return to Judaism in some
distant place, such cases having frequently occurred
among the Jews of Lithuania after the Cossack up-
rising.

Until 1623 Kletzk belonged to the district of
Brest-Litovsk. After that date it was transferred,
together with the neighboring towns, to the district
of Pinsk. According to tradition, the town origi-
nally was located on the opposite bank of the Vis-
tula, on the road leading to Lyakhovich ; but after
the destructive fire of 1705 it was rebuilt, at the in-
stance of the governor, on its present site. Thus
the cemetery, formerlj"^ very near the town, is now
two miles distant, and during the spring floods the
Jewish community finds it difficult to provide for
the burial of its dead. There is a large synagogue,
built by Prince Radziwil in 1796; a bet ha-midrash
fully two hundred years old; and fifteen smaller
houses of prayer. The first rabbi of Kletzk was Ju-
dah ben LOb, who had under his jurisdiction also
the commimity of Mechit. He was succeeded
by Michael ben Meir Eiseustadt, who in turn was
followed, about 1762, by his son Moses Eiseu-
stadt (d. Oct. 25, 1795). The old people of Kletzk
still speak of the sojourn there of the philosopher
Solomon Maimon, who lived there for several years,
and was intimate with R. Moses Eisenstadt. In the
nineteenth century the town was repeatedly des-
troyed by fire— in 1817, 1845, 1865, and 1886— yet
the large synagogue always escaped the flames. In
1903 Kletzk had a total population of about 8,000,
of which about 6,000 were Jews.

Bibliography : Russko-Yevreiski Arkhiv, 1., Nos. 72 and 341 ;
ii.,Nos. 10, 34, 249; Regesty i NadjmUU Nos. 256. 473, 493,
726, and 1101; Pamt/atnaya Knizhka Minskoi Gubernii,
Minsk, 1876 ; Levik, Talpiyot, Berdychev. 1895.

H. R. J. G. L.— B. Ei.

KLEY, ISRAEL (or EDTJARD as he called him-
self): German preacher, educator, and writer; born
at Bernstadt, Silesia, June 10, 1789; died at Ham-
burg Oct. 4, 1867. He attended the Wilhelm school
at Breslau — in which he soon after gave instruction
himself — and the gymnasium there. He studied also
at the Berlin University under Fichte and Schleier-
macher. In 1817 he accepted a call to Hamburg as
head teacher and director of the free school, founded
in 1815. This school gave the impulse to the found-
ing of the temple at Hamburg, which inaugurated a
reform in the liturgy and stood, in general, for the
adaptation of Jewish worship to the spirit of the
times. Kley, who had already officiated as preacher
at the Jacobson Temple in Beilin together with
Auerbach and Giinsburg, was the first preacher at
the Hamburg Temple, which position he retained for

over twenty-one years, resigning it May 9, 1840. He
was director of the free school until 1848. An insti-
tution bearing his name, for aged and destitute
teachers, was erected in Hamburg.

Kley was a very prolific writer. Together with
K. S. Giinsburg he published "Erbauungen liber
Gottes Werk und Wort " (Berlin, 1813-14), and " Die
Deutsche Synagoge " in 2 parts (ib. 1817-18). Sev-
eral editions of his "Katechismus der Mosaischen
Religionslehre " (Leipsic, 1814) were published, the
last in 1850 ; also of his " Israelitisches Gesangbuch "
(Hamburg, 1818), for which special melodies were
written {ib. 1846). He published also a large num-
ber of sermons, either separately or in collections.
Of the latter may be mentioned "Predigten in dem
Neuen Israelilischen Tempel zu Hamburg" {ib.
1819-20); "Die Feste des Herrn"; " Israelitische
Predigten fur Alle Festtage des Jahres" (Berlin.
1824) ; " Sammlung der Neuesten Predigten Gehalten
in dem Neuen Israel. Tempel zu Hamburg," edited
by Ed. Kley and G. Salomon, 2 vols. (Hamburg,
1826-27); "Die Ruhe der Religion Mitten in der
Welt Unruhe," five sermons (ib. 1831); "Blatter der
Erinnerung : Letzte KanzelvortrSge im Neuen Israel.
Tempel " (ib. 1844).

Klej% who is often called the Jewish Schleier-
macher, published also sketches of sermons on the
first Book of Moses (Griinberg-Leipsic, 1844), and
on the second Book of Moses (Leipsic, 1856) ; further
"Geschichtliche Darstellung der Israel. Freischule
zu Hamburg" (Hamburg, 1841); "Die Ersle Mor-
gengabe zur Lehre und Bildung" (Grilnberg, 1843);
" Noch ein Wort zur Israel. Reformfrage " (Ham-
burg, 1845).

Bibliography : Jonas, Lebensskizze von Dr. E. Kleu, Ham-
burg, 1859; niustrirte MonaMicfte filr die Gemmmten
Interessen de.s Judenthums, ii. 419 et seq.; Kayserling,
Bibliothek Jild. Kanzelredner, i. 47 et seq.

s. M. K.

KLEY, WILHELM: German economist and
educator; born at Steinbach, district of Meiningen,
Germany, June 25, 1869. He taught for several years
at various schools, and then studied political econ-
omy, pedagogics, and philosophy at Giessen, Zurich,
Basel, and Gottingen universities. After taking
his doctor's degree he became teacher at the school
for builders at Cassel. Since 1901 he has been di-
rector of the technical and commercial school of
Harburg.

Kley has published: "Die Berufskrankheiten und
Ihre Stellung in der Staatlichen Arbeiterversiclier-
ung in Nationalokonomischer Beleuchtung " (Cas-
sel); "Die Schwindsuchtim Lichteder Statistik uud
Sozialpolitik " (Leipsic); "Bei Krupp"(/A.); "Ge-
setzeskundeuud BuchfuhrungfurBaubeflissene, Ins-
besondere zum Gebrauchanden Koniglichen Bauge-
werkschulen " (Wittenberg) ; " Das Genossenschaf ts-
wesen im Handwerk " ; " Warum Sollen und JMiisscn
Sich die Handwerker zu Innungen und Genossen-
schaften Zusammenschliessen? " (Cassel, 1901) ; " Die
Entwickelung des Geldwesens der Stadt Harburg,"
" Der Auf- und Ausbau der Deutschen Gewerbe- und
Fortbildungschule " (ib.). Kley has also contributed
articles to the "Zeitschrift fiir Sozialwissenschafl,"
edited by Wolf in Breslau.

525

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kletzk
Knot

KLINGER, GUSTAV. See Buchbindek,
Beunhard.

KLOTZ, LOUIS LXJCIEN: French journalist
and deputy; born in Paris Jan. 11, 18G8; of Alsa-
tian descent. After his education was finished, he
was enrolled as advocate at the Cour d'Appel in
Paris. At the age of twenty, with a view to popu-
larizing the Franco-Russian alliance, he founded the
"Vie Franco-Russe," an illustrated paper. In 1892
he became editor of the "Voltaire," and connnenced
a campaign against the reactionary policy of Jules
Ferry. In the following year he was an unsuccess-
fid candidate for his Paris district at the legislatorial
elections. Two years later he founded the " Fran-
^ais Quotidien," a paper devoted to national de-
fense, with which the "Voltaire" was subsequently
amalgamated.

After another failure at the polls, he was elected
by an overwhelming majority for Montdidier at the
general election of 1898 as a radical socialist. Klotz
is a member of several communal and charitable
societies, among which are the Society for the De-
fense of Children, the Prison Society, and the Cen-
tral Committee for Labor.

Bibliography : Curinier, Dictlo7inaire National.
s. V. E.

KLTJGER, SOLOMON BEN JUDAH
AARON : Chief dayyan and preacher of Brody,
Galicia: born at Komarow, Russian Poland, in 1783;
died at Brody June 9, 1869. He was successively
rabbi at Rawa (Russian Poland), Kulikow (Galicia),
and Jozefow (Lublin), preacher at Brody, and rabbi
at Brezany (Galicia) and, again, at Brody (where he
held the offices of dayyan and preacher for more
than fifty years).

During his long life Kluger wrote a great number
of works — one hundred and sixty volumes. He
wrote on all the branches of rabbinical literature as
well as on Biblical and Talraudic exegesis; but only
the following of his writings have been published:
"Sefer ha-Hayyim" (Zolkiev, 1825), novellsB on
Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim (his novelise on the
other parts of the Shulhan 'Aruk have not been
published); "Me Niddah" (ib. 1834), halakic and
haggadic novelise on JSTiddah ; " 'En Dim'ah " (part
1 ; ib. 1834), funeral sermon on the death of Eph-
raim Solomon Margaliot ; "Ebel Yahid " (Warsaw,
1836), funeral oration on Menahem Manis Mor-
decai Teomim; "Nidre Zerizin" (Zolkiev, 1839),
novelise on Nedarim; "Ebel Mosheh " (with " 'En
Dim'ah," part 2; Warsaw, 1843), funeral orations
on Moses Schreiber (Sofer) and Jacob Lissa ; " She-
not Hayyim " (Lemberg, 1855 ; the first part contains
responsa on Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim; the sec-
ond, responsa and novelise for scribes); "Sefer
Setam" (ib. 1856), laws for scribes; "Moda'a le-Bet
Yisrael " (Breslau, 1859), responsa, chiefly of other
rabbis, concerning mazzot made by machine ; " Tub
Ta'am wa-Da'at" (Lemberg, 1860; the first part
contains the laws of terefah; the second, entitled
"Kin'at Soferim," contains laws for scribes and vari-
ous laws of the Yoreh De'ah) ; " Hiddushe Anshe
Shem" (Leipsic, 1860), novelhe on Shulhan 'Aruk,
Eben ha-'Ezer; "Ma'aseh Yede Yozer " (Lemberg,
1863), commentary on the Pesah Haggadah ; " Sefer

'Abodat 'Abodah " (Zolkiev, 1865), novelise on 'Abo-
dah Zarah. Kluger's takkanot concerning slaugh-
tering are printed in Ganzfried's "Torat Zehah "
(Lemberg, 1848), and two of his responsa in David
Solomon Eybeschl\tz's "Ne'ot Deshe " (ib. 1861).

Bini.iOHRAPiiY: JJ(t-Mn(iOifh xiii.. No. 25; E. Kohn. Kin'at
Sofn-im. pp. lOHii 1091), Lcnil.erp, 1S92 ; Strellsker, In Hn-
Mdiiiiid. xlli., No. 2!t; Van Straali^n. Cat. Hehr. Donkif Brit.
Mux. p. l:i.">; Zedner, Cat. Jlelu: Booha lirit. Muh. pp. 414-
415; JuUah Aaron Kluxer, Toledot SheJamoh, Leinberpr, 1m!)8.

8. 8. M. Sei,.

KMITA, PETER. See Bona Sforza.

KNASMAHL. See Makkiage.

KNEFLER, FREDERICK : American sol-
dier; born in lluugaiy in 1833. He went to Amer-
ica, and when the Civil war broke out he enlisted
as a private in the 79th Regiment Indiana Volunteer
Infantry. He became successively captain, major,
colonel, and brigadier-general. For meritorious serv-
ice at Chickamauga he was promoted to the rank
of brevet major-general. He participated in the
engagements of the Army of the Cumberland and
marched with Sherman to the sea. No other Jew
attained such high rank in the army. After the
war Knefler was made United States pension agent
at Indianapolis.

BiBLiocRAPHY: Simon Wolf. The American Jew cw Patriot,
Soldier, and Citizen, p. 179, Philadelphia, 1895: Markens,
The Hebrews: in America, p. 131, New York, 1888 ; Pub.
Am. Jew. Hi^t. Soc. No. 3, p. 35.
A. A. M. F.

KNOT : Some form of quipu or knot-alphabet
appears to have been adopted in Biblical, or, at
least, in Talmudical times, to judge from the form
taken by the zizit. Whether any mystical influ-
ence was connected therewith is uncertain, but te-
fiUin are not knotted, except with the permanent
knot of the head phylactery. It was even disputed
down to the time of R. Tam whether the head knot
should be tied afresh every day (Responsa, No. 133).
To the rigid Sabbatarians of the Talmudic period,
to make a knot was an act of labor, and, therefore,
forbidden on the Sabbath (Shab. 111b), and this
forms part of the Jewish law to the present day.
Not alone is the making of a knot forbidden, but
also the loosing of one. Consequently ultra-Ortho-
dox Jews who will not carry a handkerchief ex-
cept in the form of a girdle merely twist it around
and do not tie it in a knot. Children, however,
might go out on the Sabbath with stalks of madder
knotted together, seemingly as an amulet (Shab.
66b). In the discussion on the restriction of mar-
tyrdom some of the extremists held that one should
suffer martyrdom rather than tie even the knots of
one's shoes like the Romans (Sanh. 74b). It is stated
that Ex. XX xiii. 23 really means that God showed
Moses the knots of the tefillin (Ber. 7a); the pas-
sage, however, is interpreted by Ibn Ezra (ad loc.)
as referring to the knowledge of the physical laws
of nature (comp. Maimonides, "Moreh," i. 35).

In Jewish folk-lore knots play a certain part,
though how far the folk-lore is Jewish in origin
generally remains uncertain. Among the children
of Kiev one of the ways of determining who shall
be "it" is to tie a knot in a handkerchief; the chil-
dren pick out the corners, and the one selecting th«
knotted corner is "it." In Kovno, when a wart is

Enoxville
Kodashim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

526

removed, a knot is tied around it with a thread,
and this knot is placed under the threshold. To
cure a person who is possessed one counts nine
knots ("Sefer Hasidim," § 1159): this seems to be
German (comp. Wuttke, "Deutscher Aberglaube,"
p. 157).

Bibliography : Levy, Neuhebr. WOrterb. iv. 399-400 ; Giide-
mann, Gesch. 11. 205.
A. J.

KNOXVILLE. See Tennessee.

KOBEB, GXJSTAV: Austrian actor; born at
Vienna April 21, 1849. He was trained for the
stage by Emilie Dorr in that city and made his debut
at the Elysiumtheater, Stettin, in 1868. He then ap-
peared at the following theaters: Budapest and
Linz (1869-72), Thaliatheater in Hamburg (till
1877). In 1877 he joined the Meininger Compan}%
remaining with this famous troupe of comedians
until 1881, and accompanying them on their tours to
Amsterdam and London. From 1881 to 1882 Kober
played at the Berlin Residenztheater and tlie next
two years at the Carltheater, Vienna; 1884-86 at the
Thaliatheater, Hamburg; 1886-88 at the Landes-
theater, Prague; and 1888-89 at the Lessing-
theater, Berlin. After a year devoted to a starring
tour in various cities, Kober returned to the Les-
singtheater, Berlin. He appeared also at the Irving
Place Theater, New York city.

Kober 's principal roles are Fnniz Mohr, Carlos in
"Clavigo," Wurm, Richard 111., Shylock, logo, Me-
pMsto, and Perin.

Bibliography: O. G. Fluggen, Bahnen-Lexikon, 1892, p. 172.
s. E. Ms.

KOBNER, HEINRICH: German physician;
born at Breslau Dec. 2, 1838. He studied medicine
at Berlin and Breslau (M.D. 1859), taking post-grad-
uate courses at Vienna and Paris in 1860 and 1861.
Establishing himself as a physician in Breslau (1861),
he founded a dispensary for dermatology. In 1869
he became privat-docent and in 1872 professor of
dermatology and syphilology. Indifferent health
forced him to resign all his positions in 1878. After
spending some time in southern Europe, he settled in
Berlin, where in 1884 he again founded a dispen-
sary. In 1897 he received the title " Geheimer Medi-
zinalrat."

KObner has written many essays in the medical
journals, among which may be mentioned : " Ueber
Arznei-E.xantheme, Insbesondere tiber Chinin-Ex-
anthem," in "Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,"
1877; " Uebertragungsversuche V(m Lepra auf
TJiiere," in Virchow's "Archiv," 1882.

His works in book form include: "Klinische und
Experimentelle MitteilungenausderDermatologie,"
etc., Erlangen, 1864.

Bibliography : Pagel, Biog. Lex.: Hirsch, Biog. Lex.
s. F. T. H.

KOBO. See Covo.

KOBOR, TAmIs. See Berm.\nn, Adolf.

KOBRYN : District town iu the government of
Grodno, Russia; situated on the Muchavetz and
Kobrynka rivers. In 1902 it contained more than
8,000 Jews in a total population of about 10,000.
A Jewish congregation was in existence there at the

beginning of the sixteenth century ; it is mentioned
among the Lithuanian Jewish congregations to which
in 1514 Sigismund I. renewed privileges granted to
them by his brother Alexander. The city and its
suburbs, where the Jews had the right of residence,
covered considerable space in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. The small town of Gorodetz,
about five miles distant from Kobryn, once formed a
part of the latter; but it was nearly ruined in 1653.
when it was besieged by tiie Swedish army, the Jews
and their property suffering greatly, especially at
the hands of the Polish soldiers, who mutinied on
account of non-payment of their salaries and com-
pensated themselves at the cost of the Jews.

In 1766 Kobryn was officially reduced to tlie
status of a village; but was restored iu 1795 to the
rank of a district town. The city was bombarded
by the French army in 1812, and again suffered
much, the Jews showing great courage.

In the old Jewish cemetery there are still legible
some dates of the fifteenth century. The earliest
known rabbi was Bezaleel b. Solomon Darshan (d.
1678). His successors have been: Jacob b. David
Shapiro, or Spiro, the author of "Ohel Ya'akob,"
and founder of a yeshiboh in Kobryn, where more
than 400 pupils were instructed in his time (d. 1718);
Minz (d. 1819) ; Shemariah, who was also a rabbi of
the Hasidim of Riuboshow (d. 1835); Moses, rabbi
of the Hasidim of Kobryn (d. 1858) ; Meir Meirim
Shafit (d. 1873), author of tiie well-known work
"Nir al-Yerushalmi " ; Elijah, popularly known as
"Rabbi Elinke Lider" (d. 1876); Saul Epstein (d.
1891) ; and last the present incumbent, Rabbi Meir
Atlas.

Kobryn lias many charitable societies and institu-
tions, a magnificent sj^nagogue, two batte mid-
rashot, and eleven houses of prayer of different
Hasidic sects. Formerly the Jews were mostly en-
gaged in agriculture and distilling; but in 1883, by
a ukase of Alexander III., the renting of farms was
prohibited to Jews, as was also residence outside
the city limits. Further, in 1897 the distillery busi-
ness was monopolized by the government. In con-
sequence, the present economic position of the
Kobryn Jews is very deplorable ; and they are em-
igrating in large numbers to America and Africa.

Bibliography : Duke Dimitri Soplega, Revizia Knbi^jmkiii
Ekonnmii, 1.363 (the ducal author was at the time super-
visor under the government: the manuscript is now in the
municipal archives of Kobrvn); Entziklopedichegki Shwar,
St. Petersburg, 1895; RegesUi, vol. i. s.v., ib. 1899.
H. R. L. E.

KOBRYN, BEZALEL B. SOLOMON. See

Bez.vlel b. Solomon op Kobryn.

KOBURG. See S.\xe-Cobur6-Gotha.

KOCHER, HERMANN FRIEDRICH : Ger-
man Christian Hebraist ; born at Osnabriick in 1747;
died April 2, 1792. He was the author of " Specimen
Observationum Philologicarum in I Sam. ii." Jena,
1772; "Comm. Sistens Explicationem Vocum IJOX'^
et N"I|T"I Gen. i. 3, 5, de Deo Usurpatorum,"^■6. 1778;
"Comm. ad Gen. ii. 18-20, de Vocatis ab Adamo
Animantibus," ib. 1779; " Stricturarum Antimasore-
thiearum in Kirjau et Chetib ad Librum Judicum
Specimen," tb. 1780; " Versuch einer Erklarung der
Gesch. Saul's mit der Betrilgerin zu Endor," Gera,

527

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Enozville
KodaBbim

1780; "Nova BibliothecaHebraica" (with a preface
by J. G. Eichhorn), 2 vols., Jena, 1783-84, a supple-
ment to Wolf's " Bibliotheca Hebroea. "

Bibliography: Winer, Handhuch der Thenlogischen Liter-
ature i. 09; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ji. 194; McClintock and Strong,
Cyc. Supplement.

T. B. p.

KODASHIM : Name of the fifth of the six orders
("sedariin") of the Mishuah, so called because all
the treatises belonging to it contain regulations and
laws concerning sacrifices, priestlj'^ contributions,
and other matters pertaining to the cult. Both the
name of this order and its position as the fifth in the
Mishnah are old, and are recorded at an early date.
Simeon b. Lakish (3d cent.), who considered the six
orders of the Mishnah to be intended by the words
"emunat, 'iteka, hosen, j'eshu'ot, hakmat, wada'at "
(Isa. xxxiii. 6), enumerates them in the following
order and with the following names: "Zera'im,
Mo'ed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodashim, Tohorot"
(Shab. 31a). The sedarim are given in the same
order and with the same names in Esth. R. i. 2 and
in Num. R. xiii. Another amora, R. Tanhuma, al-
though deducing from Ps. xix. 8-10 a different order
of the sedarim, likewise reckons Ko-
Position in dashim as the fifth (Yalk., Ps. xix. 8
Mishnah. et seg.). According to another version
of Tanhuma's statement, the order of
the sedarim is as follows: Nashim, Zera'im, Mo'ed,
Kodashim, Tohorot, and Nezikin (Num. R. I.e.).
In this passage, however, the order is evidently de-
termined by that of the Biblical verses to which the
treatises are there referred.

It may, therefore, be safely assumed that Ko-
dashim has always been the fifth of the orders of
the Mishnah. According to Maimonides, Kodashim
comes after the first four sedarim because they have
their exegetical basis in Exodus, whereas Kodashim
has its foundation in Leviticus. On the other hand,
Kodashim stands before Tohorot because the regula-
tions concerning sacrifice (Lev. i.-x.) precede those
on cleanness and uncleanness {ib. xi.-xv.). Another
explanation is given by Zacharias Frankel in his
"Hodegetica in Mischnam," p. 262.

With the exception of the 1559 edition of the
Mishnah, which regards the two treatises Hullin and
Bekorot as belonging to the sixth order, Kodashim
in all editions of the Mishnah contains eleven trea-
tises. It is doubtful whether Keritot originally be-
longed to the order Nezikim, as Brlill supposes
("Einleitung in die Mischna," ii. 28).

In the following survey the eleven treatises are
outlined in the order given by Maimonides (I.e.),
which has been followed in the editions of the Mish-
nah since 1606.

1. Zebahim ("Bloody Sacrifice "), entitled also
Shehitat Kodashim (" Killing of the Consecrated
Animals ";'b. M. 109b), and Korbanot ("Sacri-
fice"; in the Tosefta); divided into 14
Treatises, chapters. Contents: Regulations for
killing sacrificial animals and for
sprinkling their blood ; how the sacrifice may be-
come an abomination (" piggul "), or invalid ("pa-
sul"); things consecrated by heathen; upon what
the thoughts must be concentrated during the
sacrifice; of the mingling of different sacrifices;

from which sacrifices the priests receive meat;
which priests partake of such flesh, and which have
no share in it; what the altar, the steps, and the
ves.seis sanctify and in how far that which has been
placed on the altar may not be removed from it;
sacrifice offered outside ; history of places of wor-
ship.

2. Menahot ("Meal-Offering"), divided into
thirteen chapters. Contents: Regulations concern-
ing the intention required ; the preparation of the
meal-offering and its ingredients; places from wliich
the materials for the meal-offering are to be brought;
meal-offerings from which only a handful (" komez ")
is to he taken, and those which are to be placed en-
tire upon the altar; concerning the waving ("te-
nufah ") of the meal-offering, and the laying of hands
on the sacrificial victim ("semikah"); the peace-
offerings, the wave-offerings, the showbread, tlie
Pentecostal bread, and the drink-offering; the tem-
ple of Onias.

3. Hullin ("Profane," " Unconsecrated "). called
also Shehitat Hullin (" Killing of Unconsecrated
Animals"), divided into twelve chapters. Contents:
Regulations concerning slaughtering; who is i)er-
mitted to slaughter, by what means, and when ;
cutting through the neck; the dam may not be
killed on the same day with her young; covering up
the blood after slaughtering; diseased cattle; what
is fit to eat ("kasher"), and what is unfit ("tere-
fah"); clean and unclean animals; what meat may
not be cooked in milk ; the portions of the slaugh-
tered animals which must be given to the priest: the
first of the fleece.

4. Bekorot (" First-Born "), divided into nine
chapters. Contents: Regulations concerning the
first-born; how long the first-born of clean animals
are to be kept before being given to the priest ; hair
and wool of the first-born of clean animals: blem-
ished first-born of animals; blemishes which make
the first-born unfit for sacrifice; rights of the first-
born son in regard to inheritance; rights of the
priest to the ransom for the first-born son.

5. 'Arakin ("Estimations"), divided into nine
chapters. Contents: Rules for determining the
amount which must be given to redeem one pledged
to God, or, in case his value has been vowed, for as-
certaining its equivalent; who may make such val-
uations, and in regard to whom they may be made;
on reckoning the equivalent according to the wealth
and age of the person in question : valuation when
a limb or the half of the value of a person has been
vowed; obligations of heirs; distraint when the
equivalent is not paid.

6. Temurah ("Exchange" [of a consecrated
object]), divided into seven chapters. Contents:
Mainly regulations concerning exchanges; objects
exchange of which may be effected ; concerning the
young of the sacrificial victim when exchange has
taken place; exchange in case of a sin-offering: for-
mulas for exchange.

7. Keritot ("Extermination"), divided into six
chapters. Contents: Enumeration of the sins to
which the penalty of excision ("karat ") is attached
when they have been committed wittingly though
without previous warning against them, but which
require a sin-offering if they have been committed

fodashim
ohelet Babbah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

528

inadvertently ; different cases in wliich sacrifice is
necessary ; when a guilt-offering or sin-offering is
respectively necessary.

8. Me'ilah ("Trespass" [on what has been con-
secrated]), divided into six chapters. Contents:
Regulations especially concerning trespass; sacri-
fices in which trespass may occur, and when it
begins; things in which no trespass can take place,
although they may not be used ; reckoning in cases
of trespass, and the question whether several per-
sons may trespass in connection with the same thing ;
trespass through an agent.

9. Tamid. ("The Daily Offering, Morning and
Evening "), divided into seven chapters, in most edi-
tions, but see below. Contents: The Temple organ-
ization and the apportionment of tlie various official
duties among the different priests by lot; on bring-
ing the sacrificial lamb, killing and dividing it, and
placing its various parts on the altar; the morning
prayer; the incense-offering ; the priestly blessing;
hymns of the Levites on the different days of the
week.

10. Middot ("Measures" [of the Temple]), di-
vided into five chapters. Contents: Descriptions
of the arrangement of the Temple and tlie dimen-
sions of the separate divisions of the porches; of the
forecourt and its chambers.

11. Kinnim (" Birds' Nests "), divided into three
chapters. Contents: The offering of pigeons, which
was to be brought by indigent women after confine-
ment and by such of the poor as had committed any
of the trespasses enumerated in Lev. v. 1 et seq.
There are also in passing discussions of various cases
of confusion of birds belonging to different persons
or to different offerings.

Maimonides {I.e.) endeavors to account for this
arrangement of the treatises of Kodashim, but his
arguments are artificial, while Frankel {I.e. p. 262)
attempts to explain it logically. Apparently, how-
ever, there was no real reason for the order of the
treatises, which were probably arranged according
to the system of study adopted in the
Arrange- Palestinian and the Babylonian acad-
xnent of emies. The teachers there were natu-
Treatises. rally infiuenced by pedagogical con-
siderations, and placed the longer
tractates before the shorter ones (Hoffmann, in Ber-
liner's " Magazin," 1890, p. 323). The treatises within
the seder or order were thus arranged according to
the number of chapters, the one containing the great-
est number being placed first (Geiger, in his " Wiss.
Zeit. Jiid. Theol." ii. 489-492). This supposition of
Geiger's holds good for Kodashim, except that
Tamid, with seven chapters, follows Me'ilah, which
has but six. Originally, however, Tamid did not
have this number of chapters. In Lowe's edition of
the Mishnah this treatise has only six chapters, Avhile
Levi b. Gershon (RaLBaG), in his preface to the
commentary on the Pentateuch, allows Tamid five
only. In Kodashim there is, accordingly, the fol-
lowing arrangement of treatises with a diminishing
number of chapters: Zebahim, 14 chapters; Menahot,
18; Hullin, 12; Bekorot, 9; 'Arakin, 9; Temurah, 7;
Keritot, 6; Me'ilah, 6; Tamid, 6 or 8; Middot, 5;
Kinnim, 3. Various other orders of arrangement are
found in different editions, which have been de-

scribed by Strack ("Einleitung in den Talmud," p.
11). Noteworthy is the sequence given by RaLBaG
{I.e.), namely: Zebahim, Hullin, Menahot, Bekorot,
'Arakin, Temurah, Me'ilah, Keritot, Tamid, Middot,
Kinnim. In every system of arrangement Zebahim
is the first treatise and in Num. R. xiii. it is ex-
pressly designated as the beginning of tlie Seder
Kodashim.

In the Tosefta Kodashim has eight treatises only,

Tamid, Middot, and Kinnim being omitted. The

Babylonian Talmud has Gemara for

In Tosefta the first nine treatises, but none for

and the last two, Middot and Kinnim.

Gemara. There is no Jerusalem Gemara for Ko-
dashim, nor is there any citation from
one in tlie older commentaries and decisions. Isaac
Alt'asi, who uses Yerushalmi frequently, does not
cite it for the treatise Hullin, nor is it quoted by
Maimonides, Asheri, or Solomon b. Adret. The
supposed citations by other commentators have been
shown by Frankel and Buber either not to refer to
Kodashim or to be erroneous.

]\Iaimoni(les, however, says {I.e.) that there was a
Palestinian Gemara for five whole orders (thus in-
cluding Kodashim), but only for Niddah in the sixth
order. It is also known that much attention was
paid in Palestine to the Seder Kodashim, for the
treatises Zebahim and Hullin in the Babylonian Tal-
mud contain many statements of Palestinian amo-
raim. It is evident, therefore, that there was once
a Jerusalem Gemara to Kodashim, but
Jerusalem that it was lost at an early period and

Gemara. was no longer used even by the oldest

commentators. Maimonides, however,

had heard of its existence and believed that it was

still extant, as is clear from his statement {I.e.) ; but

it is evident tliat he never saw it, since if he had

seen it he would certainly have made citations

from it.

BiBLiOGRAPH\ : Maimonides, preface to his commentary on the
Mishnah, printed in many editions of the Talmud after the
treatise Berakot: Z. Franlfel, Hodeoeticain Mischnam. pp.
263 et -seq., Leipsic, 1859; idem, I)itr(>duetio in Talmud Hie-
rosolumitanum, pp. 45a et seq., Breslau, 1870; Solomon Bu-
ber, Die Anocbliche Existenz eincs Jenisalem Talmuds
zur Ordnung Kndcv><chim, in Berliner's Magazin, 1878, pp.
100-105 ; Abraham Geigrer, Einiges ilber Plan und Annrd-
7iung der Mischnah, in his Wiss. Zeit. Jild. Theol. ii. 474-
492.
E. C. J. Z. L.

KODESH HA-KODASHIM. See Holy of
Homes.

KOENEN, HENDRIK JACOB: Dutch histo-
rian of the Jews; born at Amsterdam Jan. 11, 1809;
died atBuitenrust, near Haarlem, Oct. 13, 1874. He
was educated for the bar, and received his degree of
doctor of law in 1831. For many years he was a
member of the common council of his native town
and of the provincial states of North Holland. He
was the author of many works on history. His " Ge-
scliiedenis der Joden in Nederland " was awarded a
prize, and was published by the Prov. Utrechtsch Ge-
nootschap van Kunstenen Wetenschappen, Utrecht,
1843. It is the first history of the Jews in Hol-
land, and in it many hitherto unknown historical
sources are cited.

s. J. E. B.

KOF ( p) : Nineteen th letter of the Hebre w alpha-
bet; for its form see Alphabet. The meaning of

529

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

fodashim
. ohelet Rabbah

the name is uncertain. It corresponds in form to
the Greek " koppa " and the English " q," and is dis-
tinguished in pronunciation from Kaf in tliat it
is produced, witli a glottal catch, from the rear of
the palate. It interchanges, in related languages,
■with J, 3, and y. Kof occurs only as a root-letter,
never as a prefix or suffix. As a numeral it stands!
in later usage, for 100.
T- I. Bh.

KOHATH (nnp); KOHATHITES : Koiiath
%vas the second son of Levi (Gen. xlvi. 11; Ex. vi.
16; Num. iii. 17; I Chron. vi. 1) and progenitor of
the Levitical division of the Kohathites. Born in
the land of Canaan, he was one of those wlio went
with Jacob to Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 8, 11), where lie
died at the age of 133, leaving four sons (Ex. vi.
18). The division of the Kohathites was more im-
portant than tlie other two Levitical divisions.
Even when wandering in the wilderness, the Koliath-
ites were divided into four families (Num. iii. 27) ;
the whole number of their males over a month old
was 8,600 {ib. iii. 28) and from thirty to fifty years
of age. 2,750 {ib. iv. 2, 3, 36). To tliem was en-
trusted the transportation of the sanctuary and its
furniture {ib. iii. 31, iv. 4-15), a very honorable
office, and one in which great precautions had to be
taken not to toucli tlie objects carried {ib. iv. 15, 18-
20). In the camp their position was south of the
Tabernacle (iii. 28); and when journeying they pre-
ceded the Gershonites {ib. iv. ; Josh. xxi.). Owing
to the great holiness of tlieir burden, the Kohathites
carried it upon their shoulders (Num. vii. 9). In
the wilderness tlieir chief was Elizaphan ben Uzziel
{ib. iii. 30). After the settlement of the Israelites
in the land of Canaan, thirteen cities out of Judah,
Simeon, and Benjamin were allotted to the priests,
descendants of Kohath (Josh. xxi. 4, 13-19), and ten
others out of Ephraim, Dan, and western Manasseh
to the rest of the Kohathites {ib. xxi. 5, 20-26- I
Chron. vi. 57-61, 67-70).

Besides Moses and Aaron, there were other emi-
nent Kohathites; e.g., the prophet Samuel and his
grandson Hejian. In David's division of the Le-
vites into groups, descendants of the four Kohath-
ite families are mentioned as heads of fathers' liouses
(I Chron. xxiii. 12-20). They are described also as
taking part in the Temple service in the time of
Jehoshaphat (II Chron. xx. 19) and as cooperating
in the cleansing of the Temple in the reign of Heze-
kiah {ib. xxix. 12, 14). Tliere is no mention of the
Kohathites after the Exile.

E. G. H. M. Sel.

KOHELET MUSAR: Hebrew weekly;
founded at Berlin in 1750 by ]\roses Mendelssolm (at
that time he was not more than twenty-one) and T.
Bock. Only two issues appeared ; these contained
philosophical and moral reflections of the Leibnitz-
Wolff school.

Bibliography: Benjacob. Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 518; I. Bavid-
son. The Ge^iesis of Hebrew Periodkal Literature, p 3
Baltimore, 1900; F. Defitzsch, Zur «e.sc?i. der Jlldischen
roesie, p. 100 ; Kayserling, Moacs Mendelssohn, p. 99.

G- M. Sc.

KOHELET (ECCLESIASTES) RABBAH

(called in ed. Pcsaro, 1519, and in ed. Venice, 1545,
Midrash Kohelet) : Haggadic commentary on Ec-
VII.— 34

clesiastes, included in the collection of the Rabbot.
It follows the Biblical book verse by verse, only
a few verses lemainiug without comment. In the
list of the old sedarim for the Bible four sedarim
are assigned to Ecclesiastes, namely, to i. 1, iii. 13,
vii. 1, and ix. 7; and tlie Midrash Kohelet was prob-
ably divided according to the.se sections. Tliis
appears from the phrase "Sidra tinyana" in-
serted between the comments to Eccl. vi. 12 and
to vii. 1, and the phrase "Sidra telita'a" between
the comments to Ecul. ix. 6 and to ix. 7. The.se
phrases occur at the end of the second and third
midrasli sections, in the same way tliat " Selik sidra "
indicates the end of sections in Ruth R. and Esth.
R. in the earlier editions. The commentary to iii.
13 liaving been lost, the exposition of the conclusion
of the first section is missing. Nothing remains to
indicate where one section ends and another begins,
as there is no introductory remark to the comment
on ii. 13. But an introduction is also lacking to the
comment on vii. 1 and ix. 7.

The author confined himself chiefly to collecting
and editing, and did not compose new introductions
to the sections. He, however, used
Adapta- to a great extent the introductions
tions from which he found either in the earlier
Earlier midrashim— Bereshit (Genesis) Rab-
Mid- bah, Pesikta, Ekah (Lamentations)
rashim, Rabbati, Wayikra (Leviticus) Rabbah,
Shir ha-Shirim (Canticles) Rabbah— or
in the collections from which those midrashim were
compiled. This shows the important part which
the introductions to the earlier midrashim played in
the later midrashim, in that they served either as
sources or as component parts of the latter. For
introductions to commentaries on the Bible text and
for homilies on the sedarim and Pesikta cycle, it
was customary to choose texts occurring not in the
Pentateuch, but chiefly in the Hagiographa, inclu-
ding Ecclesiastes. This, even in very early times,
gave rise to a haggadic treatment of numerous
passages in Ecclesiastes, which in turn furnished
rich material for the compilation of the Midrash
Kohelet.

The longest passages in the Midrash Kohelet are
the introductions to Pesikta and Wayikra Rab-
bah, all of which the author used. Some introduc-
tions were abbreviated, and introductions from differ-
ent midrashim were combined in a comment on one
passage of Ecclesiastes. For instance, the long pas-
sage on Eccl. xii. 1-7 is a combination of the intro-
duction to Wayikra Rabbah xviii. 1 and the twentj'-
third introduction in Ekah Rabbati (ed. Buber, pp.
9a-12a). Of the ninety -six columns which the Mid-
rash Kohelet contains in the Venice edition (fols.
66c-90b), nearly twenty are occupied by expositions
which the author took from introductions in Be-
reshit Rabbah, Pesikta, Wayikra Rabbah, and Shir
ha-Shirim Rabbah ; namely, the comments to Eccl. i.
1, 3, 5, 18; ii. 2, 12b, 21, 23; iii. 1, 11, 15, 16; v. 4,
5, 8, 15; vi. 7; vii. 14, 23 et seq.; viii. 1; ix. 2,
15 ; X. 20 ; xi. 2, 6 ; xii. 1-7. Many other passages be-
sides the introductions have been transferred from
those sources to the Midrash Kohelet. Moreover,
it contains several passages in common with Ruth
R. ; compare especially the comment on Eccl. vii.

Kohelet Kabbah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

630

8, which includes the story of R. Meir and his teacher
Elisha b. Abiiya, with Ruth Rabbah vi. (to Ruth iii.
13), with which it agrees almost verbatim. In this
case the story was not taken direct from its source
in Yer. Hag. ii. 77b, c.

The author of the Midrash Kohelet of course fre-
quently consulted the haggadah of the Palestinian
Talmud. At the same time, it may
Passages be assumed that various passages were
from the taken directly from the Babylonian
Babylonian Talmud ; and this assumption would
Talmud, prove the relatively later date of Kohe-
let Rabbah, though the end of the
midrash, which is taken from Hag. oa, must be con-
sidered as an addition. A further characteristic
indication of the late composition of the work is
the fact that in the comments on Eccl. v. 5 and vii.
11 passages from Pirke Abot are quoted, with a
reference to this treatise (comp. Wayikra R. xvi.),
and in the comment on v. 8 several smaller treatises
are mentioned. In the same comment on v. 8, at the
beginning of a proem in Wayikra Rabbah xxii., a
modification of the passage in the latter is made which
gives ample proof that the Midrash Kohelet was
written at a later time than the other midrashic works
mentioned. In Wayikra Rabbah the passage reads :
"Even what is superfluous on the earth is a part of
the whole ; and also the things which thou regardest
as superfluous to the revealed Torah, as the prescrip-
tions relating to fringes, phylacteries, and mezuzah,
they also belong to the idea of the revealed Torah."
In the Midrash Kohelet it reads : " The things which
thou regardest as superfluous to the Torah, as the
tosafot of Rabbi's school and those of R. Nathan and
the treatise on proselytes and slaves [" Hilkot Gerini
wa-'Abadim "], they also were revealed to Moses on
Sinai, and treatises like 'Hilkot Zizit Tefillin u-Mezu-
zot' belong to the sum total of the Torah." As Zunz
assumes (" G. V." p. 266), the Midrash Kohelet belongs
to the time of the middle midrashim. On the other
hand, the author of Midrash Kohelet must not be
charged with " proceeding entirely in the spirit of la-
ter compilers " merely because, in connection with
certain Bible texts, he repeats accepted or approved
passages which were written upon the same or sim-
ilar texts. Such repetitions are frequently found in
the earlier midrashim. In Midrash Kohelet the same
comments are found on Eccl. i. 2 as on vi. 12; on i.
3 as on xi. 9; on i. 13 as on iii. 10; on iii. 16 as on
X. 4; on vi. 1 as on ix. 13; and on vii. 11 as on ix.
10; etc. Verses ii. 24, iii. 13, v. 17, viii. 15 receive
the same explanation ; and it is interesting to note
that the Epicurean and hedonistic view expressed in
them — that for all of man's troubles his only com-
pensation is the gratification of the senses : eating,
drinking, and taking pleasure — is interpreted alle-
gorically and given a religious significance : " Where-
ever eating and drinking are spoken of in this way,
the pleasure is meant which the study of the Bible
and the performance of good works afford ; as it is
written (ch. viii. 15): ' it accompanies him l^oyn ["in
his labor"], which must be interpreted us loSiy^
["in his world"]': not eating and drinking accom-
pany man to the grave, but the Torah and the good
works which he performs." The following con-
nected passage on Eccl. ii. 4-8 may serve to indicate

the manner in which in this midrash the allegorical
interpretation is connected with tlie simple literal
interpretation ; it also shows how the author, in or-
der to explain a passage, has fused the material
collected from different sources, and illustrates his
use of stories and of foreign words (the Bible text of
Ecclesiastes is printed in italics) :

" '/ made me great works,' said Solomon; 'I

made greater works than the works of my fathers ' ;

as it is written, ' The king made a

Specimens great throne of ivory ' (I Kings x.

of 18). 'Ibuildedtneliouses' \a.?,\t\&viT\i-

Exegesis. ten, ' It came to pass at the end of
twenty years, when Solomon had
built the two houses ' {ib. ix. 10). 'I planted vie vine-
yards ' ; as it is written, ' Solomon had a vineyard
at Baal-hamon ' (Cant. viii. 11). '/ made me gar-
dens and orchards \\\\,. "paradises"], and 1 planted
trees in them of all kinds of fruits,' even pepper.

" R. Abba bar Kahana said : ' Solomon commanded
spirits whom he sent to India to fetch water for
watering. " / made me pools of tcater" : fish-ponds
[iviaKiv^] wherewith to water a forest full of trees ;
— this is the land of Israel ; as it is written, " And
the king put them in the house of the forest of
Lebanon" (I Kings x. 17). '' I got me servants and
maidens " ; as it is written, " All the Nethinim, and
the children of Solomon's servants, were three hun-
dred ninety and two" (Neh. vii. 60). " 2 had serv-
ants born in my Jiouse " ; as it is written, " and those
officers provided victual for King Solomon . . .
they lacked nothing " ' (I Kings v. 7).

"R. Hama bar Hanina said: 'At Solomon's table
there were carrots [comp. Deut. R. i. 5] in summer
and cucumbers in winter ; they were eaten throughout
the year. " / had great possessions of great and small
cattle " ; as it is written (I Kings v. 3), " u-barburim
abusim." What does that mean ? The scholars say,
" Animals from Barbary " [Bapliapia] . . . . " Igath-
eredme also silver and gold " ; as it is written, " And
the king made silver to be in Jerusalem as stones"
(I Kings X. 27). Is it possible? — like the stones on
the roads and in the yards, and they were not stolen?
No, there were stones eight and ten ells long. "And
tlie peculiar treasure of kings " ; as it is written, " And
all the kings of the earth sought the presence of
Solomon " (II Chron. ix. 23),— nijnoni [lit. "and of
the provinces"] is to be read nj'^^lD ["the disputing
woman"], that is, the Queen of Sheba, who dis-
puted with him in her wisdom, and asked him ques-
tions, and could not vanquish him; as it is written,
" She came to prove him with hard questions " (I
Kings X. 1). "/ gat me men singers and icomen
singers, and the delights of the sons of men," — baths
{6iifj.6aia) and male and female demons [nnc, mtJ',
taken in the sense of DnEJ*, "demons"] who heated
them. '

" R. Hiyya bar Nehemiah said : ' Did Scripture in-
tend to make us acquainted with Solomon's wealth?
It probably refers only to the Torah : " / made me
great works"; as it is written, "And the tables
were the work of God " (Ex. xxxii. 16). "7 builded
me houses," — those are synagogues and schoolhouses.
"/ planted me vineyards," — those are the rows of
scholars, who sit in rows [like vines] in the vine-
yard. " I made me gardens and orchards [lit. "par-

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Kohelet Kabbah
Kohu, Abraham

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

532

adises"]," — those are the great mishnayot, such as
the mishnah of R. I.liyya Kabbah aud that of R.
Hoshaiah Rabbah, aud that of Bar Kappara. "/
planted trees in them of all kinds of fruit," — that
is the Tahnud, which is coutained in them. "7
made me jwols of water," — those are the derashot.
" 2'o water therewith the wood that bringeth forth trees ,"
— those are the children who learn.'

" R. Nahman said : ' That is the Talmud. " To wa-
ter thereicith the wood that bri)igeth forth trees," — those
are the scholars. " 1 got me servants and maidens, " —
those are the uations; as it is written, "And also
upon the servants and upon the handmaids in those
days will I pour out my spirit " (Joel iii. 2 [A. V. ii.
29J). And in the Messianic time the nations shall be
subject to Israel ; as it is written in Isa. Ixi. 5, "And
strangers shall stand and feed your flocks." ''And
I had sei-vantsborn [companions] in myliouse,''^ — that
is the Holy Ghost. ''Also 1 had great jwssessions of
great and small cattle," — those are the sacrifices; as
it is written, "From the cattle and sheep ye shall
sacrifice " (Lev. i. 3, Hebr.). " I gathered me also sil-
ver and gold," — those are the words of the Torah ; as
it is written, " More to be desired are they than gold "
(Ps. xix. 11). " And the peculiar treasure of kings" ;
as it is written, "By me kings reign" (Prov. viii.
15). niJnrDni is to be read pj^^D ["disputers"],
— those are the scholars who dispute in the Ilalakah.
"7 gat me rillK^I D^ICJ'" — those are the toseftas.
" And the delights, " — those are the haggadot, which
are the delights of Scripture.'

" R. Joshua b. Levi interpreted the passage as re-
ferring to Israel o'n its entry into the country: ' " 1
made me great loorks," — " When ye be come into the
land of your habitations . . . and will make a burnt
offering . . . unto the Lord" (Num. xv. 2, 3). "/
builded me houses," — "and houses full of all good
things" (Deut. vi. 11). "1 p)lanted me vineyards,"
— " vineyards and olive-trees which thou plantedst
not" {ib.y

"Hadrian the Accursed said to R. Joshua b.
Hanauiah : ' The Torah says : " A land wherein thou
shalt eat bread without scarceness, thou shalt not
lack anything in it" {ih. viii. 9). Can yon bring
me three things that I ask for? ' ' What are they ? '
'Pepper, pheasants [(j)natav6c], and silk [//frafa].'
He brought pepper from Nizhanah, pheasants from
Zaidan [Sidon], or, as another says, from 'Akberi,
aud silk from Gush Halab.

" R. Levi said: ' " To water thereinth the wood that
bringeth forth trees." The land of Israel did not
even lack cane for arrows. "1 got me servants and
maidens," — "And a mixed multitude" (Ex. xii. 38).
"And had servants born in my house," — those are the
Gibeonites, whom Joshua turned into hewers of wood
and drawers of water (Josh. ix. 27). " I (dso had
great possessions of great and small cattle," — "a very
great multitude of cattle" (Num. xxxii. 1). "/
gathered me also silver and gold"; as it is written,
"He brought them forth also with silver and gold "
(Ps. cv. 37). "And the peculiar treasure of kings
and of the provinces,"— t\vA.t is the booty of Og and
Midian. ' "

The Midrash Xohelet published by Solomon Bu-
ber in the Midrash Zuta in 1894 is different from
the work discussed here. It is probaljly merely an

extract with some additions. It is noteworthy that
the author of the Yalkut knew only this midrash
to Ecclesiastes, but in a more complete form than it
is found in the printed edition.

Bibliography : Zunz, G. V. 1st ed., p. 265 ; Theodor, In
MonaU^chrift, 18.S0, pp. 185 et seq.; Muller, Masisehct So-
fcrini, p. 221 ; Weiss, Dor, iii. 274, iv. 209 : Grunhut,
Kritificlic Untcrftuchunyen des Midrash Knhelet, v.;
Winter and Wiinsche, JUdische Litteratur, i. '570 et neq.;
German transl. of Midraiich Kohelet by Aug. Wiinsche, Leip-

■ sic, 1880. For editions and commentaries see Berkshit Rab-
bah ; Ekah (Lamentations) Rabbati.
s. s. J. T.

KOHEN (KOHANIM). See Cohen.

KOHEN ZEDEK, ABRAHAM. See Abra-
ham BEN Elijah ha-Kohen.

KOHEN ZEDEK, JOSEPH. See Zedek,
Joseph Kohen.

KOHEN ZEDEK II. KAHANA BEN JO-
SEPH : Gaon of Pumbedita from 917 to 935. Im-
mediately after his appointment he took measures
to change the existing system in the division of the
revenues between the two schools of Sura and Pum-
bedita. Hitherto Sura had taken two-thirds, and
Pumbedita one-third, of the total revenue. Kohen
Zedek opposed this division on the ground that
Pumbedita was at that time the more prominent
and had the greater number of pupils, and was,
therefore, under heavier expense than Sura. The
controversy resulted in favor of Kohen Zedek, it
being decided that an equal division of the income
should thenceforth be made between the two schools.

Kohen Zedek succeeded also in protecting the in-
terests of Pumbedita against the schemes of the ex-
ilarch Mar 'Ukba. It had been the custom to assign
the income from Chorazan to Pumbedita, which
was bound, in return, to provide tlie Jewish com-
munities of that province with officers. Mar 'Ukba,
already unpopular, attempted to secure possession of
these revenues for himself, but the attempt cost him
his position. Kohen Zedek's influential friends, Ne-
tira, his sons, and Joseph ben Phineas his son-in-law
(see on them A. Harkavy in the "Berliner Fest-
schrift," pp. Si et seq.), induced the court of Bag-
dad to banish Mar 'UkbatoKermanshah. His poetic
talents, however, won him a renewal of the favor of
the calif, but the strong opposition to him brought
about his second banishment.

When the post of exilarch had been vacant five
5'ears, and the question of Mar 'Ukba's successor
began to be considered, the appointment of his
nephew, David b. Zakkai, proved generally accept-
able. But although the whole college of Sura ac-
knowledged him as exilarch, Kohen Zedek refused
to recognize him, on the ground that he was a rela-
tive of Mar 'Ukba. David b. Zakkai then declared
Kohen Zedek's position vacant, and appointed Me-
basser b. Kimoi as gaon in liis place (918). Only
part of the college of Pumbedita remained faithful
to their old head, the rest going over to Mebasser.
The tedious struggle between David b. Zakkai and
Kohen Zedek was finally settled by the blind Nissim
Naluirwani; he Avent to tiie latter late at night and
persuaded him to become reconciled to the exilarch,
who then recognized him as lawful gaon.

Such is the account of Kohen Zedek's life as given
by Nathan ha-Babli (in the Ahimaaz Chronicle, in

533

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ig^ohelet Habbah
Kobu, Abraham

"Med. Jew. Cliron." ii.), wliicli is followed by Griltz
and AVeiss. The letter of Sherira Gaon, on tlie other
hand, wJiich is followed by Abraham ibn Daud (" M.
J. C." i. 40, 66), makes Kohen Zedek's public-
career much shorter, and contradicts in many re-
spects the accounts of the other authorities. She-
rira's version begins with the election of Mebasser
to the gaonate. After the death of Yehudai bar
Samuel, gaon of Punibedita (917), the college se-
lected Mebasser ben Ivimoi as his successor (918).
The exilarch David ben Zakkai, however, refused to
recognize him and chose Kohen Zedek as gaon in
opposition to him. A struggle naturally ensued
between David b, Zakkai and Mebasser and his
pupils, ending finally in the reconciliation of the
exilarch and the gaon (922). After the death of
Mebasser (926) his pupils went over to Kohen Zedek,
who thenceforth until his death in 935 was sole
and acknowledged gaon. The fact that Kohen Zedek
was not independent, as Nathan ha-Babli seems to
suggest, and that his importance depended on David
b. Zakkai 's favor, agrees with the fact that in the
controversy of the exilarch with Saadia over a case
of inheritance, Kohen Zedek unhesitatingly sub-
scribed to David b. Zakkai's decision, while Saadia
refused to do so. According to J. Halevy, whose
statements are made on the authority of Sherira's let-
ter, the disputewithMar 'Ukba concerningthe income
from Chorazan, of which Nathan ha-Babli speaks,
Avas not between 'Ukba and this Kohen Zedek of
Pumbedita, but involved an earlier gaon of Sura,
Kohen Zedek b. Abimai (845). No responsa from
Kohen Zedek Kahana b. Joseph have been preserved.

Bibliography : Gratz, Gei^ch. v. 246 et scq., 276, 391 et aeq.: J.
Halevy, Dorot lia-Rishonim, Hi. 25 et seq.\ Weiss, Dor,
Iv. 134 et xeq., 157. 1.59; compare also the direct contradiction
In Jew. Encyc. v. 290b and 569a,
s. s. M. Sc.

KOHLER, KAUFMANN : Rabbi and theolo-
gian; born in Fliitli, Bavaria, May 10, 1843; a de-
scendant of a family of rabbis. He received his
rabbinical training at Hassfurt, Hochberg near
"VViirzburg, Mayence, Altona, and at Frankfort-on-
the-Maiu (under Samson Raphael Hirscli), and his
university training at Munich, Berlin, Leipsic, and
Erlangen (Ph.D. 1868; his thesis, "Der Segen Ja-
cob's," was one of the earliest Jewish essays in the
field of the higher Biblical criticism, and its radical
character had the effect of closing to him the Jewish
pulpit in Germany). Abraham Geiger, to who.se
"Zeitschrift " Kohler became a contributor at an
early age, strongly influenced his career and directed
his steps to America. In 1869 he accepted a call to
the pulpit of the Beth-El congregation in Detroit;
in 1871 he became rabbi of the Sinai congregation
in Chicago. In 1879 he succeeded his father-in-law,
David EiNiiouN, as rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New
York city; his brother-in-law, Einil G. Hirscli, be-
coming his successor in Chicago. Feb. 26, 1903, he
was elected to the presidency of Hebrew Union Col-
lege, Cincinnati.

From the time of his arrival in America, Kohler
actively espou.sed the cause of Reform Judaism ; he
was one of the youngest members of the Philadel-
phia Jewish Rabbinical Conference of 1869, and in
1885 he convened the Pittsburg Rabbinical Confer-
ence, which adopted the so-called "Pittsburg Plat-

form," on whicli Reform Judaism in America stands.
While in Chicago lie introduced Sunday lectures
as supplementary to the regular Sabbath service.
Kohler served for many years as president of the
New York Board of Ministers, and is at present hon-
orary president of the Central Conference of Ameri-
can Rabbis. He was editor-in-chief of the " Sabbath
Visitor," a Jewish weekly for the young, from 1881
to 1882, and of "The Jewish Reformer," a weekly
devoted to the interests of Reform Judaism, in 1886.
He has for a numlier of years been deeply interested
in the "Jewi.sh Chautauqua" movement. Shortly
before his departure from New York in 1903 he de-
livered a series of six lectures at the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminar}^ on "Apocryphal Literature."

Kohler has been always an active and prolific
contributor to the Jewish and Semitic scientific
press, European and American; among the period-
icals to which he has most frequently contributed
scientific articles are Geiger's" Zeitschrift," the jour-
nal of the German Oriental Society, "Hebraica,"
the "Jewish Quarterly Review," the "Allgemeine
Zeitung des Judenthums," the "Jewish Times," the
"American Hebrew," "Menorah Monthly," "Zeit-
geist, "and "Unity." Among his published scientific
studies and lectures are: "On Capital Punishment"
(1869); "The Song of Songs" (1877); "Backwards
or Forwards," a series of lectures on Reform Judaism
(1885); "Ethical Basis of Judaism "(1887); "Church
and Synagogue in Their Mutual Relations" (1889);
" A Guide to Instruction in Judaism " (1899). He also
edited the German collected writings of David Ein-
horn (1880).

Bibliography: TFTio's Who in America, 1904; Markens,
Tlic Hehreics in A »i erica, pp. 238-239: American Jewish
Year Book, 6664; The American Hebrew, Sept. 18, 1891;
Leon Hiiliner, in The Jewish Exponent, March 13, 1903.

A.
KOHLEB, MAX J. : American lawyer ; born
at Detroit, Mich., May 22, 1871; son of Kaufmann
Kohler; educated at the College of the City of
New York (B.S. 1890) and at Columbia Law School
(M.A. 1891, and LL.B. 1893). From 1894 to 1898
he was assistant United States district attorney in
New York city, and, though a Democrat, Avas ap-
pointed special United States district attorney by the
Republican administration in 1898, a position which
he held for a year. He was admitted to practise
before the Supreme Court of the United States in
1902.

Kohler is occasional lecturer to the Y. M. H. A.
of Philadelphia and the Jewish Chautauqua Society,
and is a frequent contributor to the Jewish press.
He edited Charles P. Daly's "Settlement of the Jews
in North America" (New York, 1893), and is the
author of "Rebecca Franks: an American Jewish
Belle of the Last Century " (ib. 1894), of a pamphlet
on Chinese exclusion legislation, and of the chapter
entitled "Jews and Judaism in America" in Ilalli-
day and Gregory's "The Church in America and lis
Bajitism of Fire" (ib. 1896). He has contributed also
to the pul)lications of the American Jewish Histor-
ical Society, of which he is a secretary.

KOHN, ABRAHAM: Austrian rabbi; born
Jan. 1, 1807, at Zaluzaii, Bohemia; died at Lem-
berg, Galicia, Sept. 7, 1848. In 1828 he entered the

Kohn, David
Kohn, Solomon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

634

University of Prague, where he applied liimself to
philosophy, while devoting his spare time to rab-
binical studies. In July, 1833, he was called as
rabbi to Hohenems, Vorarlberg, where he remained
for eleven years. Besides organizing various char-
itable societies, he greatly improved the educational
facilities for the young, and introduced many whole-
some reforms into the public service. In May, 1844,
he accepted the rabbinate of Lemberg. Here in a
comparatively short time he opened a well-equipped
" Normalschule" of which he was the superintendent,
dedicated a new temple, abolished many old abuses,
and did not rest until the degrading tax on kasher
meat and Sabbath candles, imposed upon-the Jewish
community by the government, was removed.

But while the better element rallied about him,
the enemies of culture and progress were actively
engaged in embittering his life and in undermining
his growing popularity. Impelled by unbounded
fanaticism, and encouraged by the lawless condi-
tions prevailing in 1848, they finally concocted a
plan to take Kohn's life. On Sept. 6, 1848, a man,
hired by the fanatical clique, entered Kohn's kitchen
and poisoned the dinner. While the other members
of his family recovered, Kohn and his youngest
child died the following day. A wearisome trial en-
sued ; but for some unknown reasons it was sup-
pressed.

Kohn contributed articles on various subjects
{e.g., on Jewish mourning customs and on music for
the holy days) to Geiger's " Wiss. Zeit. Jud. Theol."
iii. and iv.

Bibliography: AUg. Zeit. des Jud. 1849, pp. 213 et seq.;
Kobak's Jeschurun, i.; Jakob Kohn, Lehen und Wii-heii
Ahraham Kofuis, Lember?, 1855; Scbreiher, Reformed
J^u1aism and Its Pioneers, pp. 164 et seq., Spokane Falls,
Wash., 1892; Gotthilf Kohn, Ahraham Kohn im Lichte
der Geschichtsforschung, Zamarstynow, 1898.
8. A. Gu.

KOHN (KAHANA), DAVID : Russian arche-
ologist and Hebrew writer; born at Odessa in 1838.
He received a rabbinic education; but at the age of
fourteen he took up the study of medieval litera-
ture and modern languages, and soon afterward, his-
tory and archeology. Of his early essays those on
fossil animals ("Ha-Meliz," 1866), on the life of
Rabbi Solomon Bennet {ib. 1868), and on the Mes-
sianic movement and the origin of Hasidism ("Ha-
Shahar," 1873-75) may be especially mentioned.
Lately he has contributed to "Ha-Shiloah."

Kolm was editor of the Ahiasaf edition of Abra-
ham ibn Ezra's " Diwan " (1894), as well as of Jacob
Emden's curious autobiography and various other
important works. He was also the first to attack
Graetz's criticism of the Biblical text, and to defend
the Masorah. Besides the works already mentioned,
he has published: "Mchkere Kohelet ben Dawid "
(Wilna, 1880), a historico-critical introduction to the
Book of Ecclesiastes; "Masoret Seyag le-Mikra," in
defense of the Masorah against the liypercriticism
of modern exegetes (1880); "Or we-Hoshek" (Ya-
roslav, 1887).

Bibliography : Ahiasaf, 1894; Slouschz, La Renaissance de
la Litterature Hebra/ique, p. 190.
ir. R. N. Sl.

KOHN (PAP), DAVID: Hungarian political
economist; born Dec. 2, 1868, at Csecse, Hungary;

studied law in Budapest. In 1890 he attracted gen-
eral attention by his essay "Gabona Hataridolizlet,"
on buying grain on margin, which was crowned by
the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. In 1893 he
was elected member of the academy's commission of
political economy. In 1896 he Magyarized his name,
changing it to " Pap. "

Kohn's works include: "Az Olasz Valuta T5r-
tenete" (1893), on the history of the Italian Valuta;
"Adok Reformjarol" (1894), on tax reform (both of
these works were crowned by the Hungarian Acad-
emy); "A Telepites Kerdese" (1896); "Kvota,
Vamsz5vetseg Bank" (1897); "A Magyar Agrar-
mozgalom " (1897) ; " Az Allami Zarszamadas Joga "
(1897).

Bibliography: Pallas Lex. x., xvlii.

L. V.

KOHN, GABRIEL BEN REUBEN IS-
RAEL : Hungarian Talmudist; born at Vagujhely
about 1765; died at Rechnitz Dec. 29, 1850, where
he became rabbi in 1822. The family adopted the
name of Engelsmann. Kohn was strictly Ortho-
dox, and opposed to the slightest change of ritual
usage, as, for instance, the removal of the alme-
mar from the center of the synagogue (" Allg. Zeit.
des Jud." 1847, pp. 545, 657). He wrote: " 'Ene
Yisrael," in two parts: (1) "Me'or 'Enayim"
(Vienna, 1822), annotations to Baba Batra and She-
bu'ot; and (2) "Pene Moshe" {ib. 1825), to Hullin;
"Derashot Gabri " (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1826), in
two parts: («) thirty-two derashot; and {b) "Teshu-
bot Gabri," thirty-seven responsa ; "Geburot
Adonai " (Krotoschin, 1835), a commentary on the
Passover Ilaggadah, with a German translation.
Among his disciples was Abraham Placzek, acting
" Landesrabbiner " of Moravia.

Bibliography: Benjacob, O^ar ha-Sefarim, pp. 92,121,440!
Furst, BihL Jud. i. 313; Steinschnelder, Cat. Bodl. col. 996".
Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. 3Ius. p. 263.

D. S. Man.

KOHN, JAKOB : Austrian jurist; born Dec. 24,
1847, in Papa, Hungary ; died at Vienna Jan. 20,
1902. He studied jurisprudence at the University
of Vienna, and entered the service of the govern-
ment in 1872. On Sept. 7, 1894, Kohn was ap-
pointed " Landesgerichtsrath " at the Vienna Landes-
gericht for civil cases, and he held the office until
his death. Kohn was the first JcM'ish "Ratlis-
sekretar " and " Landesgerichtsrath " in Austria. He
assisted in founding the Oesterreich-Israelitische
Union, the first Jewish political society in Vienna,
and was for fourteen years its vice-president.

s. L. Y.

KOHN, JOEL BEER: Russian writer; born
at Volozhin 1816 ; died in Wilna Nov. 17, 1871. He
translated Fenelon's " Les Aventures de Telemaque "
into Hebrew, under the title " Kebod Elohim "
(books i., ii., Konigsberg, 1851; books iii.-xxi.,
Wilna, 1853) ; wrote a biography of ^sop and trans-
lated some of his fables into Hebrew under the title
"Ilayye Asaf" (Warsaw, 1858); and composed a
double commentary on Yalkut (Wilna, 1864).

Bibliography : Zeitlin, Kiriiat Sefer, p. 177; Ben.iacob, Ozar
lia-Sefarim, pp. 180, 2;jtj; Zedner, Cat. Hcbr. Books Brit.
Mils. p. (567.

II. K. M. So.

535

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kohn, David
Kohn, Solomon

KOHN, MAIER: Hazzan in Munich, Bavaria;
born toward the close of the eighteentli c-eutury.
He was the predecessor of Solomon Naumbourg,
afterward chief cantor of Paris. Kohn has the dis-
tinction of having been the first in Germany to abolish
the irregular singing of hazzan and the "meshor-
rerim " (male choir) and to substitute therefor a more
modern musical service. Numerous traditional chants
collected and harmonized by him were published to-
gether with compositions of non-Jewish composers
under the title "Miinchner Synagogengesange "
(1839). They had become popular in Bavaria long
before their publication. The music was printed
from right to left in order to enable the author to
supply the texts in the original Hebrew characters.

Bibliography : I. Singer, Ueber Entwicklung des Synago-
gengesanges.
s. A. Kai.

KOHN, MESHULLAM SOLOMON. See

CoHN, Meshullam Solomon.

KOHN, SAMUEL : Hungarian rabbi and au-
thor; born at Baja, Hungary, Sept. 21, 1841 ; grand-
son of the rabbi of that place, Gotz Schwerin Kohn ;
educated at the gymnasium in his native city, and
at the Jewish theological seminary and the Univer-
sity of Breslau. In 1866 he was called as rabbi
to Budapest, where he was the first to introduce
sermons in the Hungarian language. He was one
of the founders and for a long time president of
the Hungarian Literary Society. Since 1898 Kohn
has lectured on homiletics in the rabbinical school
at Budapest.

Kohn is a prolific writer. His published works
include: "Der Prophet Elijah in der Legende,"
Breslau, 1863 ; " De Pentateucho Samaritano E j usque
cum Versionibus Antiquis Nexu," Leipsic, I860;
" Samaritanische Studien: Beitrage zur Samari-
tanischen Pentateuch -Uebersetzung und Lexico-
graphic," Breslau, 1868; "Wie Haben Wir Unsere
Emancipation Aufzufassen? " Pest, 1868; "Zsina-
gogai Szonoklatok," a collection of Hungarian ser-
mons, Budapest, 1875; "Zur Sprache, Literatur,
und Dogmatik der Samaritaner," Leipsic, 1875;
"Die Hebraischen Handschriften des Ungarischen
National-Museums zu Budapest " (Hungarian and
German), Budapest, 1877; "Mordechai ben Hillel,
Sein Leben, und Seine Schriften, Nebst 6 Bisher
Unedirten Hebraischen Beilagen " (reprinted from
"Monatsschrift"), Breslau, 1878; "Heber Kutfor-
rdsok es Adatok Magyarorszag Tortenelmehez," on
Hebrew sources and data of Hungarian history,
Budapest, 1881; " A Zsidok Tortenete Magyarorsza-
gon," first part of a history of the Jews in Hungary,
ib. 1884; "A Szombatosok, Tortenetlik, Dogmatik-
ajuk es Irodalmuk," on the history, dogmatics, and
literature of the Sabbatarians, in Hungarian, ib.
1889; in German, Leipsic, 1894; "Kohn Schwerin
Gotz Bajai es I^acsmegyei FiJrabbi Eiete es Korrajz,"
on the life and times of Gotz ScliAverin Kohn, Buda-
pest, 1899.

Kohn edited with M. Kayserling " Die Ungarisch-
Jlulische Wochenschrift," ib. 1871 ; he also wrote the
articles on the Jews, their history and literature, in
the Hungarian encyclopedia " Pallas." He has been
a frequent contributor to the leading Hebrew, Ger-
man, and Hungarian periodicals, and has also pub-

lished various addresses delivered on special occa-
sions, among them being: " GedHchtuisrede auf
Dr. W. A. Meisel," ib. 1868; "Kede bei Enthlillung
des Meisel-Denkmals," ib. 1868; "Was Haben die
Jilngsten Vorgilnge Innerhalb der Ungarischen
Judenheit zu Bedeuten?" ib. 1870; "Die Beiden
Gotteswcge, Gedachtnisrede auf Dr. Z. Frankel,"
1^.1875; funeral orations (in Hungarian) of Franz
Deak, ib. 1876, and Cremieux, ib. 1880.
Bibliography : PalUut Lex.

8. M. K.

KOHN, SAMUEL : Russian physician ; born at
Zhagory, government of* Kovno, Feb. 11, 1865.
After he had studied Talmud under private tutors,
Kohn attended the gymnasium at Libau, Courland,
and was graduated from the University of Dorpat
as doctor of medicine. Kohn has contributed to
"Ha-Meliz " many articles on medical subjects. In
1902 he published in "Ha-Meassef," a supplement
to "Ha-Meliz," an article entitled "Ha-Rofe," on
the physician in the written and oral law. He
wrote, besides, a work entitled "Ot Berit" (Cracow,
1903), on the history of circumcision from Abraham
to the present time. This is the first work of its
kind in Hebrew having a scientific value and in
which circumcision is treated at length.

Kohn is now (1904) practising as a physician at
Velizh, government of Vitebsk.

H. R. B. El.

KOHN, SOLOMON: Austrian ghetto poet;
born March 8, 1825, at Prague. He studied philos-
ophy and mathematics at the university in that city
(1844r-46), and then entered into business with his
father, who was a wool-merchant. His first story,
entitled "Gabriel," appeared over the initials "S.
K." in 1852 in "Sippurim." Although full of exag-
geration and improbabilities, the strong color and
passionate movement of the narrative, and the rarity
of Jewish stories at the time, caused it to be trans-
lated in the Jewish papers of many lands. An
English translation, which appeared in the Tauch-
nitz series, made the author's name known in
England and America ; a second edition in German
(2 vols.) was published at Jena in 1875. Thus it
came about that Kohn was introduced into the liter-
ary world as "the author of ' Gabriel,' " although
his later works are better and more Jewish. It is a
curious fact that " Gabriel " was read in Germany
mostly in its English garb without the name of the
author becoming known. Kohn secured his copy-
right twenty years after the first publication of his
work. His ghetto stories have alwaj's been the
best and most truthfully drawn of all his works;
these have appeared in periodicals (f.<7., in the " Isra-
elit," Mayence) and as independent books. The
following of his stories may be mentioned: "Dich-
terhonorar " ; " Der Better " ; " Bilder aus dem Alten
Prager Ghetto " ; " Die Starken " ; and the longer
romances, "Ein Spiegel der Gegenwart," 3 vols.,
Jena, 1875; "Die Silberne Hochzeit." Leipsic, 1882;
"Prager Ghettobilder,"?'*. 1884; "Neue Ghettobil-
der," ib. 1886; "Des Stadt-Schrcibers Gast," 1886:
"GeretteteEhre,"zV^ 1886; "Ein Deutscher Minister,"
ib. 1890; " DerLebensretter und Andere Erzalilung-
en," Berlin, 1893; " Fiirstengunst," ?6. 1894; "Ein
Deutscher Kaufmann," his chief work, Zurich, 1894.

Hohn, Tobias
Kohut, Alexander

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

536

Though his mercantile career was only tempo-
rarily successful, Kohn is personally respected and
recognized as a literary power. For more than forty
years he has been chosen to serve on the presiding
board of the Prague congregation.

The aged poet still publishes short stories, one of
the latest of which is " Josef Singer," in the " Union "
calendar, Vienna, 1903.

Bibliography: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.

s. A. Ki.

KOHN, TOBIAS : American merchant and silk-
manufacturer; born at Prague, Bohemia; died at
Hartford, Conn., 1898. He emigrated to America
as a result of the revolution of 1848-49. Kohn was
a manufacturer of silk braid, and he took part of
his machinery with him. He first settled in New
York, but removed to Hartford, Conn., and by the
year 1858 had established a good business there.
He soon occupied an entire block (which came to be
known as the "Kohn block") with his braid-works,
and during all this time was experimenting con-
stantly with silk-weaving, then an absolute novelty
in the United States. In 1859 he wove the first piece
of silk goods produced by a loom in that country.

Kohn devised machinery and methods of his own,
whicli at first he did not protect ; but between 1865
and 1868 he took out several patents, and his suc-
cess had great influence in establishing the silk-in-
dustry in Paterson, N. J., where some of his in-
ventions were used. Fainilj' misfortunes afterward
depleted his fortune and saddened his later life.

A. D. Ba.

KOHNE, KARL : German jurist and economist ;
born at Danzig March 21, 1863. Since 1902 he has
been privat-docent in commercial and technical
law at the technical high school at Charlottenburg,
near Berlin. He is the author of: " Geschlechtsver-
bindungen der Unfreien nach Frankischem Recht,"
Breslau, 1888; "Der Ursprung der Stadtverfassung
in Worms, Speyer und Mainz," ib. 1890; "Das
Hansgrafenamt : Ein Beitrag zur Gesch. der Kauf-
mannsgenossenschaften uud der Behordenorganisa-
tion," Berlin, 1893; "Die Arbcitsordnuug vom
Standpunkte der Vergleichendeu Rechtswisseu-
schaft," Stuttgart, 1901; "Die Arbeitsordnungcn
im Deutschen Gewerbereclit," Berlin, 1901 ; " Das
Recht der Miihle bis zumEnde der Karolingerzeit,"
1904. Together with Richard Scliroder, he edited
the first part of the " Oberrheinische Stadtrechte."

s. L. La.

KOHNER, MORITZ : Founder of the Deutsch-
Israelitische Gemeindebimd ; born at Neuern, Bo-
hemia, April 4, 1818 ; died March 21, 1877. Destined
for a mercantile career, he entered the business house
of Samson D. Fleischl of Leipsic, with which he re-
mained until he established a business of his own.
In 1868 he was elected president of the Jewish com-
munity, and in 1874 he took liis seat in the municipal
council, being the first Jew to enter that body.

Kohner's interest in Judaism induced him to found

in 1869 the Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeindebund,

which he directed as president until his death.

BIBI.IOGRAPHV: AUrj. Zrit. dcs Ji/f?. xli. 240 ; Mitthcilunricn
V'l/n Deuttich-l»raelUi)ichen Qemeindebund, No. 4, pp. 7
ct SCQ.

s. M. K.

KOHUT, ADOLPH: German writer; born
Nov. 10, 1848, at Mindszent, Hungary; brother of
Alexander Kohut. For three years he attended the
Jewish Theological Seminary in Breslau. He then
studied philosophy, literature, and Oriental lan-
guages at the university in that city, and obtained
his Ph.D. degree at Jena in 1877. Meanwhile he
was active in journalistic work, becoming the ed-
itor successively of the "Berliner Zeitung," the
"Breslauer Nachrichten," the " Dtisseldorfer Zei-
tung," the " Schleswig - Holsteinische Tageblatt"
(Kiel), the "Tribun" (Berlin), the " Orchester, " the
"Siegfried," and the "Kieler Nachrichten."

In Diisseldorf and Dresden he was appointed mu-
sical and dramatic critic of the two leading dailies.
He published a "History of the Dresdener Hof-
theater" as well as a long series of biographical
monographs, on Rossini, Meyerbeer, Auber, Rubin-
stein, Weber, and others. Several of the monographs
were issued by the publishers Reclam of Leipsic,
in their Universalbibliothek. In addition to these,
he published many volumes on musical and dramatic
criticism. He edited a volume of Weber's unpub-
lished letters; wrote the standard biography of the
poet Theodor Korner (now used as a text-book in
many of the German high schools) ; issued several
volumes of biography dealing with princes and
statesmen, notably on Bismarck and Emperor Will-
iam I. ; and published several volumes of transla-
tions from the Hungarian, especially the works of
the Hungarian national poet Alexander Petofv. He
published also critical editions of a number of Ger-
man classics.

While editor of the "Berliner Zeitung," his atti-
tude toward Bismarck and the government was so
aggressively antagonistic that on Sept. 13, 1884, he
was expelled from Prussia, remaining in compara-
tive obscurity in Dresden until his pardon was
granted in 1889. Emperor Francis Joseph conferred
upon him the Cross of Merit, with the Crown, for
his services to Hungarian literature, and in 1892
made him Knight of the Order of Francis Joseph.
Kohut was recently elected a member of the Acad-
emy of Sciences in Budapest, and for many years
was president of the German-Hungarian Society in
Berlin.

Besides publishing more than 200 books and mon-
ographs, Kohut has been a frequent contributor to
the literary periodicals of Germany, Hungary, and
America. Of his works of Jewish interest may be
mentioned the following: "Alexander von Hum-
boldt und das Judenthum," Leipsic, 1871; "Die
Goldenen Worte der Bibel," 2^. 1873; "Was Lehrt
die Bibel liber den Gehorsam Gegen Staat und Obrig-
keit?" Diisseldorf, 1875; "Aus Meiner Rheinland-
ischen Mappe," ib. (containing many pages on
Heine); "Heinrich Heine uud die Frauen," ib. ;
"Moses Mendelssohn und Seine Familie," Dresden,
1886; several volumes on Ferdinand Lassalle;
"Gesch. der Deutschen Juden," Berlin, 1898; "Be-
rliiimte Israclitische Manner und Frauen," 2 vols.,
Leipsic, Reudnitz, 1900-1. The two last-named
works comprise about 1,750 pages, and contain a
vast amount of historical and biographical material,
somewhat unsystematically put together and not
always reliable, but, nevertheless, valuable. They

537

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kohn, Tobias
Kohut, Alexander

are of particular interest because of the great num-
ber of photographs and other illustrative matter,
brought together for the first time, from sources
either unknown or not readily accessible.

His wife, Elizabeth Kohut Mannstein, is a
noted singer, and was for many years " Hofopern-
siingerin " in Dresden. His son, Oswald Kohut,
is an author and journalist.

Bibliography: M. Reines, Dor Dor rce-Hakamaw, p. 99,
Cracow, 1890; Das Gcistige Berliti, p. 250.
s. G. A. K.

KOHUT, ALEXANDER (known in Hebrew
literature as p^m): Kabbi and Orientalist; born
April 22, 1842, at Felegyhaza, Hungary ; died May
25, 1894, in Xew York. He belonged to a family
of rabbis, the most noted among tliem being R.
Israel Palota (ICI^ND), his great-grandfather, R.
Amram (called" The Gaon," died in Safed, Palestine,
where he had spent the last years of his life), and
R. Hayyim Kitssee (nyV^"?), rabbi in Erza, who was
his great-granduncle. The last-named was the au-
thor of several rabbinic works (Reines, "Dor Dor
we-Hakamaw," p. 94, note).

Kohut's father, Jacob Kohut, was a great lin-
guist, and was well versed in rabbinic literature.
He was so poor that he could not afford to send his
son to the village school. There being no Hebrew
school ("heder") in his native town, Alexander
reached his eighth year Avithout having learned even
tlie rudiments of Hebrew or Hungarian. At a very
tender age, while selling his mother's tarts in the
market-place, be was kidnaped by Gipsies, because
of his extraordinary beauty. His
Early family soon removed to Kecskemet,
Training', where Kohut received his first instruc-
tion. He attended the gymnasium and
at the same time studied Talmud with an old scholar,
Reb Gershom Lovinger. In his fifteenth year,
while trying to decipher some foreign words in the
Talmud with the aid of Landau's Dictionary, he
conceived the plan of writing a complete lexicon of
the Talmud, not having found the etymology of
many words in Landau (see the autobiographical
sketch of Kohut in the "American Hebrew^" 1890;
and in Reines, I.e. p. 96).

After finishing the gymnasium course in Kecske-
met, he removed to Budapest. Anxious to continue
his rabbinical studies, he went to Breslau. In 1865
he received a call to the rabbinate of Tarnowitz,
Upper Silesia. He then spent another j-ear in Bres-
lau, devoting his time to Oriental philology and
Semitics. During the previous year he received his
Ph.D. degree from the University of Leipsic, his dis-
sertation being "Ueber die Jlidische Angelogie und
Dacmonologie in Hirer Abhiingigkeit vom Parsis-
mus." The essay was published by the "Deutsche
]\[orgenlilndische Gesellschaft " in 1866, it being the
first Jewish work issued under the auspices of that
society. He obtained his rabbinical diploma in 1867.
It was in 1864 that he betran to collect materials for
a critical edition of the " 'Aruk''of Nathan ben Je-
hiel. In 1867 he was called to the rabbinate of Stuhl-
weisscnburg, Hungary. Baron Joseph von Eotvos,
tlie famous Hungarian poet and novelist, and after-
ward "Cultusminister," appointed him .superintend-
ent of all the schook in the countv, this being the

first time that such a position had been tendered to a
Jew. The Congress of Jewish notables held in Buda-
pest in 1868 appointed Kohut its secretary. Notable
among his literary labors falling in this period is his
study entitled "Etwas fiber die Moral und Abfas-
sungszeit des Buches Tobias," originally published
in Geiger's " Jiid. Zeit." vol. x., several monographs
in the "Z. D. M. G." which developed his original
thesis concerning Persian influence on Judaism, and
his " Kritische Beleuchtung der Persischen Penta-
teuch-Uebersetzung des Jakob ben Joseph Tavus "
(Leipsic, 1871). Among his literary remains are to be
found materials for a critical edition of the Persian
text of this version. In 1872 he was elected chief
rabbi of Fiinfkirchen, Hungar}^ remaining there
eight years. B3' this time his reputation as a Hun-
garian orator had spread so far that many noted
statesmen and church dignitaries came to hear him
from distant towns.

About 1873 Kohut began to compile bis Diction-

arj- of the Talmud, entirely in German, encouraged

by the promise of a Christian nobleman to bear all

costs of publication. He had proceeded as far as the

third letter of the alphabet when he

Talmud found that the work was assuming
Dictionary, such gigantic proportions as to pre-
clude the possibility of its being con-
fined within the projected limits. Arduous as the
merely mechanical labor of copying the manuscript
was, he rewrote what he had written, intending to
publish the original text of the old "'Aruk," with a
German commentary. On the advice of Zunz and
Buber, however, who argued that the "'Aruk," be-
iug a national classic, ought to be compiled in He-
brew throughout, he again rewrote the work in that
language, the labor of copying occupying two more
years. It is this trait of untiring patience, which
scorned all obstacles, that made the publication of
vol. i., in 1878, possible. His ]\Iaecenas, in the mean-
time, had died, and Kohut was left to bear the bur-
den of expense alone, save for the subvention of the
Academy of Sciences in Vienna and of the Cultus-
ministerium in Berlin. He called his work " Aruch
Completum" or "'Aruk ha-Shalem," and its pro-
duction occupied twenty-five years of his life. The
first four volumes were printed during his residence
in Hungary, and the last four during his sojourn in
America, covering a period of fourteen years
(Vienna, 1878-92); the supplement appearing from
a New York press; and the whole work aggregating
more than 4,000 double-column pages. Seven man-
uscripts of the " 'Aruk " were used by the editor in
determining the etymology of the words, and count-
less doubtful and corrupted passages in the Talmud
were thus corrected and restored. Kohut identified
in an elaborate special study (printed in the supple-
ment) the often unacknowledged sources of Nathan
ben Jehiel's information, though everywhere defend-
ing him against the charge of plagiarism. The
" "Aruk " has been justly characterized as one of the
monuments of Hebrew literature.

In 1880 Kohut was called to Grosswardein, Hun-
gary, where he remained until 1884. "While tlieie
he published (1881) "A Szidok Tortenete, a Bibliu
Befejezesctdl a Jelenkorig " (introduced into many
schools in Hungary as a text book), and translated

Kohut, Alexander
Kol Nidre

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

538

the entire Bible into Hunj?arian. Part of the manu-
script was, however, lost, and the work never ap-
peared in print. At Grosswardein he became ac-
quainted with Koloman von Tisza, prime minister
of Hungary, wiio, hearing him speak at a national
gathering of notables, was so carried away by his
eloquence that he caused him to be called to the
Hungarian parliament as representative of the
Jews.

In 1885 Kohut was elected rabbi of Congregation
Ahavath Chesed in New York. His arrival in the
United States was the signal for rallying the con-
servative forces of American Jewry ; and it was not
long before he was bitterly assailed by the radical
wing. A series of lectures on " Ethics of the Fathers, "
only the first part of which was printed in book form
(New York, 1885), clearly set forth his conservatism;
and so marked was this attitude and the influence it
had upon the public mind that the leaders of Reform
felt called upon to institute the memorable Pitts-
burg Conference (see Conferences, Rabbinical), to
accentuate their own advanced views and their in-
dependence of the historic traditions of the past.

Kohut was associated with the Rev. Sabato Morais

in founding the Jewish Theological Seminary of New

York, becoming one of its advisory board, and being

active as professor of Talmudic meth-

At New odology up to the time of his death.
York. In 1889, on the occasion of his finish-
ing the " Aruch Completum," he was
the recipient of many honors, notably at the hands
of various learned bodies in Europe. In 1891 he was
appointed examiner in rabbinics at Columbia Col-
lege. In March, 1894, while delivering a stirring
eulogy on Kossuth, he was stricken in his pulpit,
and, after lingering a few weeks, expired on the eve
of the Sabbath.

A volume containing memorial addresses and
tributes was published by Congregation Ahavath
Chesed in 1894 in New York ; and another, contain-
ing learned essays by forty-four noted scholars in
Europe and America, entitled "Semitic Studies in
Memory of Rev. Dr. Alexander Kohut," was pub-
lished in Berlin in 1897 by his son, G. A. Kohut.
The latter work contains a memoir of Kohut's life
written by his brother. Dr. Adolph Kohut.

A complete list of Kohut's published writings has
been compiled by G. A. Kohut, in the appendix to
the "Proceedings of the Fourth Biennial Convention
of the Jewish Theological Seminary Association "
(New York, 1894) and in "Tributes to the Memory
of Rev. Dr. Alexander Kohut," pp. 49-64 {ib. 1894).

Bibliography: Moses Reines, Dor Dor we-Hakamaw, pp.
9:^-115, 182-ia3, 187, Cracow, 1890; American Hebrew, 188.5-
1894 ; Reports nf the Jeicish Thenlngical Seminary,
1894, 1900; A. Kohut, Berilhmte Israelitische Mdnnerund
Frauen, il. 344-346.
8. G. A. K.

His son, George Alexander Kohut, is an Amer-
ican writer and bibliograplier; born Feb. 11, 1874,
at Stuhlweissenburg, Hungary. He was educated at
tlie gymnasium in Grosswardein, at the public
schools in New York, at Columbia University (1893-
1895), Berlin University, and the Berlin Hochschule
fur die Wissenschaft des Judenthums (1895-97).
In the j'ear 1897 he became rabbi of the Congrega-
tion Emanu-Ei, Dallas, Texas, a post which he oc-

cupied for three years. In 1902 he became super-
intendent of the religious school of Temple Emanu-El
in New York, and is now (1904) assistant librarian
of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America.

Kohut is the author of: The Index to the Italian
words in the "Aruch," published in A. Kohut's
"Aruch Completum, "vol. viii. (1892); "Early Jewish
Literature in America " (" Publications Am. Jew. Hist.
Soc." No. 3, 1895, pp. 103-147); "Sketches of Jewish
Loyalty, Bravery, and Patriotism in the South Amer-
ican Colonies and the West Indies," in Simon Wolf's
" The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen "
(1895) ; " Martyrs of the Inquisition in South Amer-
ica" (1895); "A Memoir of Dr. Alexander Kohut's
Literaiy Activity," in "Proceedings of the Fourth
Biennial Convention of the Jewish Theological Sem-
inary Assoc"; "Bibliography of the Writings of
Prof. M. Steinschneider," in the " Steinschneider
Festschrift" (Leipsic, 1896); "Simon de Caceresand
His Project to Conquer Chili" (New York, 1897);
"Ezra Stiles and the Jews" (ib. 1902), and many
other monographs on historical subjects and on folic-
lore. He also edited "Semitic Studies in Memory
of Rev. Dr. Alexander Kohut " (Berlin, 1897), and,
since 1902, has edited "Helpful Thoughts," now
tlie "Jewish Home," a monthly periodical pub-
lished in New York.

Bibliography : Kohut, Berilhmte Israelitische Mtlnner und
Frauen, ii. 346.

KOJETEIN, BARUCH. See Goitein, Baruch.

KOKABI, DAVID B. SAMUEL. See David

BEN Samuel of Estella.

KOKABI, JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM : Ger-
man physician, a native of Ulm; lived at Ferrara in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. " Kokabi "
is the Hebrew equivalent of his German name,
"Stern"; in Latin his signature was "Stella." He
was the author of a medical work entitled "Toze'ot
Hayyim " (Venice, 1714). He is also mentioned in
Tobiah b. Moses' medical work " Ma'aseh "Tobiyyah. "

Bibliography : Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. 1. 181 ; Mortara, Indicc, p.
14 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1533.
G. M. Sel.

KOKEBE YIZHAK: Hebrew annual; pub-
lished at Vienna from 1845 to 1872 by M. Stern, and
from 1872 to 1873 by M. Weissmann (Chajes). The
annual was devoted to literary history, philology,
exegesis, and Hebrew poetry, and many able disser-
tations by Jellinek, Luzzatto, and other leading
scholars of the time are to be found in it. Tlie
last num.ber was reviewed by A. Geiger in his " Jii-
dische Zeitschrift," i. 217-223, ii. 71. A second edi-
tion of the first annual was published at Vienna in
1847.

G. L Br.

KOL BO : Collection of ritual and civil laws,
the meaning of the title being " all is in it " ; who its
author was has not yet been ascertained. The work
in content resembles earlier codes, as, for instance,
the Turim or the "Orhot Hayyim," though in its
form it is very different; it does not pretend to any
order; the laws of the Orah Hayyim are found
among the laws of the Yoreh De'ah and those of
the Eben ha-'Ezer among those of the Orah Hayyim;

539

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kohut, Alexander
Kol Nidre

many laws are entirely missing in the " Kol Bo." It
is peculiar in that some of the laws are too briefly
stated, while others are stated at great length, with-
out division into paragraphs. After the regular
code, terminating with the laws of mourning (No.
115), there comes a miscellaneous collection, contain-
ing the" talj;kanot "of R. Gershom and of Jacob Tam,
the " Ma'aseh Torah " of Judah ha-Nasi I. , the legend
of Solomon's throne, the legend of Joshua b. Levi,
a cabalistic dissertation on circumcision, a disserta-
tion on gematria and notarikon, sixty-one decisions
of Eliezer b. Nathan ; forty-four decisions of Samson
Zadok (TaShBeZ), decisions of Isaac of Corbeil, and
responsa of Perez ha-Kohen, decisions of Isaac
Orbil, of the geonim Natronai, Hai, Amram, Nah-
shon, laws of the "mikweh" taken from Perez's
"Sefer ha-Mizwot," responsa, and finally the law of
excommunication of Nahmanides. For this reason
it is quoted under the title of " Sefer ha-Likkutim "
in " Abkat Rokel," No. 13.

As to the author of the "Kol Bo," there are differ-
ent opinions; Joseph Caro, in saying that the words
of the " Kol Bo " are identical with those of the
"Orhot Hayyim" of Aaron b. Jacob ha-Kohen,
seems to have suggested that the " Kol Bo " is an
abridgment of the "Orhot Hayyim." This is also
the opinion of Azulai, and according to Aaron
Schlitzstadt, theepitomizer was a certain Shemariah
b. Simhah, in the fourteenth century (see Benjacob,
"Debarim 'Attikim," ii. 9); others think that it was
Joseph b. Tobiah of Provence. By some scholars
it is attributed to a pupil of Perez ha-Kohen ; by
others it is identified with the " Sefer ha-Nayyar " ;
and by Gedaliah ibn Yahya it is attributed to Isaac
b. Sheshet (comp. "Sifte Yeshenim"). Benjacob
("Kerem Hemed," viii. 167 et seq.) concluded that
the author of the " Kol Bo " was Aaron b. Jacob ha-
Kohen, author of the " Orhot Hayyim," and that the
"Kol Bo" was an earlier form of the "Orhot." Its
lack of system and the inadequacy of its authorities
are due, Benjacob considers, to the youth of the
author. Zunz ("Ritus," p. 180) refutes Benjacob's
arguments, his opinion being tliat the " Kol Bo " is
a compendium of the " Orhot Hayyim." The oldest
edition bears neither place nor date, but Zedner
("Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus." p. 191) conjectures
that it was published at Naples in 1490 (see In-
cunabula) ; the second edition is dated " Constanti-
nople, 1519."

Bibliography : Azulai, She^m hn^Gedolim, 11.; Benjacob,
Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 239; Confort«, ]^ore ha-Dorot, p. 25b ;
Gross, in Mo7mttii(chrift, xviii. 444; Zunz, Bitus, pp. 32, 179-
180 ; M. Schlesinger, in the introduction to his edition of
Aaron ha-Kohen of Luuel's Orhot ffayyim, Berlin, 1902.

A. ' M. Sel.

KOL MEBASSER. See Periodicals.

KOL NIDRE (m J ^D = "all vows"): Prayer
recited in the [synagogue at the beginning of the
evening service on the Day of Atonement; the name
is taken from the opening words. The " Kol Nidre "
has had a very eventful history, both in itself and in
its influence on the legal status of the Jews. Intro-
duced into the liturgy despite the opposition of rab-
binic authorities, repeatedly attacked in the course
of time by many halakists, and in the nineteenth
century expunged from the prayer-book by many
communities of western Europe, it lias often been

employed by Christians to support their assertion
that the oath of a Jew can not be trusted.

Before sunset on the eve of the Day of Atonement,
when the congregation has gathered in the syna-
gogue, the Ark is opened and two rabbis, or two
leading men in the community, take
Form of from it two Torah-scrolls. Then they
Prayer. take their places, one on each side of
the hazzan, and the three recite in
concert a formula beginning w-ith the words n3''K'^3
npy^ ^J^, which runs as follows:

" In the tribunal of heaven and the tribunal of earth, by the
permission of (Jod— blessed be He— and by the permission of
this holy con>?re*?ation, we hold It lawful to pray with the trans-
gressors."

Thereupon the cantor chants the Aramaic prayer
beginning with the words " Kol Nidre," with itsmar-
velously plaintive and touching melody, and, grad-
ually increasing in volume from pianissimo to fortis-
simo, repeats three times the following words:

"All vows [mj S^], obligations, oaths, and anathemas,
whether called ' konam,' * konas,' or by any other name, which
we may vow, or swear, or pledge, or whereby we may be bound,
from this Day of Atonement until the next (whose happy com-
ing we await), we do repent. May they be deemed absolved,
forgiven, annulled, and void, and made of no effect ; they shall
not bind us nor have power over us. The vows shall not be
reckoned vows ; the obligations shall not be obligatory ; nor the
oaths be oaths."

The leader and the congregation then say together:
" And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children
of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them, seeing
all the people were in ignorance " (Num. xv. 26).

This also is repeated three times. The hazzan then
closes with the benediction, IJ^^nriK': "Blessed art
thou, O Lord our God, King of the Universe, who
hast preserved us and hast brought us to enjoy this
season." In many congregations Num. xiv. 19-20
is recited before this benediction. After it the
Torah-scrolls are replaced, and the customary eve-
ning service begins.

The tendency to make vows was so strong in

ancient Israel that the Pentateuchal code found it

necessary to protest against the exces-

Origin. sive estimate of the religious value of
such obligations (Deut. xxiii. 23).
Rash and frequent vows inevitably involved in dif-
ficulties many who had made them, and thus evoked
an earnest desire for dispensation from such re-
sponsibilities. This gave rise to the rite of absolu-
tion from a vow ("hattarat nedarim ") which might
be performed only by a scholar (" talmid hakam "),
or an expert (" mumheh ") on the one hand, or by a
board of three laymen on the other. On ac-
count of the passionate nature of the Jews and of
Orientals in general, however, and in view of their
addiction to making vows, it might easily happen
that these obligations would afterward be wholly
forgotten and either not be kept or be violated un-
intentionally (see L. Low, " Die Dispensation von
Gelbbnissen," in "Gesammelte Schriften," iii. 361
et seq.). The religious consciousness, which felt
oppressed at the thought of the non-fulfilment
of its solemn vows, accordingly devised a general
and comprehensive formula of dispensation which
was repeated by the hazzan in the name of the as-
sembled congregation at the beginning of the fast of
Atonement. This declared that the petitioners, who

Kol Nidre

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

540

were seeking reconciliation with God, solemnly re-
tracted in His presence all vows and oaths which
they had taken during the period intervening be-
tween the previous Day of Atonement and the pres-
ent one, and made them null and void from the
beginning, entreating in their stead pardon and
forgiveness from the Heavenly Father.

This is in accordance with the older text of the
formula as it is preserved in the"Siddur" of Amram
Gaon (ed. AVarsaw, i. 47a) and in the "Likkute ha-
Pardes" (p. 12b). The "Kol Nidre" was thus evi-
dently developed from the longing for a clear con-
science on the part of those seeking reconciliation
with God. The date of the composition of the prayer
and its author are alike unknown ; but it was in exist-
ence at the geonic period.

The readiness with which vows were made and

the facilitj' with which they were annulled by the

scribes gave the Karaites an opportu-

Adoption nity to attack the Rabbinites, and

into the forced the Geonim to minimize the

Ritual. power of dispensation. Yehudai Gaon
of Sura (760), author of the " Halakot
Pesukot," went so far as to forbid any study what-
soever of Nedarim, the Talmudic treatise on oaths
(Alfasi on Nedarim, end; L. Low, I.e. p. 363). Thus
the " Kol Nidre " was discredited in both of the Baby-
lonian academies and was not accepted by them (S.
K. Stern, in "Kebuzat Hakaraim," ed. Warnheim,
1861), as is affirmed by the geonim Natrouai (853-
856) and Hai Bar Nahshon (889-896; Miiller, "Maf-
teah," p. 103; Cassel, "Teshubot Geonim Kadmo-
nim," p. 9; Zunz, "Ritus," p. 189; Tur Orah Hay-
yim, §619; "Kol Bo," § 68). Amram Gaon in his
"Siddur" {I.e.) calls the custom of reciting the
"Kol Nidre" a foolish one ("minhag shetut "). Ac-
cording to Natrouai, however, it was customary to
recite the formula in various lands of the Jewish dis-
persion, and it is clear likewise from Amram's " Sid-
dur" (ii. 37a) that the usage was wide-spread as
early as his time in Spain. But the geonic practise
of not reciting the "Kol Nidre" was long prevalent;
it has never been adopted in the Catalonian or in
the Algerian ritual (Zunz, I.e. p. 106); and there
were always man}^ congregations in lands where the
Provencal and Spanish ritual was used which did
not recite it ("Orhot Hayyim," p.- 105d; comp. also
RaN to Ned. 23b, where it is said : " There are some
congregations which usually recite the ' Kol Nidre '
on the Day of Atonement ").

Together with the "Kol Nidre" another custom

was developed, which is traced to Mei'r of Rothen-

burg (d. 1293; "Orhot Hayyim," p. 106b). This is

the recital before the " Kol Nidre " of the formula

mentioned beginning " Bi-yeshibah

"Bi-Yeshi- shel ma'alah," which has been trans-

bah shel lated above, and which gives per-

Ma'alah." mission to transgressors of the Law or

to those under a ban (" 'abaryanim ")

" to pray with the congregation " {ih. ; " Kol Bo, " § 68,

end), or, according to anotiier version which is now

generally prevalent, to the congregation "to pray

with the transgressors of the Law." To justify

prayer on that day with such transgressors and witli

persons under a ban, a haggadic saying (Ker. 6b)

was (luoted to the effect that a fast-day was to be

counted as lost unless " the wicked " were present
(see Mahzor Vitry, ed. Hurwitz, p. 381; Zunz, I.e.
p. 96).

From Germany (Tur Orah Hayyim, § 619) this
custom spread to southern France, Spain, Greece,
and probably to northern France, and was in time
generally adopted (Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah,
619, 1; Zunz, I.e. p. 96). The assertion that the
"Kol Nidre" was introduced on account of the
Spanish Maranos (Mandelstamm [anon.], "Horse
Talmudicae," vol. ii. ; "Reform in Judenthum," pp.
1 et seq., Berlin; comp. also "Ha-Zetirah," 1885, p.
361; Liebersohn, in "Ha-Meliz," 1868, p. 270) is in-
correct, although the formula may have been used
in Spain with reference to them.

An important alteration in the wording of the

"Kol Nidre" was made by Rashi's son-in-law, Meir

ben Samuel, who changed the original phrase " from

the last Day of Atonement until this

The Ver- one " to "from this Day of Atonement

sion of until the next." Thus the dispensa-
Me'ir ben tion of the " Kol Nidre " was not as

Samuel. formerly a posteriori and concerned
with unfulfilled obligations of the past
year, but a priori and having reference to vows
Avhich one might not be able to fulfil or might for-
get to observe during the ensuing year. Meir ben
Samuel likewise added the words " we do repent of
them all" (|ina NJDinx ;in^3), since, according to
the Law, real repentance is a condition of dispensa-
tion. The reasons assigned for this change were
that an "ex post facto" annulment of a vow was
meaningless, and that, furthermore, no one might
grant to himself a dispensation, which might be
given only by a board of three laymen or hy a com-
petent judge (" mumheh "). Meir ben Samuel cited
further, in support of his arguments, Ned. 23b,
which reads : " Whoever wishes all the vows he may
make throughout the j-ear to be null and void shall
come at the beginning of the year and say : ' May
all the vows which I shall vow be annulled.' " This
change made by Meir ben Samuel is given by Rab-
benu Tam in his "Sefcr ha-Yashar" (ed. Venice,
1816, § 144), although it did not emanate from him,
as the old authorities incorrectly supposed {e.g.,
Isaac ben Moses of Vienna, "Or Zarua'," p. 126b;
Aaron ha-Kohen of Lunel, "Orhot Hayyim," p.
106b; RoSH to Ned. 23b and Tur Orah Hayyim,
§ 619). It appears to have been Rabbenu Tam,
however, Avho accounted for the alteration made by
his father as already stated, and who also tried to
change the perfects of the text.
Change of "which we have vowed," "have
Tense. sworn," etc., to imperfects. Whether
the old text was already too deeply
rooted, or whether Rabbenu Tam did not correct
these verbal forms consistently and grammatically,
the old perfects are still retained at the beginning of
the formula, although a future meaning is given to
them. There has been much discussion concern-
ing the correct reading of the formula as affecting
the tenses, yet even men like Jacob Emden (see
"She'elat Yabcz," i., No. 135) and Wolf Heiden-
heim (introduction to the Mahzor, ed. Hanover,
1837) did not venture to introduce the change into
the Mahzor. Mordecai Jaffe, author of the "Le-

541

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kol Nidre

bushim," states that he often tried to teach the
hazzanim a more correct form of the "Kol Nidre,"
but that as often as they recited it in the synagogue
they lapsed into the old text to whicli the melody
of the hymu had accustomed them (Heidenheim,
I.e.).

Tlie alteration made by Me'ir ben Samuel, which
agreed with Isaac ibn Ghayyat's view (see Isaac ben
Sheshet, Kesponsa, No. 394, end), was accepted in
the German, northern French, and Polish rituals and
in those dependent on them, but not in the Spanish,
Roman, and Provencal rituals (see Zunz, "Die Kitus
von Avignon, " in " Allg. Zeit. des Jud." 1838, p. 303).
The old version is, therefore, usually called the
" Sephardic. " The old and the new versions are some-
times found side by side (see Mahzor of Aragon, Sa-
lonica, 1805). The change was bitterly opposed,
especially by the Italian Isaiah di Trani (in 1250),
since the old text was known to all and was in
every Mahzor ("Tanya," ed. Cremona, 1565, p.
103b), and even in the places which adopted the
alteration there were always authorities who pre-
ferred the old reading and rejected the new, such
as Jacob Landau ("Agur," ed. Sedilkow, 1834,
p. 73b).

It should be noted, furthermore, in regard to the
text of the "Kol Nidre," that iu the "Siddur" of

Amram (I.e.) and iu the Roman jNIah-
Languag-e. zor (Zunz, " Ritus," p. 96) it is wholly

in Hebrew, and therefore begins "Kol
Nedarim" (comp. also "Likkute ha-Pardes," I.e.).
The determination of the time in both versions is
Hebrew. The words "as it is written in the teach-
ings of Moses, thy servant," which were said in
the old form before Num. xv. 26, were canceled
by Meir of Rothenburg (Abudarham, p. 75b). In
many places tlie " Kol Nidre " was recited once only
(see Rabbenu Tam, I.e.); in others, twice, so that
late comers might l)ear it ("Likkute ha-Pardes," p.
12b); in some congregations, however, it was said
three times. This last usage is justified by Rab-
benu Tam on the ground that there are many rabbin-
ical formulas which are repeated thrice, such as "Ha-
luz ha-Na'al" in the "Halizah " or "Muttar La'k "
(" 3Iay it be permitted thee ") in the absolution from
a voAv.

As to the manner in which tlie hazzan is to recite
the "Kol Nidre," the Mahzor Vitry (p. 888) gives
the following directions: "The first time he must

utter it very softly like one wlio hesi-
Method of tates to enter the palace of the king to
Recitation, ask a gift of him whom he fears to

approach ; the second time he may
speak somewhat louder; and the third time more
loudly stili, as one who is accustomed to dwell at
court and to approach his sovereign as a friend."

The number of Torah-scrolls taken out for the
"Kol Nidre" varied greatly according to the differ-
ent "minhagim." In some places it was one; in
others, two, three, seven, or even all (see "Hayye
Abraham," p. 47a, Leghorn, 1861). The first "fo-
rah-scroU taken out is called the "Scfer Kol Nidre."
The "Kol Nidre " should be recited before sunset,
since dispensation from a vow may not be granted
on the Sabbath or on a feast-day, unless the vow
refers to one of these days.

The " Kol Nidre " has been one of the means wide-
ly used by Jewish apostates and by enemies of the
Jews to cast suspicion on the tru.st-
Use by worthiness of an oath taken by a Jew
Anti- (Wagenseil, "Tela Ignea. Disputatio
Semites. R. Jechielis," p. 23; Ei.senmenger,
"Entdecktos Judeuthum," vol. ii., ch.
ix., pp. 48d et seq., Koingsberg, 1711; Bodenschatz,
"Kirchliehe Verfassung der Heutigen Judcn," part
ii., ch. v., s^ 10, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1748; Roh-
ling, "Der Talmudjude," pp. 80 et seq., Mlinster,
1877); so that many legislators considered it neces-
sary to have a special form of oath administered to
Jews ("Jew's oath"), and many judges refu.sed to
allow them to take a supplementary oath, basing
their objections chiefly on this prayer (Zunz, " G.
S." ii. 244; comp. pp. 246, 251). As early as 1240
Jehiel of Paris was obliged to defend the " Kol Nid-
re " against the.se charges. It can not be denied
that, according to the usual wording of the for-
mula, an unscrupulous man might think that it ofters
a means of escape from the obligations and promises
which he had assumed and made in regard to
others. The teachers of the synagogues, however,
have never failed to point out to their cobelievers
that the dispensation from vows in the
Refers "Kol Nidre" refers only to those
Only to which an individual voluntarily as-
Individual sumes for himself alone (see RoSH to
Vows. Ned. 23b) and in which no other per-
sons or their interests are involved.
In other words, the formula is restricted to those
vows which concern only the relation of man to his
conscience or to his Heavenly Judge (see especially
Tos. to Ned. 23b). In the opinion of Jewish teach-
ers, therefore, the object of the "Kol Nidre " in de-
claring oaths null and void is to give protection from
divine punislimeut in case of violation of the vow.
No vow, promi.se, or oath, however, which concerns
another person, a court of justice, or a community is
implied in the " Kol Nidre. " It must be remembered,
moreover, that five geonim were against while only
one was in favor of reciting the prayer (Zunz, " G. V. "
p. 390, note a), and furthermore that even so early
an authority as Saadia wished to restrict it to those
vows whicli were extorted from the congregation in
the synagogue in times of persecution ("Kol Bo,"
I.e.); and he declared explicitly that the "Kol Nid-
re " gave no absolution from oaths wliich an indi-
vidual had taken during the year. Judah ben Bar-
zillai, a Spanish author of the twelfth century, in
liis halakic work "Sefer ha-Tttim," declares that
the custom of reciting the " Kol Nidre " was unjus-
tifiable and misleading, since many ignorant ]iersons
believe that all their vows and oaths are annulled
through this formula, and consequently they take
such obligations on themselves carelessly ("Orhot
Hayyim," p. 106a). For the same reason Jcroham ben
Meshullam, who lived in Provence about the middle
of the fourteenth century, inveighed against those
fools who, trusting to the "Kol Nidre," made vows
recklessly, and he declared them incapable of giving
testimony ("Toledot Adam we-Hawwah," ed. 1808,
section 14, partiii., p. 88; see Zunz, "G. V." p. 390).
The Karaite Judah Hadassi, who wrote the "Eshkol
ha-Kofer"at Constantinople in 1148 (, see Nos. 139,

Kol Nidre

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

542

140 of that Avork), likewise protested against the
"Kol Nidre." Among other opponents of it in

the Middle Ages were Yom-Tob ben

Jewish Abraham Isbili (d. 1350) in his " Hid-

Opposition. dushim " ; Isaac ben Sheshet, rabbi in

Saragossa (d. 1406), Responsa, No.
394 (where is also a reference to the preceding) ; the
author of the "Kol Bo" (15th cent.); and Leon of
Modena (d. 1648 [see N. S. Libowitz, "Leon Mo-
dena," p. 33, New York, 1901]). In addition, nearly
all printed raahzorim contain expositions and ex-
planations of the " Kol Nidre " in the restricted
sense mentioned above.

Yielding to the numerous accusations and com-
plaints brought against the " Kol Nidre " in the
course of centuries, the rabbinical conference held

at Brunswick in 1844 decided unani-

In the mously that the formula was not es-

Nineteenth sential, and that the members of the

Century, convention should exert their influence

toward securing its speedy abolition
("Protocolle der Ersten Rabbiner Versammlung, "
p. 41, Brunswick, 1844). At other times and places
during the nineteenth century emphasis was fre-
quently laid upon the fact that " in the ' Kol Nidre '
only those vows and obligations are implied which
are voluntarily assumed, and which are, so to
speak, taken before God, thus being exclusively re-
ligious in content ; but that those obligations are in
no wise included which refer to other persons or to
non-religious relations" ("Allg. Zeit. des Jud."
1885, p. 396). The decision of the conference was
accepted by many congregations of western Europe
and in all the American Reform congregations,
which while retaining the melody substituted for
the formula a German hymn or a Hebrew psalm, or
changed the old text to the words, "May all the
vows arise to thee which the sons of Israel vow unto
thee, O Lord, . . . that they will return to thee
with all their heart, and from this Day of Atone-
ment until the next," etc. Naturally there were
many Orthodox opponents of this innovation,

among whom M. Lehmann, editor of the "Is-
raelit," was especially prominent (see ib. 1863, Nos.
25, 38). The principal factor which preserved the
great religious authority of the " Kol Nidre " well
into the nineteenth century, and which continually
raises up new defenders for it, is doubtless its plain-
tive and appealing melody, which made a deep im-
pression even on Lenau (see his remarks in " Der
Israelit," 1864, No. 40, pp. 538 et seq.) and which
was the favorite melody of JNIoltke, who had the
violinist Joachim play it for him.

Bibliography: Joseph Aub, Die Eingangsfeier des Vers6hn-
tingstages, Mayence, 1863 ; Z. FrankeU Die Eidesleistung der
Juden, pp. 84 et seq.; W. Heidenheim. Sefer Kerobnt, Han-
over, 1837, Introduction; Lampronti, Pahad Yizhak, iv. 82b;
H. L. Strack, in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Ericyc. x. "6o3 et seq.

J. M. Sc.

-The Melody : Even more famous than the

formula itself is the melody traditionally attached
to its rendition. This is deservedly so much prized
that even where Reform has abolished the recital of
the Chaldaic text, the air is often preserved, either
in association with some other passage — e.g., Ps. ciii.
or cxxx., or a series of versicles, or a vernacular
hymn such as "O Tag des Herrn, Du Nahst!"
or " Gott der Liebe und der Barmherzigkeit " — or
as an organ prelude to attune the mind of the con-
gregation to the solemnity of the evening. And yet
there are probably no two synagogues in which the
melody is chanted note for note absolutely the same.
So marked is the variation in the details of the mel-
ody that a critical examination of the variants shows
an approach toward agreement in the essentials of the
first strain only, with transformations of the greatest
diversity in the remaining strains. These diver-
gences, however, are not radical, and they are no
more than are inherent in a composition not due to
a single originator, but built up and elaborated by
many in turn, and handed on by them in distinct
lines of tradition, along all of which the rhapsodical
method of the Hazzanut has been followed (see
Music, Synagogal).

KOL NIDRE (1)

(Italian)

OPENING PHRASES

(Polish)

S-^^—m—^zi-

-s>-

-.1^

-c^

--%^

-iS»-

-^-

Kol nid

(German)

re.

Ah!.

kol

nid

re.

nid - re.

643

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kol Vidre

On a critical investigation on comparative lines,
the structure of " Kol Nidre " is seen to be built upon
a very simple groundwork, the melody
Original being essentially an intermingling of
Elements, simple cautillation with rich figura-
tion. The very opening of " Kol
Nidre " is what the masters of the Catholic plain-
song term a "pneuma,"or soul breath. Instead of
announcing the opening words in a monotone or
in any of the familiar declamatory phrases, some an-
cient hazzan of South Germany prefixed a long,
sighing tone, falling to a lower note and rising
again, as if only sighs and sobs could find utterance
before the officiant could bring himself to inaugu-
rate the dread Day of Atonement.

Breslaur draws attention to the similarity of these
strains with the first five bars of Beethoven's C
sharp minor quartet, op. 131, period
Reminis- 6, "adagio quasi un poco andante."
cences of An older coincidence shows the
Catholic original element around which the
Plain- -whole of " Kol Nidre " has been built
Song. up. The pneuma given in the Sarum
and Ratisbon antiphonaries (or Cath-
olic ritual music-books) as a typical passage in the
first Gregorian mode (or the notes in the natural
scale running from "d " to "d " ["re " to "re "]), al-
most exactly outlines the figure which prevails
throughout the Hebrew air, in all its variants, and
reproduces one favorite strain with still closer agree-
ment. The original pattern of these phrases seems

to be the strain of melody so frequently repeated in
the modern versions of " Kol Nidre " at the introduc-
tion of each clause. Such a pattern phrase, indeed,
is, in the less elaborated Italian tradition (Console,
Nos. 3 and 6 in the following transcription), re-
peated in its simple form five times consecutively in
the first sentence of the text, and a little more
elaborately four times in succession from the words
"nidrana lo nidre." The northern traditions prefer
at such points first to utilize its complement in the
second ecclesiastical mode of the Church, which ex-
tends below as well as above the fundamental "re."
The strain, in either form, must obviously date from
the early medieval period, anterior to the eleventh
century, when the practise and theory of the sing-
ing-school at St. Gall, by which such typical pas-
sages were evolved, influenced all music in those
French and German lands where the melody of " Koi
Nidre " took shape.

Thus, then, a typical phrase in the most familiar
Gregorian mode, such as was daily in the ears of
the Rhenish Jews, in secular as well as in ecclesias-
tical music, was centuries ago deemed suitable for
the recitation of the Absolution of Vows, and to it
was afterward prefixed an introductory intonation
dependent on the taste and capacity of the officiant.
Many times repeated, the figure of this central
phrase was sometimes sung on a higher degree of
the scale, sometimes on a lower. Then these be-
came associated ; and so gradually the middle sec-
tion of the melody developed into the modern forms.

KOL NIDRE (2)

CENTRAL PHRASES

(SaRTTM AyTIPHONARY)

-t^-

^t=i^

=»=i-

3e£

Ah!

(CONSOLO)

^^■=ii

W3.

-& 5^

(The Same)

-^^-

-\ — I —

— I 1-

Nid

Ah!.

-^''«=

na.

lo.

nid • re.

(Hast)

(Scxzeb)

Kol Nidre

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

544

(Baer)

me. .

me.

(Lewandowski)

,-A— H ^=^^3^^ =-3

Mei

nes Fie

hens Stim - me, mei

nes Fie

bens Stim - me.

(KoESSIiER)

U - de - 'ish - te - ba

'a - na

u - de - a.

... ha - rim

na.

Closing

Phrase

from

'"Alenu.

But the inspiration of a later hazzan was needed
to shape the closing section of the melod}-, in which
the end of the chant soars away into a
bold and triumphant strain, expressing
confidence and determiuatiou rather
than the humble sorrow of the older
ending in the minor, which still sur-
vives in the Italian tradition. Now
this bold closing phrase belongs, according to the
general tradition, also to 'Alenu (the words "ke-
mishpehot ha-adamah "). It would be quite in ac-
cordance with the scheme of the hazzau's art if one
such officiant transferred the " 'Alenu " phrase to
"Kol Nidre," with the determined aim of associa-
ting the texts themselves in the minds of his hear-

ers. The speculation is ventured that this was done
about the year 1171, when thirty-four men and sev-
enteen women perished at the stake at Blois,
chanting the '"Alenu," and when all the Rhenish
Jews, as well as those of France, were bewailing
the mart3'rdom as the encyclical of R. Tam reached
their congregations.

Tlie full transcription following differs from the
version best known to the general public, that for
violoncello, etc., by Max Bruch, in that it repro-
duces the tiorid vocalization of the Polish school and
omits the secondary and contrasting theme quoted
by Bruch from the service of quite another part of
the Jewish year (see "Jewish Chronicle," London,
April 1, 1904).

KOL NIDRE (3)

Adagio non troppo, molto con espressione.
PP ==- pinng.

piangendo.

t±=^

piangendo. .

-<^-

-\-^-

\^^

Kol.

-^i>-»-^-^

stringendo.

e - sa - re, ah.

^-"^-iT^

-w — ^-

wa - ba - ra

me, we - ko - na

545

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kol Nidre

piang.

r==^

-1^*-g=^

:i=^

=«*

r.=^=4:

"* — s::;*-

1 P*

:::» ^

me,

ah.

:dz

^=t

-^ — s

±1

n"«. ^ pa tempo.

Is 1 1

J - _j

* m ...' m *

kin - nu - ye, u - ke - na - se, u - she - bu

ha - rim - na,
^ mfa tempo.

we - di - a - sar

na 'al naf - sha •

hon sha - ran,

she - bi

-:^

^^S^

-\^-< — 1^ I I-

«f!arj^*jt

:^^=:j^:

-* — rzg:
be - te - lin, u

f—m m . ** — ' ^

kin.

she - bi

tin,.

me -but - ta

i^^

r^P

:^if=

■•V-J- *

:^ #^

H 1 ■*-

i 6^-

t=v^-^

H r

Un, .

lo - she - ri - rin, we-lo kay - ya - min; nid - ra

VII. -35

Eol Nidre
Kolisch

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

546

■§

cres.

i^^

:^^

-^ 0--

:s2=^i:==ft

:H — ^— i-^^ — I ^ > i^-

nid - re

we - e - sa - ra - na la e - sa

f piu moto.

ffpoco allegro.

■ ^1 ^^^~mi\ *~~d — ^ 1 ^ — ^ J J — n — I

maestoso.

la.

she - bu

'ot.

Bibliography: Vocal: A. Baer, Ba'al Tenilah (Dcr Prak-
tische Vorbeter), Nos. 1301, 1302a, 13(r2b, Goteborg. 1877,
Frankfort, 1883; E. Breslaur, SUul OriQuialc Siinaontfcn
und Volks-Melodien bei den Juden OetschUMUch Nach-
weisbar? (three settings, including one by Lewandovvskl),
Lelpsic, 1898 ; F. Consolo, Libro dei Canti d'lsraelc. No.
346, Florence, 1892 ; M. Deutsch. Col Nidre, Text und Me-
Indie nach dcr Tradition (also in his Vorbctcrxchidc),
Breslau, 1872; H. Kossler, Kol Nidre, iiai/i Zahlrcichcii
Ausgaben Kritisch i?6uid(erf, Strasburg, 1902 ; L. Lewan-
dowski, Kol Nidre, Hebrdischer luid Deutucher Text (also
in his Todah we-Zimiah), Lelpsic ; J. L. Mombach, Sacred
Musical Compositions, p. 198, London, 1881 ; S. Sulzer, Shir
Ziinio7i, No. Ill, Vienna, 1840; H. Weintrauh, TempeJ^esdnqe,
Leipsic, 1859; Jewish Chronicle, Oct. 3 and 10, 1902.

Instrumental : Various pianoforte, organ, and especially
string arrangements by M. Bruch, P. Franz, A. Garflnkel, L.
Lewandowski, L. Mendelssohn, J. Rosenfeld, A. H. Russotta,
F. Singer, E. D. Wagner. H. Weintraub, and G. VVohler ; M.
Hast, Divine Service, ii. 129, London, 1879 ; S. Naumbourg,
Recueil de Chants Religieux, tio. i, Paris, 1874; and espe-
cially A. Marksohn and W. Wolf, Atiswahl Alter Hebril-
ischer Synagogal-MelodieJi, No. 7, Leipsic, 1875.
A. F. L. C.

KOLETKAR, MOSES : Sirdar bahadur in tli(3
Anglo-Iudianarmy. He enlisted in the Eighth Regi-
ment Native Infantry April 1, 1842, and was later
transferred to the Twenty-seventh Regiment. He
was appointed jemidar and native adjutant Jan.
1, 1853; transferred again, to the Twelfth Regi-
ment; promoted to the rank of subahdar Nov. 6,
1858; sirdar bahadur (witli Order of British In-
dia, 1st class), Oct. 25, 1859; transferred to the
Seventeenth Regiment Native Infantry; made su-
bahdar-major Jan. 24, 1876; and bahadur (receiving
at the same time the Order of British India, 2d
class), Jan. 1, 1877. He was present at tlie battle
of Hyderabad (medal) and at the action of Kolhapur
(medal). He is said to have given first information
of the mutiny to tlie officers of the Twenty-seventh
Regiment Native Infantry.

J. J. Hy.

KOLIN : Town in Bohemia. Its Jewish com-
munity is one of the oldest in the country. A num-

ber of Jews were living here in the fourteenth cen-
tury, and they had tlieir own synagogue. A stone
inscription from a former synagogue, preserved in
the present synagogue, bears the date 1642. When
King Ferdinand I. expelled the Jews from Bohemia
In 1541, the Jews of Kolin went with their movable
goods to Poland. At Braunau the emigrants en-
countered thieves, who robbed them of 20,000 Bo-
hemian schock. In 1551 the Bohemian Jews were
permitted to return ; but the Jews of Koiin could
find no rest in their city. For unknown reasons
King Ferdinand granted them safe-conduct in 1557,
enabling them to remain for one year in the coun-
try to collect their debts, after which period they
were to leave again. Their affairs delayed them,
however, and they did not leave the city until 1561.
After Ferdinand's death, in 1564, his successor,
Maximilian II., permitted the Jews to return to
Kolin; but; the wealthiest among them did not avail
themselves of tlie permission. In 1618 the Jewish
community of Kolin was, next to that of Prague, the
largest in Bohemia. It had to pay heavy taxes into
the royal treasury; in 1618 the sum
In the amounted to 18,000 thalers, or 47 tha-
Seven- lers per head. In 1603 the municipal
teenth council forbade the Jews to appear on
Century. Sundays and and other Christian holi-
days in those parts of the city inhab-
ited by Christians ; it prohibited them from keeping
dogs; and forbade also Jewish butchers to sell meat
to Ciiristians. In 1611 a special prison was built in
the Jews' street for the Jews, at their request and
at their expense; it lias only recently been demol-
ished, after having served as a dwelling for poor
fainilies for more than one hundred years. No Jew
was permitted to own any real estate except his
house, nor more than one horse. Jews were forbid-

547

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kol Nidre

Kolisch

den also to engage in those trades or lines of busi-
ness in which their Christian fellow citizens were en-
gaged; they were obliged, therefore, to establish con-
nections with foreign houses. The municipal council,
which was intent upon isolating the Jews from the
Christian population, forbade the latter to enter the
service of the Jews; even washerwomen were not
allowed to do laundry-work for them. As the Jews
were accused of having brought the plague into the
city on returning from their business trips, the}' were
not permitted to remain outside of their own street for
any length of time, nor to draw water with their ves-
sels from the Christians' wells. During this appear-
ance of the plague (1613-14) the municipal council
had both entrances to the Jews' street walled up.

On Sept. 8, 1621, the Jewish communal director
David was elected to the municipal council. Va-
rious petitions which the council of Kolin sent to
Prince Lichtenstein, with a view to interfering with
the trades of the Jews, were not granted. In Dec,
1621, the knight Jan Vazlav Grizl of Grizlov was
made captain of the imperial estate of Kolin and Bie-
beritz. He permitted the Jews to engage in those
trades and lines of business which had hitherto been
open only to Christians; and on several occasions
he showed them favor. When an epidemic of dys-
entery appeared in Kolin in 1660, Rabbi Borges
and his son Schaje (Isaiah) were accused, June 25,
of having killed a pig which had escaped from the
house of the widow Sperlink into the Jews' street,
and of having thrown the same into the communal
well, thereby poisoning the water. Both fled from
the city.

A resolution of the Bohemian royal chamber, of
Feb. 3, 1655, was of great benefit to the Jews, re-
moving them from the jurisdiction of

Jurisdic- the municipal council, and directing

tion and them to organize themselves as a com-
Organiza- munity with their own court, which
tion. was to be under the direct supervision
of the imperial judge of Kolin acting
in the name of the royal chamber. Only in crim-
inal cases were the Jews to be tried by the judge
of Kolin. The affairs of the community were con-
ducted by a primator, two councilors, and a certain
number of elders, assisted by a secretary, a treasurer,
and two servants. This arrangement was in force
down to 1788.

Empress IVIaria Theresa decreed, Dec. 18, 1744,
that all the Jews shoul-d leave Bohemia by the end
of the following mouth. In 1745 tiiere were at
Kolin forty-two houses belonging entirely to Jews
and valued at 19,210 gulden. On June 12, 1745, a
contract was made between the Jewish and the
Christian comraunitj', that when the Jews left the
country their debtors should remain in possession of
such houses; but if the Jews should obtain permis-
sion to return within two years, the houses should
be restored to them at a price to be fixed by valua-
tion. The empress' decree was, however, rescinded.

In 1750 tliree Jews of Kolin received from the nui-
nicipal council the concession for the sale of tobacco
in Kolin. During tlie dearth in the winter of 1846-^7
the Jews of Kolin distinguished themselves by twice
contributing large sums for the relief of 100 Chris-
tian families.

Down to 1849, when full civic equality was given
to the Jews, they were not permitted to buy
houses or land belonging to Christians, but from the
time of Emperor Joseph II. they were permitted to
rent stores from Christians.

The community for a long time had a primary
school near the synagogue, in which Hebrew also
was taught. In 1788 forty -one children attended the
school, and in 1789 fifty. * At present (1904) the Tal-
mud Torah Society of the Jewish congregation also
supports a school for the study of Hebrew and the
Bible. The affairs of the congregation are admin-
istered by a board consisting of a president and
seven trustees together with twenty-four members
chosen from the congregation at large.

The following rabbis of Kolin deserve notice:
Abraham Borges, 1653; his son Schaje (Isaiah), 1660;
Simon Oppenheim, author of "Nezer ha-Kodesh,"
middle of the eighteenth century; Jacob Illovi of
Ungarisch-Brod, 1775-78; Eleazar Kallir, author of
" Or Hadash " and " Hawwot Yair," 1780-1800 ; Wolf
Low Boskowitz, 1806-12; Wolf L5w, 1812-26; Joa-
chim Deutschmann, 1828-36 ; Daniel Frank, 1839-60;
Dr. Josef Gugenheimer, 1861-96; his son. Dr. Ra-
phael Gugenheimer, the present incumbent.

D. R. Gu.

KOLISCH, BARON IGNAZ VON: Plun-
garian merchant, journalist, and chess-master; born
at Pre-sburg April 6, 1837; died at Vienna April 30,
1889. Both in business and as a chess-player he
was eminently successful. He founded the Wiener
Boise-Syndikatskasse in 1869, and in 1873 estab-
lished a commission house in Paris; and by prudent
management he acquired considerable wealth.

As a chess-player Kolisch soon became known for
his brilliant and aggressive stj'le, but he was not a
frequent participant in tournaments. In 1860 he
won the first prize at the international tourney held
at Cambridge, England; in 1861 he lost a match
with Anderssen, the strongest player of the day, by
one game only; the same j-earhedrew a match with
Paulsen; and in 1867 at the Paris tournament he
.secured the leading position, defeating both Wina-
wer and Steinitz.

Kolisch was the founder and editor-in-chief of the
"Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung," to which, under the
pseudonym " Ideka " (formed from the initials of his
name), he contributed many feuilletons.
Bibliography: E. T. Blanchard, Examplei^ nf Chens Master-
Play. 1st series (transl. from the German of Jean Dufresne),

Index, New Barnet, 189;f.

s. A. P.

KOLISCH, RUDOLF: Austrian physi-
cian; born at Koritschan, Moravia. Dec. 10. 1867;
studied medicine at Vienna and Heidelberg (M.D.
1891). In 1895 he became privat-docent in medicine
at the University of Vienna. Besides lecturing dur-
ing the sessions of the iniiversity he practises medi-
cine at Carlsbad during the summer months.

Kolisch has written several essays in the medical
journals, and is the author of "Uriitische Diatiiese,"
Stuttgart, 1894; " Lehrbuch der Diatetischen The-
rapie," Vienna, 1899.
Bibliography : Pagel, Bing. Lex.

s. F. T. H.

KOLISCH, SIGMUND: Austrian poet and
historical writer; born at Koritschan, Moravia, Sept.

Kompert
Koniersber?

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

548

15, 1817. He was educated at the University of
Vienna, where he studied classical philology, his-
tory, and philosophy. After a short sojourn in
Italy (1847) he took part in the revolution at Vienna
in 1848, and after the victory of the imperial troops
under Windischgratz he escaped to German}-. The
next twenty years he spent in Germany, France,
and Italy, returning to Vienna in 1868.

Among his works may be mentioned : " Todtcn-
feier in Oesterreich,"Brunn, 1848; "Kleine Romane
aus Wien," Leipsic and Briiuu, 1848; "Ludwig
Kossuth und Clemens Metternich," Leipsic, 1850;
"Auf dem Vulkan," Stuttgart, 1868; and the trag-
edy -'Die Christin," Vienna, 1875.

He lias also contributed many articles and essays
to German and Austrian journals, and during 1848
was editor of the revolutionary paper " Der Radi-
kale."

Bibliography: Briimmer, Deutschcs DicMer-Lexikon.
s. F. T. H.

KOMPERT, LEOPOLD: Austrian author;
born at Mlinchengratz, Bohemia, May 15, 1822;
died at Vienna Nov. 23, 1886. He studied at the
universities of Prague and Vienna, and was for sev-
eral years tutor in the house of Count George An-
drassy. In 1857 he entered the service of the Vienna
Cieditanstalt. As a member of the Vienna city
council Kompert displayed a useful activity in tlie

interest of education, and
likewise, as a member of
the board of the Jewish
congregation, in the promo-
tion of religious instruc-
tion. He took an active
part also in the Israeli-
tische Allianz of Vienna.
As vice-president of the Is-
raelitischer Waisenverein ho
devoted considerable atten-
tion to the education of
orphans, and used his in-
fluence in tlie foundation of
Baron Todesco's institution
for the benefit of orphans
who had left the asylum.
He also held for manj'' years honorary offices in the
Schillerverein.

Kompert began his literary activity in the "Press-
burger Zeitung." From 1848 to 1852 he was editor
of the " Oesterreichischer Lloyd." As creator of
ghetto literature he is called the Auerbach of the
ghetto. His stories depicting the life, customs, and
manners of the Bohemian Jews have become clas-
sical and have found many imitators. He draws the
transition from the life in the narrow ghetto to the
farmer's life in the open field ; and he shows tlie
struggles, doubts, and misgivings of those who,
yielding to the impulse of modern times, undergo
the changes of their newly chosen career. Seeing
tliat under the leveling influence of the present day
the characteristic inner Jewish life is threatened to
vanish, he endeavors to preserve its originality, its
deeper psychological, sentimental, and ethical spirit,
for the knowledge of posterity.

Kompert's first story, "Der Schnorrer," appeared

Leopold Kompert.

in 1846 in L. A. Frankl's "Sonntagsblatt," No. 7.
Then followed " Geschichten aus dem Ghetto," Leip-
sic, 1848; "Bohmische Juden," Vienna, 1851; "Am
Pfluge," Berlin, 1855; " Neue Geschichten aus dem
Ghetto," Prague, 1860; "Geschichten einer Gasse,"
Berlin, 1865; "Zwischen Ruinen,"z6. 1873; "Franzi
undHeini, eine Wiener Geschichte," ^'i. 1880; "Ver-
streute Geschichten," ib. 1883. In "Franzi und
Heini," a picture of Vienna society, the Jewish
pedler woman Perl Bluthenstern plays an important
part. Some of these stories were first published in
Wertheimer's "Jahrbuch fiir Israeliten." A com-
plete edition of Kompert's works in eight volumes
appeared in Berlin, 1882-83, and a new edition in
Leipsic, 1887.

Bibliography: Brnchhaus Konversatinns-Lexikon ; Meuers
KonversatioHs-Lexikon ; Neiizeit, 1886. pp. 443-444; Oester-
reichische Wnchenschrift, 1886, pp. 545-546; Alia. Ztit. cles
Jud. 1886, p. 793.

s. S. Max.

KOMPSE BAR KOMPSE. See Kamza and
Bar Kamza.

KONIG, FRIEDRICH EDUARD: German
Protestant theologian; born at Reichenbach, Sax-
ony, Nov. 15, 1846; Ph.D., 1874, Leipsic; D.D.,
1888, Erlangen. He was appointed professor of
tlieology, first at Leipsic, then at Rostock, and, in
1900, at Bonn.

Konig lias published " Gedanke, Laut und Accent
als die Drei Faktoren der Sprachbildung, Comparativ
und Laut-Physiologisch am Hebraischen Dargestellt "
(1874); "Neue Studien iiber Schrift, Ausspraclie
und Allgemeine Formenlehre des Aethiopischcn "
(1877) ; " De Critics? Sacrte Argumento e Linguaj Legi-
bus Repetito " (1879) ; " Historisch-Kritisches Lehrge-
biiude der Hebraischen Sprache," 8 vols. (1881-97),
a comprehensive study of Hebrew grammar, indis-
pensable for scholars ; " Der Offenbarungsbegriif des
Alten Testaments" (1882); "Die Hauptprobleme
der Altisraelitischen Religionsgeschichte " (1884;
English transl. "The Religious History of Israel,"
Edinburgh, 1885) ; " Historisch-Kritische Einleituug
ins Alte Testament " (1893) ; "The Exiles' Book of
Consolation " (Edinburgh, 1899) ; " Stilistik, Rhetorik,
Poetik Comparativ in Bezug auf die Bibel Darge-
stellt " (1900) ; " Hebriiisch und Semitisch, Prolego-
mena zu einer Gescli. der Semitischen Spracheu "
(1901); "Flinf Neue ArabischeLandschaftsnamen im
Alten Testament" (1901); "Neueste Principien der
Alttestamentlichen Kritik " (1901); "Bibel und Ba-
bel" (10th ed. 1903); "Die Gottesfrage und der Ur-
sprung des Alten Testaments " (1903).

T. B. P.

KONIG, JULIUS : Hungarian mathematician ;
Ijorn Dec. 16, 1849, at Raab. He entered the Uni-
versity of Vienna to study medicine, but being more
interested in mathematics, he went thence to Heidel-
berg, and studied physics with Helmholtz and mathe-
matics with Konigsberger. Here lie took his doc-
tor's degree with the thesis " L'eber die Elliptischen
Modulen " in 1870, producing in the same year
the work "Beitrage zur Theorie der Electrischen
Nervenreizung." Konig then went to Berlin to
attend the lectures of Kummer, Kronecker, and
Weierstrass. Returning to Budapest in 1872, he
became privat-docent at the Polytechnic liigh school.

649

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kompert
Kouigsbersr

being appointed professor at the same institution in
1874.

KOnig is recognized as the foremost living mathe-
matician of Hungary. An original thinker, he has
advanced many new theories and methods in differ-
ential calculus that have been generally accepted.
His most important works are the following: "Zur
Theorie der Modulargleichungen," Heidelberg, 1871 ;
" Ueber die Darstellung von Funktiouen Durch
Unendliche Reihen" (in "Math. Annalen," v.);
"Nouvelle Demonstration du TheorSme de Taylor"
(in "Annales de Math." 1874); "Zur Theorie der
Punktionen einer Reellen Variabeln " (in "Monats-
hefte fiir Math." i.); "Ueber eiue Reelle Abbildung
der Nicht-Euklidischen Geometric " (in " Nachrichten
der Kon. Gesell. d. Wissenschafteu zu Gottingen,"
1872) ; " Ueber Rationelle Funktionen von Elemen-
ten" (in "Math. Annalen," xiv.); "Die Faktoren-
zerlegung imd Eliminationsprobleme " {ib. xv.) ;
"Zur Theorie der Resolventen " (i6. xviii.); "Ueber
Endliche Formensysteme " {ib.); and "Beitrage zur
Theorie der Algebraischen Gleichungen " {ib.). He
has also contributed a large number of articles to
the Hungarian mathematical journals.

From 1886 to 1890 Konig was dean, and from 1891
to 1893 rector, of the Polytechnic high school; and
in 1889 he was elected a member of the Royal Acad-
emy of Sciences. In the last-mentioned year he re-
ceived baptism.

Bibliography : Magiiarorszdg es a Nagu Vildg, 1875, No. 21 ;
Szinnyei, Magyar Irak Elete ; Pallas Lex.
s. L. V.

KONIGLICHE WEINBERGE : A southeast-
ern suburb of Prague. The city of Konighche
Weinberge was built within a few years after the
Austro-Prussian war of 1866, when the walls of
Prague were removed. As the site had been formerly
occupied by vineyards that were cultivated mainly
by Jewish farmers, Jews may be regarded as the
first settlers of the citj\ Many Jewish families from
Prague moved into the new suburb as soon as it had
been laid out ; and approximately 400 families settled
there about 1880. Still no need was felt for a distinct
religious organization, as the new inhabitants re-
tained connection with their former congregations at
Prague. Special religious institutions and services
were found to be necessary only after a number of
Jewish families from the country went to Wein-
berge.

The first services were held in the city on New-
Year's Day, 1882, in a hall rented by Simon Engel
of Raudnitz. Rabbi M. Stark of Horazdowitz,
who had been teacher of the Talmud and of religion
in secondary schools at Prague, was elected rabbi of
Weinberge in 1884. He at once took steps for the
building of a synagogue ; and through his efforts a
fund of 9,000 florins was raised. This sum was
entirely insufficient; and as the congregation was
unable to borrow money, having no security to
give, the building of the synagogue had to be de-
ferred until the congregation became a community
with the right of taxing its members, in conformity
with the law of March 21, 1890. With the sum of
1,000,000 crowns, borrowed from the state bank, an
imposing building in the Renaissance style was
erected. The small synagogue in tlie left wing,

seating 200 persons, was dedicated in Sept., 1894;
and the large temple, seating 2,000 persons, was
dedicated two years later. The services are modern,
with organ and mixed choir. Services in Czech are
held by Dr. Wiener for the inhabitants of the city
who speak that language.

In 1903 the Jewish community numbered 1,200
families, and, with the exception of Prague, was
the largest in the country. The Frauenverein
(founded 1887) and the Hilfsverein (1897), together
numbering 600 members, with a fund of 8,000
crowns, have charge of the poor and sick. The
community of Weinberge does not own any ceme-
tery, its dead being buried by the Hebra Kaddisha
of Prague. The orphan asylum for boys, founded
by the Verein zur Errichtung und Erhaltung eines
Allgemeinen Israelitischen Waisenhauses filr B5h-
men, and the Kaiser Franz Josef Jubilaums-Stiftung
Waisenheim filr Madchen, founded by Moritz Hahn
of Prague, are at Weinberge. These institutions
had together seventy inmates in 1903.

D. M. Sta.

KONIGSBEBG : Capital of the province of East
Prussia. It was founded by the knights of the
Teutonic Order, the laws of which excluded the
Jews from its territory. After the secularization of
the order Duke Albert granted to two Jewish physi-
cians the privilege of practising medicine at Konigs-
berg (1538 and 1541). But the city objected for a
long time to the admission of Jews. Not until 1654
was the Jew Lazarus, who was warmly recom-
mended to the " Great Elector " by the King of
Poland, granted the privilege of unrestricted com-
merce at Kouigsberg, in spite of the objections of
the municipal authorities. A similar privilege was
granted at the same time to the electoral factor
Israel Aron. For some decades afterward Jews
could stop in the city only for a few days at a time,
on payment of a high toll. In 1680 they were per-
mitted to set up a chapel in the "Burgfreiheit " (that
part of the city which was not under municipal ad-
ministration). An official register of the year 1706
enumerates ten heads of families. A few years
later a number of families, fleeing from the disturb-
ances in Poland, settled there, and were joined in
1734 by the Jews expelled from Danzig when that
city was besieged. ^There were 307 Jews at Kouigs-
berg in 1756; 1,027 in 1817; 3,024 in 1864; and more
than 5,000 about 1880. This number was consider-
ably decreased by the expulsion of Russian subjects;
in 1900 there were 3,975 Jews in a total population
of 189,483.

The larger number of the Jews worshiping in the
chapel erected in 1680 were foreigners, residing
temporarily at Konigsberg. The con-
Formation gregation of Konigsberg was founded
of Congre- in 1704, when the cemetery was ac-

gation. quired. Before that time the Jews
were obliged to bury their dead be-
yond the frontier, in Poland. On Nov. 23, 1704, a
"hebra kaddisha" was founded. The community
received a constitution by the law of April 7, 1722;
the synagogue was dedicated Dec. 23, 1756 ; des-
troyed by the great fire in the suburb in 1811 ; and
rebuilt on the same site in 1815. It served for gen-
eral worship down to Aug., 1896, when it was

Kbnigsberg
Kbnigrswarter

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

550

founding of

transferred to a society of Russian Jews living at
Konigsberg. The earliest extant constitution of the
community, aside from the law of 1722, is dated
1811; this has been revised several times, the latest
draft being dated 1903.

The Jewish community of Konigsberg is distin-
guished as one of the pioneers of modern culture.
Its first rabbi, Solomon Flirst, was a matriculate of
the university in the first quarter of the eighteenth
century, and was assistant in the royal library. In
the second half of that century the Friedlander fam-
ily especially, and men like Isaac Euchel, Marcus
Herz, and Aaron Joel, pupils of Kant, introduced the
ideas of Mendelssohn into Konigsberg. In that city
Euchel issued his appeal for the
a Hebrew liter-
ary society and
the periodical
"Ha-Meassef,"
the first volumes
of which ap-
peared there ;
and there he
published, in
1782, a circular
letter ("Sefat
Emet") in which
he advocated in-
stitutions for the
education of the
young modeled
after the "Frei-
schule " at Ber-
lin. But his
efiforts in this di-
rection did not
succeed, owing
to the opposition
of the Orthodox.
In 1812, and
again in 1820
(when Isaac
Asher Francolm
was called as
preacher and
teacher of relig-
ion), the school
question occa-
sioned further
dissension ;
Francolm finally
was obliged to
resign (1826),
and his position

remained vacant until 1835. During the incumbency
of his successor, Joseph Levin Saalschutz (1835-63),
thefirst Jewish professorat Konigsberg, services were
held for a short time (in 1847) on Sunday morning.
After his death and that of Rabbi Mecklenburg, who
had held the rabbinate during Saalschiitz's term of
office, the functions of rabbi and preacher were com-
bined. When the organ was installed in the communal
synagogue, in 1870, a number of Orthodox members
formed a separate congregation, which subsequently
took the name of " Adass Jisroel." Besides these,
there are three private synagogues. The new syu-

Synagogue at Konigsberg.

(From a photograph.)

agogue of the community was dedicated Aug.,
1896.

Four physicians of Konigsberg have taken a

prominent part in the struggle for the emancipation

of the Jews: Dr. Johann Jacoby; Dr. Ferdinand

Falkson (who defended, against the government,

the validity of his marriage with a Christian); Dr.

Raphael Kosch (chiefly instrumental in securing

the abolition of the Jews' oath in Prussia, in 1869) ;

Dr. Simon Samuel (who secured for Jews the right

of admission to the faculty of K6-

Rabbis. nigsberg Universitj')- The following

rabbis have ofiiciated at Konigsberg :

Solomon Fiirst (called in 1707 ; his term of oftice

and the year of his death are not known ; he was

still officiating
in 1722; he is the
author of a caba-
listic work and
of a prayer
printed in He-
brew and Ger-
man) ; Aryeh
(L5b) Epstein
b. Mordecai
(1745-1775):
Samuel Wig-
dor (called in
1777; evidently
died before
1784); Samson
b. Mordecai
(died in 1794);
Joshua Bar
Herzfeld (1800-
1814; grandson
of R. Jacob
Joshua of
Frankfort; sub-
sequently rabbi
a.t Rawitscli);
Levin Joseph
Saalschutz
(1814-23; father
of the preacher;
vice-rabbi ad in-
terim); "Wolff
Laseron (1824-
1828); Jacob
Hirsch Meck-
lenburg (1831-
1865; author of
" Ha-Ketab we-
ha- Kabbalah");
Isaac Bamberger ; Hermann Vogelstein (called
1897). The rabbi of the Adass Jisroel congregation
is (1904) A. Liebermann.

Among the cantors at Konigsberg were Hirsch
Weintraub (1838-79; d. 1881; previously cantor at
Dubno) and Eduard Birnbaum (from 1879 ; b. 1854
at Cracow ; previously cantor at Magdeburg and at
Beuthen in Silesia). Besides various charitable and
educational societies, KSnigsberg has two orphan
asylums and a home for the aged.

Bibliography: Borowskl, Beitrag zur Neueren Gesch. der
Juden in Preiussen, Besonders in Beziehung auf Ihre

651

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

KdnifiTsberg'
Kbnigrswarter

Freieren GotfesdiomtUchen Uehungen, in Preuxsischei>
Archiv, ii., Konigsberg, 1790 ; idem, Moses Meiidch>i(>hn»und
David Kmikers Aufmize Uber Jlldisclie Oebctc lutd Fest-
feiern, ib. 1791; Jolowicz, Gcj^ch. derJndenin Kiiniqshera
in Freussen, Posen, 1867 ; Saalschiitz, Znr Gexch. der Sriiia-
gopengcmcinde in KOnigsberu, in Monatssdirift, vi.-ix.;
Vogelstein, Beitrdge znr Gesch. dcs Unterrichtswesois in
der JUdischen Gemeindc zu Kt'migsberg in Prenssen,
Konigsberg, 1903.

D. H. V.

KONIGSBERGEB, LEO : German mathema-
ticiau ; boru iu Poseu Oct. 15, 1837. He studied in
Berlin (Ph.D. 1860), and was appointed instructor
in mathematics and physics at the Military Acad-
emy, Berlin, in 1861; in 1864 he was made assist-
ant professor, in 1867 professor, of mathematics in
Greifswald ; and in 1869 he succeeded O. Hesse as
professor in Heidelberg. In 1875 he was called to
the polytechnic school of Dresden, and in 1877 to
Vienna University. He is at present (1904) professor
of mathematics at the University of Heidelberg, and
is a member of the academies of Berlin, Munich, and
Gottingen, as well as of many other learned societies.

Besides publishing many essays and contributions
to scientific journals, Konigsberger is the author
of the following works; " Modulargleichungen
der Elliptischen Functionen," Leipsic, 1868; "Vor-
lesungen tiber die Theorie der Elliptischen Func-
tionen," ib. 1874; "Vorlesungen liber die Theorie
der Hyper-Elliptischen Integralrechnung," ib. 1878;
"ZurGesch. der Theorie der Elliptischen Transcen-
denten 1826-29," z^*. 1879; " Allgemeine Untersuch-
uagen zur Theorie der Differential Gleichungen," ib.
1882; "Principien der Mechanik," 1901. He is also
the biographer of Helmholtz (" Herman von Helm-
holtz," 3 vols., Brunswick, 1902-3).

Bibliography : Poggendorfl, BiograpMsch-Literarlsches
HandwOHerb. zur Gesch. der Exactcn JVisscnschaften,
Leipsic, 1898.
s. H. Gut.

KONIGSTEIN, LEOPOLD : Austrian oculist ;
born at Bisenz, Moravia, April 26, 1850; M.D.,
Vienna, 1873. On graduating he engaged in prac-
tise as an oculist in the Austrian capital; in 1882
he became privat-docent, and in 1901 assistant pro-
fessor of ocular surgery, at his alma mater. Among
his works may be mentioned : " Praktische Anleitung
zum Gebrauch des Augenspiegels," Vienna, 1889;
"Die Beliandlung der Haufigsten und Wichtigsten
Augenkrankheiten,"in four parts, ib. 1889-93; ''Die
Anomalien der Refraction und Accommodation," ib.
1895.
Bibliography : Paget, Biog. Lex. 1901.

s. F. T. H.

KONIGSWARTER : A family that resided in
Konigswarte, near Tachau, Bohemia, about the
middle of the eighteenth century, when Jonas Hirsch
Konigswarter emigrated thence to Fiirth, Bavaria.
There he established a business that made hint
Avealthy, enabling him to bequeath to his sons not
only an honorable name, but means sufficient to
insure a position in the world. At his death (1805)
he left five sons, who founded banking-houses succes-
sively in Frankfort-on-the-Main, Vienna, Amster-
dam, and Hamburg.

Jonas Konigswarter : Born at Fiirth Aug. 10,
1807; died at Vienna Dec. 3, 1871; son of Marcus
and Jeannette Konisswarter, the latter being a mem-

ber of the familj- of the imperial court agent Samson
Weuthei.mkk. Jonas received a careful and strictly
religious training, and early manifested e.vtraordi-
nary intellectual gifts and a genius for finance. On
one occasion, when his father had presented him
with 20 ducats, Jonas, although but a schoolboy at
the time, had the foresight to invest his little capi-
tal in bonds, which in a short time made him the
possessor of 10,000 florins, a venture of which he
frequently boasted in later years. In 1825 he accom-
panied his father to Vienna on a visit to his uncle,
Moritz Konigswarter, to whose daughter Josephine
he soon afterward became engaged. The wedding-
day had been scarcely settled when Moritz Konigs-
warter was stricken with typhoid fever, to which
he succumbed.

Jonas Konigswarter now decided to settle in
Vienna, where he became the head of the banking-
house founded by his uncle, who had left no son.
His business prospered; and the bank came to be
ranked among the leading institutions of Austria.
As a natural consequence, Konigswarter was called
upon to fill high public offices. In 1838 he became
examiner of the Austrian National Bank, and in
1850 a director of that institution. Later he was
elected to a directorship in the Oesterreichische
Creditgesellschaft, the Kaiser Ferdinand's Nord-
bahn, the Sud-Norddeutsche Verbindungsbahn. and
the BOhmische Westbahn, and he served as presi-
dent of the last-named railroad for many years. He
was also a member of the advisory committee of the
Vienna Stock Exchange, and president of the Jewish
congregation of the city.

In recognition of his public services, Konigswar-
ter was decorated with the Order of the Iron Crown
of the third class, and elevated to the knighthood ;
and in 1870 he received the decoration of the second
class of the same order, and was raised to the bar-
onetage. Konigswarter, however, rated far more
highly than these distinctions the warm personal
esteem with which Emperor Francis Joseph regarded
him.

KOnigswarter's memory has been perpetuated by
numerous endowments, the most notable being the
Jewish Institute for the Blind near Vienna (Hohe
Warte), the inauguration of which the donor did not,
however, live to see. S.

Louis Jean Konigswarter : French economist ;
born at Amsterdam ALarch 12, 1814; died in Paris
Dec. 6, 1878. He wrote: "Essai sur la Legislation
des Peuples Anciens et Modernes Relative aux En-
fants nes liors Mariage " (1842); "Etudes Histo-
riques sur le Developpement de la Societe Humaine "
(1850) ; " Histoire de I'Organisation de la Famille en
France" (1851); "Sources et Monuments du Droit
Frau^ais Anterieur au XVme Sic^cle " (1853). In 1851
he was elected corresponding member of the Aca-
demic des Sciences Morales et Politiques; and he
found(?d the "Prix Konigswarter" (1,500 francs), to
be given every three years by the academy for the
best work on the history of law.

Bibliography: La Grande EncycU)pedie.

S. M.\N.

Maximilien, Baron von Konigswarter:
French banker and deputy ; born in Amsterdam 1817;

Konigrsvrarter
Konitz Affair

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

652

died in Paris Oct. 12, 1878. In 1848 Kiinigswarter left
Amsterdam for Paris, wliere he became naturalized,
opened a banking establishment, and became an
earnest adherent of Napoleon, in support of whose
cause he established a journal. On Dec. 3, 1851,
Konigswarter became deputy of the Seine department
in the legislature. His ardent advocacy of the im-
perialist regime lost him his seat in 1863, when he
was defeated bj' Jules Simon. Konigswarter was a
member of the Paris municipal council and an officer
of the Legion of Honor.

Bibliography : Larousse, Diet.

s. V. E.

Moritz, Baron von Konigswarter : Austrian
banlier and philanthropist; born in Vienna July 16,
1837 ; died there Nov. 14, 1893 ; son of Jonas Konigs-
warter. He early undertook journeys abroad to
study the principal financial institutions, and by the
time of his father's death he was an active partner

in the bank, which he
had entered in 1860.
From 1870 onward he
participated in all the
great financial opera-
tions originated in Vien-
na, besides assisting in
the management of the
many important institu-
tions with which his
firm was connected.
During the financial cri-
sis of 1873 he rendered
valuable services to the
Austrian government,
which were acknowl-
edged by the emperor
with the bestowal of the
cross of the Order of
Francis Joseph. He was a director of a great num-
ber of raih'oads and financial institutions; and he
acted also as consul-general for Denmark.

In 1879 Konigswarter was appointed by the em-
peror a life member of the Austrian House of Peers
(OesterreichischesHerrenhaus). He joined the group
of Liberals, and never missed an opportunity of
speaking in behalf of his coreligionists. At the
general elections of 1884 he was elected by the first
district of Vienna a member of the Diet of Lower
Austria. One of his most important speeches in
that body was directed against the idea of a " Ger-
mania Irredenta,"

Konigswarter converted a large portion of his im-
mense wealth into landed property, acquiring ex-
tensive estates in Bohemia, ]\Ioravia, and Himgary.
He was a great lover of paintings; and his collection
was one of the most valuable private galleries in the
world, including some of the finest works of Rubens,
Van Dyck, Rembrandt, Ruysdael, and Ilobema.

Besides aiding numerous private charities, he was
one of the greatest public benefactors of Austria,
taking especial interest in the Institute for the Blind
at the Hohen Warte, near Vienna, which had been
endowed by his father; in the Franz Josefsstiftung,
in the foundation of the Israelitisdi-Theologische
Lehranstalt of Vienna, etc.
Although Voltaire Avas one of his favorite authors.

Moritz Konigswarter.

Konigswarter was very conservative in matters of
religion, the dietary laws being strictly observed in
all of his residences, although members of the high-
est Austrian aristocracy and the most prominent
dignitaries of the Church were often guests at his
table.

Bibliography: Jew. Chrnn. Nov. 1" and 24, 189.3; Oester-
reichi.'^che Wocherischriftoi same dates; Neue Freie Presse,
Nov. 15-17, 1893.

Wilhelm Konigswarter : German philanthro-
pist; born at Fiirth March 4, 1809; died at Meran
3Iay 15, 1887. His grandfather Jonas went to Fiirth
from Konigswart, Bohemia, and married Charlotte
Oppenheim of that city. Konigswarter's mother,
Elisabeth, Edle von Lammerfeld, died May 24, 1814,
when he was but five years old. His father, Simon,
who founded numerous charitable institutions in
Fiirth, died Dec. 15, 1854. In memory of his fa-
ther Wilhelm established on July 28, 1855, the Si-
raon-Konigswarter-Stiftung to promote, by annual
prizes, morality and industry among mechanics and
apprentices; and on Jan. 23, 1856, he endowed, in
memorj' of his mother, the Elisabeth-Konigswarter-
Stiftung for indigent Jews. Konigswarter left his
large fortune to his native city, which had made
him (Oct. 21, 1867) an honorary citizen; a street
was named after him in memory of his munificent
bequest.

Bibliography: Fronmuller, Climnik der Stadt FVtrth. pp.
21.5, 302. 338, 346, 349, pa,^im. Furth, 1887 ; Kayserling, Ge-
denkblatter, p. 43, Leipsic, 1892.
s. S. Sa.

KONITZ AFFAIR: An aocusation of ritual
murder, based on the unexplained assassination of
the student Ernst Winter in Konitz, West Prussia.
Winter, the son of an architect of Prechlau, attended
the gymnasium of Konitz. Although only nineteen
years old, he was known for his licentiousness. On
March 11, 1900, he left his boarding-house after din-
ner, and did not return. It was immediately thought
probable that the young man had fallen through
the ice while skating on the lake. Accordingly the
lake was searched, and on March 15 parts of his
body were discovered. His right arm was found in
the cemetery, where some one had thrown it over
the fence ; and on April 15 his head was recovered
from a pool. The body had been dismembered by
some one possessing a knowledge of anatomj* ; and
therefore suspicion first turned against the local
butchers, especially against the Christian butcher
Hoffmann, whose daughter had been frequently
seen in Winter's company, and a member of whose
household had been heard to express threats against
Winter on account of his attention to the young
woman.

Anti-Semites, however, tried from the outset to
turn suspicion against the Jewish inhabitants, and
as there was no evidence implicating any Israelite,
they accused the police of intentions to shield tlie
Jews. On May 9, 1900, the "Staatsbiirgerzeitung,"
the leading anti-Semitic organ of Berlin, said: "No
one can help forming the impression that the organs
of the government received orders to pursue the in-
vestigation in a manner calculated to spare the
Jews." The opposite was true. Detectives and

553

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kbnigswartep
Konitz Affair

judges took up eagerly the most improbable state-
ments implicating Jews, while Christian witnesses
withheld important testimony. The wife of the
school superintendent Rohdc, in whose handkerchief
the head of Winter was found wrapped, ignored the
appeal of the police asking the owner of this hand-
kerchief to report ; and it was by mere accident
that the ownership became known. Further, two
young men who were last seen in Winter's company
never revealed their identity. A Jew, Wolf Israel-
ski, was arrested on the flimsy charge that, two days
previous to the discovery of the head, he had been
seen walking in the direction of the place where the
head was found, with a sack on his back in which
there was some round object. Although he denied
the fact itself, and although the state of preserva-
tion in which the head was found proved conclusive-
ly that it must have lain in the ice for some time,
Israelski was kept in prison for nearly five months,
until his trial (Sept. 8) proved his innocence.

The butcher Hoffmann, who also had been ar-
rested, was discharged; and the city council, of
which he was a member, gave him a cordial recep-
tion when he first appeared after his release. The
language of the court in dismissing the case against
Hoffmann was, moreover, such that the accusation
of ritual murder was indirectly confirmed. Among
the grounds for dismissal the court held that the
deed must have been perpetrated by several people
and according to a premeditated plan. Dr. Miiller,
the county physician ("Kreisphysikus"), rendered
the opinion that Winter had bled to death, which,
as subsequent investigations proved, was untenable.
This opinion was published in the " Staatsbiirger-
zeitung," before the investigation of the court had
been closed; and for this breach of confidence,
Mliller's son, who had communicated the document
to the press, was censured by a court of honor
C'Elirengericht ").

On June 8 of the same year a shed near the .syn-
agogue of Konitz was set on fire; and two days
later excesses were committed against
Anti- the synagogue and against Jewish

Semitic homes to such an extent that the mili-
Agitation tary had to be called out. Similar
and riots, though not of such a severe char-

Excesses, acter, occurred at Czersk (April 22),
Stolp and Biitow (May 21-22), Tuchel
(June 10), and Komarczyn (June 17). An old man
named Landecker, of Cammin, was without any
provocation knocked down with a pitchfork. In all
of these cases the sentences imposed upon the rioters
or assailants were very light, while Jews, whenever
they came before the court, met with hostile senti-
ment and received heavy sentences for the slightest
offenses. A county official to whom a Jew com-
plained of the insults to which he had been sub-
jected on the street, replied: "You can easily ob-
tain relief, if you give up the murderer." A
synagogue sexton who defended himself with a
stake against a crowd which assailed him was sen-
tenced to spend a year in jail; and a similar sentence
was imposed on a Jewish apprentice because he had
beaten a boy who had jeered at him. A highly
respected citizen, Jacob Jacoby of Tuchel, was sen-
tenced to confinement for one year in the peniten-

tiary for perjury (Oct. 10), because he had sworn
that he had called some boys who had shouted
"Hep-Hep!" after him "liimmel" (toughs) only
after they had insulted him, while the boys swore
that he had first called them offensive names. This
sentence was indeed so repugnant to public opinion
that the emperor commuted it to six months in jail,
and revoked that part by which the convict was
deprived of civil rights (March, 1901). The worst
case of persecution was that of Moritz Lewy, re-
ferred to below.

Verj- lenient was the attitude of the authorities

with regard to two dangerous agitators who tried

to make capital out of this affair, the

Attitude Silesian count Pilckler and the Pome-
of the ranian pastor Krosell. The former,

Courts. whom a court afterward adjudged in-
sane, delivered in various cities vio-
lent diatribes against the Jews, in which he declared
among other things that they must be clubbed out
of the country and that the Christians must wade
in Jewish blood up to their ankles. Kro.sell, who
later on had to withdraw^ from the ministry in order
to escape a sentence of expulsion on account of his
immoral life, delivered in the neighborhood of Ko-
nitz lectures on ritual murder and on the immorality
of rabbinical literature; but neither the ecclesiastical
nor the state authorities would interfere; and the
population appreciated Krosell's work to such a de-
gree that in 1903 lie was elected to the Reichstag.
In the Reichstag, where this case was made the sub-
ject of an interpellation (Feb. 8-9, 1901), the Prus-
sian minister of justice Schonstedt limited himself
to a defense of the authorities against the charge
of shielding the Jews; but he carefully refrained
from uttering one word in condemnation of the
ritual-murder charge, and even from stating that
there was no reason for assuming such a motive in
the case of Ernst Winter.

The anti-Semites naturally were unscrupulous in
their desire to make capital of this opportunity.
Liebermann von Sonnenberg, their political leader,
said in a public address: "The Christians have not
yet become accustomed to bear without a murmur
the killing of Christian youths in an unnatural
fashion by Jews within the city walls. " The anti-
Semitic papers, including the organs of the Clerical
party like "Germania," and those of the Conserva-
tives like the "Kreuzzeitung," constantly stirred
up religious fanaticism and fostered the prejudice
that the government had been bought by the Jews.
A society for the investigation of the murder was
formed in Konitz. The statement was spread that
the coroner's commission had not searched the ritual
bath near the synagogue, and had left undisturbed a
room in the house of the butcher Adolf Lewy in
Avhich his wife was supposed to be sick. This
statement was untrue ; not only had all the rooms
in Lewy's house and every nook and corner in the
synagogue been searched, but the commission had
even taken a sample of the blood of chickens from
the yard which was used for killing fowl (see She-
HiTAii). thus adding to the suspicionsof the populace.
The police were evidently mistaken as to traces of
the deed, for some of the garments of the mur-
dered youth were kept in a house in the city un-

Konitz Affair
Eoplik

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

554

til Jan., 1901, without being discovered by them,
and were subsequently found on different days in
a public park. The members of a highly respectable
family named Rosenthal in Cammin were kept in
prison for six months, because a servant-girl of bad
character testified that she had heard Rosenthal say
that he would hang himself on a hook in the ceiling
of his room, as he was unable to bear the remorse he
felt for having participated in the murder of Winter.
Investigation proved that this was intentionally false
testimony. In the room, where, according to the girl's
statement, Rosenthal had pointed to the hook, there
never had been such a hook; but the case against the
girl was dismissed on the plea of insanity (1902).

The fact that the manner in which Winter's body
had been dismembered showed a skilful hand led
from the start, as stated above, to a
Trial suspicion against butchers, and Adolf
of Moritz Lewy, whose house was near the lake
Lewy. where the trunk of Winter's body
was found, was one of the suspects.
From the state of the contents of Winter's stomach
it was proved, however, that Winter could not have
died later than seven o'clock in the evening. For-
tunately Adolf Lewy and his son Moritz could prove
an irrefutable alibi for the hours during which the
murder had been committed; but the anti-Semites,
who desired their implication, testified that Moritz
Lewy had been frequently seen in Winter's com-
pany. Lewy denied having been acquainted with
Winter, although he admitted that he might have
spoken to him, and even have walked with him a
certain distance, as witnesses had testified, without
knowing him by name. At the trial for perjury of
the normal-school student Speisiger, who had made
various statements implicating Jews, Lewy renewed
his statement that he had not known Winter, while
various witnesses testified that they had seen them
together. Lewy was arrested Oct. 6, 1900. The
charges against the Lewys rested on the testimony
of a disreputable person, named Masloff, and his
mother-in-law, named Ross. Masloff alleged that
he had passed by Lewy's cellar on the evening of
the murder and had been attracted by groaning and
b}' an unusual light which proceeded from it. Ly-
ing on the ground, he watched people who had some
human remains on a butcher's block, and he saw
three of them after a while leave the house with a
package and go in the direction of the lake. The
testimony was manifestly false, and contained
many contradictions which Masloff tried to explain
by an alleged confession that he had gone to the
place in order to commit an act of burglary. Per-
sons who had pas.sed Lewy's house about the time
that Masloff claimed to have been watching the per-
sons in the cellar had not noticed any one lying on
the ground. That a man should remain for an hour
and a half on the ground on a cold night in March
was in itself highly improbable ; the murder could
not have been committed at such a late hour; and
an investigation of the cellar showed no traces of
such a deed nor any evidence of the thorough clean-
ing which its commission would have rendered neces-
sary. The woman Ross seems to have been the
inciter of the conspiracy, which most likely had
for its object the securing of the promised great

reward for the discovery of the murderer. She had
worked in the Lewy family, and claimed to have
seen Winter's cigar-case with his photograph in the
possession of the Lewy family. It was, however,
proved that no photograph of Winter existed. Mas-
loff was sentenced to one year and his mother-in-law
to eighteen months in the penitentiary for perjury
(Oct. 25, 1900); but the jury signed a petition for
their pardon, which the emperor did not grant. The
accusation against the Lew3-s, which had rested on
this false testimony, was now disproved, although
the government in its anxiety to purge itself from
the charge of shielding the Jews brought the mat-
ter to trial (Sept. 25, 1901), when the case was dis-
missed. Meanwhile Moritz Lewy had been com-
mitted for perjury on the ground of his denial of
acquaintance with Winter; and although he held to
his original statement, and in spite of the fact that
he could have had no reason for perjuring himself
other than the fear of involving himself in difficul-
ties, he was sentenced to four years in the peniten-
tiary (Feb. 13, 1901). He was released, however, on
Oct. 12, 1903, when the emperor granted his pardon.
His father had long before removed to Berlin, as
his business had been entirely ruined, which also
was the case with many others, so that the number
of Jews residing in Konitz fell from 481 in 1900 to
350 in 1903.

Of great importance was an investigation made in

Danzig by the board of health (Konigliches Medi-

zinalkoUegium) for West Prussia,

The Reason which proved that Winter had been

for the choked to death, and that, contrary to
Crime. the statement of the county physician,
his death was not the result of the cut-
ting of his throat. This opinion, rendered Sept. 7,
1901, was confirmed by the highest medical authorit}',
the Wissenschaftliche Deputation fur Medizinalwe-
sen (state board of health), Jan. 15, 1902. It was
further shown that jealousy was, in all likelihood,
the motive of his death.

Again, it was evidently for political reasons that
the appeal of Winter's father to the superior court
(Oberlandesgcricht) of Marienwerder was consid-
ered sufficiently well founded to be made the basis
of a trial, which was held June 4, 1902, and which
proved the baselessness of all the accusations against
the Jews.

The government showed itself stronger in prose-
cuting cases of libeling the authorities. Bruhn, the
publisher, and Botticher, the editor, of the " Staats-
biirgerzeitung," which paper had from the begin-
ning accused the police and the courts of shielding
the perpetrators of the crime because they were
Jews, were sentenced for libel, the former to six
months and the latter to one year in jail (Oct. 11,
1902). Both of them, however, were elected to the
Reichstag in 1903. Previously G. A. Dewald, a
Berlin publisher, had been sentenced to six months
in jail because on the first anniversary of Winter's
assassination he had published souvenir postal cards
representing Winter suspended by his feet in Lewy's
cellar and the Jews ready to cut his throat.

A .sad sequel to the Konitz trial was the cruel
murder of a Polish typesetter, Abraham Levy, in
Steegers, West Prussia (Sept. 28, 1903), by two

655

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Konitz Affair
Koplik

drunkards, who taunted him with the murder and,
when lie resented the insult in oflfensive language,
beat him to death. Of the perpetrators of this
crime one was sentenced to spend a j'ear in jail,
wiiile the case against the other was dismissed (Jan.
13, 1904). Mysterious as the Konitz case undoubt-
edly is, it has at least been clearly established, as
has been noted above, that the motive of the crime
was jealousy.

Bfbliography: The completest history of the case will be
found in Mittheilungen atis dem Verein zur BekUmpfung
lies Antisemitismus. 1900 et seq. Anti-Semite pamphlets:
Sutor, Dcr KonitzerMord, Berlin, 1900; idem. Die Konitzer
Prozfxse : Ein Weiter-es Wort zur Aufkliirung, ib. 1900;
Der Blutmord in Konitz mit StreiHich'tern auf die Staats-
rechtUche Stelhmg derJuden im Deutschen Rciche mit
einem Vorwnrte von Liehermann von Sonnenhcrg, ib.
1901; Das Gutachten der Sachverstdndigen ilber den
Konitzer Mord, ib. 1904; W. Zelle, Wer Hat Ernst Winter
Ermordet? Brunswick, 1904.

KONKI (CONaUI or CTJENQXJI). See

CONQUE.

KONTBES (mtajlp; Levita punctuates DIOJIp) :
Usual designation, among the Tosafists, of Rashi's
commentary on the Talmud. Rashi himself uses the
expression once to designate a written Talmudic in-
terpretation by his " old teacher " (Jacob b. Yakar on
Git*, viii. 82a). In the commentary on Ta'an. 21b, a
"kontresof Rome "is mentioned, which elsewhere
(commentary on Ker. 5a) is called "perush [com-
mentary] of Rome " (see Berliner, " Beitrage zur
Gesch. der Raschi-Commentare," p. 4). Rashi's
Bible commentary likewise is termed "kontres" by
himself and by his pupils (I.e. pp. 10, 19): in one
place it is called |'Dnt:jip (plural; I.e. p. 11). The
word does not designate the commentarj' itself, but
the note-book, or books, in which it was written.
Rashi himself, in explaining the Talmudic word
which designates the clasp (see Blau, "Buchwesen,"
p. 171) used to hold the leaves of a book in place,
speaks of the "leaves of the kontres " (DIDJIpn 'DT ;
commentary on Shab. 98a; Men. 32a). In the Yal-
kut to Ps. xlv. 5 (§ 746) an unwritten kontres is
mentioned (p^n D")t3J1p); the source of the Yalkut
(Midr. Teh., ed. Buber, p. 271) has Dt:"np (jop7;/f).
"Kontres" was used to designate explanations writ-
ten in a book even before it was so used by Rashi ;
afterward it became customary to designate Rashi's
Talmud commentary as the "kontres" par excel-
lence. Elijah Levita ("Tishbi," s.®. DitiJIp) states
it as the generally prevailing opinion that Rashi's
Talmud commentary was originally written in sin-
gle blank books, which were then bound together
to form one book, for which reason it was called
"kontres." Zunz, who appropriately translates the
word " lecture note-book " ("Zeitschrift fiirdie Wis-
senschaft des Judenthums," p. 324), holds it to be
an abbreviation of D^"lt3JD1p ("commentarius" ; Git.
28b). In the Talmudic passage mentioned by Zunz
this word is used only in the plural (D'DIDJDIp) ; the
singular does not occur at all (see Krauss, "Lehn-
wOrter," ii. 509 et seg.). Zunz is undoubtedly right
in holding that DIDJIp is a singular, formed from the
Talmudic word. The form found in the Sifre to
Num. xxvii. 12 (§ 134) is without a o before the J

(D'ontojip).

That "kontres" came to be used in the sense of a

"writing-book" appears to have been due to its re-
semblance in sound to "quinternio" or "quaternio, "
from which Levita derives it. However, such a
derivation leaves the s at the end of the word unex-
plained, and it is better to have recourse to the
words "quaternus," "quinternus," which likewise
were used to designate books of four or five leaves
(see Wattenbach, "Das Schriftwesen des Mittel-
alters," Index). Nevertheless in Rashi's school the
existence of the Talmudic word doubtless contrib-
uted to establishing the form DltSJIp- In other than
Jewish circles " quaternus " (" quaternio ") indicated
a writing-book, without any reference to the num-
ber of its pages (Wattenbach, I.e. p. 178). Mussafia's
explanation may be mentioned as a curiosity (see
Kohut's "Aruch Completum," vii. 122a), namely,
that the word is shortened from " commentarius "
("explanation," or "one who explains"), a deriva-
tion which has been adopted by Levy ("Neuhebr.
Worterb." iv. 265b).

The original meaning of "kontres," which was
spoken and written also with "i (D^injlp) has been
preserved in later literature. The leaves of a book
are called D''D''"nJ1p (see Steinschneider, " Cat. Bodl."
col. 1093; comp. also p. Ixvi.). A small book is
called D'"1t3J1p or D^llJIp (see Steinschneider, " Vor-
lesungen tiber die Kunde Hebraischer Hand-
schriften," p. 23). Benjacob ("Thesaurus Libr.
Hebr." p. 524a) defines the bibliographical meaning
of "kontres" thus: A "kontres" is a small opus
which is not large enough to form a separate vol-
ume, but which is usually appended to another vol-
ume. Benjacob enumerates a large number of books
and treatises of which " Kontres " either is the only
title or else is prefixed to the title (pp. 524-526; Nos.
228-310). In modern times the writings of A. Jelli-
nek maybe mentioned, in which the word "Kon-
tres " forms part of the titles, and w^hich furnish a
systematic bibliography to various fields of Jewish
literature (see Lippe, " Bibliographisches Lexicon,"
pp. 209 et seq., Nos. 82-87).

Bibliography : In addition to citations In the article, see 8. M.
Schiller-Szinessy, Cat. Hebr. MSS. 1. 181, Cambridge, 1876 ;
Giidemann, Gesch. i. 193.
G. W. B.

KOPLIK, HENRY : American physician ; born
at New York Oct. 28, 1858; educated at the Col-
lege of the City of New York and at the College
of Physicians and Surgeons (M.D. 1881). He took
a postgraduate course at the universities of Leipsic,
Prague, and Vienna, and on his return to America
established himself as a physician in his native city
(1883). There he became connected with Bellevue
Hospital, the Good Samaritan Dispensary, and other
medical institutions. Since 1899 he has been assistant
professor of pediatrics at Bellevue Medical College.

Koplik was the first to describe an early diagnos-
tic sign in measles, since known as " Koplik 's spots " ;
apd he found, too, the bacillus of whooping-cough.
He also introduced the free delivery of Pasteurized
milk to the needy poor, in which he was followed
later by Nathan Straus.

Besides essays in the medical journals Koplik is
the author of "Diseases of Infancy and Childhood."
New York, 1902.

A. F. T. H.

Eoppelmann
Koran

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

656

KOPPELMANN : Rabbi at Nuremberg toward

the end of the fourteenth century. In 1406 Rabbi

Israel went to Nuremberg and taught there, at first

together with Koppelmann. Afterward they had a

controversy, w^hich Rabbi Jacob Weil, interfering,

strongly urged the council of the Jewish community

to end. Thereupon the latter settled the question

by deciding that the two rabbis should lecture on

alternate days, the pupils to have the right to attend

the lectures of either. The peace, however, does not

appear to have been of long duration ; for in 1412 a

"Koppelmann, son of the schismatic," was forever

banished from the cit}'.

Bibliography : Barbeck, Geftch. derJuden in Xilnibergund
FUrth, pp. 30, 33; Likhute MahriU ed. Hanau, 1730. p. 71a ;
Jacob Weil, Respoiisa, pp". 151, 163 ; Israel Iserlin, Responsa,
ii. 130.
s. s. M. L. B.

KOPPELMANN, JACOB BEN SAMUEL:

German author and translator; born in the district

of Breisgau 1555; died 1598. In 1583 he went to

Frankfort-on-the-Main, but was obliged to leave

that city on account of tlie plague. While on the

road he composed his " Ohel Ya'akob " (Freiburg,

1584), a commentary on the " 'Ikkarim " of Joseph

Albo.

He published also: a Judteo-German translation

of the Five Megillot, with the Targum Sheni to

Esther {ib. 1583); a translation in Yiddish of Bere-

chiah ha-Nakdan's "Mishle Shu'alim" (ib. 1588);

and '"Omek Halakah" (Cracow, 1598), expositions

of mathematical passages in the Talmud illustrated

by figures (this book received the approval of the

Council of Four Lands).

Bibliography : Fuenn. Kcneset Yisraeh p. 540, "Warsaw,
1886; .<>telnschneider. Cat. Bodl. col. 1252; Nepl-Ghirondl,
Toledot Gedole Yisrad, p. 198, Triest, 1853.
D. B. Fr.

KOR. See Weights and Measures.

KOBAH (mp) : 1. Son of Esau by Aholibamah ;
mentioned as a "duke" (»|1^X) of the land of Edom
(Gen. x.xxvi. 5, 14, 18; I Chron. i. 35). 2. Son of
Eliphaz, Esau's son by Adah; also mentioned as a
"duke" of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 16). 3. Son of He-
bron of the tribe of Judali (I Chron. ii. 43).

4. Biblical Data : Son of Izhar, of the family
of Kohath, and great-grandson of Levi (Ex. vi. 22;
in I Chron. vi. 7 he is mentioned as a sou of Kohath,
but verse 22, following, also mentions him as the
son of Izhar the son of Kohath). During the jour-
ney of the Israelites in the wilderness, Korah, with
Dathan and Abiram, sons of Eliab, On, son of
Peleth, and two hundred and fifty other "men of
renown," rebelled against the leadership of Moses
and Aaron (Num. xvi. 1-3). Moses ordered Korah
and his company to appear in the Tabernacle on the
following day, each bearing a censer filled with
lighted incense, and the Lord would decide wlio were
the rightful leaders of the people (xvi. 4-17). Korah
and liis company obeyed, and went to the Tabernacle
with their lighted censers, followed by tlie whole
congregation. The congi-egation was commanded
to separate itself from Korah and his band, and
when this order was carried out "the earth opened
her mouth," and the arch conspirators "and all
that appertained to them went down alive into
the pit, and the earth closed upon them," while a

fire from the Lord consumed their two hundred and
fifty attendants (xvi, 18-35). Korah's children,
however, did not die with their father (xxvi. 11).
The censers of the conspirators were made into broad
plates to cover the altar, as a warning to future con-
spirators (xvii. 1-5, Hebr.). After Korah"s destruc-
tion the people murmured against Moses for having
caused it, and a plague was sent .by the Lord to des-
troy them. This plague killed 14,700 men before its
ravages were stopped by an atonement ofEered for
the people by Aaron (xvii. 6-15, Hebr.).

From Korah were descended the Korahites, or
Korhites, first mentioned in Ex. vi. 24, and reap-
pearing as Levites in Num. xxvi. 58 and I Chron.
ix. 31. Several Psalms (xlii., xliv.-xlix., Ixxxiv.,
Ixxxv., Ixxxvii., Ixxviii.) are headed "for the sons
of Korah," and the Korahites appear again as sing-
ers before Jehoshaphat fought the Moabites and Am-
monites (II Chron. xx. 19). Several Korahite war-
riors joined David while he was at Ziklag (I Chron.
xii. 6). Korahites are mentioned also as porters at,
and gate-keepers of, the Tabernacle (I Chron. ix. 19,
xxvi. 1, 19).

J. JR. C. J. 31.
In Rabbinical Literature : The name " Ko-
rah " (mp) is explained by the Rabbis as meaning
" baldness. " It was given to Korah on account of
the gap or blank which he made in Israel by his
revolt (Sanh. 109b). Korah is represented as the
possessor of extraordinary wealth, he having dis-
covered one of the treasures which Joseph had hid-
den in Egypt. The keys of Korah's treasuries alone
formed a load for three hundred mules (Pes. 119a;
Sanh. 110a). He and Haman were the two riciiest
men in the world, and both perished on account of
their rapacity, and because their riches were not the
gift of Heaven (Num. R. xxii. 7; comp. Ex. R. Ii.
1). On the other hand, Korah is represented as a
wise man, chief of his family and as one of the
Kohathites who carried the Ark of the Covenant on
their shoulders (Tan., ed. Buber, Korah, Supple-
ment, 5; Num. R. xviii. 2).

The chief cause of Korah's revolt was, according
to the Rabbis, the nomination of Elizaphan, son of
Uzziel, as prince over theKoliathitcs (Num. iii. 30),
Korah arguing thus: "Kohath had four sous [Ex.
vi. 18]. The two sons of Amram, Kohath's eldest
son, took for themselves the kingdom
Cause of and the priesthood. Now, as I am the

Revolt. son of Kohath's second son, I ought
to be made prince over the Kohatliites,
whereas Moses gave that office to Elizapiian, the son
of Kohath's youngest son " (Num. R. xviii. 1 ; Tan.,
Korah, 3). Korah plied Moses with the following
questions : " Does a tallit made entirely of blue wool
need fringes '? " To ^Nloses' affirmative answer Korah
objected: "The blue color of the tallit does not
make it ritually correct, yet according to thy state-
ment four blue tiireads do so " (Num. xv. 38).
" Does a house filled with the books of the Law need
a mezuzah ? " Moses replied that it did ; whereupon
Korah said: "The presence of the whole Torah,
which contains 175 chapters, does not make a house
fit for habitation, yet thou sayest that one chapter
thereof docs so. It is not from God tiiat thou iiast
received these commandments; thou hast invented

557

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Koppelmann
Koran

them thyself." He then assembled 250 men, chiefs
of the Sanhedrin, and, having clad them in tallitot
of blue wool, but without fringes, prepared for them
a banquet. Aaron's sons came for the priestly share,
but Korah and his people refused to give the pre-
scribed portions to them, saying that it was not
God but Moses who commanded those things.
Moses, having been informed of these proceedings,
went to the house of Korah to effect a reconciliation,
but the latter and his 250 followers rose up against
him (Num. R. xviii. 2; Tan. I.e.; comp. Targ.
pseudo-Jonathan to Num. xvi. 2).

Korah consulted his wife also, who encouraged
him in the revolt, saying: " See what Moses has done.
He has proclaimed himself king ; he has made his
brother high priest, and his brother's sons priests:
still more, he has made thee shave all thy hair [comp.
Num. viii. 7] in order to disfigure thee." Korah an-
swered: "But he has done the same to his own
sons." His wife replied: "Moses hated thee so much
that he was ready to do evil to his own children
provided the same evil would overtake thee" (Midr.
Agadah to Num. xvi. 8; Yalk., Num. 750; comp.
Num. R. I.e. ; Tan. I.e. ; Sanh. 110a).

Korah incited all the people against Moses, argu-
ing that it was impossible to endure the laws insti-
tuted by the latter. He told them the following
parable: "A widow, the mother of

Korah's two young daughters, had a field.

Parable. When she came to plow it, Moses told
her not to plow it with an ox and an
ass together (Deut. xxii. 10) ; when she came to sow
it, Moses told her not to sow it with mingled seeds
(Lev. xix. 19). At the time of harvest she had to
leave unreaped the parts of the field prescribed by
the Law, while from the harvested grain she had to
give the priest the share due to him. The woman
sold the field and with the proceeds bought two
sheep. But the first-born of these she w^as obliged
to give to Aaron the priest; and at the time of
shearing he required the first of the fleece also
(Deut. xviii. 4). The widow said : ' I can not bear
this man's demands any longer. It will be better
for me to slaughter the sheep and eat them. ' But
Aaron came for the shoulder, the two cheeks, and
the maw {ib. verse 3). The widow then vehemently
cried out: ' If thou persistest in thy demand, I de-
clare them devoted to the Lord.' Aaron replied:
' In that case the whole belongs to me ' (Num. xviii.
14), whereupon he took away the meat, leaving the
widow and her two daughters wholly unprovided
for" (Num. R. xviii. 2-3; Tan., Korah, 4-6).

The question how it was possible for a wise man
like Korah to be so imprudent as to rebel is explained
by the fact that he was deceived through his own pro-
phetical capacity. He had foreseen that the prophet
Samuel would be his descendant, and therefore con-
cluded that he himself would escape punishment.
But he was mistaken ; for, while his sons escaped,
he perished (Num. R. xviii. 7; Tan., Korah, 12).

At the time of Korah's engulfment, the earth be-
came like a funnel, and everything that belon_ged
to him, even linen that was at the launderer's and
needles that had been borrowed by persons living at
a distance from Korah, rolled till it fell into the
chasm (Yer. Sanh. x. 1 ; Num. R. ^.c). According

to the Rabbis, Korah himself underwent the double

punishment of being burned and buried alive (Num.

R. I.e. 14; Tan., Korah, 23). He and

Destruc- his followers continued to sink till

tion of Hannah prayed for them (Gen. R.

Korah. xcviii. 3) ; and through her prayer,
tlie Rabbis declare, Korah will ascend
to paradise (Ab. R. N. xxxvi. ; Num. R. xviii. 11;
comp. Sanh. 109b). Rabbah bar bar Hana narrates
that while he was traveling in the desert, an Arab
showed him the place of Korah's engulfment. There
was at the spot a slit in the ground into which he
introduced some wool soaked in water. Tlie wool
became parched. On placing his ear to the slit, he
heard voices cry: "Moses and his Torah are true;
and we are liars " (B. B. 74a; comp. Tan., ed. Buber,
Korah, Supplement).

s. s. M. Sel.

Critical View : Korah in the chief narrative

concerning him (Num. xvi.) is associated with
Dathan and Abiram in leading a revolt against
Moses and Aaron. A close examination of the
chapter shows that two independent narratives — one
in which Dathan and Abiram figure and one in which
Korah alone appears — have been woven together.
In verses 12-15, 27b-32 Moses speaks with Dathan
and Abiram, while in the rest of the passage he
speaks with Korah alone. Then, as the narrative
now stands, Korah and his followers are killed
twice, once in xvi. 32b-33 and again in verse 35.
The Deuteronomist (Deut. xi. 6) knew only the story
as related of Dathan and Abiram. This form of the
tale comes from JE.

The story of Korah thus separated originally re-
lated a contest between a band of Israelites and
Moses and Aaron over the right of the Levites to
exercise the priestly office. This narrative belongs
to P. A still later writer, by inserting " the son of
Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi " in verse

1, and by adding verses 8-11, made the contest ap-
pear as one between a band of Levites and the house
of Aaron over the priesthood.

Wellhausen ("Composition des Hexateuchs," p.

108) points out that Korah in I Chron. ii. 43 is a

Judahite clan, and Bacon (" Triple Tradition of the

Exodus," pp. 194 et seq.) has argued strongly for

the view that the original P narrative is based on a

Judahite story of J.

Bibliography: Kuenen, Bexateuch. pp. 95 et seq.. 334;
Bacon, Triple Tradition nf tlie Exodus, pp. 191 et seq.; J.
Estlin Carpenter and G. Harford Battersby, Hexatevch, li.
213 et seq. _

J. JR. G. A. B.

KOBAX : The sacred scriptures of Islam. Ac-
cording to Mohammedan belief, based upon the tes-
timony of the book itself, the Koran consists of sep-
arate revelations vouchsafed by God to Mohammed
through tlie angel Gabriel (sura ii. 91, xxv. 34).
These were delivered in Arabic (xxvi. 195) and were
thus first of all for the Arabs, who had previously
received no manifestation of the will of God (xxxiv.
43). They were designed, also, to confirm the
older books of the Torah and the Gospels, and to
lead mankind in the right way (iii. 2, et al.). Mo-
hammed is, therefore, the messenger of God (xcviii.

2, etc.) and the seal of the Prophets (xxxiii. 40). In
the prime of life this remarkable man, whose devel-

Koran

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

558

opment is traced in no authentic records, voluntarily
retired to solitude. There, through vigils and fast-
ing, he fell into religious trances, in which he felt
himself inspired to warn his fellows of an impending
judgment.

The oldest portions of the Koran represent the

material result of this inspiration. They reflect an

extraordinary degree of excitement in their language

— in their short, abrupt sentences and in

Form of their sudden transitions, but none the

Revela- less they carefully maintain the rimed
tion. form, like the oracles and magic for-
mulas of the pagau Arab priests
(Al-A'sha, in Ibn Hisham). This form is preserved in
the later sections also, in some of which the move-
ment is calm and the style expository. The book,
which is about equal to the New Testament in size,
was put together long after the prophet's death;
and its 114 sections were arranged without any re-
gard for chronological sequence.

Quotations from the Koran are found as early as
the period of Mohammed's activity in Mecca (Ibn
Hisham, ib. p. 226). The oldest fragments may have
been recited by the prophet himself before a band of
followers, though probably a small one, who could
more easily preserve them, either orally or in writing.
The following extracts, referring to the most impor-
tant articles of faith taught in the Koran, will give
an approximate idea of its language and mode of
thought:

"Allah is the Creator of the heavens and the earth ;
when He says ' Be, ' it is " (ii. Ill; iii. 42, 52). "With
Him are the keys of the unseen. None
Allah and knows it save Him ; His is the under-
Creation. standing of all that is in the land and
in the sea; and no leaf falls without
His knowledge " (vi. 59). " Should God touch thee
with harm, there is none to remove it save Him ;
and if He wish thee well, there is none to restrain
His bounty " (x. 107). "Do not the unbelieving see
that the heavens and the earth were one until We
clove them asunder and made every living thing
from water " (xxi. 31). " He it is who appointed the
sun for brightness; He established the moon for
light antl ordained her stations, that je may know
the number of the years and the reckoning of them "
(x. 5). "The cattle, likewise, have We created for
you; in them are warmth and much profit, and of
them ye eat. In tliem is there beautj^ for you when
ye fetch them from their pastures, and when ye
drive them forth to graze. They bear 3'our heavy
burdens to towns which ye could not otherwise
reach, save with great wretchedness of soul: verily,
your Lord is gracious and mercifid 1 " " Horses, too,
has He created, and mules, and asses, for you to
ride upon and for an ornament" (xvi. 5-8). "Ik-
it is that sends rain from heaven, whereof ye drink ;
from which grow the trees whereby ye feed your
flocks." "He makes the corn to grow, and the
olives, and the palms, and the grapes, and all man-
ner of fruit : verily, herein is a sign imto tliem that
reflect" (xvi. 10, 11). "He it is that subjected the
sea unto you, that ye may eat fresh meat therefrom
and bring forth fiom it the ornaments which ye
wear; and thou mayest see the ships that .sail upon
it" (xvi. 14). "He it is that created you of dust,

then of a drop, then of clotted blood, and then
brought you forth as children ; then ye attain your
full strength; then ye become old men — though
some of you are taken sooner — and then ye reach the
time appointed for you " (xl. 69).

"Oye men! fear j-our Lord! Verily the earth-
quake of the Hour is a mighty thing ! " " On the day

ye shall see it, every suckling woman

Last Judg- shall forget her sucking babe; and

ment ; Res- every woman with child shall cast

urrection. forth her burden ; and thou shalt see

men drunken, though they have drunk
naught" (xxii. 1, 2). "And the day when We shall
move the mountains, and thou shalt see the earth a
level plain; and We shall gather all men together,
and leave no one of them behind : then shall they be
brought before thy Lord in ranks. Now are ye come
to Us as we ^reated you at first! Nay, but ye
thought that we would never make Our promise
good! And each shall receive his book, and thou
shalt see the sinners in alarm at that which is therein ;
and they shall say, 'Alas for us! what a book is
this, leaving neither small nor great unnumbered!'
And thej shall And therein what they have done;
and thy Lord shall deal unjustly with none" (xviii.
45-47). " We shall set just balances for the Day of
Resurrection, and no soul shall be wrong; even
though it be the weight of a grain of mustard-seed,
We shall bring it " (xxi. 48). " Verily, those that be-
lieve, and those that are Jews, and the Sabeans, and
the Christians, and the Magians, and those that join
otlicr gods with God — verily, God will decide be-
tween them on the Day of Resurrection " (xxii. 17).
"Verily, We have prepared for the evil-doers a
tire, the smoke whereof shall encompass them; and
if they cry for lielp they shall be helped with water

like molten brass, which shall scald
Hell and their faces" (xviii. 28). "But for
Paradise, tho.se that misbelieve, for them are cut

out garments of fire; there shall be
poured over their heads boiling water; what is in
their bellies, and their skins, shall be dissolved; and
for them are maces of iron. Whenever in their jjaiu
they shall come forth, they shall be thrust back into
it" (xxii. 20-22). "Nay, when the earth shall be
crushed with crushing on crushing, and thy Lord
shall come, and the angels, rank on rank, and hell
on that daj' shall be brought nigh — on that day man
shall be reminded! But how shall he have a re-
minder? He will say, ' Would that I had prepared
in m\- life for this ! ' But on that day none shall be
punished with a punishment like his, and none
shall be bound with chains like his!" (Ixxxix. 22-
27).

•'On that day shall there be joyous faces, well
]ilease(l with tlieir past deeds, in a lofty garden
where the}' shall hear no vain discourse; wliercin is
allowing fountain; wherein are high couches and
gcjblets set, and cushions laid in order, and carpets
spread!" (Ixxxviii. 8-16). "Veril}-, the righteous
shall dwell among delights; seated on couches they
shall gaze about them ; thou mayest recognize in
their faces the brightness of delight; the}' shall be
given to drink Avine that is sealed, Avhose seal is
musk; for that let tlieaspirantsaspire! And it shall
be tempered with Tasnim, a spring from which those

559

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Koran.

that draw nigh to God shall drink " (Ixxxiii. 22-28).
"O tliousoul that art at rest! return unto thy Lord,
well pleased and pleasing him ! And enter among
my servants, and enter my paradise " (Ixxxix. 27-30).

Although the passages here quoted contain many
original phrases and figures, they are frequentlj-
reminiscent of similar passages in the Old and New
Testaments. These pomts of contact are the more
numerous because Mohammed repeats many Bib-
lical narratives. These are found especiallj^ in the
later suras, which have all the characteristics of ser-
mons. The chief subjects taken from the Old Tes-
tament are: the Creation; Cain and Abel; Noah;
Abraham and his sons; Jacob and his

Old and sons ; Moses and Aaron ; Saul ; David

New and Solomon; ^ob and Jonah; but

Testament from the New Testament, besides Jesus

Stories. and Mary, only John is mentioned.
In the Old Testament narratives the
Koran frequently' follows the legends of the Jewish
Haggadah rather than the Biblical accounts, as
Geiger pointed out in his "Was Hat Muhammad aus
dem Judenthvime Aufgenomraen? " (Bonn, 1834; 2d.
ed. Berlin, 1902). Thus, the story of Abraham's de-
struction of the idols in his father's house, and his
answer to those that asked who had done it (xxi.
58-64), agree with Gen. R. xvii. ; the sign that re-
strained Joseph from sin (xii. 24) corresponds to
Sotah 36b ; the refusal of Moses to accept food from
the Egyptian women (xxviii. 11) parallels Sotah 12b;
and the account of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba
(xxvii.) harmonizes with the commentary of Targum
Sheni to Esther i. 13.

For many of these borrowed narratives the sources
are unknown. Thus, for instance, the story in the
"Sefer ha-Yashar" of the Egyptian women that
cut their fingers in bewilderment at Joseph's beauty
(xii. 31) is based on the Mohammedan narrative, and
no older Jewish source thereof is known. For the
legend of Samiri, comp. "Z. D. M. G." Ivi. 73.

In its version of the story of Jesus the Koran
shows more dependence on the apocryphal than on
the canonical Gospels. Thus the story of the giv-
ing of life to the bird of clay (iii. 43, v. 110) is found
in the Gospel of Thomas (ed. Tischendorf, ii. 2).
The account of Marj''s marvelous food (iii. 32) is
given in the Protevangelium Jacob, viii., as well as
the casting of lots for the care of her (ch. ix.), found
in iii. 39.

Furthermore, there are many variations, especially
in the case of proper names, which are due to con-
fusion on the part of ^lohammed himself. Thus,
Pharaoh desires to build a tower (xxviii. 38), the
story being based on the account of Nimrod (Jose-
phus, "Ant." i. 4, g§ 2-3); by a confusion with
Miriam, Marj- is called the sister of Aaron (xix. 29);
Hainan is the servant of Pharaoh (xxviii. 38); and
Azar becomes the father of Abraham (vi. 74) — a
reminiscence in Mohammed's mind of the name of
Eliczer (comp. also, for the account of Idris [xix.
57], Noldeke in "Zeit. fur Assyr." xvii. 83).

There are frequent anachronisms in the teachings Of
Mohammed. Thus, the regulation concerning prayer
and almsgiving is mentioned in connectiou with
God's compact with Israel (v. 15); God commanded
Moses and Aaron to provide places of prayer in

Egypt (x. 87); and the destruction of Lot's wife was
foreordained by God(xv. 60). Other additions were
made to suit Arabic conditions, such as the descrip-
tion of Moses' staff (xx, 19); the reason assigned for
his approach to the burning bush ("I

Applica- will bring you a blazing brand from

tion of it"; xxvii. 7); crucifixion on palm-
Gluotations trees as a punisiiment (xx. 74); and
and Joseph as guardian of his brothers'

References, baggage (xii. 17; comp. Wellhausen,
" Skizzen, " iv. 157 ; for the description
of Solomon's glory, "dishes as large as cisterns";
comp. Al-A'sha, in Al-Mubarrad, 4, 14).

A fundamental alteration, which has a direct bear-
ing on the Arabs and on Mecca, is found in the story
of Abraham and his sons, the Koran representing
the Biblical patriarch as the founder of the sanctu-
ary at Mecca. Ishmael is not mentioned with him
until the later suras, whereas, according to the ear-
lier ones, Isaac and Jacob are the sons of Abraham :
probably a confusion in Mohammed's own mind
(comp. Snouck Hurgronje, "Het Mekkaansche
Feest," p. 32).

In all the Biblical narratives which are found in the
Koran the words placed in the mouths of the speak-
ers are intended to convey Mohammed's opinions
and beliefs. The relation of Mohammed to the Mec-
cans is but thinly disguised under the warnings of
individual prophets to a sinful people, and in the
answers of the latter. Noteworthy in this connec-
tion are the words of Adam and Eve (vii. 22) ; of
Abel (v. 32); of Noah (vii. 57, 59; xi. 27); of the
unbelievers in Noah's time (vii. 58; xi. 34, 45, 48);
of Jacob (xii. 99); of Joseph (xii. 33, 37); of Moses
(vii, 103, xxviii. 15); of the Egyptian magicians
(xx. 75); and of Jesus (xix. 31).

A few legends, in addition to the Biblical narra-
tives, have been taken into the Koran, such as the
legend of Alexander the Great, with " the two horns "
(xviii. 82 et seq.), which is derived from a Sj'riac
source (Noldeke, "Beitrage zur Gesch. des Alex-
anderromans, " p. 32); the legend of the Seven
Sleepers (xviii. 8 et seq. ; comp. Koch, "Die Sieben-
schlafer Legende," Leipsic, 1883; Guidi, "Testi
Orientali Inediti Sopra i Sette Dormienti di Efeso,"
Rome. 1885) ; the legend of Moses and the servant
of God (xviii. QA^etseq.); and the story of the one
hundred years' sleep (ii. 261 ; comp. the story of
Houiha-Me'aggel, Yer. Ta'an. iii. 66d; Guidi, "Sette
Dormienti," p. 103).

The Koran contains also native Arabic legends,
apparently somewhat altered in form, which are in-
cluded for the moral they conve}^ To this class
belong the stories of the destruction of the Thamud
{X\\Q Qauovdi/voL of Diodorus Siculus, iii. 44; Ptolemy,
vi. 7, 21; "Notitia Dignitatum, " ed. Seeck, pp. 58,
59, 73), on account of their disobedience to their
prophet (vii. 71, etal.); of the Madyan (vii. 83, etal. ;
tlie pno of the Bible and the Maf5id/xa of Ptolemy,
vi. 7, 27); and of the 'Ad (xi. 62, et al.), a general
term for a mythological, prehistoric people (comp.
Noldeke, "Fiinf Mu'allakat," iii. 31, in "Sitzungs-
berichte der Wiener Akademie," 1903). Here, also,
belong the story of the breaking of the dam in
Yemen (xxxiii. 14) and the speeches placed in the
mouth of Lukman (xxxi. 12 et seq.), who is mentioned

Koran
Korner

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

560

likewise in old Arabic poems. Tlie Koran, in ad-
dition, includes many passages of a legislative char-
acter and of later date. These contain regulations
concerning the pilgrimage (ii. 185); fasting (ii. 181);
almsgiving (ii. 273 et seq., Ixiv. 17 et seq.); the spoils
of \var(viii.); marriage (iv. 23, etal.)\ inheritance
(iv. 2, et al.)\ and the like. In these portions, also,
the typical expressions of the earlier passages rela-
ting to articles of faith recur as interpolations in the
text itself.

The language of the Koran is held by the Moham-
medans to be a peerless model of perfection. An
impartial observer, however, finds many peculiari-
ties in it. Especially noteworthy is the fact that
a sentence in which something is said concerning
Allah is sometimes followed immediately by another
in which Allah is the speaker; examples of this are
suras xvi. 81, xxvii. 61, xxxi. 9, and xliii. 10
(comp. also xvi. 70). Many peculiarities in the
positions of words are due to the necessities of rime
(Ixix. 31, Ixxiv. 3), while the use of man}' rare words
and new forms may be traced to tlie same cause
(comp. especially xix. 8, 9, 11, 16). See also Isla.vi;
Mohammed.

Bibliography: Flugel, Corani Textus Arabicitu, Leipsic,
1869; ConcordanficB Corani A7-nbiccE, ib. 1843; H. O.
Fleischer, Beidhawii Commeittarhis in Cn7-anum, i.. il., ih.
1846-48; Wherry, A ComprehenMve Cnnime)itarii on the
Quran, with additional notes and emendations, 4 vols., Lon-
don, 1883-86; Ullmann, Dcr Koran aw.s <1em Arahisclien
Uebersetzt, 6th ed.. Bielefeld, 1862; Kasimirski, Le Koran,
Traduction NouveUe, Paris, 1864; E. H. Palmer, Transla-
tion of the Quran, In S. B. E. vols. vi. and ix., Oxford, 1880;
Th. NOIdeke, Gescliiclite des Qoiaiw, Gottingen, I860.
G. S. Fr.

The dependence of Mohammed upon his Jewish
teachers or upon what he heard of the Jewish Hag-
gadah and Jewish practises is now generally con-
ceded. The subject was first treated from a gen-
eral point of view by David Mill, in his " Oratio
Inauguralis de Mohammedanismo e Veterum Hebra;-
orum Scriptis Magna ex Parte Composita " (Utrecht,
1718) ; and by H. Lyth in his " Quo Successu Davidi-
cos Hymnos Imitatus Sit Muhammed " (Upsala, 1806-
1807). Geiger's epoch-making work laid the founda-
tion for the study of the Koran in its relation to
Jewish writings. J. Gastfreund, in his "Mohamed
nach Talmud und Midrasch " (i., Berlin, 1875; ii.,
Vienna, 1877; iii., Leipsic, 1880), has attempted to
show the parallels, also, in later Mohammedan liter-
ature; though not alwaj's with success, as Sprenger
has pointed out ("Z. D. M. G." xxix. 654). Further
parallels are given by Griinbaum (ib. xliii. 4 et seq.).
The subject has received an exhaustive treatment at
the hands of Hartwig Hirschfeld, in Jiis " Judische
Elemcute im Koran" (1878), in his "Beitrage zur
Erklarung des Koran " (Leipsic, 1886), and more es-
pecially in his "New Researches into the Composi-
tion and Exegesis of the Qoran " (London, 1902;
comp. the remarks of August jMtiller in "Theoio-
gische Liieraturzeitung, " 1887, No. 12, cols. 278 et
seq.).

Hebrew translations of the Koran were not un-
known, and fragments of these may lie buried in
Oriental genizahs. Before such translations were
made a simple transliteration into Hebrew characters
sufficed. Portions of such a transliteration are to
be found in Bodleian Manuscript No. 1221 (= Hunt

No. 529), the first parts of which are even punctu-
ated; on the margin are Hebrew translations of
some passages and references to the
Hebrew Bible and the haggadic literature ; the
Trans- manuscript is in a modern Spanish rab-
lations. binical script. Additional fragments
of such manuscripts are in the libraries
of the Deutsche Morgenliindische Gesellschaf t (from
the Crimea; see Rodiger in "Z. D. M. G." xiv. 485),
the Vatican (Cod. 357, 2), and the Vienna bet ha-
midrash (Pinsker, No. 17). In a bookseller's list
cited in "J. Q. R." xv. 77 is mentioned a volume
containing the Torah, the Targum, and the Koran
bound together (|N-ipi DlJin min 1TJ l"t2). A trans-
lation into Hebrew from the Latin was made in the
seventeenth century by Jacob b. Israel ha-Levi, rabbi
of Zante (d. 1634; see Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr.
MSS." No. 2207) ; and, in modern times, by Herrman
Reckendorf (}X11p?X, Leipsic, 1857). A translation
into Spanish of sura 70 (" Al-Mi'raj ") was made in
the thirteenth century, at the behest of Alfonso X.,
by the physician of Toledo, Don Abraham ; a French
rendering of this was afterward made by Bonaven-
tura de Seve. Koran citations, either for polemical
purposes or in translations from the Arabic, are oc-
casionally found in Hebrew writings (e.p'., in those
of Saadia and Hai Gaon). Simon Duran (1423), in
his critique of the Koran (see"Keshet u-Magen,"
ed. Steiuschneider, in "Ozar Tob," 1881), quotes the
Koran ; but lie mixes such quotations with others
from the Sunnah, and probablj' takes them from
translations of A verroes' works. In some translations
from the Arabic, the citations from the Koran were
occasionally replaced by quotations from the Bible
(e.g., in Al-Bataljusi, and in Judah Nathan's trans-
lations of Ghazali's "Makasid al-Falasifah ").

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Hehr. Bihl. pp. ;i09, 339,591,
8.54 ; Z. D. M. G. xv. 381, xlviii. 354 ; J. Q. B. xii. 499; Pole-
mische Literatur, pp. 313-316.

KORANYI, FRIEDRICH: Hungarian physi-
cian and medical writer ; born Dec. 20, 1828, at Nagy-
Kallo. In 1851 he took his doctor's degree at Buda-
pest, and after practising for two years in the surgi-
cal clinic cf Professor Schuh at Vienna, he settled
as a physician in his native town. In 1865 he be-
came privat-docent for nervous diseases at the Uni-
versity of Budapest, and in the following year was
appointed director of the internal clinic and full pro-
fessor. In 1881 Emperor Francis Joseph conferred
upon him the Order of the Iron Crown; in 1884
he was raised to the Hungarian nobility; and in
1891 he became a member of the Hungarian House
of Magnates. He was decorated with the cross of
the Order of St. Stephen.

Koranyi has contributed numerous essays to the

medical journal "Orvosi Hetilap." The following

works, written by him in German, may also be

noted : " Der Milzbrand " (in Nothnagel's " Specielle

Pathologic und Therapie ") ; " Die Rotzkrankheit "

(ib.); "Zoonosen" (if).); "Die Lungenschwindsucht

in Ungarn " ; " Die Kranklieiten der Lunge " (in Eu-

lenburg's "Realencyklopildie der Gesammten Heil-

kunde "). Koranyi has embraced Christianity

Bibliography: Pesii Na})l6, Oct. 21, 1897; Pallas Lex.x.,
xviii.

s. L. V.

561

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Koran
Kbrner

KORBAN (lit. "an offering"): 1. A sacrifice of
any kind, whether bloody or bloodless ; term used by
Josephus in the sense also of a vow-offering, or of
something devoted to God ("Ant." iv. 4, §4; "Con-
tra Ap." 1. 22; Mark vii. 11). 2. The sacred treas-
ury in which the gifts for the Temple, or the alms-
box in which the gifts for the poor, were kept
(Josephus, "B. J." ii. 9, § 4; comp. Matt, xxvii. 6).

The term " korban " was frequently used in vows.
By saying, "Let my property be to you korban " —
that is, a gift consecrated to God — a man could pre-
vent another from deriving any benefit from what
he possessed (Ned. i. 4). This, of course, led to
great abuses, as. in fact, all inconsiderate vows did,
and. therefore, was much opposed by the sages (see
Eccl. V. 1-5). Jesus (Mark vii. 11-13; comp. Matt.
XV. 5-9) had such a vow in view when he said: "If
a man say to his father or mother, That wherewith
thou mightest have been profited by me is Korban,
ye no longer suffer him to do aught for his father or
his mother, making void the word of God by your
tradition " (Greek). But the charge of hypocrisy,
or lip-service, raised against the Pharisees in this
connection is entirely unfounded; for pharisaic tra-
dition did actually provide a remedy against rash
vows by empowering any sage consulted to dis-
solve the vow in case it could be shown that it
was not made with a full consideration of all
its consequences ; this very power " to loosen that
which is bound " by the Law being declared to be a
privilege of the Rabbis, derived from the spirit of
the Law while seemingly against the letter ("hetter
nedarim " ; Hag. i. 8).

It is expressly declared, however, by R. Eliezer
that if a vow infringes upon the honor due to father
or mother, the right procedure is to endeavor to con-
vince him who made it that he failed to consider the
consequences sufficiently, and then to dissolve the
vow ; others, however, dissented, holding that God's
honor ought to be considered first (Ned. ix. 1).
Against this, R. Mei'r declares (Ned. ix. 4) that
" wherever a vow is made which infringes the laws
of humanity, the vow should be dissolved bj^ the
sage." Thus the ]Mishnaic code shows the instance
quoted in the New Testament to be, instead of a
reproach of pharisaism, as contended by Oort in
"Theol. Tijdschrift," xxxviii., a vindication of the
humane spirit prevailing among the Rabbis; possi-
bly Jesus had only the rigorous class of teachers in
mind, while his more humane views were those
shared by others. See Alms.

J. K.

KOREFF, SOLOMON: German Talmudist;
born about 1700; died in Prague May 24, 1774. For
more than forty years he presided over a large yeshi-
bah at Prague. On the record of the appointment of
Ezckiel Landau as chief rabbi of Prague (1754; see
Kaufmann in "Ha-Eshkol," i. 177-184, Cracow,
1898) is found the signature of Solomon Koreff, al-
though he, like many others, was said to be an op-
ponent of the newly elected rabbi on account of the
quarrel about Jonathan Eybeschutz.

When the empress Maria Theresa issued the de-
cree banishing the Jews from Prague (Dec. 18, 1744),
a deputation of influential Jews at once proceeded
to the government authorities to protest. Koreff
VII.— 36

was the speaker of this deputation, and when, in
his excitement, he became too loud, and was rebuked
in consequence, he made the memorable answer,
"Ten thousand souls cry from within me." It is
said that he alone was allowed to remain. After the
Jews had left Prague (March 31, 1745) on account
of the impossibility of enduring the new conditions
imposed upon them, negotiations with the govern-
ment were maintained until they terminated (Aug.,
1748) in the repeal of the act of banishment. Solo-
mon Koreff's name is repeatedly found among the
number of the "Schtadlanim" who signed the me-
morials submitted to the government between 1745
and 1748. After the Jews had been readmitted,
Koreff was appointed by the government one of the
four elders of the community.

Bibliography: S. Hock, Die Familien Prags, ed. D. Kauf-
mann, pp. 327-328, Presburg, 1892; G. Wolf, Die VertreU
bung der Juden aus BOhmen, in Jahrb. fUr die Gesch.
der Jvden, iv. 169 et passim, Lelpsic, 1869; Abr. Trebitach,
J^orot ha-'Ittim, p. 19b, Brtiun, 1801.
G. 8. E.

KORIYYAT. See Cori.\t.

KORN, SELIG (FRIEDRICH N. NORK) :

German writer and mythologist; born April 26,
1803, at Prague; died at Teplitz Oct. 16, 1850. Ex-
pelled from the gymnasium of his native town on
account of a poem composed by him satirizing a
teacher, he adopted a mercantile career, educating
himself during his leisure hours. However, he
soon became dissatisfied with his position, and in
1829 left for Leipsic. The following years he spent
in Budapest. Vienna, Prague, Dresden, Leipsic, and
Stuttgart, engaged in literary work. After the
death of his parents he became a convert to Chris-
tianity.

Among Korn's many writings, mostly satirical,
some of which he published under one or the other of
the noms de plume " Friedrich N. Nork " or " Spiritus
Asper" and "Spiritus Lenis," may be mentioned the
following: "Zeriel's des Infernalischen Schauspiel-
directors Reise auf die Oberwelt," Leipsic, 1830;
"Belial und Astarte, oder die Liebe der Teufel,"
1832; "Panorama von Ofen und Pest," tb. 1833;
"Figaro's Memoiren," 1833; "Die Seleniten," 1834;
" Humoristische Charactergemalde, " 1835 ; " My then
der Perser." 1836; "Brahminen und Rabbinen," 1836;
" Vergleichende Mythologie," 1836; "Der Prophet
Elias, ein Sonnen-]Mythus," 1837; "Versuche der
Hieroglyphik," 1837; "Das Leben Mosis," 1838;
"Rabbinische Quellen und Parallelen zu Neutesta-
mentlichen Schriften," 1839; "Biblische Mytholo-
gie," 1842-43; " Etymologisch Symbolisches Real-
worterbuch," 1843.

Neither his satirical works nor liis mythological
studies brought Korn any success; and his writings,
with few exceptions, are now forgotten.

Bibliography: AUgemeine Deutsche BiograpMc, xxiv.,
Leipsic, 1887. _

s. F. T. H.

KORNER, MOSES B. ELIEZER: Russian
Hebrew author of the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries; grandson of Yom-Tob Lipman Heller.
He was for some time rabbi at Rendsburg; he
lived next at Shklov; and from 1802 he lived at
Grodno. Toward the end of his life he traveled for
some years in Europe, with the purpose of securing

Kornfeld
Ko8

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

562

aid in the publication of his works. He published:
"Torat Mosheh," Biblical and Talmudic exegesis
(Novidvor, 1786); "Zera' Kodesh," on Talmudic
and rabbinical literature (Berlin, 1797) ; an edition
of Ellas Levita's "Tishbi," with notes (Grodno,
1805); "Ke-Or Nogah," strictures on the "Sefer ha-
Berit " of Phinehas Elijah b. Meir (Breslau, 1816) ;
"Iggeret Rishpe Keshet," the story of his wan-
derings and hardships (Hanover, 1831); "Birkat
Mosheh," a treatise on the benediction "She-Hehe-
yanu " (Berlin, 1833) ; "Seder Hosha'not," according
to the ritual of German and Polish Jews (ed. with
preface, Hanover, 1834) ; an edition of the " Megil-
lat Ebah " of Yora-Tob Lipman Heller, with a Ger-
man translation by J. H. Miro (Breslau, 1836).

Bibliography : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 6499 ; Roest,
Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. i. 643, Amsterdam, 1875; Zedner, Cat.
Hebr. Books Brit. Mus.
H. R. A. S. W.

KOHXFELD, AARON: Austrian Talmudist;
bom Aug. 2, 1795, at Goltsch-Jenikau, Bohemia;
died there Oct. 26, 1881. His only teacher was his
father, Rabbi Mordecai Bar Kornfeld, head of a
yeshibah, who taught him both the Talmud and the
profane sciences. Kornfeld was only eighteen years
old when he took over the direction of the yeshibah
at his father's death. The fame of. the school was
so great that sometimes as many as eighty pupils
were in attendance. When Sir Moses Montefiore
was passing through Bohemia on his return from
Damascus, he undertook the difficult journey to
Goltsch-Jenikau purposely to become acquainted
with the celebrated Talmudist.

In 1864, when Kornfeld suffered from an affection
of the eyes and was not allowed to read until an
operation had been performed, he composed from
memory a compendium of 300 commandments which
he skilfully clothed in the gematriot of their Bib-
lical verses. It appeared under the title " Ziyyunim
le-Dibre ha-Kabbalah," Prague, 1865. Besides a
short article, printed in " Shomer Ziyyon ha-Ne'e-
man," this is Kornfeld's only publication.

Bibliography : M. H. Friedlander. Das Lehen und Wirkeji
cUr HervorragcmMen Rabbinischen AutoritUten Progs,
pp. 51-59, Vienna, 1902.
s. A. Ki.

KORNFELD, HERMANN (nom de plume,
SAMTJELO) : German physician ; born at Posen
1840; son of the Talmudist Samuel ben Nahman
Kornfeld and grandson of R. Akiba Eger. He re-
ceived his education at Breslau, Berlin, and Vienna,
taking his degree in 1863. Until 1871 he was phy-
sician at a hospital in Breslau; since 1901 he has
been "Landgerichtsarzt."

Kornfeld is the author of: "Paralyse der Irren
beim Wciblichen Geschlecht " (1877) ; " Sitz der Geis-
tesstOruugen " (1878); "Ueber Natiirlichen und
Abnormen Tod" (1879); "Handbuch der Gericht-
lichen Medicin " (1884); "Die Entmlindigung der
Geisteskranken " (1901). The last-named work has
an appendix showing that the circulation of the
blood must have been known to the ancient He-
brews. In two articles, "Was Sollen Wir Essen?"
and "Ueber die Bedeutung des Bluts " (published in
"Sitzungsberichte fur Gcrichtliche Medizin," and in
Yirchow's "Archiv," 1875), he discussed, from a
hygienic and humanitarian standpoint, the eventual

effects of a general introduction of the Jewish
method of slaughtering, and of the dietary laws.

S.
KORNIK (KURNIK), MEIR BEN MOSES :

German rabbi and calendar-maker ; born at Glogau,
where he was afterward rabbi; died at Hamburg
Aug. 9, 1826. Kornik was the author of the following
works: (1) " 'Ezrat ha-Sofer " (Amsterdam. 1796), a
manual for scribes on the writing of the scroll of
Esther. (2) " Hadre Kodesh " (Dyhernfurth, 1817),
a vocabulary to the first and the last mishnayot
of the " Sefer Yezirah " and to the passages of the
Zohar which are recited in the nights of Shabu'ot
and Hosha'na Rabbah. (3) "Dabar be-'Itto " (vol.
i., Breslau, 1817), elements of a Jewish calendar,
but chiefly a refutation of Lazarus Bendavid's
"Zur Berechnung und Gesch. des Jildischen Kalen-
ders" (see Bendavid, Lazarus). This work, in
which Kornik mentions another work of his, "Me'ir
'Ene 'Ibrim," is furnished with some glosses by M.
B. Friedenthal. (4) "System der Zeitrechnung in
Chronologischen Tabellen" (Berlin, 1825), a concord-
ance of the Julian, Gregorian, Jewish, and Moham-
medan calendars. This work was the basis of Jahn's
" Tafeln " (Leipsic, 1856), and is highly praised by Isi-
dore Loeb (" Tables du Calendrier Juif," Paris, 1886).
A series of corrections of Kornik 's tables has been
given by Max Simon in Berliner's "Magazin," xviii.
296.

Bibliography : David Frankel, In Sulamith, v. 242 et seq.;
Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ii.206; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 184.

S. M. Sel.

KOROBKA ("meat-tax"): That part of the
Basket-Tax which is levied in Russia on kasher
meat and poultry. The tax on salt, preserved pro-
visions, flour, and grain, while in some instances
included in the basket-tax, should not be con-
founded witli the meat-tax proper. The meat-tax
was originally devised by the Jews themselves in
order to supply funds for various communal needs,
such as the support of the poor, and the main-
tenance of hospitals and other charitable or educa-
tional institutions. At first under the direct control
of the Kahal, it was later placed under the juris-
diction of the corresponding municipal government.
With the abolition of the kahal organizations in
1844 its character was somewhat changed, and it
was made obligatory instead of voluntary on the
part of the Jewish communities.

The imposition of this tax and the consequent
increase in the price of meat have been the cause of
much dissension within the communities. The bur-
densome character of the tax has increased since the
abolition of the kahal, the present system of farm-
ing out the kasher meat monopoly to individuals
having led to a lax collection of the other portions
of the basket-tax and the more rigid collection of
the meat-tax proper. Kasher meat costs in many
places from 2 to 3 cents per pound more than other
meat ; and the burden of taxation thus falls most
heavily on the poor, resulting in their imperfect
nourishment and stunted development.

Bibliography : Levanda, Polny Khronnldgicheski Sbnrnik
Zakonov, s.v., St. Petersburg. 1874 ; Mysh, Ruknvndstvo k
Russkim Zakmiam a Yevreyakh, 2d ed., p. 434, ib. 1898; M.
Morgulis, in Yevreiskaya BiblMeka, vi. 61 ; Budushchnnst,
1901. No. 7.
H. R. J. G. L.

663

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kornfeld
Kos

KOROSI, JOSEPH: Hungarian statistician;
born April 20, 1844, at Pesth. He was educated
privately, and then accepted a position with an in-
surance company, and also entered the field of jour-
nalism. In 1867 he became editor of the depart-
ment of economics on the "Pesti Naplo," subse-
quently joining the staff of the "Reform." His
literary activity resulted in his appointment as di-
rector of the bureau of statistics at Budapest in
1870. He was elected member of the Koyal Hun-
garian Academy in 1879; honorary M.D. of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania ; and honorary member of
the University of Klausenburg in 1896, in which
year also King Francis Joseph I. elevated him to the
Hr.ngarian nobility with the prituomen " dc Szanto."

Besides numerous papers in Hungarian, Korosi
is the author of the following works: "Bulletin
Annuel des Finances des Grandes Villes," 18 vols. ;
"Bulletin Hebdomadaire de Statistique Internation-
ale,"24 vols. ; "Projetd'unRecensementdu Monde,"
Paris, 1881 ; " Armuthund Todesursachen," Vienna,
1886; "Kritik der Vaccinations-Statistik," Berlin,
1890; "Beitrage zur Frage des Impfschutzes," ih.
1891 ; " Demologische Beitrage," ib. 1892 ; " Plan einer
Mortalitats-Statistik fiir Grosstadte" {ib.); "Maass
uud Gesetze der Ehelichen Fruchtbarkeit," Vienna,
1894; "An Estimate of the Degree of Legitimate
Natality," London, 1895; "Die Seculare Weltzah-
lung vom Jahre 1900 " (Berlin, 1897).

Korosi proposed an international movement for
the uniformity of the census of 1900, and his plan
was adopted by the Institut International de Statis-
tique.

Bibliography : Szlnnyei, Maquar Iruk Elete ; Pallas Lex.
X., xviii.; Meyers Konvcrsatioyis-LexikGn.
s. L. V.

KOS, COS, or COOS (Greek, Kuf or Kuog): An
island belonging to the Sporades group in the
^Egean Sea near the Carian coast; known also as
Meropis and Nymphaea. Diodorus Siculus (xv.
76) and Strabo (xiv. 657) describe it as a well -forti-
fied port. Its position gave it a high Importance
for the ^Egean trade; while the island itself was
rich in wines of considerable fame (Pliny, xxxv. 46).

At a comparatively early period Jews are men-
tioned among the population of Kos; and under Al-
exander the Great and the Egyptian Ptolemies
(from 336 B.C.) the town developed into one of the
great Jewish centers in the ^Egean. Josephus
("Ant." xiv. 7, § 2) quotes Strabo to the effect that
jMithridates sent to Kos to fetch the gold deposited
there by Queen Cleopatra and " 800 talents belong-
ing to the Jews." Jews of Kos are mentioned at
the time of Antiochus VII., Sidetes, Kos being one
of the islands to which the rescript of the Roman
consul Lucius was sent (139 B.C. ; I Mace. xv. 23).
It appears probable that in course of time the Jews
became the chief bankers in the island, and that they
took charge, at a certain rate of interest, of the large
sums of money owned by the temples. In the sac-
rificial tablet of the Temple of Adrasteia and Neme-
sis, they are mentioned (lines 17, 18) as navTEg vtto
t[uv Tpa]TTeC,ELrC)v ij dAAwf (Herzog, " Critische For-
schungen," p. 35). This inscription isof the first cen-
tury B.C. Rayet ("Memoire sur I'lle de Kos," p. 80)
thinks that the 800 talents (§960,000) deposited by

Cleopatra were held by these Jewish rpa-e^trai; but
of this there is no evidence (Patou and Hicks, " In-
scriptions of Cos," p. xxxviii.). In 49 B.C. the
Koans are reminded by the consul Caius Fannius to
obey the decree of the Roman Senate and to allow
safe passage to Jewish pilgrims traveling to Jerusa-
lem (Josephus, ^.c. xiv. 10, §15). Herod is said to have
l)rovided an annual stipend for the benefit of prize-
winners in the athletic games (Josephus, "B. J." i.
21, g 11); and a statue was erected there to his son
Herod the Tetrarch (" C. I. G. " 2502). The epigram-
matist Meleager, who was living at Kos about 95
B.C., complains of having been abandoned by his
mistress for a Jew (Epigram No. 83, in "Anthologia
Gr.Tca," V. 160). The modern name of Kos is Stau-
chio (Greek, Itaukos, Isola Longa).

Bibliography: Kiister, Dc Insula Co, Halle, 1833: BOttger,
Topngrapli isch-Historisches Lexicon zu Flarius Joseitliiis,
p. 95; Paiily-Wissowa, Real-Encyc. U., s.v.\ Paton and
Hicks, Inscriptions of Cos, 1891.

E. G. H.— G.

In Medieval and Modern Times : It is not

known whether Jews continued to live at Kos from
Roman times down to the conquest of the island bj'
the Knights of Rhodes in 1315. Under the rule of
the knights, however, Jews were banished (1502)
from the island (Coronelli, "Isola di Rhodi," p. 180)
and transported to Nice, in accordance with the
decree promulgated by Pierre d'Aubusson, grand
master of the Hospitalers of St. John. It is not defi-
nitely known whether the Jews returned from Nice
to Kos a year after their banishment, i.e., during or
after the conquest of the island by the Turks. But,
according to a document, now at Rhodes, containing
some notes on the administration of the community
of Rhodes, the community of Kos was in 1685 de-
pendent on that of Rhodes, paying to the latter a
tax collected from eighteen persons whose names are
mentioned in the document. The amount of the
tax, which was paid up to 1870, indicates probably
that the community was not very large and had no
chief rabbi, but was under the direct control of the
chief rabbi of Rhodes.

In 1747 a certain Eliezer Tarica built at his own
expense a handsome little synagogue ; the date of
building and the name of the builder
Synagogue are commemorated in a gilt Hebrew
and inscription in relief, placed above the

Cemeteries, door of the tabernacle. Subsequently
two shops and a house were be-
queathed for the support of this synagogue; and
the income from these covers the expenses even to-
day.

There are two Jewish cemeteries at Kos. One
very old one, situated on the seashore at Cape Sable,
is no longer used. The other, more in the interior
of the island, contains over one hundred tombs, the
earliest dating from 1715. Following are the names
of the chief families which the present writer copied
from the gravestones in 1901: Romano, Capelluto,
Angel, Tarica, Gabai, Couriel, Benveniste, Coenca,
Alhadef, Mir, Pisacte, Habib, Abzaradel. Franco,
Finz, Ergas; the most prominent among these fam-
ilies being those of Tarica, Alhadef, and Franco.
The last-named was engaged especially in exporting
raisins, the chief product of the island, and had
connections at the principal centers of commerce of

Kos
Kovel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

564

Europe. Later on Jews from Salonica came every
year to the markets of Kos to buy the products of
the ishmd.

In 1850 the Jews of Kos were accused of ritual
murder under the following circumstances: Some
Greeks, having found the dead body of an old man
named Tiringongo, a habitual drunkard, accused
the Jews of having killed him, and, aided by the gov-
ernor of tlie island, Amin Bey, entered
Blood Ac- and searched the synagogue one Fri-

cusation. day evening. Not finding anything,
they came back the following day,
searclied the garden of the temple, and maltreated
the Jews. Fortunately for the latter, the colonel in
charge of the soldiers on the island, Ramiz Bey, took
their part, pointing out to the governor tlie respon-
sibilities he would incur should he lend support to
the Greeks. Thereupon the Greeks and Jews were
sent to Rhodes, where the former were punished, and
the latter acquitted in conformity with the firman
which Sultan 'Abd al-Majid had granted to the
Jews subsequent to the calumnies of Damascus and
Rhodes (1840-41). Three years later the slayer of
the drunkard Tiringongo was discovered. He was
a Mohammedan, named Ilaji Salih, who, seeing
Tiringongo stealing in his field, had shot and killed
him. His body was thrown into the street by a
negro, who subsequently made this revelation.

In 1851 the body of a Jew who had died at Kos
was found the day after burial absolutely naked
with the hands mutilated. Investigations being
made by the governor of the island, Mustafa-Sharif
Pasha, the act was traced to some Greek shepherds,
who confessed that thej'had cut some
Mutilation fingers from the hands of the Jew for
of a Jewish the purpose of placing them among

Corpse. their flocks, in order to increase the
number of the beasts, according to a
belief common among them that the hand of the
Jew brought fruitfulness and increase of wealth.

The Jewish population of Kos consisted in 1850
of 40 families, in 1872 of 25 families, and in 1901 of
only 10 families, half of whom were strangers. The
Jews are engaged in retail business, and live in per-
fect harmony with the other inhabitants. They
have in the synagogue three sacred rolls, and they
support a shohet, who is at the same time school-
master and olliciating rabbi at the temple. The
Kos Jews speak Turkish and Greek in addition to
the Judaio-Spanish dialect.

G. A. Ga.

KOSCH, RAPHAEL: German physician and
deputy; born at Lissa, Poseu, Oct. 5, 1803; died at
Berlin March 27, 1873. Educated at the University
of Konigsberg (M.D. 1826), he became assistant at
the surgical-ophthalmological clinic there and com-
menced to practise in 1832.

Kosch soon became interested in the political life
of Prussia. In 1848 he was sent as representative
from Konigsberg to the Prussian National -Ver-
sammlung, where he was elected a vice-president.
From 1850 to 1860 he took no active part in politics,
but again became interested therein in 1861, when he
was elected from Konigsberg to the Prussian Lower
House, of wliich he remained a member until his
death. He belonged to the party of the Left (" Fort-

sclirittspartei "). It was partly through his energy
that the oath " More Judaico " was repealed in 1869.
Kosch, who was unmarried, bequeathed his for-
tune to an orphan asylum of Konigsberg.

Bibliography: AUg. Zeit. des JmJ. 1903, No. 41; H. Vogrel-
stein, in the Hartuiigschc Zeituuij (Konigsberg), evening
ed., Oct. 5, 1903.
s. F. T. H.

KOSINI, LEVI. See Cosin, Lewi.

KOSLOV. See Eupatoria.

KOSMINSKY, MARKS: Founder of the town
of Nhill in the colony of Victoria, Australia; died
there May 6, 1895. He founded most of the local
institutions, the hospital, Mechanics' Institute, the
Agricultural and Pastoral Society, the Masonic
lodge, and the fire-brigade. He took an active part
in the movement to provide the town with water,
and it was through his efforts that local land-boards,
courts, and public buildings were established.
Bibliography: Jew. Chron. June 28, 1895.

J. G. L.

KOSSARSKI, JULIUS: German poet; born

1812 at Bromberg; died there July 1, 1879. He

went to Berlin to take up the study of literature,

afterward studying philosophy and philology at the

university. Ill health induced him, however, to

return shortly to his native city, where he turned to

numismatics. He published the following works:

"Wallfahrt in Palastina" (1847); "Sagen des Mor-

genlandes " (1852) ; " Der Monch von Meran " (1855);

"Titus oder die Zerstorung von Jerusalem" (1855);

and others.

Bibliography: Briimmer, Lexikon Deutschcr Dichtcr vnd
Prosdisto) ({cs lu. Jaliiiiunderts, p. 443; Kayserling, Die
Jlidiachr Literatur vnti Moses Mendelssohn bi^ auf die Ge-
(loiwart, pp. 164 ct sea.
s. M. K.

KOSSARSKI, LUDWIG: German poet and
writer; brother of Julius Kossauski; born 1810 at
Bromberg; died Nov. 3, 1873, at Berlin. He stud-
ied medicine at Berlin, but soon devoted himself en-
tirely to German literature, becoming a contributor
to several periodicals and journals. He published
poems and stories, including : " Nachkliinge " (1834) ;
" Diimmerungen, Novellen " (1840) ; " Friedrich Wil-
helm III. : Skizzen aus Seinem Leben in Poesie und
Prosa" (1840); "Hier und Dort" (1855).

Bibliography: Briimmer, Lexiknn Deutscher Dichter und
Prosaistcn des 19. Jahrlmnderts, p. 443.
s. M. K.

KOSTEL (PODIVIN) : Town in Moravia. Its
Jewish community is said to be the oldest in Mora-
via. According to Cosmas of Prague (d. 1125), a
Jew named Podiva founded (1067) the castle which
was named after him " Podivin " ; this is still the
yiavlc name of the town (Pertz, "Monumenta Ger-
maniaj Scriptores," ix. 80; D'Elvert, "Zur Gesch. der
Juden in Mahren und Oesterreich-Schlesien," pp.
49, 52, Brlinn, 1895; comp. Gratz, "Gesch." vi. 61).
This community may therefore be regarded in a cer-
tain sense as the mother of the Moravian communities.
Local documents relating to it do not, however,
reach back further than 200 years. According to
popular tradition, the synagogue was built about 150
years ago. The earliest tombstones are dated 1690.

Kostel is one of the congregations of Moravia
which possess the rights of a township. Witli its
branch at Eisgrub— tlip summer residence of the

565

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

KOB

Kovel

sovereign Prince of Lichtcnstein — it numbers about
500 persons (1903). Its institutions incluiic a paro-
chial school, a ritual bath, a hebra kadclisha, and a
women's society. The officiating rabbis have been :
Aron Unger, last decade of the eighteentii century;
Markus Blatt, end of the eighteenth century to
1839; Samson Kulke, 1840-94, son-in-law of the late
Kabbi Neheiniah Trebitsch of Nikolsburg; S.
Mandl, 189.")-99; present incumbent, Abraliam Weiss,
since 1899. The well-known ghetto poet Kduard
Kulke, "who portrayed in his stories tyjies from his
native community of Kostel, was a sou of the above-
mentioned Samson Kulke.

D. S. MUL.

KOSTELIZ (COSTELLEZ), ABIGDOR BEN

SIMON : Egyptian rabbi and cabalist ; born before

1572; died 1659. He studied under Closes ha-Kohen,

Ijcad of the yeshibali in Egypt, one of his fellow

pupils being David Conforte.

BinLioGRAPnv : Azulai, Shcm ha-OciloJiw, i. 2; Confurte,
Kiire ha-D(ir<)t, pp. 41a, 50a; Michael, Or lui-Haiminu
No. 19.
K. M. Sel.

KOVEL : District town in the government of
Volhyuia, Russia. In the beginning of the four-
teentli century it was given by Gedemin to his
grandson, Tlieodor Sangushko, and in 1518 the
Magdeburg Rights were granted to it by Sigis-
mund I. About the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury the Jews and Christians of Kovel wei'e freed
from military duties in return for a specified con-
tribution for various government needs. In 1540
the Jews of Kovel together with those of other
Lithuanian towns protested to King Sigismund
against an accusation made by a baptized Jew that
they were preparing to remove with all their pos-
sessions to Turkey, and that meanwhile tliey were
killing or circumcising Christian children. The
court appointed by the king established the inno-
cence of the Lithuanian Jews.

In response to a petition of the Kovel Jews, Queen
Bona ordered in 1547 that the Jewish house-owners
be relieved from the payment of the annual taxes,
and that, instead, tliey pay on eacli house a yearly
tax of one gold ducat. People living in rented
houses were to pay one-half gold ducat per year;
but the house occupied by the rabbi was to be ex-
empt. As to other duties, the Jews were to share
them with the remaining inhabitants of the town;
and they were also to share their privileges. This
document was presented for entry in the city records
b}' the Jewish citizen Hirsh Itzkovich. Some years
later (1556) Queen Bona decreed, in response to the
petition of a number of the burghers of Kovel, that
Jews be forbidden to reside in the market-place, and
that it should be the duty of the magistrate of
Kovel to see that Jews owning liouses in the market-
place should remove to the Jewish streets, in ac-
cordance with a tradition which precluded them
from being numbered at the census among the
Christians. On the other hand, the queen ordered
that Christians living in the Jewish streets sliould
remove thence and, in accordance with the custom
of other towns in the district, should own no houses
there. This document was successively confirmed
by Sigismund August and Sigismund III.

About 1565 the town was presented by King Sig-
ismund August to tJie Russian prince Andrei Mik-
liailovich Kurbski, who had been induced to betray
his country and to enter the service (jf
Under the Polish king. Escai)iug with his
Kurbski. followers from Yuryev (Dorpat) to
Litlniania, Kurbski established liim-
self within sixteen miles of Kovel, which he ruled
througli trusted agents, and often comi)elled the
Jews to advance him large sums of moncv. On
July 14, 1569, his agent at Kovel, Ivan Kelemet,
attacked the Jews at the instigation of a bai)tize(l
Jew named Lavrin, and, in defiance of their ancient
rights and ))rivileges, placed Yuska Shmoilovieh,
Avram Yakovovich. and Bogdana, tlie wife of
Agron, in a dungeon in which was much water,
and closed and sealed all the houses, stores, and tav-
erns of the Jews witli all their merchandise, personal
]iroperty, and provisions. Some Jews of Vladimir
having protested against this action, Kelemet slated
that he was merely carryingout the wishes of Prince
Kurb.ski, who was free to punish the Jews of Kovel,
who were his subjects, as he pleased. He also ad-
mitted that he had placed the two Jews and the
Jewess in the dungeon and had immersed them up
to their necks because they, having become security
for Agron Natanovich, had failed to produce him at
the appointed time. The matter was carried by
the Jews to the king at the Diet of Lublin, and he
ordered the release of the imprisoned Jews. Kele-
met, however, refused to recognize the royal decree,
claiming that he was subject onl}' to his master,
Piince Kurbski; and he ordered all the Jews of
Kovel to leave the town on the following day.
After an imprisonment of five weeks (doubtless
not in the dungeon) the prisoners were liberated by
order of Kurbski, who was finally compelled to obey
the royal decree. He gave directions also for the
removal of the seals from the synagogue, houses,
and stores belonging to the Jews; but at the same
time he warned them that he would obtain satisfac-
tion from them at a futurt- time. Notwithstanding
these threats, however, the prince continued to deal
with the Jews and to borrow money from them, as
is shown by his will dated June 5. 1581, wherein he
admits that he owes ^lordecai Shichich of Kovel
100 gold ducats. This debt and sums owing by
Kurbski to other Jews remained unpaid in 1585;
and the creditors were obliged to bring suit against
the estate.

In 1616 the burghers of Kovel complained to the
king that the Jews bought up taverns and hou.ses
without having the right to do so, thus crowding
out the Christians, some of Avhom had been reduced
to beggary by the unjust exactions of
Petitions the Jews; that the latter farmed the
Against taxes imposed by the Diet, as well as
Jews. jirivate taxes; that by exacting enor-
mous profits the Jews were ruining
the town, in consequence of which people were re-
moving from it; and, finally, that the Jews took no
interest in providing for the repair of the walls and
in guarding the town. The king appointed a com-
mission to investigate the complaint, and to render
a decision, each side to have the right to appeal to
the king within six months thereafter.

Eoves
Kovno

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

566

Tlie reseutmeut of the Christian merchants against
their more successful Jewish competitors was in-
tensified during the following thirty years, and
found emphatic expression in the turbulent times
of CiiMiELNiCKi. In 1648 the magistrate of Kovel
reported to the authorities at Vladimir that the local
burghers had helped the Cossacks to drown both the
Jews and the Catholics wlio had remained in the
town, being unable to get away on account of their
exti-eme poverty.

In 1670 King Michael issued at Warsaw a grant
of privileges, containing among other items a recapit-
ulation of a document issued by Sigismund III. in
March, 1609, in which the Jews of Kovel were ordered
to share with the Christian burghers the cost of re-
pairing the town walls and the performance of sen-
try duty. There is also recapitulated a document
issued by Ladislaus IV. March 23, 1635, confirming
the decree issued by Queen Bona in which the Jews
were ordered to live and to build their houses in a
separate street ; also a document of Sigismund III.
providing that the taxes should be paid direct to the
collector and not to the Jews, who usually farmed
them from the collector, thereby ruining the town
and injuring the burghers. In 1661 there were only
twenty Jewish house-owners in Kovel.

Of the history of the Kovel community from the
seventeenth to the nineteenth century, no informa-
tion of importance is forthcoming.

In 1898 the Jewish community numbered 6,046
souls in a total population of 17,304. It had a Tal-
mud Torah, a synagogue, and a number of charita-
ble institutions. Among the more prominent Jews
were: Aaron Solomon Feuerman (d. 1897); H. Gel-
ler, the Hebrew journalist; Rabbi Yehudah Idl;
Dr. Perelman ; and Rabbi Lob Gershonov Diament.

Bibliography: Regesty, i. s.v.; Rtissko-Yevreiski Arhhiv,
i. and ii., passim; Ha-Zeflrah, 1898, No. 160; Antono^ich,
Mimoqratiiiapo Istorii Zapadmd i Yuyo-Zapadnoi i?o.s,sii,
1., Kiev, 1885.
H. R. J. G. L.

KOVES, JOSEPH : Hungarian painter; born at
Nagy Karoly 1853. When only fourteen lie left
home, and, earning his living as he went, arrived two
mouths later at Budapest, where he became a mer-
chant. When twenty-two years of age he entered
a drawing-school, graduating as a teacher of draw-
ing in 1879. In the following year he went to
Paris, where he became a pupil of Fleury, Lau-
rens, Le Roux, and others. In 1883 he returned to
Budapest, where he has since resided. Many of
his paintings deal with Jewish subjects; among
these may be mentioned : " Homeless " ; " The Jews
in the Triumphal Procession of Titus"; "Moses
Mendelssohn and Frederick the Great " ; " Spinoza
and His Judges " ; " King Mathias and His Wife Wel-
comed by the Jews of Ofen " ; "The Disputation at
Tortosa " ; etc. He was commissioned by the gov-
ernment to make a painting of the national hero
Johann Hunyadi.

Bibi.togr.vimiy: Dr. Gonda, in Israelitisches FamUienhlatt,
mrz. No. r,2 ; 1903, Nos. 2 and 3.

8. F. T. II.

KOVNER, SAVELI GRIGORYEVICH :

Russian physician; born at Wilna 1837; died at Kiev
Sept. 23, 1896 ; graduated from the Uuiv(*rsity of St.

Vladimir, Kiev, in 1865. He remained at the same
university as a stipendiary to prepare for a profess-
orship, but in 1867 was appointed city physician at
Yalutorovsk, government of Tobolsk, and shortly
afterward transferred as county phj'siciau to Ne-
zhin. In 1873 he was appointed chief physician of
the Nezliin Hospital and physician of the Lyceum
of Prince Bezborodko. In 1879 he gave up his
position in order to devote himself entirely to science.
Kovner settled permanently at Kiev in 1890.

In 1865 he published "Spinoza and His Philoso-
phy." Knowing the cla.ssical languages as well as
Hebrew and Arabic, he made a special study of the
history of medicine, the results of which are con-
tained in " Drevnyaya i Srednevyekovaj'aMeditzina "
(3 vols., Kiev, 1879). In the first volume of this
work there is a chapter on the practise of medicine
among the Jews, which constitutes a valuable addi-
tion to the history of Jewish civilization. Of his
contributions to various Hebrew periodicals the
most valuable is " Ha-Rambam be-Tor Rofe," in " Ha-
Meliz," 1895.

Bibltography: Khronika Voskhoda, 1896, No. 38; Ahiasaf,
p. 319, Warsaw, 1897.
H. R. M. R.

KOVNO or KOVNA: Russian fortified city
in the government of the same name ; situated at
the junction of the Viliya and the Niemen.

There is documentary evidence that Jews lived
and traded in Kovno towai'd the end of the fifteenth
century. At the time of the expulsion of the Jews
from Lithuania by Alexander Jagellon (1495) the
post of assessor of Kovno was held by Abraham
Jesofovich. By an edict dated Oct. 35, 1528, King
Sigismund awarded to Andrei Procopovich and the
Jew Ogron Nahimovich the farming of the taxes
on wax and salt in the district of Kovno ("Me-
trika Litovskaya Sudebnykh Dyel." No. 4, fol. 20b).
In the Diet of 1547 a proposition was submitted to
the King of Poland to establish at Kovno, Brest-
Litovsk, Drissa, and Salaty governmental timber
depots, in order to facilitate the export of timber,
and to levy on the latter a tax for the benefit of the
government. This measure found favor owing to
the claim that the Jewish and Christian merchants
' of Kovno and of other towns derived large profits
from the business, while they at the same time de-
frauded the owners of the timber and encouraged
the destruction of the forests. The proposition was
adopted by the Diet and sanctioned by the king
("Kniga Posolskaya Metriki Litovskoi," i. 36).

In 1558 a Jew of Brest-Litovsk, David Shmerle-
vich, and his partners obtained a monopoly of the
customs duties of the city of Kovno on wax and
salt for three years, for an annual payment of 4,000
kop groschen ("Aktovyya Knigi Metriki Litovskoi,
Zapisi," No. 37, fol. 161). David of Kovno, a Jew-
ish apothecary, is mentioned in a lawsuit (Oct. 20,
1559) with Moses Yakimovich, a Jew of Lyakhovich
("Aktovyya Knigi Metriki Litovskoi
In the Sudnykhbyel,"No. 39, fol. 24b). By
Sixteenth an agreement of about the same date

Century, between Kusko Nakhimovich, a Kovno

Jew, and Ambrosius Bilduke, a citizen

of Wilna, it would seem that the latter had beaten

and wounded the Kovno rabbi Todros, and that

667

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

KcJves
Kovno

Kusko, iu cousiderutioii of 2 kop groschcn, Imd set-
tled tlie case and was to have uo further claim
against Bilduke {I.e. No. 41, fol. 120).

From a decree issued by Kiug Stephen Bathori
Feb. 8, 1578, it is evident that Jews were living in
Kovno at tliat time ("Akty Zapadnoi Hossii," iii.
221). Another document (June 1<J, 1579), presented
to Stephen Bathori by the burgliers of Troki,
both Cailiolic and Greek-Catholic, and by the Jews
and Tatars, contains their petition concerning the
Christian merchants of Kovno, who had prohibited
the complainants from entering the city with their
merchandise, and from trading there; this in spite
of the fact that the burghers of Troki had from time
immemorial enjo^yed the privilege of trading in
Kovno on an equalitj- with the other merchants,
both Christian and Jewish, of the grand duchy of
Lithuania. In reply, the king ordered the Kovno
merchants not to interfere for the time being with
the Jewish and other merchants of Troki, and prom-
ised an examination of the complaint at the end of
the war then in progress ("Akty Gorodov Wilna,
Kovno, i Troki," ii. 175).

On March 28, 1589, Aaron Sholomovich, leader of
the Jewish community at Troki, in his own name,
and in behalf of his Jewish brethren of Troki,
complains to Kiug Sigismund of the merchants of
Kovno, who have forbidden the Jews of Troki to
trade in Kovno, and have confiscated their wares in
defiance of privileges granted by the Polish kings
and by the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In response
to this complaint the king orders the magistrate of
Kovno, Prince Albrecht Radziwill, to protect the
Jews of Troki from molestation by the native mer-
chants {ib. ii. 180).

A document issued twelve years later (Aug. 14,
1601) shows that the Jews of Grodno and of other
Lithuanian towns w^ere deprived of the old privilege
of shipping to Kovno grain, salt, and lierring, re-
taining only the right to trade at retail and to keep
inns (■' Akty Wilenskoi Arkhivnoi Kommissii," vii.
103, 125; "Akty Yuzhuoi i Zapadnoi Rossii,"ii. 13).

At the beginning of the eighteenth century the
Jews of Kovno made an agreement with the Chris-
tian merchants of that citj' whereby the former in
return for the privileges of residence

In the and trading in Kovno assumed the
Eighteenth obligation to pay a fifteenth part of
Century, all the taxes and of the city expendi-
tures. In time, however, the docu-
ments relating to this compact were lost, and the
merchants began to oppress the Kovno Jews and to
withdraw from them their privileges. The matter
was brought before the Supreme Court of Poland at
Warsaw, and by a decision of Sept. 14, 1753, the
Jews were given the right to reside onlj' in the dis-
trict of Starochinska. They were allowed also to
trade at the fairs. A few years later Proser was ap-
pointed ma3'or of Kovno, and he began to persecute
the Jews not only in the citj', but throughout his
jurisdiction. In 1761 he instigated a riot during
which the Jewish houses of the district were burned.
When Christian neighbors attempted to stop the ex-
cesses of the mob, they were prevented by the offi-
cials. After the rebuilding of the Jewish dwellings
Proser drove the Jews out of the city. The case

was carried to the Supieme Court, which ordered
(Jan. 20, 1766) an investigation of the wrongs in-
rtictcd upon the Jews, and com])ensation for the
losses sustained by them ; these latter to be deter-
mined by the findings of a commission appointed
for that i)urpose.

The mayor and his followers, fearing the result of
the investigation, attempted to discredit it, and to
place obstacles in the way of the commission. As
the oppression of tlie Jews was not di.scontinued,
the leaders of the Jewisli community of Slobodka,
a suburb of Kovno, brought the matter before the
Supreme Court. In 1781 Prince Carl Stanislaus
Radziwil, the owner of Slobodka, intervened, and
showed that great injustice had been and was being
done to the Jews. In 1782 the court ordered the
city of Kovno to paj' to the Jews damages amount-
ing to 15,000 florins besides the co.sts of the case.
The mayor of Kovno and his a.ssociates were sen-
tenced to two weeks' imprisonment (A. Tabilovski,
in "Keneset Yisrael," i. 57, Warsaw, 1886).

There is in the possession of the heirs of Rabbi
Isaac Zeeb Soloveichik of Kovno a megillah, bear-
ing the Hebrew date 1 Adar II., 5543,
The Kovno and written in commemoration of the
Megillah, granting of the right of residence to
the Jews of Kovno by King Stanislaus
Augustus Poniatowski (1783). Therein it is stated
that Jews had lived in Kovno since ancient times,
and that when thej"^ were driven out of the city in
1753, they had found an asjdum in the suburb of
Kovno, then a part of the king's private estate.
When they w^ere again expelled, in 1761, all their
houses and the sj'nagogue had been plundered and
destroyed by the mob. The megillah lauds the
king's generosity, and praises those members of the
communitj' who had taken an active part in defend-
ing the rights of their brethren. These were Rabbi
Moses of Kovno and Slobodka and his brother Abra-
ham, the sons of Rabbi Isaac Soloveichik. Thej'
also built the large synagogue in Slobodka, which
was then known as Williampol. The author of the
megillah, as appears froni an acrostic contained in
it, was Samuel ha-Katan of AVilna, a resident of
Kovno. The style shows that he was a learned
man and a fluent Hebrew writer. Fuenn thinks
that he was the Samuel ha-Katan who had an
onl}'' son Joseph, as is mentioned on a tombstone
over the grave of Zipporah, Joseph's daughter, in
the Kovno cemetery (Fuenn, "'Kiryah Ne'emanah,"
p. 196, Wilna, 1860). A manuscript Hebrew prayer-
book entitled "Kol Bo," preserved in the synagogue
of Brest-Litovsk, was written by Samuel ha-Katan,
undoubtedly the writer of the megillah.

In 1887 the Jewish community of Kovno (inclu-
ding Slobodka) numbered about 36,000 persons. In
1902 it had increased to 37,196, or about one-half of
the total population. It had twenty-five synagogues
and prayer-houses, and many yeshibot supported by
wealthy men. one of them by Lachman of Berlin.
The leader of the students in the yeshibot was Isaac
Blaser. formerly of St. Petersburg. In 1876 the
society Mahzike 'Ez-Hayyim was founded by
Siisman Novikhovich and Hirsh Rabinovich, rabbi
of Mitau, for the study of the Talmud, rabbinical
literature, and the Hebre^v language. The Talmud

Kovno
Kraus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

568

Torab has from 300 to 400 pupils, and a teaching
staff of 6 " melammedim " and 6 teachers of Hebrew,
Russian, and arithmetic. The annual expenditure
of the Talmud Torah amounts to about 1,600 rubles,
and is provided for out of the meat-tax and by pri-
vate contributions, in addition to 15 per cent of the
income from the cemetery. There is another Tal-
mud Torab, situated in the more modern portion of
the city, known as " Neuer Plan, " and connected with
the synagogue Nahalat Yisrael. It has 50 pupils and
2 teachers. The non-Jewish middle-class schools in
the city of Kovno show^ed in 1887 the following
proportion of Jewish pupils: classical gymnasium
for boys 104 Jews in a total of 369; classical gym-
nasium for girls 115 Jewish girls in a total of 310
("Voskhod," 1888, iv. 4).

The hospital was reorganized in 1813by Benjamin
Ze'eb ben Jehiel, father of Kabbi Zebi Naviyazer,
and Eliezer Lieberman. They began a new pinkcs
in place of the one lost at the time of Napoleon's
invasion (1812), when the inhabitants fled, and the
city archives, including the pinkes, disappeared in
the ensuing disorder.

In 1854 Hirsh Naviyazer made great efforts in be-
half of the hospital and succeeded in collecting enough
funds to erect a stone building for the

Philan- institution. Inl875TanhumaLevinsou

thropic and Ze'eb Frumkin reorganized the hos-
and Chari- pital on a modern basis. The annual
table In- income and expenditure are each about
stitutions. 15,000 rubles. I'here are accommoda-
tions for more than 600 patients; and
4,000 patients are treated annually in the dispensary.

Among the other philanthropic and charitable or-
ganiza:tiousof Kovno may be mentioned the societies
known as " Somak Nofelim " and " Gemilut Hesed,"
the former founded in 1862 by Zebi Shafir, and Isaac
Zeeb, father of Joseph Dob, rabbi of Brest-Litovsk
(Fuenn, "Keneset Yisrael," ii. 163). The hebra
kaddisha was founded in 1862. Of the leaders of
the community (in the 19th cent.) maybe mentioned
Israel Bacharach, Abraham Dembo, Nahmau Reich-
seligman, Fishel Kahn, Ezekiel Jaffe, Solomon
Osinsky, and Lieberman Shakhovski, grandson of
Eliezer Shakhovski. Rabbi Israel Lipkin, known
widely as Rabbi Israel Salanter, was prominent in
the life of the Kovno community during the latter
half of the nineteenth centurj'. He successfully
conducted for many years the local yeshibah. His
son, Lipman Lipkin, Abraham Mapu, and the lat-
ter's brother were all born in Kovno.

A statistical study of the Jewish artisans in 1887
shows that in the city and district of Kovno there
were 5,479 masters, 1,143 assistants, and 766 appren-
tices, distributed among the different

Jewish trades. The greatest numbers of mas-
Artisans, ters were to be found in the following
trades: tailors and seamstresses, 445;
shoemakers and workers in allied trades, 380 ; cigar-
and cigarette-makers, 366; butchers and fishermen,
330 ; bakers, 445 ; gardeners and truckers, 338 ; drivers
and coachmen, 509; common laborers, 595. Jewisli
artisans were also well represented among book-
binders, carpenters, blacksmiths, machinists, masons,
brick-makers, brewers, wine-makers, barbers, and
millers ("Voskhod," 1889, i.-vi.). H. R.

KOWNER, ABRAHAM URI : Russian He-
brew critic; born at Wilna about 1837. He became
renowned on account of a campaign which he
conducted against many of the Hebrew Maskilim
and which called forth violent polemics between
himself and the latter. He first published his arti-
cles in " Ha-Karmel " and " Ha-Meliz " ; then he
wrote against the editors of those papers. Kowner
was afterward involved in a bank defalcation, on
account of which he was banished to Tomsk, Siberia,
where he embraced Christianity and became a gov-
ernment official.

He published his criticisms and other essays in
two small volumes: " Heker Dabar," Warsaw, 1865;
and '"Zeror Perahim," Odessa, 1868. The first work
contains, after criticisms on Mitzkun's "Kinnor
Dawid" and Lerner's "Moreh ha-Lashon," an essay
on the place of the Hebrew language in modern
education. He wrote tiiis essay in answer to the
questions of the government published in the
"Kievlyanin " concerning the education of the Jews.
Among other questions were the following: "In
what way can culture be spread among the Jews?"
" Should the books be written in Hebrew or in
Judaeo-German? " Kowner declared that the He-
brew language must be adapted to modern require-
ments; otherwise it were better to write in Judseo-
German. The main thing was that the Jews must
be instructed ; therefore, there was no need of He-
brew books filled with poetical and antiquated ex-
pressions. He praises highly Lewinsohn, Slonim-
ski, Mapu, and Erter, whose Hebrew works brought
much good to the Jews, as well as the Judaeo-German
writers. But he castigates all the others; proving
that not only is there no utility in their works, but
that they corrupt the Hebrew language.

The second work is an answer to the attacks of
his contemporaries, which, it must be admitted in
justice to Kowner, w'hile pretending to refute his
criticism, consist only of insults. Zederbaum is most
of all criticized in this work "as the editor of "Ha-
Meliz," while in the first work he is praised for his
editing of a Judfeo-German newspaper entitled
"Kol Mebasser." Kowner contributed also to " Yev-
reiskaya Biblioteka " and other Russian periodicals.

Bibliography : Ha-Mcliz, 1868, No. 16 ; Sistematicheski
Ukazatcl, Index.
H. K. M. Sel.

KOZZI, MOSES. See Moses of Coucy.

KRACZWSKI, JOS. IGNATZ. See Poland.

KRAMER, MOSES BEN DAVID: Lithu-
anian Talmudist of the seventeenth century ; died at
Wilna Oct. 19, 1683. After officiating as rabbi in a
number of Lithuanian cities, he in 1623 went in the
same capacity to Wilna. His contemporaries, who
refer to him frequently, mention him as an impor-
tant Talmudist. He left no works except a few
glosses, which are contained (1) in " Rosh Yosef "
by his son-in-law, Joseph ben Jacob, (2) in "Zera'
Yisrael " by his grandson Jacob ben Joseph, and
(3) in " Pi Shenayim. " Kramer is still the subject
of many local tales in Wilna, where marvels are re-
lated of his piety and scholarship. Among his de-
scendants Avas Elijah of AVilna.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, p. 95.
s. s. A. Pe.

669

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kovno
Kraus

KRAMSZTYK, ISAAC : Polish writer aud
prcaclu'r; born at Warsaw 1814; died there 1889.
lie graduated from tlie rabbiuical school of War-
saw, in whicli he became a teacher, lilliug that posi-
tion up to the closing of the institution in 1862. He
at the same time was preacher in tiie synagogue
of Warsaw. At first he preached in German ; but
out of patriotism he in 1853 delivered the first ser-
mon in Polish, which aroused the ire of certain
fanatics. Kramsztyk officiated as preacher witiiout
any remuneration up to 1863, with an intermission
of a few months in 1861-62 spent at Bobruisk.
From 1863 to 1868 he lived in Saratov.

Kramsztyk 's works in Polish were: "Mowa
Miana," etc., a sermon at the consecration of the
synagogue (1852) ; " Przeklad Przyslow Salomona "
(1867), a translation of Proverbs, with a commen-
tary ; " Prawda Wieczna," etc. (1871), on the eternal
truth, or the foundation of the Mosaic religion
(1871); and "Kazania," a collection of his sermons,
with biographical notes (published posthumously,
Cracow, 1892).

Bibliography : OrRelbrand, EncyTdopedja Powszechna,
Warsaw, 1900. ,, ^

H. K. M. R.

KRAMSZTYK, STANISLAUS : Polish nat-
uralist; born at Warsaw 1841; son of Isaac Kram-
sztyk; educated at the Warsaw gymnasium, and
studied medicine in the Medico-Surgical Academy,
and physics and mathematics in the University,
whence he was graduated in 1866 as master of natu-
ral sciences. Unable, on account of his religion, to
obtain an appointment as teacher in the gymnasium,
Kramsztyk took a position in the Polish Bank at
Warsaw, where he was emploj^ed until the clos-
ing of the same in 1886. Simultaneously lie was a
teacher in the Commercial College and in various
private schools.

Kramsztyk's literary activity began in 1862, when
he became a collaborator on the Polish periodical
"Przyjaciel Dzieci." Since 1868 he has also con-
tributed largely to the " Wszechswiat," "Atcneum,"
"Biblioteka Warszawska," "Przeglad Pedago-
giczny," and other periodicals.

His most important works are: "Fizyka," War-
saw, 1876 ; " Wyklad Ary tmetiki Haudlow}" (Manual
on Commercial Arithmetic), 1879; "Wiadomosci
Poczatkawe zFizyki," on the rudiments of phy.sics,
ib. 1883 (2d ed. 1886; Russian transl. 1896); "Fizyka
bez Przyrzadow," 2 vols., 1891-93; " Szkice Przy-
raduicze z Dziedziny Fizyki Geofizyki i Astron-
omji," 1893; "Ziemia 1 Xiebo," 1898; "Komety i
Gwiazdy Spadajace," 1899; "Bibljoteczka Nauk
Przyrodniczych" (Little Library of Natural Sci-
ences), 3 vols. He also translated: Mohn's "The
Bases of Meteorology," 1883; Ball's "Experimental
Mechanics," 1894; Mack's "Popular Scientific Lec-
tures," 1899; Helmholtz's "On the Relation of Nat-
ural Sciences to Other Branches of Knowledge."

Kramsztyk edited the department of natural
sciences of the " Encyklopedja Powszechna," and is
the editor of the department in the latest edition of
that work. On the Great Illustrated Polish Encyclo-
pedia he lias charge of the department of physics
and astronomy.

H. K. M. R.

KBANZ, JACOB. See Jacob ben Wolf

Kk.XNZ ok DlBNO.

KRASNOPOLSKI, HORACE: Austrian ju-
rist; born Nov. 5, 1842, al Pislyn, Galicia, where lie
received his earliest education in the heder. From
1853 to 1861 he attended the gymnasium at Czerno-
witz, in the latter year entering the University of
Prague, where he studied law and graduated in
1868. In 1871 he attended the lectures of TliiJl,
Roscher, and Wachter at the universities of Giit-
tingen and Leipsic, and in 1872 became privat-docent
of commercial and Austrian civil law at the Uni-
versity of Prague, his inaugural dissertation being:
"Einleitungindie Lehrevon der Zessiouder Forder-
ungsrechte " ; in 1876 he was appointed assistant
professor, in 1881 professor, of Austrian civil law.
He was thrice dean ("dekan") of the juridical fac-
ulty—in 1883, 1891, and 1896.

Krasnopolski wrote: "Die Haftung Aussergenos-
senschaftlicher Verbindlichkeiten"; "Ueber die
Prioritiitsabtretuug" ; "Die Gewerbenovelle vom 8.
Milrz, 1885"; "Studien fiber das Anfechtungsrecht
der Glilubiger nach Oesterreichisciiem Recht " ; " Das
Anfechtungsrecht der Glaul)iger nach Oesteireiclii-
scheni Recht Systemati.sch Dargestellt " ; "Zur
Lehre von den Vertragen zu Gunsten Dritter";
" Zur Auslegung des § 63 des Allgemeinen Burger-
lichen Gesetzbuches " ; " Das Ehehindernis der
Hoheren Weihen " ; "Die Haftpflicht der Eisen-
bahnen nach Oesterreichischem Recht" (in the
"Staats-W5rterbuch"); "Lehrbuch des Oester-
reichischen Privatrechtes " (1904).

s. A. Ki.

KRAUS, ADOLF: American lawyer; born at
Blowitz, Bohemia, Feb. 26, 1850; emigrated to the
United States at the age of fifteen, and worked suc-
cessivelj' on a farm, in a factory, and in a store. In
1871 he went to Chicago, 111., and while engaged in
mercantile pursuits studied law and was admitted
to the bar (1877).

Krar.s attained to prominence in his profession ;
and, notwithstanding the claims of an extensive
practise, he has always found time to take an active
part in local public affairs. He has been a member
of the board of education (1881-87), serving two
years as its president; he was appointed corporation
counsel in 1893; and was the second president of the
civil service commission (1897). For a time he was
editor and proprietor of the "Chicago Times."

Kraus is likewise interested in Jewish communal
affairs, being a grand officer of the I. O. B. B.. presi-
dent of Isaiah Temple, Chicago, and a member of
the executive board of the Union of American He-
brew Congregations.

A. J. Sto.

KRAUS, ALFHED, BARON VON : Austrian
general; born 1822 at Pardubitz, Bohemia; the son
of a Jewish tenant-farmer. He received his early
education, which was strictly Orthodox, from his
cousin Joseph Kisch, fatheroflleinrich and Alexan-
der Kisch. At the age of thirteen he went to Prague,
where he attended the gymnasium and subsequently
studied law at the university. After taking his de-
gree and accepting baptism, he entered the army,
where he received appointments befitting his legal

Kraus
Krefeld

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

670

attainments. At Mantua in 1849 he conducted- the
trial of Orsini, who had been arrested tliere ; and at
Parma he conducted tlie trial of the murderer of its
duke. He then entered the adjutant corps as cap-
tain, and was appointed, with the rank of major, aide-
de-camp to General Degeufeld, the minister of war.
For a number of years he Avas connected with the
imperial military court, acting as deputy president
from lS69 to 1880.

In April, 1881, Kraus was appointed president of
the Military Supreme Court, and was decorated with
the Order of the Iron Crown of the second class. In
July of the same year he became governor-general
of Bohemia, receiving other decorations and the
title of privy councilor. He retired in 1896 and has
since lived in Vienna.

s. A. Ki.

KRAUS, FRIEDRICH: Austrian physician;
born at Bodenbach, Bohemia, May 31, 1851. He stud-
ied at the gymnasium at Prague and at the univer-
sities of that city and of Vienna, obtaining his M.D.
degree in 1882. From that time until March, 1885,
he was assistant in the Physiological-Chemical In-
stitute of Prague, and in November of that year
he took a similar position at the Pathological-
Anatomical Institute in the same city. In 1888 he
was appointed privat-doceut in internal pathology
at the University of Prague, a position which he
held until 1890, when he became assistant to Kohler
at the clinic of the Allgemeines Krankenhaus, Vi-
enna. Kraus was made assistant professor in the
University of Vienna in 1893, and a year later pro-
fessor of medical pathology and therapeutics of the
indoor clinic at Graz.

Kraus, who has made a specialty of the study of
alkalis and the oxidation of sugar in the blood, is
the author of : "Ueber Ermiidung als Mass der Con-
stitution und iiber Saure Autointoxication " ; " Krank-
heiten der Mundhohle und Speiserohre " ; and
"Krankheiten der Sogenannten Blutdriisen." He is
the author also of a number of articles on similar
subjects in specialist magazines.

Bibliography: Pagel, Biog. Lex. 190], pp. 910-911; Das
Geistige Wicn, ii. 280.
s. E. Ms.

KRAUS, LEOPOLD GOTTLIEB: Austrian
physician ; born at Kolin, Bohemia, Dec. 22, 1824 ; died
in 1901. He studied at the University of Prague,
making a specialty of neurology, and obtained his
degree in 1847. Kraus then became a practising phy-
sician in Leipnik and Vienna. He was the author
of: " Vollstandiges Therapeutisches Tascheubuch "
(1863) ; " Compendium der Speciellen Pathologic und
Therapie Unserer Haussaugetiere " (1867); "Ency-
klcpadisches Worterbuch der Staatsarzneikunde "
(1872-78); "Compendium der Speziellen Pathologic
und Therapie " (1874) ; " Die Behandlung der Syphi-
lis " (1875) ; " Die Hygiene " (1878). His brother Ber-
nard. Kraus was one of the first contributors to the
"AUgemeine Wiener Medicinische Zeitung " (1856-
1879) and to the " Zeitschrift fiir Gerichtliche Medicin
und Oeffentliche Gesundheitspflege " (1865-68).
Bibliography : Das Geistige Wien, ii. 280-281.

s. E. Ms.

KRAUSHAR, ALEXANDER: Polish jurist
and author; born 1843 at Warsaw; educated at the

Royal Gymnasium in that city and at the prepara-
tory college instituted by the marquis Wielopolski,
where he devoted himself to the study of juris-
prudence and graduated master of law and admin-
istration in 1866. He practised law till 1872, and
was appointed to the high position of government
advocate in the senatorial department of Warsaw
(1873).

Kraushar's first literary products appeared in
the " Jutrzenka " : " Kolko Domow," " Przeglad Ty-
godniowy," and "Niwa." He has also published
numerous articles in other literary periodicals of
Warsaw and other cities.

Among Kraushar's numerous works, which treat
mainly of historical subjects, are: "Historic Zydow
w Polsce" (2 vols., Warsaw, 1865-66), "Syn Pul-
kownika Berka " (Prank i Frankisci Polscy, 2 vols.,
1895), etc. His poetical compositions include "Ty-
tana," " Argona z Koryntu," "Strofy,"and "Elekcja
w Babinie."

Kraushar has been elected member of learned
societies in Paris, Posen, and Cracow, and has re-
ceived a decoration from the reigning prince of
Schaumburg-Lippe for his work " Sprawa Zyg-
munta Unruga."

His wife, Jadwiga Krausharowa (b. Warsaw
1858), has written several important works, among
them " Jedua Noc," " Na ]\Ionte Pincio," and " Alfred
de Musset " (a biographical sketch).

Bibliography: Encuklopeclya Poivsiechna, viii., Warsaw,
1900.
H. R. S. A. B.

KRAUSKOPF, JOSEPH : American rabbi and
author; born in Ostrowo, Prussia, Jan. 21, 1858.
He emigrated to America (New York) in July, 1872,
and from New York he went to Fall River, Mass.,
where he found employment as clerk in a tea-
store. Through the influence of friends Krauskopf
secured admittance into the Hebrew Union College,
Cincinnati (Oct., 1875). While studying there and
in the Universitj^ of Cincinnati, Krauskopf acted
as a tutor, contributed articles to journals, and pub-
lished (with H. Berkowitz) "The First Union He-
brew Reader " and " Second Union Hebrew Reader "
and " Bible Ethics " (1883). He graduated from the
university and from the Hebrew Union College
(rabbi) in 1883. In 1885 the faculty of the college
conferred upon him the degree of D.D. Krauskopf
received and accepted a call from the Bnai Jehudah
congregation in Kansas City, Mo. He was ap-
pointed by the governor of Missouri as a life-mem-
ber of the Board of National Charities and Correc-
tions, and in 1885 was elected vice-president of the
Pittsburg Conference, of which Dr. I. M. Wise was
president. In the same j'ear Krauskopf received a
call from the Keneseth Israel congregation (Re-
form) of Philadelphia.

Krauskopf entered on his duties in Philadelphia,
Oct. 19, 1887. He established a Sunday service in
addition to the regular Sabbath service; under his
ministration the congregation flourished, and has be-
come one of the largest Jewish congregations in
the United States. Seventeen volumes of Kraus-
kopf's lectures, embracing subjectsin the fields of re-
ligion, ethics, and social science, have been published
since 1888. He aided in the organization of the

571

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kraus

Krefeld

Jewish Publication Society of Ameiica, in the spring
of 1888.

In tlie spring of tlie year 1894, when the stream
of immigration of Russian Jewish exiles into the
United States was at its fullest, Krauskopf resolved
to visit Russia. He made a study of the condition
of the Jews within the Pale of Settlement and of
the agricultural colonies in the interior. One of the
institutions Krauskopf visited was the Jewish Agri-
cultural School at Odessa, the excellence of which
so impressed him that immediately after his return
to the United States he set to work to establish a
National Farm School, at Doylestown, Pa. ; Kraus-
kopf is president of that institution. By his efforts
Keneseth Israel succeeded in building its present
house of worship in 1892. Sliortly after the out-
break of the Spanish-American war (1898), Kraus-
kopf was chosen by the National Relief Commission
as one of three special field commissioners instructed
to visit the camps of the United States and Cuba,
and to render such relief as was found necessary.
In ]March, 1903, he was elected director-general of
the I. M. Wise Memorial Fund, and in July of the
same year president of the Central Conference of
American Rabbis.

Krauskojjf is the author of the following: "The
Jews and Moors in Spain " (1886) ; " Sunday Dis-
courses " (1887-1902) ; " The Evolution of Judaism "
(1887) ; " Service Ritual " (1888) ; " Service Manual "
(1892); "Gleanings from Our Vineyard" (1895); "The
Mourners' Service " (189o) ; " Sabbath-School Serv-
ice" (1896); "Society and Its Morals" (1900); "A
Rabbi's Impressions of the Oberammergau Passion-
Play" (1901); "The Seven Ages of Man" (1902);
" Old Truths in New Books " (1903).

A. M. Go.

KRAXJSS, FRIEDRICH SALOMON (pseu-
donym, Suljo Serhatlija) : Austrian folklorist;
born at Pozega, Slavonia, Oct. 7, 1859. He studied
classical philologj' at the University of Vienna
(Ph.D.), and then devoted himself to South-Slavo-
nian folk-lore, which he was the first to investigate
scientifically. He was commissioned by the Aus-
trian crown prince Rudolph to travel through Bos-
nia, Herzegovina, Slavonia, Croatia, and Dalmatia,
where he discovered an iinsuspected wealth of Mos-
lem and Slavic songs. For eight j-ears he edited the
folk-lore monthly "Am Urquell."

Krauss is the author of a great number of publi-
cations, the most noteworthy of which are : " Arte-
midoros Symbolik der Traume " (1881), " Sagen und
Miirchen der Siidslaven " (2 vols., 1883-84), "Siid-
slavische Hexensagen " (1884), " Siidslavische Pest-
sagen " (1884), " Sitte und Branch der Slidslaven "
(1885), " Volksglaube und Religioser Brauch der
Slidslaven" (1900); with L. Scherman, "Allgemeine
Methodik der Volkskunde " (1899), " Die Volkskunde
in den Jahren 1897-1902," "Kiinstlerblut," drama in
four acts.

Krauss was for a number of years secretary of the
Israelitische Allianz zu Wien.

Bibliography: Kosel. Bioaraphien, pp. 354 et .scq.: Eisen-
berg, Biog. Lex. I. 286; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.
s. B. Te.

KRATJSS, SAMUEL: Hungarian philologist
and historian; born in Ukk, a village in the county

of Szala, Hungary, Feb. 18, 1866. At the age of
eleven lie was sent for two years to the Talmud
school of the Lo Alman Yisrael society at Jano-shaza,
and he studied subsequently for more than three
years at the Talmud school of Dr. Solomon Breuer, at
the time rabbi at Pajia. He then taught for a time in
small villages, entered the rabbinical seminary at
Budapest in 1884 (graduated 1889), took the theo-
logical coiH'se in tliat institution, and attended
lectures at the same time at the University of Buda-
pest. He continued his studies at the Lehranstalt
flir die Wi.ssenschaft iles Judenthums and at tlie
universities of Berlin (1892) and Giessen (Ph.D. 1893,
his dissertation being "Zur Griechischen und Latei-
nischen Lexicographic ausJudischen Quellen," pub-
lished in "B^'Eautinische Zeitschrift," vol. ii.). In
1894 Krauss was appointed professor of Hebrew at
the Jewish teachers' seminary at Budapest, a po.si-
tion which he .still (1904) retains. In the same year
he was ordained rabbi.

Besides a large number of philological and his-
torical essays, Krauss has published : " Rendszeres
Zsido Valhis es Erkblcstan," a manual of Jewish
religion and ethics; "Talmudi Eletszabal^'ok es
Erkolcsi Tauitiisok," on Talmudic maxims and eth-
ical teachings (Hungarian transl. of Derek Erez);
" Griechische und Lateinische Lehnworter im Tal-
mud, Midrasch, und Targum " (2 vols., with notes
by Immanuel Low, Berlin, 1898-99); "Das Leben
Jesu nach Jlidischen Quellen " (ib. 1902). With W.
Bacher and J. Banoczi he has edited the Hungarian
translation of the Bible. S.

EREFELD : Prussian manufacturing town near
Dlisseldorf, in the province of the Rhine. Small
neighboring villages, embraced in the former elect-
orate of Cologne, and which probably contained
Jews, are mentioned in accounts of persecutions as
early as the First Crusade, but no Jewish commu-
nity is spoken of in connection with Krefeld. While
the first mention of Krefeld as a town dates back to
the middle of the twelfth century, the first Jew to
settle there was Jacob of Mors, in 1617. The Jew-
ish population of Krefeld increased but slowly, and
when the town, in 1702, came under Prussian con-
trol, the community was still small. Eleven years
after this a royal edict required the magistrate to
admit only such Jews as had received the king's
permit. In 1765 Krefeld 's small Jewish community
erected a synagogue at its own expense; up to
that time it had worshiped with the neighboring
congregation of Hiils. In 1780 it contained but
eleven Jewish families (about seventy individuals).
In 1808 the synagogue there was rebuilt on a larger
scale, Lob Karlsburg being installed as rabbi.

Under the French government Krefeld formed
a consistorial diocese, the Jews of which were citi-
zens of the empire, with full legal rights. By the
Peace of Paris (]May 30, 1814) Krefeld became again
a part of Prussia; the existing conditions were al-
lowed to stand, but a cabinet order of March 3, 1818,
renewed the Napoleonic edict of ^lay 17, 1808, which
had imposed restrictions on Jewish money-lenders
during a term of ten years, although in France itself
the edict had lapsed (.see Jew. Encyc. v. 469. s.r.
France). Following R. Karisburg, Dr. UUmann

Kremenetz
Kremsir

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

672

(to Sept. 4, 1843), L. Bodenheimcr (1845-68), and Dr.
J. Horowitz (since 1869) have successively occupied
the rabbinate. The present synagogue took the
place of the old in 1853 (dedicated June 17). Jew-
ish benevolence is exercised through a number of
institutions, in addition to the usual societies, among
them being the Verein zur Forderung und Unter-
stutziing des Handwerks und des Schulwesens im
Rabbinatsbezirk Crefeld. Krefeld has a population
of 106,928, including 1,800 Jews.

Buu.iograpmy: Keiissen, Die Stadt imd Hcrrlichkrit Krc-
frhU, Krefeld, 1859; Salfeld, Marturohifiium, p. 418; Horo-
witz, Festsclirift zvm 12ri JUhrigcn JuUUccum der Chchra
Kadixchn zn Crefeld, 1890; Rcenne and Simon, Die Ver-
b(Ut)iisse der Juden im Pre^lssische)l Staatc, pp. Si et seq.
D. S. Sa.

KREMENETZ (Polish, Krzemieniec) : Dis-
trict town in the government of Volhynia, Rus-
sia. Tlie Jews of Kremenetz are first mentioned in
a cliarter of privileges granted by the grand duke
Svidrigaila of Lithuania May 9, 1438, to the way-
wode of Kremenetz, the German Yurka. In this
charter the latter is given jurisdiction over the
Ruthenians, Poles, YVallachians, Germans, Arme-
nians, Jews, and Tatars of the town. The next
mention of Jews is under date of March 15, 1536,
when Kremenetz had come under Polish rule. At
that time King Sigismund granted the Magdeburg
Rights to the city, which deprived the Jews of cer-
tain commercial advantages. In an edict of Nov.
27, 1551, the Jewish community of Kremenetz is
mentioned among those exempted from the payment
of the special tax known as " JSerebschizna " (tax on
silver). This shows that it was not in a prosperous
condition at that time — a conclusion which is sus-
tained by the fact that in 1552 there were only 48
Jewish house-owners in the town.

A few years later, however, wealthy Jewish mer-
chants bid successfully on certain leases. In 1556
the Canon of Plock (Plotzk) and Warsaw, Yan
Makovetzki, who was sent by the king to investi-
gate tiie administrative affairs of the castle of Kre-
menetz, reported that Avram (Abraham) Mosheye-
vichandPesakhKhaimovich, Jews of Kremenetz, bid
for the lease of commercial taxes, inns, etc., the sum
of 300 kop groschen per annum, an amount greatly
in excess of that paid by the Christian leaseholders,
the aldermen Semashko and Kuibyeda. The king's
reply, characteristic of the contemporary policy of
the Polish court, was : " We should always endeavor
to increase our income from tlie towns and castles;
and through the competition of the Jews the value
of our leases has always increased. This compe-
tition may impel the Christians to bid even more."
Hence the king ordered that the leases be awarded
to the Jews. The success of the Jewish tax-farmer
Avram Mosheyevich led to an attempt at retaliation
by the previous tax-farmer, the alderman Semashko,
as appears from a document dated July 4, 1557. In
a lawsuit brought by the Jew Eska Zelmanovich
against Avram Mosheyevicii, Semashko, who acted

as judge, decided in favor of the for-

Lease- mer, but tlie decision was reversed on

holding, appeal to the king, who had ordered

the case to be brought before him.
Five other Jewish leaseholders, Levon Itzkhako-
vich, Pesakh Khaimovich, Moshe and Yanush

Davidovich, and Eska Kheskilovich, are mentioned
in a document dated Dec. 15, 1557. The prediction
of the king as to the increase in revenue owing to
the competition of the Jews was fulfilled ; for it
appears that the leases and taxes of Kremenetz,
which formerly had been farmed for 450 kop
groschen per annum, were now leased for the annual
sum of 600 kop groschen to a non-resident, the Jew
Jacob Felixovicli, son of the well-known Felix,
manager of the Wilna mint.

In the second half of the sixteenth century the
community of Kremenetz was much less important
than those of other Volhyuian towns, as is evidenced
by the apportionment of taxes among the Jewish
communities of Lithuania on July 25, 1563. A cen-
sus of Kremenetz taken in that year shows that the
Jews owned property as follows: on Hill street, 13
lots; on Middle street, 55| lots; on the Jewish street,
07 lots; on Resurrection street (Voskresenskaya),
11 lots; on Viesnevetzkaya street, 9i lots; on Grand
street, 14 lots; on Khrusvitzka street, 12^ lots.
Among the buildings, the synagogue, the Jewish
meeting-house, the houses of Rabbi Samuel, of two
other rabbis, and of Bella, a rabbi's wife, the Jew-
ish hospital, and the house of the Jewish sexton
are mentioned. The most important Jewish prop-
erty-owners were Sarko and certain members of his
famil}'. According to the above-mentioned tax
schedule, Kremenetz was to pay 140 kop groschen,
wliile Vladimir was to pay 500, Lutzk 550, and
Ostrog 600. In 1569 by an edict of King Sigismund
August, the Jews of Kremenetz were placed under
the jurisdiction of the waywode Alexander Czar-
toryski.

Perles, in his " Gesch. der Juden in Posen " ("' Mo-
natsschrift," 1864, p. 366, note), mentions Kremenetz
as one of the places where the Council of Four Lands
was held in 1607, and where the "' Takkanot " were
drawn up. This statement, which has been ac-
cepted by Graetz and other historians, is an errone-
ous one ; for in that year the Council was held at
the " Gramnitza " (Candlestick) fair at Lublin — the
similarity of the two names doubtless causing the
error (see Harkavy, "Hadashim gam Yesiianim," p.
38, in supplement to the Hebrew edition of Graetz 's
"Gesch." vol. vii,).

Yom-Tob Lipman Heller in his " Megillat Ebah "
refers to Kremenetz in connection with the Council
of Four Lands in 1635. During the Cossack up-
ri-sing (1648-49) many thousands of Jews were killed
in Kremenetz ; but the communit}^ was not entirely
destroyed, as is evidenced by the edict of King John
Casimir, dated Jan. 26, 1650, renewing its charter of
privileges.

But little is known of the life of the Kremenetz
community during the eighteenth century. Among
the rabbis who were called to take part in the debate
with the Frankists in 1757 was a certain Joseph
Kremenetz of Moghilef (Podolia). His name indicates
either that he was born in Kremenetz or that he had
officiated there as rabbi before he went to Moghilef.
Jekuthiel Solomon, the great-grandfather of Isaac
Bar Levinsohn, who acquired considerable wealth,
was a native of Kremenetz. Levinsohn's grand-
father Isaac, his father-in-law, the wealthy and
learned Zalman Cohen, and his father, Judah Le-

573

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kremenetz
Kremsir

■vin, who also was a wealthy merchant and was
e(]ually popular among Jews and Gentiles, like-
wise lived there. At the beginning of the nineteenth
century Kremenetz gained fame through its son
Isaac Biir Leviusohu, "the Russian Mendelssohn,"
as he was sometimes called. His presence there at-
tracted to Kremenetz many scholars and friends of
learning. Levinsohn's friend, Mendel Landsberg,
was known in the literary world for his extensive
collection of books. Aryeh Lob Landsberg, who
died at Odessa in 1861, and his son David Isaac, wlio
was an instructor at the Hebrew school in that town,
also came from Kremenetz. The Hebrew poet A.
B. Gottlober resided for some years in the town.

Since the organization of the Kremenetz community many
noted rabbis have held oiHre. Prominent among them have

heen : Abraham Hazzan (d. ]")10), author
Rabbis. of " Hibbure Leket " ; Isaac ha-Kohen (d.

1573), president of the yeshibah ; Mordecai
JaflFe (d. ]t>]2), author of "Lebushim" (c. 1.590-92); Simson
ben Bezaleel, brother (if Liva (Maharil) of Prague; Aaron
Samuel b. Moses Shalom (d. 1617), author of "Mishnat
Adam " and " Be'er Sheba' " ; Abraham, who was elected to
the Council of Four Lands in loVl.o (Perles, in "Monatsschrift,"
1864); Moses Harif Hayyim (d. 1619); Merr, a de-
scendant of Liva ben Bezaleel and of Mordecai Jaffe ('?), lived
at the beginning of the eighteenth century ; Samuel, who
claimed (1690) that the Karaites could never be recognized as
true brethren of the Rabbinite Jews : Johanan ben Me'ir
(d. 1724), author of "Orah Mishor"' ; Phoebus id. 1770), author
of "Mishnat Ilakamim"; Jacob Israel (d. 1788), preacher,
author of "Shebef mi-Yi.srael" : David Zebi ben Aryeh
libb Auerbach (d. 1793); Shalom Zebi ben Naphtali
Bokeah of Brody (d. 1811); Mordecai ben Michael
(d. 1817).

In 1897 the Jews of Kremenetz numbered about
11.000 in a total population of 17,618. They are
actively interested in the grain and tobacco trade
with Austria.

Bibliography: Rxissho-Ycvrciski Ai-ldnv, ii., passim. St.
Petersburg, 1882; R€fjcst}/,i..pa,ssim,ih.lSVQ\ Gratz, Gesc/i.
Hebrew ed. by Rabinowitz, vols. vii. and viii. s.c.

H. R.

KREMER, MOSES B. DAVID. See Kra-
mer, MIOSES r.. I)a\ II).

KREMNITZER, JOHANAN B. MEIR :

PolLsli rabbinical author; livetl in the seventeenth
century at Kalisz.

He wrote "Orah 3Iishor " (Sulzbach, 1693), a
commentary on " Darke 3Iosheh " to Yoreh Dc'ah,
by Moses Isserles. Kremnitzer was the author also
of "Orah Mishor" (Berlin, 1724), novella? on the
tractate Nazir containing corrections of the text of
the Gemara, of Rashi, and of the Tosafot. It was
published together with the second (revised and en-
larged) edition of the " Orah 3Iishor " on the " Darke
Moslieh"to Yoreh De'ah. A third, separate edi-
tion of the " Orah Mishor " to the " Darke :Mosheh "
appeared in Fiirth in 1766.

BIBLIOGRAPHT: Azulai, Sheiti Jin-Gidolinh part i., p. 72;
Renjacob, Ozar ha-Si fariiii. pp. 49, 120; Heilprin, Seder ha-
Dorot, p. 262, Warsaw, 1891 ; Fuenn, Kcneset Yisrael, p.
437 ; Zedner, Cat. Hehr. Books Brit. Mtis. p. 419.
s. s. N. T. L.

KREMSER, SIMON : German army commis-
sary ; born Sept. 15, 1775, at Breslau, Germany ; died
1851. He became commissary agent to Bl richer in
1806, and was entrusted with the Royal Prussian war-
chest. For his services in saving this at the risk of
his life he received the order "Pour le Merite."
Throughout the Napoleonic war Kremser retixined

his i)osition, but afterward he retired to an estate
l)urchased from General York, and married the
Haroness von Adlcrsthal. Losing his fortune, he ia
1822 obtained a concession to run omnibuses in Ber-
lin, and tiie vehicles were called "Kremser" after
him. In 1827 he gave up this l)usiness and went to
Russia as a commissary, obtaining the lionorary
rank of major in the Russian army. For his serv-
ices he obtained a pension and two Russian orders.

Bibliography : Jui'cn als Soldaten, 1897, p. 6,
s.

KREMSIER, MORDECAI BEN NAPH-
TALI HIRSCH: German Talmudi.st and poet;
lived at Cracow in the .se .'enteenth century. He
wrote: "Kinah" (Lublin [?], c. 1650), a dirge in
which he mourns over the 120,000 Jews wlio perisiied
in the Chmielnicki riots in Russia; " Ketoret ha-Miz-
beah " (Amsterdam, 1660), novelise on the Haggadah
in the Talmud treatise Berakot (this work is called
also "Tosafot Maharam"); "Ketoret ha-Sammim "
{ib. 1660; in the Pentateucli ed. ib. 1671), commentary
on the Targumim to the Pentateuch of pseudo-Jona-
than and of Jerusalem. The title, taken from E.x.
xxxi. 11, and which in Aramaic Las the equivalent
"Mura Dakya, " is an allusion to the author's name,
"Mordecai," which is explained in Hul. 139b as be-
ing derived from the two words just mentioned,
meaning "pure myrrh."

Bibliography: Fiirst, BiW. JiuL ii. 208 ; Steinschnelder, Cat.
Bodl. col. 1671.
s. M. Sel.

KREMSIR: Town in Moravia, Austria, twelve
miles southwest of Prerau. The oldest authentic
records of its Jewish community date from the year
1322, when John, King of Bohemia and Poland,
gave to the Bishop of Olmutz permission to settle
one Jew in Kremsir and one in each of three other
cities of his diocese. Soon, however, other Jews
came to Kremsir and at once formed a community.
The building of the first synagogue may be placed
in the fifteenth century, and even at this early date
the community appears to have owned a cemetery
likewise. Tombstones dating from 1535 have been
found in the old Jewish burial-ground, and there
were doubtless others even more ancient; for the
register of deaths, which is still preserved, extends
back to the year 1482.

The Jewish community in Kremsir was under the
bishops of Olmutz, who in general exercised a benev-
olent regime.

The community was destroyed by the Swedes in
the Thirty Years' Avar (1642). It was built up
again in 1670, when Bishop Karl, Count of Lichton-
stein, granted permission to a few emigrants from
Vienna to settle in Kremsir. Since these newcomers
were mostly energetic merchants, the community
flourished and became one of the largest in Moravia.
In 1699 the Jews were threatened with expulsion,
probably merely in onler to extort money from
them. The danger was avoided, however, and the
community grew in numbers, while its prosperity
increased as well.

The Jews of Kremsir suffered also during the war
of the Austrian Succession. The reason in thisca.se,
as in that of the Thirtv Years' war, was the situa-

Kremsir
Krochmal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

574

tion of the town, which lay at the iutersection of so

many commercial aud military roads. Kremsir was

plundered like many other Moravian communities,

and money for the release and protection of Jewish

captives was exacted with ruthless

Plundered severity. Consequently many Mora-

During vian families, among them some from

War. Kremsir, left the country. Of the

5,400 Jewish families tolerated by

Maria Theresa, 106 lived in Kremsir (see Familian-

TEN GeSETZ).

When the French entered Kremsir in 1805 the
Jewish community had to surrender its silverware.
Aged men still remember Oct. 18, 1818, the Day of
Atonement, when Crown Prince Ferdinand was es-
corted under the baldachin to the temple, and there
attended service. A memorial tablet commemorates
this festal occasion. Then came the year 1848,
which freed the Jews of Kremsir from episcopal
control. Kremsir was the first city in the province
which received permission to remove the gates of
the ghetto. In tlie Reichstag which convened in
Kremsir five Jewi.sh members had seats. The polit-
ical revolution which took place before the eyes of
the Kremsir Jews meant also a turning-point in their
religious life, and a change in the internal condition
of the community. For a time there was peace;
but dissensions soon arose both in the religious and
in the civil spheres.

Several decades passed thus, alternating between
internal calm aud strife, a prominent cause of
contention being the condemnation of the old ceme-
tery by the city, to which measure the congregation,
after protracted litigation, finally had to yield (1883).

In 1897 the Jews of Kremsir numbered 920 in a
total population of 13,480. The new cemetery has
been in existence since 1850; and the present syna-
gogue was built in 1693.

Kremsir boasts a long line of rabbis. From 1680

to 1700 the town was the seat of the Moravian

"Landesrabbiner." The more impor-

Rabbis. tant rabbis have been: M. M. Kroch-
mal (1636-42), Issacliar Berush Es-
KELES, S. Helman, Elias Herz, and Nathan Feitel,
the last-named of whom went to Kremsir with many
emigrants from Vienna. Since 1877 the rabbinate
has been occupied by the present incumbent, A.
Frankl-Grun.

BiBLiORRAPiiT : Frankl-Gri'in. Gescli. dcr Juden in Kremsh;
Breslau and Frankfort, 1896-1901.
D. A. F.-G.

KRESPIA NAKDAN: Scribe of the thirteenth
century. He is recorded as having copied in March,
1243, a manuscript of Maimonides' " Yad ha-Haza-
kah " now in the British Museum. The same manu-
script contains an "azharah," with an acrostic on
Krespia's name, which has reference to the disputa-
tion at Paris in 1340. This Krespia Nakdan has been
frequently confounded with Berechiah Nakdan, the
composer of the fox-fables, as by Carmoly ("Les
Israelites de France," p. 24) and Gciger ("Ozar
Nehmad," i. 106).

Bibliography: Dukes, In Kobak's Jeschuntn, iv. 18, 19;
Steinschneider, Hehi: Bibl. xiii. 83; Renan-Neubauer, Les
Rabbins FranQais, pp. 490-493.
G. J.

KRESPIN, MORDECAI : Turkish rabbi and
writer; lived on the island of Rhodes in the first
half of the eighteenth century; son-in-law of R.
Moses Israel, author of " Masse 'ot Mosheh. " Krespin
was the author of the following two works: "Ma'a-
mar Mordekai " (Salonica, 1828), a commentary on
Gittiu; aud "Dibre Mordekai" (ib. 1836), a commen-
tary on the four Turim and on the Talmud. Both
of these works were annotated by the author's grand-
son and namesake.

Bibliography : Kazan, Ha-Ma''alot li^Shelomoh, pp. 20, 57a,
69b.
s. M. Fr.

KRETI AND PLETI. See Cheretiiites.

KREUZNACH : Prussian town and watering-
place in the government of Coblenz. The first
mention of Jews in Kreuznach occurs in an ac-
count of an attack upon them on March 31, 1283,
given in Salfeld's "Martyrologium." In a number
of documents, beginning with one of Feb. 2, 1343,
Abraham of Kreuznach is mentioned as a highly
esteemed Jewish resident of Bingen. The Jews of
Kreuznach were among the victims of the anti-
Jewish riots that occurred at the time of the Black
Death. Rupert III. (1398-1410), who, as elector,
had expelled Jews from the Palatinate, tolerated
them as king, and took Gottschalk of Kreuznach,
among others, under his protection. The Jews of
this city are mentioned also in 1464 and 1525. The
business transactions of the Jews were regulated by
special edict, which included permission to sell med-
icines and merchandise, and to possess a cemetery.
An edict of 1548 granted them permission to ap-
point " an instructor or schoolmaster." In 1722 there
were in the electoral district of Kreuznach thirty-
six Jewish families, twenty-two of which lived in
the city, while the remaining fourteen families were
scattered in neighboring towns. The present rabbi
(1904) is Dr. Tawrogi, who was preceded by Rabbis
L. Bamberger and Hirsch. The community main-
tains a number of charitable foundations. Kreuz-
nach has a population of 21,334, including 665 Jews.

Bibliography : Salfeld, Martjir-nlngium, pp. 99, 144, 270, 281 ;
Schaab, Diijlnmat. Gcsch. der Juden i)i Mainz, p. 83; L6-
wen.stein, Gesch. derjudcn indcrKin-pfalz, passim ; Statis-
tisclies Jalirhucli dcs Deutsch-Israclitischen Gemeindebun-
dcs, 1903, p. 77.
D. S. Sa.

KRIEGSHABER, ISAAC, See Grieshaber,

Isaac.

KRIMCHAKS : The so-called "Turkish Jews,"
inhabitants of the Crimea, whose center of popula-
tion is Kara-Su-Bazar, one of the most densely pop-
ulated districts of Taurida. They differ from the
other Jews of Russia in that the Semitic and Tatar
elements are in them intimately blended.

In their mode of life they greatly resemble their
Tatar neighbors, but in religion they adhere strictly
to the Jewish faith, even to Talmudic Judaism.
Tlieir dreSs is identical with that of the Tatars, the
outer garment of the men being the "arkbaluk," a
coat made of blue material, and gathered at the
waist by a wide belt ornamented with silver, at-
tached to which is usually a small dagger, or a cop-
per ink-well with the other accessaries for writing.
The man-ied women and girls wear bright-colored
pantaloons and pointed, embroidered slippers.

575

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kremsir
Krocbmal

Their head-gear is much like tlie Turkish "chahna."
The Krimchaks are distinguished from the Tatars
iu that neither the men uor the women shave their
heads, though thej' clip their hair frequently.
They, however, retain a few long locks and the care-
fully curled pe'ot; and the girls permit a number
of tiny braids to escape from under the red coin-
ornament worn by them.

The men are almost all of tall stature and slen-
derly built, and are marked by the reddish-golden
color of their hair, a tint which is uncommon among
Semitic tribes. The women have retained more te-
naciously the characteristically Jewish type. They
are pretty, and have delicate complexions and
bright black eyes. Their finger-nails and palms are
colored yellow, in imitation of their

Manners Tatar neighbors; and, like the latter,
and they use rouge on their faces and dye

Customs, their eyelids. Like the jMohammedan
women, they are careful to conceal
their features with a white veil when appearing in
public. The Krimchaks are not addicted to drink ;
and most of them abstain from wine, notwithstand-
ing the fact that wine is the common drink of the
region and is very cheap.

The houses of the Krimchaks are built in the
usual Tatar style ; and the interiors are characterized
by cleanliness and order. Cushions and rugs are
practically the only furniture, meals being partaken
of at low tables while the eater sits on the floor. Pa-
•triarchal customs still survive ; and the head of the
household possesses considerable authority. The
Krimchaks employ a pure Tatar language, but use
the Hebrew alphabet in writing.

It is still uncertain when the Krimchaks first set-
tled in the Crimea. They themselves believe that
they came to the region about the sixth century.
According to a tradition current among them, a cer-
tain manuscript prayer-book, which has been handed
down from generation to generation and is rever-
enced as a sacred relic iu their synagogue, was
brought from Kiev by some Jewish families which,
together with some Caucasian Jews and the Krim-
chaks, established the community of Kara-Su-Bazar.
This prayer-book was printed in the eighteenth cen-
tury in the first Jewish printing-office at Eupatoria.

The Crimean judge Sumarokov, who wrote an
essay on the Krimchaks in 1801, speaks of their
migration from Constantinople as having taken place
in the fourteenth century, when Kara-Su-Bazar was
the capital of the Crimean khans. It is possible
that Sumarokov had in mind the Turk-
Probable ish inmiigrants who joined their Cau-

Origin. casian and Kiev coreligionists. Speak-
ing of their customs, he asserts that at
one time polj'gamy was prevalent among them, but
that since the eighteenth century it has been discon-
tinued. In their marriage ceremonies they have
maintained the customs of Oriental peoples. The
marriage festival begins, two or three days before
the actual wedding, with the formal removal of the
bride's wardrobe to the house of the bridegroom.
On the eve of the wedding the groom and his near-
est relatives repair to the bride's house, where feast-
ing is continued until dawn. The wedding cere-
mony is performed in the morning. At daybreak

the procession starts for the synagogue, where tlie
intimate friends of the bridal pair walk around them
seven times with roosters iu their arms while the
rabbi is reading the prayers. At the end of the cer-
emony the newly wedded couple must remain in
their room for seven days, no strangers being ad-
mitted.

From a report made to the Ministry of the Interior
by Count Vorontzov, governor-general of New Rus-
sia, dated April 27, 1841, it is apparent that the
Krimchaks — who should not be confounded with
the Karaites resident in Kara-Su-Bazar — became
Russian subjects on the annexation of Crimea to the
Russian empire, and that they are unwilling to mix
with the other Jews, whom they call Polish, although
their religious beliefs are identical. Their arrange-
ment of the prayer-book and their pronunciation of
Hebrew resemble somewhat those of the Spanish
Jews. The Krimchaks, according to Vorontzov, are
a peaceful people engaged in industrial occupations,
and are on the whole honest, straightforward, and
well-to-do.

Bibliography : Lyakub, Krymchaki, in Razsvmf^ If^fiO, No.
13; idem, in Go/os, 1866, No. 42; A. Harkavy, in Ha-Karmel
(Russian supplement), 1866, Nos. 2, 3; idem, in Golos, 1866,
No. 85 ; O. Lemer, YeiTci v Novorossiskom Kraye, (Odessa,
1901 ; E. Deinard, Massa" ha-Hazi ha-I Krim, Warsaw, 1«79 ;
idem, Massa' Krim, ib. 1878.
H. R. M. R.

KRISTELLER, SAMUEL: German physi-
cian; born at Xions, Posen, May 26, 1820; died at
Berlin June 15, 1900. He received his diploma as
doctor of medicine from the University of Berlin in
1844, and settled as a physician in Gnesen, where in
1850 he was appointed "Kreisphysikus" (physician
to the board of health). In the following year he
moved to Berlin, where he continued to practise till
his death.

In 1854 Kristeller founded the Berliner Aerztliche
Unterstiitzungskasse, a benevolent mutual society
for physicians, which in 1879 became the "\Yiihelm-
Augusta-Stiftung. He opened a private gynecok-
logical hospital in 1855 ; and in 1860 he was admitted
to the medical facult}'^ of Berlin Universit}- as privat-
docent in gynecology. In 1866 Kristeller became
physician (unsalaried) to the poor. As chief sur-
geon of a hospital he took an active part in the Prus-
sian wars of 1866 and 1870-71 ; in 1867 he received
the title of " Sauitittsrath," and in 1873 that of '' Gehei-
mers Sanitatsrath." He was one of the founders of
the Medical and Gynecological Society of Berlin.

Kristeller took an active part in Jewish communal
affairs. He was a member of the Deutsch-Israeli-
tische Gemeindebund, being president of the execu-
tive committee to which he belonged from 1882; he
was a member of the executive committee also of
the Society for Propagation of Handicrafts Among
the Jews, and belonged to a society for the help of
Rumanian and Russian Jews.

Kristeller contributed several essays to the med-
ical journals, and translated some Hcbrpw ]>oems
into German.

Bibliography : Pagel, Biog. Lex.

F. T. H.

KROCHMAL, ABRAHAM: Galician philos-
opher and writer; born at Brody about 1823; died
in 1895 ; son of Nachman KROCnM.\L. Very lit-

Krochmal
Kronenberg:

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

576

tie is known of liis life. He seems to have received
an Orthodox education, which included, however,
modern science. In 1880 he lived at Odessa, but
after a short time he went to Galicia, where he prob-
ably remained until his death. In 1867 he published
at Lemberg his " Yerushalayim ha-Beuuyah, " a crit-
ical examination of the most important passages
of the Talmud Yerushalmi. His work "Eben ha-
Roshah" ("Vienna, 1871) is an exposition of the
philosophy of Spinoza, for whom he had the great-
est admiration. Becoming interested in religious re-
forms, he undertook to criticize the rabbinical sys-
tem, collaborating on Rodkinson's "Ha-Kol" and
Schorr's "He-Haluz." Inhis "Ha-Ketab weha-Mik-
tab" (Lemberg, 1875) he engaged in Biblical criti-
cism with a boldness that called forth the attacks of
the Orthodox. In his " 'lyyun Tetillah " {ib. 1885)
he violently attacked, on the one hand, the Reform
rabbis who misconceived traditional Judaism, and,
on the other, the Orthodox rabbis who would not
admit the necessity of religious reforms. In 1881
he published his "Perushim we-Ha'arot," scholia to
the Babylonian Talmud. He published also " Theo-
logie der Zukunft; Ein Kritisch-Philosophischer
Traktat zur Rechtfertlgung des Religiosen Bewust-
seins" (Lemberg, 1872). As a thinker Krochmal
lacked consistency, and his system, borrowed from
Kant, Hegel, and Schopenhauer, was chaotic. As
a critic he exerted great influence on the Hebrew
reading public, and was perhaps the most eminent
Biblical critic in Hebrew.

Bihliography: N. Slouschz, La Renaissance cle la Littera-
tnre Hehraique, pp. 164-165; Bernfeld, Dor Hakam, s.v.

s. N. Sl.

KROCHMAL, HAYYIM : Polish Talmudist;
born 1626; died 1666 at Cracow; son-in-law of
Abraham Chemiesch. He was for many years
preacher ("darshan")in the different synagogues of
Cracow. By his contemporaries Krochmal was con-
sidered an able scholar; and the one work of his
which has been preserved, "Mekor Hayyim," or, as
some designate it {e.g., Fiirst), "Rishon Mekor Hay-
yim, "testifies to his profound and methodical schol-
arsliip. This book, which was published (Fiirth,
1696) by his grandson Jehiel Krochmal, contains
elucidations of the Midrash to the five Megillot and
of the Prophets, with the exception of Joel, Nahum,
Zephaniah, and Haggai. Two other works of
Krochmal's remained unpublished.

Bibliography: Introduction to Rixhon Mekor Hamiim;
Benjaoob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 367; Friedberg, LiihoV Zik-
kaidu, 2d ed., p. 28, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1904'; Fiirst,
Bihl. Jud. ii. 210; Michael, Or ha-FIatiijim, p. 411.
s. s. M. L. B.

KROCHMAL, MENAHEM MENDEL BEN
ABRAHAM : Moravian rabbi ; born at Cracow
about 1600; died at Nikolsburg Jan. 2, 1661. His
teacher in the Talmud was Joel Sirkes, author of
"BetHadash." Krochmal soon distinguished him-
self so liighly that with the permission of his master
he was able to open a yeshibah, which sent forth
scholars like Gershon Ashkenazi (afterward his son-
in-law), and Mendel Auerbach, author of " 'Ateret
Zekenim." The Jews of Cracow, in appreciation
of his learning, made Krochmal dayyan.

About 1636 Krochmal left liis native city and
went to Moravia. He was appointed rabbi of Krem-

sir, where he also founded a yeshibah. In 1645 he
returned to Cracow; in the following year he be-
came rabbi of Prossnitz ; and in 1650 he accepted a
call to the district rabbinate of Nikolsburg.

Krochmal's son Aryeh Lob, who followed him in
the rabbinate at Nikolsburg, published from his
father's manuscripts the collection of responsa ''Ze-
mah Zedek," Amsterdam, 1775.

Bibliography: Landsbuth, 'Ammudc ha-'Ahodah, p. 187:
Horodetzky, in Ha-Gnreti, ii. 32; Dembitzer, KelUat Yofi, ii.
143b; Frarikl-Griin, Gesch. der Jnden in Kremsier, i. 89;
Kaufmann Gedenkbuch, p. 373.
D. B. Fr.

KROCHMAL, NACHMAN KOHEN : Aus

trian philosopher and historian; born at Brody,
Galicia, Feb. 17, 1785; died at Tarnopol July 31,
1840. He began the study of the Talmud at an
early age. When barely fourteen he was married,
according to the custom of the time, his wife being
the daughter of the wealthy merchant Habermann.
He then went to live with his father-in-law at Zol-
kiev, near Lemberg, where he devoted himself en-
tirely to his studies, beginning with Maimonides'
"Moreh Nebukim" and studying other Hebrew
philosophical writings. He then proceeded to study
German and the German philosophers, especially
Kant, to read Latin and French classics, and Arabic
and Syriac books. Breaking down from overwork
in 1808, he went to Lemberg for medical treatment;
and the friendship he there formed with S. L. Rap-
oport, whose teacher he became, was most fruitful
for Jewish science. On his return to Zolkiev, after
having partially recovered, he again took up philos-
ophy, reading Kant, Fichte, and Schelling, and sub-
sequentl}"- Hegel, whose system chiefly attracted
him and exerted a great influence on his views.
Aside from Rapoport, who often visited him in Zol-
kiev, he gathered around him a group of young
students. In 1814, after the death of his wife's
parents, he was compelled to earn a livelihood, and
he became a merchant. Twelve years later he lost
his wife, and his health became very poor. In spite
of failure in business, poor circumstances, and lone-
liness, he refused an invitation to the rabbinate of
Berlin, and instead obtained a position as book-
keeper in Zolkiev, which he held from 1836 to 1838.
A serious illness then compelled him to retire to his
daughter's house in Tarnopol; and here two years
later he died.

Krochmal was a brilliant conversationalist and an
exceedingly careful student. For a long time he
could not be persuaded to publish any of the results
of his studies, in consequence of aspersions cast upon
him on account of his friendly correspondence with
the hakam of the neighboring Karaite community
of Kokusow. Krochmal defended himself in a cir-
cular letter against these accusations. He was not
a prolific writer. Besides some Hebrew essays in
periodicals ("Sulamith," 1818; "Ha-Zetirah," Zol-
kiev, 1824; and "Kerem Hemed," vols, iv., v.), he
wrote only one Hebrew book, namely, "Moreh
Nebuke ha-Zeman " (Lemberg, 1851), edited, accord-
ing to the author's last will, by his friend Leopold
Zunz. Other editions appeared at Lemberg in 1863
and Warsaw in 1898.

The book is divided into seventeen chapters, of
which the first six deal with religion in general.

577

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Krochmal
Kronenberg-

CIi. vii. describes Israel's spiritual gift as tiie desire
for and faculty of scekiu!^ God. The next three
chapters coutaiu a philosopliical aualj'sis of Jewisii
history, which, corresponding to Israel's attaclinient
to the Loi'd, (hat is, to its religious development, is
divided into tliree epochs. These epochs terminate
respectivel}^: (1) with the death of Gedaliah after
the destruction of the Temple: (2) with the death
of Bar Kokba (c. 135); and (3) with the expulsion of
the Jews from Spain (1492). The author does not
characterize the modern period in which he himself
lived. Ch. xi.-xv. deal with the post-exilic Biblical
and the Apocryphal literature and with the various
religious movements. Tlie author discus.ses also
the necessity of tradition and gives a critical resume
of the devel()pment of the Ilalakah and Haggadah.
Ch. xvi. gives a brief sketch of the future develop-
ment of Jewish religious philosophy ba.sed on the
principles of Hegel. The work finishes with an ex-
position of Ibn Ezra's philosophy. The historical
digressions in the book touch the profoundest prob-
lems of Jewish science ; and it remains their iudis-
l)utable merit to have paved the way for critical
studies in Jewish history. The work really became,
as intended by the author, a " guide " to students of
Jewish science in the nineteenth century.

BinLior.RAPHY: Kerem Hemed, vi. 41 et seq.; Zunz, O. S. ii.
l.ji) ct scq.: Letteris, Tulcdot R. JS'afyman Krahmal (in
Hebrew), in Wertheinier's JahrbucJi fUr Isracliten, i.,
Vienna, 155.}, and in Krochmal, Moreh Nebuhc ha-Zcinnn,
Lemberg, 1803; Warsaw, 1898; Griitz, Gesch. xi.; Bernfeld,
jKdcii %nnl J^tdenthum im XIX. Jahrliuudcrt, pp.93 et
tccq.; idem, in Hn-Mcliz, 1888, Nos. 3, 6, 8, lo, 19, 21 ; Schechter,
Studies i)i Jxidaisin. pp. 5tj ef xeq.: Morais, Eminent Ii^racl-
itcs, pp. 180 et seq. ; Fiirst, in Orient, Lit. 1849, pp. 81 et aeci.,
ITO et seq.; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jiidisclic Litteratia;
iii. 733; N. Slouschz, La Renaissance de la Litteratnrc
Hehyaiijue, p|). 44 et seq.; J. L. Landau, Nachman Kroch-
waU Berlin, 1904.

s. s. G. Ro.

KRON, JUDAH BEN ELEAZAR : Russian
teacher and author; born at Tuckum, Courlaud,
Feb. 1, 1793 ; died at Mitau 1831. He was educated
by Rabbis J. W. Blumenfeld and JNI. Ezekiel and
also in the district school of his native town, and oc-
cupied himself with teaching in Mitau throughout
his life. In 1826 he passed an examination as an au-
thorized translator of the Hebrew language before a
school commission at the University of Dorpat, and
in the same year was appointed translator to the city
magistrate of Mitau.

Kron was the author of: " Derek Selulah " (Wilna,
1826), a Hebrew-German dictionary; "Betracht-
ungen liber die Welt" (Riga, 1829), a German trans-
lation of Bedersi's "Behinat ha-Olam " ; and "Reshit
lia-TJmmud " (Wilna, 1880), a work on the Hebrew
alphabet.

Bibliography: Wunderbar, Gesch. der Jnden in den Prn-
vinzen Liv-xind Kurland, p. 71, Mitau, 1833; Fiirst, Bibl.
Jnd. ii. 211.

n. K. M. Sc.

KRONECKER, HUGO : German physiologist ;
born at Liegnitz, Prussian Silesia, Jan. 27, 1839;
educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Ber-
lin (M.D. 1863). Attending the hospitals of Berlin
University, he became assistant to Traube in 1865
and studied in the physiological laboratory. In
1871 lie became assistant at the physiological insti-
tute connected with Leipsic Universitj^; in 1872
pvivat-docent; and in 1875 assistant professor. He
VII.— 37

was called to Bern University in 1878 as depart-
ment cliief of its physiological institute, and in 1885
was appointed professor of physiology, which posi-
tion he still occui)ies (1904).

Kroiiecker's researciies in physiology resulted in
many discoveries; as, the center of coordination for
the pulsation of the heart-ventricles; the innerva-
tion of the respiiatory organs; the contraction of
the unstriped muscles; the nerve-centers of tlie
blood-vessels; the action of poison on the heart;
etc. Kronecker has contributed manj' essays to tlie
medical journals. He wrote " BeitrUge zur Anatomic
und Physiologic," Leipsic, 1874, and from 1881 to
1885 was, with Senator, editor of tlie "Ceutralblatt
fur die Medizinische Wissenschaft."

Bibliography ;

Pagel, Diijq. Lex.

F. T. II.

KRONECKER, LEOPOLD: German mathe-
matician; born Dec. 7, 1823, at Liegnitz ; died Dec.
29, 1891, at Berlin. Educated at the universities of
Bonn, Breslau, and Berlin (Ph.D. 1845), he became
teacher at Liegnitz, where he remained till 1855,
when he moved to Berlin, in which city he continued
to reside until his death. In 1860 he became a
member of the Academy of Sciences, and the follow-
ing year privat-doceut at Berlin University, where
he became professor of mathematics in 1883, having
embraced Christianity.

Kronecker was the greatest German algebraist of
his time. He gave new demonstrations of Gauss's
theory of the irreducibility of the segmental equa-
tions, of the impossibility of solution of algebraic
equations of more than the fifth grade, and of the
possibilit}' of solution of Abelian equations. He
solved also arithmetical and algebraic problems of
the elliptic functions, and established the connection
between the multiplication and transformation of the
elliptic functions and the square forms of negative
determinants, etc. He was one of the editors of
Crelle's "Journal fiir Mathematik," first with Wei-
erstrass, later alone. Of his numerous writings,
which have appeared in the professional journals,
may be mentioned: "De Unitatibus Complexis,"
Berlin, 1845; reprinted in 1881; "Grundzuge einer
Arithmetischen Theorie der Algebraischen GrOssen,"
ib. 1882; "Ueber den Zahlenbegriff," Leipsic, 1887.

The Berlin Academy of Science entrusted to him
the publication of Dirichlet's works, of which, how-
ever, he published only vol. i. Kronecker 's corre-
spondence with Dirichlet was published by Schering
in the " Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen," 1855; his
"Vorlesungeuiiber Mathematik" was published by
Hensel and Netto, Leip.sic, 1894; and his collected
works were published at Leipsic since 1895 by Hen-
sel, who was appointed to this work by the Prus-
sian Academy of Science.

Bibliography: MciiersKnnvcrsatinns-Lexilini} ; Brnchhaus
Konvcrsatinn>>-Le.rih(i)i : Frobenius, Gcdachtuistiredc auf
LeiipoJd Kriinecker, Berlin, 1893; H.Weber, in the Zucitcr
Jaltrcsbcricid der Deutschcii Mattiematiker.
s. F. T. II.

KRONENBERG, LEOPOLD JULIAN,

BARON : Polish- Hussi:ui i)aidver; brother of Staiiis-
law Kronenberg; born in Warsaw 1849. After grad-
uating from the gymnasium he studied in the law
department of the high school, and then took uj)

Kronenbergr
Kueneu

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

578

the study of agriculture at Bonn and Popelsdorf.
While his father was still active Kroncnberg man-
aged the St. Petersburg branch of the Warsaw
Commercial Bank ; but he was obliged to resign in
1887, on account of his brotlier's illness, in order to
look'after the management of the railway lines in
which the latter was interested and of the Commer-
cial Bank of AVarsaw.

Notwithstanding his many business obligations,
Kroneuberg has taken an active interest in various
useful public institutions. He has been president
of the Society for the Mutual Help of Musical Art-
ists, a working member of the Polytechnical Com-
mittee in Warsaw, etc. In recognition of his distin-
guished services in connection with great commercial
undertakings, he was made a hereditary baron of
the Russian empire in 1893.

Valuable musical compositions by Kronenberg
have been published under the pseudonym " Wie-
jesky."

Bibliography : Orgelbrand, Encyklopedya Powsieclvia, viii.
H. R. J- G. L.

KRONENBERG, STANISLAW LEO-
POLD : Polish-Russian financier; brother of Leopold
Kronenberg; born at Warsaw 1846 ; died there 1894.
After graduating from gymnasium and high school
he went to France. For two years he devoted him-
self to the study of political economy and finance,
and was granted at Paris the degree of doctor of
philosophy. During the Franco-Prussian war he
took part in the defense of Paris, retiring with the
rank of lieutenant and the cross of the Legion of
Honor.

Upon the death of his father he returned to War-
saw, and assumed the management of his commer-
cial and railroad interests. He was made president
of theTeraspol and Upper Vistula lines, director of
the Vienna line, president of the Bank of Commerce,
and director of various other commercial institu-
tions; and was concerned in the publication of the
"GazetaPolska," " Nowin," and "Biblioteka Umie-
jetnoscy Prawnych." His writings on economy and
finance, written in Polish, appeared in the "Eco-
nomiscie." He wrote also "Campagne," 1870-71,
and "Quelques Souvenirs et Appreciations d"ex-
Offlcier d'Infanterie.=' Paris, 1871.

Bibliography : Encyklopedya Powsiechna.

H. R.

J. G. L.

KRONER, THEODOR: German rabbi; born
at Dyhernfurth, Prussian Silesia, May 12, 1845. He
was educated at the gymnasium at Glatz, the
yeshibah of R. Pollack at Weisskirchen, Moravia, and
the Jewish theological seminary and the university
at Breslau (Ph.D. 1869). After three years as rabbi
and principal at the -Tewish teachers' seminary in
Mlinster he became (1872) rabbi at Lengsfeld, Saxe-
Weimar, and (1883-85) at Erfurt. From Erfurt he
went to Hanover as assistant rabbi and principal of
the Jewish teachers' seminar}' ; in 1894 he was called
to the rabbinate (" Kirchenrath ") at Stuttgart.

He is the author of "Gesch. der Juden in Erfurt,"
Erfurt, 1885, and "Gesch. der Juden," Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1898.

8. F. T. H.

KRONIK (KRONIKER), MOSES BEN
AKIBA OF GLOGAU : Rabbi of Flatow (Zlo-
towo); lived in the first half of the nineteenth cen-
tury. He was the author of "Tefillah we-Todah,"
hymns and prayers for the community of Glogau on
the occasion of tiie raising of the siege on April
24, 1814, with a German translation by Mayer Neu-
mark (Breslau, 1814); and "Yemin Mosheh," lec-
tures and conmientaries interspersed with Hebrew
poems, with an appendix entiried "Ebel Yahid,"
containing an elegy on the death of Abraham Tiktin
{ib. 1824).

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1846; Zeitlin,
Bibl. Hcbr. Post-Mendcls. p. 187.

G. I. Bk.

KROTOSCHIN. See Posen.

KROZHE : Town in the district of Rossieny,
government of Kovno, Russia. The Jewish com-
munity dates from the fifteenth century. With the
transfer of the gymnasium to Kovno, in 1848, and
owing to a ruinous fire in the following year, the
town lost its importance. Since the building of the
Libau-Romny Railroad in 1880 it has become still
poorer; and in recent years many families have emi-
grated to tlie United States, Africa, and Australia.

Among the rabbis of Krozhe in tlie eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries the following may be men-
tioned: R. Eliezer (died at Wilna 1769), teacher of
Samuel b. Abigdor of Wilna, and known as an emi-
nent Talmudist and philosopher ; Abraham (d. 1804),
author of "Ma'alot ha-Torah," a brother of Elijah
Wilna; Uri; Mordecai Rabinowitz; and Jacob b.
Menahem, who occupied the rabbinate for forty
years, and died at Jerusalem.

Talmudic scholars and other prominent men of
Krozhe of the same period were : Abba Rosina, called
also "Abba Hasid"(d. 1792), brother-in-law of R.
Lob of Telshi (he was a miller by trade, but cor-
responded with many prominent rabbis on ques-
tions of rabbinical law ; Raphael ha-Kohen of Ham-
burg was his pupil) ; his son Hirsch (d. 1810) ; Elijah
b. Meir (Elie Krozer), a wealthy merchant, brother-
in-law of the gaon of Wilna, and lived at Krozhe
in the first quarter of the nineteenth century (his
sou Ezekiel was rabbi at Shavli, and his son Jesaiah
was dayyan at Krozhe and rabbi at Salaty) ; Moses
Hurwitz (Krozer), dayyan at Wilna, where he died
in 1821. Isaac ha-Levi Hurwitz; David, rabbi at
Meretz ; Zebulon b. Lipman, rabbi at Plungian ; and
R. Jacob Joseph, who died at New York in 1902,
likewise were natives of Krozhe.

In 1897 the Jews of Krozhe numbered 1,125 in a
total popularion of about 3,500. About 40 per cent
of the former are artisans, and a few are farmers and
gardeners. Besides the usual charitable institutions,
Krozhe has two synagogues, two prayer-houses, and
about ten different circles for the study of the Bible
and the Talmud.
Bibliography: H. N. Steinschneider, 'Ir Wilna, Index ; Fuenn,

Kiryah Nc'cmanaK Ii^ex ; Ha-Zeflrah, 1888, Nos. 173-176.

H. R.

KRUG, WILHELM TRATJGOTT : Christian
advocate of the emancipation of the Jews; born
June 22, 1770, in the village of Radis, near Witten-
berg, Prussia; died at Leipsic Jan. 12, 1842. He
was lecturer at the University of Wittenberg (1794-

679

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kronenberg:
Kuenen

1801), and professor of pl)ilosopliy at the universi-
ties of Franlifort-on-tlie-Oder (1801-4), Konigsberg
(1805-9), wliere he succeeded Kant, and Leipsic
(1809 until his death).

Krug wrote a great number of books, essaj^s, and
dissertations. In liis autobiographj', " Lebensreise,
inSechsStationenBe.schricben" (Leipsic, 1825), pub-
lished under the pscudon}^!! "Urceus," and reissued
in 1842 under his own name, he gives a list of 189
of his writings.

He was a warm defender of political and religious
liberty. Having in 1819, in his "Eusebiologie oder
Philosophische Keligionslehrc," spoken highly of the
Jews and Judaism, he pleaded for their emancipation
in a pamphlet which was entitled " Ueber das Ver-
haltniss Verschiedener Religionsparteien zum Staate
und uber die Emancipation der Juden " (1828). In
1830 a new constitution was proposed for Saxony,
which contained the provision that "To every in-
habitant of the kingdom are granted liberty of con-
science and protection in the exercise of his religious
duties." But in another paragraph this liberty was
restricted to Christians, it being stated that "diver-
sity of the Christian denominations shall be no im-
pediment to the enjoyment of civil and political
rights." Kiug protested against this flagrant con-
tradiction, and in the pamphlet " Die Politik der
Christen und die Politik der Juden in Mehr alsTau-
sendjiihrigem Kampfe" (Leipsic, 1832) he refuted
all objections to the emancipation of the Jews, and
proposed the abolition of ail missionary institutions
for their conversion.

Upon Krug's initiative Beruhard Beer addressed
(1833) to the Diet of Saxony a petition which Krug,
as a member of the Upper House, presented and
warmly advocated. In spite of all opposition, he
submitted to the Diet a regulation for granting
equal rights to all religions, and published it in a
pamphlet entitled " Henotikon : Oder Entwurf eines
Neuen Religionsgesetzes fur Christliche Staaten;
Nebst einer Petition an die Konigliche Standever-
sammlung " {ib. 1836). The proposition was, how-
ever, rejected. Krug then wrote " Kritische Gesch.
Oeffentiicher Verhandlungen iiber die Blirgerliche
Gleichstellung AUer Religionsparteien in Christ-
lichen Staaten " (ib. 1837), in which he held out to
the Jews hope for the final victory of the cause of
justice and humanity, and in which he called upon
King Frederick August to glorify his government
by uniting all his subjects under the banner of free-
dom and equality. The pamphlet "Friedenswort
an AUe Religionsparteien " was the last public ut-
terance of tliis champion of the freedom of faith and
conscience.

BiBLiofiRAPHY : AUoemeine Deutsche Biographiey xvii. 220-
222; Jost. Neuere Gesch. der Igraslitcn, 1. 197 (note 1), 23*,
Berlin, 1847 ; Kayserling, in Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1892, pp.
28-30. „ ,,

D. S. Man.

KRUMENATJ, S. See Oppenheim, Simon b.
Jacob.

KRYSA, JXJDAH LOB BEN NATHAN:

Fraukist leader; lived in Galicia in the eighteenth
century. He filled the office of rabbi at Nadworna,
Galicia, but joined the Frankist movement as soon
as it arose and became the leader of the sect. Sent

as the representative of the Frankists to a religious
controversy with the Talmudists, Krysa made (May
25, 1759), in the n^me of the sfect, a Christian
(Roman) confession of faith. He declared that the
cross symbolized the "lioly trinity" spoken of in
the Zohar, and the seal of the Messiali. In his
hatred of the Talmudists he asserted before the ec-
clesiastical dignitaries that the Talmud prescribes
the use of Christian blood. Like Jiis master Jacob
Frank and most of the Frankists, Krysa embraced
Cliristiauity (1759).

Bibliography : See under Frank, Jacob.

K. I. Bk.

KUBA : Chief town of the district of Kuba, gov-
ernment of Baku, Transcaucasia, having (1897) a
total i)opulationof 15,346, in which were about 7,000
Jews, mostly Caucasian, or, as they are called tliere,
"Mountain Jews." The latter occupy a separate
suburb near the River Kubinka. There is a striking
difference between them and their European corelig-
ionists. They dress like the Caucasian IVIohammed-
ans in " peshmets " (siiort, quilted Tatar coats), and
wear high astrakhan caps (" papakh ") ; the women
wear wide trousers. The Kuban Jews call them-
selves by the names of their fathers, adding tiie
word "ogly" (son); e.^., "Abraham Isaac Ogly,"
means Abraham son of Isaac. Their names are Bib-
lical, but are wofully mispronounced. Among them-
selves they use the Tat language, but with the na-
tives they converse in Tatar. The use of liquor is
common among them, even among the women.

The Jews of Kuba live in small earthen huts
("saklya"), often as many as ten to fifteen persons
occupying a hut which gets its sole light from a
small window in the roof. They have hardly any
furniture., as, like the Mohammedans, they eat and
sleep on the floor. They are engaged mostly in
agriculture and commerce, especially in the export
of carpets to Constantinople. While the merchant
class is wealthy, the rest of the population is quite
poor; and tlie average Mountain Jew Avill work as
a laborer at 20 to 30 copecks a day. In religious
matters they are very fanatical; and any one who
does not comply strictly with all the laws is accused
of apostasy. Polygamy is not prohibited. In wri-
ting they use the Rashi script.
Bibliography : Thorny, Sefcr ha-Mas.i<i"nt ; Veidenbaum,

Putevoditel po Kavkazu, p. 128, Tillis, 1888.
H. n. M. R.

KUENEN, ABRAHAM : Dutch Christian
Old Testament scholar; born in Haarlem, North
Holland, Sept. 16, 1828; died in Leyden Dec. 10,
1891. He was educated at Leyden (1846-51), where
in 1852 he was appointed assistant professor, and in
1855 professor, in the theological faculty ; and there
he remained until his death.

He was one of the leaders of the modern school of
Old Testament critics. His chief work is an in-
troduction to the Old Testament ("Historisch-Kri-
tisch Onderzoek," etc., 3 vols. 1861-63; of the second
edition, 1885 et seq., the third part was left unfin-
ished at his death). There is an English translation
of the first part ("The Hexateuch," by P. H.- Wick-
steed, 1886), and a German translation of the whole
("Historisch-Kritische Einleitung," etc., by Th.
Weber and C. Th. Mailer, 1886 et seq.).

Kuenen
Kulisher

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

580

The most important critical problems are discussed
with masterly method in many articles, especially in
the " Theologisch Tijdschrift " (1867 et seq.), of which
Kuenen was one of the editors.

Special mention is appropriate here of his inves-
tigations of the membership of the Sanhedrin (1866),
tlie men of the Great Synagof^ue (1876), and the
genealogy of theMasoretic text (1873), published in
the transactions of the Amsterdam Academy of
Sciences ("Verslagen en Mededeelingen "). Tiiese,
with a number of the articles in periodicals, may be
found in a German translation by Budde in " Gesani-
melte Abhandluugen zur Biblisclien Wissenschaft
von Dr. A. Kuenen " (1894).

The first noteworthy attempt to construe the his-
tory of the Hebrew religion from the premises of
the new critical school was Kuenen 's
His " God.sdienst van Israel, " 2 vols. 1869-

" Religion 1870 (English transl.,"The Religianof
of Israel." Israel to the Fallot the Jewish State,"
3 vols. , 1874-75). In this work Kuenen
accepted the opinion, which Graf had revived in
1866, that the ceremonial law is the latest part of the
Hebrew legislation. He made Graf's theory conse-
quent by including with the Law the cognate his-
tories in the Hexateuch; and discovered in Nch.
viii.-x. a counterpart to II Kings xxii.-xxiii., nar-
Bating the introduction of the priestly laws by Ezra.
The chief significance of his "National Religions
and Universal Religions" (Hibbcrt Lectures for
1882) also lies in the chapters on Judaism, and on
Christianity in its relations to Judaism. "DePro-
fetcn," 1875 (English transl., "The Prophets and
Prophecy in Israel," 1877), is rather a refutation of
dogmatic supernaturalism than a complete study of
the phenomena of prophecy.

From 1885 until his death Kuenen presided over a
group of scholars engaged in a new translation of
the Old Testament, with introductions and notes,
which was published in 1899 ("Het Oude Testa-
ment," etc., 2 vols.).

A complete list, bv Van Manen, of Kuenen's wri-
tings will be found in "J. Q. R." 1892, iv. 471-489,
and, revised, in the "Gesammelte Abhandluugen
zur Bibl. Wissenschaft," pp. 501-511.

BiDLiOGRAPHY: Ooft, Kucncn als Godgelcerde, In Dc Gids,
March, 1893, pp. 509-565 ; Tiele, in Jaarbnek van dc Koni)ik-
Wke Akndemie van WeteriKchappcn tc AmMerdain, 1892;
Toy, in The New World, March, 1893. pp. 64-88 ; Wicksteed,
In J. Q. R. July, 1892, pp. .571-605; Kamphausen, in Herzog-
Hauck, Real-Encyc. xi. 162-170.
T. G. F. M.

KUFAH, AL- : Ruined city of Asiatic Turkey,
88 miles south of Bagdad, situated on an affluent of
the Euphrates; founded by Omar on the ruins of
Ctesiphon in 639. A strip of land near it was given
by him to tiie JewLsh exiles from Arabia. An
important Jewish community existed at Al-Kufah
from the time of the unfortunate Calif 'Ali, with
whom the Jews sided in his struggle against Mu'a-
wiyah. Benjamin of Tudela visited the place at the
end of the twelfth century, and found there 7,000
Jews. Tradition made the site of Al-Kufah the
burial-place of King Jeconiah; and at the time of
Benjamin of Tudela the supposed sepulcher was
still in existence. It consisted of a large building
in front of which was a synagogue.

Bibliography: Abu al-Fida, Annalcs.ed. Adler. i. 13.5: Weil,
(iexch. dcr Chalifen, i. 56; Gratz, ^;(.>t7i. v. lU;Benjamiu
of Tudela, Rincrarij, ed. Asher, p. 69.
G. L Br.

KUH, DAVID : Austrian journalist and dep-
uty; born in Prague 1818; died Jan. 26, 1879. He
gave up the study of medicine and law, which he
had been pursuing in Vienna, and became first a
teacher, then an actor, and finally a publicist in
Pest. He was an enthusiastic follower of Louis
Ko.ssuth during the Hungarian war of independence,
and was puni-shed with imprisonment for participa-
tion in the revolt. When liberated, in 1850, he re-
turned to Prague, and founded a German political
journal. He was an adherent of the Germans during
the struggle between them and the Czechs, and ri'-
ceived a mandate as deputy to the Reichstag, which,
however, he soon gave up.

Bibliography: JS'eue Frcie Prcssc, Jan. 27, 1879.

s. ]M. K.

KUH, EMIL: Austrian poet and novelist ; born
Dec. 13, 1828, at Vienna; died Dec. 30, 1876, at
Meran; studied philosophy and history at the Uni-
versity of Vienna. In 1847 he took temporary
charge of his father's business, and for a few years
afterward was employed by the Nordbahn (Northern
R. R.), resigning to devote himself to literature.
During a short stay in Berlin he became a Roman
Catholic (1857), and in 1858 took up his residence
in Vienna, where he was well known as a writer and
critic for the leading papers of the Austrian empire.

In 1864 Kuh Avas appointed professor of German
language and literature at the Vienna Commercial
College (Handelsschule), but was compelled by ill
health to resign after a few years and retire to Meran.
He published the following works: "Friedrich Heb-
bel "(Vienna, 1854); " Drei Erzahlungen" (Troppau,
1857); "Gedichte" (Brunswick, 1858); "Dichter-
buch aus Oesterreich " (Vienna, 1863) ; " Ueber Neuere
Lyrik" {ib. 1865); "Adalbert Stifter" (ib. 1868);
" Zwei Dichter Oesterreichs " (Budapest, 1872) ; " Bio-
graphic Friedrich Hebbel's" (Vienna, 1877). Together
with G. Glaser he published the " Gesammelte Werke
von Friedrich Hebbel " (Hamburg, 1864-68), and with
F. Pachler the "Nachlass" of Friedrich Halm
(Vienna, 1872). The "Wiener Jahrbuch fur Israeli-
ten " contains some of his poems. Kuh's corre-
spondence with Theodor Storm was published by
his son Paul Kuh in vol. 67 of " Westermanu's
Monatshefte " (1889-90).

Bibliography: Meyers Konversatwns-Lexikon.

s. M. K.

KUH, EPHRAIM MOSES: German poet;
born 1731 in Breslau; died there April 3, 1790. His
parents had chosen for him the career of a student
of the Talmud; but his faith had been shaken by
the influence of a skeptic teacher, and he preferred
to enter his father's business. In spending all his
spare time in reading and studying, he acquired a
substantial knowledge of Latin and modern lan-
guages and a general education quite unusual
among the Jews of his time. After the death of his
fatlier (1755) he at first associated himself with his
brothers in business; but in 1763 he accepted a posi-
tion with his uncle Veitel Ephraim, the well-known

581

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kuenen
Kulisher

medalist and jeweler to Frederick the Great, and
became intimately connected with Moses ^lendels-
sohn and his friends. But in spite of his consider-
able fortune he soon got into financial difficulties, due
largely to indiscriminate charities and to his some-
Avhat irregular mode of liyiug. In 1768 he surren-
dered his position with his uncle, and with the re-
mainder of his money began to travel, taking with
him his library, from which he would not separate
himself. He wandered through Holland, France,
Switzerland, and some parts of Germany, wliere he
often was deeply humiliated by the imposition of
the "LeibzoU" (personal tax).

These travels completed the ruin of his fortune as
well as of his health. In Saxe-Coburg-Gotha he
was fined heavily for evading the toll, and h?.d to
sell his clothing in order to get to Breslau. Tliere
his brothers took care of him and endeavored to
let him lead a quiet life; but the misfortunes of his
career darkened liis mind and caused him to isolate
himself. Soon his melanchol}' turned into a mad-
ness that lasted for six years, though with brief in-
tervals of sanity in which lie wrote some of his best
poems. After liaving recovered, he devoted himself
wholly to poetry, till in 1786 he was stricken with
apoplexy and remained robbed of all power of move-
ment, and almost of speech, until his death.

In his poems Kuh vividly expresses his patriotism
and his reverence for Frederick the Great ; but he
expresses also resentment at the bad treatment of
Jews in Germany and scorn at liis own and others'
failures and weaknesses. His poems were greatly
esteemed by Mendelssohn and other contemporaries.
The German poet and critic Ramler revised them
and published a selection in German periodicals;
but the greater part of Kuh's poems, revised by
Ramler, were not published until after the poet's
death, and then by the Christian physician Kauscli.
Critics prefer among his poems the short witty epi-
grams, often full of biting satire and irony. Ger-
vinus calls his Anacreontic verse " superior to similar
poems by Gleim." Kuh was the first German Jew
of modern times who won recognition as a poet.
Berthold Auerbach made him the hero of a novel
entitled "Dichterund Kaufmann " (Stuttgart, 1839).

BiBUOGRAPHY: Hintcrlansene Gedichte von Ephraim Muxes
Kuh, Zurich, 1793 (with a biography of Kuh by his friend
Moses Hirschel); Kayserling, Der Dichter Ephraim Kuh,
Berlin, 1864 ; Gervinus, Gesch. der Deut»chen Dichtung,
iv. 243 6t seq., Leipsic, 1873.
D. A. Fe.

KXJHN, ABRAHAM : German physician ; born
at Bissersheim, Alsace, Jan. 28, 1838; died at Stras-
burg Sept. 15, 1900. Kulm was educated at the
imiversitiesof Giessen, Prague, Vienna, Munich, and
Wurzburg (M.D. 1863). He then went to Strasburg ;
in 1865 he took a medical diploma there also, and
thereupon became lecturer. In 1873, on the opening
of the German university at Strasburg, he was ap-
pointed assistant professor and chief of the poly-
clinic for diseases of the throat and nose. As a
specialist in these diseases Kuhn has contributed
many essays to the medical journals of France and
Germany. He translated Troeltsch's "Lehrbuch
der Ohrenheilkunde" into French (Paris and Stras-
burg, 1870), and wrote: "Histologic des Hautigen
Labyrinthes der Knochenfische," Leipsic, 1878;

"Histologic . . . der Amphibien," if). 1880; "His-
tologic ... der Reptilien," ib. 1880; "Histologic
. . . der Vogel," ih. 1884.

Bibliography: Pagel, Biog. Lex.

s- F. T. H.

KUHN, MORIZ : Austrian physicist ; born in
Brliun, Moravia, Jan. 11, 1843; educated at the
Polytechnic high scliool there, and later at the Uni-
versity of Vienna. He entered the service of the
state in 1865. In 1867 lie was appointed an assist-
ant in the Institute of Meteorology and Terrestrial
Magnetism, and in Oct., 1868, to a like position in tlie
Polytechnic Institute at V'ienna, where he remained
for more than two years until appointed (1870) pro-
fessor of mathematics and physics at the K. K.
Staats-Ober-Realschule in the seventh district of
Vienna.

Kuhn was editor of "Die Realschule" from 1873
to 1877, and from 1877 to 1889 of the "Zeitschrift
fiir das Realschulwesen." He is the author of the
following works: "Ueber die Lichtenberg'schen
Figuren," Vienna, 1873; "Ueber Beziehungen Zwi-
schen Druck, Volumen und Temperatur bei Gasen,"
ib. 1875; "Einiges liber die Entwicklung der Kegel-
schnittslinien aus Zwei Gegebenen Kreisen," 1868.

s. E. J.

KITLISHER, MIKHAIL IGNATYE-
VICH: Russian lawyer and author; born July 7,
1847, in a Jewisli agricultural colony near the village
of Sophiefka, district of Lutsk. At the age of ten
he entered the rabbinical school of Jitomir. After-
ward he entered the classical gymnasium in Ka-
menetz-Podolsk, but had to leave the institution on
account of ill health. Later he went up for his final
examinations at the gymnasium of Jitomir, and en-
tered the law school of the University of Kiev.
At the end of two j'cars he was transferred to the
University of Odessa. In 1871 he removed to St.
Petersburg, passed his final examinations at the uni-
versity of that city in 1872, and soon after received
an appointment as assistant district attorney. He,
however, devoted but little time to his legal prac-
tise, and in 1875 went to Vienna and later to Berlin.

Kulisher's first printed article was a contribution
on the status of the Rabbis, published in 1866 in the
then recently established periodical " Glasny Sud. "
While a student at the University of Odessa, Ku-
lisher had edited the "Weekly Chronicle "column in
"Dyen,"and had published in the same paper a
series of biographies of prominent Jewish men like
Lasker and Jacobi ; also some critical notes, among
them those on Bogrov's"Zapiski Yev-
Early reya," for which he was later bitterly
Writings, attacked by that author. From Odessa
he had also written several letters for
the " Sanktpeterburgskiya Vyedomosti " on tlie anti-
Jewish riots in Odessa in 1871, and somewhat later
he wrote three letters for the " Vyedomosti " on the
causes of these riots. In 1876 he wrote a book
entitled " Das Leben Jesu, eine Sage " (Leipsic, 1876).
In that year there appeared in the "Zeitschrift
fur Ethnologic" his first article on ethnography,
entitled "Die Geschlechtliche Zuchtwahl in der
Urzeit." During the same year he contributed to
"Novoye Vremya" articles on foreign political

Kulisher
Kupernik

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

582

questions, and wrote also a liistorical sketch of the
Balkan Slavs. During 1877-78 he contributed from
abroad a series of articles on ethnograpliy to the
"Zeitschrift fi\r Etimologic," "Archiv fur Anthro-
pologie," "Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie und
Sprachwissenschaft," "Kosmos," and "Globus."
These essays dealt with the history of the human
family in its relation to political constitution, pri-
vate ownersliip, and commerce.

From 1878 Jiulisher contributed to " Slovo," " Russ-
kaya Pravda," " Otechestvennyya Zapiski," und to
"Razsvyet" when the publication of the last named
was resumed. He continued to write tlie leading ar-
ticles for this publication until 1880, and then became
editor of "Pravda." This periodical was discon-
tinued in October of the same j'ear by order of Gov-
ernor-General Drenteln of Odessa.

Soon afterward Kulisher was offered, by a circle
of philanthropists who established the paper, the
editorship of the "Zarya." The purpose of this
publication was to champion the cause of the perse-
cuted peoples — the Poles, Ukrainians, and Jews —
against the attacks of the anti-Semitic
As Editor Russian daily tlie "Kievlj-anin," pub-
of the lished by Pikhno. Accepting the
"Zarya." offer, Kulisher became the active edi-
tor, and, in time, the owner, of the
"Zarya." The official editor, Andreyevski, who
had originally received permission to publish the
paper, was retained as nominal editor. In 1886 the
department of printing refused to recognize Ku-
lisher as the actual editor, and Andreyevski availed
himself of this opportunity to claim the ownership
of the paper.

Beginning with 1880 Kulisher published articles
on ethnography and the history of civilization in
"Vyestnik Yevropy," in the "Zeitschrift flir Eth-
nologic," and in " Ausland."

In 1887 Kulisher published in book form a consid-
erable number of his articles under the title " Ocberki
Sravnitelnoi Etnografii i Kultury," and wrote two
articles on the history of artisan gilds for "Russkaya
Mysl," and two for "Vyestnik Yevropy." In tlie
same year and in 1888 he wrote constantly for the
"Novosti," " Nedyelnaya Khronika Voskhoda,"
"Voskhod," and "Russkaya Mysl." In 1884 he
was a delegate to the congress of archeologists in
Odessa, and in 1895 delegate to the congress of an-
thropologists in Carlsruhe.

Since 1888 Kulisher has been devoting himself to
his legal practise in St. Petersburg. He has pub-
lished in the " Voskhod " a series of sketches on
the history of the Jews in Russia and in other coun-
tries, among them one on the Jews of America
based mainly on the data taken from the first volume
of the Jewish Encyclopedia; several articles on
legal matters in the "Zhurnal Ministerstva Yus-
titzii," "Pravo," "Russkoye Bogatstvo," and "No-
vosti"; and a pamphlet, "Razvod i Polozheniye
Zhen.schin " (St. Petersuburg, 1896), on divorce and
the present condition of woman.

Kulisher is a member of the committee of the As-
sociation for the Propagation of Culture among the
Jews of Russia, and of the central committee of the
Jewish Colonization Association.
n. R. D. G.

KULISHER, REUBEN MOISEIYEVICH :

Rus.sian physician and educator; born at Dubuo
1828; died at Kiev Aug. 9, 1896; educated at the
local district school, at the classical gynuiasium of
Jitomir (graduated with gold medal in 1848), and at
the medico-chirurgical academy of St. Petersburg
(graduated in 1856). He was attached to the army,
at that time in the field, being one of three Jews
theu appointed militarj' surgeons. After the Cri-
mean war he was appointed junior attending physi-
cian at the military hospital of Lutsk, and was as-
signed to duty at Kiev hospital in 1860. From 1869
to 1876 he undertook a number of commissions of a
scientific nature for the government. During his
studies abroad Kulisher worked in the laboratories
of tlie most prominent French and German inves-
tigators, devoting himself mainly to the study of
hygiene and military sanitation. He was also a con-
tributor to a number of scientific works and editor
of translations of classical works on medicine.

Kulisher has done much toward improving the
education of the Russian Jews. About the middle
of the nineteenth century he came forward as the
champion of systematic education for the Jewish
masses, thereby making many enemies among his
Orthodox coreligionists. He wrote on the Jewish
question ; also on the Russian tran.slation of the
Old Testament, in "Yevreiskaya Biblioteka," 1871,
vol. 1. ; " I. Shigarin i Yevo Otnosheniya," etc. (Kiev,
1880); besides articles in "Voskhod," 1891, 1892.
1894.

Bibliography: Voskhod, 1896, No. 33; Sistematicheski
UkazatcU s.v.
H. R. J. G. L.

KULKA, ADOIiF: Austrian journalist; born
Oct. 5, 182-3, in Leipnik, Moravia; died in Vienna
Dec. 5, 1898. He studied philosophy and jurispru-
dence in Prague and Vienna, and began at that time
to publish political treatises and small works of fic-
tion in local periodicals. Having taken an active
part in the agitation of 1848, Kulka had the distinc-
tion of being the first author whose poems were
printed without being censored. In 1854 Ignaz
Kuranda engaged him for the " Ostdeutsche Post,"
for which he wrote political editorials till 1857.
Later in conjunction with Ignaz Pisko he founded
the juridical journal "Gerichtshalle," and conducted
it for more than forty years. AVheu the " Wiener
Allgemeine Zeitung" was established, Kulka became
a member of its editorial staff, in which capacity
he acted for ten 3' ears. Amid his journalistic work
he found leisure to contribute essays, tales, and
poems to various periodicals. Conspicuous among
these is a collection of poems entitled "Chanuca-
Lichter, " translated in parts into several languages.

BiBi.ioGRAPiiY : Das Geistiae Wien, 1.; Jew. Chron. Dec. 16,

1898, p. 19.

s. B. B.

KULKE, EDUARD: Austrian author; born at
Kostel, near Nikolsburg, Moravia, May 28, 1831 ;
died in Vienna March 20, 1897; educated at the poly-
technic institutes of Vienna and Prague. After
following for several years the profession of teacher
he settled in Vienna and devoted himself entirely to
literature. He soon attracted attention by his tales
derived from the life of the Moravian ghetto, which

583

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kulisher
Kupernik

placed him as a ghetto-writer next to Leopold Kom-
pert. Among his works may be mentioned : " Aus
dem Jiidischeu Volkslebeu " (Hamburg, 1871);
" Gescliichten " (Leipsic, 1869); and "Der Kunsten-
macher," the last-named published also in Paul
Hej'Se's "Novcllensfliatz." Kulke was an intimate
friend of Friedrich Ilebbcl, whose memoirs he pub-
lished under tlic title "Erinnerungen an Friedrich
Hebbel " (Vienna, 1878).

As a musical writer Kulke contributed notices
to the "Fremdenblatt" (Vienna) and "Vaterland"
(Vienna), in which he with great ardor advocated
the Wagnerian cult. Among his essays on tliis sub-
ject are: "Richard Wagner," Prague, 1883; "Die
Umbildung der Melodic," ib. 1884; and "Richard
Wagner und Friedrich Nietzsche," Leipsic, 1890.
Subsequently he changed his views and separated
from Wagnerianism.

The most important of Kulke's esthetico-philo-

sophical essays is "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte

der Meinungen," Leipsic, 1891. Of his numerous

other works, the more widely known are: "Don

Perez," tragedy (Vienna, 1873); "Korah," Biblical

tragedy (Leipsic, 1873); "Der Gefiederte Dieb,"

comedy (Vienna, 1876) ; and " Der Glasscherben-

tanz " (1881). He was also a diligent contributor to

Jewish periodicals.

Bibliography: Keue Freie Presxc, evening ed., March 22,
ltf97 : Eisenberp, Dan Geisttye Wien, i.
s. B. B.

KTJMISI, DANIEL AL-. See Daniel ben
Moses al-Kumisi.

KUNA : Polish name for the pillory, the well-
known implement of torture and punishment, used
by the Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the eighteenth
century, who seem to have adopted it from their
Christian neighbors, to punish those who sinned
against religion or against the interests of the com-
munity. Generally the kuna did not differ much
from the pillory used in most other European coun-
tries; but in some places it was a chain to which
the offender was fastened. The kuna was placed in
a corner of the office of the kahal, which was usu-
ally connected with the synagogue. The offender
was placed in the kuna shortly before the morning
or the evening service; and each worshiper had the
right, and even considered it a duty, to spit in the
culprit's face, and to beat and otherwise insult him.

The date of the introduction of the kuna into the
Jewish communities is not known. Hoschel Lewin,
in his " 'Aliyyat Eliyahu," a biography of Elijah of
Wilna (pp. 47-50, Wilna, 1855), relates that in 1770
a freethinker was punished by the elders of the
kahal in Wilna. It was probably Abba Glusk (see
Glusker Maggid), who had made deprecating re-
marks before the gaon of Wilna about the Passover
Haggadah. The culprit was arrested the same day ;
he received forty lashes ; and was then put in the
kuna. After suffering the usual insults the unfor-
tunate man was led out of town and ordered not to
return.

In 1772 Elijah expressed to the elders of the kahal
his wish to punish Issar, the "Hasidic heretic," the
"priest of Baal," by putting him in the kuna; but
they found it Inconvenient to comply with his re-
quest. Issar received only the usual "mal^ut"

(lashes); but on the following day the great excom-
munication ("herem") was pronounced against him
and his companions. In 1782 the elders of the kahal
of Minsk, having been accused by some Jewish arti-
•sanri of oppressing the Jewish people and of misusing
the public money, punLshed the leaders of the mal-
contents by putting them in the kuna.

Bnu.iooRAPiiY: Dubnow. In VoKhhod, 1890, li. 102, HI. 99;

Berehadskl, Litovakie Yevrei, p. 48.

II. R.

KUNITZER, MOSES BEN MENAHEM :
Rabbi in Ofen and dayyau in Budapest ; Unn at
Alt-Ofen ; died Feb. 2, 1837. A descendant of Rabbi
Lowe ben Bezaleel, he was one of the pioneers
of enlightenment in Hungary. His works include :
"Bet Rabbi" (Vienna, 1805), i.e., a biography of
Judah ha-Xasi, part of which was included in
Schmid's Mishnah edition in 1815; "Ben Yohai," a
defense of the genuineness of the Zohar {ib. 1815);
"Ha-Mazref," a Hebrew letter- writer (vol. i.,
Prague, 1820; vol. ii., Vienna, 1857). Hisresponsum
in " Nogah ha-Zedek " (Dessau, 1818), in which he
permits the introduction of the organ into the syna-
gogue, created a great stir. A part of his manu-
script is to be found in the library of the rabbinical
seminary at Budapest.

Bibliography : Biichler, A Zttidok TOrtenete Budapesten ;
Iguatz Reich, Beth-EU i. 169-176.
s. A. Bu.

KTJNOS, IGNATZ : Hungarian authority on
Turkish; born Sept. 20, 1861, at Samson, Hungary.
He attended the gymnasium at Debreczin and the
University of Budapest, where he studied linguistics.
On receiving his Ph.D. degree he went to the East
on a scholarship granted by the Jewish commu-
nity of Budapest and the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences, and traveled through European Turkey,
Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, studying
the various Turkish dialects and collecting Turkish
popular poetry. The results of these studies were
published by the Hungarian Academy in the fol-
lowing works: "Harom Karagoz Jatek" (1885),
"Oszman Nepkoltesi Gyiijtemeny " (2 vols., 1887-
1889), "Orta-Ojunu" (1889J, "Torok Nepmesek"
(1889), "Anatoliai Kepek" (1891), "Koroglu"
(1894). On his return (1891) he was appointed lec-
turer of the Turkish language and literature at the
University of Budapest, and professor of Turkish in
the Oriental School of Commerce in that city, be-
coming director of the last-named institution in
1893.

Kunos is the only Jew in Hungary who is director
of a state institution of learning. He is also a mem-
ber of the State School Board of Business Colleges,
corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences (since 1893), and of the Societe Asia-
tique of Paris (1889). Together with Bernhard
Munkacsi he is editor of the "Keleti Szemle," the
only existing peiiodical for the Ural-Altaic lan-
guages. He has been decorated with two high Turk-
ish orders.

s. L- V.

KUPERNIK, ABRAHAM (AVRAAM
ARONOVICH) : Russian communal worker; born
at Wilna 1821 ; died at Dembitza 1893. on his home-
ward journey from abroad; buried in Kiev. He
studied Talmud at the Volozhin yeshibah and ac-

Luppah
Kurdistan

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

584

quired a fair secular education. In 1851 lie became
manager under Yosel Ginsburgof the liquor monop-
oly in the governmentof Grodno, and in 1861 he served
in a similar capacity in the government of Kiev.

Kupernik was prominent in the affairs of the
Jewish community and did much toward the estab-
lishment of hospitals and other charitable and edu-
cational institutions. He was president of the Jew-
ish hospital.

For his services as one of the board of directors of
the prison Kupernik was decorated with the Order
of St. Stanislas. He was also a member of the Red
Cross Society and president of the city charities of
Kiev (1882). In 1882 he was created honorary and
hereditary citizen of the empire. He also received
(1888) the gold medal of the Vladimir Order for his
services as president of the board of directors of the
government bank of Kiev.

As a writer Kupernik is known for his articles in
the Hebrew periodicals, and also for a little volume
published in 1891 under the title of "Korotha-
Yehudim be-Kiyov," which is, however, not a his-
tory, but only a copy of the pinkes of Kiev.

Kupernik's son Liov is one of the most prominent
lawyers of South Russia. He ably defended the
cause of the Jews in Kiev and Balta during the pro-
ceedings following the riots in 1881.

Bibliography : Jfo-Asif, vi. 161, Warsaw, 1893.
H. li. M. G. L.

KUPPAH. See Charity.

KURANDA, IGNAZ : Austrian deputy and
political writer; born in Prague May 1, 1812; died
in Vienna April 3, 1884. His grandfather and
father were dealers in second-hand books. In 1834
_ _ he went to Vienna, where

he devoted himself to lit-
erary work, and wrote
the drama "Die Letzte
Weisse Rose," which was
played first in Stuttgart
and later in Carlsruhe and
Frank f or t-on-the-Main,
and won great popularity.
In 1838 Kuranda went
to Stuttgart, where he
became acquainted with
David Strauss, the author
of "DasLeben Jesu," with
Uhlaud, and with other
Swabian poets. Here,
too, for the first time he
came in touch with public
political life. He then went to Paris and Brussels.
In tlie latter city he attracted attention through lec-
tures on modern German literature. With the
assistance of Minister Nothomb and the author
Hendrik Conscience he in 1841 founded the period-
ical " Die Grenzboten " ; but on ac-
count of the obstacles which the
Prussian government placed in the
way of its circulation in Germany
Kuranda removed the headquarters of
the paper to Leipsic, where it soon be-
came an important factor in Austrian politics. That
which no one dared write in Austria was published

Ignaz Kuranda.

Estab-
lishes "Die
Grenz-
boten."

in "Die Grenzboten." Kuranda's work "Belgien
Seit Seiner Revolution " appeared in Leipsic in 1846.

After the outbreak of the movement of 1848
Kuranda went to Vienna, where he was enthusias-
tically received in literary circles. From Vienna he
was delegated to the Flinfziger Ausschuss in Frank-
fort-on-the-3Iaiu, and later he was returned to the
German parliament as delegate for Teplitz. Ku-
randa did not remain long in the Frankfort parlia-
ment. In the summer of 1848 he returned to Vienna
and established the "Ostdeutsche Post," which first
appeared on Oct. 1, and in which he strove to oppose
the revolutionary element. After the promulgation
of the constitution (the " Octroirte Verfassung "),
which had been forced upon the people, Kuranda
had to give up his position as editor of the "Ost-
deutsche Post. " He was placed under police sur-
veillance because he refused to sign an engagement
not to write upon politics, and some time elapsed
before he could again publish the periodical, which
he made the organ of the so-called " Grossdeutsche "
liberal party in Austria, and in which he pleaded
for the restoration of constitutional conditions.

Kuranda may be regarded as one of the founders
of liberal press conditions in Austria. Memorable
is his lawsuit with Sebastian Brunner, a Catholic
priest and editor of the " Kirchenzeitung, " which case
was tried on May 10, 1860. Kuranda had pointed
out in the " Oesterreichische Post" that Brunner
collected material for his accusations against the Jews
"from very unclean and suspicious sources, whereby
he spread untruthfulness and slander." Brunner
pressed a charge of calumny against Kuranda, who,
through his able defense, and after a masterful
pleading by Johann Nepomuk Berger, was ac-
quitted in terms which implied a condemnalion
of Brunner's anti-Jewish campaign.

In 1866 Kuranda discontinued the publication of
his paper, and devoted all his energies to politics.
He fought the absolutist October policy, and as-
sisted, as friend and confidant, the Austrian secre-
tary of state, Schmerling, in drafting the February
constitution.

On March 20, 1861, Kuranda was sent to the
Landtag of Lower Austria as delegate for the dis-
trict of Vienna, and was subsequently elected to the
Reichsrath, retaining his seat in that body for twenty
years. On the creation of the Delegations (a kind
of common parliament of Hungary and Austria with
alternative seats at Budapest and Vienna) he was re-
turned as a member of that body. One

In Par- of the most distinguished members of

liament. parliament, Kuranda was a brilliant
orator, and spoke mostly on questions
of foreign politics. He was also for many years a
member of the city council of Vienna.

In 1881 Kuranda's seventieth birthday was cele-
brated with great enthusiasm by his political ]iarty
and by the press ; and the city council made him an
honorarj^ citizen. The emperor had already in 1867
honored him with the " Ritterkreuz des Leopoldor-
dens." Kuranda's great activity as a politician
and publicist, which he exercised for twenty-three
years as the leader of the German liberal party, was
paralleled by his faithful devotion to the Jewish
cause, to which he gave a great part of his powers.

585

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

l^uppah
Kurdistan

He was for twelve years president of the Jewish

commuuity of Vienna. As vice-president of the Is-

raelitische AUianz zu Wien he promoted tlie study

of Jewish science and history, in wliicli he took

great interest.

BiBLiOGRAPH V : Wurzbach, Tiioq. Lcr. dcs Kaisertums Oeatcr-
rcich : Metiers KoncersatioiDi-liCXihun.

s. L. Y.

KURBSKI, PRINCE. See Kussia.

KURDISTAN : A country of western Asia,
partly under Turkish and partly under Persian rule,
although the Kurds pay but little attention to either
government. They derive their income from agri-
culture and cattle-raising, and a goodly sliare of it
from robbery. The Jewish ])opulation of Kurdis-
tan is estimated to be from 12,000 to 18,000, scat-
tered in numerous villages, and living in groups of
from live to ten houses, or of twenty at most. These
communities do not, as a rule, possess a synagogue,
but hold services in some house owned by one of
their number.

The Jews of Kurdistan have no written record of
their first arrival in the country ; but they believe
that the earliest settlers came in the time of Ezra.
The immigration of Jews into Kurdistan in early
times may be assumed from the fact that their speech
differs but little from the moderu Syriac dialect of
the Nestorian Christians who are scattered through-
out Kurdistan. Moreover, this speech has idiomatic
expressions similar to those occurring in the Baby-
lonian Talmud, in the Aramaic translations of the
Bible, and in the few Pahlavi inscriptions on monu-
ments and those on the coins of the Sassanid mon-
arclis who ruled in Persia from 266 to 640.

Since the Kurd clans among which the Jews are
very sparsely scattered were until quite recently
constantly at Avar with one another, it must be as-
sumed that the Jews suffered considerably from this
cause, and that thereby their numbers were greatly
reduced. Local records show this to have been the
case. In Berdug there are several thousand ancient
graves which have partly been demolished ; and it
is believed thfit this graveyard belonged to the Jews.
Among the graves is that of Rabbi Abraham, which
is regarded as sacred and attracts an-
Kurds nually man}^ Jewish pilgrims. It is
and venerated also by the Kurds; and sev-

Turks. cral miracle stories are connected with
it. With the subjection of the Kurds
by the Turks the internecine struggles have largely
ceased ; but the Turks have introduced little civili-
zation, and the struggles are apt to be renewed.
The Kurds still lead a seminomadic existence. In the
spring the shepherds andherdsmenleave their houses,
and, carrying their tents of goat-hair with them,
drive their flocks and herds from place to place,
often causing, in this way, collisions between neigh-
boring tribes. In earlier times the Jews, also, pos-
sessed such tents ; but those days of affluence and
independence have long passed away.

The Jews and the Mohammedans live, as a rule,
on more friendly terms than do the Jews and the Ar-
menians and Nestorians. The belief that the Jews
use Christian blood at Passover sustains between
the Jew and Christian a deep-seated enmity. Like
the other inhabitants of the country, the Jews suffer

much from tlie arbitrary acts of the police. The
Jews are placed under the authority of the chief of
police of the village in many instances, and have to
bear much from the petty police ollicers. Jewish
converts to Mohammedanism are even worse than
the native Mohammedans in their hatred of the
Jews; and in their zeal tiiey are eager to make re-
ports to the police. This renders the position of the
Kurdistan Jews a very unenviable one.

Much elTective work in ameliorating the condition
of tiie Kurdistan Jews has been done by the Alliance
Israelite Universelle, an important feature being the
foundation of schools for Jewish children. Hitherto
the latter have had but little opportunity to study
their religion or their history, since the rabbis have
been so actively engaged in extracting the sinews
from meat, in circumcising children (in Moham-
medan houses also), and in making amulets, that
they have had no time left for religious teaching.
Where instruction was given at all, the boys were
sent to sciiool at the age of six or seven and remained
there until they were thirteen or fourteen. The
instruction consisted of writing, reading, and the
study of the Scriptures, and at times ^lishnah, arith-
metical problems being solved by a computing in-
strument called "taspe." The religious instruction
of the girls does not go beyond the "Shema'";
they are taught nothing else but household duties.

The family life is rather primitive. The men

marry at seventeen or even earlier; the girls, at

thirteen or fourteen. The father of the bridegroom

furnishes the bride with her dowry, and the bride,

when she has money, brings to her

Customs, husband 100 toman (1 toman = about
S2.25). Monogamy is the rule; but
exceptions occur, as, for instance, when tlie marriage
is childless or when the levirate comes into effect.
The women are dependent and superstitious. Men
and women carry charmed writings as preventives
against disease and the evil eye. These amulets
contain the name of God in cabalistic formulas,
which are usually taken from a well-known mys-
tical book called "Sefer Raziel." Even the Kurds
at times apply to Jewish writers for amulets. In
such cases the latter are careful not to insert therein
the name of God. The preparation of amulets was
introduced by Jews from Jerusalem Avho visited
Kurdistan in the course of their collecting tours.

In general the Jews of Kurdistan earn their liveli-
hood by keeping stores or by acting as agents in the
export trade. The children peddle tobacco, fruit,
matches, and other small articles. 3Iany of tlie men
go into the villages and trade with the natives in
natural products, such as grain, cheese, wool, honey,
wax, gall-apples, grapes, etc. These products are
either sold in the towns or are exported to Russia.
Jews in better circumstances have stores in the
bazaars of the different cities, where they trade from
Sunday until Friday. Not infrequently the poorer
Jews represent themselves as doctors, or become
venders of drugs without knowing anything of
medicine. The Jewish merchants are often waylaid
and robbed. In order to escape imprisonment for
not paying for merchandise supplied to them on
credit, they at times abandon tlieir families, leav-
ing them in misery. In many instances the women

Kurdistan
Kuttower

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

586

thus abandoned are compelled to sellthemselves in
order to obtain food for their families. The rabbis,
being ignorant and poor, have but httle influence,
and can not correct the existing evils.

In villages where a number of Jews live together
they form a community and engage a dayyan and
a shohet who also acts as mohel. The head of the
community with the advice of the most prominent
members determines the taxes to be paid to the gov-
ernment. The burial of the dead is usually con-
ducted three or four hours after death by the "he-
bra kaddisha." During the week of mournmg the
mourners are visited by their neighbors, who bring
food with them and share it with the bereaved.
Quarrels and difficulties are adjusted by the rabbi,
who calls a bet din. When Jews have differences
with Christians or with Mohammedans they submit
them to the local Mohammedan chief. Bribery
often influences his decision. The higher magistrate
is a Turk, who lives in Bashkala and receives his
uncertain 'salary from Constantinople. He presides
over a local court composed of ten Mohammedans,
one Armenian priest, and one Jew.

The following is a list of the Jewish communities
of Kurdistan (1881):
Amidyah. : About 50 families.
Bajerga : 40 to 50 families. Formerly there was
a large Jewish community here, whose members
dealt in salt and other articles, but being forbidden
to trade were obliged to leave the place. The few
remaining are poor.

Bashkala : 140 families.

Bitanura : 40 to 50 families. There is in the
neighborhood a large cave which is supposed to
contain the grave of the prophet Elijah. Israelites
from other districts make pilgrimages to it. A few
of the Jewish inhabitants are in easy circumstances.
Daya : 250 families.

Daze: The seat of government; situated in a
valley surrounded by fifty villages. There are from
five to ten Jewish families in each village, their
synagogue being at Deze, which has ten Jewish
families. The Jews living in these villages use the
Kurdish language, even in reading the Law.

Eshnu : 80 families. There is a synagogue con-
taining five or six Toiah-roUs. Jews possessing fifty
dollars are considered rich.

Jezira : 80 families. Most of the men are cobblers.
Karada : 80 families. These are for the greater
part farmers, and are well thought of by their neigh-
bors. They all live in easy circumstances.
Maredin : 50 families.

Mia-vandan: About 100 families. This place
is partly under Turkish rule and partly under the
authority of the Shah of Persia.

Nakada: 60 families. Most of the Jews are
linen-weavers and tailors.

Neri : 50 to 60 Jewish families. Both Jews and
Armenians are much oppressed. The Jews are not
allowed to blow the shofar in the city on Rosh ha-
Shanah, but must go out into the field for that pur-
pose. The sheiks of the place receive a portion of
the booty secured by their subjects in their preda-
tory expeditions.

Penjur : About 30 families, whose members are
mostly cotton-spinners.

Rowandes : 50 to 60 families.

Sacho : 200 persons.

Seneh : An important commercial center. The
Jewish community has two synagogues.

Suleimania : 180 families. The men are mostly
pedlers, small traders, and tailors.

bibliography: Allg. Zeit. rfes Jud. 1878, p. 343 ; Andree Zur
VolkskumU clcr Judcn, p. 218, Leipsic 1881 LaGcogr.
1901, iv. 293: GeoyraphicalJuurnahmh xvni. 141 , Fercy,
T^irklh Kurdistan, in Proceedhnis Roml I'^/t%catBr^
aiH, xvi. 640; Verhandlungen der GeseUs. fUr Eidkund,
xxvii 128; Albert Lowy, in Transactions Soc. Biblical
Arc (voloni, iv. 98, London, 1876; LcsJuif^ de Kurdistan,
UiL'univers Israelite, Nov. 15, 1901; Stern, Dawnmus of
i.aW London, 1854: Uc^Shiloalu Jan., 1902 p. 52; Apr. pp.
355-35(3; Naumann, Vom Goldenen Horn, etc., Uumch, 1893.

ir. K. J- ^- ^•

KTJUIiAND. See Courland.

KURREIN, ADOLF : Austrian rabbi ; born Jan.
28, 1846, at Trebitsch, Moravia. He received his doc-
tor's degree from the University of Vienna. He was
rabbi of St. Polten in 1872, of Zinz from 1876 to 1882,
of Bielitz from 1882 to 1888, and in the last-named
year was called in the same capacity to Teplitz, where
he is still active. Kurrein is a disciple of Adolf Jelli-
nek Besides several collections of sermons, entitled
respectively "Maggid Mereshit" (1880); "Maggid
le-Adam" (1882); " Patriarchenbildcr : I., Abraham"
(1893), he is the author of the following pamphlets:
"Die Frau iin Judischen Volke" (1885; 2d ed., Bi-
lin 1901)- "Traumund Wahrheit," a biography of
Joseph (1887); "Arbeit und Arbeiter" (1890); "Die
Sociale Frage im Judentume" (1890); "Die Pflich-
ten des Besitzes " (1892) ; " Der Friede " (1892) ; " Das
Kaddisch" (1896); "Der Grabstein" (1897); "JudUa
und Rom "(1898); "Bibel, Heidentum, und Ileiden-
bekehrung" (1899; 2d. ed., 1901); "Brauchendie Ju-
den Christenblut? " (1900); " Lichtstrahlen aus den
Reden Jellinek's," prepared by him for Jellinek's sev-
entieth birthday.

Kurrein edited the monthly "Jlidische Chromk
from 1894 to 1896 with S. Stern and I. Ziegler,
and from 1897 to 1902 alone. During the last four
years this periodical has advocated Zionism. S.

KTJSEIi, RUDOLPH : German jurist and poli-
tician; born May 9, 1809, in Carlsruhe; died there
Jan. 26, 1890. He studied law in Heidelberg and
Munich' and in 1832 was admitted to the bar in Ba-
den. From 1834 he practised law at Rastatt, Bruch-
sal, and Carlsruhe, and was reputed one of the keen-
est'of jurists. In 1849 he successfully defended the
men charged with participation in the revolution
at Baden. In 1859-87 he acted as attorney-gen-
eral. After the abrogation of the Concordat in
1860 he was elected deputy from the city of Carls-
ruhe to the Second Chamber of the Landstande in
Baden (1861), being the first Jew to be thus honored.
Kusel took a prominent part in the legislation
concerning the emancipation of the Jews (1862), the
new judicial constitution (1864), and schools (1867),
and served on the more important committees of the
House, particularly those pertaining to judiciary
legislation. He belonged to the German National-
Liberal party.

g E. SCHR.

KTJSSIEL. See Jekuthiel.

587

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kurdistan
Kuttower

KUSTENDIIi : Bulgariau city in the north of
Maceduiiia, near the Servian city of Kish. Jews
must have settled at Kustendil before the beginning
of the eighteentli century; a tombstone in tlie k)cal
cemetery bears the date 5509 {— 1749), and from 1G80
to 1750 Samuel Haravon was chief rabbi. Tlie rab-
binical writer Mordecai Conforte, author of a collec-
tion of sermons, "Kol Siicmu'el" (Salonica, 1787),
lived here at the end of the eighteenth century.
The following three chief rabbis of Kustendil belong
to the nineteenth century: Baruch Ilalevy (1840);
Abraham Meshullam (1850); and Abraham Meborak
(1855).

In 1903 there were 250 JewMsh families, or about
1,200 persons, in a total population of 13,000 inhabit-
ants. The affairs of the community are administered
by a synagogal committee and a school committee.
Every family pays a stated sum each year, which,
together with the tax on meat, serves to support
the synagogue and a boys' school (150 pupils). The
institutions include a synagogue, two batte mid-
rashim, and six benevolent societies. The Jews are
engaged in commerce, in the grocery trade, and as
tinsmiths and shoemakers.

Bibliography: Anuarul Pentrul Israclitzi, vol. xi., Bucha-
rest, 1885 ; Kazan, Ha-Ma'alot U-Shelomoh, p. 87.
D. M. Fr.

KUTAIS : Russian city in the government of
the same name ; the scene of a trial for blood accu-
sation in 1877. On April 16 of that year Sarra
Modebadze, a lame girl, six years old, of the village
of Perevisi, visited the house of a neighbor, Pavel
Tzkhodadze, and did not return home. The child
was last seen about three o'clock in the afternoon,
and about the same hour seven Jews were seen on
the Sadzaglikhevski road leading to Sachkheri.
Two days later the dead body of the child was
found, with no suspicious marks of violence upon
it save two wounds on the hands, evidently made
by the teeth of some animal. The body was quietly
buried in the usual way.

The incident happened during the Jewish Pass-
over, which fact suggested the guilt of the Jews.
Four members of the Khundiashvili family — Iskhak
Mordokhov, Bichia Shamuilov, Shamuel Aaronov,
and Mordokh Iskhakov— and Iskhak, Mosha, and
Yakov Tzveniashvili, all of the village of Sachk-
heri, were arrested on the charge of having kidnaped
the girl and killed her. Mosha Y''elov Tzotziashvili
was accused of having brought the body of the
murdered child from Sachkheri to the village of
Dorbaidze, where he left it, in order to divert atten-
tion from the alleged murderers ; and Jlichael Abra-
vnov Y^elikishvili, it was claimed, knew of the crime
committed by his friends and relatives, but did not
inform the authorities. Three autopsies proved that
the child had been asphyxiated.

The trial began on March 5, 1879, in the Kutais
district court, and on the 13th the defendants were
acquitted. On an appeal to the supreme court the
decision of the lower court was sustained. Both
courts agreed with the defense that the child was
killed by an accident. In 1895 Kutais had about
3,000 Jews-in a total population of 26,000.
Bibliography: Stenographic report of the trial, by Mines.

Syerdukova and Umnova.

H. R. M. /.

KTJTNER, JOSHUA HOSCHEL : Preacher

at Lis.sa in the middle of the nineteenth century.
He was the author of " Ha-Emunah weha-Hakirah "
(Breslau, 1847), containing a philosophical develop-
ment of the thirteen articles of belief of Maimouides,
and extracts from the Haggadah and from the wri-
tings of the ancient philosophers. The work is di-
vided into three parts: " Keter Malkut," on the first
five arlicles of belief; "Shebet Malkut," on proph-
ecy, revelation, etc. ; "Gedullat Malkut," on escha-
tology. Appended to it is an essay entitled " *Et
La'asot," on the religious conditions prevalent in
the author's day. Kutner was the author also of
" Ha-Emunah weha-Bittahon," on the precepts based
upon the Decalogue (Breslau, 1853, with a German
translation by Fiirstenthal).

Bibliography: Steinschnelder, Cat. Bodl. col. 1590; Filrst,
Bill. Jud. 11. 213.
K. I. Bit.

KTJTNER, ROBERT : German surgeon ; born
at Ueckermilnde, Pomerania, April 11, 1867. Edu-
cated at Berlin, Kiel, Freiburg -im-Breisgau, Vienna,
and Paris (M.D. 1891). In 1892 he traveled, and on
]\\s return settled in Berlin, where he is still practis-
ing as a specialist in diseases of the urinary system.
In 1902 he received the title of professor.

Kutner is the author of: " Die Photographie In-
nerer KorperhOhlen, Insbesondere der Harn blase
und des Magens," Berlin, 1891; "Die Handhabung
und Praktische Bedeutung der Asepsis fur die Be-
handlung der Harnleiden," ib. 1897; "Die Instru-
mentelle Behandlung der Harnleiden," ib. 1898;
"Aerztliche Kriegswissenschaft," ib. 1900; "Ge-
richtliche Medizin," ib. 1903.

Associated with Von Bergmann and Kirschner,
Kutner is editor (1904) of " Zeitschrif t fur Aerztliche
Fortbildung."

Bibliography : Pagel, Biog. Lex.

F. T. H.

KUTTOWER, ABRAHAM GERSHON
BEX EPHRAIM : Polish rabbi and cabalisi ;
born at Kuty, Galicia; died at Jerusalem about
1760. He was a follower of Isaac Luria's system of
practical Cabala, and spent most of his time in fast-
ing. He was also a recognized authority in rabbin-
ical matters, and Ezekiel Landau, who inserted a
responsum of Kiittower's in his "Noda' bi-Yehu-
dah," speaks of him in terms of high praise. His
authority as a cabalist is invoked by EybeschUtz in
his"Luhot 'Edut."

Kuttower was at first rabbi at Brody, where Israel
Ba'al Shem-Tob became his brother-in-law. Owing
to Shem-Tob's pretense of being an ignorant man, he
was treated harshly by Kuttower (see Ba'al Shem-
Tob). Later, Kuttower went to Palestine, and in a
letter of 1757 he declared that he had lived at He-
bron for six years alone, then at Jerusalem for four
years with his family (Luncz, "Jerusalem," ii. 152 et
seq.). There is, however, a tradition that Kuttower
studied Cabala under Hayyira ibn 'Attar, who died
at Jerusalem in 1743 (Hurwitz. "Hibbat Yerusha-
layim "). Possibly he went to Hebron before 1747;
and after having remained there six years, returned
to Brody in order to induce his sons to marry, and
then went back to Jerusalem. During his second

La Peyrere
Labi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

588

stay at Brody, Kuttower was reconciled witli Israel
Ba'al Shem-Tob, and he exchanged letters with
him when settled at Jerusalem, where he finally
adopted the Hasidic system of his brother-in-law.
At Jerusalem, Kuttower became the "rosh yeshi-
bah" in the Midrash Hasidim organized by those

who had come to Palestine headed by Judah
he-Hasid.

Bibliography: Abraham Kahana. R. Yisracl Ba'al Shem-
Tob, pp. 3«, 96 ft .«f (/.; Simeon Dubnow, in Puxks, ii. 2()2-
204, Ocles.sa, 1894; Walden, Shcm ha-Gcdulim hc-Hadash,
p. 34.
K. M. Sel.

LA PEYRERE, ISAAC. See Manasseii b.
Israel.

LABAN (p^).— 1. Biblical Data: Son of
Bethuel, graudnephew of Abraham, and matei'nal
uncle and father in-law of Jacob. His home being in
Aram-naharaim (Mesopotamia ; Gen. xxiv. 10), other-
Avise known as Padan-aram(i6. xxviii. 5), he is called
"the Aramean" {ib. xxv. 20, xxxi. 20, 24 [A. V.
"Syrian"]). Mention is first made of him on the
occasion of the marriage of his sister Kebekah. At-
tracted by the ring and bracelets which Eliezer had
given her, Labau comes out to meet him, brings him
into the house, and takes the lead in the negotiations
concerning the departure of Rebekah. The name
"Bethuel" is mentioned only once, and even then
after " Laban " {ib. xxiv. 29-32,50. 53, 55 ; see Bethu-
el). More fully detailed are Laban 's dealings with
Jacob, in Gen. xxix. 13-29, xxx. 27-xxxii. 9 (see
Jacob, Biblical Data).

E. G. H. M. Sel.
In Rabbinical Literature : Laban is identi-
fied by the Eabbis with Beor, Balaam's father, and
with Chushan-rishathaim (Judges iii. 8), the last
name being interpreted as " perpetrator of two evils "
(Sanh. 105a; comp. Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Num.
xxii. 5). R. Joshua b. Levi, however, identifies
Laban with Kemuel (Gen. xxii. 21), the latter name
being interpreted as, "who stood up against God's
people" (^X ICp; Gen. R. Ivii. 4). The name
"Laban" is interpreted as "glowing with wick-
edness" {ib. Ix. 8), and the surname "Arammi"
(= "the Aramean " ; see Laban, Biblical Data) as
an anagram of " ramma'ah " (= " impostor " ; ib. Ixx.
17). Labau is called also "the master of impostors"
{ib. Ixxv. 6). When he saw the bracelets on Rebckah's
arms (Gen. xxiv. 30) he determined to kill Eliezer;
but the latter, divining his intention, pronounced the
Sacred Name, by which he caused camels to remain
suspended in the air above the well. This and Eli-
ezer's resemblance to Abraham made Laban believe
that Eliezer was Abraham. Laban therefore invited
him to enter the house (Midr. Abkir, in Yalk., Gen.
109; comp. Midr. Hugadah on Gen. xxiv. 23).

Laban's answering before liis father shows that
he was impudent (liekah Tt>b to Gen. xxiv. 50). His
promptness in meeting Jacob (Gen. xxix. 13) was
due to his eagerness for wealth; for lie thought that
if Eliezer, a servant of Abraham, brought with him
ten camels loaded with the goods of his muster,
Jacob, being Abraham's grandson, would certainly
bring still greater riches. He consequently ran to
meet Jacob, and, seeing the latter without camels,
thought that perhaps he had gems about his person

or in his mouth. He therefore hugged and kissed

him (Gen. R. Ixx. 13; comp. Midr. Hagadah, I.e.).

Disappointed at not finding anything

Laban and valuable, Laban said to Jacob: "I had

Jacob. the intention to make thee my king;

but, as thou possessest nothing, thou

art nothing more than a simple relative of mine "

(Gen. R. I.e. ; comp. Gen. xxix. 14).

Before Jacob's arrival Laban's flocks were scanty,
as they had always decreased through pestilence
(Pirke R. El. xxxvi. ). When Jacob had completed his
seven years of service, Laban assembled his country-
men and consulted them as to the best means to re-
tain him; "for," said he, "ye know that formerly
we had a scarcity of water, and it is only through
this righteous man that we are now blessed with an
abundance of it." His countrymen advised him to
substitute Leah for Rachel (Targ. pseudo-Jonathan
and Yeru.shalmi to Gen. xxix. 22; Gen. R. Ixx. 17).
Laban took pledges of his countrymen that thej^
would not divulge his design, and then pawned the
pledges for wine which he served to their owners,
who were his guests. Laban took the precaution to
extinguish the light in the banqucting-room, lest
Jacob should at once see that it was Leah. On Jacob
inquiring the reason, Labau answered that it was a
custom of his country. The guests, drunk with
wine, sang "ha Lia " (= "she is Leah"); but Jacob
did not understand the real meaning of the exclama-
tion (Gen. R. I.e. ; " Sefer ha-Yashar," section " Wa-
yeze"). According to Pirke R. El. (I.e.), Bllhali
and Zilpah were daughters of Laban by his concu-
bines (comp. Gen. R. Ixxiv. 11).

Having been informed of Jacob's flight, Laban
assembled, besides his family, all the strong men of
his city, with whom he pursued Jacob. ]Michael
then drew his sword and ran after Laban to kill
him, but only warned him not to speak to Jacob
either good or evil (Pirke R. El. I.e.). The ques-
tion which suggests itself, why, if Laban had sons
(Gen. xxx. 35, xxxi. 1), did he send Rachel to keep
his flocks {ib. xxix. 7-10), is explained in the ]Mid-
rash by the fact that he had no sons before Jacob's
arrival, and that it was because of his association
with the latter that God gave him sons (Gen. R.
Ixx. 17; Num. R. xx. IG). According to the "Se-
fer ha-Yashar" (I.e.), Laban had three sons, Beor
(comp. NuuL R. ^.c), Alub, and ]\Iurash, whom
his wife Adinah bore. It was Beor, according to
the same authority, who was sent by his father to
inform Esau of Jacob's departure and to urge him
to piu'sue his brother (see Jacob).

s. s. M. Sel.

689

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

L<a Peyrere
Labi

2. A place in the wilderness, mentioned only once
(Deut. i. 1), with Paran, Tophel, and Hazeroth. In
the Septuagint the name is written Ao,3w, giving
the Hebrew vocalization p^ (comp. DID = 2of5f)^).
IVIodern scholars have endeavored to identify it with
Libnah. Sitre (Deut. 1), followed by the three
Targumim and Kaslii, interprets the words p^l ^Sn
as "the calumny of the white thing," in reference
to the complaint of the Israelites concerning the
manna, which was white (Num. xi. 6, xxi. 5).

E. O. II. M. Sel.

LABATT, ABRAHAM COHEN : American
pioneer; born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1802;
died at Galveston, Texas, Aug. IG, 1899. He was
one of the organizers of the Reform congregation in
Charleston in 1825. In 1831 he removed to New
Orleans, where he engaged in mercantile pursuits
and was one of the founders of the first Jewi-sh con-
gregation in Louisiana. He visited Texas in that,
year and again in 1837 as supercargo of the steam-
ship "Columbia," the first merchantman to trade
between the United States and Mexico. Labatt
went to California in 1849, and was one of the found-
ers of the San Francisco synagogue, laying its
foundation-stone in 1856. In 1849 he obtained a
dispensation for the David Crockett masonic lodge,
the first regularly instituted lodge in the state of
California. He served also as an alderman of San
Francisco.

BiBLiOGRAPHT : Piihl. A m. Jew. Hist. Soc. ii. 139, 140.

liABATT, LEONARD : Swedish dramatic

tenor; born in Stockholm Dec. 4, 1838; died at

Christiania, Norway, March 7, 1897. He studied

under Giinther and Masset, and made his debut in

1866 at the Stora Teatern, Stockholm, in Mozart's

"Die Zaubertlote." During the season of 1868 he

was engaged at the Court Opera, Dresden, and in

1869 he joined the Vienna Imperial Opera, with

w'hich he remained until 1883. Between 1884 and

1888 he appeared on several stages in Holland and
Germany (Rotterdam, Bremen, etc.), and in 1888-

1889 made together with Strakosch a successful tour
of the United States and Canada. In 1889 he re-
turned to his native country.

Labatt's repertoire included: Tn.<ico da Gama,
Faust, Eleazar, Taniilidufier , Rienzi, etc.

Bibliography: Salmnnsen's Store Illustrerede Konversa-
tions-Lexicon ; Eisenberg, Biog. Lex.
s. F. C.

LABI : A Turkish family of rabbis. The most
prominent members were:

David b. Joseph ibn Labi : Turkish scholar of
the sixteenth century ; lived together with his brother
IVIoses at Salonica, where his father was rabbi (r.
1540); the two brothers died during an epidemic of
the plague at Salonica. Both were prominent schol-
ars, and their father included in his responsa collec-
tions (Constantinople, 1562) some of their work;
especially noteworthy is David ibn Labi's treatise on
the subject of the Talmudic term "Miggo. "

Joseph b. David Labi (commonly called Machir
b. Leb) : Turkish scholar of the sixteenth century ;
born at Monastir; died about 1600. He was de-
scended from a Spanish family of scholars, and about

1540 became rabbi of Salonica. He was one of
the rabbis who enjoyed the favor of D(jn Joseph
Nasi and of Nasi's mother-in-law, Donna Gracia. A
very strong character, Labi did not comjily with the
duke's wish that he should be one of the signers
of the sentence of excommunication against David
Ilamon.

Losing two adult sons during an epidemic of the
plague at Salonica, Labi went as rabbi to Constanti-
nople, where he remained for the rest of his life.
He was the author of a valuable collection of
responsa, which evidence not only his thorougli
knowledge of the Talnuid, but al.so his general
scholarship. It was published in four parts as fol-
lows: parti., Constantinople, 1562; partii.,?'A. 1566;
part iii., ib. 1573; part iv., Venice, 1606 (2d ed.,
Fiirth, 1692). Labi wrote also novella? to the Tal-
mud treatises Ketubot, Gittin, Bal)a Kamina, She-
bu'ot, Kiddu.shin, Baba Mezi'a, and 'Abodah Zarah;
notes to Rashi, Tosafot, and Asheri ; and a versified
prayer ("Mustajab") beginning jno t3S:;W pnV

BiBLioGRAPnY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 178, .557;
Conforte, Kore ha-IJorot, pp'. 85 et t<eii.: Fiirst, BHil. Jud. li.
214; Laudshuth, 'Ammude ha-'Ahodnlt, p. 99.
G. M. L. B.

LABI, JOSEPH IBN VIDAL : Prominent
Spanish scholar and orator; sou of the philosopher
Solomon ibn Labi; lived at Saragossa. He was one
of the twenty-five rabbis who by order of Pope
Benedict XIII. assisted at the disputation of Tortosa
(Feb. 7, 1413 = Nov. 12, 1414), where he distin-
guished himself by his oratorical ability.

Lal)i translated into Hebrew, under the title " Ge-
rem ha-Ma'alot," a work on plants and their uses in
medicine, written in Arabic by his tutor Joshua
Lorkl at the instance of Solomon Benveniste (d.
1411), whose children Lorki was at the time educa-
ting (MS. Vienna No. 154). Of Labi's numerous
other works onlj' a few poems and letters dealing
with literary matters are now extant.

Bibliography: Benjacob. Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 100; Furst,
Bihl. Jud. ii. 215; KraiTt iind Deutsch. Die Hrtndichrift-
lirhen Hchr. Wcrke der K. K. HitO)ihlinthck zu Wieii, pp.
120 cf sai: \niet seq.: Steinsclineider, Hehr. Bihl. xv. .V? ft
scq., 80 et scq.; Idem, Cat. Munich, p. 138 ; Zunz, S. P. p. 520.
G. M. L. B.

LABI HA-LEVI. See Leox ha-Levi.

LABI, SIMON : Spanish rabbi and scholar of
the sixteenth century. He intended to go to the
Holy Land, but when he arrived at Tripoli he found
its Jewish community in such a state of disorgani-
zation that he deemed it more meritorious to remain
there and to regulate its affairs than to proceed to
Palestine. He accordingly accepted the rabbinate,
and was officiating there in 1549. Under his man-
agement matters rapidly improved and a model com-
munity developed.

Labi was a profound cabalist, as appears from his
commentary on the Zohar to Genesis (part i.. Leg-
horn, 1795; part ii., rt. 1805). He composed also
liturgical songs, among which the well-known -\2
nnL"tDJ 'SnV is .still used by the Spagnioli during the
Friday evening service.

Labi must not be confounded with Simon Labi,
the editor of the Mahzor Tripoli, who lived about
a century later.

Labor
liachish

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

690

Bibliography: Azulal, Shem 7ia-Geclolim, i. 806 Vienna,
18t>4; Furst, Bibl. J«d. ii. 215 ; idem, in Oriewt, Lif. 1844, p.
346; hSLndshuth, 'Ammttde ha-'AhodaKp.Sn; Schlesinger,
TeftUat ha-Hodesh, p. 121a, Vienna, 1895 ; Zunz, ii. P. p. o3o.
Q M. L. B.

LABOR.— Biblical Data: Labor and the la-
borer are invested in Jewish literature with a dignity
scarcely paralleled in other ancient religions or social
systems. Whereas the deities of all the nations of an-
tiquity are depicted as spending their lives either in
revelry and pleasure, like the Olympians, or in ever-
lasting repose, like the Hindu god Brahma and the
deified Buddha, God is represented in the Bible as the
Pattern Worker, as the Maker and Ruler of the world
who "fainteth not, neither is weary " (Gen. 1. ; Isa.
xl. 28). Accordingly, man, made in God's image,
was placed in the Garden of Eden not for mere idle-
ness, but "to till it and keep it" (Gen. ii. lo); and
Avhen, lured into sin, Adam fell, work in the sweat
of his brow was imposed upon him as a punishment,
yet at the same time as a means of lifting him to a
higher station of culture.

The Sabbath, too, was instituted by God, de-
clares the Bible, for the purpose of blessing labor.
Just as it formed the culmination and croAvn of
God's week of work at the Creation, so should the
Sabbath be to man a means of hallowing his work
on week-days (Gen. ii. 3). It was the high concep-
tion of labor that gave the Jewish Sabbath, in con-
tradistinction to the Babylonian Sabbath, the char-
acter of a blessed day of rest. When,

Contrast groaning under Egypt's yoke, the He-
with brew slaves had no respite granted

Sabbath, them (Ex. v. 5-8), the Sabbath secured
to the toiling slave, and even to the
brute in the service of man, the needed rest, and
thus for all time established the dignity of labor
(Deut. V. 14-15). The same humane spirit prompted
the law, " Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he
treadeth out the corn" (Deut. xxv. 4).

A high regard for the laborer was so firmly im-
planted in the Jewish people that thej' would not
pass the workers in the field without greeting them
with blessings (Ps. cxxix. 8; Judges vi. 11-12).
The divine blessing alwaj's rests upon the work of
man's hands (Deut. xxviii. 12; Ps. cxxviii. 2). The
Book of Proverbs warns especially against idleness
as producing poverty and want (Prov. xxiv. 30-34),
and admonishes man to learn industry from the ant
(ib. vi. 6-11) and from the bee (LXX. to the pas-
sage), by which prosperity is attained (ib. x. 4) and
mischief avoided (ib. xviii. 9).

In Rabbinical Literature : More emphatic

are the Rabbis in the praise of labor : " Love work ! "
is the maxim of Sameas (Abot i. 10). " Greater is
the merit of industry than of idle piety; for it says:
If thou eat of the labor of thine hands, happy shalt
thou be, and it shall be well with thee" (Ps. cxxviii.
12) — that is, "thou shalt enjoy bliss both in this life
and in the future world " (Ber. 8a). The Congrega-
tion of the Saints (" 'Edah Kedoshah ") divided the
day into three parts; devoting one to prayer, the
second to work, and the third to the study of the
Torah (Eccl. R. to ix. 9; see Essenes). "Labor
lends dignity to man " (Ned. 49b). " No work, how-
ever offensive, is so degrading as idleness." "Let
no one say : ' I am the scion of a noble family and

ought not to lower myself by labor! ' " (B. B. 110a).
"Live on a Sabbath as on week-days, and be not
dependent upon others," says R. Akiba (Shab.
118a). "Upon labor God made His covenant Avith
man ; for He himself based the Sabbath upon the
W'ork He did." "Even in Eden Adam was not per-
mitted to eat before he had earned his bread by
work. " " Nor did God make His Shckinah rest upon
the Israelites until they had done work
Talmudic in building the tabernacle for Him "
Sayings. (Ab. R. N. Recension A. xi. ; Recen-
sion B. xxi., ed. Schechter, p. 44).
"Also the manna in the wilderness was given only
upon the condition that Israel would do some kind
of labor" (Mek., Beshallah Wayassa, iv.). "Idle-
ness imperils life" (Ab. R. N. I.e.). "He who does
not teach his son a trade teaches him robbery"
(Tosef., Kid. i. 11; Mek., Bo, xviii.). "A wife," says
R. Eliezer, "may have a hundred servants, and yet it
is her duty to do some work; for idleness causes
lasciviousness " (Ket. v. 5). Says R. Joshua b.
Levi: "When Adam heard God's voice saying,
' Thorns and thistles shall the ground bring forth
unto thee and thou shalt eat the herb of the field,'
he cried : ' Shall I and mj' beast eat out of the same
manger V' But when God continued: ' In the sweat
of thy brow shalt thou eat bread,' he felt relieved,
and blessed the hallowing power of labor" (Pes.
118a). God himself, according to the Midrash
(Gen. R. xxiv. 7; comp. Book of Jubilees, iii. 35),
taught Abraham how to do all kinds of work.
"Upon man's handiwork God's blessing rests"
(Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxiii. 1).

A characteristic Jewish saying is: "Seven years
a famine may last ; but it will not enter the door of
the artisan" (Sanh. 29a; see also Agriculture
and Artisans). It was this Jewish spirit of appre-
ciation of labor Avhich found an echo in the New
Testament (II Thess. iii. 10 ; Eph. iv. 28 ; comp.
Jew. Encyc. iv. 589, s.v. Didascalia).

Throughout the Talmudic time and all through
JcAvish history the rule was observed that the pur-
suit of learning should be combined with labor (Ab.
ii. 2), for it is said, "Torah without work must at
length fail " ; and those who pursued the former
Avithout the latter proved the exception (Mek., Be-
shallah, Wayassa, ii. ; Ber. 35a; comp. Ecclus.
[Sirach] xxxviii. 24-34). Idleness was never en-
couraged by the Jewish law.

Bibliography : Hamburger, R. B..T. i., s.v. Arbeit.
J.

LACHISH : The city of Lachish was located in
Judah (Josh. xv. 39). It is first heard of in Josh.
X. 3 et seq. Its king, Japhia, together with the
kings of Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, and Eglon —
all Amorites — formed a coalition against Gibeon
because it had made peace with the Israelites.
These kings were routed, caught in a cave, killed,
and their bodies hanged . Joshua in this campaign be-
sieged and captured Lachish (e6. X. 31, 32), and made
prisoners also those who helped the city. Lachish is
next mentioned in the list of cities built, or probably
rebuilt, by Rehoboam (II Chron. xi. 9), the first king
of Judah after the division of the kingdom. Ama-
ziah. King of Judah, was so detested by his people

Lacbish
Lagrarde

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

592

that, to avoid the wrath of a conspirac}', he fled to
Lachish (II Kings xiv. 19) ; but he was pursued and
slain.

Probably the greatest battle fought under the walls
of Lachish was fought by Sennacherib's army in 701
B.C. (II Kings xviii. 14). While the Assyrians were
besieging the city, Hezekiah sent and asked the price
of forgiveness and absolute safety. The cost of such
submission was quickly named, was collected by
Judah's king, and sent to the King of Assyria at
Lachisli. From this same seat of war Sennacherib
sent his officers "with a great army " against Jeru-
salem. Some time thereafter those officers returned
to And that Lachish liad been reduced, and the army
transferred to Libnah. Sennacherib does not men-
tion this city in his annals ; but the walls of his
palace at Kuyunjik were decorated with two ele-
gant pictures: one representing in remarkable detail
the methods of the besiegers, and the other showing,
as a brief inscription says, Sennacherib, king of

suits in "Tell el-Hesy " (1891). Bliss excavated at
this mound during four seasons and cut through
a section of it down to the native soil. He found
eight superimposed cities: (1) an Amorite one, for-
tified by a strong wall, and dating about 1700 B.C. ;
(2) dating about 1500 (the date being determined by
Egyptian scarabs); (3) covered by a mass of ashes;
here was found a cuneiform tablet of the time of
Amen-hotep IV. of Egypt, on which Zimrida, gov-
ernor of the city, is named; (4) dating about 1400-
1000, with an abundance of Phcniciau pottery; (5)
dating about 1000, and (0) dating from 800, Jewish
articles prevail ; (7, 8) which furnished many speci-
mens of black-figured Greek pottery, pointing to
500-400. No remains that indicate a later date have
been discovered. Bliss's finds show a "^lound of
Many Cities," as he entitles his book (1898), where
many and fierce battles were fought during more
than 1,200 years.

E. G. II. I. jM. p.

Tell al-Hasi. Site of Ancient Lachish.

(From a photograph.)

nations. King of Assyria, seated on the throne, and
the captives from Lachish paraded before him. Both
of these are beautifully executed and give the
graphic outlines of the siege of one of the most in-
teresting smaller cities of ancient Judah. The relig-
ious influence of Lachish in this period is hinted at
in Micah (i. 13, R. V.): "Bind the chariot to the
swift steed, O inhabitant of Lachish : she was the
beginning of sin to the daughter of Zion." Lachish
is named as one of the fortified cities which the
King of Babylon captured (Jer. xxxiv. 7) when he
shattered and carried captive the kingdom of Judah.
It is named also (Neh. xi. 30) as one of the cities oc-
cupied by the Jews who returned from the Captivit}'.
The site of ancient Lachish is generally identified
to-day with Tell al-Hasi, occupying a position be-
tween the maritime plain and the hill-coimtry of
Judea, about sixteen miles east of Gaza. Pe-
trie excavated here in 1890, and published his re-

LADIER, DOB BAR B. SHNEOR ZAL-

MAN : Russian Hasidic rabbi; born about 1770;
died 1834. He was the son of R. Shneor Zalman of
Liadv, the founder of the Hasidic sect known as " Ha-
bad," and succeeded his father as their chief. He is
the author of the following Hasidic-cabalistic works:
"Derek Havvim " (Kopvs, i799, 1809); "Sha'arha-
Teshubah "' (Shklov, 1817) ; " ' Ateret Rosh " (Kopys,
1821) ; " Pokeah 'Iwwerim," on morals and penitence,
in Jud«o-German (Konigsberg, 1856). He wrote
also "Kuntres ha-Hitbonnenut " and "Kuntresha-
Hitpa'alut," on contemplation and on ecstasy, in
which he developed his father's philosophico-caba-
listic theories. The first of these appeared at the end
of "Torah Or" (Lemberg, 1851), ascribed by some
authorities to him (see Walden, " Shem ha-Gedolim
he-Hadash," part 2, p. 77, Warsaw, 1882). The sec-
ond appeared first in 1831, and was later reprinted
with an extensive commentary by R. Hillel of Parets

593

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lachish
Liagrarde

(Warsaw, 1868). The "Bi'iire ha-Zohar " (Kopys
[?], 1816) was writteu by liim, but contained only
the explanations to the Zohar which he had heard
from his lather.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kcncuct Fisrad, pp. 187-188, Warsaw,
188ti; Hd-SJiahar. yi.h>l; Krucsct Yisrael (the year-bonk),
iii. 213 ct acq.; Zedner, Cat. Hchr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 'ill).

s. s. p. Wi.

liADINO. See JuDyEO-SPANisH Language (La-
ding) AND LiTEKATUKE.

LADISLAUS. See Poland.

LADVOCAT, JEAN-BAPTISTE : Christian
Hebraist ; born at Vaucouleurs Jan. 3, 1709 ; died at
Paris Dec. 29, 1765. Though he achieved particular
distinction as a Hebraist and Biblical exegete, this
was not the only branch of scholarship in which
he excelled: he was, in fact, an exceedingly ver-
satile student and writer. Belles-lettres, mathe-
matics, philosoph}-, history, and the classics, with
the Oriental languages and the Holy Scriptures, all
received his attention. In 1742 he became librarian
of the Sorbonne ; but his most fertile period as an

replete with shortcomings, errors, and solecisms."
Conse(iuontly he suggests, as tlie surest means of
restoring the Hebrew text as far as possible to its
pristine purity, a critical comparison of tlie extant
texts with the versions of the Hexapia, the Targu-
mim, and all otiier ancient versions — a task which
he himself really purposed to accomplish by the
publication of a critical edition of the .several books
of the Old Testament, together with linguistic and
archeological apparatus.

It must be added that, notwithstanding tlie large
number of its textual errors, Ladvocat firmly be-
lieved in the integrity and the authenticity of the
Old Testament, a view and a defense of wliich he
embodied in "Letters on the Authenticity of the
Original Texts of the Holy Scriptures" (1766).

Bibliography: Michaud. Biographie Univerxelle, new ed.,
xxii. 4:31; La Grande EncycIoiJidie, xxi. 7*5; Steinschnel-
der, BihlingraphiKches Handbuch, 1859, p. 3, Supplement,
p. 346, Leipsic, 1896.

T. H. G. E.

LAG BA-OMER. See Omer.
LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE : German
Orientalist; born in Berlin Xov. 2, 1827; died in

Tee*
340

260 li;■:i■i^i;-ii,t^';:i^

SKCTIOXAL VlKVV OF EXCAVATIONS AT TELL AL-HASI (LACHISH), SHOWING SEVEN STRATA OF CITIES.

exegete commenced in 1751 after he had been ap-
pointed to the chair in Biblical exegesis founded in
the Sorbonne by the Due d' Orleans. It was then
that Ladvocat began to publish those theses on sev-
eral books of the Old Testament — particularly the
Pentateuch, the Psalms, and the Book of Job — that
won for him fame even in foreign countries. Two
years after his new appointment he wrote "Gram-
maire Hebraique ^ 1' Usage des Ecoles de la Sor-
bonne" (Paris, 1753; last ed. 1822).

It is, however, his "Interpretation Historique et
Critique du Psalm 68" (ib. 1767) that deserves a
prominent place in the history of Biblical criticism.
In a letter prefixed to the "Interpretation " Ladvo-
cat dwells on the impossibility of a correct compre-
hension of the Scriptures without a pure and correct
Hebrew text. "Without the latter," he says, "all
commentaries must needs be erroneous. As a matter
of fact, all our Hebrew Bibles, not excluding the
edition of Athias (1705), are printed without taste,
without critical judgment, according to the most
modern and least correct manuscripts, and thus are
VII.— 38

Gottingen Dec. 22, 1891. His father was Wilhelm
Botticher; and his earlier writings (1847-52) were
published under the name "P. A. Botticher," the
name De Lagarde, which was in his mother's fam-
ily, being legall}' assumed by him in 1854, when he
was adopted by his maternal great-aunt, Ernestine
de Lagarde.

Lagarde's early education was obtained in the
Friedrich Wilhelms Gymnasium, in which his father
was a teacher. He studied theology and Oriental lan-
guages at the universities of Berlin, where the poet-
scholar Friedrich Rlickert was his teacher in Arabic
and Persian, and Halle, habilitating at the latter in
1851. The next two years were spent chieflj' among
the manuscripts in the libraries of Paris and London.
Lagarde's hopes of securing on his return a position
in a university faculty were disappointed ; and from
1854 to 1866 he taught in Berlin schools. In 1869
he became professor of Oriental languages at GOt-
tingen, succeeding Heinrich Ewald.

Lagarde's earliest publications were in the field of
comparative philology; and of bis maturer works

La^arde
Lambert

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

594

that on noun-formation in Aramaic, Arabic, and
Hebrew (1889) is an important contribution to tiie
subject. He edited many texts, chiefly Biblical and
ecclesiastical, in Syriac, Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew,
and Coptic, as well as in Greek and Latin. What
he regarded as the great work of his life, to which
the principal part of the foregoing editions was
subsidiary, was the critical reconstruction of the
text of the Septuagint by a methodical regress from
the recensions current in the fourth century. His
"Librorum Veteris Testamenti Canonicorum Pars
Prior Graece," 1883 (Genesis-Esther in the Syrian
recension of Lucian), was one step in this plan. His
minor writings, collected from time to time (" Sym-
micta, " " Semitica, " " Orientalia, " " Mittheilungen "),
cover an extraordinary range of erudition and con-
troversy. He wrote much and vigorously also on
contemporary questions in politics, religion, and
education ; his " Deutsche Schriften " (1878-81 ; last
ed. 1891) is a collection of such pieces.

Mention may be made of those writings of La-
garde which are of especial Jewish interest. His
"Prophet* Chaldaice" (Leipsic, 1872) is a service-
able edition of portions of the Reuchlin codex of
the Targum, but without the vocalization ; and his
" Hagiographa Chaldaice " (1873), excepting Chron-
icles, which he edited from an Erfurt MS., is a re-
print from the Bomberg Bible of 1518. Lagarde had
a sense of the importance of a study of Talmudic lit-
erature because of its bearings on the history of the
Bible text. He was not unacquainted with post-Bib-
lical Hebrew. He edited, for the use of his students
and not critically, the "Makamat " of Judah al-Harizi
(GOttingen, 1883), and gave an account of the He-
brew manuscripts in Erfurt ("Symmicta," i. 130:
see Steinschneider, "Hebr. Bibl." xix. 28), and of a
part of a Talmud manuscript in the Gftttingen Li-
brary ("Semitica," i. 69), besides explanations of
Aramaic words ("Erklarung Chaldaischer W5rter,"
ib. i. 33 et seq.). But both in his scientific and in
his political writings he was a virulent anti-Semite,
his theory of the corroding influence of the Jews
being based upon his peculiar ideals of a German
state. This is seen in his"Juden uud Indogerma-
nen : Eine Studie nach dem Leben " (" Mittlieilung-
en," ii. 262), in his "Purim: Ein Beitrag zur Gesch.
der Religion" (GSttingen, 1887), and in his criti-
cism of Berliner's edition of the Targum Onkelos (ib.
ii. 163 et seq. ). He came into direct conflict with Jew-
ish scholarship by the dissertation of his pupil Lud-
wig Techen, "Zwei GOttinger Machzorhandschrif-
ten " (1884), which contained an attack upon the
merits of Leopold Zunz's work. This was answered,
among others, by A. Berliner (" Prof. P. de Lagarde,
nach Seiner Natur Gezeichnet," Berlin, 1887), D.
Kaufmann ("Paul de Lagarde's Jiidische Gelehr-
samkeit," ib.), and by B. Ziemlich ("Einer der Nicht
Liturgiker Sein Will," ib.). Lagarde replied in his
"Lipman Zunz und Seine Verehrer" (•' Mittheilung-
en," ii. 108 e^se^.), and inhis"Juden und Indogerma-
nen," cited above. A responsum on the Talmud by
Lagarde will be found in "Mittheilungen," iii. Set
seq. The latest two accounts of Lagarde are by G. F.
Moore in "The University Quarterly " (New' York),
vii. 166 et seq., and by E. Nestle in Herzog-Hauck,
" Realencyc." xi. 218 (also separately with additions).

Bibliography: p. a. de Lagarde, Ueher Einige Familien
des Namens Bfitticher, 18*57 ; Anna de Lagarde, Paul de
Lagarde: Eiinnerungen aus Seinem Lebou 1894 (both
privately printed). A classified bibliography of Lagarde's wri-
tings, by R. J. H. Gotthell, will be found in the Journal of
Vie American (yriental Society, xv. 211-229 (privately re-
printed with addenda) . G F M G

LAGARTO, JACOB : South-American rabbi
and Talmudist of the seventeenth century ; probably
a son of Simon Lagarto of Amsterdam. He went to
Brazil when a young man, and about 1680 was
hakam of the Jews at Tamarica. He was the au-
thor of a work entitled "Ohel Ya'akob " or "Tienda
de Jacob," conjectured by Wolf ("Bibl. Hebr." iii.
1066b) to have contained Talmudic aphorisms. Kay-
serling thinks it was not written in America.

Bibliography: Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. ii. 16 and 17;
Kayserling, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jiul. p. 55. ^

LAGXJNA, DANIEL ISBAEL LOPEZ:

Spanish poet; born in Portugal about the middle of
the seventeenth century of Marano parents, who
subsequently settled in southern France. He stud-
ied the humanities at a Spanish universitj\ Perse-
cuted and imprisoned by the Inquisition as a Ma-
rano, he languished for several years in captivity,
finally succeeding in escaping. He then went to
Jamaica, British West Indies, where he openly con-
fessed Judaism.

At Jamaica Laguna completed the poetical work
which he had begun in prison — a Spanish paraphrase
of the Psalms. In the introductory poem contain-
ing an acrostic, " A el Zeloso Lector " (To the Kind
Reader), he relates his varied experiences, and in
several of his versions of the Psalms he alludes to
his sufferings in the dungeons of the Inquisition.
With this work, the fruit of twenty-three years of
labor, he went to London, where several of his rela-
tives, members of the Laguna family, were then
living. Here he found a patron in the person of the
learned Mordecai Nunes Almeyda, who arranged to
have the work printed. It appeared in a handsome
edition, under the title "Espejo Fiel de Vidas Que
Contiene los Psalmos de David en Verso " (London,
1720), with an approbation in Spanish by Haham
David Nieto, another, in Hebrew, by Joseph ibn
Danon, and an artistic " geroglifico " by Abraham
Lopez de Oliveyra. It was dedicated to Almeyda,
and was praised in Spanish, Latin, and English
verse by many, including Almeyda; the latter's
mother, Manuela Nunes de Almeyda, and sisters,
Bienbenida Cohen Belmonte and Sarah de Fonseca
Pina y Pimentel; Sarah's husband, Manuel Fon-
seca Pina, and son Moseh de Manuel Fonseca Pina ;
as well as Jacob Henriquez Pimentel (alias Manuel
de Umanes), and his son Abraham, who wrote a long
introduction to the work ; David Henriquez Pimen-
tel ; and Abraham Gomez Silveyra. David Chaves,
the physician, and Isaac de Sequeira Samuda wrote
Latin hexameters in its honor, and Samson Guideoa,
then a young financier, as well as Abraham Bravo,
a friend of the author, praised the work in English
verse. The poet's eldest son, David Lopez La-
g-una, and his nephew, Jacob Lopez Laguna,
wrote Spanish poems on it. Laguna subsequently
returned to Jamaica to his wife, Riki, and his three
sons, David, Jacob, and Isaac. He died at the age
of seventy ; but the date of his death is not known.

595

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

La^arde
Lambert

Another Daniel Lopes Laguna from Bordeaux
died in Paris March 8, 1780 ("Revue Et. Juives,"
xxvi. 244).

Other members of the Laguna family, Abraham
Laguna, Jacob Laguna, and Rebecca Lagu-
na, were naturalized at Jamaica between 1740 and
1743.

Bibliorrapht: Kayserlinsr, Sephardim, pp. 297 etseq.; Idem,
BihJ. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 88; idem. In J. Q. B. xiil. .569 it
seq.\ Gaster, Hist, of Bevis Marks, pp. 117 et seq.; Puhl.
Am. Hist. Soc. ill. 110 et seq., iv. 121 et seq., 162 et seq., v. 112
et seq.

J. M. K.

LAIBACH : Capital of the Austrian province of
Carniola. The first mention of Jews in Laibach
dates from 1213, when it is recorded that they re-
built their synagogue much handsomer than it was
before. The usual accusations against Jews in
medieval times are found in connection with Lai-
bach. In 1290 they are charged with the murder of
a Christian child ; in 1337 they are accused of hav-
ing poisoned the wells ; and in 1403 three Jews are
killed in a riot, caused by the trial of a Jew who
was put to death for having violated a Christian
girl. The occupation of the Laibach Jews was
chiefly money-lending, but they are also mentioned
as merchants having an important trade with Italy,
and as artisans. The Austrian law of 1244 was not
valid iu Carniola; and the legal status of the Jews
was defined b}^ special charters granted to individ-
uals by the rulers. They were permitted to hold
real estate, and in criminal cases were placed on an
equal footing with Christians, while in civil cases
they were as a rule under the " Judenrichter " of Mar-
burg in Styria. As regards the payment of taxes
they formed one body (Judischheit) with their co-
religionists of Styria and Carinthia ; but they were
also required to bear their share in the city levy.

The expulsion of the Jews from Styria and Carin-
thia (1496) did not at first affect those of Laibach,
and in 1510 Emperor Maximilian decreed that they
should be protected in their ancient privileges; but
in 1513 he yielded to the demands of the citizens,
and prohibited the Jews from engaging in mercantile
pursuits. Finally, on Jan. 1, 1515, upon the peti-
tion of the citizens, they were expelled from Lai-
bach. Occasionally Jews seem to have been in the
city after that time; for in 1672 Leopold I. addressed
an edict to the governor in which he ordered that
no Jew should be tolerated in the province. In 1762
the governor desired to give the Jews permission to
deal at wholesale in goods of domestic manufacture;
but the merchants' gild objected. Joseph II., how-
ever, permitted them in 1783 to frequent the fairs.
When, after the peace of Vienna (Oct. 14, 1809),
Carniola became part of the French province of
Illyria, Abraham Heimann of Memmclsdorf in
Bavaria settled there and had to contend with the
ill-will of the municipal authorities, but was pro-
tected by the French governor. Immediately after
the reincorporation of the province into Austria
through the peace of Paris (May 30, 1814), Heimann
received an order of expulsion (Aug. 18); and al-
though an imperial order of Dec. 6, 1817, restored
his rights, he had continuously to fight the munici-
pal and provincial authorities, who persecuted him
constantly, until tlie events of 1848 secured him in

his rights. Subsequent reaction prevented for a
long time the settlement of other Jews in the city;
and it was not until the constitution of Dec. 21,
1867, gave the Jews civic equality that they again
settled in Laibach. In a total population of 36,547
there are now about 200 Jews, who, however, have
not yet formed a religious community.

Bibliography : Scherer, Die RerhtsvcrhflUnisfte der Juden
in den Deuts(h-Oe>iterreirhi.^chfn IMndern. pp. 518-.')28,
Lelpslc, 1901, where the older literature Is quoted, among
which Dlmitz, Die Juden in Krnin. In Lnibnrher Zeitnup,
1866, Is the most important ; for the hljrhly Interestlns: history
of the Heimann family, Simon Heimaim, in jLUa. Zeit. des
Jud. 1849, pp. 24 et seq.

L'ALBENC. See Dauphine.

LAMA. See LoA>rs, Eli.iah ben Moses.
LAMB IN SACRIFICE. See Sacrifice.

LAMBERT, MAYER: French Orientalist;
born Dec. 23, 1863, at Metz ; son of Elie Lambert,
author of religious text-books, grandson of Chief
Rabbi Lion Mayer Lambert of Metz, great-grandson
of Chief Rabbi Aaron of Worms, and descendant
through the last-named of Gershon Ulif Ashkcnazi
and of Elijah Blin, rabbi and hazzan of Worms in the
sixteenth century. After finishing his studies at the
lycee of Metz, he attended the lectures of the Tal-
mud Torah and the Seminaire Israelite of Paris,
pursuing, at the same time, courses in Semitics at
the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. He received his
rabbi's diploma in 1886. In 1887 he was appointed
professor of Arabic and Syriac at the Seminaire,
and in 1889 he took charge of Hebrew at the Ecole
Normale of the Alliance Israelite. He taught He-
brew at the Talmud Torah, 1890-94, and subse-
quently at the Seminaire. From 1886 to 1895 he was
the collaborator of Joseph Derenbourg. In 1902 he
was appointed lecturer of Hebrew and of Syriac at
the Ecole des Hautes Etudes.

Lambert has published the following works:
"Elements de Grammaire Hebraique" (Paris, 1890);
" Une Serie de Qere Ketib " {ib. 1891) ; " Commentaire
sur le Livre de la Creation par Saadia" {ib. 1891);
"Arabic Version and Commentary to Proverbs, by
Saadia " {ib. 1894), in collaboration with Joseph De-
renbourg; "Premiers Elements de Grammaire He-
braique" (ib. 1900); "Glossaire Hebreu-Francjais,"
MS. 302 of the Bibliothi^que Nationale, published by
Lambert in collaboration with M. L. Brandin (1903).
Of his numerous contributions to the "Revue des
Etudes Juives," the "Jouunal Asiatique." the
"Revue Semitique," etc., the following deserve par-
ticular mention : " Observations sur la Theorie des
Formes Nominales" ("Journal Asiatique." 1890);
"L'AcccntTouique en Helneu " ("R. E. J." 1892);
"La Formation du Pluriel en Ilebreu " (zi.); "L'ln-
scription d'Eryx" ("Revue Semirique." 1893); "Le
Vav Conversif " {ib. 1895); "La Syntaxe de llmpe-
rarif Hebrcu" (ib. 1897); "L' Article dans la Poisie
Hebraique" {ib. 1898); "De I'Accent en Arabe"
("Jour. Asiatique," 1898): "Le Cantiquc de Moise"
("R. E. J." 1898); "Les Dates et les Ages dans la
Bil)le " (ib. 1902). His contributions to " La Grande
Encyclopedic" include the articles: "Langue He-
braique," "Massore," "Onkeios," etc. In liis arti-
cles contributed to the " Univers Israelite " Lambert
endeavors to show that Judaism must give up dog-

Iiamden
Xiamentations

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

596

niatism, modifying tlie customs and laws which are
contrary to modern ideals while laying more stress
on religious instruction.

s. A. A.

LAMDEN, or LAMDAN (plural, Lamdanim) :
Late Hebrew expression for a man who is well in-
formed in rabbinical literature, although not a
scholar in the technical sense of the term ("talmid
hakam ") ; it does not seem to have been used before
the eighteenth century. Ezekiel Katzeuelleubogen
(1670-1749) decided that rabbinical scholars were ex-
empt from paying taxes even though scholars then
were not scholars in the proper sense of the word, " for
the law does not make a difference between lam-
dan and laradan" (Resp. "Keneset Yehezkel," Ho-
shen Mishpat, No. 95, p. 118a, Altona, 1732). Jacob
Emden ("Megillat Sefer," p. 21, Warsaw, 189G)
speaks of Baer Kohen (Berent Salomon), the founder
of the Klaus in Hamburg, as having been somewhat
of a scholar C'kezat lamdan," the equivalent of the
JudtX'O-German " ein sttickel lamden "). Authorities
of the sixteenth century, when they have to speak
of the difference between a scholar in the technical
sense of the word and a well-informed man, do not
use the term "lamdan," but say "zurba me-rabba-
nan " (see Joshua Falk ha-Kohen in "Sefer Me'irat
'Enayim," Hoshen Mishpat, 15, 4; Shabbethai ha-
Kohen, ib. 1, 19, and Yoreh De'ah, 244, 11).

LAMECH ("10^ = " vigorous youth"?): 1. De-
scendant of Cain (Gen. iv. 18-24). He had two
wives, Adah and Zillah. Adah bore him two sons,
Jabal (the father of such as dwell in tents) and Jubal
(the father of such as handle the bar]) and organ).
Zillah had one son (Tubal-cain, instructor of those
that wrought in brass and iron) and one daughter
(named Naamah). Lamech is especially remembered
for the address to his two wives given in Gen. iv.
23-24. The general opinion of modern scholars is
that this utterance is a glorification by Lamech of
the weapons forged by his son Tubal-cain, while
Wellhausen holds ("Die Composition des Hexa-
teuchs," p. 305) that it is simply a boastful outburst
of the kind common in Arabic literature.

The Talmudists and the ancient Jewish commen-
tators, interpreting the words Dp'' DTiy^Ci' (Gen. iv.
15, "Cain shall expiate his crime after seven gener-
ations "), evolved the following legend : Lamech lost
bis sight and had to be led by his son Tubal-cain,
who was of the seventh generation from Cain
(comp. Gen. iv. 17-18). One day Tubal-cain saw in
the distance something that he took for an animal ;
it was Cain, however, who had been killed by an
arrow from Lamech 's bow. When they found that
it was Cain, Lamech in sorrow clapped his hands
together, by which action he killed Tubal-cain. His
wives deserted him (Rashi, adloc). According to
Gen. R. xxiii. 5, Lamech killed no one, but his wives
refused to associate witli him on the ground that
the descendants of Cain would be destroyed after
seven generations. Lamech, however, allayed their
fears, saying: "Have I slain a man or a youth that
my offspring should be destroyed? If Cain shall
expiate his crime after seven generations, surely
Lamech, who killed no one, shall expiate his sins
after seventy -seven generations." This interpreta-

tion was adopted by Onkelos and pseudo-Jonathan.
Josephus ("Ant." i. 2, § 2) saw in the word "sev-
cnt}'-.seveu " the number of Lamech's sons.

2. Descendant of Seth and father of Noah (Gen.
V. 28-30), whom Lamech begat at the age of 182
years; his life covered a period of 777 j-ears. The
coincidence of the names " Lamech " and " Enoch "
in tiie Cainite and Sethite genealogies, as well as the
similarity between other names in the two lists, has
led modern scholars to suppose that these are two
different recensions of the same list.

E. G. H. M. Sel.

LAMED (^): Twelfth letter of the Hebrew
alphabet ; on its form see Alphabet. The mean-
ing of the name is uncertain. The letter is a liquid,
pronounced like the English " 1 " ; it interchanges
with the other liquid consonants and semivowels,
and sometimes j^asses into l, T, or o. It is some-
times inserted after the first radical or added to the
third to form quadriliterals from triliterals. As a
numeral it has, in late usage, the value of 30.

T. I. Br.

LAMED-WAW : The thirty-six hidden saints
called among Russian Jews Lamed-waw-niks.
The legend that there are in every generation thirty-
six secret saints, through Avhose piety the world ex-
ists, is based upon the following passage in the Tal-
mud : " Abaye has said : ' There are in the world
not less than tliirty-six righteous persons in every
generation upon whom the Shekinah rests; for it
is written, " Happy are all they that wait for him "
[1^]. The last word stands numerically for thirty-
six' " (Sanh. 97b ; Suk. 45a). The " Tikkune Zohar "
(ch. xxi.) goes still further, and, quoting Hos. x. 2,
"Their heart [Dq!'] is divided," deduces from W:h,
Avhich numerically represents seventy-two, that
there are thirty-six saints in Palestine and an equal
number outside of the Holy Land.

Around these sayings clusters a whole series of
legends celebrating the Lamed-waw-niks. The lat-
ter are represented as hiding their sanctity and as
not obtruding it for show. They usually follow the
humble vocation of artisans, unrecognized by the
community, and denying their identity when it is
accidentally discovered. In cases of extreme dan-
ger to the Jewish community they come forward
to avert it; but after their work is done, they retire
to some place where thej' can again live undisturb-
edly. This belief has been so universal as to raise
a suspicion against any mysterious personage that
he is a Lamed-waw-uik.

Wiener in his " Yiddi-sh Literature " cites a char-
acteristic legend of such a saint living at Cracow in
the time of Moses Isserles. Disguised as Hayyim,
a tailor, this saint frustrated a plan of the Polish
king to extort a sum of money from the Jews, and
by his secret powers forced the king to abandon it.
The king's minister who had concocted the scheme
fled, and became converted to Judaism. Legends
concerning Lamed-waw-niks are connected also with
Israel Ba'al Shem-Tob, Elijah Wilna, and other
popular personages.
bibliography: Wiener, Yi<1<Uf<h Literature, pp. 36-38, New

York. 1S99 ; Hershon, .4 TalmiuUc Migcrllaiiy, p. 185, Lon-
don, 1S8<J; Adat ZadiUkim, Lemberg, 18*55; "Aliiimt Eli-

yahu. p. 62, Wilna,' 1889. '

n. R. A. S. W.

597

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lamden
Lamentations

LAMEGO: City in Portugal. Its Jewry was
formerly situated in the Cruz da Pedra street, the
present Rua Nova. Laraego was the meeting-place
of many rich secret Jews or Neo-Christians, who
were bitterly hated by the Christian population of
the city. One of the most active representatives of
the Portuguese Maranos in the struggle against
the introduction of the Inquisition was Jacome da
Fouseca of Lamego.

The (?stablishmcnt of a tribunal of the Holy OlTice
in the city (1.542) Avas hailed with rejoicings by the
Christian population. In the program of the cele-
bration of the opening of the tribunal, whicli con-
sisted of doggerel and which was displayed at all
the public places in the city, the richest and most
distinguished of the Maranos were divided into two
groups, musicians and dancers, and caricatured.
The panic among these secret Jews was so great
that most of them fled to Tras-os-Montes, where
many were seized by the bailiffs, and led back to
Lamego. The tribunal of Lamego was in existence
for about six years.

BinLiOGRAPHY : Kayserline, Gcscli. da' Juden in Portuijal,
pp. 49, 234.
G. M. K.

LAMEL, SIMON EDLER VON : Austrian
merchant; born at Tuschkau near Pilsen, Bohemia,
Aug. 28. 1766 : died at Vienna April 18, 1845. Early
bereft of his father, he quickly developed an incli-
nation for mercantile pursuits, so that, Avhen only
twenty-one years of age, he established a wholesale
house iu Prague which soon ranked among the
most important in the country. He encouraged im-
provements in the raising of sheep, and also intro-
duced new methods iu the carding and manufac-
turing of wool. Prompted by feelings of patriotism,
he rendered his country valuable services, especially
during the Napoleonic war. Thus, in 1801 he pur-
chased all the magazines containing salt, flour, and
wheat which had been captured by the French, and
in 1805 he bought all the artillerj^ pieces taken by
the enemy, thereby saving Austria more than 3,000,-
000 gulden. In 1809 he negotiated the purchase of
450 tons of biscuit for military provisions, declining
to accept any profits or commission. Lilmel gave
further evidence of his devotion to his emperor and
his country by lending the government large sums of
money. In order to facilitate the withdrawal of the
French troops from Vienna he iu 1809 lent to the
state his entire fortiuie.

In view of his recognized services he requested
permission to purchase a house in Vienna, but on
IMarch 17, 1811, the emperor declined to grant this
petition. In the same j'ear, however, Lilmel was
elevated to the hereditary nobility, and he and his
children were given permission to reside in Vienna,
iu which city Jews were at that time liardly toler-
ated. In 1813 Field-Marshal Prince Schwarzenberg
appointed Lilmel commissary of the army, relieving
him from quartering soldiers.

Saxony as well as Austria profited by Liuncl's
services ; and several autograph letters froni the
kings of the former country assured him of their
esteem. His endeavors were the cause, at least in-
directly, of the abolition of the body-tax (" Leibzoll '')
in Saxony.

Lilmel was ever active in hig efforts to ameliorate
the sad condition of his coreligionists. In 1S17
he succeeded in having the taxes of the Boiicmian
Jews reduced, and was assured at the same time that
they would shortly be abolished altogether. He did
not seek to escape this taxation himself, even when
he removed to Vienna. A few years before his death
he endeavored to bring about the abolition of the
medieval Jewish oath.

Lilmel's daughter, Elise Herz, founded in his
memory a school at Jerusalem, which is known as
the ''Simon Edler von Lilmel's Stiftung."

Bini.ior.RAPiiY: JIUU.<rhcr Plutarch, i. lis. Vienna, 1M8;
Wolf, (JcKvh.diir Juden in ll'ie/i, p. lOi. i7). 1870; L. A.
Frankl, Nach Jerusalem, 1. 1 et geq., Leipsic, 1858.

s. SI. K.

LAMENTATIONS.— Biblical Data: In the

manuscripts and printed copies of the (J)d Testament
the book is called, after its initial word, "Ekah";
in the Talmud and among the Kabbis, after its con-
tents, "Kinot" (comp. especially B. B. 15a). The
Greek and Latin translations of the Old Testament,
as well as the Church Fathers, call it Bf>fjroi, or Qpf^voi
'Itpcfiiov, or "Threni."

The five poems deal with the destruction of Jeru-
salem (586 B.C.), describing how cit}- and country,
palace and Temple, king and people, suffered under
the terrible catastrophe. The several poems have
markedly different characteristics. The first shows
an almost utter lack of consecutive thought. Al-
though it may be divided into two distinct sections
— verses 1-llb, in which the poet speaks, and 11c-
23, in which the city continues — the sections them-
selves present no logical development of thought.
The theme of the entire song is the distress of the
city (which is personified) and of her children and in-
habitants, and the haughtiness of the victors. Thus
verses 1 et seq. deal, in obvious imitation of Isa. i. 21,
with the misfortunes of Jerusalem; verse 5, with the
arrogance of the Chaldeans; verses 6-9, again, with
the misery of the inhabitants; verse 10, with the
proud victors. Verses 12-16 of the second section
are especially remarkable for their series of detached
images representing Jerusalem's sufferings; viz., the
rain of fire, the net, the yoke, the treading in the
wine-press, etc. From a theological point of view,
the strong sense of sin (verses 5, 8. 14, 18, 21), as Avell
as the wish that God may punish the enemy (verse
22), is noteworthy.

The second poem, ch. ii. (comp. Jer. xiv. 15-18),
is remarkable for its methodical arrangement. After
the theme — the destruction of Jerusalem — has been
announced iu verse 1, it is treated first in its jiolitical
aspect (2-5) and then from its religious side (6-7).
Ver.se 8 is the beginning of a new section, also in
two parts: (^08-9a. dealing with the fate of the city;
and (A) 9b-12, with that of lier inhabitants. Verse
13 introduces a parenetic portion: the false propiiets
are mostly to blame (14-17); tliercfore the exhorta-
tion to cry unto the Lord (18-19) and the fulfilment
of the exhortation (20-22).

The third poem, ch. iii., has a character of its
own. being a psalm, somewhat similar to Ps. Ixxxviii.
Here, too. the question arises as to whether the
speaker is one person — perhaps Jeremiah (comp.
K. Budde in Marti's " Kurzer Handconmientar."

Iiamentations
liamp

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

598

xvii. 92 et seq.)— or the community (comp. R.
Smend in Stade's " Zeitschrift, " viii. 62, note 3). The
latter opinion is preferable in view of the contents.
Verses 1-18 deal with the deep affliction in conse-
quence of which the speaker is without peace and
without hope, and therefore he cries to God (IQet
seq.). The following section (21-47) is most impor-
tant from a religious point of view ; for, according to
it, God's mercy is renewed every morning, and there-
fore man may hope even in sorrow, which is only
a divine means of discipline. If God has afflicted
any one, He will also show pity, according to the
abundance of His mercy. Hence, he who is afflicted
must not deem himself abandoned by God, but
should consider whether he has not deserved his
trials because of sins. The result of this reflection
is an admission of sin by the community (verse 47).
This is followed by another description of the afflic-
tions of the community (48-55). The song ends
with a prayer: "Help me and avenge me on my
enemies " (56-66).

The fourth poem, ch. iv., is similar to the second
as regards its symmetrical arrangement and its
contents. Verses 1-11 deal with the
Fourth. affliction of the " bene Zij'yon " and the
and Fifth. " Nezirim " — with the famine as the
Poems. greatest terror of the siege. God has
poured out all His anger upon the un-
happy city, which suffers because of the sins of its
leaders, the priests and prophets (13-16), the king
and his council (17-20). The last two verses (21-
22) contain a threat of punishment against Edom.

Since ancient times the fifth poem, ch. v., has
rightly been called a prayer. Verse 1 addresses
God with the words " Behold our reproach " ; this
reproach is described with but little coherence in
verses 2-18, which are followed by a second appeal
to God (19-22) : " Renew our days as of old."

Authorship, — (a) Biblical and Pre-Talmudic Data :
The book gives no information as to its author. The
earliest mention of it is found in II Chron. xxxv.
25 : " And Jeremiah lamented for Josiah ; and all the
singing men and the singing women spake of Josiah
in their lamentations to this day, and made them an
ordinance in Israel: and, behold, they are written
in the lamentations." The chronicler therefore re-
gards Jeremiah as the author of lamentations on
Josiah ; and it is not improbable that he saw them
in the Book of Lamentations, in view of passages
like ii. 6 and iv. 20, Josephus ("Ant." x. 5, § 1)
has transmitted this tradition: "But all the people
mourned greatly for him [Josiah], lamenting and
grieving on his account for many days: and Jere-
miali the prophet composed an elegy to lament him,
which is extant till this time also." This tradition
has found a place in the Talmud as well as in the
Greek translation of the Old Testament, and is
plainly cited by Jerome, who says, on Zech . xii. 11 :
"Super quo [Josia] lamentationes scripsit Jeremias,
qua; leguntur in ecclesia et scripsisse eum Parali-
poinenon testatur liber."

K. ('. ir. M. Lo.

(b) In Rabbinical Literature : The rabbinical au-
thorities regard Lamentations as having been writ-
ten by Jeremiah (B. B. 15a). It is one of the three
" Kctubim Ketanuim " (Ber. 57b), and is variously

designated as "Kinot," "Megillat Kinot," "Ekah,"
and"Megillat Ekah "(Ber. 57b; B. B. 15a; Lam.
R. i. 1, m""? xijS na'K j^X; comp. L. Blau ["Zur
Einleitung in die Heilige* Schrift," p. 38, note 3,
Budapest, 1894], who questions the last two titles).
And he who reads it utters first the benediction " 'Al
Mikra Megillah" (Soferim xiv. 2; comp. ed. Mill-
ler, p. 188). Ekah was written immediately after
the destruction of the First Temple and of the city
of Jerusalem (Lam. R. i. 1), though R. Judah is of
the opinion that it was composed during the reign
of Jehoiakim, after the first deportation (ib.).

The alphabetical construction of the poems fur-
nished suggestions of an ethical nature to the Rab-
bis. The seven alphabets (ch. v. was also considered
alphabetical as it numbers twenty-two verses) recall
the seven sins committed by Israel {ib. Introduc-
tion, xxvii.). This form also indicates that Israel vio-
lated the Law fromalef (X) to taw (n ; ib. i. 1, § 21),
i.e., from beginning to end. The letter pe (S) was
placed before 'ayin, because Israel spake with
the mouth (n3) what the eye (" 'ayin ") had not seen
(Lam. R. ii. 20). The influence of the Lamentations
in bringing Israel to repentance was greater than
that of all the other prophecies of Jeremiah (Lam.
R. ix. 26). See also Jeremiah in Rabbinic al
Literature.
Bibliography : Furst, Der Kanon des A. T. Lelpsic, 1868.

s. s. E. G. H.

(c) Critical View : Since the tradition of the Jere-
miauic authorship was current as early as the time
of the chronicler, it is doubtless an ancient one, but
no reference is made to it in any of the songs
themselves. There are, on the contrary, weighty
reasons against ascribing the authorship to Jeremiah :
(1) The position of the book among the" Ketubim" in
the Hebrew canon ; for though the Alexandrian canon
places it beside the Book of Jeremiah, this juxtapo-
sition did not obtain originally, since the two books
were translated by different writers. (2) The style of
the songs, i.e. {n) their language and (6) their poet-
ical form, (a) Their language : this has been exhaust-
ively examined by Lohr in Stade's "Zeitschrift,"
xiv. 31 et seq., and it shows that ii. and iv. were
drawn undoubtedly from Ezek. , and i. and v. prob-
ably from Deutero-Isaiah. (b) Their poetical form :
this does not refer to the elegiac verse (which Budde
called the "Kiuah-verse ") of the first four songs — a
verse-form which since the time of Amos is found in
all the prophetic literature — but to the so-called
acrostic form: that is, in ch. i., ii., and iv. each suc-
cessive verse begins with a successive letter of the
alphabet; in ch. iii. three verses are devoted to each
letter; and the fifth song contains at least twenty-two
verses, corresponding to the number of letters in the
Hebrew alphabet. This artificial arrangement is
scarcely ever found in the Old Testament except
in late Psalms and in the later literature, like Prov.
xxxi. and Nahum i. 3. The decisive argument
against the hypothesis of the Jeremianic author-
ship is found in the contents of some of the pas-
sages. For example, ii. 9 states that at that time
the prophets had no vision from the Lord ; iv. 17
refers to the reliance on help from Egypt; iv. 20, to
the loyalty to the king ; v. 7 states that Israel suf-
fered innocently for the sins of the fathers.

599

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liamentations
Liamp

Indeed, it is highly improbable that Lamentations
was composed by any one man, for the following
reasons: (1) One writer would hardly have treated
the same theme five different times; (2) the diversi-
fied character of the several songs, as shown above,
is an argument against the assumption, as is also
the difference in the acrostic arrangement; for in
ch. i. the y precedes the a, while it follows in ii.-
iv. In view of the characteristics mentioned above,
ii. and iv. maybe regarded as belonging together;
the first dwelling more on the fate of the city,
the second more on tliat of the inhabitants, and
both rising to a
higher poetic level
than the remaining
songs of the book.
Ch. i. and v. might
also be classed to-
gether, while iii.
occupies an excep-
tional position, and
may have been
added in order to
render the whole
collection adaptable
to religious pur-
poses. In later
times, the book was
read on the Ninth
of Ab, in memory
of the destruction
of the Solomonic
and Herodian
Temples; and the
custom may have
originated even dur-
ing the time of Ze-
rubbabel's Temple.

The time and
place of the compo-
sition of the book
are matters of con-
jecture. Ch. ii. and
iv. may have been
written a decade
after the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem;
i. and v., perhaps
toward the end of
the Exile; and iii.
seems to be of still
later origin. Argu-
ments seem to be in
favor of Babylon as the place of origin of the book.

Bibliography : H. Ewald. Die Dichter de,s Alten BundcK, 2d
ed., 18C6, pp. 321 et seq.; Otto Thenius, in Kurzgefasiitc^ Exc-
getischcH Handhuch, 185.5; Nagelsbaeh, Keil, Payne-Smith,
Cheyne, and Plumptre at the end of their commentaries on
Jeremiah ; W. R. Smith, Lamentatioriit, in Encyc. Brit. 9th
ed.; S. Oettii, in Strack and Zovc]i\er's Kurzaefcv^ster K<>m-
mcntar, etc.; M. Lohr, Die Klaqdieder Jeremiads, 1891 ;
Wcm, in Nowack's Haiidhnnuneidar zum Alten Testamiiit,
1893; S. Minocchi, Le Lamcntazioni di Oeremia, Rome.
1897; Driver, Intr(Hhicti(»i to the Literature of the Old
Testament, pp. 456 et tieq.. New York, 1902; Einleitunnen
to Lamentation." {Klagelieder) by Cornill, Baudissln. Konig,
Wellhausen-Bleek ; Budde, Klagelieder, la K. H. C. 1898.
E. G. n. M. Lo.

LAMMLEIN. See Lemmlein, Asher.

LAMP OF JUDAISM. See Periodicals.

Perpetual Lamp.

(From the Bynagogiie at Rain^^gate, Euglan^l.)

LAMP, PERPETUAL (T^n IJ) : In syna-
gogues u perpetual light is maintained in a lamp
which consists generally of a glass vessel containing
a wick burning in olive-oil; this is held in an orna-
mental metal receptacle suspended from the ceiling
in front of the "Holy Ark," or "Aron ha-Kodesh,"
j ust as the candlestick (" menorah") in the Tabernacle
and Temple had its place before the Ark of the
Covenant (.see Jew. Encyc. ii. 109, illustrations).

The institution of the perpetual light descended
from the Temple (comp. Ex. xxvii. 20; Lev. xxiv.
2) to the Synagogue as the "lesser Temple " (" milj-

dash me 'at " ; ileg.
29a). The perpetual
light in the Temple,
which is mentioned
by classical writers
(pseudo - Hecatajus,
in JosopluLs, " Con-
tra Ap." i. 22; Dio-
dorus Siculus,
xxxiv. 1), is usually
referred to in the
Talmud as the
"western light"
("ner ha-ma'ara-
bi"), it being the
lamp upon the cen-
tral shaft of the can-
dlestick. The
general tradition is
that this lamp was
never allowed to
go out, while the
other six lamps
burned only during
the night (Tamid
vi. l;Men.86b,98b;
comp. "Yad," Bet
ha-Behirah, iii.
1-11, and Temidin,
iii. 10-18); accord-
ing to Josephus,
"Ant." iii. 8, §3,
three lights burned
day and night in
the Temple ; and.
again, Tamid iii. 9
would iinpl}- a tra-
dition of two lights
burning perpetu-
ally. The lighting
of the perpetual
lamp and the placing of the scrolls of the Law in
tlie Ark are the principal ceremonies in the dedica-
tion of a synagogue.

The Rabbis interpret the perpetual lamp as the
symbol of God's presence in Israel (Shab. 22b); or
as representing the spiritual light whicli went forth
from the sanctuary (Ex. R. xxxvi. 1); or as the
symbol of God's Law, which Israel is to keep alive
in the world (Ex. R. xxxvi. 2; Lev. R. xxxi. 4).
According to Biblical conception, the light is a fig-
ure of happiness and prosperity, even of life itself
(I Kings xi. 36; Ps. xviii. 29 [A. V. 28]; Prov. xx.
27, xxiv. 20; Job xviii. 6).

liamp
Lampronti

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

600

BiBLiOGRAPHT : Iken, Tractatug Talwudis de Cidtn Qho-
tidiano Templu 1736, pp. 73-76, 107 ct scy.: Kriiger, in T)ic-
ologische QuartaJschrift, 1851, pp. 248 et seq.
A. !• ^I- C.

LAMP, SABBATH : Special lamp or chande-
lier used in Jewish households on Sabbath eve. The
lighting of a special lamp on Sabbath eve, regarded
as a religious duty, is of early pharisaic origin (see
Sabbath). The early tannaim speak of it as a well-
known institution (Shab. ii.),
and their discussions turn orrty
on the minor details connected
with it, as the kind of wick or
oil to be employed. The later
rabbis differed in their opin-
ions as to whether the lighting
of the Sabbath lamp was an
obligation (" hobah ") or a mer-
itorious act (■' mizwah " ; Shab.
25b and Tos. tb. s.v. "Hadla-
kah " ; comp. Shab. 23b). Con-
sidered as an obligation, it is
especially incumbent upon the
housewife, and the neglect of
it entails heavenly punishment
(Shab. ii. 6). If there is no
woman in the house, the obliga-
tion rests upon the man (Shul-
han 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 263,
6). The blessing pronounced
at the lighting of the Sabbath
lamp is: "Blessed art Thou
. . . who hast sanctilied us
with Thy commandments and
enjoined us to light the Sabbath
lamp "(Shab. 25b; Tos. ib. s.r.
" Hobah " ; " Seder K. Amram "
[ed. Warsaw, 1865], i. 2-1; Orah
Hayyim, 263, 5; Beer Heteb,
ad loc). Pious women recite
a prayer ("tehinuah") for the
health and prosperity of their
families before and after the
blessing.

Tlie wick used for the Sab-
bath lamp should be of such
material as flax,
Materials, linen, or cotton,
but not of hair
or wool, or similar materials.
The oil should be of a kind that
will easily feed the wick;
pitch, wax, or fat should not
be used; neither should resin
(" 'itran "), which emits an ill
odor (Shab. 20b, 24b). Nor is
it permissible to use balsam
C'zeri"), which produces a
sweet odor, lest some one make use of it wliile it
is burning and tlius render the supply inadequate,
an act that would make him guilty of quenching
a ligiit on Sabbath {ib. 25b). All other kinds of oil
may be used, although olive-oil is the kind most
recommended (Orah Hayyim, 264, 6; "Sefer Ha-
sidim," ed. Wistinetzki, ^623, and note). Candles
made of pitch, wax, or fat are also permitted (Orah
Hayyim, 264, 7).

Perpetual

(In the possession of Maurice

Lamp.

HerrmanD, New York.)

There is no provision made in the Talmud with
regard to the number of lights. Later authorities
mention the custom of lighting two lights, one for
each of the terms "Zakor" and "Shamor," with
which the two versions — Ex. xx. 8 and Deut. v. 12
— of the Sabbath commandment respectively begin
(Kol Bo, 31 ; Orah Hayyim, 263, 1). The seven-
branched Sabbath lamp is of later origin, and has
its source in the sanctity at-
tached to the number seven
by the cabalists (Be'er Heteb
to Orah Hay vim.
Number of 263, i ; ' Hayye
Lights. Adam; Shab. v.
13). Some homes
in medieval Jewry had a hang-
ing chandelier that was used
only on Sabbath eve. The
proverb "When the lamp is
lowered all sorrows are fled "
has its origin in the lowering of
the chandelier, usually of eight
branches, on Sabbath eve (Ber-
liner, " Aus dem Innern Lebeu
der Deutschen Juden im Mit-
telalter," ch. iii., Hebrew ed.,
Warsaw, 1900; comp. Abra-
hams, "Jewish Life in the
:MiddleAgcs," p. 154).

The Sabbath lamp should be
lighted before sunset on Fri-
day. In ancient times six
blasts were blown with a trum-
pet by the public herald, the
third blast indicating the time
for lighting the Sabbath lamp
(Shab. 35b; Josephus, "B. J."
iv. 9. end). According to some
authorities the Sabbath enters
with the kindling of the lights ;
hence the custom that the
woman who lights the lamp
does no work afterward (Orah
Hayyim, 263, 10, Isserles'
gloss). The prevalent custom
is to kindle the lights and then
say the blessing while holding
the hands before them {ib. 263,
5, Isserles' gloss; comp. Fried-
liinder, "Jewish Religion," p.
358, and note, London^ 1900).

The early Karaites, follow-
ing their teacher Anan, pro-
hil)ited all lights on the Sab-
bath, interpreting the passage
"Ye shall kindle no fire . . .
on the Sabbath day " (Ex.
XXXV. 3) to forbid not only the act of kindling, but
also the presence of a light in the house. They re-
garded it as a duty to extinguish even a light left
burning by mistake (Fiirst, "Gesch. des Kariiert."
ii. 10 and notes 53, 54, Leipsic, 1862; comp. "Sefer
Hasidim," § 1147, ed. Warsaw, 1901). The later
Karaites, however, light candles on Sabbath eve
(Neubauer, "Gesch. des Karitert." Hebr. supple-
ment, ch. iii., Leipsic, 1866).

601

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lamp
Lampronti

Bibliography: Maimonides. Yad. Shnhhnt, v.; S!huUin)i
'Aruk, Orah Ha uyi in, Xi-2(y>: Shihhdlr ha-Lchct.i^ m' (U.
ed. Biiber, Wilha, 18)S6 ; Shub, Tn'amc ha-i[iii)iduiiiu Sg KIT,
172. Lembers:, 1890; M. Friedman, Titc Sabbath Liaht, in J.
Q. R. iii. 7(17-721.

K. J. H. G.

LAMP, THE SEVEN-BRANCHED. See

Candlestick ; Mknokah.

LAMPON (Greek, \a/j-zuv) : Enemy of the Jews ;
lived in tlie tirstceutiiiy at Alexandria. Duiing the
reign of Caligula an outbreak against the Jews oc-
curred at Alexandria in the year 38, which Flaccus,
then governor of Egypt, made no attempt to check.

Perpetual Lamp.

(From the synagogue at Strasburg.)

Philo ("In Flaccum," § 4) designates as the ring-
leaders (rapa^o-o/udec) two citizens of Alexandria,
Isidorus and Lampon, who for their complicity in
the riot were executed under Claudius {ib. §§ lo,
17). The proceedings in the case before the emperor
at Eome are extant in two papyrus fragments, sup-
plementing each other, one at Berlin and the other
in the museum of Gizeh.

The passage in which Lampon tries to justify
himself is found in the Gizeh papj'rus, which breaks
off at the point where the emperor commands that
Isidorus and Lampon be led away to death. That
their execution really took place appears certain
from a papyrus found at Oxyrhyncluis, according
to which a certain Appianus, in defending himself
before one of the Antoniue emperors, refers to the
martyrdom of Isidorus and Lampon.

Bibliography : T. Reinach, in R. E. J. xxxi. 161-178, xxxii.
160, xxxiv. 2i»6-298, xxxvii. 219 et scq.; (irenfell ami Hunt,
The Oxijrhniichug Papyri, part 1., No. xxxiii., London, 189S ;
Gratz, Gcsch. -ttli ed., iii. 331 ; Schiirer, Geach. 3d ed., i. 68,
503.
G. S. Kr.

LAMPRONTI, ISAAC B. SAMUEL : Italian
rabbi and physician; liorn Feb. 3, 1679, at Fi-rrara;
died Nov. 16, 1756. His great-grandfather, Samuel
Lampronti, emigrated from Constantinople to Fer-
rara in the sixteenth century. His father, a man of
wealth, died when Isaac was six j-ears of age.
Isaac was sent to school in his eighth year, his
teachers being Shab])ethai Elhanan Recanati and S.
E. Sauguineti ; in his fourteenth year he went to
Lugo, to the school of R. 3Ianoah Provencal;
thence he went to Padua to study medicine, attend-
ing at the same time lectures on philosophy. There
he enjoyed especially the intercourse and in.struction
of the physician R. Isaac Caxtarixi. On com-
pleting his medical studies he was employed as
teacher for a time in various Italian cities, and on
his return to his native city the yeshibah conferred

uiion him the title of " haber. " Shortly afterward he
went to :\Ianlua to complete his rabbinical studies
under R. Judah Brial and R. Joseph Cases, who
also was a physician. Laini)ronti entered into espe-
cially close relations with R. Judah, whom he fre-
quently mentions in his great work. "When Mantua
was threatened with war, in 1701, Lampronti, fol-
lowing the WLshes of his family, returned to Fer-
rara, where he established himself as physician and
teacher, delivering lectures for adults in his house
both on week-days and on the Sabbath.

In 1709 Lampnmti was appointed teacher at the
Italian Talmud Torah, receiving a monthly .salary
of twelve scudi (=S11.64) in return for devoting
the larger part of his day to teaching chiefly He-
brew grammar, arithmetic, and Italian. Lampronti
gave his pupils his own homilies on the weekly
sections, composed in Italian, for practise in trans-
lating into Hebrew. He also set some of his pupils
to copy from the sources material which he needed
for the encyclopedic work he had undertaken. The
directors of the community, who thought this inter-
fered with his duties as teacher, forbade him, in Oct.,

1725, to keep the material for his work
Activity as in the schoolhouse. When the Span-
Teacher, ish Talmud Torah was discontinued,

in 1729, the pupils of this school also
passed into the hands of Lampronti. Thus he be-
came the teacher of most of the members of the com-
munity, and long after his death it was said in the
community of Ferrara, "All the learning found
among us is derived from the mouth of our father

Lighting the Sabbath Lamp.

(From a Passover Hagi^dah, .^instcrclam, lt95.)

Isaac." In addition to his duties as teacher he filled
the position of preacher, from 1704, in the Sephar-
dic community, and, beginning witli 1717, in the
Italian synagogue. His sermons, which were very
popular, have not been preserved. He mentions
one of them, on truth and untruth, in referring to
his "Sefer ha-Derushim Shelli " in an article of his
" Pahad Yizhak " (letter o. article Dti6 1^ "IH^D

liampronti

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

602

niJB'^)- His funeral oration (" Darke Shalom ") on
Samson Morpurgo be mentions in his approbation
to the latter's responsa "Sliemesh Zedakah." His
name is connected with an Ark of the Law in the

Sabbath Lamp.

(In the possession uf Mrs. Alexander Kohut, New York.)

Sepbardic synagogue at Ferrara, placed there by
him in 1710, at liis own cost.

In 1718 Lampronti was appointed a full member
of the rabbinical college. His signature as the latest
member, following those of Mordecai Zahalon, Shab-
bethai Elbanan Rccanati, and Samuel Baruch Horghi,
is found in a responsum of the yeshibah of Ferrara
of the year 1727, which he quotes (letter 3. p. 20d).

In 1738 he was elected rabbi of the Spanish syna-
gogue in place of his former teacher, Rccanati ;
and after the death of Mordecai Zahalon he became
president of the yeshibah (1749), and began imme-
diately the printing of his great work (see below).
He had then reached the age of seventy, and still

had eight years of life before him, during which he
taught continuously, although he had to be taken
to the school by his pupils on account of an ailment
of his feet. Notwithstanding his other occupations
he continued to practise medicine, visiting his pa-
tients early in the morning, because,
Activity as as he said, the physician has a surer eye
Physician, and can judge better of the state of
his patient after the night's rest. He
had a great reputation as physician, and his contem-
poraries generally added to his name the epithet
" the famous phj'sician." He corresponded on med-
ical subjects with his teacher Isaac Cantarini, and
he drew upon his medical knowledge in many pas-
sages of his work. He died deeply mourned by the
community and his numerous pupils. No stone was
erected on his grave, for half a year before his death
the tombstones of the Jewish cemetery of Ferrara
had been destroyed at the instigation of the clergy
(Ferrara belonged to the Pontifical States), and the
Jews were at the same time forbidden to place
stones on the graves of their dead. More than a
century later, Ferrara publicly honored the memory
of Lampronti; on April 19, 1872, a stone tablet, for
which Jews and Christians had contributed, was
placed on the house in which he had lived ; it bears

Sabbath Lamp.

(In the poflSessioD of H. Frauberger, Frankfort-on-tbe-MaiD.)

the following inscription: "Abit5 in questa ca.sa
Isacco Lampronti, nato nelMDCLXXIX., morto nel
MDCCLVI. Medico Teologo tra i dotti celebratis-
simo. Onor5 la patria. Riverenti alia scienza al-
cuni cittadini posero MDCCCLXXII."
Lampronti's life-work was his famous rabbinical

603

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lamprontl

encyclopedia "Pahad Yizhak " (name derived from
Gen. xxxi. 42), the material for which he had begun
to collect as eariy as his student days
His at Mantua, and on which he worked

"Pahad during his whole life. When he de-
Yizhak." cided, in his old age, to publish this
great work, he traveled together with
his pupil Jacob Saraval, as the latter says in the
preface of the correctors (Saraval and Simhah Calli-
nari), through
the Italian cities
in order to se-
cure the appro-
bations (" haska-
mot ") of the
rabbinical au-
thorities of Italy
for the work.
The collection of
these approba-
tions, which
were given in
1749 and 1750,
is a curious mon-
ument of the
Jewish scholars
of northern Italy
in the eighteenth
century ; it in-
cludes sonnets
and poems in
other forms in
honor of Lam-
pronti. The fol-
lowing cities are
represented by
their yeshibahs
or rabbis: Ven-
ice, Leghorn,
Reggio, Verona,
Ancona, Padua,
Mantua, Casale
Monferrato, Mo-
dena, Turin,
Florence, Ales-
sandria della
Paglia, Pesaro,
Finale, Lugo,
Rovigo. In the
second volume
are added the
approbations of
R. Malachi b.
Jacob Kohn of
Leghorn, author
of the "Yad
Maraki,"and of
threePalestinian
scholars stop-
ping at Ferrara. The work was planned to fill six vol-
umes, as recorded in the printing permit of the Jew-
ish communal directorate of Venice. But only the
first volume and the first half of the second volume
appeared during the author's lifetime. Vol. i. (1750)
contains in two specially paged sections (of 124 and
76 folios respectively) the letter N ; the first part

Sabbath Lamp and Holder.

(In the U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.)

of vol. ii. (1753) contains the letters 2 (fol. 1-75) and
i (fol. 76-105). The second part of vol. ii. appeared
forty years after the author's death (1796); it con-
tains the letters n (fol. 1-49), 1 (fol. 50-60), T (fol.
67-77), n, beginning (78-110). Vol. iii. appeared in
the same3'ear; it contains: n, end (fol. 1-61), lD (fol.
63-93). These volumes were printed at the press of
Isaac Foa (formerly Bragadini) at Venice. Two
other volumes appeared in 1813 (vol. iv., Reggio)

andl840(vol. v.,
Leghorn); vol.
iv. contains the
letters ^ (fol.
l-41a), 3 (fol.
41a-108); ^(spe-
cially paged,
1-26) ; vol. V.
contains the let-
ter 0(241 fols.).
This last-named
volume contains
additions to the
text by Abra-
ham Baruch Pi-
perno, under the
title "Zekor le-
Abraham." In
1845 the auto-
graph manu-
script of the
entire work was
acquired by the
Biblioth^que
Rationale of
Paris, in 120
volumes, 68 of
which corre-
sponded with
the parts that
had so far ap-
peared. ThePar-
is manuscript
also contains the
autlior's Italian
correspondence,
which was not
included in the
edition (see Cat.
Hebr. MSS. Bib-
liotht^que Natio-
nale. p. 61. Xns.
458-577). The
society Mekize
Nirdamim, on
its foundation,
took as one of
its first tasks the
publication of
those portions of
Lampronti's work which had not yet been priuted.
The first to appear (in octavo instead of folio, the
size of the previous volumes) were the letters 3
(1864; 100 fols.), D (1866; 196 fols.). ]} (1868; 173
fols.), D (1871; 74 fols.), and V and first Imlf of p
(1874; 200 fols.). The work was continued ten
years later by the reorganized society Mekize Nir-

Liainprouti
lianczy

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

604

damim ; during 1885-87 appeared the remainder of
the letter p, and the letters 1 (148 fols.), ^ (318
fols.), and D (183 fols.). Thus the publication of
the work was completed 127 years after the appear-
ance of the first volume.

Lamprouti's work is an alphabetically arranged
encyclopedia to the Talmud and Talmudic literature.
In the censor's permit, dated June, 1749, prefixed to
the first volume, it is designated as " Dizionario Ei-
tuale in Lingua Ebraica, '' a designation which proba-
bly originated with the author. As a matter of fact
Lampronti's encyclopedia deals chiefly with the
Halakah, the material for the articles being taken
from the entire halakic literature down to the latest
responsa, which he had, in part, in manuscript. He
devotes much space to discussing questions of ritual
law, as found in the responsa of con-
Character temporary Italian rabbis. On some
of the questions he gives the entire corre-
Work. spondencc, as on fols. 9d-13a, 31d-37d,
46d-o0a, 74b-76a, 79c-80b, 102b-107a,
in the first volume. The arrangement is a char-
acteristic feature of the work. Single words are
used occasionally as headings for his articles, but
more frequently he uses entire sentences, either as
he found them in the sources, or as propositions de-
rived from the sources. In vol. i. thirty articles
begin with the word Nfi^DDN; and a special article,
besides, refers to about one hundred other articles
of the work in which this concept is treated (see
Jew. Encyc. ii. 215-218). About one hundred arti-
cles begin with the word DISIIDDX, and a special
article refers to as many more in which the word
occurs. The articles are arranged in strictly alpha-
betical order, this being especially important in a
work of this kind. The quotations are accompanied
by an exact statement of their sources. In addi-
" tion to the Halakah much space is devoted to the
Haggadah of the Talmuds, and the work may also
be regarded as an alphabetical index of the Tal-
mudic haggadic sentences. It may be noted as a
curious instance that in the article ^ip r\2 (ii. 766)
Lampronti refers to a work in Italian, the title of
which he quotes in carefidly punctuated Hebrew
transcription: " Demostrazioni delia Essenza di Dio
dalle Opere della sua Creazione ; da Guglielmo Deram
[DN"in], Firenze, 1719." Lampronti's work has not
yet been critically examined, nor has a list been
made of the sources which he used or quoljcd. Ad-
denda made by Lampronti are preserved in the
library of the Talmud Torah at Ferrara; according
to Rabbi Benedetto Isaac Levi of Ferrara, the author
of a short biography of Lampronti ("Ha-Maggid,"
xi'x. 70), there are thirty-five folios, most of the
leaves of which are, however, blank. But the ad-
denda which are scattered through the several vol-
umes of the work itself would if collected make a
stout volume.

Lampronti's elder son, Samuel Hay, is men-
tioned in the article pnS; his younger son, Solo-
mon Lampronti, was a physician, like his father,
and versed in rabbinical lore.

IJiHLioftRAPiiY: B. .l.Lovi, D(Ua Vita c dclV Opera <U Tsnc en
LdiniiriDid. I'iiiliiM. 1S71 : idem, in Hn-Mawiid (1.S75), xix.
met srq.: NVpi-iiliimndj, Tulcdot Ocdolc Yisracl; Geiifei-,
Jill. Zcit.l»:i,ix. Witt !<cq.

s. s. W. B.

LANCASTER: Town founded in Lancaster
count}', Pennsylvania, in 1730; one of the six or
seven cities in the United States containing pre-
Revolutionary Jewish settlements. The earliest
record of this interesting Jewish settlement seems to
be that of a deed, dated Feb. 3, 1747, from Thomas
Cookson to Isaac Nunus Ricus and Joseph Simon(s),
conveying a half-acre of land in the township of
Lancaster " in trust for the society of Jews settled
in and about Lancaster, to have and use the same as
a burying-ground." At this time there were about
ten Jewish families at Lancaster, including Joseph
Simon, Joseph Solomon, and Isaac Cohen, a physi-
cian. In 1780 the list of Jews included also Ber-
nard Jacob, Sampson Lazarus, Andrew Levy, Aaron
Levy, Meyer Solomon, Levy Marks, and Simon Sol-
omon, all shopkeepers, and Joshua Isaacs, later of
New York, father-in-law of Harmon Hendricks.
The leading figure in the settlement was Joseph
Simon, one of the most prominent Indian traders
and merchants and one of the largest landholders in
'America, his enterprises extending not only over
Pennsylvania, but to Ohio and Illinois

Joseph and to the Mississippi river. In his

Simon. Lancaster store Levy Andrew Levy
was a partner, and Simon's sons-in-
law, Levi Phillips, Solomon M. Cohen, Michael
Gratz, and Solomon Etting 1(1784), were also asso-
ciated with him at various periods. In partnership
with William Henry, Simon supplied the Continen-
tal army with rifles, ammunition, drums, blankets,
and provisions. He died Jan. 24, 1804, at the age
of ninety-two ; and his grave is still preserved in the
above-mentioned cemetery.

A list of twenty-two residents of Lancaster to
whom various Indian tribes in Illinois conveyed a
tract of land comprising the southern half of the
present state of Illinois, includes the following names
of Jews: Moses, Jacob, and David Franks, Barnard
and Michael Gratz, Moses Franks, Jr., Joseph Simon,
and Levy Andrew Levy.

Aaron Levy, a native of Amsterdam, Holland, and
a partner of Joseph Simon at Lancaster, lent large
sums of money to the American colonists during
the Revolution. Joseph Cohen, a native of Lancas-
ter, was on guard at Philadelphia, in the Continen-
tal arm}', on the night when Lord Cornwallis was
captured. Among attorneys at Lancaster are found
Samson Levy, admitted to the bar in 1787, and Jo-
seph Simon Cohen (grandson of Joseph Simon), ad-
mitted in 1813, and from 1840 to 1853 profrhonotary
of the Supreme Coui't of Pennsylvania.

There was probably no permanent synagogue or
congregational organization at Lancaster during the
eighteenth century, although it has
Syna- been stated that one was formed in
gogue. 1776; but regular religious services
were held in a sort of private syna-
gogue in the house of Joseph Simon. A portion of
the Ark there used has been presented to the Amer-
ican Jewish Historical Society.

Many of the Jews of Lancaster were supporters
of the Congregation Mikve Israel of Philadelphia.
The Jewish families mentioned above seem to have
moved from Lancaster at the beginning of the nine-
teenth century. No interment took place in the

605

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lamprontl
Iianczy

cemcterj' from 1804 until 1855. In the latter year
there ■v\as a new Jewish influx into Lancaster, the
newcomers being unrelated by descent to the former
Jewish residents.

The old Jewish cemetery, which is still preserved,
came into the possession of the Congregation Shaarai
yhomayim soon after the hitter's organization by resi-
dents of Lancaster and the vicinity (Feb. 25, 1855).
This congregation was incorporated Nov. 18, 1856;
and Jacob Herzog was the first president. Its syna-
gogue was dedicated Sept. 22, 1867; and it' has
about forty -eight members and seat-holders. The
exclusive right of the congregation to control the
cemetery was recognized by the Superior Court of
Pennsylvania in a recent decision (Congregation
Shaarai Shomayim vs. Moss, 22 Penn. Superior
Court Rep. 356 [1903]). This congregation is at pres-
ent the leading one in Lancaster; the Rev. Isadora
Rosenthal, who succeeded the Rev. Clifton H. Levy,

also the following other
Lancaster: Congregation
Degel Israel (Orthodox), founded Sept. 25, 1895,

is its rabbi. There are
Jewish organizations at

suit of the potent influence of the Jews of Lancaster,
Heidelberg, and Schaefterstowu. Some of the Chris-
tian settlers even became members of this congrega-
tion. The Jewish cemetery established about 1732
near Schaefferstown (now in Heidelberg township.
Lebanon county, but originally in Lancaster county)
is almost obliterated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY : I'uhl. Am. Jaw. Hist. Soc. No. 1, pp. 0V-6T-
No. 2, pp. 1.%-15T; No. 5, pp. 111-117; No. 8, p. ]4«; Henry
Necarsulmer, Tlic EarluJcuMi Settlement at Lmicnster,
Pa., lb. No. 9. j)\). 29-44; Jewiah Expunent. xxv.. No. 11
(whole No. aW); iNotcs and Querici< (Egle), ."W series 1 27S
291; Pcnmvilvania Mnmzine of Hwtory and IJioornjihu,
xxiv. i,o: Ellis and Evans, HM. nf Lancaster Cnuntu. pp.
18, 4,, 2.50, 369, 370, 471 : Cliri.stopher Marshall, Diary of Am,r-
tcan Revolution, ed. 1877, pp. 204, 2<«; Markens, 'Die He-
hreu's in America, pp. 79,80, 184; Puhl. LancaMer County
Hi!<t. Snc. iii.. No. 7, pp. 1&5 et xeq.; Journals of Conti-
nental Congress ; Morals, JewH of Philadcliihia, pp. 23. :». .50
(note a-)) ; Historical Collection.'^ of Pennsylvania, 1843. II.;
Historical Register, In Notes and Queries, No. 1. pp. »J1,
302; American Israelite, xliii.. No. 12; J. F. Sachse, The
German Sectarians of Pennsylvania. VOS-17U2, eh. Ix., p.
118; American Jewish Year Book, 1900-1, pp. .517 et sea.;
American Jews' Annual, 1888-93, pp. 96-98; Reco}-d Bofik
B. p. 441 (Lancaster Co. Register's offlce); J. I. Monibert, An
Authentic Hi,-itory of Lancaster County in the State of
Pennsylvania, 1869.
A. H. N.

E.NTABLATURE OF THE ARK OF THE LAW OF THE SY.VAROGrE AT LANCASTER, PA., EIGHTEENTH CEXTCRT.

(In the possession of the Jewish Historical Society of America.)

and having about fifty members and seat-holders ;
United Hebrew Charities of Lancaster County ; La-
dies' Hebrew Benevolent Society, founded 1877 ; and
the Harmonic Club (social).

At present (1904) there are in Lancaster about fifty
Jewish families of German descent and about 150 of
Russian extraction, the latter having come to Lan-
caster since 1884.

On an old Indian trail leading from the Conestoga
to the Swatara, and not far from Lancaster, is a
place pointed out as the site of one
Oldest of the first synagogues in America,
Synagogue, referred to by J. F. Sachse in his
"The German Sectarians of Pennsyl-
vania" as "atone time the most distinctive and pop-
ulous congregation of the ancient faith in the col-
onies." He further says that many of the German
Christians adopted the Jewish customs (which he
states still obtain among the families of old settlers
in Berks, Lebanon, and Lancaster counties) as a re-

LANCZY, LEO : Hungarian deputy and
financier; born in 1853. After having been con-
nected for several years with the Anglo-Hungarian
Bank and the Ungarische Boden-Credit-Gesell-
schaft, he was elected in 1881 director-general of the
Hungarian Bank of Commerce, in which capacity
he contributed greatly to the promotion of Hun-
garian commerce, and exerted an important influ-
ence on the commercial policy of the country. He
was especially successful in enlarging Hungarian
credit in foreign countries, and in making tlie
finances of Hungar3-iudcpcndeutof those of Vienna.
In 1893 the district of Zsolna returned him to the
Hungarian parliament, where he took a jiromincnt
part in the currency conferences; and in 1896 he
was member of the parliament as deputy of the city
of Miskolcz. Liinczy received in 1891 the Order
of the Iron Crown, and subsequently tiic "Comthur-
Kreuz " of the Order of Francis Joseph, in recog-
nition of his services in promoting the Millennium

I<and Laws
I<andau

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

606

Exposition. In 1902 he received the title of "Hof-
rath." Lanczy is a convert to Christianity. •
Bibliography : Pallas Lex.

8. L. V.

LAND LAWS. See Agrarian Laws; Land-
lord AND Tenant; Sabbatical Year.

LANDA-ON-THE-TAUBER. See Bischofs-
Heim-on-the-Tauber.

LANDATT. See Palatinate.

LANDAU: Family name derived from a city
in western Germany ; found largely among Polish
Jews, who probably were expelled from that city
about the middle of the sixteenth century (see
L5wenstein, "Gesch. der Juden in der Kurpfalz,"
p. 33, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1895) and retained the
name in their new homes. . The earliest bearer of it of
whom there is record is Jacob Baruch ben Judah
Landau, author of the ritual work "Agur," who
lived in Italy about 1480 or 1490. From the latter
part of the sixteenth century the Landau family is
met with in Poland, especially in the western part of

The first member of this branch definitely men-
tioned is Judah. Landau, who lived about the
beginning of the seventeenth century. He and his
son, Ezekiel Landau, are known only by name.
The latter's son, Zebi Hirsch. Landau, was a dele-
gate to the Council of Four Lauds, and was also
one of the signatories to the privilege granted b}''
that body to the printer of Zolkiev in 1699 (Buber,
"Kiryah Nisgabah," p. 104, Cracow, 1903). One of
his sons, Judah. Landau, who lived in Opatow,
was father of the most famous scion of the family,
Ezekiel Landau.

Branches of the family live in Russian Poland
and in Brody. Descendants of the same family are;
Israel Jonah Landau (d. 1824), rabbi of Kempen,
province of Posen, and author of "Me 'on ha-Bera-
kot " (Dyhernfurth, 1816), novelise to the Talmudic
treatise Berakot; and his son, Samuel Joseph
Landau (d. 1837), also rabbi in Kempen, and au-
thor of " Mishkan Shiloh " (Breslau, 1837), novellae
and responsa.

Bibliography : Buber, ^iryah Nisgabah (on the scholars of

Pedigree of Landau Family.

Judah Landau

I
Ezekiel

I
Zebi Hirsch
■ (d. 1714)

Isaac (rabbi

in Opatow, Zolkiev,

Cracow ; d. 1767)

Abraham
(c. 1711-47)

f I

Judah
(c. 17U&-37)

Ezekiel

(1713-93)

Joseph Dob Bar Hayylm

Zebi Aryeh Lob (c. 1781) (c.l7~'7) (0.1788) ., !

Joseph (c. 1727-53) | | ( j \

Landau Eleazar Abraham Isaac Jacobke Samuel Israel

(c. 1794) = daughter of (d. 1822) (d. 1834) I

Jacobke I

Jehiel
(c. 1711-47)

Benjamin Joseph
(c. 1745) (c. 1757)

I daughter =

Eleazar Abraham

Isaac

Marcus
(b. 1837)

Moses Eleazar
(d.l8o2) (d.l83I)

I i \ 1

Jacob Israel Aryeh Alexander
Simhah Jonaii LOb
(d. 1824)

Aryeh Lob Samuel Joseph
(d. 1837)

Podolia, which, after the partition of Poland, was
annexed to Austria. In various instances the name
" Landau," which had become a Jewish family name,
was adopted by people who had no family connec-
tion with the original emigrants from the German
city. Thus, it was assumed by a great-grandson of
Abraham ben Elijah Wilna (see Jeav. Encyc. i. 107,
s.v. Abraham ben Elijah op Wilna).

The first known member of the Landau family in
Poland is Zebi ben Moses Landau, one of the
communal leaders of tiie Lemberg congregation,
who died in Cracow Jan. 7, 1620 (Bu])er, "Anshe
Shem," p. 186). Zebi ben Saul Landau was
rabbi of Zmigrod and died in Lemberg June 15,
1722. Solomon Landau, father-in-law of Jacob
Joshua, lived in Lemberg toward the end of the
seventeenth century {ib. pp. 195, 206).

Only the above incomplete pedigree can be
drawn of that branch of the family to which Eze-
kiel Landau belonged, and wliich had representa-
tives in Zolkiev, (3i)atow, and Brody.

Zolkiev), Cracow. 1903 ; Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da'at Kcdoahim,
St. Petersburg, 1897-98, passim. -p.

Eleazar ben Israel Landau : Rabbi of Brody,
where he died of cholera in 1831. He was the author
of a work entitled " Yad ha-Melek," novellfe on Mai-
monides' " Yad " and notes to the Talmud (parts i.
and iv., Lemberg, 1829; part ii. ib. 1810).
Bibliography: Eisenstadt- Wiener, Da 'at jfiTedosfi ini, p. 133.

s. s. M. Sel.

Ezekiel ben Judah Landau : Polish rabbi ;
born in Opatow Oct. 8, 1713 (see preface to "Noda'
bi-Yehudah," 2d collection of his son Jakobke);
died at Prague April 29, 1793. He received his Tal-
mudical education at Vladimir and Brody. From
1734 to 1745 he acted as first dayyau of Brody; in
the latter year he became rabbi of Jampol.

Landau's tactful attitude in the affair of the Ey-
bcschiitz amulets won for him general approbation.
In a letter addressed to the rabbis Avho consulted
him on the subject he endeavored to persuade them
to establish peace between the disputants, and in-

607

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Land Law^s
Landau

Ezekiel Landau.

sinuated that the amulets migut have been falsified,
thus opening to the accused rabbi an honorable way
of exculpating himself. The letter attracted the
attention of the leaders of the community of Prague ;
in 1755 Landau was called to the rabbinate there ;

and he continued to hold
the position till his death.
Combining vast erudi-
tion with great amenity of
character, his incumbency
proved very beneficial to
the community. Re-
spected by the authorities,
who recognized the ardent
patriotism displayed by
him on more than one oc-
casion, he was often con-
sulted on Jewish religious
matters. Aletter ad-
dressed to Landau by the
government, asking for
his opinion on the ques-
tion whether an oath pro-
nounced by one holding a discarded scroll of the Law
is binding, is inserted in the " Noda' bi- Yehudah "
(ii. 65).

While very strict in ritual matters. Landau, for
the sake of peace, sometimes sanctioned things which
he did not approve. Thus, notwithstanding his
previous prohibition, he permitted LOb Honigs-
berg to continue the construction of a building on
semi-holidays, the latter having pleaded urgency
{ib. ii. 29). Although a lover of Haskalah, as may
be seen from his approbation to the " Yen Lebanon "
of Wessely, Landau saw great danger for Judaism
in the invasion of German ideas resulting from the
German translation of the Bible by Mendelssohn
(" Zelah " to Ber. 28b).

Though a student of the Cabala and well versed
in mystic literature. Landau was a decided adver-
sary of Hasidism. He thunders against the recita-
tion of Tin' U^b as done by the Hasidim, and ap-
plies to them the words of Hos. xiv. 10, substituting
therein "Hasidim" for "Posh'im."

Landau witnessed the siege of Prague in 1757,
and when urged to leave the city lie decided to
cast his lot with the rest of the people. Some
years later, in a controversy between the rabbis of
Frankfort-on-the-Main and others concerning a form
of divorce to be granted to a man fromCleves, Lan-
dau took issue against the former; and tliis so en-
raged them tliat in 1769 it was decided tliat neither
Landau nor any of his sons should ever be elected
to the rabbinate of Frankfort. In the conflagration
of 1773 Landau lost most of his manuscripts. He
was thereupon induced to begin the publication of
those of his works which the flames had spared, and
to add to them his new productions.

Landau's published works are: "Noda' bi-Yehu-
dah" (1776; 2d ed. 1811), responsa; " Derusli Hes-
ped, " a funeral oration on the deatli of IVIaria Theresa
(Prague, 1781, in German); "Shebah we-Hoda'ah,"a
derashah (1790); "Mar'eh Yehezkel," notes to the
Talmud, published by his son Samuel Landau in the
Talmud edition of 12 vols., 1830 ; " Ziyyun le-Nefesli
Hayyah," novella; on different Taimudic treatises,

viz., Pesahim (1784), Berakot (1791). Be?ah (1799),
the three republished together in 1824; "Dagul me-
liebabali" (1794), notes on tlie four ritual codices;
"Ahabat Ziyyon" (1827), addresses and sermons;
"Doresh le-Ziyyon " (1827), Taimudic discussion.

Though a Taimudic scholar and a believer in the
Cabala, yet Landau was broad-minded and not op-
posed to secular knowledge. He, liowever, objected
to that culture which came from Berlin. He there-
fore opposed Mendelssohn's translation of the Pen-
tateuch, and the study of the sciences and of lan-
guages advocated by Wessely. Landau was highly
esteemed not only by his coreligionists, but also by-
others ; and he stood high in favor in government
circles.

BiBLTOGRAPHT : E. Landau, Noda" bi-Yehudah, Pratrue, 1811 ;
Fuenn, Keneset Yinrael, p. 51.5, Warsaw, 1886; Pascheles,
JUdischer Volkskalender, p. 85, Prague, 1884 ; Gnitz, Gench.
xi.; Rabbinowitz, Dibre Yeme Yinrael, vlii., Warsaw, 1899 ;
Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbiner, 111. 99, Frankfort-on-the-
Maln, 1885; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 422.

8. s. B. Fr.

Hermann Landau: Publicist in Prague, where
he died about 1890; great-grandson of Ezekiel Lan-
dau.

Isaac Landau : Polish rabbi ; born at Opatow ;
died in Cracow 1768. His first rabbinical position
was in his native city, whence he journeyed in 1724
to the meeting of the Council of Four Lands, held at
Yaroslav. In 1729 he was rabbi of Zolkiev, and in
1734 district rabbi of Lemberg. About 1754 he was
elected rabbi of Cracow, where he remained till his
death.

Landau is known for the approbations which he
gave to several works, among which were "Mafteah
ha-'Olamot" by Emanuel Hay Richi, and "Adne
Paz " by Meir b. Levi. He is also known through
his correspondence with Jonathan Eybeschiitz on
his contest with Jacob Emden. According to T.
Levenstein, Landau left two sons: Jacob Landau,
rabbi of Tarnopol, and Zebi Joseph. Landau, rabbi
of Greidig.
Bibliography : Buber, Aruthe Shem, pp. 119-120.

s. s. N. T. L.

Isaac Elijah, ben Samuel Landau : Russian
preacher, exegete, and communal worker; born at
Wilna 1801 ; died there Dec. 6, 1876. At the age of
eighteen he settled atDubno, his Avife's native town,
where lie carried on a prosperous business. On Sat-
urdays and holy days he used to preach in the S}-n-
agogues, attracting large audiences. Owing to his
eloquence Landau was chosen by the communities
of Volliynia as. member of tlie rabbinical commission
appointed by the emperor in 1861, whicli necessitated
his remaining for five montlis in St. Petersburg. In
1868 he wascalled to Wilna as preaclierand dayyan,
which office he held till liis death. At Wilna he
established a kasher kitchen for Jewish soldiers.

Landau was a recognized autlioritj- in rabbinical
matters, and man}' authors solicited his approbation
of their works. Ho himself was a prolific writer,
and was the author of the following comnieutaries:
"Ma'aneh Eliyahu " (Wilna, 1840), on the Tanna
debe Eliyahu, accompanied with notes on other sub-
jects under the title "Siah Yizhak ": a double com-
mentary on the Mekilta (/A. 1844): " Boruic ha-Mid-
dot," on the text, and "Mizzui ha-Middot," glosses

liandau
Liandau, Leopold

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

608

to the Biblical and Talmudic passages quoted in
the commentary ; " Patsliegen " {ib. 1858), on Prov-
erbs ; " Mikra Soferim " (Suwalki, 1862), on Masseket
Soferim; " Dober Shalom" (Warsaw, 1863), on the
daily prayers ; " Kiflayimle-Tushiyyah, "on thetwelve
Minor Prophets (only that on Joel published, Jito-
mir, 1865) and on Psalms (Warsaw, 1866) ; " Patshe-
gen ha-Dat," on the Five Scrolls (Wilna, 1870) and
on the Pentateuch {ib. 1872-75) ; " Aharit le-Shalom "
{ib. 1871), on the Pesah Haggadah; "Derek Hay-
yim" {ib. 1872), on Derek Erez Zuta; "Lishmoa' ka-
Limmudim " {ib. 1876), on the haggadah of the Tal-
mudists; and "Simlah Hadashah," on the Mahzor
(published in the Wilna editions of the Mahzor).

Landau published also "Derushim le-Kol Hefze-
hem " {ib. 1871-77), a collection of sermons ; and two
of his funeral orations: "Kol Shaon" (Wilna, 1872;
also translated into Russian), on the wife of Prince
Potapov ; and " Ebel Kabed " (Eydtkuhnen, 1873),
on Samuel Straschun. He left besides a number of
works still unpublished.

Bibliography: Fuenn, iTcoeset Yisrad, p. 632; H. N. Stein-
schneider, 'Jr Tn()ia, pp. 9^97.
H. R. M. Sel.

Isidor Landau : Born at Zbaras, Galicia, 1851 ;
grandson of a brother of Abraham Isaac Landau;
chief editor of the " Berliner Borsenkourier."

Israel ben Ezekiel Landau : Scholar of the
end of the eighteenth century ; son of Ezekiel ben
Judah Landau. He was the author of "Hok le-
Yisrael " (Prague, 1798), a compendium of Maimon-
Ides' "Sefer ha-Mizwot," with an abridgment of
Nahmanides' notes, in JudiBo-German, to which he
did not affix his name because of his modesty.
Bibliography : Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 199.

s. s. " B. Fk.

Jacob b. Judah. Landau : German-Italian
codifier; lived in the second half of the fifteenth
century. His father was one of the chief authori-
ties on the Talmud in Germany ; hundreds of Tal-
mudists, among them naturallj^ his sou, were bis
pupils.

Landau left Germany and settled in Italy, living
first in Pavia (1480) and then in Naples (1487). In
the latter city he published, some time between 1487
and 1492, his code " Agur," which he composed for
his pupil Ezra Abraham b. David Obadiah, because,
the latter's time being devoted to physics and meta-
physics, he could not enter deeply into the study of
the Talmud (see introduction to "Agur"). This
practical consideration determined the form of the
"Agur," Avhicli contains only those rules that a
layman should know, and comprises principally an
abridged presentation of the material treated in
the first and second parts of the Turim. The au-
thor of the Turim, Jacob b. Asher, is Landau's chief
authority; and the "Agur" may be considered really
as a supplement to that work. In the " Agur " Lan-
dau gives excerpts from tlie halakic literature which
appeared after tlie time of Jacob b. Asher.

Altliougli tlie " Agur " possesses little originality,
it held an important position among law codes, and
is often quoted, especially by Joseph Caro in the
Shulhan 'Aruk. German influence on tlie religious
practises of the Italians was increased by Landau's
work, such authorities as Jacob Molin, Isserleiu,

and other Germans having been little noticed by
Italians before him. At the end of the "Agur"
Landau gave a number of conundrums relating to
the Halakah, under the title "Sefer Hazon," which
were afterward published separately (Venice, 1546;
Prague, 1608). The "Agur" was the first Jewish
work to contain a rabbinical approbation, besides
being the second Hebrew book printed during the
author's lifetime (see Jew. Encyc. ii. 27, s.v. Ap-
probation).
Bibliography : Fuenn, Kencset Yisrael, pp. 550-551 ; Stein-

schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1225.

G. L. G.

Marcus Landau : Austrian literary historian ;
born at Brody, Galicia, Nov. 21, 1837. After com-
pleting his education lie entered upon a mercan-
tile career (1852-69 at Brody; from 1869 at Vi-
enna), but abandoned it in 1878 for a life of letters.
He made repeated visits to Italy. He became a
correspondent for and contributor to the "Allge-
meine Zeitung" of Munich, the "Presse," the
"Frankfurter Zeitung," and the "Zeitschrift flir
Vergleichende Literaturgeschichte." In 1871 he
obtained the Ph.D. degree from the University of
Giessen. He is the author of the following works:
"Die Quellen des Dekameron," Vienna, 1889, 2d ed.
1884; "Beitrage zur Geschichte der Italienischen
Novelle," Vienna, 1875; "Giovanni Bocaccio, Sein
Leben und Seine Werke," Stuttgart, 1877 (Italian
translation by Camillo Antonio Traversi, 1881);
"Die Italienische Literatur am Oesterreichischen
Hofe," Vienna, 1879 (Italian translation by Mrs.
Gustava von Stein-Rebecchini, 1880) ; " Rom, Wien,
Neapel Wahrend des Spanischeu Erbfolgekrieges,
ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Kampfes Zwischen
Papstthum und Kaisertum," Leipsic, 1885; "Ge-
schichte Kaiser Karl's VI., als Konig von Spanien,"
Stuttgart, 1889; "Skizzen aus der Jildischen Ge-
schichte," 1897; "Geschichte der Italienischen Li-
teratur im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert," Berlin, 1899.
He wrote also over 700 essays, memoirs, and feuille-
ton articles in German and Italian for newspapers
and literary periodicals.

Bibliography: Littcrarisches CentraJblatU 1899, pp. 1532-
1533 ; Bulletin du Musee Beige, ii.; Eisenberg, Das GeUtige
Wien. S.

Moses Israel Landau : Austrian printer, pub-
lisher, and lexicographer; born Dec. 28, 1788, at
Prague; died there May 4, 1852; grandson of Eze-
kiel Landau. After finishing liis studies at a ye-
shibah of his native town he established a Hebrew
and Oriental printing-press in Prague, which be-
came important in the annals of Hebrew typography.

In 1819 he was elected superintendent of the Jewish
school in Prague, and shortly afterward was made
one of the board of directors of the Jewi.sh com-
munity. He was elected alderman ("Stadtverord-
neter ") in 1849, and a member of the city council
(" Stadtrath ") in 1850.

Landau began his literary career by publishing a
volume of poems entitled " Amaranten " in 1820.
He followed this up in 1824 with his almanac for
the friends of Hebrew literature, entitled "Bikkure
ha-'Ittim." As a preparation for his Aramaic-Tal-
mudic dictionary Landau published his book on the
" Geist und Sprache der Hebraer nach dem Zweiten
Tempelbau," Prague, 1822 (part i., history of Ian-

609

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Landau
Landau, Leopold

guage; part ii., chrestomathy from the Talmud,
Zohar, and Midrashim). In 1819 he had begun a new
edition of the " 'Aruk " of R. Natlian of Rome, to
which he added Benjamin Mussafia's " Mussaf he-
'Aruk." His "Rabbiniscli-Aramaisches W5rterbuch
zum Verstiindnis des Talmuds, der Targumim und
Midraschim" (Prague, 1819-24; 2d ed. ih. 1834-30)
contains valuable observations and numerous treat-
ises of philosophical, historical, archeological, and
geographical character.

Landau's collection of all the foreign words (ty?)
found in Raslii (on the Bible and Talmud), in the
Tosafot, in Maimonides, and in Rosh, is of lasting
value. The work, entitled "Marpe Lashon," was
published first in his edition of the Mishnah (Prague,
1829-31), then in the editions of the Talmud {ib.
1829-31 and 1839-45) and in his edition of the Bi-
ble {ib. 1833-87). It lias also appeared separately
(Odessa, 1865), with notes by Dormitzer.

Landau's chief merit as a typographer is due to
the fact that he always personally supervised the
correction of the works published in his establish-
ment, so that they issued from the press with
scarcely a fault.

In his will Landau left his Hebrew library to the

orphan asylum established by him, and his other

Oriental works to a Jewish theological seminary to

be founded in the future.

Bibliography : AUg. Zeit. desJud. 1852, p. 269.
s. M. L. B.

Samuel ben Ezekiel Landau : Chief dayyan
of Prague, where he died Oct. 31, 1834, at an ad-
vanced age. Landau was the champion of Ortho-
dox Rabbinism, and when, at the end of the eight-
eenth century, the Austrian emperor planned the
establishment of Jewish theological seminaries. Lan-
dau was one of the rabbis that objected thereto.
He had a controversy on this subject with Baruch
Jeiteles (Phinehas Hananiah Argosi di Silva), who,
under the title of "Ha-Oreb," published (Vienna,
1795) Landau's letter to him and his own rejoinder.
Landau published his responsa under the title of
"Shibat Ziyyon" (Prague, 1827). He edited his
father's "Ahabat Ziyyon" and "Doresh le-Ziyyon "
(ib. 1827), adding to the former work four homilies
of his own, and to the latter a number of halakic
discourses.

Bibliography: Eisenstadt- Wiener, Da^at Kedoshim, p. 127;
Furst, Bibl. Jud. ii. 219 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. uol. 2433.

s. s. M. Sel.

LANDAU, ADOLPH YEFIMOVICH : Rus

sian journalist and publisher; born at Rossienny,
Russia, 1841 ; died at Berlin July 21, 1902. In 1862
he moved to St. Petersburg, attended the lectures on
law at the universitj', and after two years went to
Kovno, where he taught for a year. On his return to
St. Petersburg he devoted himself to journalistic work.
His first literary efforts consisted of letters in tlie
"Razsvyet," and of articles on Jewish life published
in " Syevernaya Pochta," "Biblioteka diva Tchte-
nia,"and "SovremennoiListok." With great enthusi-
asm Landau devoted himself to the task of making
known to the public the life of the Jewish masses
and of bringing more light and knowledge to the
latter. The time seemed propitious ; for there were
signs of more freedom for and fuller justice to the
VII.— 39

Jews. Landau wrote a series of spirited letters in the
St. Petersburg" Vyedomosti," and translated a num-
ber of sketches by Jellinek on the Hebrew race, and
Deutsch's well-known article on the Talmud. In
1871 appeared the first volume of the "Biblioteka"
edited by hitn, and for a period of ten years this
publication w^as the organ of Russo- Jewish litera-
ture. Between the years 1871 and 1880 tliere ap-
peared in its pages contributions from tlie foremost
Jewish writers of the day, such as Levanda, L. O.
Gordon, I. G. Orshanski, A. J. Ilarkavy, C. A.
Bensliadsky, M. G. Morgulis, and Stasov. ' Landau
posses.sed the faculty of recognizing ability in young
writers, and to these he gave his unstinted support.

During the seventies he published numerous let-
ters and articles in " Dyen " (Odessa), "Molva," and
"Razsvyet." In 1881 he i.ssued the first volume of
the "Voskhod," a monthly publication, and in 1883
"Nedielnaya Khronika Vosklioda,'' a weekly. The
"Voskhod," like the "Biblioteka," soon numbered
among its contributors the leading Russo-Jewish
writers. Assisted by Weinberg, Landau worked
unceasingly to make it a power for good. Not
content with securing contributions from the most
talented writers, he wrote much himself. For
eighteen years he unswervingly endeavored to secure
for the Russian Jew the full benefit of citizenship.

Failing health compelled Landau to relinquish
the editorship of the " Voskhod." In 1901 he issued
the ninth volume of the "Biblioteka" and the sixth
volume of Graetz's "History of the Jews." He
died while preparing for publication the tenth vol-
ume of the "Biblioteka."

Bibliography: Voskhod, July 25, 1902; Budustchnost, July
26, 1902, p. 591.
H. R. J. G. L.

LANDAU, LEOPOLD : German gynecologist ;
born at Warsaw July 16, 1848. He studied at the
universities of Breslau, Wiirzburg, and Berlin, grad-
uating from the last-named in 1870(M.D.). He served
through the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71) as as-
sistant surgeon. From 1872 to 1874 he was assist-
ant at the gynecological hospital of the University
of Breslau, Avhere he became privat-docent (1874).
In 1876 he removed to Berlin, and became a member
of the medical faculty of its university; in 1893 he
received the title of professor ; and in 1902 lie was
appointed assistant professor. In 1892, in conjunc-
tion with his brother Theodor, he opened a private
gynecological hospital.

Landau has taken an active interest in the polit-
ical affairs of the German capital. He has been
alderman for a number of years, and a member of
the city board of hospitals. Among Landau's works
are: "Die Wanderniere der Frauen," Berlin, 1881:
" Die Wanderleber und der Hilngebauch der Frauen,"
ib. 1882; "DieVaginale Radicaloperation: Teciinik
und Gesch." (with Theodor Landau), ib. 1896;
"Anatomische und Klinisclie Beitriige zur Lehre
von der Mvonien am Weiblichen Sexualapparat,"
Berlin ainl Vienna, 1899. His brother. Theodor
Landau (b. Breslau May 22, 1861; M.D., Gottiu-
gen, 1885), is also a gynecologist, and has practised
in Berlin .since 1891.

Bibliography : Paget, Biog. Lex. Vienna, 1901.

s. F. T. H.

Landau, "Wolf
Ijaudesrabbiner

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

610

LANDAU, WOLF : German rabbi and author ;
born at Dresden March 1, 1811 ; died there Aug. 24,
1886 ; grandson of Chief Rabbi David Landau (known
also as R. David Polak). After receiving his first
Talmudic training from his father he continued
his studies under Chief Rabbi Abraliam Lowy of
Dresden, and later under Aaron Kornfeld at Jeni-
kau, Bohemia; from 1830 he attended the gymna-
sium at Dresden; and in 1836 entered tlie Univer-
sity of Berlin. On his return to Dresden, Landau
was appointed teacher at the religious school there;
and when, in 1854, Zacharias Frankel became director
of the Jewish Theological Seminary at Breslau,
Landau was unanimously elected as his successor in
the Dresden cliief rabbinate.

Landau, like his friend Frankel, inclined toward
historic Judaism, but assumed an attitude midway
between the two religious currents, especially at
the synod in Leipsic. The following are his works:
"Die Petition des Vorstandes der Israelitischen
Gemeinde zu Dresden und Ihr Schicksal in der
Zweiten Kammer," Dresden, 1843; "Ahawath Ne-
zach " (Leipsic, 1875), a work on funeral rites. He
published also several addresses, of which may be
mentioned those in commemoration of King Fred-
erick August II. {ib. 1854); of Dr. B. Beer (Dresden,
1861) ; and of Clara Bondi (see Kayserling, " Biblio-
thek Jildischer Kanzelredner," ii. 22 et seq.). Be-
sides, he wrote several theological and historical
essays, as: " Anforderungen des Glaubens und der
Theologischen Wissenschaft," "Bilderaus dem Le-
ben und Wirken der Rabbinen," and "Ueber Thier-
quillerei nach den Grr.ndsatzen des Judenthums,"
which appeared in Frankel's "Zeitschrift fiir die
Religiosen Interessen des Judenthums," in"Monats-
schrift," in "Allg. Zeit. des Jud." and in other
periodicals.

Together with Kaempf and Philippson, Landau
published a people's Bible (" Volksbibel ").

Bibliography : Kayserling, Bibliothek Jildischer Kanzel-
redner, ii. 114 et seq.
s. M. K.

LANDAXJER, M. H. : Writer on Jewish mys-
ticism ; born in 1808 at Kappel, near Buchau, Wilrt-
temberg ; died there Feb. 3, 1841. He was a son of
the cantor Elias Landauer, and at the age of eight-
een entered the yeshibah and lyceum in Carlsruhe ;
later he studied at the universities of Munich and
Tubingen. In spite of ill health he returned to
!Muiiieh in 1838 to copy from Hebrew manuscripts
in the Royal Library extracts for use in his investi-
gations. In 1839 he passed the examination for the
rabbinate, and in the following year was appointed
rabbi of Braunsbach, Wiirtteinberg. Only three
months later illness obliged him to resign his posi-
tion and to return to Kappel, where he died.

Of Landauer's works the following may be men-
tioned: " Jehovaund Elohim, oder die Althebraische
Gotteslehre als Grundlage der Geschichte der Syni-
bolik und der Gesetzgebung der Biicher Mosis,"
Stuttgart and Augsburg, 1836 (see A. Goiger's re-
view in his " ^Viss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol." iii. 403 et seq.) ■
" Wesen und Form des Pentateuchs," ih. 1838. Lan-
dauer's posthumous works and excerpts, dealing
with his investigations of the history and literature
of the Cabala, of the Zohar, and of Jewish literature,

as well as his report on his studies of Hebrew man-
uscripts, were published in "Orient, Lit." 1845-46.

Bibliography: Jost's Annalen, iii. 69 et seq.; Fiirst, Bibl.
Jud. ii. 219 et seq.
s. M. K.

LANDAXJER, SAMUEL: German Oriental-
ist and librarian ; born at Htirben, Bavaria, Feb.
22, 1846. He received his education at the yeshibah
of Eisenstadt (Hungary), the gymnasium of Ma-
yence, and the universities of Leipsic, Strasburg, and
Munich (Ph.D. 1872). In 1875 he became privat-
docent of Semitic languages at t^ie University of
Strasburg, and was appointed librarian there in 1884.
In 1894 he received the title of "professor."

Landauer has written several essays on Semitic
subjects, and has published: "Psychologie des
Ibn Sina," 1872; "Sa'adja'sKitab al-Amanat," Ley-
den, 1880; " Katalog der Kaiserlichen Universitat-
und Landesbibliothek Strasburg, Orientalische
Handschriften," 1881; "Firdusi Schahname," Ley-
den, 1884; " Die Handschriften der Grossherzoglich
Badischen Hof- und Landesbibliothek in Karlsruhe,
Orientalische Handschriften," 1892; "Die Masorah
zum Onkelos," Amsterdam, 1896; "Themistius 'De
cselo ' " (for the Aristoteles Commission of the Berlin
Academy), Berlin, 1902.

8. F. T. H.

LANDESBEBG, MAX: Rumanian oculist;
born in 1840 at Jassy ; died at Florence March 4,
1895. He was educated at the gymnasium at Rati-
bor and at the University of Berlin (M.D. 1865).
After a postgraduate course under Graefe, Landes-
berg went to America, where he practised in New
York and Philadelphia. In 1894 he removed to
Florence, Italy. He wrote: "Beitrage zur Vario-
kosen Ophthalmic," 1874; "Zur StatistikderLinsen-
krankheiten," 1876; "On the Etiology and Prophy-
laxis of Blindness," 1878.

Bibliography : Page], Biog. Lex. Vienna, 1901.
s. F. T. H.

LANDESMANN, HEINRICH (pseudonym,
Hieronymus Lorm) : Austrian poet and philo-
sophical writer; born at Nikolsburg Aug. 9, 1821;
died at Brlinn Dec. 4, 1902. From his earliest child-
hood he was very sickly ; at the age of fifteen his
sight and hearing were almost completely destroyed ;
and later in life he became totally blind.

When but sixteen years old he contributed a num-
ber of poems to various periodicals. In 1843 he
completed his first important literary production,
"Abdul," the Mohammedan Faust legend, in five
cantos (2d ed. Berlin, 1852). His " Wien's Poetische
Schwingen und Federn " (Vienna, 1847) manifested
critical acumen, but also a tinge of political acerbity
in its attack on the censor system of the Austrian
chancellor Prince JMetternich. His friends advised
Landesmanu to leave Vienna, and he betook him-
self to Berlin, where he assumed tlie pseudonym
" Hieronymus Lorm " in order to secure his family
from possil)le trouble with the Viennese police. In
Berlin he became a regular contributor to Kiihne's
" Europa. " After the revolution of 1848 he returned
to Vienna. In 1856 he married ; in 1873 he removed
to Dresden; and in 1892 he settled in Briinn. A
sister of Landesmann's was the second wife of Ber-
thold Auerbach.

611

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Laudau, Wolf
Landesrabbiner

Landesmann was distinctively a lyric poet. The
peculiar vein of pessimism that runs through both
his poetry and his prose writings has won for him
the title of the "lyrical Schopenhauer."

His more important works are: "Ein ZOgling des
Jahres 1848," his first novel (3 vols., Vienna, 1855;
3d ed., 1863, uuder the title "Gabriel Solmar"), in
which he treats, among other subjects, of the strug-
gle of the modern Jew against the prejudices of his
fellow citizens ; " Am Kamin " (2 vols. , Berlin, 1856) ;
"Erzahlungen des Heimgekehrten " (Prague, 1858);
"Intimes Leben" {ib. 1860); "ISovellen" (2 vols.,
Vienna, 1864); "Gedichte" (Hamburg, 1870; 7th ed.,
1894) ; " Philosophisch-Kritische Streifzlige " (Berlin,
1873); "Geflligelte Stunden. Leben, Kritik, Dich-
tung " (3 vols., Leipsic, 1875); the dramas "Das
Forsthaus," "Hieronymus Napoleon," and "Die
Alten und die Jungen " (1875) ; " Der Naturgenuss.
Eine Phiiosophie der Jahreszeiten " (Berlin, 1876) ;
" Neue Gedichte " ( Dresden, 1877) ; " Todte Schuld "
(2 vols., Stuttgart, 1878); "Spate Vergeltung" (2
vols., Hamburg, 1879); "Der Ehrliche Name" (2
vols., Dresden, 1880); "Wanderer's Ruhebauk "
(Leipsic, 1881) ; " Ausserhalb der Gesellschaft " (ib.
1881); " Der Abend zuHause"(Breslau, 1881); "Ein
Schatten aus Vergangenen Tagen " (Stuttgart, 1882) ;
" Ein Kind des Meeres " (Dresden, 1882) ; " Der Fahr-
ende Geselle " (Leipsic, 1884) ; " Vor dem Attentat "
(Dresden, 1884); "Natur und Geist im Verhiiltnis
zu den Kulturepochen " (Teschen, 1884) ; " Die
Schone Wienerin " (Jena, 1886) ; " Das Leben Kein
Traum" (Breslau, 1887); "Auf dem Einsameu
Schlosse " (1887) ; " Die Muse des Gliicks und Mo-
derne Einsamkeit " (Dresden, 1893) ; "DerGrundlose
Optimismus" (Vienna, 1894).

Bibliography : Bornmuller, Schi-iftsteller-Lexikon ; Allg.
Zcii. des Jurl. Aug., 1891; Dec. 12, 1903; Oestcrreichische
Wochenschrift, Dec. 12, 1902 ; Meyers Konversations-Lexi-
hon.
s. M. Co.

LANDESRABBINER, LANDRABBINER,
or OBERLANDESRABBINER (RAB MEDI-

NAH) : Spiritual head of the Jewish communities
of a country, province, or district ; met with in .sev-
eral parts of Germany and Austria. The office is a
result of the legal condition of the Jews in medieval
times when the Jewish communities formed a unit
for the purposes of taxation. As the communitj-
had to pay certain taxes to the government, the
latter had to appoint some one who should be re-
sponsible to it for their prompt collection, and who
consequently had to be invested with a certain au-
thority. The office of Landesrabbiner had no ec-
clesiastical meaning until the eighteenth century,
when the various governments began to consider it
their duty to care for the spiritual welfare of the
Jews. Such ecclesiastical authority, owing to the
strictly congregational constitution of the communi-
ties, never took root among the Jews (sec, however,
on the chief rabbinate of Moravia after the death
of Marcus Benedict, ]\Ioses Sofer, Kesponsa, Orah
Hayyim, 13).

The transfer of the Jews from the status of im-
perial to that of territorial subjects, provided by
the charter of Frederick II. of Austria (1244) and
recognized by Emperor Charles IV. in his Golden bull
(1356), as well as their very frequent expulsion

from the large cities in the fifteenth and sixteenth

centuries, scattered the Jews in small communities.

These were Avithout protection against the arbitrary

action of petty tyrants; and liiey

Earliest caused the rulers considerable incon-
Data. venience owing to con.stant litigation
concerning encroachments on the
rights of Jews living under their j)rotection. There-
fore the Jews of a given territory organized them-
selves into an association which elected an advocate
("Shtadlan") for the protection of their interests.
Such an official was recognized by the government
as the legal representative of the Jews, whose duty
it was to see that the taxes imposed on the Jews as
a bod}' were promptly paid, that the laws against
usury were obeyed, and who in turn was given ju-
risdiction in civil cases. This jurisdiction, which he
exercised either personally if a scholar or through
his deputy if not one, gave the Landesrabbiner an
authority within the community. Inasmuch as the
Jews from the sixteenth century lived almost exclu-
sively in small communities and could not maintain a
rabbi or a rabbinical court (which consisted of three
members in every settlement), several communities
in a di.strict combined to do so. To this condition
of things may be attributed the real creation of the
office of Landesrabbiner, the former attempts to ap-
point a chief rabbi over all the Jews of a country —
e.g., in Germany by Emperor Rupert in 1407, and in
Spain, France, and Portugal, partly in the four-
teenth, partly in the fifteenth, century — having been
mostly abortive, and at all events merely fiscal meas-
ures designed for the purpose of tax-collecting (see
Griitz, "Gescli." viii. 8, 102, et passim; Scherer,
"Rechtsverhaltnisse der Juden," p. 258; Bishop of
THE Jews ; Hochmeisteu). The first Landesrabbiner
of whom there is authentic record isJuuAn Low ben
Bezaleel, of whom his contemporary David Gans
says that he was for twenty years (1553-73) the
spiritual head (" ab bet din ") of all the Jewish con-
gregations in the province of Moravia ("Zemah
Dawid," year 5352).

At the time of Low ben Bezaleel the congregations
of Moravia were evidently very small. The}' were
composed of refugees who through the influence of
Capistrano had been expelled from the large cities
like Brlinn and 01nuitz(1454) and had settled where
any well-disposed lord would receive them under
his protection. As they formed communities too
small to engage a well-qualified rabbi, they elected
to act as their judge one having his seat in one of
the largest congregations of the province. Similar
conditions prevailed elsewhere. The Jews living
in the principality of Bamberg obtained in 1619
permission to elect a "Paumeister oder obristen
Rabbi," and they may have had sucli an ofiicial ear-
lier (Eckstein, "Gesch. der Juden im
From the Eiiemaligen Fiirstbistum Bamberg,"

Seven- pp. 62, 157, Bamberg, 189S). The
teenth communities of the principality of

Century. Oettiugen, also formed from refugees
of larger cities like Niirdlingen, liad
a Landesrabbiner from early limes (Midler, "Aus
Fiinf Jahrhunderten," p. 171, Augsburg, 1900).
The Jews living under the protection of the elect-
or and the Archbishop of Muyence had in 1718 Issa-

Landesrabbiner
Landlord

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

612

char Berush Eskeles as their Laadesrabbiner (Bam-
berger, " Historische Berichte iiber die Juden . . .
Aschatfeuburg," p. 18, Strasburg, 1900). The title
was occasionally conferred as a sign of distinction ;
thus Samson Wertheimer received in 1717 from
Emperor Charles YI. the title of Landesrabbiner of
Hungary ("pro archi sive superior! JudsEorum Rab-
bino "). His son-in-law, the above-named Eskeles,
who (although he resided in Yienna, being connected
with his fatlier-in-law's banking business there) had
succeeded his father, Gabriel Eskeles, as Landesrab-
biner of Moravia, was appointed (1725) at Werl-
heimer's death his successor as Landesrabbiner of
Hungary (Kaufmann, "Samson Wertheimer." p. 104,
Vienna, 1888; Wurzbach, " Biographisches Lexi-
kon," 8.V. "Eskeles").

In the course of the eighteenth century various
governments attempted to influence the internal
condition of the Jewish communities,
As and for this reason legislated with re-

Spiritual gard to their congregational constitu-

Chiefs. tions. Typicalin this respect is Maria
Theresa, who in her "General-Polizei-
Prozess und Kommercialordnung flir die Juden -
schaft " of Moravia (Dec. 29, 1753) prescribes in de-
tail the duties of the Landesrabbiner; e.c/., that he
shall assign the tractate which all other rabbis shall
adopt for instruction ; bestow the title of " Dop-
pelter Reb " ("Morenu"); see that all taxes are
promptly paid ; and arrange the complicated elec-
tion of a new official (Willibald Miillcr, " Beitrage
zur Geschichte der Miihr. Judenschaft," pp. 86-99,
Olmiitz, 1903). Other provinces were to have a
Landesrabbiner. Indeed, the empress appointed one
for Galicia, but he had no successor (Buber, " Anshe
Shem," pp. xix. et seq., Cracow, 1895). In Germany
it was chiefly in the small states, where the govern-
ments directed all affairs, that the institution was es-
tablished. IIes.se-Cassel had a "Landesrabbinat,"
which was a board constituted on the same basis as
the Protestant consistory, but with a Landesrabbiner
as presiding officer. Its establishment was decreed
in 1823. Hanover made similar provisions in the
law of 1844 on Jewish affairs. Up to tlio present
il has had three Landesrabbiners, at Hanover, Hildes-
heim, and Emdcn. Specially typical conditions ex-
isted in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
where the government established the institution of
Landesrabbiner ^lay 14, 1839. Here the rabbis
were at first supposed to introduce radical reforms,
but after the revolution of 1848, wiien the policy
of the government became reactionary, the newly
elected ral)bi was intended to strengthen "historic
Judaism" (Donath, "Gesch. der Juden in IMecklcn-
burg." pp. 221 et seq., Leipsic, 1874). In Saxe-
AV'eimar tlie government used the Landesrabbiner to
enforce the law of June 20, 1823, which ordered
that services be held in German (see Hi:ss, Mendkl).
In Saxe-Meiuingen the Landesrabbinat was organized
by tl»e law of Jan. 5, 1811 (Human, "Gesch. der
Juden im Herzogthum Sach.sen-Meiningen-Hild-
burghauscn," pp. G^etseq., Hildburghausen, 1898).
Here as elsewhere in the small German states the
object of the institution was to raise the moral and
intellectual status of the Jews.

At present only some of the small states of Ger-

many have a Landesrabbiner, namely, Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Birken-
feld, Saxe-Meiningen, Anhalt, Brunswick, and
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. Prussia, which al-
ways proclaimed the principle of non-interference in
internal Jewish affairs, has retained the office in
some of the provinces annexed in 1866, as in the
three districts of Hanover and in the province of

Hesse-Nassau (Cassel). The office of

In Modern Landesrabbiner for the province of

Times. Brandenburg, which existed in Berlin

and in Frankfort-on-the-Oder, sur-
vived, as in other countries, up to the end of the
eighteenth century by virtue of the rabbi's capacity
as civil judge. The last one to hold the title was
Hirschel Lewin, while his successor, Simon Maj'er
Weyl (d. 1828), held the title of " Yiceoberlandesrab-
biner." As an exceptional favor the government in
1849 gave to Gedaliah Tiktin of Brcslau the title of
Landesrabbiner, which was interpreted as a mani-
festation of the government in favor of Orthodoxy
and as a disapproval of the Reform movement (L.
Geiger, "Abraham Geiger's Leben in Briefen," pp.
113 etseq., Berlin, 1878).

In Austria Samson Hirsch held the office for the
province of Moravia from 1847 to 1851. He was
elected according to the complicated method pre-
scribed in the law issued by Maria Theresa. At the
time of his resignation the legal position of the
Jewish communities was in a state of chaos owing
to the events of 1848, which had played havoc with
the principles on which the legislation rested. The
government then appointed as substitute Abraham
Placzek of Boskowitz, who in his last years had his
son Barucli Placzek of Briinn appointed as his assist-
ant. An attempt made by Baron Moritz Konigs-
warter, who was a member of the House of Lords,
to introduce into the law of 1890 regulating the
legal status of the Austrian Jewish congregations a
clause reestablishing the office of Landesrabbiner of
Moravia was defeated in the lower house of the
Reichsrath (Low, "Das Miihrische Landesrabbinat,"
in "Gesammelte Schriften," ii. 215-218, Szegedin,
1890; D'Elvert, "Zur Gesch. der Juden in Miihren
und Oesterreich. Schlesien," pp. 209-211, Briinn,
1895; Willibald Muller, "Beitrage zur Geschichte
der Mtihrisehen Judenschaft," pp. 157-165, Olmiitz,
1903). Baruch Piaczek is, however, officially ad-
dressed by the government authorities as "Landes-
rabbiner"; he recently appointed Solomon Funk,
rabbi of Boskowitz, as his substitute, an appoint-
ment which the government confirmed (" Oesterr.
Wochenschrift," 1904, p. 190). The office existed
also in Siebcnblirgen early in the nineteenth century.
A similar institution is that of Chief Rabbi of the
United Hebrew Congregations of the British Em-
pire, which, however, rests exclusively on voluntary
acknowledgment on the part of the congregations,
and does not extend over whole groups of congre-
gations like the Portuguese, the Reform, and the
Polish organizations. The office of the Grand Rab-
bin du Consistoire Central in France is also of simi-
lar nature, but differs in that the chief rabbi acts
merely in his capacity as member of the consistory,
and not as hierarchic chief.

613

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liandesrabbiner
Landlord

LANDESRABBINERSCHULE IN BUDA-
PEST (Orszagos Babbikepzo Intezet) : The

efforts to found a rabbinical seminary iu Hungary
reacli back to the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury. The various projects, however, did not receive
tangible form until a Jewish school fund had been
created by King Francis Joseph in 1850 (see Jew.
Encyc. vi. 502, s.v. Hungary). The government
made an attempt to open a rabbinical school in 1864,
but on account of internal party quarrels the matter
dragged on until 1873. After a building had been
erected especially for its requirements tlie institute
■was opened Oct. 4, 1877.

The institute is under the supervision of the min-
istry of religion, which appoints the teachers upon

nomination by the council (consisting

Organiza- of twelve clerical and twelve lay mem-

tion. bers), of which M. Schweiger has been

president and Dr. J. Simon secretary
ever since the institute's foundation. The course
of study extends over ten years and is divided into
two equal periods; one being devoted to the lower
department, the other to the upper. The former
corresponds to an " Obergymnasium " ; and the re-
quirement for admission is the possession of a di-
ploma from an " Untergymnasium," or the passing
of an entrance examination covering the equivalent
of the course of study pursued there as well as a
certain amount of Hebrew and Talmudics. The
diplomas from this department are recognized by
the state, and command admittance into any depart-
ment of the universities or schools of technology.
After the completion of the courses offered by the
upper department, including attendance under the
faculty of philosophy at the university, a year of
probation follows. This is concluded in February
by an oral examination after the candidate has pre-
sented three written theses on Biblical, rabbinic-
Talmudical, and historical or religious-philosophical
subjects respectively. At graduation he receives a
rabbinical diploma, which is recognized by the
state. To supplement the regular course of training
there are students' societies in both departments.

The constitution of the institute has also the train-
ing of religious teachers in view ; and a plan of study
and examinations has been arranged to this end.
The librarj' of the institute contains about 25,000
volumes of manuscripts and printed works, which
are accessible to all in the reading-room and may
under certain conditions be taken from the library.
The assistance of pupils is provided for by the Ez-
Chajim Society, which at present has a fund amount-
ing to 150,000 kronen and a yearly expenditure of
11,000 kronen. In addition there are various sti-
pends which are not controlled by the society.

Since its foundation the institute has had eighteen
teachers. The present professors in tlie department

of theology are : Dr. W. Bacher (Bible
Faculty, and Midrash) ; M. Bloch (Talmud and

Shulhan 'Aruk); Dr. L. Blau (history,
Bible, and Talmud; also librarian); Dr. I. Goldziher
(philosophy of religion); and Dr. S. Kohn (homi-
letics). Among former teachers have been : '' Rab-
binatsprases " S. L. Brill (until 1887; d. 1893); D.
Kaufmanu (d. 1899 ; also librarian) ; and H. Deutsch
(until 1888; d. 1889). The professors of the gym-

nasium courses are: A. Balogh (since 1892); K.
Bein (since 1878); Dr. H. Bloch (since 1881); S.
Schill (since 1878); director. Dr. I. Banc'jczi (1877-
1892). The singing-master is Chief Cantor A. Laz-
arus.

BinLiOGRAPMT : I. Bdn6czl. Oesch. des Ersten Jahrzchntf der
Landcs-HaMiincrnchule (Supplement lolhe A)t7iiud Hi tjitrt
for 18X7-88); L. Blau, nrill Snmufl LOu\ pp. 2r-,'J2, Huda-
pest. 1902; S. Schill, A Budapexti (jrxzu(i<>n linhhik^iiznln-
leztt rrnthiete, Budapest, 1896; Annual lUiJurtu (with
literary supplements) .

D. L. B.

LANDLORD AND TENANT : I. Farming
Land. The Mishnah and later authorities speak of
two kinds of tenants — the "aris," or the tenant on
shares, the landlord receiving "one-half, one-third,
or one-fourth," and the "hoker," or the tenant at a
fixed rental, which in the case of farming land was
usually payable in a fixed measure of the grain to
be grown on the land, less frequently in money.
Dwellings or business houses were, in the nature of
things, let at a fixed rental in money. The word
" mekabbel " (lit. " receiver ") is applied to both kinds
of tenants, but more especially to tenants on shares;
" kablan " always bears the latter sense.

The laws in force between landlord and tenant,
the former being generally known as "owner of the
field," are set forth in Baba ^lezi'a ix. 1-10.

1. The first principle laid down is well known to
English and American lawyers from the leading case
of Wigglesworth versus Dallison — the force of local
custom to supply many details in a contract letting
land to farm: "Where one receives \i.e., farms on

shares] a field from his neighbor, he

Local must cut [the grain] where it is the

Custom, custom to cut, and pull out where it

is the custom to pull out; he must
plow up the ground after [the harvest, in order to
kill the weeds] where it is customary to plow up ;
all according to the custom of the province." So
far the Mishnah ; a baraita adds that local custom
also decides whether the farmer on sliares shall have
part in the fruits of the trees, upon which he gener-
ally bestows no labor. Just as landlord and tenant
share in the grain, in that proportion they share also
in straw and stubble, branches and cane; and in like
proportion both provide the cane for propping vines.

2. Where one takes from his neighbor (at a fixed
rent) a field which depends on irrigation, or con-
tains trees, and the spring for irrigation ceases to
run, or a tree is cut down, he is not entitled to a
deduction; but when the field is specifically let as
an irrigated field, or as a place for trees, and the
spring fails or a tree is cut down, a fair deduction
from the rent must be made.

3. Where one takes a field from his neighbor (on
shares) and permits it to lie fallow, the judges esti-
mate how much it would have produced if culti-
vated, and he pays accordingly ; for thus it is (usu-
ally) written : " If I allow it to lie fallow and dp not
work it, I shall pay according to the best possible
results."

4. One who takes a field from his neighbor is re-
quired to weed it.

5. When one takes a field (on shares), as long as
it produces enough to make a "heap" tliat will
stand, he must labor on it. A baraita bases this

Landlord
Landsberg:

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

614

rule on the wording used when the contract is in
writing: "I shall stand up, and plow and sow, and
cut and bind in sheaves, and thrash and winnow,
and set up a heap before thee ; and then thou shalt
come and take one-half [or one-third], and I for my
toil and outlay shall take one-half [or two-thirds]."
The terms of division are further discussed in the
Gemara.

6. Where one rents a field from his neighbor, and
locusts eat the crop, or it is burned, if the calamity
be general, the landlord makes a deduction from
the rent, but if it be not general he makes no de-
duction; for it is the tenant's ill luck. In discussing
this section of the Mislmah the Babylonians differ in
opinion as to the extent of country over which the
calamity must range before the tenant is entitled to a
deduction ; but they generally admit that if he sows
other than the kind of grain he has contracted to
raise he is not entitled to any deduction. The posi-
tion taken by R. Judah, that no deduction should be
made where the rent is payable in money, was disre-
garded by the Babylonian teachers.

7. If one takes a field from his neighbor at the
rent of ten kors of wheat, or other grain, a year, and

the quality of the wheat raised is not

Payment good, he may pay his rent with part

in Kind, of this wheat; should the wheat raised

be better than usual, the tenant may

not buy wheat of ordinary quality outside, but must

pay his rent out of his own crop.

8. He who rents a field from his neighbor to sow
it with barley, may not sow wheat; if to sow it with
wheat, may not sow barley; if to sow it with grain,
may not sow legumes (such as beans, peas, or len-
tils) ; but if to sow with legumes, may sow grain :
R. Simeon ben Gamaliel forbade it. The majority
allowed the change from wheat to barley or from
legumes to grain because the latter exhaust the soil
less; R. Simeon's broad prohibition of any change
from the contract is based by R. Hisda on Zeph. iii.
13: "The remnant of Israel shall not do iniquity,
nor speak lies; neither shall a deceitful tongue be
found in their mouth."

9. He who rents a field from his neighbor for a
" few, years " (less than seven) should not plant it in
flax, neither has he the right to cut timber from the
sycamore -trees; but he who rents for seven years
may plant flax in the first year, and may cut timber
from the sycamore-trees.

10. Where one rents a field (in the Holy Land) for
a "Aveek of years" for seven hundred zuz, the sev-
enth, or Sabbatic, year is included; but if he rents
it for seven years it is not included.

These rulings are set forth, or at least indicated,
in the Mislmah, in the chapter given. From the
Gemara in the same chapter may be gathered the
following rules:

1. When the tenancy is at an end and the harvest
is not ripe enough to be cut and sold, the harvest is
estimated, and the landlord takes it and pays for it.
Should the tenant die before the end of the lease,
the landlord must arrange with the heirs of the ten-
ant on the basis of the work done and the benefit
received up to the time of the tenant's death, the
lease then being considered at an end (B. M. 109a).

2. The codes treat, in connection with the law

of landlord and tenant, the case of the workman
who agrees to plant fruit-trees, taking a share of
the profit arising from the plantation. Here, when
a doubt arises as to the amount of his share (one-
half or one-third), it is to be determined by the local
custom. If not more than 10 per cent of the trees
fail to bear fruit, the workman ("shattelan ") is ex-
cused; if more than 10 per cent, the wiiole deficit is
charged to him. But a contract with the workman,
that if any of the trees are made the worse bj^ his
planting he shall have nothing at all, is not enforce-
able (B. B. 95a).

As to the duty of landlord and tenant in regard to
fixtures, see Fixtures.

Bibliography : Shtdhan 'Arnk, Hnshen Mishpat, pp. 320-
330; Maimonides. Yad, Sefcintt, viii.

II. Town Property. In the Mishnah and in the
codes the law governing the tenancy of a dwelling
or business house is given separately from that of
rural leases, and the questions discussed are differ-
ent. The tenant of a house is known as the " hirer "
("soker "), like the renter of chattels. Much less is
said in the Mishnah and Talmud about town tenan-
cies than rural ones (B. M. viii. 6-9, 73b, 101b-103a).

A lease for a certain time vests in the tenant a
property right, which the landlord can not defeat
Iby a sale. No tenant may be ousted before the end
of his term bj^ the landlord on account of the latter's
needs, such needs, for instance, as may arise from
the destruction of his own dwelling as by fire or
storm. Where rent is paid in advance, no matter
for how long a term, a binding lease for the time
paid for is understood. A landlord who during
the term sells or lets the house to one who through
violence or by appeal to the law of the Gentiles
evicts the tenant must provide the latter with another
house as good as the first. The same rules apply
where the use of a house for a year at a time has
been pledged for the owner's debt: the pledgee has
all the rights of a tenant.

Where a house is let "to lodge " in, it means for a
daj^ ; to " rest " in, for two days ; and for a marriage,
thirty daj's. But the unconditional
Notice to ordinary letting of a dwelling-house
Q,uit. means, in winter (rainy season), for
the rest of the season, that is, from the
Feaist of Booths till after the Passover; in summer,
till the expiry of a thirty days' notice to quit. But
this applies only in a town ("'ir"); in a large
commercial city ("kerak"), where the demand for
houses is great, a notice must be given twelve
months in advance. This is also the rule for all
shops, both in towns and cities, in which the tenant
sells goods; for a tradesman must have ample time
to make his new place of business known to his cus-
tomers. Simeon ben Gamaliel in the Mishnah holds
that bakers and dyers are entitled to three years'
notice to quit their shops. The codes differ as to
whether his opinion should be followed. The ten-
ant must in each case give as long a notice to rid
himself of the obligation for rent as the landlord
would have to give to him. Where the letting is
for a fixed time no notice need be given by either
party.

Where a house is let under notice of implied
length only, without specified term, the rights of the

615

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Landlord
JLiaudsberg'

tenant, while the notice to quit is running out, are
not secure against the landlord's necessities. The
latter, should his own house fall down, can insist
that the tenant shall make room for him. Also, if
during the running of the notice the market rate of
rents goes up, the landlord can for the unexpired
time ask for rent at the higher rate: on the other
hand, if rents go down, the tenant can demand a
reduction. But mere transfer of the ownership
gives to the purchaser or heir no greater right than
that of the original landlord.

The owner must not during the term, or while the

notice to quit is running, tear down the house. If

be does, he is bound to replace it. Moreover, if it

should fall through no fault of his

Repairs while there is a lease for a fixed term,
and Resto- he must provide the tenant with

ration. another house, either elsewhere or by
rebuilding, the new one to be of like
size, and to have an equal number of rooms and
windows. Should the house become dangerously in-
secure, it seems the landlord is bound only to pay
toward its restoration the amount of rent in advance
in his hands. What is said of a house applies to a
court (group of houses), to a shop, or to a bath.

Where a house is let for a year, and the year is
one of thirteen months, the tenant gets the benefit.
If the renting is for so many months, the tenant
must pay for each. In disputes as to the length of the
lease, the presumption is on the side of the shortest
term: for the landlord is the owner; and the burden
lies on the tenant who sets up an adverse estate.

A tenant for a fixed term has the right to sublet
the house to another for the remainder of his lease,
provided the new tenant's household is no more
numerous than his own ; but the landlord can, if he
wishes, prevent such subletting by taking the house
back and releasing the tenant from all further obliga-
tion for rent. Where two men rent a house jointly,
neither of them can transfer his share of the tenancy to
a third person without the consent of his companion.

The duty as between landlord and tenant of ma-
king repairs and improvements and the correlative
right to fixtures have been shortly discussed under
Fixtures.

Bibliography: Maimonides, Yad, Sekimt, vi.; Shulhan
'Anik, Hoshen Mishpat, pp. 312-317.
E. c. ■ ■ L. N. D.

LANDMARKS. See Boundaries.

LANDOWNER. See Real Estate.

LANDSBERGr : Russian family of scholars and
philanthropists. Its founder was Abraham Lands-
berg of Kremenetz, who was born in 1756 and died
in 1S31 of the plague, then raging in Russia. He had
sixsons who were among the first Russian Maskilira.
Of these, the eldest, Aryeh Lob Landsberg (1780-
1861), lived at Odessa, and was an able writer in
Hebrew and a prominent merchant. Through busi-
ness reverses he lost his fortune, and for the rest of
his life lived in reduced cirumstances and seclusion,
devoting his time to study. David Judah LandS-
berg, the youngest son of Abraham, was principal
of the public school for Jewish children at Odessa.
Of Abraham's other sons, Lippe Landsberg and
Mendel Landsberg (1786 to Jan. 8, 1866) lived at

Kremenetz, where they were born. Mendel was the
more prominent, not only for his learning, but also
for his charitable disposition. He had a remarkable
collection of books, most of which, after his death,
were incorporated in the Friedland collection now
in the Asiatic Museum at St. Petersburg. ISIendel
contributed- some articles on Biblical subjects to
" Ha-Karmel " and other Hebrew journals, and wrote
"Sefer ha-Kuudes" and other satirical pamphlets.

Tiie members of the Landsberg family were inti-
mate with Isaac Bilr Levinsohn, and Mendel Lands-
berg placed his library at Levinsohu's disposal, the
collection being of inestimable value for the latter's
literary work. In a fit of anger Levinsohn made a
scurrilous attack on Landsberg in the form of a Tal-
mudic treatise entitled " Massekta Oto weEt Beno " ;
but they ultimately became reconciled.

Bibliography: Ha-Meliz, 1861, No. 31; 1866. No. 5; I. B.
Levinsohn, preface to Teudah be-Yisrael, Wllna and Grodno,
1828; Sliorashe Lebanon, pp. 259 et seq., Wilna, 1841: S.
Wiener, Bibliotheca Friedlandiana, Preface, St. Petersburg,
1893.
H. R. A. S. W.

LANDSBERG, MAX : American rabbi ; bom
at Berlin Feb. 26, 1845; son of Meyer Landsberg,
" Landrabbiner " at Hildesheim, Hanover. He was
educated at the Hildesheim Gymnasium Josephiuum,
and at the universities of Gottingen and Breslau,
also studying at the Breslau Jewish theological
seminary. He is Ph.D. of Halle, Germany. In
1866 he became " Stif tsrabbiuer " and teacher at the
seminary for Jewish teachers at Hanover, a position
which he held for five years. In 1871 he went to
America and was offered the position of rabbi to the
Congregation Berith Kodesh at Rochester, N. Y.,
where he has continued ever since. He is the au-
thor of the " Ritual for Jewish Worship " (1884 ; 2d
ed., 1897), and of "Hymns for Jewish Worship"
(1880; 2ded., 1890).

Bibliography : American Jewish Year Book, 1903-4.

LANDSBERG, MEYER : German rabbi ; born
at Meseritz, Prussia, May 1, 1810; died at Hildes-
heim May 20, 1870.

Landsberg's teacher, Aaron Wolfsohn, rabbi of
WoUstein, was elected to the rabbinate of Hildesheim
in 1826, and Landsberg accompanied him and lived
under his roof until Wolfsohn 's death in 1830.
Landsberg then went to Brunswick, where he con-
tinued his rabbinical studies while preparing for the
university at tlie Brunswick gymnasium. He stud-
ied at the University of Berlin from 1834 to 1838.
At Berlin he became closely connected with Leo-
pold Zuuz ; with him he organized the Seminary for
Jewish Teachers iu 1840, in which institution he
wf.s an instructor until 1845. A lifelong friendship
with Zuuz was established, with whom he corre-
sponded until his death. In 1837 he passed his
state's examinationas "Oberlehrer," and his certifi-
cate contains the then usual clause, tliat, being a Jew,
he had no claim to a position at a higher school.

In 1835 Landsberg was engaged as tcaclier at the
Nauensclie Institute for the education of boys, and
from 1839 to 1846 he was its director, in which posi-
tion David Cassel was his successor. From 1838 to
1846 he preached regularly at the bet ha-midrash
and at the synagogue of Commerzienrath Lieber-

Landsbergrer
Liaueruedoc

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

616

man. In 1846 be was appointed " Landrabbiner "
of Hildesheim, which position he filled until his
death. Although himself very strict in the observ-
ance of the ceremonial law, he was of a progressive
spirit. In the synagogue built during his adminis-
tration (1849) an organ was introduced, a mixed
choir established, some German prayers introduced,
and the " piyyutim " nearly all abolished. Confirma-
tions of boys and girls were held every year. His
eldest son is Dr. Max Landsberg, since 1871 rabbi
of the Congregation Berith Kodesh at Rochester,
N. Y. ; his second son is Geheimrath Professor
Theodor Landsberg of the Technische Hoch-
schule at Darmstadt (since 1880), a distinguished
authority on architecture, railroad- and bridge-
building, and editor of the"Handbuch flir Inge-
nieurwisseuschaften." S.

LANDSBERGER, HUGO (pseudonym, Hans
Land): German, novelist, dramatist, and editor;
born at Berlin Aug. 25, 1861. His first production was
"Der Neue Gott, Roman ausder Gegenwart," Dres-
den, 1891, which was followed by "Siinden," Ber-
lin, 1891. His dramatic efforts thus far have been
confined to collaboration with Hollander in the
production of "Die Heilige Ehe: Ein Modernes
Schauspiel in 5 Akten, " ib. 1893. In that year, also,
his first success was made in his novel " Die Rich-
terin," of which a sixth edition was called for in the
following year. Other works are : " Mutterrecht, "
a novelette; "Die Tugendhafte," 1895, a humor-
ous story ;"Um das Weib," 1896, a novel of con-
temporary life; "Von Zwei Erlosern," and "Schla-
agende Wetter," 1897, a novel which was issued,
with twenty -five illustrations, as No. 50 of Kiirsch-
ner's "Bucherschatz."

Landsberger's career as editor dates from 1898,
when he founded the weekly journal "Das Neue
Jahrhundert," the first number of which appeared
in October of that year. At the same time another
periodical with the identical name, but with the sub-
title "Berliner Wochenschrift," edited by F. Werth,
made its debut. Since then Landsberger has written
two other novels: "Und Wem Sie JustPassieret,"
Berlin, 1899, and "Liebesopfer," ib. 1900.

B. M. Co.

LANDSBERGER, JOSEPH: German physi
clan; born at Posen Aug. 21, 1848; descendant of
Aryeh L5b, who died as martyr in Posen in 1737;
educated at the gymnasium of his native town and
at the universities of Vienna and Berlin (M.D. 1873).
In the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71) he was active
as an assistant surgeon. Settling as a physician in
Posen, he practised there till 1901, when he retired
from practise on account of ill health and removed
to Charlottenburg, near Berlin.

Landsberger took an active part in the municipal
life of Posen, being for eighteen years alderman, and
for one year president of the aldermanic board. For
four years he was also chief physician of the Jewish
Hospital.

He has written several essays for the medical jour-
nals, and is the author of " Handbuch der Kriegs-
chirurgischen Technik." Tiibingen, 1875, which
book received the Empress Augusta prize.

8- F. T. H.

LANDSHXJTH, LESER : German liturgiolo-
gist; born Jan. 15, 1817, at Lissa, Posen; died in
Berlin March 23, 1887. He went to Berlin as a
youth to study Jewish theology, and there he be-
came acquainted with Zuuz and Abraham Geiger,
the latter of whom was then staying in that city in
order to become naturalized in Prussia. Landshuth
soon gave up his intention of becoming a rabbi, not
being willing to conceal or renounce his liberal
opinions; and Moritz Veit aided him in establishing
himself as a Hebrew bookseller. Meanwhile Lands-
huth kept up his literary activity ; and in 1845 he
published as an appendix to the prayer-book issued
by Hirsch Edelmann ("Siddur Hegyon Leb"; com-
monly known as "Landshuth's Prayer-Book") a
valuable essay on the origin of Hebrew prayers. His
essay on the Pesah Haggadah (Berlin, 1855) and the
introduction to the "Ma'abar Yabbok," a handbook
of the funeral customs of the Jews, are along simi-
lar lines (" VoUstandiges Gebet- und Andachtsbuch
zum Gebrauche bei Kranken und Sterbenden," Ber-
lin, 1867). A number of inscriptions from the tomb-
stones of prominent men are added to the latter
work.

Landshuth's chief work was his " 'Ammude ha-
'Abodah (Columnae Cultus): Ouomasticum Aucto-
rum Hymnorum Hebrseorum cum Notis Biographi-
cis et Bibliographicis," on Hebrew liturgical poetry
(2 vols., ib. 1857-62), a painstaking and important
contribution to the subject. No less valuable are
his works relating to the history of the Jewish com-
munity of Berlin, parts of which have been incorpo-
rated in L. Geiger's " Gesch. der Juden in Berlin "
{ib. 1871) ; other portions have been published in
"Die Gegenwart" {ib. 1867) and other periodicals.
He published also "Toledot Anshe ha-Shemu-Pe'u-
latam," history of the Berlin rabbis 1671-1871 {ib.
1884). Many valuable manuscript notes by Lands-
huth have passed into the possession of Dr. S. Neu-
mann of Berlin ; and other matter has been reprinted
by Dr. S. Berufeld from Landshuth's notes in "Ha-
Meliz," 1886. Landshuth also copied and arranged
the early communal archives of Berlin (written in
Hebrew) and the inscriptions of the old cemetery in
that city, which was closed in 1827.

Bibliography : Ha-Asif, 1888, pp. 25-29.
s. S. Be.

LANDSOFER (LANDSCHREIBER), JO-
NAH BEN ELIJAH (known also as Jonah ben
Elijah Bunzlau or Bumslo) : Bohemian Tal-
mudist; born in 1678; died at Prague Oct. 9, 1712.
Landsofer made a special study of the Masorah and
was well versed in the regulations concerning the
writing of scrolls of the Law, whence his name
"Landsofer." He studied also secular science and
Cabala, and as a cabalist he, with Moses Hasid, was
sent by Abraham Broda to Vienna to engage in a dis-
putation with the Shabbethaians. Though he died
young, Landsofer wrote several important works:
"Zawwa'ah," ethics, printed in Asher b. Jeliiel's
"Orhot Hayyim" (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1717);
"Me'il Zedakah," responsa, at the end of which are
notes on Euclid (written in 1710, and published by
his grandson Yom-Tob Landsofer, Prague, 1757);
"Bene Yonah," novellson the Masorah and the reg-
ulations concerning the writing of scrolls of the

617

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Landsber^er
Lang-uedoc

Law (^■6. 1802); "Kanfe Yonah," novellae on Shul-
han 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah (to § 111 ; ib. 1812). His
pupil Elijah b. Azriel quotes, in the preface to his
"Miktab le-Eliyahu," a work of Landsofer entitled
"Me'ore Or," on corrections for scrolls of the Law.

Bibliography: Fuenn, JTcueset Yisrael, p. 448; Fiirst, Bihl.
Jitd. ii. 220; Hock-Lieben, Gal 'Ed, V- 29 (German); Stein-
schnelder, Cat. Bodl. col. 1429.
s. s. M. Sel.

LANGENSCHWARZ, MAXIMILIAN LE-
OPOLD (pseudonyms, N. Z. Charleswang and
Jakob Zwangsohn) : German author and hydrop-
athist ; born 1801 at Rodelheim, near Frankfort-on-
the-Main ; died before 1860. His parents being
very poor, a few wealthy citizens sent him to the
gymnasia of Darmstadt and Frankfort-on-the-3Iain.
He joined several wandering theatrical troupes, and
is said to have embraced Christianity at Vienna. In
1830 he appeared at Munich, gaining successes as a
declairaer and improvisator. He also made success-
ful tours through England, France, and Russia. In
1842 he settled in Paris as a hydropathist under the
name Langenschwarz-Rubini; and in 1848 he re-
turned to Germany.

Langenschwarz wrote: "Arnoldo," Vienna, 1829;
"Die Fahrt in's Innere," ib. 1830; and "Der Hof-
narr," poems, 1832, and edited the magazine "Satir-
ische Brille fiir Alle Nasen " (1830).

Bibliography : Jildl^che.r Plutaixh, ii. 1.56-157 ; Briimmer,
Le.rikon der Deutschen Dichter und Prosaisteii des 19.
Jahrhunderts.

LANGUEDOC (Hebrew, pMO:^ or pix ])^^) :
Ancient province of France corresponding to the
present departments of Tarn, Aude, Gard, and Ar-
deche, with parts of Haute-Loire, Haute-Garonne,
and Tarn-et-Garonne. It was divided into two
parts: Higher Languedoc, having for its capital
Toulouse ; and Lower Languedoc, with Montpellier
as its chief city. Two letters of Sidonius Apolli-
naris and the canons of the council held at Agde in
506 prove the existence in the province at that time
of numerous and prosperous Jewish communities
(Dom Vaissete, "Histoire Generale de Languedoc,"
1. 243; Sidonius Apollinaris, iii.. Epistle 4; iv., Epis-
tle 5). While Languedoc was a dependency of the
Visigothic kings the Jews suffered much persecu-
tion, but in a far less degree than their brethren on
the other side of the Pyrenees. Protected by the
Christian inhabitants, who often rebelled against
their kings, the Jews of Languedoc could easily
evade many oppressive laws enacted against them.
The edict of expulsion issued by Waniba in 672
provoked a general uprising of the inhabitants.
After tlie province had been pacified, and the edict
was enforced, the absence of the Jews was of very
short duration. Nor did the barbarous laws of
Erwige and Egica meet with greater success.

An era of great prosperity for the Jews of Lan-
guedoc set in with the accession of the Carlovingian
dynasty. The loyalty of the Jews to
Under the the cause of the French kings in the
Carlo- struggle against the Saracens vras
vingians. highly appreciated and rewarded by
many privileges. Pepin the Short
conceded them the right of enjoying hereditary allo-
dial tenure; and this right was respected by all the

Carlovingians, in spite of the protests of some of the
clergy. Large communities possessing synagogues
and important commercial establishments existed at
Beziers, Carcassonne, Lod^ve, Lunel, Mende, Mont-
pellier, Narbonue, Nimes, Paraiers, Po.squi6res,
Saint-Gilles, and Toulou.se.

The happy condition of the Jews of Languedoc
did not cease under the rule of the counts, especially
under those of Toulouse, who evinced kindly feel-
ings toward them. But the spirit of intolerance that
pervaded western Europe in the eleventh century
did not fail to leave its impress upon the province.
Thenceforward the Jews were obhged to occupy
special quarters, and a custom was established which
permitted the populace to inflict upon them all
kinds of humiliations during Holy Week. At Tou-
louse it was deemed expedient that at least one Jew
should have his ears publicly boxed on the first day
of Easter; while at Beziers the mob was allowed
to throw stones at the Jews. Still their situation
was relatively prosperous; and even these vexations
gradually disappeared and were, on the intervention
of the counts, superseded by yearly taxes in addition
to the poll-tax common to all inhabitants.

The good-will of the counts of Toulouse dis-
played itself far beyond mere toleration ; they even
entrusted the Jews with important

Jews in public offices. Raymond V. about
Public 1170 appointed a Jew as bailiff in his
OfiB.ce. domain of Saint-Gilles, and, with the
exception of the counts of Montpellier,
his example was followed by many other counts and
barons. The nomination of Jews to public offices
in the dominions of the viscounts of Beziers and
Carcassonne was a common occurrence under Vis-
count Roger II. and his successor Raj'mond Roger.

The crusade against the Albigenses at the begin-
ning of the thirteenth century brought a great reac-
tion in the condition of the Jews of Languedoc.
Accused by the clergy of having fostered among the
Christians a spirit of rebellion against the Church,
oppressive laws were enacted against them in the
various councils. At that held at Saint-Gilles in
1209 Raymond VI. was compelled to swear that in
the future neither he nor his vassals would entrust
public or private offices to Jews; and, except at
Narbonne, where Jews served as brokers until 1306,
this oath was strictly observed in the territory of
the counts of Toulouse.

The condition of the Jews in Lower Languedoc
became still worse when that province fell into the
hands of Saint Louis and his brother Alphonse of
Poitiers, who, the former from bigotry and the lat-
ter from greed, enacted against them oppressive
laws — e.g., the prohibition to sojourn in small local-
ities and to erect new synagogues— and crushed
them with fiscal burdens. Everywhere the Jews
were imprisoned, to be released only after having
paid heavy sums. On the death of Alphonse of
Poitiers his estates came into the possession of
Philip the Bold, and the Jews of those districts
shared the fate of their brethren of northern France.

While the Jews were laboring under adverse cir-
cumstances in that part of Languedoc which was
annexed to France, those who lived in the domains
of independent lords continued to enjoy a high de-

Lianiado
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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

618

gree of prosperity during the whole of the thirteenth
century. In a letter addressed to his subjects in
1253 Jaime I., Count of Montpellier,
Under In- declared that he would take the Jews
dependent of his territory under his protection,
Lords. and he enjoined the inhabitants to do
them no harm. The dukes of Foix
granted the Jews in their domains many privileges,
and vindicated their rights against the encroach-
ments of Philip the Fair. In 1303 Count Gaston
confirmed all the ancient privileges of the Jews and
engaged himself not to claim more than the yearly
taxes which had been levied by his father, Roger
Bernard, and by his other predecessors. The com-
munity of Pamiers, which was under the jurisdic-
tion of the Abbot of Saint Antonin, was treated
with benevolence by the ecclesiastical authorities,
while those of Alet, Beziers, Grasse, and Nimes re-
ceived a no less favorable treatment at the hands of
the bishops. But the most favored community was
that of Narbonue, which enjoyed special privileges
and immunities. Among these the most noteworthy
was that of being governed by a Jewish "king."

With the expulsion of the Jews by Charles VI. in
1394 all the communities of Languedoc, with the
exception of several, like Montpellier and Narbonne,
ceased to exist. See Bezieks; Carcassonne;
France ; Lunel ; Montpellier ; and Narbonne.

Bibliography : Dom Vaissete, Histoire Oenerale de Langue-
doc; DeppinK, Les Juifs dans le MoyenAge; B^darride,
Les Juifs en France, en Italie, et en Eirpagne, pp. 107 et
seq.: BeugnoU Les Juifsd'' Occident, p. 116; S&ige, Les Juifs
du Lanyuedoc, Parte, 1881 ; Gratz, Gesch. vi. 175, 201 ; vU. 9,
37 ; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 311.
G. I. Br.

LANIADO : Sephardic family settled in Italy
and the East; the best-known members are:

Abraham ben Isaac Laniado : Oriental scholar
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; bom
in Aleppo; a contemporary of Joseph Caro, whose
Talmudical lectures at Safed he attended. He so-
journed for some time in Syria, and toward the be-
ginning of the seventeenth century went to Venice,
where he published two works: " Magen Abraham "
(1603), which treats of the mystical interpretation of
various commandments and ceremonies, and "Ne-
kuddot ha-Kesef." a commentary on Canticles, pub-
lished in 1619 by Moses Laniado, who prefaces the
work with a note in which he says that Abraham ben
Isaac was the author also of unpublished commen-
taries on the Pentateuch, the Five Scrolls, the Haf-
tarot, Psalms. Proverbs, Job, and Daniel.

Abraham left several responsa, which are extant

in the Royal Library at Vienna and which have been

copied and published with explanatory notes by M.

Friedlilnder (Vienna, 1860).

BIBLIOORAPHY: De Rossi, Dizionarin, li. 4; Azulai. Shem ha-
Gedohm, s.v.; Conforte, Knre ha-Dorot, p. 41b ; Steinschnel-
der. Cat. Bndl. co). 689, Fuenn, Kerieset Yisrael, p. 36;
Uk-hae], Or hn-Hayyim.

Samuel ben Abraham Laniado: Rabbi at
Aleppo in the second half of the sixteenth century:
contemporary of Moses Alsliech and Hayyim Vital.
He devoted his activity to the Midrashic literature
and on that account was surnamed "ha-Darshan."
Samuel was the author of the following Midrashic
commentaries: " Keli Paz " (Venice, 15o7), on Lsaiah,
excerpts from which were inserted in the "Biblio-

theca Rabbinica " (ed. Amsterdam, 1724-27) ; " Keli
Hemdah " (Venice, 1594-95; Prague, 1609), on the
Pentateuch; and "Keli Yakar" (Venice, 1603), on
the Earlier Prophets. Azulai asserts that he had in
his possession a manuscript containing Laniado's
commentary on the Midrash Shoher Tob, entitled
"Sekel Tob." Joseph Delmedigo mentions in his
" Miktab' Ahuz " the " Keli Yakar " and " Keli Hem-
dah," and speaks of them very disparagingly.

Solcmon b. Abraham Laniado : Preacher at
Venice in the eighteenth century ; grandson of Sam-
uel ben Abraham Laniado. He wrote an introduc-
tion and addenda to his grandfather's commentary
to Isaiah, and a collection of sermons.

Bibliography: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, p. 88; Ma'areket
Se/arim, s.v. 3iD Ssw' ; De Rossi, Dizinnario, ii. 4; Geiger,
Melo Chofnajim, p. 86, note 107; Steinschnelder, Cat. Bodl.
col. 2434 ; Zunz, Z. G. p. 287 ; Kelt Paz, Venice, 1657 ; Ben-
jacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 138 ; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. il. 222.

G. I. E.— I. Br.

LAODICEA. — 1. Laodicea ad Lycum: Town
in Phrygia on the River Lycus. Jews lived there,
Antiochus the Great having transported 2,000 Jew-
ish families from Babylonia to Phrygia (Josephus,
"Ant." xii. 3, §4). Flaccus ordered the confisca-
tion of Temple money contributed by the Jews of
Laodicea, to the value of more than twenty pounds
of gold (Cicero, "Pro Flacco," § 28). There was
also a Syrian element among the population (Ram-
say, "The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia," i. 33).
A Christian community was founded there at an
early date (Rev. i. 11, iii. 14), to which John wrote
a letter (comp. Col. iv. 16). In the year 62 Laod-
icea was destroyed by an earthquake, but it Avas
soon rebuilt. To-day the village of Eski-Hissar
stands on its site.

2. Laodicea ad Mare : Flourishing commer-
cial town in Upper Syria, situated southwest of An-
tioch; now called Ladikiyyah. Herod the Great
built water-Avorks for it (Josephus, "B. J." i. 21,
§ 11). The Laodiceans-were commanded by the Ro-
mans to allow their Jewish fellow citizens to cele-
brate the Sabbath and to practise their other relig-
ious observances ("Ant." xiv. 10, § 20). Jewish
scholars lived in Laodicea who were counted among
the tannaites (Sifre, Deut. 335). According to B.
M. 84a, certain tannaites emigrated thither, also,
unless the city of the same name in Phrygia is re-
ferred to. Sandals were brought from Laodicea
(Kelim xxvi. 1); and as a city situated near Pales-
tine it is mentioned frequently by the Rabbis
(Krauss, "Lehnwbrter," ii. 309, Berlin, 1899).

Bibliography: Z. D. P. V. xiv. 151; Baedel^er, Paldstina
und Suricn, 5th ed., p. 400; Neubauer, G. T. p. 299.
G. S. Kr.

LAPAPA, AABON B. ISAAC : Oriental rabbi
and Talmudist; died 1674. He was at first rabbi
at Manissa, Turkey, and at an advanced age was
called to Smyrna as judge in civil affairs. In 1665,
when the Shabbethai Zebi movement was at its
height there, he was one of the few rabbis who had
the courage to oppose the false prophet and excom-
municate him. Shabbethai Zebi and his adherents
retorted by deposing him and forcing him to leave
tlie city, and his office was given to his colleague,
Hayyim Benveniste, at that time one of Shabbethai's

619

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

lianiado
Lara

followers. After Shabbethai Zebi's conversion to
Islam, Lapapa seems to have been reinstated.

Aaron Lapapa was a pupil of Abraham Motal and
son-in-law of Solomon Algazi. He wrote : " Bene
Aharon," responsa and novelise (Smyrna, 1674);
"Teshubot," responsa, published in the " 'Abak
Derakim" of Baruch Kalometi (Salonica, 1714);
" Yad Aharon," an index to tlie Talmud and to rab-
binical literature (see Ben Jacob, "Ozarha-Sefarim").
Two other works, a commentary to the "Toledot
Adam we-Hawwah " of R. Jeroham, and a work
called "Shittot Mekubbazot," a collection of glosses
on various Talmudic tractates, are mentioned by
Conforte and Azulai. An anonymous rabbinical
decision, edited by Abraham Palaggi in " Abraham
Azkir " (Smyrna, 1889) and by Bernfeld in " Kobe?
'al Yad " (published by the Mekize Nirdamim, Ber-
lin, 1899), is attributed to him.

Bibliography: Azulai, Shem ha-Oedolim, s.v. Haijyim
Benveniste; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 167, 478, 523 ;
Conforte, ^ore ha-Dorot, pp. 45b, 51b; Gratz, Gesch. x. 222;
Ha-Shahar, 1872, p. 288; Steiuschneider, Cat. Bodl.; Zed-
ner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. s.v. and p. 408.
D. H. M.

IiAPIDARIA : Writings giving the qualities of
precious and other stones, mostly composed in the
Middle Ages. The rarest stones and minerals were
in ancient times regarded as having special and often
magical qualities. For those contained in the
breastplate of the high priest see Gems. The Arabr,
translated from the Greek or composed several works
dealing with the qualities of gems. Among them
'Ali ibn Sahl ibn Rabban al-Tabari, a Jew converted
to Islam (flourished 850), seems to have written on
minerals, and Masewaih possibly on stones, as did
also Bar Hebrseus. The first work written by a
European Jew on the subject is that of Berechiah
ha-Nakdan, in which in a description of seventy-
three minerals he described also the uses of the
compass (magnet). Steiuschneider suggests a Ro-
mance source for the original. Judah b. Moses
Cohen translated into Spanish the Arabic lapidarium
of " Abolays" (Abu al-'Aish?), and Jacob b. Reuben
(13th cent.) translated "Liber Lapidum" of Bishop
Marbod (d. 1123; Steiuschneider, "Hebr. Uebers."
pp. 238, 957, 980). A section of the encyclopedic
work of Gershon b. Solomon is also devoted to stones.
Simon Duran deals with the subject in his com-
mentary on Abot. Lazarus, a Jewish physician of
Mayence in 1563, perhaps the body -physician of
the children of the emperor Ferdinand, composed in
German a work called " Ehrenpreis, " upon qualities of
precious stones, still e.xtant in a Vienna manuscript.
Abraham Portaleone in his "Shilte ha-Gibborim,"
1612, quotes from a "tarifa"of silver, gold, and
gems by Meshullam of Volterra. Among modern
writers mention may be made of M. Cohen, Avho
wrote a descriptive catalogue of a collection of dia-
monds, Vienna, 1822, and H. Emanuel, who wrote
on "Diamonds and Precious Stones," London, 1867.

Bibliography : Steinschneider, in Kohut Memorial Volume,
pp. 42-72.

G. J.

LAPIDATION. See Capital PuxNishment.

LAPIDOTH (LAPPIDOTH) ("torches;
flames"): The husband of Deborah (Judges iv. 4),
whom the Rabbis identify with Barak (=" light-

ning "); known also as Michael (so D. Kimhi, Budde,
and Wellhausen). " Lapidoth " is an intensive plu'-
ral (comp. "Naboth"), with probably a figurative
meaning (BOttcher, "Lehrbuch," § 719a).

E. G. H. E. I. N.

LAPWING : The rendering in the Authorized
Version of the Hebrew "dukifat," enumerated
among the unclean birds in Lev. xi. 19 and Deut.
xiv. 18. The rendering of the Revised Version^
"hoopoe," is, however, supported by the ancient ver-
sions (LXX. ETToTza, "epopa"; Vulgate, "upupa"),
and is generally accepted as the more correct one.
The hoopoe winters in Egypt and returns to Pales-
tine in the spring. It feeds on insects in dungliills
and marshy places. The Arabs ascribe to it magical
properties.

The Talmud understands by "dukifat" the moun-
tain-cock ("nagar tura," Hul. 63a [Rashi] ; comp.
alsoTarg. to the Biblical passages; " tarnegolbara,"
Git. 68b), to which the angel presiding over the sea
entrusted tlie Sha.mir. The dukifat appears also in
the legend of Solomon and the Queen of Slieba
(Targ. Yer. to Esther i. ; Koran, sura xxvii.). For
the medicinal use of its blood see Shab. 78a.

Bibliography: Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 208; Lewysohn. Z.
T. p. 216.

E. G. H. I. M. C.

LAaUEUR, LUDWIG L. : German ophthal-
mologist ; born at Furstenberg, Silesia, July 25,
1839. Studied at Paris and Berlin (M.D. 1860). In
1860 he became privat-docent at Berhn, and was
assistant at Liebroich's ophthalmological hospital in
Paris from 1863 to 1869. In 1872 he became assist-
ant professor at the University of Strasburg, where
since 1877 he has been professor of ophthalmology.

Of Laqueur's works may be mentioned: "Etudes
sur les Affections Sympathiques de I'CEil," Paris,
1869; "Ueber Atropin und Physostigmin," in
Graefe's" Archivf'dr Augenheilkunde," xxiii. ; "Das
Prodromal stadium des Glaucoms," ib. xxvi. ; "Die
Lage des Centrums der Macula Lutea im Mensch-
lichen Gehirn," in Virchow's "Archiv," clviii. ;
"Lateral Illumination," in "System of the Diseases
of the Eye," edited by Norris and Oliva, Phila-
delphia, 1897.

Bibliography: Hirsch, Biog. Lex.; Pagel, Biog. Lex.
s. F. T. H.

LARA, COHEN DE : Spanish family, mem-
bers of which settled in Amsterdam, Hamburg,
London, and America.

Aaron Cohen de Lara : Hazzan of the Span-
ish-Portuguese community of Amsterdam from 1729
to 1744; a relative of Abraham Cohen de Lara;
Haham Samuel Mendes de Sola delivered a memo-
rial address on his death.

Abraham. Cohen de Lara : Hazzan of tlie
Spauish-Portugue.se community of Amsterdam from
1682 to 1694 ; wrote a sermon in Spanish.

David Cohen de Lara : Haham. lexicographer,
and writer on ethics; born about 1602 (according
to some writers, at Lisbon ; according to others, at
Hamburg); died at Hamburg Oct. 10 (20), 1674;
son of Isaac Cohen de Lara of Amsterdam ; pupil of
Rabbi Isaac Uzziel of Amsterdam: lived at Ham-
burg, where he was appointed hahain of the Spanish-

Lara
Liasker

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

620

Portuguese congregation at a salary of 300 marks.
In the fall of 1656 he went to Amsterdam, remained
there for several years, and then returned to Ham-
burg. He translated several sections of Elijah de
Vidas' ethical work " Reshit Hokmah " under the
title "Tratado del Temor Divino" (Amsterdam,
1633), and Maimonides' dogmatic treatises, under
the title " Tratado de los Articulos de la Ley Divina "
(ib. 1652), and wrote " Tratado de Moralidad, y Regi-
mieuto de la Vida" (Hamburg, 1662).

David Cohen de Lara's " Dibre Dawid " is an ex-
position of Abraham ibn Ezra's puzzle on the let-
ters ""ins, ■^vitli a Latin translation (Leyden, 1658).
He was prominent as a rabbinical lexicographer.
His " 'Ir Dawid sive de Convenientia Vocabulorum
Rabbinicorum cum Graecis et Quibusdam Aliis Lin-
guis Europfcis," which he dedicated to Joh. Silvius
de Tulingen, the Swedish ambassador to Germany,
is a lexicon of the foreign words found in the rab-
binical writings (xVmsterdam, 1638); it is really a
prodromus to his greater " Keter Kehunnah : Lexikon
Thalmudico-Rabbinicum," the leading work in this
field, next to the 'Aruk and Buxtorf's "Lexicon
Rabbinicum." This work, on which he was en-
gaged for forty years, and which shows his famil-
iarity with the Greek and Roman classics as well as
with the Church Fathers and the Christian philolo-
gists, was completed down to the letter l, according
to Esdras Edzard, but only a portion, down to the
letter \ was printed (Hamburg, 1668). He corre-
sponded with Johann Buxtorf the younger, who
tliought highly of him and his work, and with other
Christian scholars. His intimacy with Esdras Ed-
zard, the Hamburg missionary, occasioned much
suspicion. Of his works the following have never
been printed: a dictionary to the Talmud entitled
"Bet Dawid," or "Xomenclator," on wliich he
worked for twelve years, and of which he sent a
specimen to Buxtorf in 1660; "Pirhe Kehunnah,"
or "Florilegium," a collection of ethical maxims;
"Ohel Dawid," a book of rabbinical synonyms;
"Ozar Rab, " a glossary of Arabic and other tech-
nical terms used by the rabbinical writers ; and some
other works, all of which have doubtless perished.
He was probably also the author of a work on the
"seventy weeks" of Daniel, preserved in manu-
script in the city library of Hamburg.

Bibliography : J. Perles, David Cohen de Lara's Rahb.
Lexikon Keter Kehunnah, Breslau, 18C8; De Rossi-Ham-
berger. Hist. WOrterb. pp. 174 et seq.; Steinschneider, Cat.
Bodi. No. 4823 ; idem. Cat. Hamburg, No. SiS; Kayserling,
Bibl. E»p.-Port.-JiuL p. 56 : idem, in Ersch and Gruber, En-
cue. section ii., part 42, p. 119; R. E. J. xiii. 269 ct seq., xl.
95 et seq., xli. 160; M. Grunv;a\d, PortugiesengrUber auf
De^ltscher Erde, pp. 101 et seq.

Diego de Lara : Canonist and ecclesiastic ; pub-
licly burned for professing Judaism May 2, 1563, at
Murcia, Spain, liis home.

Hiyya Cohen de Lara: Pupil of Solomon
Amar (rabbi of all the African communities; died
at Morocco in 1738); taught at the school 'Ez Hay-
yim of Amsterdam; died after 1753. In 1685
he edited the work " Mislimerot Kehunnah " (Am-
sterdam, 1753). In this rare work, each copy of
which he signed, he arranged Talmudic quotations
in alphabetical order, an(l corrected the misprints
found in the Talmud ; he also added various critical
remarks, but retracted them on the back of the

title-page, probably at the instance of the rabbinical
college of Amsterdam. He criticizes pilpulism and
betrays a leaning toward religious reform. Some of
h;s responsa are included in the collection " 'Ez Hay-
yim." He left in manuscript a cabalistic work en-
titled " Kanfe Yonah " (now in the Bodleian Library)
and "Merkebet ha-Mishnah," from which he occa-
sionally quotes.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bndl. col. 4r35; Roest,
Cat. RosentJial. Bihl. Appendix, No. 1288; Kayserling,
Bibl. Esp.-Po7-t.-Jud. p. 56; idem, in Ersch and Gruber,
Encfic. section ii., part 42, pp. 119 et seq.

Isaac Cohen de Lara : Father of David Cohen
de Lara of Amsterdam; delivered religious dis-
courses at the Academia de los Pintos, together with
Isaac Velosinos; is said to have written poetry.

Isaac Cohen de Lara : Son of Abraham Cohen
de Lara of Amsterdam; bookseller; editor of the
"Comedia Famosa de Aman y Mordochay," dedi-
cated to his friend David de Souza Brito, with an
appendix containing many Spanish and Dutch rid-
dles (Leyden, 1699) ; he edited also " Guia de Pas-
sageros," containing a Judfeo-Spanish calendar, sev-
eral prayers, etc. (Amsterdam, 1704). Another Isaac
Cohen de Lara was hazzan of the Spanish-Portu-
guese congregation of Amsterdam from 1729 to
1743.

Isaac Cohen de Lara: Lived in America;
goods sent by him from Rhode Island to New York
in 1699 were seized by pirates.

Bibliography: D. H. de Castro, Z)e Sunagoge, p. vii.; Kayser-
ling, Sf ;)/iarc?an, pp. 152. 312; idem, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud.
p. 57; Publ.Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. vi. 67.

D. M. K.

LARA, ISIDORE DE : English composer;
born in London Aug. 9, 1858. He was educated at
Boulogne, and made his first appearance as a pian-
ist at the age of thirteen, continuing to play in
many recitals. In his fifteenth year he went to
Milan, and studied composition and singing at the
conservatory of music. He remained in Italy for
three years, taking the grand prize for composition.
On his return to England he began to compose, and
became a professor at the Guildhall School of Music.
In 1882 he wrote " Only a Song. " He then produced
a comic opera, " The Royal Word " ; a choral work,
" Song of Orval " ; and a cycle of melodies, " To the
Palms," with words by Lord Lytton.

De Lara has written about 150 songs, of which
the most popular are: "Mine To-day," "All of My
All," "After Silent Years," and "The Garden of
Sleep." He has written also the operas: "The Light
of Asia," "Kenil worth," "Moma,"and "Messalina,"
the last-named being first produced at Monte Carlo,
and afterward at London and New York.

Bibliography : Harris, Jewish Year-Book, 1901.
J.

G. L.

LARCENY. See Theft and Stolen Goods.

LARISSA. See Greece.

LA ROCHELLE (Latin, Rupella ; Hebrew,

p^pTip) : City and seaport of France; capital of the
department of Charente-Inferieure; situated on the
Atlantic coast. Its small Jewish community made
itself conspicuous in the third decade of the thir-
tecntii century by the exploits of one of its members
named Nicholas Donin, who, after having embraced

621

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lara
Lasker

Christianity, brought persecutions upon the Jews
of Brittany and caused the burning of the Talmud
in 1242. An edict of expulsion was issued in 1249
against the Jews of La Rochelle by Alphonse of
Poitiers, who relieved the Christian inhabitants of
that city from harboring Jews. The banishment
was, however, of short duration, and Jews w-ere
again in the city at the close of that same ccnturj'.
A Jew named Avinus, living in Toulouse in 1307,
was designated a native of La Rochelle. Since the
banishment of the Jews from France in 1394 there
has been no Jewish community at La Rochelle.

Among the prominent men connected with the
city the following may be mentioned: R. Sire Duran
or Sev Duran, a halakic decision by whom in a case
of marriage is found in the glosses on the " Semak "
(MS. Berlin No. 37, p. 18); R. Simon Deus, who is
mentioned in MS. Halberstam No. 345 ; and Hayyim
ben Isaac, who in 1216 copied the Bible for a certain
Joseph ha-Kohen (MS. Vatican No. 468), and the
Prophets and the Hagiographa for a certain David
ben Meshullam (MS. Keunicott No. 242).

BiBLior.KAPHY: Depping, Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age, p.
199; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 313.
G. I. Br.

L'ARRONGE, ADOLF : German dramatist
and theatrical manager; born in Hamburg March 8,
1838; son of Eduard Theodor I'Arronge (Aaron).
He received a musical training at the conservato-
rium at Leipsic, and officiated later as conductor of
the orchestra in theaters in Cologne, Konigsberg,
Wiirzburg, Stuttgart, and other cities. In 1866 he
settled in Berlin to assume the direction of Kroll's
Opera-House, for which he wrote his first farce, " Das
Grosse Los," the success of which determined him
to devote himself to play-Avriting. His next piece,
"Gebriider Bock," was represented at the Walluer
Theater, Berlin. From 1869 to 1872 he edited the
"Berliner Gerichtszeitung," and during that time
wrote the "Spitzenkonig " (in collaboration with
Hugo Mullcr), "Die KUlffer" (with Heinrich "Wil-
ken), and the " Registrator auf Reisen " (with Gus-
tav von ]\roser). From his own pen unaided there
appeared the minor piece "Papa flafs Erlaubt,"
and the comedy "Die Weisse Katze," produced at
the Berlin Viktoria Theater. His great success,
however, was "Mein Leo]iold," which, when pro-
duced in 1873, at once placed him on a very high
plane in German dramatic literature. It demon-
stiateci his power to picture for stage production the
popular life of modern Berlin. The play at once
found its way to the stages of every large city in
Germany, and was translated and adapted for the
theaters of other countries in Europe as well as for
the American stage. Even as late as 1894 a Ger-
man company produced "Mein Leopold" at the
Opera Comique in London.

In 1874 L'Arronge became director of the Lobe
Theater in Breslau, and remained there until 1878,
during which time were produced his " Alltagslebeu "
(1874), "Hasemann'sTochter" (1877), and "Doktor
Klaus" (1878). The latter two added greatly to
his fame and popularity ; they both had long runs
and are still frequently produced in various parts
of the world. He returned to Berlin in 1878, where
he produced " Wohlthiitige Fraueu " (1879), "Hans

Lony," "Der Kompagnon" (1880), "Die Sorglosen "
(1882), and " Das Heimchen " (1883). At this time
he acquired control of the Friedrich-Wilhelmstadt-
ische Theater, which he reopened as the " Deutsche
Theater " in 1883, at the head of which he remained
until 1894. One of the most interesting features of
the new enterpri.se was its establishment on the
plan of the Theatre Frangais, the management being
vested in a group of ".societaires." The a.ssociates
of L'Arronge were Ludwig Barnay, Friedrich Haase,
August F5rster, Ernest Possart, and Siegwart Fried-
mann. During that period, notwithstanding liis
managerial cares, he found time to write " Der Weg
zum Ilerzen " (1884), " Die Verkannten " and " Die
Loreley " (1886), and " Lolo's Vater " (1893). At the
request of the German emperor he revised the orig-
inal t^^xt of Lortzing's posthumously discovered
opera " Regina " and infused into it a patriotic ele-
ment. In 1895 his "Pastor Brose " was produced,
and in 1896 he wrote " Das Deutsche Theater und
die Deutsche Schauspielkunst."

Bibliography: Bomemann, Sclirif tsteller Lexiknn; JuHus
Hart, Das Deutsche Theater in Berlin, In BUhne und
Welt, 11th year, i. 263-272 ; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon.
s. M. Co.

LABTA. See Arta.

LAS LEYES, JACOB DE : Spanish compiler.

He was commissioned by the son of Alfonso X. the

Wise to compile an ethical work for the use of his

pupil, the infante Don Alfonso Fernandez. He,

accordingly, transcribed "Flores de Derecho," a

painstaking collection of extracts from many ethical

works, divided into three books. The real author

is said to have been Moses Zarfati.

Bmi.iorrRAPHY : Marina, Antiaiiedades Hispano-Hebreas, p.
263; Rins, Estudios, p. 440; Steinschneider, Jeu'Wi/i Litera-
ture, p. 103.

G. :m. k.

LASCH, GERSHON: German teacher and
author; born in 1803; died at Halberstadt March 3,
1883. In 1823 he was appointed instructor at the
Jewish school in Halberstadt, where he later became
professor. Besides several small school-books, Lasch
published the following: "Zwei Reden, Gehalten
zur Gedjichtnisfeier und Huldigungsfeier in der Sy-
nagoge zu Halberstadt," Halberstadt, 1841; "Gesch.
der IsraelitischenSchule zu Halberstadt, Dargestellt
in Zwei Reden zur Funfzigjahrigen Jubelfeier,"
Nordhausen, 1847; "Pikkude Adonai, die G8tt-
hchen Gesetze aus den Zehn Geboten Entwickelt
und in Ihrem Geiste Aufgefasst," Leipsic, 1857.

s. M. K.

LASHON HA-KODESH. See Hebrew Lan-

GUAGi;.

LASK, ABRAHAM BEN JEHIEL MI-
CHAEL HA-KOHEN. See Abrauam b. Sami el
Cohen of Lask.

LASKER, EDUARD: German politician;
born at Jarotschin, Poseu, Oct. 14, 1829; died in
New York city Jan. 5, 1884; educated at the uni-
versities of Breslau and Berlin (LL.D. Leipsic. 1873;
Hon. Ph. D. Freiburg, 1875). He took part, at Vienna,
in the revolution of 1848 as a member of the aca-
demic legion. In 1851 he passed his lirst juridical
examination, and was employed for the two follow-
ing years in the city court of Berlin, after which be

liasker
Liassalle

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

622

went to England (1853), returning to Germany in
1856 to resume his juridical career. He passed his
second examination in 1858 and became associate
judge in Berlin. In 1865 he was elected from Ber-
lin to the Prussian Lower House, in which he sat
with the party of the Left ("Fortschrittspartei").
Reelected in 1866, he became one of the founders of
the German "Nationalpartei." From 1868 to 1873
he represented Magdeburg, and from 1875 to 1879
Frankfort-on-the-Main, in the Prussian National
Assembly. In 1870 Lasker was admitted to the bar
in Berlin as attorney at law, and in 1873 he was ap-
pointed "Syndikus des Pfandbriefamtes " in Berlin.
When the North German Parliament was opened in
1867 Lasker represented the first Berlin district ; later
he was elected to the German Reichstag from the
second Meiningen dis-
trict, which lie repre-
sented until his death.

Lasker was a promi-
nent member of the Ger-
man party which, under
the guidance of Bis-
marck, contributed to
the rebuilding of the
German empire after the
Austro-Prussian (1866)
and Franco-Prussian
(1870-71) wars. As one
of the leaders of the Na-
tionalists he was a strong
supporter of the "Iron
Chancellor" until 1879,
when lie refused to fol-
low him in his new reve-
nue policy, and was
consequently defeated
when he stood for reelec-
tion to the Prussian
National Assembly. In
1880 Lasker and a few
of his followers deserted
the Nationalist party ;
but Lasker failed to
agree even with his fol-
lowers. He came into
direct conflict with Bis-
marck (who found in
him a strong antago-
nist) with regard to a

bill designed to limit freedom of speech in Parlia-
ment. Bismarck's fight against the National party
and its seceding members became soon
Leader of a fight against Lasker, who was thus
National left without a party. Exhausted in
Liberals, body and mind, Lasker retired from
political life in the summer of 1883,
and, hoping to find health and strength in travel,
visited America, where death suddenly overtook him.
He was buried at Berlin on Jan. 28, 1884. A reso-
lution of sympathy was passed by tiie United States
House of Representatives and .sent to Bismarck to be
laid before the German Reichstag. The chancellor,
however, refused to accept the resolution on the
ground that it contained a criticism of German pol-
itics—a course of action which provoked a heated

Eduard Lasker.

debate in the German Parliament on March 13 fol-
lowing.

Lasker was one of the ablest and most popular
orators in the German Parliament, a character
above reproach and an enthusiastic patriot. He
contributed much to the passage of many important
Prussian and German laws, among these being the
laws of association, the laws governing handi-
crafts, determining responsibilitj', regulating taxa-
tion, etc. ; in 1875-76, as a member of a commission,
he was especially active in this work. His most
notable speeches were made on Jan. 4 and Feb. 7,
1873, when he opposed the railroad policy of the
Prussian secretary for railways. Von Itzenplitz.
The Assembly voted a commission to examine the
conditions, but the real success of these two speeches

was seen in the collapse
of the " Griindungs-
schwindel" (stock -
juggling). Lasker was
always the champion
of his coreligionists; he
introduced a law by
wliich Jews of Orthodox
tendencies were al-
lowed to create Jewish
communities. He found
time ako for literary
work. He was the
author of: "Erlebnisse
einer Mannesseele,"
Stuttgart, 1873 ; " Zur
Geschichte der Parla-
mentarischen Entwick-
lung Preussens," Leip-
sic, 1873; "Zur Verfas-
suugsgeschichte Preus-
sens," ib. 1874 (essays
which appeared first in
"Deutsche Jahrbiicher,"
1861-64); "Die Zukunft
des Deutschen Reiches,"
ib. 1877; "Wege und
Ziele der Kultur-
entwicklung," ib. 1881.
"Aus Eduard Lasker's
Nachlass, I. : 15 Jahre
Parlamentarischer Ge-
schichte," was published
at Berlin in 1903.

Bibliography : Morals, Eminent Israelites of the Nineteenth
Century, pp. 184-186, Philadelphia, 1880 ; Bamberger, Eduard
Lasker, Leipsic, 1884; idem, Eduard Lasker, Seine Bin-
qraphie und Letzte Oeffentliche Rede, Stuttgart, 1884; A.
Wolf, Zur Erinnerung an Eduard Lasker, Berlin, 1884;
Freund, Einiijes uber Eduard Lasker, Leipsic, 1885; Stein,
Eduard Lcuiker,lS8i ; T. Cohn, in Jahr. Oesch. dcrJud. 1809.
s. F. T. H.

LASKER, EMANUEL: Chess champion of
the world ; born Dec. 24, 1868, at Berlinchen, Ger-
many ; educated at the universities of Berlin, Gottin-
gen, and Heidelberg, and took his degree of Ph.D. at
the University of Erlangen. In 1883 he defeated sev-
eral of the leading chess masters in a tournament at
Berlin, gaining the first prize without losing a single
game. In 1889 he gained first prize in the Masters'
Tournament held at Brcslau, and in the same year
was second in the tournament at Amsterdam.

623

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liasker
Lassalle

In 1892 Lasker went to England — in which coun-
try he has since made his home — and won the Brit-
ish chess championship, defeating Blackburne by
6 games to love. In the following year he went to
New York and gained the championship of America,
winning all his games with the thirteen leading
players, including Steinitz. In 1894 Lasker won
the championship of the world from Steinitz at New
York with 10 games to 5, and at the return match
in Moscow, in 1896, his score was: won 10; lost 2.
At the Hastings international tournament <n 1895
Lasker gained third prize, Pillsbury and Tchigorin
being first and second respectively. He gained first
prize at St. Petersburg 1895, Nuremberg 1896, Lon-
don 1899, and Paris 1900, and tied with Janowski
for second prize at Cambridge Springs, Pa., 1904.

Lasker has been editor of "The Chess Fort-
nightly " (London) ; and he is the author of " Com-
mon Sense in Chess," New York, 1895.

Lasker is also a mathematician of ability, and he
has published the following papers : "' About a Cer-
tain Class of Curved Lines," in "Nature," Oct. 17,
1895; "Metrical Relations," ^■^». Aug. 8, 1895; "An
Essay on the Geometrical Calculus," in "Pi'oc. of
the London Mathematical Society," Nov., 1896, and
May, 1897; "Reiten auf der Convergenzgrenze," in
"Proc. of the Royal Society."

Bibliography : H. F. Cheshire, The Hastings Chess Tourna-
ment, 1895, p. 346, London, 1896 ; HazelVs Anniuil, London,
1903.
J. A. P.

LASKEB., RAPHAEL : American rabbi ; born
at Zirke, province of Posen, Feb. 19, 1838; educated
by his father, who was rabbi of Zirke, by the rabbis
Caro of Pinne, Feilchenfeld and Mendel, both of
Rogasen, and later at the gymnasium of Gleiwitz
and the University at Giessen. In 1858 he emi-
grated to the United States, where he founded the
Congregation B'nai Abraham at Portsmouth, Ohio.
In 1863 he became rabbi of Congregation Shaar
Hashomayim, in New York city, and in 1871 of the
Temple Israel, Brooklyn. In 1876 he accepted
a call from the Congregation Ohabei Shalom at
Boston, of which he is now (1904) rabbi emeri-
tus. When, in 1901, the "New Era Magazine" was
founded Lasker became its editor, but he resigned in
November, 1903, when the periodical was purchased
by Isidore Lewi.

Bibliography : American Jewish Year Book, 1903-4, p. 73.
A. F. T. H.

LASSALLE, FERDINAND : The founder of
Social Democracy ; born in Breslau, Germany, April
11, 1825; died Aug. 31, 1864, in Geneva. His father,
Heymann Lassel, was a jirosperous silk-merchant,
and desired his son to pursue a similar calling. Las-
salle even iu early youth manifested the independent
spirit that characterized him in all his later life, but
he yielded to tliis wish of his father. After some
preliminary schooling iu his native city, the boy
was sent at the age of fifteen to a commercial school
at Leipsic. The studies there were not to his taste,
he having already acquired a passion for philosophy
and the classics. Tlie year and a half that he spent
there were irksome, but they offered him oppor-
tunity to pursue at will the intellectual labors that
attracted him.

Lassalle at last succeeded in persuading his father
that the commercial school was not suitable for
him ; and he returned to Breslau to prepare for ad-
mission to the University of Breslau, attendance at
which was followed by a course at the University
of Berlin.

Lewis J. Huff, in his article on Las.salle in the " Po-
litical Science Quarterly," vol. ii. 416, states posi-
tively that Lassalle was baptized in his youth. No
historical basis can be found for this
His statement. Helene von Racowitza, in
Youth.. her memoirs, states that during their
courtship Lassalle asked her whether
his being a Jew would be an obstacle to their union,
and whether she would require him to become a
Christian, and that he expressed his gratification
that such a sacrifice on his part would not be neces-
sary. This should certainly be sufiicient to dis-
prove Huff's statement.

Lassalle devoted himself to philosophy and philol-
ogy. He early became a disciple of Hegel, and ac-
quired the ambition of writing a monograph on
Heraclitus from the Hegelian point of view.

At the end of his university career (1845) Las-
salle, mainly with the idea of collecting materials
for his work on Heraclitus, went to Paris, and there
met Heine, who was suffering from sickness, want,
and the worries of litigation. Lassalle, though but
a boy of twenty, came to him as a ray of sunshine.
The poet's letters show that Lassalle was a source
of welcome aid to him in his troubles. He admitted,
too, the high mental qualities of the j^outh; and his
letter introducing Lassalle to Varnhagen von Ense
is a remarkable tribute to the possibilities of the
future that lay before the former.

From Paris Lassalle returned to Berlin, where he
consorted familiarly with such eminent scholars as
Humboldt — who dubbed the dashing youth a
" Wunderkind " — Savigny, and Bockh ; and here,
too, he was introduced by Dr. Mendelssohn to the
Countess von Hatzfeldt, who was then in her thirty-
sixth year, and who, engaged in a feud with her
husband, had been dispossessed of her property and
robbed of her children.

Lassalle was soon enrolled among those who were

seeking to secure for her some measure of right and

justice at the hands of the courts. He

Hatzfeldt applied himself to the study of juris-

Affair. prudence, and, being admitted to prac-
tise, took up the countess' affairs in
earnest. For eight years he confined himself exclu-
sively to her interests, not only giving of his time,
thought, and energy in her behalf, but also pro-
viding for her support out of his allowance. All
other pursuits were practically discarded by him.
Work on the' "Heraclitus" was ^suspended: the
Hatzfeldt affair absorbed all his intellectual powere.
Some indication of the effort involved in tlie prose-
cution of the case may be gleaned from the fact that
from first to last Lassalle was obliged to prosecute
thirty-six separate and distinct actions in court.

One of its incidents was the casket episode, which
arose out of the attempt by some friends of the
countess to obtain possession of a certain bond for
the settlement of a large life annuity by Count
Hatzfeldt on his mistress, Baroness Meyerdorf. The

IJassalle
Liassar

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

624

,j.„,,.,.,

casket, which was the jewel-case of the baroness,
was taken from her room at a hotel in Cologne.
Two of Lassalle's comrades were prosecuted for the
theft; one of them, Mendelssohn, being condemned
to six months' imprisonment, while the other,
Oppenheim, was acquitted. Lassalle himself was
charged with moral complicity, and was convicted,
but on appeal to the higher court, judgment was
reversed and he was acquitted.

Another and a more important incident of the
Hatzfeldt affair was the uprising of 1848, at which

time Lassalle had gone to Diisseldorf

Revolution in connection with the case. He aflil-

of 1848. iated with the Democrats of the Rhine

province. When the Prussian govern-
ment dispersed the National Assembly in Novem-
ber, Lassalle used his oratorical powers in an effort
to arouse the people to
armed resistance. He
was arrested and thrown
into prison, and on the
following day was tried
on the charge of inciting
the populace to armed
revolt. In the eloquent
speech which he de-
livered in his defense
("Meine Assisen-Rede,"
Diisseldorf, 1849) the
young revolutionist,
then but twenty-four
years of age, emphatic-
ally proclaimed himself
an adherent of the Social
Democratic idea. He
was acquitted of the
main offense, but on a
minor technical charge
was sentenced to six
months' imprisonment.
At last the Hatzfeldt
matter was settled by a
compromise which se-
cured for the countess
a substantial fortune.
This done, Lassalle then
com pleted " Die Philo-
sophie Herakleitos des
Dunklen," 2 vols., Ber-
lin, ISoS. In 1859 he
Avent to Berlin, where he was elected a member
of the Philosophical Society and selected to de-
liver tlie Ficlite Memorial oration. There appeared
from his pen at this time the drama " Franz von
Sickingen." In 18.>9 he wrote and published "Der
Italienischc Krieg und die Aufgabe Prcussen's," in
whicli he unfolded the ^ cry plan of campaign whicii
Bismarck later submitted to tiie King of Prussia and,
several years after, successfully put into execution.
In 1860 appeared the first-fruits of his researches
in jurisprudence, the "System der Erworbenen
Rechte, eiiie Versohuung des Positiven Rechts und
der Rechtsphilosophie," 2 vols., Leipsic, 2d ed.
1880, a treatise which demonstrates the thorough
manner in which he liad pursued liis legal studies.
About the same time he grappled with the literary

,'1]"i>''<'f"V"'y^"'ll^'i'ii"'lf'!'f^'ijif!if^

Ferdinand Lassalle.

critic Heinrich Julian Schmidt in a work of fascina-
ting brilliancy, "Herr Julian Schmidt, der Literar-
historiker, mit Setzer-Scholienllerausgegebeu," Ber-
lin, 1862. Schmidt, who sought to pose as the
interpreter of German intellectual life, was remorse-
lessly flayed, Lassalle exposing the errors of fact as
well as of judgment of which Schmidt had often
been guilty.

Now came that brief period of Lassalle's life

which witnessed the activity that has rendered his

career most remarkable. The seed sown

Founder of in 1848 blossomed forth in the three

Social years 1861-64. It was indeed a short

Democracy, period within which to wage such a

war against traditional ideas of politics

and economics as Lassalle fought.

Lassalle himself never undertook, or at least never

carried out, the task of
formulating a systematic
exposition of his social-
istic theories, and these
must, therefore, be
pieced together from
scattered sources.

At the back of all his
ideas on this subject lav
his recognition of the
pitiable plight of the
peasant and laborer of
his time in Germany,
where the French Revo-
lution probably exerted
less influence than in any
other country of Europe.
His oft-recurring text is
the " iron law of wages, "
as enunciated by Ri-
cardo, according to
which the tendency of a
laborer's wages is to
keep on a level with the
cost of bare subsistence
for himself and family.
IJassalle contended that
the real value of things
is the amount of labor
expended in their pro-
duction ; that labor is,
therefore, the sole cre-
ator of value; and that
labor should, consequently, receive all the value
of its produce, instead of the greater portion be-
ing given to capital as profit on the investment.
The problem to be solved was how to dispense with
the interposition of capital, so that labor might se-
cure the profit of its industry instead of tlie bare
subsistence wage. Tlie central idea of Lassalle's
solution of this problem was that the state, by its
credit, should aid the promotion of cooperative as-
sociations for the carrying on of various industries.
In this brief statement lies embedded the germ of
state socialism. To state it negatively, it docs not
contemplate any present confiscation of property, as
by communism, nor ultimate abrogation of all legal
obligations, restraints, and liabilities, as is embodied
in the program of the anarchists. It differs from

625

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lassalle
Lassar

these iu that it has not in view any violent methods
whereby to secure its adoption.

The economic phase of Lassalle's program was

not, however, its sole feature, nor indeed even its

chief characteristic. Equal in importance with it

was the political phase, which had

His for its object the introduction of uni-

Prograra. versal suffrage as the method by which
social reform could be more expedi-
tiously and efficaciously realized. In the " Arbeiter-
programm " (Eng. ti-ansl. by Edward Peters, London,
1884) Lassalle elaborates the theme that, as the mid-
dle classes had succeeded to the territorial aristoc-
racy, so the " fourth estate, " the working classes,
by means of universal suffrage was destined eventu-
ally to become the ruling power in society. It was
this proposition to invest the laboring class with
political power rather than his socialistic sugges-
tions that brought upon Lassalle the wrath of both
Liberals and Conservatives. This dream of a democ-
racy was, to the German mind of 1863, as startling
as if there had been no Washington, no French
Revolution.

It is not easy to conceive how difficult it was so
late in the nineteenth century to lead the minds of
the German laborers to a realizing sense of Lassalle's
teachings. He gathered about him a band of dis-
ciples such as Bernard Becker, Vahltcich, Dammer,
and Bebel, and founded the General German Labor
Organization; and the Social Democracy, as a polit-
ical factor and an economic ideal, was created.

In all this work of agitation Lassalle displaj'ed
marvelous assiduity, and though he was hated and
denounced as "the terrible Jew," astonishment was
expressed at his remarkable oratorical power, his
profound and wide learning, and his dialectical skill
in controversies with some of the ablest publicists
of his time. The literary product of this period of
his life is exclusively the outcome of his politico-
social agitation.

In 1862 La.ssalle met Helene von Donnigsen, the

daughter of a Bavarian diplomat and, according to

Kellogg, of a Jewish mother. The

His Duel two loved at first sight; and it was
and Death, liot long before they revealed their
affection to each other. But her father
opposed their union and forced his daughter to
write a formal renunciation of him. She then ac-
cepted as a suitor Janko von Racowitza, who had
long paid her assiduous attentions. Lassalle was
enraged and sent a challenge to both father and
lover, which was accepted by the latter. The duel
was fought on the morning of Sunday, Aug. 28,
1804, in a suburb of Geneva. At the first shot Las-
salle fell mortally wounded, and three days after-
ward died.

The body of the Socialist leader, brought home
through Germany amid much pomp and ceremony,
greeted in the various cities with many manifesta-
tions of popular grief, was laid to rest in the Jewish
cemetery of Breslau.

After liis death the organization which he had
founded developed factional differences growing out
of varying conceptions of the scope and methods of
tlie movement, tlie fuuilamental point of variance
being the opposition to Lassalle's idea liiat socialis-
VII.— 40

tic regeneration was possible under the imperial or
royal constitution of the state.
The intiuence of Lassalle's agitation was not con-
fined, however, to the party which he
Influence created, but was felt in the legislation
and of Prussia, Germany, and of all other

"Writings, civilized countries.

Sul)joined is a list of Lassalle's wri-
tings in alphabetical order:

Agitation des Allgemeinen Deutschen Arbelterverelns und das

Verspreehen des Koiiigs v(jn Preussen, Die. Berlin. 1S04.
An die Arbeiter IJerlins. Berlin, 1863.
Arbeiterfrage, Ziir. Leipsic, 180;!.
Arbelterlesebuch. Frankfort, 1863.
Arbeiterprogramm. Berlin, 1862.
Briefe von Lassalle an Carl Rodbertus-Jagetzow. Berlin, 1878

(in vol. i. of Rodbertus, " Aus dem Literarischen Naohlass").
Criminalurtheil iiber Mich, Das. Leipsic, 1863.
Enwiderung auf eine Recension der Kreuzzeltung. Dusseldorf.

186-4.
Feste, die Presse und der Frankfurter Abgeordnetentag, Die.

Dusseldorf, 1863.
Fichte's Politisches Vermachtniss und die Neueste Gegenwart.

Hamburg, 1860.
Gotthold Epbraiin Lessing vom Culturhistorischen Standpunkt.

2d ed. Hamfjurg. 1877.
Herr Bastiat-Schulze von Delitzsch, der Oekonomische Julian

Oder Kapital und Arbeit. Berlin, 1864.
Indirecte Steuer und die Lage der Arbeltenden Klassen, Die.

Zurich, 1863.
Macht und Recht. Zurich, 1863.

Offenes Antwortschreiben an das Zentralcomte. Zurich, 186:5.
Open Letter to the National Labor Association. Cincinnati, O.

Eng. transl. 1879.
Ueber Verfassungswesen. Berlin, 18(52.
Was Nun ? Berlin, 1862.

Wissenschaft und die Arbeiter, Die. Zurich, 1863.
Workinginan's Programme, The. Transl. by Edward Peters.

London, 1884.

There are two collected editions of Lassalle's writings, both
of which include, besides his published works (though neither
has the "System der Erworbenen Rechte " in its complete
form), stenographic reports of .several of the trials in whiih he
was the central figure. One edition was published in New York
in 1882-83, and the other, a much fuller and more accurate prf)-
duction, was edited by E. Bernstein and published iu Berlin in
1891-93. Both editions are in three volumes.

Bibliography: B. Becker. Gesclt. der Arheiter-Auitation
La.s(!allc'<, Brunswick, 1874 ; E. Bernstein, LnssaUe as a So-
cial Rrfiirini r, London, 1893; Georg B'andes, Lassallf. Ber-
lin, 1877 ; 3d ed. with portrait, Leipsic, 1894 ; I). O. Kellogg, Lat:-
salle, tlie Socialist, in Atla)itic Mitiitliljj. .\pril, 1888, lxi.4s;i-
496; Laveleye. Lr Socialismc Coiitcwiniraiii (Eng. transl.
Snciali.^m of To-Dau) ; J. M. Ludlow, Lassalle the GirnuDi
Social-Dcinorrat. in FotiuiQlitUj Rev. April, 1869, xi. (2d
series), 419-4r);5; E. von Plener, tjassaUc.m Alhj. Deutsche
BiO(i7^aphie.x\u. 740-781), Leipsic, 1883 (printed separately,
ib. 1884); Helene von Racowitza, Mei)ie Bcziehunijen zu
Lassalle, Breslau, 1879.

s. M. Co.

LASSAR-COHN. See Coii.v, Lassar.

LASSAR, OSKAR E. : German dermatologist
and hygieiiist; born at Hamburg Jan. 11. 1849. He
received his education at a g\innasiiim at Hamburg
and at the universities of Heidelberg, GOttingen,
Strasburg, and Wurzbui-g (M.D. 1873). He served
through the Franco-Prussian war as lieutenant.
After a postgraduate course at Strasburg under
Iloppe-Seyler, and tit Berlin under Salkowski, he
became assistant in the physiological institute at
Gottingen. In 1875 he went to Breslau, where he
held tlie jiosition of assistant at the patliological in-
stitute till 1878. The saineyeiir he removed to Ber-
lin, where he established a pi'actise as dermatologist.
In 1880 he became privat docent, and four years
later he opened a private hospital and dispensary
for tlcrmatology and syphilis. He was one of the

Lassen
Lai/tes

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

626

founders of the JJcrlin Dermalological Society

(1886).

Lassar was one of Robert Koch's associates in the
Prussian Board of Health. He introduced the
" Lassar's shower-bath " in 1883, which made it pos-
sible to give the poor a bath for 2 cents. He has
contributed many essays to the medical journals,
especially to Pfliiger's "Arcliiv fur die Gesammte
Physiologic " and to Vircho w 's " Archi v. " Lassar is
editor of the " Dermatologische Zeitschrift."

Bibliography : Pagel, Bmg. Lex. Vienna, 1901.

g r. 1. xl.

LASSEN, EDUARD : Danish conductor and
dramatic composer; born at Copenhagen April 13,
1830; died at Weimar Jan. 15, 1904. His father was
president of the Jewish Consistory of Belgium. In
his twelfth year he entered the Conservatoire at
Brussels, to which city his parents had removed in
1832, and after two years' study secured the first prize
for pianoforte. In 1849 he received the second gov-
ernm.ent prize for composition; in the following
year, prizes at Ghent and Antwerp, and in 1851, for
his cantata "Baltasar," the "Prix de Rome."

Lassen visited Diisseldorf, Cassel, Leipsic, Dres-
den, Berlin, and Weimar, sojourning for some time
in tlie last-named city in order to receive the benefit
of Liszt's instruction. Thence he went to Rome,
where he remained until 1855. Returning to Brus-
sels, he endeavored to secure a hearing for his first
opera, "Le Roi Edgard," but only the overture was
performed. Undismayed by this failure, the com-
poser sent the score to Liszt, who greatly assisted
Lassen in remodeling the work; and, under the title
"Landgraf Lud wig's Brautfalirt," it was very suc-
cessfully performed under tlie leadership of the
composer himself at Weimar in May, 1857. Lassen
soon afterward succeeded Gotze as court musical
director at Weimar, with which city he thenceforth
became identified. From 1861 to 1895 he held there
the position of court kapellmeister.

Lassen was a most able conductor, particularly of
Wagner's operas, and one of the leading composers
of his day. His principal works, in addition to those
already mentioned, include : the operas " Frauenlob "
(Weimar, 1860), and "Le Captif " (Brussels, 1865;
in German at Weimar, 1868) ; the music to " CEdi-
pusin Kolonus" (1874), to "Faust" (1876), to "Pan-
dora" (1886), to Calderon's "Circe" (in the German
version : " Ueber Allen Zaubern Liebe " by Devricnt),
and to Hebbel's " Nibelungen " (11 characteristic
pieces for orchestra); a Te Deum for chorus and
orchestra (first performed at the Churcli of St.
Gudule Dec. 16, 1860, in celebration of the birthday
of Leopold I. of Belgium) ; vocal Bible scenes, with
orchestral accompaniment; cantatas; a soprano
scena with orchestra, entitled "Der Sclulfer Putzle
Sich zum Tanz " ; 2 symphonies; overtures; and
a marcli for orchestra.

It is, however, princijially through his songs
(comprising several hundred numbers) that Lassen
has secured a world wide reputation, his best pro-
ductions in this field being the following: "Icii
Hatte Einst ein Schoncs Vaterland " ; "Mit Deineii
Blauen Augen"; "Das Alte Lied"; "Friililings-
Gruss " ; " Der Fichtenbaum " ; " Ich Ilab' im Trauni
Geweinet"; "Zigeunerbubim Norden " : " In Deiner

Nahe"; "Die Gletscher Leuchten im Mondlicht";

" Wenn der FrUihling auf die Berge Steigt " ; " Som-

merabend"; "Sonntagsruhe " ; "Sei Stille"; "Die

Grossen Stillen Augen"; "Schlummerlied "; "Ich

Weil' in Tiefster Einsamkeit"; "Nahe des Ge-

liebten."

Bibliography: Mendel, Musikalisches Konversat ions-Lex i-

knn, S.V.; Chuiiiplin, Diet, of Music and Musieianx, s.v.;

Schirnier's Collect iim of Song Alhnms; Allqemeine Zci-

luny (U'-s Judenthums, Jan. 22, 1901; Meyers Konveim-

tions-Lexikon.
s. J- So.

LASSON, ADOLF: German philosophical
writer; born at Alt-Strelitz, Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
March 12, 1832; educated at the Gymnasium Caro-
linum, Neu-Strelitz, and the University of Berlin
(1848-52 ; classical philology and law). In 1858 he
became teacher at the Friedrichsgymnasium, and
from 1859 to 1897 he occupied the same position at
the Louisenstadtisches Real-Gymnasium. In 1861 he
took the Ph.D. degree at Leipsic University, and in
1877 became privat-docent in philosophy at Berlin
University. Since 1874 he has lectured on the history
of German literature at the Viktoria Lyceum. He
embraced Christianity in 1853, and at present holds
the position of honorary professor at the University
of Berlin.

Lasson has written the following works: "J. H.
Fichte im Verhaltniss zu Kirche und Staat," 1863;
" Meister Eckhart " and " Das Kulturideal und der
Krieg," 1868; "Prinzip und Zukunft des Volker-
rechts," 1871; "System der Rechtsphilosophie,"
1881; "Entwickelung des Religiosen Bewusstseins
der Menschheit," 1883; "Zeitliches und Zeitloses,"
eight lectures, 1890; "Sint ut Sunt, Wider die Neu-
erer " ; " Das Unendlich Kleine im Wirtschaftlichen
Leben," 1891; "Lotterie und Volkswirtschaft,"
1894; "Das GedSchtnis," 1894; " Handelsinteressen
und Gnmdbesitzinteresseu," 1896 ; " Der Leib," 1898.
He also edited a translation into German of Gior-
dano Bruno's " De Causa " (3d ed. 1902), and a small
volume of religious poetry entitled "Herzensstille,"
1868.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Dos Geixtiuc Berlin. 1897, pp. 283-284; Meu-

ers Kouversations-Lcxikon; Kahle, Lassnn's System der

Rechtsphilosophie, 1883. ^

LASZ, SAMUEL : Hungarian scientist ; born
Dec. 18, 1859, at Szergeny ; studied at Papa, Sopron,
and Budapest. In 1882 he received an appointment
at the state meteorologic institute, where he made
researches into climatology, zoology, and geology.
He is now (1904) professor at one of the gymna-
siums of Budapest.

Lasz has publishe<l the following works: "A

Vulkanizmuszrol" (Budapest, 1883), on volcan-

ism; "Szovo-Fonomesterek" (ib. 1885, awarded

a prize), on master-spiders; "Egy Xtkos Kis Legy-

rol" (ib. 1894, awarded a prize), on flies; "Lebens-

und Charakterbild des Dr. Ludwig Lewis " (ib. 1883).

Bibliography : Kiszlingstein, Jvo/iyi't'wet; Szinnyei, Magyar
Irok ; Pallas Lex.
s. L. V .

LASZL(5, PHILIP : Hungarian portrait-
painter; born June 1, 1869, at Budapest. As a
highly talented student of the Model Drawing
School of Budapest, he received for five years a
stipend from tlie state, which enabled liim to stiuly
portraituie at Munich with Liezen-Mayer, and at

627

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lassen
Laties

Paris with Lefevre. He first attracted atteution in
1891 by liis painting "Erzalileude Alte Frau." His
best-known portraits are those of the family of tlie
Prince of Bulgaria; Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Mei-
ningeu; Count Arthur Schonborn ; Prince Alexander
Holienlohe-Schillingsfiirst: King Francis Joseph I. ;
Bishop Frakn&i; Archduchess Isabella; Prince Hugo
Dietrichstein ; and Pope Leo XIII. Ljiszlo has em-
braced Christianity.

8. L. V.

LATERAN COUNCILS: Councils of tlie
Cliurch lield at Kome in the pupal palace on Lateran
Hill, whence their title. Those affecting Jewish
history are the third (1179) and fourth (1215). At
the former or third Lateran Council the Church law
witli regard to Jews having Christian servants was i-e-
enacted, and those Cliristians were excommunicated
who even lodged among Jews. The testimony of
Christians was to be preferred to that of Jews, while
the property of converts to the Christian Church
was not to be taken away from them. This last
enactment was directed against Christian princes,
who claimed the property of converted Jews on the
ground that it belonged by right to them. When
a Jew became a convert he ceased to be a money-
lender, and the king lost by the oliange and claimed
compensation. At the same council the Church laws
against usury were increased in severity, and Chris-
tian burial was refu.sed to those dying in tliat sin.
This tended to tlirow the business of money-lend-
ing more and more into the hands of the Jews (see

USUKY).

At tlie great Lateran Council of 1215 further steps
were taken by the Church to check usury. Chris-
tian princes were admonished to see that debtors be
not charged too high a rate of interest by Jews.
The princes were also commanded by the Church
not to have Jewish officials, while Jews themselves
were ordered to pay tithes for such lands as they
held which had previously had tithes paid on them
by Cliristian princes, so that the Church should not
lose by the change of ownership. Besides this each
head of a Jewish household was obliged thenceforth
to pay six deniers yearly to the Church at Easter.
But above all, this council established the institution
of the Badge, with its disastrous consequences to
the status of the Jews. The alleged reason for ma-
king the distinction was the frequency of intercourse
between Jews and Christian women.

Bibliography : Mansi, Concilia, xxii. 213, 958 et seq.; Gratz,
Gesch. vii. 15.

LATTEINER, JOSEPH : Judso-German play-
wright; born at Jassy, Rumania, in 1853. After
studying Talmud in the yeshibah there, Latteiner,
at the age of seventeen, devoted himself to the study
of modern languages. In 1876 the quarrel which
broke out between the Hasidim and the Mituaggedim
in his native town afforded Latteiner an opportunity
to test his dramatic talent; he wrote two dramas,
"DerFanaticismus" and "DerDibbuk," both being
produced with notable success. In 1884 Latteiner
went to New York, where he is now living (1904);
he is recognized as one of the leading writers for the
Jewish stage in America. Latteiner lias written

over a hundred plays, mainly melodramas, bur-
lesques, and comic operas. He is an opponent of
Coidin's realistic dramas, and for a long time he
and Horowitz held undisputed sway. Among his
dramas "Das FunfteGebot," "Blumele," and -'Hor-
ban Yerushalayim " deserve special notice.

BiBUOGRAPHY : B. Eisenstadt, Hakme Yisrael bc-Ameriha,
p. 61 New York 1903; Huk-hins Hapgofxl, The Spirit of till
Ghetto, pp. 1-ZO, 128, 139, New York, 19(r2.

^- M. Sel.

LATTES (LATTAS): Family tliat includes
many scholars among its members. The name fre-
quently occurs with the prefix "De" (B'XDNi'O,
E^''DN?0), and seems to have originated in Lattes, a
little town near Beziers, France (Steinschncider
"Cat. Bodl."No. 8216).

Aaron Elijah Lattes: Rabbi at Venice; died
there 1839; came from Savigliano in Piedmont
("AttoEcc. deir Istituto Convitto Rabbiuico in
Padova," Venice, 1853).

Abraham ben Isaac Lattes : Grandson of
Aaron Elijah; born 1809; died 1875. He graduated
from the rabbinical college of Padua in 1834, re-
turned to Venice, and became assistant to Ids grand-
father. Upon the death of the latter in 1839 he was
appointed chief rabbi. He rendered memorable serv-
ices to the charitable and educational institutions of
the community, distinguishing himself especially
by his self-sacrificing devotion during the epidemic
of cholera that accompanied the siege of Venice in
1848.

In 1847 Abraham wrote, at the request of the mu-
nicipality, "'Cenni Storici sulla Communita Israelit-
ica di V^enezia," which appeared in "Venezia e Sue
Lagune" (Venice, 1847), a volume published on llie
occasion of the ninth scientific congress, held at
Venice in 1847. He also contributed an important
article in defense of Judaism to the "Eco dei Tribu-
nali." In his younger days he contributed to the
Hebrew periodicals "Kerem Hemed" and "Bikkure
ha-'Ittim."

Bibliography: Atto Ecc. deW Istituto Cnnvitto Rabbinico
in Padova, Venice, 1853 ; Steinscbneider, Cat. Bodl. No. fill5,

Bonet de Lattes. See Bonet de Lates.

Elijah Lattes : Economist and classical scholar;
son of Abraham Lattes; born at Venice in 1843;
educated at Turin (Doctor of Laws). He became
professor of Greek and Roman antiquities in the sci-
entific and literary academy of Milan, in whicli city
he now (1904) lives in retirement. He is a member
of many scientific societies and a commander of the
Order of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus. Among his
writings are: "Studii Storici sul Contratto d'Enti-
teusi"V^'urin, 1868); "Studii Critici e Statistici sul
Credito Fondiario " (Milan, 1868) ; " La Liberia delle
Banche a Venezia del Secolo xiii. al xvii." (ib.
1869) ; " L'Ambasciate dei Romani per le 12 Tavole "
(lb. 1884). In memory of his father and of his
brother Moses he establislied a fund to provide
prizes for works in Jewish literature.

Bibliography: De Gubernatis, Ecrlx^ains dn Jour, Annu-
ario del Ministero di Pub. IMruz. Rome, 1903.

Elijah ben Isaac Lattes. See Elijah ben
Is.\^.\c OK Cahc.\ssonne.
D. E. L.

Lattes
Lautenburg

THE JEWISH ENC^YCLOPEDIA

628

Immanuel b. Jacob Lattes : Son of Bonet de
Lattes; ttourislicd about lolo-'^'T; highly rospccled at
the court of Leo X., whore lie received a large salary
as physician and translator from the Latin. He had
a number of sons, the best known of wliom is Isaac
Joshua b. Immanuel, who rendered great services
in connection with the printing of the Zohar. A
portrait of his other sou, Elijah de Lattes Ebreo,
has been preserved on a medal of 1552 (" Monats-
schrift," xxxviii. 239). His brothers Samuel,
Moses, and Jacob were prominent and learned
members of the Roman community about 1570.
Samuel's sons Moses, Menahem, and Solomon
were at Rome about 1585; Jacob's sons Immanuel,
Mordecai, and Menahem are mentioned in the
archives of the community of Rome as late as 1600.
Aside from this direct line descending from the fa-
mous Bonet, a large number of persons by the name
of Lates lived at Rome during and after the ]\Iiddle
Ages. Among the ralibis of Rome may be men-
tioned Raphael de Latas {e. 1670), who was in per-
sonal intercourse with Bartolocci and corresponded
with Samuel Aboab of Venice. In the succeeding
centuries there appear to have been many mem-
bers of the family of Lattes in Piedmont, especially
at Chieri. Isaac b. Joshua, author of a commen-
tary to the Midrash (Chieri, 1629; Steinschneider,
"Cat. Bodl." col. 2862), was rabbi at Chieri about
1630.

Bibliography: Vogelstein and Rieger, Gcxcli. der Juden in
Bom, ii. 104-105; EpUtolario di S. D. Lmzatto, passim.

D. I. E.

Isaac ben Jacob Lattes : Lived in Provence ;
wrote, in 1340, "Toledot Yizhak," in which he
gives valuable information concerning other Pro-
vencal autliors and discusses the history of tra-
dition. This work is known also by the name
"Sha'are Ziyyon " (ed. Buber, Yaroslav, 1885). He
wrote also "Kiryat Sefer," a commentary on the
Pentateuch (Benjacob, "Ozar haSefarim"; Zunz,
"Z. G." p. 479; Buber, in the preface to "Sha'are
Ziyyon"). ' E. L.

Isaac Joshua ben Immanuel Lattes. See
Isaac Joshua ben Im.manuel de Lattes.

Isaac ben Judah Lattes : French Talmudist
and physician; lived in the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries. He visited Perpignan in 1303, and
later settled there as a physician. Aside from his
medical practise, he was engaged in Talmudic,
astronomic, and other scientitic studies, and is said
to have written works thereon. He can not have
gone deeply into natural science, however; for, like
many of his contemporaries Avho believed in tlie
marvelous powers of amulets, Isaac, when his art as
a physician failed him, also employed a talisman,
one of stone on which a lion was engraved. He
tliereby occasioned a great controversy between
Abba Mari of Perpignan and Solomon hen Ad ret,
in the course of which Isaac, who claimed to be an
advocate of science within Judaism, incurred the
most bitter reproaches of Abba Mari.

Isaac tigured in another controversy between
Abba Mari and Solomon ben Adret, which was much
more important and far-reaching. Abba Mari re-
quested Solomon ben Adret to forbid, under ]->ain of
excommunication, fice investisjation and the nursuit

of scientilic studies, to which the latter, after much
iiesitation, consented. But as soon as the all'air be-
came known, the most prominent members of the
community of Perpignan objected. Abba Mari,
disappointed in his expectations, drew up a pefition
signed by si'veral members, to i)rove to Adret that
he did not stand alone in his opinion. Among the
signatures was that of Isaac, proving that he sided
with Abba Mari. This did not prevent him, how-
ever, from likewise signing the letter that the ra-
tionalists addressed to Solomon ben Adret to induce
him to change his mind. It is difficult to under-
stand what caused Isaac to act in this inconsistent
manner, which .iustly exasperated Abba Mari.

BiBLiOfiRAPiiY : Mivhnt Kena'nt, Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 23, 36, 43 ; Re-
nan-Neubauer, Les 'Rahhins Fra xfrtiX pp. 52:^ 628, 664, 692;
Zunz, Z. (t. p. 479; Gross, OalUa Judaica, p. 265.
s. s. A. Pe.

Jacob b. Immanuel Lattes. See Bonet de

Lates.

Jacob ben Isaac Lattes: Talmudist; father
of Isaac ben Jacob Lattes; lived about 1340 (Zunz,
"Z. G." p. 479).

Joseph Lattes : Italian rabbi ; born at Turin
1811; died at Reggio 1880. He received the rab-
binical diploma at the age of nineteen, and was suc-
cessively ral)bi at Moncalvo, Chieri, and (from 1857)
Reggio. Especially devoted to the cause of educa-
tion, he was sent as a provincial delegate to the con-
gress of teachers held at Turin in 1874; his active
participation in its deliberations won for him the
title of " Cavaliere." He was an advocate of crema-
tion, but there being no crematory at Reggio he left
orders for his body to be buried in quicklime (" II
Vessillo Israelitico," 1880, pp. 150, 187).

V. E. L.

Judah ben Jacob Lattes : French rabbi and
rituali.st of the thirteenth century. He was the
author of a work entitled "Ba'al Asufot," responsa
and ritual decisions. Gross ("Monatsschrift," xviii.
536) thinks that this work is quoted in the "Orhot
Hayyim" (Giinzburg 3IS. 124a) under the title
"Sefer ha- Asufot," sometimes confounded with the
" Asufot " written by a German author. The " Ba'al
Asufot" is quoted by Isaac Lattes in his "Sha'are
Ziyyon "(p. 73), and the author of the former quotes
many rabbis of Provence. Extracts from the " Ba'al
Asufot " were published by S. D. Luzzatto in Ber-
liner's "Magazin" (iv. 73 et seq., Hebr. part). Gc-
daliah ibn Yahya ("Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah "), fol-
lowed by Zunz ("Z. G." p. 481), erroneously attrib-
utes tlie "Ba'al Asufot" to Judah's grandfather,
Isaac b. Elijah of Carcassonne.

Bibltooraphy: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 265; Fuenn, Kene-
set Yiftracl, 420.
D. M. Sel.

Moses Lattes: Son of Abraham Lattes; born
at Venice 1846; died as the result of an accident in
1883 near Lake Lecco, where he had gone to recover
from a severe illness; studied in the rabbinical col-
lege of Padua, graduating in 1863. In 1869 he
published, in Hebrew, "De Vita et Scriptis Elise
Capsalii," which he dedicated to his father. After
his fatlier's death he acted as temporary rabbi for
six months, and then resigned, principally that he
might devote himself wholly to study. He applied

629

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lattes
Lautenburgr

liimself to the investigation of old documents, a
large number of which he published, either in part
or entire, in the "Archivio Veneto" and in the
periodicals "Mose," "II Vessillo Israclitico," and
"Revue des Etudes Juives." He published also
an independent collection of the documents which
bad appeared in "Mose," entitled "Notizie e Docu-
menti di Litteratura e Storia Giudaica " (Padua,
1879). He became especially well known through
his studies on the language of the Talmud. His
first work, "Saggio di Giunte e Correzioni al Les-
sico Talmudico " (Turin, 1879), was printed with the
proceedings of the Royal Academy of Turin. His
"Nuovo Saggio di Giunte e Correzioni al Lessico
Talmudico" (Rome, 1881) won for him honorable
mention in the Accademla del Lincei. He had col-
lected material for many other works when death
prematurely ended his career.

Bibliography : Miscellanea Postuma del Dr. Rahh. M. Lat-
tas, Milan, 1884 (edited by Elijah and Alessandro Lattes).
D. E. L.

Moses b. Immanuel Lattes: Rabbi at Rome
about 1570. When the Jews were ordered into the
ghetto at Rome, he assisted in the organization of
the community thereby created. Thus, he signed a
decree imposing severe penalties upon any one as-
sailing by word or deed the dignity of the directors
of the community.

Bibliography: Berliner, Gesch. der Judenin Bom, 2ded.,
li. 34 ; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii.
262.

V. I. E.

LAUB, FERDINAND: Austrian violinist;
born at Prague Jan. 19, 1832 ; died March 17, 1875,
at Gries, near Bozen, Tyrol. He received his early
musical education from his father, and when a
young boy displayed a remarkable talent for music
which aroused the interest of some musical celebri-
ties, one of whom, Moritz Mildner, undertook the
boy's future education. Laub received from the
archduke Stephan a letter of recommendation to
some musical notables in Vienna, whither the young
man went in 1847, and there gave some very suc-
cessful concerts. Thence he traveled to Paris, giv-
ing en route concerts at the principal towns of south-
ern Germany.

Laub visited London for the first time in 1851 ; two
years later he succeeded Joachim as " Concertmeister "
in the Academy of Music at Weimar, and resigned
this position in 1855 to become a teacher of the vio-
lin at the Conservatory in Berlin under the super-
vision of Stern and Marx. The following year he
became " Concertmeister " of the royal orchestra and
royal chamber virtuoso, in which capacity he gave
a series of chamber concerts at which a number of
classical and modern quartets were introduced, and
which added considerably to his reputation.

In 1864 Laub joined Carlotta Patti, Jaell, and
Kellermann in a long concert tour through the
Netherlands and southern Germany. Two years
later he became professor of the violin at the Con-
servatory in Moscow, and leader of the Ru.ssian
Musical Society's concerts in that city. In 1874 ill
health compelled him to resign these appointments
He composed an opera, "Die Griesbacker " ; an
"Elegie"; two collections of Czech melodies; a
"Polonaise"; and other solo pieces for the violin.

Of these compositions the one now most frequently
lieard is his "Polonaise."

Bibliography : Ehrlirh-Lepge, Celebrated Violiniists Past
and Present, 1897, pp. 129-131.

^ B. T.

LAUBHtJTTE, DIE. See Pebiodicai.s.
LAUCHHEIMER, CHARLES HENRY :

American naval othcer; born al Baltinun-e, Md.,
Sept. 22, 1859. In 1881 he graduated from the
United States Naval Academy at Annapolis ; in 1884
he took the degree of LL.B. at Columbia University.
He attained the rank of first lieutenant in 1890, that
of captain in 1898, and for the last three years has
been major in the United States Marine Corps. He
is the author of " Naval Courts and Naval Law "
(1896) and " Forms of Procedure for Naval Courts
and Boards" (1896; revised and enlarged, 1902).

A.
LAURENCE, RICHARD: English Christian
Hebraist; born in Bath 1760; died in Dublin 1838.
He was made regius professor of Hebrew and canon
of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1814, and Arciibishop
of Casliel, Ireland, in 1822. His chief contribution
to Biblical scholarship was his study of the Ethiopic
versions of certain pseudepigrapha: "Ascensio
Isaiae Vatis" (Oxford, 1819); "Primi Ezra? Libri
. . . Versio ^thiopica " {ih. 1820) ; " The Book of
Enoch the Prophet " (ib. 1821 ; other ed. 1832, 1838),
from a manuscript in the Bodleian Library brought
from Abyssinia by Bruce; these were all provided
with Latin and English translations. Though these
editions have been superseded, through the discov-
ery of better texts and the employment of better
critical methods, Laurence is entitled to the credit
of having revived the study of Ethiopic, which had
been neglected in England since the time of Walton.
He published also "The Book of Job" (Dublin,
1828) — the Authorized Version, arranged in conform-
ity with the Masoretic text.

Bibliography : Dictionary of National Biography.

T.
LAXJRIN. See Dam.\scus Affair.

LAUTENBURG, SIGMTJND: Theatrical
manager; born at Budapest Sept. 11, 1852. In con-
sequence of the poverty of his parents, he was
obliged to interrupt his studies at the "Realschule"
at the age of twelve to enter a banking-house. He
neglected his business, however, for the theater, to
which he was enthusiastically devoted. An uncle
then took him to Vienna, where he continued his
studies at the Akademische Gymnasium ; but here
again the theater was a greater attraction for him
than the school. Under these circumstances he de-
cided to devote himself entirelj' to the dramatic art,
and in 1871 he made his debut in Schiller's "Kabale
und Liebe " at Neusohl, Hungary. In 1873 he was
engaged for a short time at the Kftnigstadtische
Theater, Berlin, and then played in Elberfeld and
Barmen for two years. On returning to his native
city, he was engaged at the Deutsche Theater.
Soon afterward he became director of various thea-
ters in Amsterdam, Bremen, and Llibcck, and in
1887 he became general manager of the Residenzthe-
ater, Berlin, which position he still (1904) occupies.

Bibliqijraph V : Eisenberg, Da.« Gevftige Berlin, 1897, pp. 286-
289; idem, Btthncnlc-rihon, 1903.

Liauterbach.
liaver

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

630

LAUTERBACH, EDWARD : American law-
yer; born in New York city Aug. 13, 1844; gradu-
ated from tlie College of the City of New York in
1864; admitted to the bar two years later. He was
a member of the New York Constitutional Conven-
tion in 1864 and chairman of its Committee on Char-
ities. From 189.") to 1898 he was chairman of the
Republican County Committee. He is president of
the board of trustees of the College of the City of
New Yoik, and director of man}' railroad boards
and street railway companies, and vice-president of
the Maurice Grau Opera Company. He is a special-
ist in railway, telegraph, and marine cases, was con-
cerned in the rehabilitation of the Philadelphia and
Reading Railroad and in l)uil(ling up the Richmond
and West Point Terminal System, and is vice-presi-
dent of, and coupsel for, the Pacific Mail Steamship

at Prohobicz, has also contributed to many peri-
odicals.

BIBLIOGRAPIIV: Zeitliii. Dihl. Pu^t-McHdch. p. 192.

s. B. P.

LAVATER, JOHN CASPAR. See Mkndels-

soiiN, Moses.

LAVER (ira) : Vessel used for ritual ablutions.
The laver in the Tabernacle consisted of two parts,
a basin and a stand ("ken"; E.x. xxx. 18 et al.).
It Avas made of the brass from the mirrors given
by the women who served in the Sanctuary (Ex.
xxxviii. 8), and stood between the door of the Tab-
ernacle and the altar of burnt olTering. It wiis
placed there that Aaron and his sons might wash
their hands and feet bc^fore entering the Tabernacle
(Ex. xxx. 19-21). Nothing is said as to its size or
siiape. In the court of Solomon's Temple ten

Laver and Basi.n.

(In the possession of Maurice Herrmann, New York.)

Company. For three years he was vice-president of
the Ethical Culture Society. Lauterbach is also a
director of the Hebrew Benevolent and Orphan
Asylum and of the Hebrew Technical Institute.

BiBLiOfJRAPHY: ir/io's WJu) ill America.

LAUTERBACH, SELIG : Galician writer; born
at Droholjicz Jan. 25, 1826; known as the author of
the following works: "Minhat Kohen," in two vol-
umes (Drohobicz, 1882), the first discussing the
proper names of the Old Testament, the second the
Jewish colonization of the Holy Land ; " Ha-Mishpat
le-Elohim," annotations on the Talmud, ^lidrash, and
Biblical explanations and novelhe (publi.shed in " Ila-
Nesher,"iii.); "Ha-Nistarot welia-Niglot," on magic
and sorcery in tlie Talmud and Midrash (Vienna,
1871). Lauterbach, who is engaged in business

la vers of bronze were established, five on the right
and five on the left, facing eastward (I Kings vii.
27-39). They were used for
the cleansing of the entrails
and feet of the animals sac-
rificed (Josephus, "Ant.'"
viii. 3, ^ 6; comp. II Chron.
iv. 6), while the "brazen
sea " served the purpose of
the laver of the Tabernacle.
As far as can be made out
from the detailed but not
entirely clear and intelligi-
ble descriptions of I Kings
and Josephus, and from
comparing similar vessels represented on Assyrian
monuments, the lavers had bases ("mekonot"), in

Obverse of a Bar Kokba
Coin, Bearing a Laver.

(After Madden.)

Later Consisting of Ewer and Basin.

(In the possession of B. L. Cohen, London.)

Laver Consisting of Ewer and Basin.

(In the Synagogue »1 Ramsg«le, En land.)

liaver
Law, Civil

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

632

Laver and Basin.

(Id the British Museum, London.)

two parts or divisions. The lower part consisted of
a square framework, the sides being a kind of open
lattice-work ("misgerot" and "shelabbim"). At
the corners of this frame were " shoulders " (" kete-
fot "), in which were fixed the axles on which
the wheels turned. These bases were each
four cubits long, four broad, and three high
(Josephus and the LXX. give somewhat
different measurements), while the wheels
were each one and one-half cubits in diameter.
Upon these bases were set round pedestals
(I Kings vii. 31, 35), each half a cubit in
height, one and one-half cubits across, and
one cubit on the inside ; the pedestals rested on
supports ("yadot" = "hands") springing, as
it seems, from the lower square base (comp.
Stade's "Zeitschrift," xxi. 150 et seq.; No-
■wack, "Lehrbuchder Hebr. Archaologie," ii.
44-46). The panels and stays were orna-
mented with figures of lions, oxen, cherubim,
and wreaths. The lavers proper, or basins,
were four cubits in diameter, and had a
capacity of "forty baths" (== 52 cubic feet),
being therefore about two feet high.

In the Second Temple there was only one
laver of brass, which served the same pur-
pose as that of the Tabernacle, namely, for
the priests to wash the hands and feet
(Tam. i 2, ii. 1 ; Mid. iii. G). Ac:ording to
Yoma 37a, Katin supplied it with twelve
spigots ("daddim," lit. "breasts"), it having
had only two before, and with some contri-
vance for letting the water in and out. Of its
size and shape no information is given. No
mention is made of the laver in the Tem-
ple of Herod.

The holiness of the priests and Levites
was transferred to the whole people after
the destruction of the Temple, and prayer
took the place of sacrifices. Hence the in-
stitution of the washing of hands before
prayer. The antiquity of the custom among
the Jews is evidenced by its mention in the
epistle of pseudo-Aristeas (comp. ed. Moritz
Schmidt, p. 67; comp. also Judith xii. 7;
Clement of Alexandria, "Stromata," iv. 22,
144; Sibyllines, iii. 591-593). Orthodox syn-
agogues, therefore, have a laver either in
the anteroom or in the court. The form
and material of the synagogue laver vary.
Usually it is of copper, barrel-like in shape,
with a spout near the bottom from which
the water is allowed lo run over the hands
into a receptacle underneath. The strict
regulations for washing the hands before
meals do not obtain in regard to prayer;
it is only required to moisten the hands to
the wrists and recite the benediction (" 'al
netilat yadayim . . .") while drying them
("Yad," Tefillin, iv. 2). For the washing
of the priests' hands by the Levites before the
blessing of the congregation (" dukan " ; comp.
Sotah 39a; Num. R. xi. 4) a ewer and basin
are used. See Ablution ; Levites ; Priest.

Bibliography: H. G. Clemens, De Labro ^neo,
Utrecht, 172.3; B. F. Quintorp, De Speculis Lahri
^^neU Greifswald, 1773; Llghtfoot, Descr. Temp. c. 37, 1;
Vitringa, De Sr/nagoga Vctere, pp. 1091, 1105 ; Bahr, Synv-
bolik ties yim^aischcn Citlhis, 2d ed., 1. 583; idem, Salomons
Tempeh pp. 214, 222; Keil, Tempel Salnmos, p. 118.

I. M. C.

Laver from Tunis.

(In the United Sutes National Moseam, Washineton, D. C.)

633

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Laver
Law, Civil

LAW, CIVIL: That system of jurisprudence
established by tlie people of a state or nation for
their government as citizens as distinguished from
criminal law, which. defines crimes and their punish-
ment, and from ecclesiastical law, which regidates
matters of church and religion. The distinction im-
plied in this division of the subject did not exist in
the old Jewish law, which knew no dilference be-
tween the obligation to do right to man by respect-

Laver.

(In theShearith Israel Synagogue, New York,)

ing his person and property and the obligation to
do right to God by offering Him the proper and
customary devotion and sacrifice. All these obli-
gations were regulated by a body of legal rules or
customs, and were equally sacred because they had
the same sanction, namely, the command of God.

The law originated in ancient customs, recognized
among the nomadic people before any well-defined
legal system or code came into existence. The
books of Genesis and Judges, where a condition
of society is described in which "every man did
Avhat seemed right in his own eyes," illustrate this
(Judges xvii. 6). The customs of this stage of soci-
ety will be found to refer principally to the fam-
ily relations, to the simplest forms of
Ancient trade, and to the regulation of pas-
Custom, turage. The family was the unit of
this society, hence the preponderance
of customs relating to it. The relations of husband
and wife, parent and child, the regulations concern-
ing family property, slavery, and the rights and

duties of kinsmen to each other, are tlio chief sub-
jects which ancient patriarchal cu.stoms regulated.
These ancient family and tribal customs are vari-
ously treated by the T(jrah. Some arc preserved,
and thus receive the sanction of law ; someare abol-
islied; and others are merely modified. Many of
these customs are not alluded to in the Torah," but
persisted as a part of the unwritten, oral law down
to the Talmudic period, when they were committed
to writing. The antiquity of the oral law is attested
by various authorities. The Mishnah (Ab. i. 1), as
explained by Maimonides in the introduction to the
"Yad," ascribes the oral law to Moses, from whom
it descended through au unbroken line of authorities
to the latest times. This theory is substantially the
same as that by which the origin of the English
common law is explained. The law is supposed to
have existed since time immemorial in the breasts of
the judges, awaiting the case in which it was to
be first applied.

After the period of the supremacy of ancient tribal
customs came the Torah, containing codes of law (;n
various subjects. Here is the first law in the mod-
ern sense, a series of statutes and ordinances suc-
cinctly expressed and written down by the author-
ity of a lawgiver. The Torah legislates for a stage
of society higher than that of the nomad. It is in-
tended for a people settled on the soil and devoted
largely to agriculture. Herein will be found its
limitations. It knows little of commerce or contract
in the modern sense; its regulations are compara-
tively primitive and are expressed in terse sentences
and with little comment. The simplicity of the
Biblical civil law is best illustrated by the fact that
it is all contained in fifteen chapters of the Bible,
and in some of these chapters occupies the space of
only a few verses. The bulk of the civil law is found
in two codes (Ex. xxi.-xxiii. and Deut. xxi.-xxv.)
concerning slaves, land, inheritance,
Civil Law pledges, loans and interest, bailments,
in the Pen- torts, marriage and divorce, and legal
tateuch. procedure. Exodus xviii. and Deuter-
onomy xvii. treat of the constitution
and jurisdiction of the courts; Leviticus xxv. and
Deuteronomy xv. treat of the laws of the jubilee, of
the Sabbatical year, and of ransom; Leviticus xix.
treats of the poor-laws, and Kumbers xxvii. and
xxxvi. of the laws of inheritance. This is substan-
tially the entire Biblical civil law, which grew to
enormous bulk in the Talmud.

That these laws Avere intended for an agricultural
people is obvious. The sale of land was not favored,
because land was substantially the sole means of
support of the people, and its easy transfer would
have resulted in the impoverishment of sellers and
the creation of great landed estates, a condition of
things that actually supervened in the times of the
kings, and was made the target of prophetic cen-
sure. Hence the lawgiver instituted the Sabbatical
year and the jubilee, preventing this consecpience
of free alienation of land. On the other hand, the
laws of inheritance prevented the too minute subdi-
vision of the land, by excluding the daughters from
a share unless there were no sons. Personal ]>rop-
erty other than that which is incident to the land,
such as cattle, is hardlv mentioned, and there are

Law, Civil

LiSi-w, Codification of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

634

no regulations coucerning its transfer except the
general injunction to be just in weights and meas-
ures (Lev. xix. 35; Deut. xxv. 14, 15). Written
contracts were unlinown ; all transactions were sim-
ple, and were easily made a matter of public record
by being accompanied by the performance of some
formal act in the presence of witnesses. Legal proc-
ess was likewise simple: the judges spoke in the name
of God (Ex. xxii. 7, where the Hebrew has " Elohim "
as the original of the A. V. rendering "judges "), and
it is not unlikely that the judgment of Solomon
fairly represents the simple and direct method pur-
sued by them in seeking to do justice. In doubtful
cases the "oath of the Lord " (Ex. xxii. 11) was ad-
ministered to settle the matter.

As mentioned above, the old notions restricting the
transfer of land gave way during the reign of the
kings before the power of the king and the nobles. It
is quite probable that the changes in the law during
tliat time were numerous and radical, although the
chroniclers who handed down the records of the
books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles say nothing
of such changes. One significant illustration of this
change is preserved. When Jeremiah bought the
field of Hanameel, the simplicity of the earlier days
when Abraham bought Machpelah or when Boaz
bought the lands of Elimelech had given way to
the more modern procedure of preparing a written
deed of oonveyance (Jer. xxxii. 9-10).

The Babylonian captivit}' probably influenced
the development of the Jewish civil law both in sub-
stantive law and in procedure. The long residence
of the Jews under Persian dominion left its impress
on their jurisprudence, just as in the following cen-
turies the Greeks and Romans successively contrib-
uted to its development. On the return from the
Captivity, the intiuences which under the monarchy
had resulted in breaking down the old land system
Avere no longer in actual operation, but new condi-
tions promoted the same result. The people were
now reduced to a small community, were in need
of ready money to pay taxes and tribute to a foreign
master, and were on the great com-
After the mercial highroad between Egypt,
Exile. Syria, and Persia. Accordingly they
began to engage in commerce to a
larger extent than before. These influences suc-
ceeded in preventing the reestablishment of the old
land laws. There was less need of the soil as a
source of livelihood and more need of freedom of
alienation. Even the effect of the Biblical law of
the Sabbatical year was nullified, so far as the col-
lection of debts was concerned, by the ordinance of
Hillel (see Proshui.)- The jubilee was never rein-
stituted after the Captivity ('Ar. 32b), and many of
the land laws connected with it fell into abeyance
("Yad," Shemittah, x. 9).

Contemporaneous with this decline of the laws
relating to the soil was the origin of the great
body of law relating to personal rights and obliga-
tions, the law of contract. The people were now
by force of circumstances compelled to play an im-
portant part in the affairs of the world at large, and
this, together with the growth of their commercial
activity, created sweeping changes in the law.
Persian, Greek, and Roman supremacy successively

influenced not merely the politics, but also the law
of Judea. Numerous branches of the law were cre-
ated during the period from the return from Baby-
lonian captivity to the destruction of the Second
Temple. The number of foreign technical legal
terms adopted by the Jewish law indicates the im-
portant part that foreign systems played in its de-
velopment.

This great change took place during the period
of the formation of the Mishnah, which was codified
at the end of the second century of the Christian
era, but its laws run back to remote times, many
of them to the period before the Captivity. The
Mi.shnali contains the old common law of the Jews
together with the additions made thereto during the
five hundred years immediately before the Christian

era, and the rabbinical amplifications

The of these laws made during the first

Mishnah. two hundred Christian years. The old

law, which had developed under agri-
cultural conditions, was characterized by its prohib-
itive enactments. "Thou shalt not" is its key-note.
It was concerned chiefl}' with guarding the rights of
persons. The new law, which was afterward gath-
ered and written down in the Mishnah, was manda-
tory rather than prohibitive. It was chiefly con-
cerned with the enforcement of rights created by
contract, express or implied. Thus, the new law
was the necessary complement to the old law of
the Torali; and so great was the veneration in which
the Torah was held that the rabbinical lawyers,
ignoring the fact that the laws of the later period
had sprung up independently of the Torah, or per-
haps unconscious of this fact, sought to find the ori-
gin of all these laws in the words of the Torah.
Much of the law which had arisen after the Captiv-
ity, or even earlier, was based upon customs which
were found to be at variance with the words of the
Torah ; and when the Rabbis became conscious of
this discrepancy they attempted to reconcile with
those words the practise which had been made ob-
ligatory b)' reason of long-coctinued usage. Herein
the}" displayed their greatest ingenuity, for although
in theory they did not go beyond tradition, and cer-
tainly would not advisedly have overruled the sacred
laws of the Torah, yet the necessities of the situation
drove them far beyond these self-imposed limits to
their activity, and they acted with the practical in-
dependence of modern lawmakers, although with
theoretical subservience to the domination of the
written word.

An examination of the contents of the civil law of
the Mishnah will illustrate what has been said. The
civil law will be found principally in the first, third,
and fourth orders of the Mishnah. The first order,
Zera'im ("Seeds"), contains many laws relating to
tiie land — the old Biblical law and its amplifications.
The third order, Nashim ("Women"), treats of
marriage and divorce, marriage settlements, and
property rights arising out of the marriage relation.
The fourth order, Nezikin (" Damages "), treats prin-
cipally of the civil law. It contains the divisions
Sanhedrin, Shebu'ot, and Horayot, which treat of
the courts, and of administration of oaths and legal
procedure generally, as well as of the effect of judi-
cial decisions. The divisions Baba ]S[a.\ima (" First

635

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEIJIA

Law, Civil

Law, Codification of

Gate"), Baba Mezi'a ("Middle Gate''), aud Baba
Batua ("Last Gate ") contain the bulk- of the civil
law.

The attempt to trace back tliis huge body of juris-
prudence to the Torah and its few simple laws re-
sulted in the development of a peculiar Talmudical
system of reasoning. At times with superficiality,
more often with great thoioughuess, always with ear-
nestness and zeal, Biblical legal principles were ex-
amined, traditions reviewed, opinions
Based on and cases dissected, analogies discov-
the Torah, ered, diiferences glossed over, in the at-
tempt to preserve the unbroken unity
and continuity of the law aud to reconcile the irrecon-
cilable. The practical effect of this enormous intel-
lectual output of the Talmudic legal mind was to
establish a great system of law theoretically based
on the Torah, but containing the inherent power of
adapting itself to the changing conditions of life.
It rested upon the theory that all possible modifica-
tions of the law had been foreseen at the beginning,
and that when once uttered by an authority ex cathe-
dra, they took their place naturally in the system,
as though they had been there since time immemo-
rial. "Even that which an able student [p^ni ^^oSnJ
may hereafter expound before his master has already
been communicated [by God] to Moses on 8inai "
(Yer. IVIeg. iv. 74d ; Lev. R. xxii.). The peculiar
system of Talmudical hermeueutics contributed
largely to this result. The discussion and argu-
ments of the rabbinical authorities are preserved in
the Gcinara, which together with the Mishnah forms
the Talmud. The Gemara was compiled about
three hundred years after the Mishnah, and the gen-
erations of Rabbis who followed devoted their tal-
ents to the interpretation of the Talmud and the ap-
plication of its principles and decisions to the new
casQS which arose. The volume of the civil law
grew apace. In Europe, Asia, and Africa scholars
and judges were adding to its bulk. Steinschneider
divides these additions to the law into five classes:

(1) Commentaries on the Talmud.

(2) Tosafot (glosses and additions to the Talmud
and its commentaries) ; Nimukim (notes) ; and Hid-
dushe Halakot (the novella? of the Spanish, Italian,
and modern schools).

{■]) Likkutlm (collectanea) ; Kobezim (compilations
of laws) : Ki/.zurim (compendiums for practical use).

(4) Pesakim (decisions of actual cases) ; Teshubot
(responsa, legal opinions rendered in response to
some "she'elah" [question] submitted upon a given
state of facts) ; Dinim (ru]es of law) ; Takkanot (ordi-
nances referring principally to communal matters).

(■")) Independent works on the entire subject of
the law, or on different branches of it.

The most important of these for the development
of the civil law were the teshubot. As these were
opinions on actual cases thej^ were, to a large extent,
kept free from theoretical speculation. Tiiey were
usually extended discussions of the law in general
applicable to the case, followed by a decision of the
point involved. The tosafot, which are the work
of the authorities of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies in France, Germany, and Italy, are also of
very great importance, and are usually printed in
the common editions of the Talmud with the text.

Two other great codes of the law require notice
Maimonides' "Mishneh Torah "(Second Law), known
as the "Yad ha-Hazakah " (Strong Hand), which
belongs to the twelfth century, and Caro's "Shul-
hau 'Aruk" (Prepared Table), which belongs to the
sixteenth century. The code of Maimonides resem-
bles the modern law code in its order-
The Codes, liness, and tlie "Shulhan 'Aruk" is
largely modeled upon the same plan.
In each of these codes the law was brought up to
date, and since the compilation of the latter, various
commentaries have been written to include the la-
ter literature, especially the responsa. One of the
most important of these is the " Pithe Teshubah "
(Gates of Repentance— a play on the word " Teshu-
bah ") of R. Abraham Ei-senstadt (1836). This is a
collection of decisions from the literature of the
teshubot arranged according to Vhe text of the
"Shulhan 'Aruk," and usually printed with the
latter.

The civil law is still administered by the Jewish
tribunals in different countries; and even in those
countriesin which, in civil matters, thecourtsof the
land have superseded these tribunals, the Jewish
law is still administered by the latter whenever liti-
gants submit to their jurisdiction.

K. D. W. A.

LAW, CODIFICATION OF: A unified and
coordinated body of laAv superseding all previous
laws Avithin its scope, or the reenactment of existing
law in a .systematic and improved form. There
are few Jewish codes under the first head, but many
under the second. The Jewish term "law" in-
cludes much more than is commonly comprehended
under that name; therefore the material that is found
in JewLsh codes is of various kinds, and different por-
tions of it have frequently been treated in various
legal works. The originators of the Biblical laws
were well aware of the difference between juridical,
ceremonial, and moral law, as is proved by the num-
ber of synonyms for " law " found in Scripture. For
although these synonyms were in the course of time
used without distinction, yet there is no doubt that
they originally indicated different classes of laws,
the original differentiation being lost when the laws
were traced back to one divine origin.
Definition. In the Pentateuch the word " Torah " is
used to designate all precepts, regula-
tions, commands, and proliibitions which were con-
sidered authoritative because they were of divine,
or, at least, of holy origin, whether they were moral
maxims, ceremonial usages, or legal decisions. Sim-
ilai'ly in subsequent Talmudic times everv regulation
or teaching of the Bible was called a " miz wah, " since,
being decreed (= " ziwwah ") by God, it was re-
garded as oblisratory. Hence Jewish codes include
not only jurisprudence, but also theology, ethics,
and rituiil ; but there are only a few codes which
include the whole Law, the field covered being so
vast.

According to tradition all the regulations found
in the Pentateuch were given by Moses to Israel at
the command of God. hence the Torah includes only
one code; but modern Bible criticism, whose results
are still open to revision, finds in the Pentateuch at

Law, Codification of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

636

least four different codes, ascribable to different
epochs and authors. It must be noted, however,
that the question concerning the time
The First in whicli the Law was committed to
Code. writing is independent of the question
as to the date of its origin. Israel was
a " People of the Word " long before it was a " Peo-
ple of the Book," and the laws of the Hebrews, like
those of most other nations, were written down
only after they had been in force for a long time.

From a certain point of view the Decalogue in
its various forms may be regarded as a code, but is
really only the rough outline of the principles un-
derlying the earlier legislation. Ex. xxi.-xxiii. 19
contains a code which was collected and arranged as
a manual for the judge, furnishing rules to guide
him in his decisions. In the wording of the super-
scription— "Now these are the judgments which
thou slialt set before them" (Ex. xxi. 1) — this sec-
tion is clearly designated as a code, and its literary
form also, aside from some later interpolations, is
tliat of a code.

The laws treated in this "Book of the Covenant,"
as the section is now commonly called, are manifold
in nature. They may, nevertheless, be divided into
two chief groups: (1) enactments relating to civil
and criminal law (xxi. 3-xxii. 16), and (2) moral, re-
ligious, and ceremonial enactments (xxii. 17-xxiii.
19). Although the people for whom these laws were
made were no longer nomads, their institutions were
still very primitive. The criminal and civil admin-
istration of justice corresponded on the whole to
that still obtaining among the Arabs of the desert.
The religious and moral point of view, however, ex-
pressed in this code was new and specifically Jew-
ish. It is the duty of every person to protect the
poor and strangers ; relief of the needy, as well as
love of truth, is enjoined on the ground that God
is the " merciful one " (xxii. 26). This advanced
religious and moral point of view, which is not in
keeping with the primitive character of the jurispru-
dence displayed in the code, leads to the assumption
that the laws originated a long time prior to the
date at which the code was committed to writing.
In antiquity as in modern times, the administration
of justice did not always keep pace with ethics.
The Book of the Covenant as well as the Decalogue
is older than those sources of the Pentateuch that
are designated as JE; hence these codes may be
classed in one group and designated "the primitive
codes" ; that is, the codes which had been committed
to writing earlier than the eighth century B.C.

The legal part of Deuteronomy must be considered
as a different kind of code, including more than
three-fourths of the primitive codes and much other
matter, especially religious and moral, not found in
the earlier ones. It is characteristic of the " Deutero-
nomic Code " that it is intended for the whole na-
tion, and not for special classes — priests or judges.
Hence many technical points are omitted, as, fre-
quently, the exact nature of the punisliment for an
offense, which neither would interest the people nor
would its repetition be needed by the judge, since
at the time of the Deuteronomist he would be en-
tirely familiar with the code especially intended Tor
him. In other respects, however, the Deuteronomist

is, naturally, very explicit, for he lived in a time
when the organization of society was much more
complex than it had been in previous centuries, and
when new conditions were constantly arising which
required special legislation.

The centuries between the time when the primi-
tive codes were committed to writing and the time
of the Deuteronomist were the period of activity
of the greater prophets, whose influence (m leg-
islation is apparent. Hence many laws in Deuter-
onomy derived from the old codes show material
revision. Thus the father's authority over his minor
daughter is largely curtailed. Deut. xv. 12, in con-
tradiction to Ex. xxi. 7, orders that a daughter sold
into slavery by her father shall be free in the sev-
enth year, and that during her time of service she
can not be forced by her master to be-
Character- come his wife. But though the Deu-
istics of teronomic code, in comparison with
the Deu- the primitive codes, represents on the
teronomic whole a great advance in rehgious and
Code. moral matters, its laws being distin-
guished by their humanitarian spirit,
still there are many provisions that make the later
code appear at first glance much more severe than its
predecessors. Formerly it had been decreed that he
who sacrifices to strange gods shall be excommuni-
cated (Ex. xxii. 19): in Deuteronomy such an offense
is punished by death (xvii. 5), equally severe pun-
ishment being meted out to one who leads astray
into apostasy or magic. But it is easy to under-
stand this rigor of the new code in view of the fact
that, shortly before it was compiled, the ruling party
in Judea, supported by the authority of the godless
king Manasseh, attempted to destroy utterly the
followers of God. The opposing party under Josiah
could not count on victory unless it proceeded
with utmost rigor against idolaters, for by such
means only could it hope to counteract the influence
of those who had betrayed their faith. Expressed
antagonism to heathendom is one of the most prom-
inent characteristics of this code; the centralization
of worship in one place — Jerusalem — as well as many
other provisions, is explicable only from such an
attitude. In consequence of the close connection
between the ceremonial and the legal aspects of
Jewish law, the religious point of view of this code
influenced the social legislation also. The institu-
tion of cities of refuge in Deuteronomy (iv. 41-48) is
closely connected with the abolition of the local
sanctuaries which formerly afforded protection
(Ex. xxi. 13).

The Deuteronomic code, notwithstanding its many
peculiarities, can not properly be designated as a
new code; it represents rather a revised and im-
proved edition of the Book of the Covenant, made
in conformity with the new ideas of
Deutero- the time. Deuteronomy contains very
nomic and few ceremonial and ritual laws not
Primitive found in early sources, and it may also
Codes. be unhesitatingly assumed that even
those few laws which are found there
for the first time were not new at this period, but
had existed long before, and, perhaps, had been
previously committed to writing. Nevertheless it
would be difiicult to overestimate the importance of

637

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

LaTv, Codification of

this code; it is not only a great reformative legal
work, but it is also, in a certain sense, the first au-
thoritative code (see Deutkhonomy). For, prob-
ably, the laws of the primitive codes were geuerallj'
accepted only after a long period of limited usage,
being for many years restricted to particular classes;
for example, to the priests. It was different with
the Deuteronomic code according to the modern
critical view. Under the leadership of King Josiah
(II Kings x.xiii. 3) the whole people agreed to regard
the laws laid down in this code as authoritative. It
is the first book of laws for the people, its predeces-
sors being intended chiefly forjudges and priests;
and if retained this position as the people's code, al-
though it underwent some changes in the course of
time.

Quite a different fate befell a code which was is-
sued by Ezekiel about a century later (Ezek. xl.-
xlviii.); although its originator was an influential
prophet, it never became national. It is concerned
chiefly with the Temple. The theoretic treatment
in Ezelvicl's work is a new and characteristic feature.
Although the laws he formulated could not become
effective, as the Temple was" in ruins at that time,
he nevertheless described in detail the laws of his
future ideal state, in which the Temple was to be
once more the center of the national life. Ezekiel
was not the only man at that time who lived in the
future, for that part of Leviticus which is designated

as the "Holiness Code," or the "Law

Holiness of Holiness" (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.), origi-

Code. nated in this period. In these laws

much stress is laid on the holiness of
God. Compared with the Book of the Covenant,
this code deals much more with moral and ceremonial
regulations than with civil and criminal matters.
The religious as well as ethical point of view is a
very advanced one, and it is especially characteristic
of the Holiness Code that it endeavors to apply the
moral principles of the Decalogue to practical legis-
lation. The ethical injunction "Love t^y neighbor
as th y,self " (Lev. xix. 18) is quoted in connection
with laws intended to protect the rights of the poor.
It must be especially emphasized in regard to this
code that it contains many very ancient laws. P,
the largest code of the Pentateuch, contains even a

greater number. This code includes

The the first part of Leviticus (i.-xvii.).

Priestly most of the legal sections of Num-

Code. bers, some portions of Exodus, and

the section on circumcision in Gen-
esis. It is called "P," in full "Priestly Code,"
because the ceremonial laws relating to sacrifices
and purity constitute the larger part of it. In P,
however, a distinction must be made between (1)
the priestly teaching; that is, all the laws intro-
duced by flip formula "This is the Torah of . . ." ; (2)
the original draft of P; and (3) its later supplements.
The novelty and great importance of this collection
of laws do not, as the name might lead one to be-
lieve, consist in the many regulations pertaining to
sacrifices, most of which were known for centuries
to the priests, but in the fact that this code was an
attempt to realize the idea of Israel as a " people of
priests," each member of which should live like a
priest. This ideal, which filled the minds of its orig-

inators, was not shared by the whole people until
the time of p]zra and Nehennah. About 400 B.C. the
exiles returning from Babylon to Palestine agreed to
observe "the law of Moses"— the laws of P (Neh. x.
29). It is doubted by the critics whefher at this
time the various parts of the Pentateuch were already
combined into a book; but the definitive codification
of Biblical law in any case did not take place later
than 350 B.C. In consequence of the canonization
of the Pentateuch, which proliably took place shortly
after this date, the Law was for a period of time re-
garded as finished.

The period between the canonization of the Penta-
teuch and the time of the Maccabees is known in
rabbinical tradition as the time of the Soferim. The
authority of the Pentateuch had been established,
and the chief task remaining was to
Period of explain the Scriptures and to apply
the correctly to existing conditions the

Soferim. principles laid down therein. Xo
works dealing with the Law were pro-
duced during this time, which, indeed, was singu-
larly deficient in literary effort. It is characteristic
of the period that even the later rabbinical tradition,
ascribing to Biblical times some laws and decisions
of the sages, which really originated much later (see
Oral Law), never refers to works of the time of
the Soferim. But there may have been, for instance,
a collection of important laws dealing with the Tem-
ple and its ritual, and the Mishnah contains prob-
ably some halakot that were originally included in
such collections. But_?t is probable that these old
collections of halakot were never written down.

The earliest code mentioned in post-Biblical times
is the Sadducean "criminal code," which was in
force down to the time of Queen Alexandra (Megillat
Ta'an. iv. ; the explanations given in the scholia are
probably wrong in regard to certain
A particulars, asAVellhausen, " Pharisaer

Sadducean undSadducaer,"p. 63, has pointed out;
Code. yet the fact that the Pharisees cele-
brated the day on Avhich the " Book of
Decisions " was abolished proves that it was an anti-
pharisaic work). The Megillat Ta'anit itself may in
a certain sense be regarded as one of the earliest rab-
binical codes; for the enumeration of the minor holi-
days Qji which fasting was forbidden was under-
taken more in reference to the Halakah than to
history, as the actual deeds commemorated by these
days are in general omitted. At about the time
of the compiling of the Megillat Ta'anit, the be-
ginning of the Christian era, several divisions of
the Halakah were probably codified, even if only a
portion are found in writing. For, although the
Pharisaic classes, for various reasons, were endeav-
oring at that period (see Oral Law) to prevent
written codes from reaching the public, many
scholars had their "megillot setarim " (secret books)
in codified form, in which they entered importimt
passages of the Halakah. Some circles of jiriests
possessed similar rolls, which contained matter of
especial importance to them. The Mishnah, directly
or indirectly, made use of such collections (see Si-
mon OF Mizpah); for there is no longer any dovibt
that it contains halakot which were formulated dur-
ing the days of the Temph', although it can not be

LaM^T, Codification of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

638

demonstrated tliat they were written down in detini-
tive form.

The contrast between Mishnah and Baraita — that
is, between officially recognized subjects taught in
academies and matter that Avas not taught there —
existed as early as the time of Johanan b. Zakkai
(see Bauaita). The pupils of this authority, as well
as some of his younger contemporaries whose
activity falls in tlie period 70-100, undertook
to arrange the immense mass of material that
had accumulated as a result of the activity of
the schools of Shammai and Hillel. The treatises
Yoma, Tamid, and Middot probably date from tliis
time — shortly after the destruction of
The the Temple. Akibab. Joseph's work,

Mishnah of however, is the first that can be defi-

Akiba. nitely identified; his genius for .sys-
tematization led him to begin arran-
ging the different branches of the Jewish learning
of that time, and his work, according to a trust-
worthy tradition, served as guide for the Mishnah,
the fundamental outlines of which may be regarded
as Akiba's work. In addition to Akiba, other tan-
naim were busy at the same time with similar works,
which may also have served in many respects as
models for the editor of the Mishnah. But the first
code dealing with tlie entire material of the Halakah
was compiled only at the end of the second century ;
namely, the Mishnah of Judah ha-Nasi, called briefly
"the Mishnah."

Judah ha-Nasi's work may rightly be considered
as the most important production in the field of
rabbinical code literature, although it does not
correspond either in content or in form with tlie
current view of a code. The Mishnah, it must be
stated by way of explanation, successfully termi-
nated the revolution of Jewish intellectual life,
which, lasting for about two centuries, threatened
to destroy the vital principle of rabbinical Judaism.
Until the time of Shammai and Hillel, tradition, op-
erating unnoticed and peaceably, had determined the
regulation of the religio-legal life in all its depart-
ments. With them it became the subject of author-
itative discussions in the public academies. Practi-
cal questions were replaced by academic discussions,
leading to inquiries into fundamental principles and
to differences of opinion which introduced insecu-
rity into the entire religio-legal life. This uncer-
tainty Avas further increased by the political catas-
trophes which occurred soon after and extended
over a long period ; and it accounts for the contra-
dictory views and sentences of the tannaim of the
second generation. The first attempts to put an end
to this confusion were made toward the end of the
first century of the common era at the synod or
synods of Jabneh, probably under the influence of
Rabban Gamaliel II. (see 'Eduyot). While the de-
cisions of the school of Hillel were adopted as a
theoretical standard, authority was often conceded
in practical matters to the opposing school of Sham-
mai, provided that the choice made between the two
schools was consistently maintained in the whole
conduct of life. Other differences were decided by
a majority vote. Soon, however, it seemed as if the
efforts made at Jabneh had been in vain. No fixed
and determined principles were recognized which

might serve as an authoritative canon in ultimately
determining haiakot as j'et undefined. Another
danger to the Halakah arose from the fact that most
of the prominent tannaim of the third generation con-
ducted schools in which the exi.sting Halakah mate-
rial was taught according to different ortlers. Akiba,
as has been stated, was the first to adopt a certain
standpoint for a systematic and topical arrangement
and redaction of the material. But Akiba with his
hermeneutics, which gave full play to the theorists,
increased the uncertainty of the Halakah to such an
extent that his pupil Meir felt compelled to add to
liis teacher's Mishnah the new Halakah, which, in
the main, was based on Akiba's hermeneutics.

So long as the Halakah material, with the excep-
tion of the relatively few ancient decisions, was in a
constant state of flux, especially in the school of
Akiba, no true codification could be made. Although
the redactions of the Mishnah by Akiba and Meir
were of great value to the schools, for
Rabbi which they, in a sense, were text-
Judah's books, religio-legal practise profited

Mishnah. little by them. Of an entirely dif-
ferent nature was the Mishnah of
Rabbi Judah, who set himself the task of adapting
the haiakot to practical life. He made an independ-
ent revision not only of the very late, but also of
the earliest, haiakot; hence, of all the haiakot in
existence before the redaction of the -Mishnah collec-
tion. The results of this revision, which was under-
taken by Rabbi with the aid of his colleagues and
pupils, were not alike in all cases. Many of the hai-
akot are quoted as "the law " without any explana-
tion of the fact that they are merely the opinion of
one authority. Such haiakot (designated in the ter-
minology of the Talmud as nJCD DDD) either belong
to the old laws fixed in the generations before Rabbi
or are decisions made in doubtful cases by the editor
of the Mishnah and his colleagues. But as in many
instances it was absolutely necessary, for the historic
appreciation of the Halakah, to know whethera cer-
tain decision is one generally recognized or not,
disputed haiakot are indicated as such in a large
part of the Mishnah. In most of these cases, how-
ever, the value of the codification is not thereby im-
paired, because the opinion held by the editor to be
the correct one is given as the halakah, while the
divergent opinion is quoted in the name of a single
authority. In the arrangement of his Mishnah also,
Rabbi had the historical development in view.
The old Halakah Avas essentially exegetical in na-
ture, and, therefore, always followed the arrange-
ment of the Scriptures (comp., e.g., Neg. xii. 5-7), al-
though to the various haiakot bearing on the Scrip-
tures it added a number of important "decisions of
the court," which were considered valid as being the
utterances of recognized authorities. The devel-
opment of the Halakah in the period following Hii-
lel, during which the gulf between the Scriptures
and the Halakah was widening and

Economy a mass of new material was added, ne-
of the cessitated the arrangement of the Hala-

Mishnah. kali on a systematic basis. Akiba, the

first to attempt to carry out this new

arrangement, Avas probably also the originator of the

present division of the Mishnah, according to Avhich

639

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Law, Codification of

the entire work is divided into six principal parts
("sedarini "), which are subdivided into treatises
(•' masselitot ") ; tliese again into chapters ("pera-
kini"), and the chapters into sections (" niisluiayyot").
The many shortcomings in tliis arrangement of tlie
Mishnah must not be ascribed wholly to the author.
One must bear in mind both the connection of the
Mishnah with Scripture and the fact that it was in-
tended as a code for the practical teacher of the law,
as well a? a text-book for the student. The first
Mishnah, for instance, determines the time of read-
ing the " Shema' " without previously stating that
the recital of the latter is a religious duty. Although
this may seem uu.systematic, it must be remembered
that the ]\Iishnah simply undertakes to interpret and
detine the preceptsor Scripture without giving their
substance. The Biblical laws had to be studied
directly from Scripture, the word of God. The
.same remark applies to the old traditional laws and
customs, which in a certain sense belong to Scrip-
ture, and which are quoted in the Mishnah only
when certain details are questioned. As the Mish-
nah, furthermore, was intended as a text-book,
purely pedagogical points had to be considered,
which otherwise do not pertain to a code. There
are two reasons, however, why the Mishnah of
Judah ha-Nasi occupies the first place in code litera-
ture. Its intrinsic merits together with tlie author-
ity of its redactor secured its universal acceptance
and recognition, so that it eclipsed the numerous
other Mishnah collections, which gradually disap-
peared. Again, this prominence of Judah ha-Nasi's
Mishnah effected the great revolution in the field
of the Halakah which manifested itself in the radi-
cal difference between the Halakah of the Tan-
naim and of the Amoraim. While the former re-
garded the text of the Bible as the basis for discus-
sion, the latter took the Mishnah for their text. Bib-
lical verses, which they frequently quoted, being

introduced merely as weapons in in-

The tellectual jousts. So long as the Ha-

Talmud. lakah was in a state of chaos, so long

as it taxed the memory to the utmost,
there could be no question of original, spontaneous
work, the first condition for which was that the ma-
terial should be part and parcel of the student's mind.
The mere memorizing of the various halakot took so
long that no time remained for a thorough study of
them apart from their relation to the Bible. Hence,
for the tannaitic Halakah, the hermeneutic interpre-
tation of Scripture was the chief study. The Mish-
nah, whether written or oral, checked this tendency,
this state of ebb and flow, by furnishing an integral
whole, as it were, that not only could be memorized,
but could be studied also. With the appearance of
the Amoraim, therefore, arose the desire to discover
the inner connection of the several halakot, in order
to give logical formulation to the principles implied
in the concrete halakot of the Mishnah. And although
the Gemara, i.e., the amoraic discu.ssions of the Tal-
mud, is exactly the opposite of what a code should
be, yet it is most important for the subsequent codi-
fication of the rabbinical law, which must be re-
garded as a direct continuation not of the Mishnah,
but of the Gemara, in which latter the Halakah was
first reduced to norms.

Tlie Amoraim furnished furthermore an important
contribution to codification in the rules which they
formulated for the decision of those cases which are
recorded in the Mishnah or in other tannaitic sources
as moot points between two authoiities. The Pal-
estinian amoraim especially undertook to fix rules
according to which disputed halakot were dealt
with. For instance, so early an authority as R.
Johanau refers to the rule: "If K. Mei'r and R.
Jose dispute about a halakah, it is the opinion
of the latter that is authoritative" (Yer. Pes. iv.
30(1). These rules, which are very important for
codification, were first collected in the "Halakot
Gedolot" under the 'title "Halakot Kezubot"(ed.
Hildesheimer, p. 469; ed. Traub, p. 239; comp.
Conflict of Opinion). The further development
of the Halakah was now connected with the rules
and opinions of the Gemara. The redaction of the
Mishnah put an end to the tannaitic hermeneutics,
which deduced nev,- laws from Scripture; and the
completion of the Talmud signifies nothing less than
the final fixation of the entire Jewish law.

For post-Talmudic rabbinism the Talmud, i.e.,
the amoraic development of the old halakot, is the
sole authority in religio-legal questions — an author-
ity tliat existed in its essentials as early as the time
of the gaonate. As the Talmud is in
The its arrangement the exact opposite of

Saboraim. a code, the necessity for a code was
felt as soon as the Talmud had been
finished. In the period immediately following its
completion, attempts were made to formulate cer-
tain rules for guidance in the man}' cases of differ-
ence of opinion dating from the time of the Amo-
raim. Even in early times certain rules had been
formulated referring to differences among the first
amoraim ; in ritual questions, for instance, the opin-
ion of Abba Arika was decisive if opposed to that
of his colleague Samuel, while in legal questions
the latter's sentences were considered authoritative.
Most of these rules, however, were first formulated
by the Saboraim (comp. Conflict of Opinion),
and were by them introduced into the Talmud.
Since, during the period of the Amoraim, the later
Halakah— that is, the Halakah of the Amoraim — was
still in a state of flux, the influence of the Saboraim
on codification must not be undervalued, as they
made possible the task of codifying the Talmud.

It was probably not accidental that the first at-
tempts at codification were made in the time of the
Geonim, shortly after the rise of Karaism. The
many and frequent controversies between the Rab-
biuites and the Karaites soon convinced the former
of the necessity of codifying the rabbinic law. It
may have happened more than once that a follower
of rabbinism denounced as being Karaitic an opin-
ion which his opponents thereupon proved to be de-
duced from the Talmud ; and it was of great impor-
tance for the Rabbinites to know which passages of
the Talmud were law and which were merely indi-
vidual opinion. Yehudai Gaon, the contemporary
of Anan, who was the aut'ior of a Karatic code, is the
first of whom it is known that he summed up the final
results of the discussions in the Talmud, in his " Hala-
kot Pesukot" or "Halakot Ketu'ot." His work was
so popular even a century later that many neglected

Law, Codification of

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640

the study of the Talmud, and devoted their whole
attention to these " decisions " (Paltoi Gaon, in the
responsa collection "Hemdah Genuzah," No. 110).
Beyond this little is known concerning their char-
acter, as only single citations from them have been
preserved. This Yehudai Gaon is considered by
many as the author also of the "Halakot Gedolot,"
the largest and most important work of codification
in the time of the Geonini. This work, however, is
probably by Simeon Kayyara, who flourished toward
the middle of the ninth century. The sequence of
the " Halakot " is patterned on the whole after the
Mishnah, though the section (seder) on the laws of
cleanliness (Tohorot) is missing, with the exception
of Niddah, because only those halakot are consid-
ered which are still practically applied. For this
reason, tlie " Halakot " includes among the laws
which are found in the first section of the Mishnah
— the so-called agricultural laws (" zera'im ") — only
those the enforcement of wliich was possible after
the destruction of the Temple and in the Diaspora.
In the matter of systematic arrangement it is an ad-
vantage over the Mishnah that the treatises of the
"Halakot" which deal with different subjects are
split up into several sections, new treatises thus
being formed. In this way the " Halakot " has as
appendix to the treatise Shabbat two chapters, re-
lating to the laws respectively of circumcision and
of Hanukkah, which in the Talmud are ai'bitrarily
placed among the regulations relating to the Sabbath.
The "Halakot Gedolot " indicates an attempt to
arrange the entire halakic material of the Talmud
according to subjects; but the author did not quite
dare to break with the ancient, venerable arrange-
ment. The last seven sections in the second division
(" Seder Mo'ed ") of the work are most instructive for
the systematizing of the Halakah. The prescrip-
tion relating to mourning follows the section on the
" Middle Days " (Hoi ha-Mo'ed ") because nearly the
same labors are forbidden during the period of mourn-
ing as on "Hoi ha-Mo'ed." The laws prohibiting
the contamination of priests by contact with a corpse
follow immediately upon the prescriptions relating
to mourning, which likewise deal with the dead ;
then follows a second section dealing with the priests,
namely the priestly blessing, which is important in
the liturgy of the synagogue. Having thus reached
the liturgy, the author next takes up the reading
from the Torah as most closely related to the priestly
blessing. Then follow the sections relating to
tefillin and mezuzah, as nearly the same prescrip-
tions relate to them as to the making of a holy scroll,
from which passages are read in the synagogue.
Finally comes the section on zizit, which are closely
connected with the tefillin. Although this arrange-
ment may appear artificial, it was nevertheless a
praiseworthy first attempt to arrange topically the
immense material of Jewish law.

Although Saadia, the greatest among the Geonim,

also tried his hand at codification, his "Book on

Legacies" (the Arabic original and the

Saadia Hebrew translation in "(Euvres Com-

and Hai. plfetes de R. Saadia," ix.) marks no

great advance in this field ; but in

Hai's works the declining gaonate furnisiied a

very important contribution to the systematizing of

the Jewish law. Hai's compendium on the oath
("Mishpete Shebu'ot"), and his work on the laws
of commerce, pledges, and deposits ("Sefer Mik-
kali uMimkar"), are the products of a clear, sys-
tematic mind. With a keen e3^e he surveys the
whole field of his subject, carefully groups the re-
lated topics, and briefly and succinctly unfolds the
various parts. He avoids both dry enumeration and
prolix discussion. Beginning with the source, the
Talmud, he briefly deducts the conclusions before
the eyes of the reader. The whole mode of presen-
tation in this Avork shows that the author was not
unacquainted with Arabic scientific literature. Thus
his book on commercial law, which is divided into
fifty " gates," or chapters, begins with a definition of
the concept " buy " ; and the second section then
defines in detail what ma}' be bought or sold. Then
gate follows gate in strictly systematic order, offer-
ing a clear and exhaustive presentation of the rami-
fications of commercial law.

Among the products of the codifiers of the geonic
period should be reckoned the seven small treatises,
in the style of the Mishnah, in which are gathered
together the halakot dealing with (1) proselytes;
(2) Samaritans; (:^) slaves; (4) the sacred scroll;
(5) tefillin; (6) zizit; and (7) mezuzah. The only
probable sources for these treatises are the Tal-
mud and the halakic midrashim. The small
amount of new material which they contain is not
to be traced to old, lost sources, but is the work of
the compiler or compilers, whose authority promi-
nent rabbis did not rate very highly. Toward
the end of the period of the Geonim, it is probable
that codifications, now entirely lost, were made of
different branches of the ritual as well as of the ju-
ridical law. Thus, under the title "Basar 'al Gabbe
ha-Gehalim " is mentioned a compendium which
contained ritual regulations on different subjects,
and was known to as early a writer as Rashi's
teacher ("Teshubot Hakme Zarfat," ed. Vienna,
No. 82).

With the rise of Talmudic study in northern
Africa at the beginning of the second millennium a
new period began for the codification of the Hala-
kah. Although the first great African

Codifiers Talmudist, Rabbenu Hananeel, de-
of the voted himself chiefly to the exposition

African of the Talmud, the passages quoted

School. from his "Sefer ha-Mikzo'ot," which
was a kind of halakic compendium,
indicate that he Avas interested also in codification.
Hefez b. Yazliah, also, who flourished probably to-
ward the end of the first millennium, was presuma-
bly a native of Africa, and therefore the first codifier
in that region; for, to judge from what is known
concerning his "Sefer ha-Mizwot," which was writ-
ten in Arabic, that work -was a code containing the
moral, religious, and legal commands of the Bible
and of the Talmud. The most important product
of the African school in this field is Isaac Alfasi's
" Halakot," which has added the results of that
school to the Talmudic and geonic halakah material.
Alfasi modeled his work oh the "Halakot Gedolot."
Like it his " Halakot " closely follows the Talmud,
discussing all that strictly belongs to the genetic
presentation and definition of the norm, and omit-

641

THE JEWISH E^X"YCLOPEDIA

Law, Codifica'.ion of

ting everything else. By including an opinion in
bis work Alfasi stamps it as a norm; and by simply
ignoring another opinion he entirely rejects it. The
'"Alfasi," as his work is generall}'' called, does not
mark any important advance in the systematic pres-
entation of the Halakah ; for with few exceptions
Alfasi has retained the treatises, chapters, and even
the sequence of the mishnayot as found in the Tal-
mud, and he likewise adds the discussions in so far
as they are necessary for determining the norm.

Alfasi 's great intiuence, however, lies in the cir-
cumstance that he was a very important factor in
arriving at rules for determining the Halakah: for
in the Talmud the discussions on doubtful points
lead in many cases to no conclusion ; and, as men-
tioned above, the rules formulated by the Saboraim
for such doubtful cases applied only to a certain
number of them. Alfasi, therefore, in establishing
rules followed his own decisions, and frequently
even attacked the opinions of the Geonim, either in
determining the Talmudic halakah or in develop-
ing and correctly applying the principles found
in tlie Talmud. He was perhaps also the tirst to
draw upon the Yerushalmi for religio-legal practise.
The Babylonian geonim, even those that were ac-
quainted with the Yerushalmi and drew upon it for
theoretical purposes, did not acknowledge its influ-
ence on practical life ; but Alfasi, although he gave
precedence to the Babjionian Talmud, followed
the Yerushalmi in those cases in which the Babli
reaches no conclusions or gives no decisions.

Alfasi's contemporary, the Spaniard Isaac b. Ju-
dah ibn Ghayyat, compiled a kind of compendium
for ritual purposes, especialh' for feast- and fast-
days. Only a part of this has been published, and
that quite recently (•' Sha'are Sim-
The hah," Furth, 1862; "Hilkot Pesahim,"

Earlier Berlin, 1864). It reveals Ghayyat as a
Spanish man of little independence, who merely
School. tries to give an intelligible arrangement
to the religio-legal decisions of the
Talmud and of the Geonim. As he cites the decisions
of the Geonim not in extracts, but entire, his presenta-
tion is prolix and difficult to survey ; nor is it in other
respects a model of luciditJ^ A third Isaac, Isaac
b. Reuben Albargeloni, the youngest among the
three, following Hai"s example, attempted to com-
pile a compendium of all the regulations referring
to the oath. Although his " Sha'are Shebu'ot " is the
product of an acute intellect and of a master in the
field of Talmudic jurisprudence, it is in no respect of
importance for codification.

The old Spanish school, i.e.. , that of the time before
Maimonides, produced only one man w'ho under-
took to codify the entire Halakah, namely, Ju-
dah b. Barzillai. He is said to have been Isaac b.
Reuben's pupil ; and he certainly flourished in Spain
in the first half of the twelfth century. Barzillai
attempted, as no one before him and perhaps no one
after him, not only to codify the general Talmudic-
geonic legal principles, but also to give many detailed
laws, which either are found in this literature as
illustrations of those principles, or may be deduced
from them. As a result, his codex was very com-
prehensive, and consequentl)' too bulky for practical
purposes, so that only parts of it have been preserved
VII.— 41

and recently published. But, even if he had been a
great coditier, his work would probably have shared
the same fate as the many similar works which
were thrown into the background by Maimonides'
masterpiece. A really scientific codex, free from the
dialectic form of the Talmud, covering the entire
field of the Halakah, and presenting it in systematic
form, could be compiled only by a man who was
familiar with the intellectual activity of the Greeks
as well as with the products of the Jewish intellect.
Difficult as it is to codify any body of laws, a Jew-
ish codifier has to contend with special difficulties.
In consequence of the close connection of religious
and juridical elements in the Jewish law, especially
in its rabbinical development, topics which super-
ficially viewed have no external connection whatever
are in a Jewish code treated under one heading.

As regards its plan, arrangement, and language,
Maimonides' "Mishneh Torah " is entirelj- original.

He called his work the "Second To

Maimon- rah" because thenceforth no other

ides' Code, book would be needed in determining

the law. In contrast to its predeces-
sors of the post-Talmudic time JNIaimonides' code
covers the entire field of the Halakah, including the
halakot no longer applicable after the destruction
of the Temple. The " Mishneh Torah " covers
even a larger field than the Mishnah itself, .which,
though it gives also the halakot fallen into disuse
after the destruction of the Temple, does not include
the fundamental doctrines of the Jewish religion,
and offers very little that pertains to tlie liturgy.
Furthermore, in the arrangement of the immense
amount of material, Maimonides chose his own
methods; for, though he recognized a logical se-
quence in the Mishnah (see his Introduction to the
Mishnah), he could not be guided by it because it did
not conform to his plan. The Mishnah is chiefly a
text-book; Maimonides' code is a law-book; and
what was of chief interest to Maimonides, differen-
tiation between matters of practise and matters of
theory, was of secondar}^ importance for the editor
of the Mishnah. The treatises Pesahim and Yoma
deal with all the halakot that have any connection
with these two holy days; the halakot on the offer-
ing of the paschal lamb follow the regulations on
mazzah ; similarly in Yoma the offices of the high
priest in the Temple on the Day of Atonement are
given together with the regulations on fasting on
that day. ]\Iaimonides, who strictly separated prac-
tical from theoretical matter, deals with the regula-
tions referring to mazzah in connection with the
feast-days, ■ while the paschal lamb is discussed
among the sacrifices. The work is divided into
fourteen books, the first two, on knowledge and
God's love respectively, serving as introduction to the
rgst of the work in that they deal with the ethical
and religious foundations of Judaism. The other
twelve books discuss in groups of four: (1) the cere-
monial law; (2) prescriptions no longer in force; and
(3) rabbinical jurisprudence. For certain portions
of his code Maimonides also wrote introductions in
which the terminology is defined or general defini-
tions are given. Despite various shortcomings and
imperfections, scarcely avoidable, the " Mishneh To-
rah " (which is known also as the " Yad ha-Haza-

La'w, Codification of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

642

kali") is <i masterpiece in construction, and not
only the most brilliant work of codification, but also
the greatest product of rabbinical literature.

Mention must be made of another work of Mai-
monides' whicli is of great value for the history of
codification, but not comparable either in content oi-
in form with the "Mishneh Torah." This is his
"Sefer ha-Mizwot" or "Book of Commandments,"
which was written as a preliminary to his greater
code. In it he gives the 613 Biblical commands and
jirohibitions (see Azharot; Commandments, Thk
()13). Tlie work is not an unsystematic enumeration,
but a topical grouping of the laws, and in a certain
sense it is the only existing codification of the Bib-
lical laws. AUhougii primitive in plan and arrange-
ment, many later held it to be a model for codices.
The " Mishneh Torah " shows the immense strides
which Maimonideshad made in the interval between
the two works.

The cultural life of the Jews in France, if not
their actual sojourn there, began at a later date than
that of the Jews in Spain; and they
The entered upon their literary activity

Provencal when the Spanish Jews had already
Codifiers. produced great works in several fields.
The first French codifier was Abra-
ham b. Isaac of Narbonne, whose code.x, " Ha-
Eshkol," compiled toward the end of the twelfth
century, is for the greater part extant in print. His
chief authority was Alfasi, whom he closely fol-
lowed, hardly daring to express his own opinion.
His division of the halakic material, which, unlike
Alfasi, he does not group according to the Talmud,
but by topics, shows little talent forsystematization.
For his arrangement of the " Eshkol," the works of
Isaac b. Ghayyat and Judah b. Barzillai served as
models. In this the first of French codifications the
noteworthy feature is the great stress laid upon the
purely ritual aspects of the law, a tendency recur-
ring later and testifying to the overscrupulous piety
of the Franco-German Jews.

Among Abraham b. Isaac's pupils was his son-in-
law Abraham b. David, who through his merci-
less criticism of Maimonides' codex exercised an im-
portant influence on the shaping of Jewish law.
In spite of his pronounced opposition to Maimonides'
method of codification, Abraham b. David himself
contributed a small work to this species of literature,
namely "Ba'ale ha-Nefesh," in which he collected
in a masterlj"^ manner all the laws of clean and un-
clean referring to women. But in contrast to his
great adversary, he quotes his sources briefly and
gives deductions from such laws as are not di-
rectly found in the Talmud. The most important
Provenyal codifier, however, was Isaac b. Abba
Mari, another pupil of Abraham b. Isaac ; also called
"Ba'al ha-'Ittur" after his codex '"Ittur." This
codex contains the whole body of rabbinical juris-
prudence— with the exception of criminal law — and
the dietary laws together with a few other ritual
laws. The sequence of the material is very pecul-
iar. For instance, the author adopts as guide for
his arrangement of the law of records and docu-
ments the words nD3n yn3 flptJTl, placing under
each letter the articles beginning with that letter.
Other portions of the book, however, especially the

svctions of th(; "'Ittur" devoted to the ritual, show
a very logical and systematic arrangement of the
sul)ject under discussion.

From the time of the Geonlm down to Maimonides

two different tendencies may be distinguished in

the fieklof codex literature: the one

The abstiacts the norm or rule from the

School of discussion, often giving it without
Tosafists. declaring its source or adducing any
proofs. This tendency has its cul-
mination in Maimonides' "Mishneh Torah." The
other makes a point of first going back to the
sources from which the rules are deduced, and then
of supporting the deductions by proofs and author-
ities. This tendency culminates in Isaac b. Abba
Mari's " 'Ittur." The former tendency predominated
in Spain ; the latter had more adherents in Pro-
vence, and was especially increased by the activity
of the Tosafists. Not only did the dialectics of this
school give rise to new rules derived from the Tal-
mud, but its methods of study were such as to foster
little interest in a dry reduction of the Halakah to
norms. Moreover, the Tosafists, untrained in all
disciplines except the Talmud, were little fitted to
systematize complicated subjects. In northern
France, the home of the Tosafists, it is true, the need
of a guide for practical purposes was often felt.
The Tosafists, however, did not consider the study of
the Talmud merely a means to the end of regulating
religious life; for them it was an end in itself; and
the explanation and exposition of the Talmud were
of primary importance, while the reduction of the
Halakah to norms w-as merely secondary. Although
Rabbenu Gershom b. Judah, the founder of Tal-
mudic studies in France and Germany in the begin-
ning of the eleventh century, is known to have
written a compendium on an important subject of
criminal law, and his pupil Judah ha-Kohen wrote
a codex on jurisprudence, yet the true spirit of this-
school appears in Rashi and the Tosafists, who de-
voted themselves to the explanation of the Talmud.
From the school of Rashi only the work of his pupil
Simhah of Speyer calls for mention, in whose Mah-
zor important parts of the ritual law are codified
(compare Mahzor).

The first important codifier of this school is Elie-
ZER B. Nathan, who gives in his "Eben ha-'Ezer"
a large part of rabbinical jurisprudence as well as of
the ritual. The plan and arrangement of this work
are determined on the whole by the order of the-
Talmudic treatises; and in many sections the pres-
entation is rather that of a commentary on the Tal-
mud than of a code. Although an important au-
thority, Eliezer was very careful in his decisions;-
and he hardly dared to attack a custom, even if it
had little support. His methods were adopted by
his grandson Eliezer b. Joel ha-Levi, whose code
likewise closely follows the Talmud, discusses the
points presented, and from them deduces the rule.
More original as a codifier, though not as an investi-
gator, is Eliezer b. Joel's contemporary, Baruch b.
Isaac, who in his "Sefer ha-Terumah " treats of a.
certain number of the dietary and marital laws, the-
Sabbath laws, and some other ritual laws. He pro-
ceeds as follows: He assumes a general acquaint-
ance with the source, i.e., the Talmud, but he prefixes.

643

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Law, Codification of

to the norm a syuopsis of the discussion bearing
upon it, and when the discussions are lengthy, he
adds the views of the commentators and the gist of
post-Tahnudic controversies about them. The rules
following from this discussion are then given again
in numbered sentences. In order to facilitate a sur-
vey of the book all the subjects treated are given
in the beginning in brief codified form. The im-
portance of the " Sefer ha-Terumah " lies in the cir-
cumstance that in most cases it gives the conclusions
of the Tosafists, especially those of northern France.
Baruch b. Isaac's namesake and contemporary, Ba-
ruch b. Samuel, a German tosafist, was likewise the
author of a legal code, the nature of which, however,
can only be conjectured. The third codifier of the
school of Tosafists of this time was Eleazar b. Judah,
author of the "Rokeah," and better known as a
mystic. His work, in 477 sections, deals with the
Sabbath and feast-day laws, especial attention being
paid to the synagogal ritual, and with the dietary
laws. The first twenty-nine sections of the "Ro-
keah " really constitute a small book by themselves,
a mystical work on morals.

Moses b. Jacob of Coucy, a pupil of Baruch b.
Isaac, about the middle of the thirteenth century
wrote a work which in form and content is a fusion
of the methods of the Spanish and the
Union Franco-German schools. The "Sefer
of the Mizwot Gadol, "abbreviated " SeMaG, "
Spanish presents in a certain sense Maimon-
and ides' "Sefer ha-Mizwot " in enlarged

Franco- and modified form. As in the latter
German work, the whole material is grouped
Schools, around the 613 Biblical commands,
and is furthermore divided into two
parts, dealing respectively with the commandments
and the prohibitions. But, while Maimonides gives
only Biblical material and refers only briefly to the
rabbinical formulation of the command or the pro-
hibition, the " SeMaG " places the Biblical law first,
then gives the deductions from it found in the Tal-
mud, and, finally, adds matter less closely connected
with the prescript. As the author himself says in
the introduction, it was his chief aim to defend the
Franco-German scholars against the Spaniards, es-
peciallj' since Maimonides' great work was gaining
in popularity outside of Spain. Although in a way
directed against Maimonides, the " SeMaG " really
contributed to the spread of his authority in France
and Germany ; for Moses of Coucy was a true ad-
mirer of Maimonides, and did not intend to condemn
him. He wished merely to procure a hearing for
the opinion of the Tosafists as against that of the
Spanish scholars. In part he followed Maimonides'
codex, from which he often quotes verbatim ; and
many of its decisions first came to the notice of the
Franco-German Jews through the "SeMaG."

A generation later Isaac b. Joseph of Corbeil
wrote his compendium "Sefer Mizwot ha-Kazer,"
or "ha-Katon," frequently called "SeMaK," after
the initial letters, in which, as in the "SeMaG," the
Biblical command concisely expressed is placed at
the beginning, the rules from the Talmud and from
the post-Talmudic writers following, generally with-
out indication of sources or proofs. The arrange-
ment of the material is very peculiar. Tiie book is

divided iuto seven parts, according to the seven days
of the week, in order that it may be read through
once a week; and the laws whose performance calls
for tlie special activity of any one member of the
human body are arranged as one group accordingly.
In this way most widely differing topics are grouped
under one command, with which they often have
no connection whatever. The book was written
for a general public; hence its ardent, religious
tone, which contributed not a little to its popular-
ity. But it was highly regarded by scholars also,
though the author expressly warns them against
basing decisions upon it. The most important au-
thority of France next to the author of this book
was Perez b. Elijah, who wrote a codex that has
only recently been discovered (Elbogen, in "R. E.
J." xlv. ^^etseq.).

Although Jewish literature in Germany is Italian
in origin, it developed under French influences; and
during the period of the Tosafists the German school
was under the moral domination of the North French
school. But the beginning of the thirteenth cen-
tury marked an important change : the
The pupil outdistanced the master. Isaac

German b. Moses Or Zarua', the first to trans-
School, fer the center of gravity of Talmudic
learning to the east, was the author
of an important codex, written about the middle of
the thirteenth century. Like all the similar prod-
ucts of the German school, the " Or Zarua' " is both
a commentary and a codex; for it not only contains
decisions, but also is more analytic in character, and
was modeled on the work of the author's teacher,
Eliezer b. Joel ha-Levi. Although the " Or Zarua' "
is very defective in plan and in arrangement, it is
still both in size and substance the most important
product of the German school in the field of codifi-
cation ; and it was a decisive factor in the develop-
ment of religious practise among the German-Polish
Jews. Isaac's work evinces deep insight and acute
intellect, and also an independence rare among the
German Jews. It must especially be noted that
through him the study of the Talmud of Jerusalem
was introduced into Germany and France, and in a
certain sense became an important factor in the regu-
lation of the Halakah. Isaac's friend and colleague,
Hezekiah b. Jacob, was the author of " Pesakim " ;
the nature of his decisions is not known.

The most important pupil of Or Zarua', MeYr
b. Baruch of Rothenburg, the greatest Talmudic
authority of his age, devoted not a little time to
codification. Only a few treatises by him on
mourning customs have, however, been preserved,
besides some quotations from various other treatises
that were perhaps part of a larger work divided into
halakot. His importance for codification lies in the
fact that his school produced Asher b. Jehiel and
Mordecai b. Hillel, who were guided by the author-
ity of their teacher in their works of codification and
compilation. In this way R. Meir exerted great
influence on the shaping of the Halakah in Spain,
whither his pupil Asher emigrated, and in the Ger-
man and Slavic countries, through Mordecai. Mor-
decai did not claim to be anything but a compiler.
He laboriously collected the halakic material of the
entire rabbinical literature accessible to him, and at-

Iiaw, Codification of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

644

tached it to Alfasi's halakot; yet hardly a gen-
eration later he was already regarded as a " posek "
(authority).

Maimonides' monumental work maintained itself
in Spain in spite of much opposition ; although the
"Mishneh Torah " was criticized, and
The New its decisions were not seldom modified,
Spanish it was on the whole considered as tlie
School. authoritative guide for legal practise.
Hence the century following Maimon-
ides marks in a way a cessation in the work of codi-
fication among the Spanish Jews, notwithstanding
the flourishing of Talmudic scholarship during this
period. Although Abraham b. Nathan wrote his
"Manhig " at Toledo, he was not a Spaniard either
by birth or by education; and his code is based
chiefly on the work of the French tosafists. In fact,
he was the first Provencal who was guided rather
by the school of northern France than by the au-
thorities of the south. The ritual codex " 'Issur we-
Hetter, " authoritative on questions relating to dietary
laws, is ascribed probably wrongly to the great anti-
Maimonist Jonah b. Abraham, and can hardly be
considered as a Spanish product. Even Nahman-
ides, the great Talmudist of the thirteenth century,
shows little interest in codification, his compendium
"Torat ha-Adarn," on mourning customs, being his
only large work in that line. His " Hilkot Hallah "
and "Ililkot Bekorot " are really only supplements
to Alfasi's work. But by his highly original treat-
ment of the Talmud Nahmanides gave a renewed
stimulus to labor in the field of codification. His
method, which may be briefly characterized as a
union of Spanish systematics with Franco-German
dialectics, was bound to produce something new in
codification ; and his most important pupil, Solomon
b. Abraham ibn Adret, was in fact the author of a
codex which is as unique in its way as is Maimon-
ides" masterpiece in the other category' of codices.
According to the original intention of the author, the
work was to cover the entire field of the Halakah ;
but the existing part of it deals only with the dietary
and purification laws, collected in the book "Torat
ha-Bayit," and the Sabbath- and feast-day laws, col-
lected in " ' Abodat ha-Kodesh. " The former work is
divided into seven divisions (" battim," lit. " houses "),
which are again subdivided into several "she'arim "
(gates); the latter, a smaller work, into two houses
with five gates each. This division is essentially
modeled on the above-mentioned work of Hai Gaon,
with which, as regards treatment of the material
also, the books have much in common. The author
always begins with the source, i.e., the Talmud,
and then introduces the different opinions with their
proofs, which he not only sums up, but also dis-
cusses in such a way that the final rule takes shape
before the reader. About this time another pupil
of Nahmanides, Samuel b. Isaac ha-Sardi, wrote a
work on civil law, "Sefer ha-Terumot," which in
lucidity of presentation, depth of thought, and mas-
tery of the material has not been surpassed. This
work, like the " Torat ha-Adam " of Samuel's mas-
ter, is divided into gates, seventy in number, subdi-
vided in turn into sections, and these again into par-
agraphs. Since Jacob b. Asher based his codex of
civil law on this Avork, it exerted an immense influ-

ence on the development of later civil law. Though
Asher b. Jehiel (Asheri), a contemporary of Samuel
and a personal friend of Ibn Adret, was a German by
birth, mention must be made of him in this place,
because his halakot were written in Spain and clearly
show the influence of the Spanish school. Asher
based his halakot on Alfasi's work, drawing upon
later literature in so far as it had bearing upon the
reduction of the Halakah to norms ; his work is there-
fore a commentary on the Talmud in its practical hal-
akic parts. Asheri's halakot, which are marked by
lucidity, penetration, and great scholarship, met
with a ready reception in the new as well as in the
old home of the author. R. Asher's pupil, the
Proven(,'al Jeroham, wrote (c. 1334) a compendium on
civil law under the title "Sefer Mesharim," and a
few years later a codex of most of the laws to be
observed in the Diaspora. He set himself the task
of remedying two defects of Maimonides' codex,
namely, the lack of sources and the omission of
opinions of the post-Talmudic authorities. In this
respect Jeroham 's work is meritorious, as he clev-
erly sums up the conflicting opinions, and briefly and
lucidly traces back the halakot to their Talmudic
sources. But he made the mistake of arranging
the immense amount of material in his own wa}'.
His attempt was not successful ; for while trying
to avoid the defects of Maimonides' system, he was
led into other errors, on account of which his work
shows no advance beyond that of the former. Only
in the smaller portions of his work did he succeed in
grouping in a masterly manner all the pertinent
material under one topic.

The greatest codifier of the Nahmanic-Asheric
school, and, aside from Maimonides, the most impor-
tant of all codifiers, was Jacob, the son of Asher b.

Jehiel, or the "Tur," as he is briefly

The called after his codex. For his work

' ' Tur." he of course took that of Maimonidesas

model ; yet the " Tur " is the independ-
ent creation of a gifted mind. Following Maimon-
ides, he gives neither sources nor proofs; but he
generally quotes the post-Talmudic authorities by
name, cleverlj^ selecting and contrasting the dissent-
ing opinions; and although he does not give a direct
decision, the thoughtful reader may gather the opin-
ion of the "Tur" from the way in which a point
under discussion is presented. The rapid devel-
opment of Talmudic study in the period between
Maimonides and Jacob b. Asher, covering nearly
two centuries, made it impossible for a codifier to
ignore differences of opinion ; and, as the author of
the "Tur" correctly says in his introduction, there
was at his time hardly a point on which there were
no differences of opinion. By birth and education
Jacob b. Asher was peculiarly fitted to elaborate the
products of the different schools. Through his
father he became acquainted with the works and
the tendencies of the Franco-German scholars, while
a prolonged sojourn in Spain made him familiar
with the works of the Sephardim. In view of the
lucidity and logical arrangement of the work it is
not surprising that for more than two centuries the
"Tur" answered all the requirements of a codex;
and even when its inadequacy began to be felt, and
new codices appeared, the system and arrangement

645

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

La-w. Codification of

of the " Tur " were adopted by nearly all later codi-
fiers. On account of its merits the " Tur " displaced
many similar works of preceding and contemporary
authors to such an extent that only recently have
not a few of them been rediscovered. A contempo-
rary, Aaron b. Jacob ha-Kohen, wrote a work en-
titled "Orhot Hayyim," similar to the "Tur," but
far inferior to it in everything that characterizes a
codex, and a great part of it was first published in
1902.

While the " Tur " may in a sense be regarded as
the last important product of the work of codifica-
tion which had been carried on for
The centuries among the Ashkenazim and

Italian the Sephardim, the Italian Jews were
Codifiers. at this time only enteiing upon that
field of labor. Isaiah ben Elijah di
Trani's " Pirke Halakot " is the first Italian attempt
at codification ; but even in Italy it had to give way
to the " Tur " and especially to Jacob b. Moses of
Coucy's codex (see David Messer Leon, " Kebod Ha-
kamim," p. 78). Only scattered allusions to it are
known, and the entire work, still extant in manu-
script, was hardly noticed. The "Shibbole ha-
Leket " of Zedekiah b. Abraham Anaw is another
Italian code of laws dating from this time. As its
name indicates, it pretends to be nothing but a
"gleaning" of earlier decisions, and it shows little
originality. The liturgical code " Tanya," probably
dating from this time, was not without influence on
synagogue liturgy even outside of Italy ; but it also
betrays little individuality. Toward the end of the
fourteenth century Moses b. Jekuthiel de Rossi wrote
his compendium "Ha-Tadir," which Gildemann
("Gesch." ii. 195) designates as the first Jewish
postil.

Misfortunes of various kinds — the Black Death,
the plague, persecutions, etc. — deprived the Jewish
intellect of the clearness and briskness required for
Talraudic studies and especially for the work of
codification. The two centuries intervening between
the " Tur " and the Shulhan 'Aruk produced little
of value in the field of codification. In Germany
before 1349 Alexander Silsskind wrote his codex
" Aguddah, " a scholarly and independent but not sys-
tematic work. Isaac Diiren, a contemporary of Silss-
kind, and an alleged pupil of Asherb. Jehiel, collected
the dietary laws ; and although his " Sha'are Dura "
has little originality, it enjoyed for centuries a great
reputation, and various commentaries and glossaries
to it were written by scholars like Isserlein, Solomon
Luria, and Isserles. After the "Tur" Spain like-
wise produced few halakic works of importance,
with the possible exception of Menahem b. Zerah's
" Zedah la-Derek. " Although this work offers noth-
ing original to scholars, the author makes a new
departure in emphasizing on all occasions the eth-
ical side of the Law. The scholars during this pe-
riod devoted themselves especially to the synagogal
ritual ; and the " Kol Bo " in particular is an impor-
tant work (for other ritual collections see Zunz,
"Ritus," pp. 29-32). Crescas' intention("OrAdonai,"
ed. Vienna, p. 2a) to codify the general principles
of the Law, omitting details, was probably never car-
ried out. The "Agur," written in Italy about 1480
by the German Jacob b. Judah Landau, is the only

noteworthy contribution to codification in the fif-
teenth century.

Although from the first third of the thirteenth
century down to about the middle of the sixteenth

there were no important products in

The the field of codification, yet the study

Shulhan of the Talmud during this period was

'Aruk. not neglected. In Spain after the

"Tur" there were men like Nissim b.
Reuben, Yom-Tob b. Abraham, and Isaac b.
Sheshet, to mention only a few. In their hands
tlie Halakah material grew beyond the limits of the
"Tur," and in many cases took a different shape.
In Italy the influence of the new German school,
which in many cases did not recognize the authority
of the "Tur," made itself felt toward the end of the
fifteenth century, especially through Colon. The
most important representatives of this school, Jacob
b. Moses Molin, Isserlein, and Israel Bruna, under-
took to procure recognition for the German authori-
ties, to whom in their opinion the "Tur" had not
done justice. The insecure position of the Halakah
toward the end of the fifteenth century, in itself a
deplorable matter, was still further threatened when
the Jews were expelled from the Pyrenean coun-
tries, and were scattered throughout other lands.
This catastrophe undermined the power of "the cus-
tom of the country," which so far had always been
given recognition. In some places mixed communi-
ties arose, composed of Spanish, Italian, German,
and other Jews; and each of these members natu-
rally desired to introduce the customs of his own
country. In other places no communities could be
formed, because difference in religio-legal practise
prevented mutual understanding. This evil could
be remedied only by a man who had mastered the
immense material collected since the "Tur" was
written, and whose authority was so generally rec-
ognized that his decisions were accepted everywhere.
Joseph b. Ephraim Caro satisfied these two condi-
tions as no one else could ; and he furthermore pos-
sessed the literary capacity necessary to reduce the
existing codices to one code satisfying the demands
of his time. He recognized that if his work was to
be a universal codex, it must not be based on Mai-
monides' " Yad ha-Hazaljah, " which entirely ignored
the labors of the German-French school, but must
be based on the "Tur," which Avas highly regarded
by both the Ashkenazim and the Sephardim. Caro's
"Bet Yosef," therefore, on which the Shulhan
'Aruk was based, follows the "Tur," the plan and
arrangement of which were adopted in the Shulhan
'Aruk also. But Caro is much more independent
than his predecessor in that he generally reduces
the Halakah to rules without giving every differ-
ence of opinion. In making rules his authorities
were the three codifiers Alfasi, ]\Iaimonide3, and
Asher b. Jehiel. An opinion held by any two of
them is adopted by Caro, unless the majority of
later authors follow the opinion of the third, in which
case his opinion is accepted. Some such plan was
absolutely necessary, because Caro's authority, in
spite of his great reputation, was not such that he
could hope to have his decision accepted in ques-
tions about which the greatest "Poseliim " of cen-
turies had been contending.

Lia'w, Uodiflcation of
L.aw, Reading from the

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

646

The Sliulhan 'Anik, however, iucliules many de-
cisions which' Cam either deduced independently

from liie Talmud or (k'cided according

Authority to Tahnudic principles witliout con-

of the sidering the differing opinions of great

Shulhan autliorities. For tliis reason as well

'Aruk. as on account of the fact lliat he was

not sufficiently acquainted with the
practise of the AshUenazim, in spite of his thorough
knowledge of their halakic literature, the Slndhan
'Aruk met with opposition among Ihem, and espe-
cially among the leading Talmudists of Poland. Of
especial importance among these was Jloses Is-
SEULES, who, by his glosses to the Shulhan 'Aruk
and to the " Bet Yoscf," in some degree modified the
authority of the Shulhan 'Aruk in Polish-German
countries. While the Shulhan 'Aruk became with
few exceptions the authoritative code.x among the
Oriental Jews, the Ashkenazim and in part also tlie
Italians recognized Isserles' autliority in cases where
his opinion differed from that of Caro. It took a
whole century, however, to bring about a universal
recognition of the authoritj' of the Shulhan 'Aruk,
which had to contend especially with the"Lebush,"
Mordecai Jaffe's codex, as well as with the bitter
criticism of Solomon Ia'iu.\ and Joel Sirkes. Only
Avhen authorities like Samuel b. David and Shab-
bethai b. Meir, notwithstanding their scholarship
and independence, accepted most of the decisions of
the Shulhan 'Aruk as authoritative,, did the work
become what it now is, the codex par excellence of
rabbinical Judaism. Nevertheless, it must always
be borne in mind that the really decisive authoiity
is the Talmud (comp., e.(j., Maimonides" introduc-
tion to his codex, and, among later writers, Yom-
Tob Lipman Heller, on Sheb. iv. 10; on the ques-
tion comp. Weiss, "Dor." iii. 210 it xcq.). and a ref-
erence to a codex as authoritative is ecpiivalent to
saying that its exjiosition of the Talmud is regarded
as the correct one. A man like Ei,i.i.\u bkn Sol-
omon, in sjiite of his respect for the Posekim,
could frequently decide in important cases against
the Shulhan "Aruk, and follow his own interpreta-
tion of the Talmud. But such independence was
very rare, and, although theoretically recognized,
liad little influence on aet\ial practise. Of greater
importance for the fixation of the llalakah are the
commentaries on the Shulhan 'Aruk, espcciall}' those
of David b. Sanuiel and Shabbetliai b. ]\Ieir, who
proceeded independently in the e.xpo.sition of the
Sliulhan 'Aruk. Although the Halakah material in-
creased inunensely after the comjiletion of the
Shulhan 'Aruk, especially through the contribution
of Polish Talmudists in the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries and in the first half of the nine-
teenth, only a few attempts Avere made to codify
the new material. The most important modern con-
tributions in this fiehl are the works of Abraham
Danziger, " Hayye Adam " and "Hokmat Adam," in
which the Halakah of the Aharonim is codified; but
tliey did not find general favor with scholars, in
spite, or pprliaps because, of their poptiiarity. The
great Hasidic liabbi Shneor Solomon b. Baruch of
Ladie attempted a new code; but the larger part of
liis manuscripts was destroyed by fire, and only
fragments have been jtublislied.

The source of the Law and of its authority is the
will of God as expressed in Scripture. From the
standpoint of rabbinism there is no code, and none

can exist, wliich can supersede the
Summary. Torah. But practically the matter is

(fuite different, although duiing the
whole period from the first Mishnah down to the
Shulhan 'Aruk it was acknowledged in many cir-
(■les that a codex really had no j)lace beside the
Torah. This idea was dominant during the time of
the Soferim and the Tannaim ; for, altliough some
of the latter altemi)tcd to systematize the immense
mateialof the llalakah, they objected to its codifica-
tion. The Mishnah, which closes the period of the
Tannaim, is in so far a codex as it was regarded as
the only authoritative exposition of the Torah ; and
all those cases which were not clearly defined in
Scripture had to be referred to the ^Mishnah. The
Mishnah, moreover, is the only source lor those laws
which were formulated independently of Scripture,
and lived in the consciousness of the people as such.
The Mishnah owes its authority to the fact that
it was undertaken bj' the patriarch Judah ha-Nasi
and his bet din, which was recognized by the Jews
as the highest religi<Mis and political authority. An
authorit}- of such a kind no longer existed at the
time of the Amoraim (see Bi:t Din), who.se opinions
are important only because the Amoraim were the
direct succes.sors of the Tannaim and must be con-
sidered as the legitimate expounders of the Mishnah,
which they inherited from the Tannaim. The rela-
tion of the Talmud, a pioduct of the Amoraim, to
the Mishnah is about the same as that of the Mish-
nah to Serii)ture. The Talmud derives its authority
from the fad that it was comjjleted under the super-
vision of the entire body of Jewish .scholars, Bab-
ylon being at that time {c. 500) the only important
seat of these scholars.

In post-Talmudic times there was no longer one
authority; there were .several authorities. As Al-
fasi and Mainronides frequentlj^ decided against
the Geonim, so later scholars not seldom decided
against the Posekim, the scholars between 1000 and
loOO c.E. This explains the great opposition to Mai-
monides' codex and subse(iuently to Caro's works,
because here individual opinions were codified by
them. Because of the extent of the field of Jewish
law, cases occurred daily that were not provided for
in the Mishnah or in the Gemara, and a certain stand-
ard had to be created so that religious practise and
law should not be constantly called into question.
Important factors in securing stability were vener-
ation for custom C'minhag") and the importance
ascribed to the opinions of the foriuer generations
(■' rishonim "). The true sentiment of the people was
expressed in the minhag; and this must therefore
be respected as a decisive factor in expounding the
existing law and in its development. The opinions
of the rishonim, which are frequently deci.sions of
practical cases, have the same significance as the de-
cisions of a iugher couit in modern jurisprudence,
winch are valid until they have been proved to be
erroneous. But these two factors, the minhag and
the authority of the rishonim, reached from time to
tiine dangerous proportions, and threatene<l to dis-
jdacethe real source of authority ; and at such times

647

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Law, Codification of
Law, Reading: from the

tlic c:liief men of Isrju'l felt llic iiccessity of colU'ct-

ing and siftiug the uccumulaliiig material and of

forinulaling the rules of the Law. The three groat

codifioi's of the Mkldle Ages, Maimonides, Jacob b.

Ashcr, and Caro, had each a special task: 3Iaimon-

ides that of systematizing the law ; Jacob b. Asher

of sifting it critically; and Caro of unifying it.

Compare Amok.\; Autiiouity; Bakait.\; C.\iu),

Joseph u. Epiiuaim; 'Eutyot; Halakau; Is-

sEKLES; Jacob b. Asiiiiu; Mai.monides, Moses;

MisiiNAii; Talmud; Ta.\nai.m.

Bibliography: Buphholz, Ilixiinittchcr UeherhlUh iXher
die Max )ii{if ache n ('(xlilicatiuiien (h-x Halarhastoffex, in
MonatsKchrift, xiii. 202-217, 242-2,')!) ; Diinner, Vcravlassun(i,
Zweck unci Entwivkiuim (ler HalacltUchcii . . . Wilhrciid
der Tannaim Periode, in Monatsschrift, xx.

S. R.

L. G.

LAW

OF THE LAND. See Conflict of

AWS.

LAW,

THE ORAL. See Ohal Law.

LAW,

READING FROM THE : The custom

of reading portions of the Pentateuch at the syna-
gogue on Sabbath and holy days and at other stated
times of the year; an institution which made Juda-
ism one of the most powerful factors of instruc-
tion and education in the world. Through it the
Torali became the jiropert}' of the whole people
of Israel ; and through it, also, the Gentiles were
won for Ju(husm ; even the rise of Christianity and
Islam was made possil)le ciiietly through the cus-
tomary leading from the Law and the Prophets on
the various days of rest, inasmuch as it was accom-
panied by interpretation and application of the Law
and the Prophets to the events and needs of the time.
The institution dates from the very earliest time
of the synagogue; Josephus ("'Contra Apionem,"
ii. 17) ascribes it to Moses himself. '' The lawgiver,"
he says, "showed the Law to be the best and the
most necessary means of in.struction by enjoining
the people to assemble not once or twice or fre-
quently, but every week while abstaining from all
other work in order to hear the Law and learn it in
a thorough manner — a thing which all other law-
givers seem to have neglected." Compare the words
of Nicolaus ("Ant." xvi. 2, 3): "The seventh day
is dedicated to the learning of our customs and
laws"; also Philo(" De Opiticio Mundi," p. 48; " De
Septennario,"p. 6;" Hypothetica"inEusebius, "Pra-
paratioEvaugelica," viii. 7); and the New Testament
(Acts XV. 21) as well as the Talmud (Yer. Meg. iv.
75a ; B. K. 82a ; Massek. Soferim x. 1, but comp. Mek.,
Beshallah, Wayassa', i. and notes of I. H. Weiss),
which ascribe the institution to Moses; and this view
is accepted alike by Isaac Al-Fasi on Meg. iv. and
Maimonides, Tefillah, xii. 1. The reason that it has
been ascribed to Moses is that the Deuteronomic
law (Deut. xxi. 10) prescribes that every seventh
year the Law should be I'cad to all Israel when it
gathers at the Feast of Tabernacles. According to
Josephus ("Ant." iv. 8, 12), the high priest read it
before the assemblv ; the Mishnaic record (Sotah vii,
8; comp. Yer. Sotah against the Talmudic emenda-
tion) has it that the king read tlie whole of Deuter-
onomy on the eighth day of Sukkot, "the chapter
of the king" (Deut. xvii. 14-20) having given the
name to the whole (comp. Sifre, Deut. 160). From
Tosef., Sotah, vii 17. liowever, it appears that the

wIkjIo of Deuteronomy was not always read on tliat
occasion.

The custom of going to the prophet on Sabbatl
and holy days for instruction known in ancieni
times (II Kings iv. 23) may have been specially prac-
tised during the Exile, in which the beginnings of tlie
Synagogue must be sought; and con-
Origin of sequent ly readings from the Prophets
the In- may have pieceded those from the Pen-
stitution. tateucl), wherefore the origin of the
Haktauaii is wrapped in obscurity.
The leading from the Law can be traced mucli more
clearly. King Josiah was the first to read the Book
of the Covenant to the assembled people (II Kings
xxiii. 2); and Ezra the scribe, who came back from
Babylonia with the complete Pentateuch, read from
the same to the assembly on the eight days of Suk-
kot (Neh. viii. 1-18). How and when this developed
into the practise of a regular Pentateuch lesson on
each Sabbath-day can not be ascertained. It has
been suggested that the Deuteronomic precept men-
tioned above led to the practise of reading a small
chapter from the Pentateuch each Sabbath so that
the whole was completed eacii seventh year.
Lengthy readings were originally not favored at all
(see Meg. iv. 4; Tosef., Meg. iv. 17). Out of tlie seven
years' cycle, two cycles of three and a half years
may have evolved, then one of three years, and
finally one of one year with the last day of Sukkot
as the Feast of Rejoicing in the Law (see Si.mhat
ToRAH), when the last section was read <see Zunz,
"G. V." p. 3, nqte f; Miiller, "Masseket Soferim,"
p. 158; idem, " Hilluf Minhagim,"No. 48, butcompare
Rapoport, "Halikot Kedem," 1846, pp. 10(tseg.,aml
Herzfeld, " Gesch. des Volkes Jisrael, " ii. 209). With
the three-and-a-half-year cycle the division of the
Pentateuch into 175 sections would correspond (Mas-
sek. Soferim xvi. 11; comp. ]\Iuller's notes; Yer.
Shab. xvi. 15c); with the three-yearcycle observed in
Palestine and in Palestinian colonies down to the
thirteenth century (Meg. 29b; Maimonides, Tefillah,
xiii. 1; Benjamin of Tudela, ed. Asher, p. 98), the
155 sections mentioned in Esther R. at the beginning
(njp) and preserved in the IMasorah as well as in the
]Miilrashim (see Zunz and Rapoport, ^.c); while the
generally accepted division of the Pentateuch into
53 or 54 sections found in Babylonia as early as
Samuel's time (Meg. 29b, 30a) is ba.sed upon the one-
year cycle. How these various cycles came into
use is a matter of conjecture ; Graetz found an in-
termediary stage between the triennial and the an-
nual cycle in the practise of continuing the reading
of the section through the week — that is, at the Sab-
bath afternoon and the Monday and Thursday morn-
ing services (JMeg. 31b) — which he calculates to have
constituted a two-year cycle. A more complicated
theory is proposed at great length by Buechler in
"J. Q. R." V. 420-468. From these 54 parashiyyot
of the Torah each Sabbath of the Jewish calendar
year received its name. (See also Loeb and Deren-
bourg in "R. E. J." vi. 250-267, vii. 146-149.) As
regards the Samaritan cycle, also based upon a one-
year cycle, see Cowley, "J. Q. R." vii. 134-140.

While the reading from the Law at the morning
service of the Sabbath and holy days was generally
assumed to be a Mosaic institution, the practise of

I^aw, Beading from the
Laws, Noachian

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

648

reading from the Law on Sabbath afternoon, when
people have leisure, and on Monday and Thursday
mornings, for the villagers who then came to the
city for the market and court days, is ascribed to
Ezra (Yer. Meg. iv. 75a; B. K. 82a; comp. Mek.,
Wayassa', i. ; see notes of L H. Weiss, p. 53). Only
the first section of the week's parashah is read on
Sabbath afternoon and on Monday and Thursday.
This was different in earlier times (see Meg. 29b).
The reading, which was originally done by one priest
or elder (see Philo in Eusebius, "Praeparatio Evan-
gelica," I.e., ed. Mangey, ii. 630; and

Number Yer. Meg. iv. 75a), was afterward done

of Those by several, each of whom was called up
Who Read, by the head of the synagogue to read
a few verses (Yoma vii. 1 ; Rashi, see
'Aliyah). On Sabbath morning seven were called
up — which number seems to have been selected in
order to give each of the seven elders of the syna-
gogue, "sheba' tobe ha-'ir," who sat on the plat-
form (Matt, xxiii. 2; see Almemar) an opportu-
nity of reading, while the chief among them dis-
missed the congregation with words of comfort and
monition from the Prophets (see HAFTARAn and
Prophets). On the Day of Atonement six were
called up, on holy days five, on half holy days four,
on Sabbath afternoon and week-days three; the
last number implied the great historic principle
that the Law was no longer the privilege of the
priest and the Levite (comp. Neh. viii. 7-8), but that
in the Soferic period the layman also was counted
a student and teacher of the Law (Git. v. 5, 59a;
B. K. 82a; see MtiUer. I.e. p. 145). Originally no
one was called up to the Law who could not him-
self read; consequently where there was but one
able to read in the assembly he read the whole por-
tion (see Yer. Meg. iv. 75b; comp. Maimonides,
I.e. xii. 5; Abudarham, "TefillahshelHol "); in the
course of time the ignorant members of the con-
gregation had to be considered also, and it be-
came the custom to have the Ba'al Kore read the
chapter for all (Rashi Shab. 12b ; Tosafot Meg. 28b).
Regarding the mode of reading from the Law, see
Cantillation.

For the fifty -four parashiyyot of the Torah, see
Pentateuch.

The chapters selected for the various feasts and
fast-days, part of which were fixed in the Mishnaic
time (see Meg. iii. 4-6), others in the Babylonian
schools with a view to the second day of each fes-
tival, which was likewise regarded as a holy day
(Meg. 29-31), are:

Passover : first day, Ex. xll. 21-51 ;

secoud day, Lev. xxiii. 1-44 ;

third day (half holy day), Ex. xlii. 1-16;

fourth day, Ex. xxli. 24-xxili. 19;

fifth day, Ex. xxxiv. 1-26 ;

sixth day. Num. ix. 1-14 ;

seventh day (holy day), Ex. xiil. 17-xv. 27;

eighth day, Deut. xv. 19-xvi. 17.
Shabu'ot: first day, Ex. xix. 1-xx. 17;

second day. Lev. xxiii. 1-44.
Sukkot: first and second days. Lev. xxli. 36 xxlil. 44;

from the third to seventh days (half-holidays) , Num.
xxix. 17-39;

eighth day. Lev. xxlli. 1-44 ;

Simhat Torah, Deut. xxxill.-xxxlv. 12.
New- Year's :

first day. Gen. xxi.;

second day, (Jen. xxli. 1-19.

Day of Atonement :

morning. Lev. xvi. 1-34 ;
afternoon. Lev. xvi. 1-34.

All these are followed by the reading of the re-
spective portions relating to the sacrifice for the day,
from Num. xxviii.-xxix.

New-Moon, Num. xxviil. 1-15.

The eight days of Hanukkah, portions from Num. vil. 1-vlll.
4 are successively read.

Purim, Ex. xvii. 9-15.

Sabbath Shekalim, Ex. xxx. 1-10.
Zakor, Deut. xxv. 17-19.
" Parah, Num. xix. 1-22.
Ha-Hodesh, Ex. xii. 1-20.

Ninth of Ab, Deut. Ix. 25^0.

Ordinary fast-day, Ex. xxxll. 11-xxxiv. 11.

For the order in which the reading of the Law is
taken, see 'Aliyah, and for the nature of the manu-
scripts see Scrolls of the Law.

Bibliography : Bflchler, In J. Q. R. v. 420-468 ; Gratz, Mo-
natsschrift, 1869, pp. 385-399 ; Herzfeld, Oesch. des Vnlkea
JisraeU il. 209-215; MflUer, Masseket Soferim, 1878, pp.
143-222 ; Schurer, Gesch. il. 3, 455 ; Zunz, O. V. p. 5.

LAW SCHOOLS. See Academies in Pales-
tine.

LAWRENCE, JOHN ZACHARIAH: Eng-
lish surgeon; born in 1828; died in London July 18,
1870. He studied at University College, London
(M.B. 1857), and became a fellow of the Royal Col-
lege of Surgeons in 1855. He was appointed surgeon
at the hospital for epilepsy and paralysis, and later
ophthalmic surgeon of St. Bartholomew's Hospital.

He edited the " Ophtlialmic Review " from 1864
to 1867. He wrote: "The Diagnosis of Surgical
Cancer," 1855; "Illustrations of the Pathology of
Cancer," 1856; "The Progress of Ophthalmic Sur-
gery from the Invention of the Ophthalmoscope,"
1863 ; " The Optical Defects of the Eye and Their
Consequences, Asthenopia and Strabismus," 1865.

Bibliography: Jew. Chron. July 22, 1870; Boase, Modern
British Biography.
J. G. L.

LAWS, NOACHLAN : Laws which were sup-
posed by the Rabbis to have been binding upon
mankind at large even before the revelation at Sinai,
and which are still binding upon non-Jews. The
term Noachian indicates the universality of these or-
dinances, since the whole human race was supposed
to be descended from the three sons of Noah, who
alone survived the Flood. Although only those
laws which are found in the earlier chapters of the
Pentateuch, before the record of the revelation at
Sinai, should, it would seem, be binding upon all man-
kind, yet the Rabbis discarded some and, by her-
meneutic rules or in accordance with some tradition
(see Judah ha-Levi, "Cuzari," iii. 73), introduced
others which are not found there. Basing their
views on the passage in Gen. ii. 16, they declared
that the following six commandments were enjoined
upon Adam: (1) not to worship idols; (2) not to
blaspheme the name of God ; (3) to establish courts
of justice; (4) not to kill; (5) not to commit adul-
tery; and (6) not to rob (Gen. R. xvi. 9, xxiv. 5;

Cant. R. i. 16; comp. Seder '01am

The Seven Rabbah, ed. Ratner, ch. v. and notes.

Laws. Wilna, 1897 ; Maimonides, " Yad, " Mel-

akim, ix. 1). A seventh commandment
was added after the Flood — not to eat flesh that had
been cut from a living animal (Gen. ix. 4). Thus,

649

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Law, Reading from the
Laws, Noachian

the Talmud frequently speaks of "the seven laws
of the sons of Noah," which were regarded as ob-
ligatory upon all mankind, in contradistinction to
those that were binding upon Israelites only (Tosef.,
'Ab. Zarah, ix. 4; Sanh. 5Qsi et seq.).

While many additions were made to these laws by
some of the tannaim — e.g., the prohibitions against
eating the blood of a living animal, against the
emasculation of animals, against sorcery, against
pairing animals of different species, and against
grafting trees of different kinds {ib. 56b) — so that in
one place thirty Noachian laws are mentioned (Hul.
92a; comp. Yer. 'Ab. Zarah ii. 1), the prevalent
opinion in the Talmud is that there are only seven
laws which are binding upon all mankind. In an-
other baraita (Tanna debe Menasseh) the seven Noa-
chian prohibitions are enumerated as applying to
the following: (1) idolatry, (2) adulter}^ (3) murder,
(4) robbery, (5) eating of a limb cut from a living
animal, (6) the emasculation of animals, (7) the pair-
ing of animals of different species (Sanh. 56b).

With regard to the other laws which are mentioned
in the Book of Genesis and which were not included
among the Noachian laws, as, for instance, circum-
cision and the prohibition against eating of the
"sinew that shrank," the Rabbis laid down the fol-
lowing principle: "Every law that
Laws Be- was enjoined upon the Noachida) and
fore Sinai, was repeated at Sinai is meant to ap-
ply both to Israelites and to non-Israel-
ites; laws that were enjoined upon the Noachidae
and were not repeated at Sinai apply to Israelites
only" (Sanh. 59a; R. Jose ben Hanina; comp.
Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." i. 430 and note). By
this principle a number of the pre-Sinaitic laws
were excluded from the Noachian laws, although
it required a great deal of speculative reasoning to
make this principle apply to all cases (Sanh. 59b).

In the elaboration of these seven Noachian laws,
and in assigning punishments for their transgres-
sion, the Rabbis are sometimes more lenient and
sometimes more rigorous with Noachidae than with
Israelites. With but a few exceptions, the punish-
ment meted out to a Noachid for the transgression
of any of the seven laws is decapitation, the least
painful of the four modes of execution of criminals
(see Capital Punishment). The many formalities
of procedure essential when the accused is an Israel-
ite need not be observed in the case of the Noachid.
The latter may be convicted on the testimony of one
witness, even on that of relatives, but not on that of
a woman. He need have had no warning (" hatra'ah ")
from the witnesses; and a single judge may pass sen-
tence on him {I'b. 57a, b; "Yad," I.e. ix. 14). With
regard to idolatry, he can be found guilty only if he
worshiped an idol in the regular form in which that
particular deity is usually worshiped ; while in the
case of blasphemy he may be found guilty, even
when he has blasphemed with one of the attributes
of God's name — an action which, if committed by
an Israelite, would not be regarded as criminal (ib.
56b ; see Blasphemy).

The NoachidjE are required to establish courts of
justice in every city and province; and these courts
are to judge the people with regard to the six laws
and to warn them against the transgression of any of

them (ib.; "Yad," I.e. ix. 14, x. 11; comp. Nahm*-
nides on Gen. xxxiv. 13, where the opinion is ex-
pressed that these courts should judge
Procedure, also cases other than those coming under
the head of the six laws, as, for exam-
ple, larceny, assault and battery, etc.). In the case
of murder, if the Noachid slay a child in its mother's
womb, or kill a person whose life is despaired of
(" terefah"), or if he cause the death of a person by
starving him or by putting him before a lion so that
he can not escape, or if he slay a man in self-defense,
the Noachid is guilty of murder and must pay the
death-penalty, although under the same circum-
stances an Israelite would not be executed {ib. 57b ;
"Yad," I.e. ix. 4; comp. "Kesef Mishneh," ad loc).

Only six cases of what would ordinarily be illicit
connection are forbidden to the Noachid: (1) with
mother; (2) with father's wife, even after the father's
death ; (3) with a married woman, whether married
to a Jew or to a non-Jew ; (4) with sister by the same
mother ; (5) pederasty ; (6) bestiality. In these cases
also there are differences in the punishment inflicted,
dependent upon whether the offenses are committed
by a Noachid or by an Israelite (see "Yad," I.e. ix.
5-8). The Noachid is punished with decapitation for
all kinds of robbery, whether from a Jew or from a
non-Jew, even though the article stolen is worth
less than a perutah (the smallest Palestinian coin, for
less than which no case can be instituted against an
Israelite). The Noachid is executed also if he eat of
a limb cut from a living animal, even though the
quantity consumed be less than the size of an olive
(the minimum -portion for the eating of which an
Israelite may be punished; "Yad," I.e. ix. 9-13).

The Noachid is free from punishment if he com-
mits a sin xmwittingly ; ignorance of the Law, how-
ever, does not excuse him. If he commits a sin
under duress, even one for which an Israelite is
obliged to undergo martyrdom rather than trans-
gress {e.g., idolatry, adultery, or murder), he is not
liable to punishment (Mak. 9a; Sanh. 74b; "Yad,"
I.e. X. 1, 2; comp. "Lehem Mishneh"
Special Ex- and "Kesef Mishneh," ad loc). A
ceptions. Noachid who slays another Noachid,
or worships idols, or blasphemes, or
has illicit connection with the wife of another Noa-
chid, and then becomes a proselyte, is free from pun-
ishment. If, however, he has killed an Israelite, or
has had illicit connection with the wife of an Israel-
ite, and then becomes a proselyte, he must submit to
the punishment that is inflicted upon an Israelite
found guilty of such a transgression (Sanh. 71b;
"Yad,"?.c. X. 4).

A Noachid who wishes to observe any of the laws
of the Torah is not prevented from doing so. With
regard to the prohibition against a Noachid studying
the Law or observing the Sabbath, see Gentile in
Relation to Jews.

He who observed the seven Noachian laws was
regarded as a domiciled alien (2t*in IJ, 'Ab. Zarah
64b; see Proselyte), as one of the pious of the
Gentiles, and was assured of a portion in the world
to come (Tosef . , Sanh. xiii. 1; Sanh. 105a: comp. ib.
91b; "Yad," I.e. viii. 11). In Talmudic times the
non-Jews of Babylon were apparently sunk in the
grossest immorality, so that 'Ula, one of the earlier

Xiawson
Liazarus, Emma

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

660

Babyloniau amoraim, complains that out of the
thirty laws (see above) -which the Noachidoe accept
they observe only three — they do not write a mar-
riage contract ("ketubah ") for pederasty; they do
not sell human flesh in their shops ; and they show
respect for the Torah (Hul. 92b).

In the Messianic age the Noachida? will accept all
the laws of the Torah, although later they will
again reject them (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah ii. 1).

BiBMOGRAPHY: Hamhiirper, R. B. T. ii., s.v. Xnacliidcn :
Hirschfeld, Pfliclitcn und Gcsctze dci- Xoncliiiloi, in Ko-
bak's JescMiriDi, iv. 1-19; Levinsolin. Zcrvhhahd. ii. 74-87,
Warsaw, 1878; Webor. Siistem iler Alts\)n(Hj. I'aU'M. Tlieo-
Jngie, % 56, Leipsic, 1880; Zweifel, S(iHC(j">c. pp. 209 tf scq.,
Warsaw, 1891.
s. J. H. G.

liAWSON, LIONEL : English newspaper pro-
prietor; born in 1828 in London; died there Sept.
20, 1879. He was educated in Germany. Inheriting
a fortune from his father, he established a manufac-
tory of printing-ink at St. Oucn, France, made an-
other large fortune, and then sold the business. He
afterward established a similar bu.sincss in London.
He became one of the principal proprietors of the
London "Daily Telegraph," although he at no time
took an active part in the management of the paper.

Bibliography: Tlie DaiUi Tdcijraph and Thi- Times (Lon-
don), Sept. 22, 1879; 27ic Illustrated London Xiics, Sept. 24,
1879.

J. G. L.

LAWYER. See Academies; Attouney.

LAZAH. See Ei,eaz.\r.

LAZARE, BERNARD: French author; born
at Nimes June 14, ls(j,"); died at Paris Sept. 1, 1903;
educated in his native town and in Paris, where lie
settled, becoming critic and collaborator on "La
Nation," "L'EvCaiement,^" "L'Echo de Paris," " Le
Journal," "Figaro," etc. Altiiough without any re-
ligious convictions he avowed himself a Jew, and
was always ready to defend his brethren. It was
therefore only natural that the family of Captain
Dreyfus, believing their kinsman innocent, should
appeal to Lazare, who, himself convinced of the in-
nocence of the accused otlicer and of the existence of
a conspiracy among his accusers, took up his defense
and wrote " Une Erreur Judiciaii'e: La Verite sur
I'Affaire Dreyfus" (Paris, 1896) and "Comment
On Condanme un Innocent" {ib. 1897), which books
paved the way for the revision of tlie Dreyfus case.
Lazare interested himself deeply in the Jewish prob-
lem, even visiting Russia and Rumania to observe
personall}' the conditions prevalent among the Jews.
He became an ardent supporter of the Zionist move-
ment, and was a prominent figure in the Zionist con-
gress of 1898, but he soon dissociated himself from
the movement on account of disagreement in the
management of the Jewish Colonial Trust.

Lazare was the author of: " La Fiancee de Corin-
tlie," Paris, 1889; "Le Miroir des Legendes," ib.
1891 ; " L' Antisemitisme, Son Histoire et Ses Causes, "
Paris, 1892 (English transl. 1903); " Les Porteursdes
Torche," 1897. Lazare 's most widely known book
is "L' Antisemitisme," i)arts of which had already
appeared as articles and essays. The author says
in the introduction, " I have been charged by some
with being an anti-Semite, by others with liaving
defended the Jews too strongly. . . . This is wrong,
for I am neither an anti-Semite nor a philo Semite ;

I intend to write neither an apology nor a diatribe,
but an impartial study of the history and sociology
of the Jews." The book gives the history of tiie
facts that have tended to develop anti-Se(niiisni, and
recounts the treatment the Jews received in ancient
times (ch. ii.), from the foundation of the Christian
Church to Constantiue (eh. iii.), from Constantiiie
to the eighth century (ch. iv.j, from the eighth cen-
tury to the Reformation (ch. v.), from tlie Reforma-
tion to the French Revolution (ch. vi.). Ch. vii.
discusses ancient and medieval anti-Semitic litera-
ture, the modern phenomena and literature of anti-
Semitism being discussed in ch. viii. and i.\. Ch. x.
is given to a discu.ssion of the Jews as a race. Ch.
xi. compares them with oilier races represented in
Europe. " Hut can the Jews be regarded as a race?
The anti-Semites accuse them of cosmopolitanism,
and from this deduce their revolutionary tenden-
cies, not only politically but socially " (ch. xii.,
xiii., xiv.).

The last chapter forecasts the future of anti-
Semitism. The principal agent in the disaii|)ear-
ance of anti-Semitism will be the gradual assimila-
tion of the Jews by surrounding stocks, a process
now observable in the United States. AnliSemitism
excites the middle class, the proletariat, and some-
times the farmer, against the rich Jew; and while
it leads these classes to socialism, it prepares them
for anarchism, teaches them to hate not the Jewish
capitalist only, but all capitalists. Anti-Semitism
thus carries within itself the agent of its own de-
struction. It leads man to socialism, to eiiuality, to
fraternity, and destroys the barriers between the
cla.sses, between nations and religions.

s. F. T. H.

LAZARUS B. DAVID. See Benda^id, Laz-
ARrs.

LAZARUS, EMMA: American poet; born
July 22, 1S41), in New York city; died there Nov.
19, 1887; daughter of Moses and Esther (Nathan)
Lazarus. She was educated _^

by private tutors, and early
manifested poetic taste and
talent. The tirst stimulus
to her muse was offered by
the Civil war. A collection
of her " Poems and Transla-
tions," verses written be-
tween the ages of fourteen
and seventeen, appeared in
1867 (New York), and was
commended by William
Cullen Bryant. This vol-
ume was followed, in 1871,
by "Admetus, and Other
Poems" (ib.). The title-
poem was dedicated " To my
friend Ralph Waldo Emerson," whose works and per-
sonality were exercising an abiding influence upon
the poet's intellectual growth. During the next dec-
ade, in wliich "Phantasies" and "Epochs" were
written, her poems appeared chiefly in "Linpincott'a
Magazine " and "Scribner's Monthly."

By this time her work had won recognition abroad.
Herlirst prose production, "Alide: An Episode of

Emma Lazarus.

651

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lawson
Lazarus, Enuna

Goethe's Life," froatiiig of tlio Frcdciirka lirion in-
cident, was piiblislicd in 1874 (Philadelphia), ami
was followed by " The Spagnoletto " (IBTO), a drama,
aud by "Poems aud Ballads of Heiiiiich Heine"
(New York, 1881), to which a bioi^Muphical sketch
of Heine was prelixed. Her renderings of some of
Heine's verse are considered among the best in Eng-
lish. In April, 1882, she published in "The Cen-
tury " the article "Was the Earl of Beaconsfield a
Representative Jew ? " Her statement of the reasons
for answering this question in the aflirniative may

contributed to "The Century "(May. 1882, and Feb.,
1883). Hitherto her life had held no Jewish inspira-
tion. Though of Sei)liar(lic stock, aud ostensibly
Orthodo.x in belief, her family had hitherto not par-
ticipated in tlie activities of the Synagogue or of the
Jewish community. Contact with tlie unfortunates
from Russia led her to study the Bible, the Hebrew
language, Judaism, aud Jewish history. Besides,
she suggested, and in part saw executed, plans for
the welfare of the immigrants. The literary fruits
of identiticatiou with her race were poems like "The

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TaBLKT with POKM by KMMA L-A/.-MU S .\hHXKl) TO I UK LIBERTY MONIMKNT, N'KW YORK.

be taken to close what luay be termed the Hellenic
and journeyman period of Emma Lazarus' life, dur-
ing which her subjects were drawn from classic and
romantic sources.

What was needed to make her a poet of the people
as well as of the literary gild was a great theme, the
establishment of instant communication between
some stirring reality and her still-hidden and irreso-
lute subjectivity. Such a theme was provided by the
immigration of Russian Jews to America, conse-
quent upon the proscriptive May Laws of 1881. She
rose to the defense of her race in powerful articles

Crowinff of the Red Cock," "The Banner of the
Jew." "The Choice," "The New Ezekiel," "The
Dance to Death " (a strong, though \mequally ex-
ecuted drama), and her last published work (March,
1887), "By the Waters of Babylon: Little Poems
in Prose," which, aglow with "a gleam of the
solemn fire of the Hebrew prophets," constitutes
her strongest claim to a foremost raidc in American
literature.

During the same period (1882-87) she translated
the Hebrew poets of medieval Spain with the aid of
the German versions of Michael Sachs and Abraham

liazarus, Josephine
Lazarus, Horitz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

652

Geiger, and wrote articles, signed and unsigned,
upon Jewish subjects for the Jewish press, besides
essays on "Bar Kochba," "Henry Wadsworth Long-
fellow," "M. Kenan and tlie Jews," etc., for Jewish
literary associations, all the while continuing her
purely literary and critical work in the magazines
in such articles as "Tommaso Salvini," "Salvini's
' King Lear, ' " " Emerson's Personality, " " Heine, the
Poet," "A Day in Surrey with William Morris,"
etc. Her most notable series of articles was that
entitled " An Epistle to the Hebrews " (" The Amer-
ican Hebrew, "Nov. 10, 1882-Feb. 24, 1883), in which
she discussed the Jewish problems of the day, urged
a technical and a Jewish education for Jews, and
ranged herself among the advocates of an independ-
ent Jewish nationality and of Jewish repatriation in
Palestine. The only collection of poems issued dur-
ing this period was "Songs of a Semite: The Dance
to Death and Other Poems " (New York, 1882), ded-
icated to the memory of George Eliot. After her
death appeared "The Poems of Emma Lazarus" (2
vols., Boston and New Y'ork, 1889), which com-
prise such of her poetic work in previous collections,
in periodical publications, and from among her lit-
erary remains as her executors deemed proper to
preserve in permanent form.

Emma Lazarus counted among her friends many
of the prominent literary men of the day. Doubt-
less she is the most distinguished literary figure pro-
duced by American Jewry, and possibly the most
eminent poet among Jews since Heine and Judah
L5b Gordon. From a point of view transcending
the racial, she ranks high as a writer; and her later
work would seem to indicate that, if days had been
granted her, she might have risen to a place in the
first class. In May, 1903, a bronze tablet com-
memorative of her was placed inside the pedestal of
the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor.

Bibliography: The American Hehrew, xxxiii., Nos. 3, 5;
The Critic, xl. 293 ; JdTemoir prefixed to The Poems nf Emma
iMzarus (first published in The Century, xiv. 875); The
A.merican (Philadelphia), xvii. 295; The Literary World
(Boston). XX. 36; The Spectator (London), Ixiii. 608; Poet-
Lore (Boston), V. 320; Appleton's Cuclopadia of American
Biography; Markens, The Hebrews in America, pp. 260-
281; Kayserling. Die Jlldischen Frauen, p. 30i; Nahida ]
Remy, Das JlidUche Weib, pp. 281-282; Library of Ameri- i
can Literature, x. 492-498. xi. 543; Henry S. Morals, Emi-
nent Israelites of the Xineteenth Century, pp. 186-192.
A. H. S.

LAZARUS, JOSEPHINE: American essayist ;
born March 23, 1846, in New Y''ork city, where she
has always resided ; daughter of Moses and Esther
(Nathan) Lazarus. The first piece of work to bring
her into prominent notice was the biographical
sketch of her sister Emma Lazarus, which first ap-
peared in "The Century Magazine," Oct., 1888, and
was afterward prefixed to "The Poems of Emma
Lazarus " (New York and Boston, 1889). Between
1890 and 1893 she wrote articles on "Marie Bash-
kirtseff " in "Scribner's Magazine," and on "Louise
May Alcott" and "Margaret Fuller" in "The Cen-
tury Magazine." In 1895 six of her essays on Jew-
ish subjects, which had appeared from 1892 to 1895
in "The Century Magazine" and "The Jewish Mes-
senger," were collected and published in book form
under the title "The Spirit of Judaism." The plea
addressed to Jews in these essays is to acquire a
larger knowledge of the Jewish situation, to emerge

from their spiritual isolation, and to enter into fel-
lowship with those among whom they live; and the
plea addressed to Christians is for a more liberal
attitude toward Jews and Jewish thought.

Between 1897 and 1902 Josephine Lazarus wrote,
in "The American Hebrew," "The New World,"
and "The Maccaboean," four articles on aspects of
the Zionist movement, with which she is in sympa-
thy. Besides, she published, in 1899, a book entitled
" Madame Dreyfus " ; and for many years she has
been a contributor of numerous book-notices to
"The Critic."

A. H. S.

LAZABTTS, JTJLITJS : German physician ; born
at Neusalz-on-the-Oder April 6, 1847; educated at
the gymnasium of Gorlitz, Silesia, and at the Uni-
versity of Breslau, Avhere he studied medicine. The
Franco-Prussian war interrupted his studies, Laza-
rus serving as assistant surgeon. He is still con-
nected with the army as surgeon of the landwehr.
At the close of the war he resumed his studies at
the University of Berlin (M.D. 1872). He became
assistant to Traube and was detailed to a military
hospital as surgeon. At twenty-six he received the
Prussian Order of the Crown. Since 1875 he has
lectured at Berlin University as privat-docenttothe
senior medical classes during the summer vacation,
receiving the title of "Sanitatsrat " in 1896, and that
of professor in 1901.

Lazarus was one of the founders of the Society of
Jewish Nurses. He is a collaborator on Eulenburg's
" Allgemeine Pathologic und Therapie " (Vienna,
1899), and is the author of: "Handbuch derlvrank-
enpflege," Berlin, 1897; " Pneumatische Therapie,"
Vienna, 1899 ; " Muskulose Insufficienz des Herzens,"
Leipsic, 1901.

s. F. T. H.

LAZARUS, LEYSER: German Talmudist;
born at Filehne 1820; died at Breslau April 16, 1879;
brother of Moritz Lazarus. He first attended yeshi-
bot, then went to Sondershausen as fellow teacher
of RAbbi Heidenlieim, and there attended the gym-
nasium. After having studied at the Universit}' of
Berlin, he was elected rabbi of Prenzlau in 1849, and
in 1875 became Frankel's successor in the presi-
dency of the Breslau seminary, which position he
held until his death.

Lazarus combined the knowledge of a Talmudist
of the old school with modern education. He was
the author of "Die Ethik des Talmuds," Breslau,
1877.

Bibliography: Jahresbericht des Jildisch-Theologischen
Seminars, Breslau, 1880.
s. D.

LAZARUS, MORITZ: German philosopher;
born at Filehne, in the Prussian province of Posen,
Sept. 15, 1824; died at Meran, Tyrol, April 13, 1903;
son of Aaron Levin Lazarus, a pupil of Akiba Eger,
and himself president of the bet din and the j-eshi-
bah of Filehne (died there Feb. 26, 1874). With his
brother Leyser, who later became president of the
Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau, Lazarus
received his first instruction at the school of the
Jewish community of Filehne. Besides he studied
with A. Waldenburg, father of the Berlin professor

653

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lazarus, Josephine
Lazarus, Moritz

Moritz Lazarus.

Ludwig Waldenburg. The first German public
school in Filehne (t'ounded 1834) was inaccessible to
youug Lazarus on account of its denominational
character. Thus his early education was confined
to the various branches of Jewish knowledge. His
parents destined him for a commercial career, and
at the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to a mer-
chant of Posen. From the outset, however, this

career did not meet
with Lazarus' ap-
proval. In 1844 he en-
tered the German gym-
nasium at Brunswick,
and left it two years
later with the "testi-
monium maturitatis."
From 1846 to 1849 he
studied history, philol-
ogy, and especially
philosophy at the L'ni-
versity of Berlin. Be-
ing a fervent admirer
of his teacher Herbart,
Lazarus in course of
time became a promi-
nent exponent of his
philosophy, to which
he gave a more ideal-
istic impress. In 1860 he obtained his Ph.D. degree;
in the same year he married Sarah Lebenheim.

Lazarus' first publication, "Die Sittliche Berechti-
gung Preussens in Deutschland " (Berlin, 1850), ap-
pealed to the public at large. In this book he
claimed for Prussia the leadership over the other
German states on account of her political, philosoph-
ical, and religious superiority. From 1850 Lazarus
devoted himself especially to psychology. Apply-
ing the laws of the psychology of the individual to
the nation and to mankind (for these he considered
as social beings), Lazarus established a new branch
of research which he termed " Volkerpsj'chologie "
(national psychology). In an article entitled "Ueber
den Begriff und die Moglichkeit einer V5lkerps)'-
chologie als Wissenschaft " (in Prutz's "Deutsches
Museum," 1851) he laid the foundation for the study
of this science. Nine years later, in collaboration
with H. Steinthal, his friend and brother-in-law,
Lazarus established the "Zeitschrift fur Volker-
psychologie und Sprach wissenschaft " (vols, i.-xx.,
Berlin, 1860-90; continued as the
"Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Volks-
kunde "). From 1856 to 1858 he pub-
lished his principal work, " Das Leben
der Seele in Monographien " (3 vols. ;
3d ed., 1883-97). It deals with the
principal problems of psychology from the stand-
point of the philosophy of Herbart. Written in a
popular and easy style, it soon found a large circle
of readers.

In 1860 Lazarus was called to the University of
Bern as professor of psychology ; six years later he
returned to Berlin and was appointed teacher of
philosophy at the Royal Military Academy (1867);
and in 1874 he became professor of philosophy at the
university of that city. He was one of the founders
of the Schillerstiftung and for many years its presi-

Founds

" Volker-

psycho-

logie."

dent; he was also curator of the Victoria Lyceum.
On the occasion of his seventieth birthday Lazarus
was honored by the German emperor, the University
of Bern, and the Hebrew Union College of Cincin-
nati. The first conferred upon him the title of
" KOniglicher Geheimer Regierungsrath " ; the sec-
ond, the degree of doctor of law ; and the third, that
of doctor of theology. In 1895 Lazarus, after the
death of his first wife, married the widow Nahida
Ruth Remy. who under his influence had embraced
Judaism. During his last years Lazarus lived a re-
tired life in Meran.

Among his shorter philosophical and historical
writings may be mentioned: " Ueber den Ursprung
der Sitten," 1860; "Ueber die Ideen in der Ge-
schichte," 1861; "Zur Lehre von den Sinneser-
scheinungen," 1867; "Ein Psychologischer Blick in
Unsere Zeit," 1872; "Ideale Fragen," 1878; "Er-
ziehung und Geschichte," 1881; "Ueber die Reize
des Spiels," 1883.

Lazarus took a very active part in the public and
spiritual life of the Prussian Jews. From 1867 to
1892 he was a member of the ReprSsentanten-Ver-
sammlung of the Jewish congregation of Berlin;
from 1882 to 1894, vice-president of the Deutsch-
Israelitischer Gemeindebund; from 1867 to 1874,
president of the Berlin branch of the Alliance
Israelite Universelle ; in 1869, president of the Jew-
ish Synod of Leipsic, and in 1871 of
Communal that of Augsburg. He was also vice-
Activity, president of the Russian Auxiliary
Committee and of the Rumanian Com-
mittee (1869-94). Lazarus was furthermore one of
the founders of the Lehranstalt fvr dik Wissen-
schaft DES JcDENTHTJMS of Berlin, and for many
years president of its board of curators. He was a
very effective and popular public speaker. His
most important lectures on Jews and Judaism were
collected and published in his "Treu und Frei,"
Leipsic, 1887 (contains his speeches at the meetings
of the two synods ; " Was Heiss National ? " ; " Un-
ser Standpunkt " ; " An die Deutschen Juden " ; " Auf
Moses Mendelssohn " ; " Auf Michael Sachs " ; " Aus
einer Jlidischen Gemeinde vor Filnfzig Jahren ").

Lazarus devoted much time and energy to combat-
ing that anti-Semitism which took its rise in Ger-
many about 1878. He was one of the most promi-
nent Jewish apologists of his time. Like many of
his contemporaries, he believed (but erroneously)
that anti-Semitism was merely a passing fancy, a
phenomenon engendered by reactionar}^ times, which
could be explained away in writings or addresses.
He maintained that the Jews were united only by
means of their religious history ("Treu und Frei,"
p. 77). In this case as in many others, when con-
sidering Jewish matters, Lazarus follows the dic-
tates of his desires rather than the interests of the
common weal ("Gemeingeist "). Much cited for
apologetic purposes is his definition of the concept
"nation," as the essential and only objective charac-
teristic of which he takes not the similarity of cus-
toms and morals, of territory, religion, and race, but
the bond of language.

Of his more important contributions to Jewish
literature may be cited : " Der Prophet Jeremias "
(1894), a lecture, and " Die Ethik des Judenthums "

Lazarus, Moses
Leaven

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

654

"Die

Ethik des

Juden-

thums."

(part i., 1898; 2d ed., 1899; translated iuto English
by Henrietta Szold, and published by the Jewish
Publication Society of America, 1900).
In the latter work Lazarus takes etliics
as the resultant rather than as the basic
principle of religion, and, following
Kant, establishes as the principle of
Jewish ethics in particular the co-
equality of God and the law of autonomy, where-
by the Jewish conception of God has, of course, been
given up. Lazarus fails to show the historical de-
velopment of the morals of Judaism according to
riie various sources, as has been pointed out by Her-
man Cohen (" Das Problem der Jiidischen Sittcnlehre,
eine Kritik- von Lazarus,' Ethik des Judeuthums,' "
in "Monatsschrift," xliii. 385 et seq.).

Bibliography : E. Berliner, Prof. Dr. M. Lazarus und die
OeffentUche Meinung, Berlin, 1887; Brockhaiis Konver.ia-
tions-Lexikon; R. Brainin, in Ha-SMloah, v. 45 et seq.;
Jew. Chron. April 17, 1903: A. Choralnik, in Die Welt, vii.,
No. 18; Morais, Eminent Israelitea of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury, pp. 192 et seq.; comp. also the necrologies in Ha-Meliz,
xliii.. No. 79; Ha-?:ofeh, i., No. 78; Ha-Zefirah, xxx., Nos.
79, 81 ; and in Ha-Zeman, i., No. 25.
s. M. Sc.

LAZABUS, MOSES: American merchant ; born
in New York city June 29, 1813; died there March
9, 1885. He was identified with the sugar-refining
industry until 1865; thereafter he lived in retire
ment. In 1840 he married Esther Nathan, a mem-
ber of another family prominent in the life of New
York city. At his death he left seven children, two
of whom, Emma and Josephine, have achieved dis-
tinction as authors. Lazarus was a member of tlie
Shearitli Israel congregation and was one of the
founders of the Knickerbocker Club.

A. H. S.

LAZARUS, NAHIDA RUTH {nee Sturm-
hofel) : German authoress; born Feb. 3, 1849, at
Berlin; a descendant of a German Christian family.
She was married first to Dr. Max Remy (in her
writings she still signs herself "Nahida Remy"),
after whose death she became a convert to Judaism
and married Prof. Moritz Lazarus (1895).

Nahida Lazarus has contributed many essays and
novels, treating of history, art, and theatrical criti-
cism, sociology, etc., to the feuilletons of the " Vos-
sische Zeitung," "Monatszeitung," "Westermann's
Monatshefte," etc. She is also the authoress of:
"Die Rechnung ohne Wirth," drama, 1870; "Wo
die Orangen Bllihen," story, 1872; "Constanze,"
drama, 1879; "Die Grafen Eckardstein," drama,
1880; "Schicksalswege," 1880; "Domenico," and
" Nationale Gegensatze," drama, 1884 ; " Sicilianische
Novellen," 1885; "Liebeszauber," drama, 1887;
" Geheime Gewalten," 1890 ; " Das Jlidische Weib,"
1892; "Das Gebet in Bibel und Talmud," 1892;
"Kulturstudien iiber das Judeutum," 1893; "Hu-
manitat im Judentum," 1894; "Ich Suchte Dich,"
an autobiography, 1898; etc. Since the death of
her husband she has prepared a volume of his " Le-
benserinnerungen. "

Bibliography: Brummer, Deutsches Dichterlexihon; Hin-

rlchsen, Dos Literarische Deut^cMand, 3d ed., 1891-92.

s. F. T. H.

LEASE. See Landloud and Tenant.

LEATHER.— Biblical Data : Skins of animals
were employed for clothing as soon as man felt the
need of covering his body to protect himself against \

cold and rain. With the advance of civilization
such clothing was everywhere replaced by products
of the loom. The same was the case among the
Hebrews. The " coat of skins " was regarded by
them as having been the first kind of clothing,
given to man by God Himself (Gen. iii. 21); and the
mantle of skins was still worn in the time of the
Patriarchs (Gen. xxv. 25). In historic times the
use of the mantle of skins is mentioned only in the
CHse of the prophets Elijah and Elisha, who, in in-
tentional contrast to the jieople of their day, wore
the ancient, simple garb (I Kings xix. 13; li Kings
i. 8; ii. 8, 13 et seq.); indeed, the hairy mantle came
in time to be the distinguishing feature of a proph-
et's garb (Zech. xiii. 4; Matt. iii. 4, vii. 15).

After the Hebrews had acquired the art of tanning,
which must have been at an early date, leather came
to be used for a number of other purposes. Among
articles of clothing it was employed chiefly for san-
dals. Leathern girdles are also mentioned (II Kings
i. Setal.). The warrior had a leathern Helmet to i)ro-
tect his head, and his Shield also was usually of
leather. For utensils in daily use leather is princi-
pally employed among nomads, as it was among the
ancient Israelites, since receptacles of leather are not
liable to be broken and are easily carried about.
The original form of a table, as the word jn^tJ' indi-
cates, was a piece of leather, which was spread upon
the ground. Pails and all other vessels for holding
liquids were made of leather. The leather bucket
for drawing water out of a well and the leather flask
— consisting of a single skin removed from the
animal's carcass as intact as possible — for holding
Avine or for transporting water have remained in
common u.se in the Orient down to the present day.
Skins of goats and sheep were generally used for
these various purposes; more seldom, those of oxen.
Concerning tanning, although it was probably famil-
iar to the Hebrews from the oldest times, nothing
is said in the Old Testament. Not once is a tanner
mentioned.

A. I. Be.

In the Talmud : The Talmud speaks of many

articles made of skins ("llj?) ; and, as tanning was prac-
tised in Talmudic times, it is possible that such arti-
cles, or at least some of them, were of leather. The
strap ("rezu'ah ") is mentioned as serving various
purposes. Asses were hobbled with straps; and
cows were led by means of straps tied to the horns
(Shab. 54b). Women used to tie their hair with
leathern straps {ib. 57a) ; and by similar means shoes
and sandals were fastened to the feet (Neg. xi. 11),
and the tefillin to the head and arm (Men. 35b).
Flagellation ("malkut ") was performed by means
of three straps — one of calfskin and two of ass' skin
(Mak. 22b); straps are frequently mentioned as.
instruments of punishment, especially of children
(Yer. Git. i. 43d, et passitn). It would appear that
straps were used to tie up certain objects, as the
untying of the strap is often used to designate re-
laxation (Yer. Bik. i. 64a, et passim). It is very
probable that sandals generally were made of thick
hide ; for wooden sandals are indicated as such (Yeb.
101a, et passim). Besides shoes, the Talmud speaks
of leather hose ("anpilia"), and of a kind of glove
and foot-wear of skin for a cripple who was compelled

655

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lazarus,
Leaven

Moses

to use his hands in order to move from place to place

{ih. 102b).

The Mishnah, Keliin xxvi. 5, euumcTaU-s the lul-
lowing articles made of leather: a covering for the
mule or ass; aprons worn by muleteers and by sur-
geons to protect their clothes; a cradle-cover; a
child's breast-piece to protect it from the scratching
of a cat; aprons by which wool-carders and flax-
spinners protected themselves from the waste of the
wool or the tow of the flax ; the pad placed by the
porter under his load; and skins used for various
purposes by individuals not engaged in any business
or trade (" 'orot ba'al ha-bayit "). In mislmah 8 of
the same chapter, tanners' skins are spoken of; but
certainly untanned skins are meant, similar to those
referred to in Sliab. 49a as having been spread by
the tanner for people to sit upon.

A. M. Sel.

LEAVEN (-IIXO : Fermenting dough (|»J3n =
" to be sour, " " fermented " ; Aramaic, xyion). Leav-
ened bread was probably a common article of food
among the ancient Israelites (Hos. vii. 4), while
unleavened bread (" mazzot ") was prepared when
food was required at short notice (Gen. xix. 3; I
Sam. xxviii. 24). Such bread was designated " the
bread of affliction," because of its association with
Egyptian slavery (Deut. xvi. 3; Ex. xii. 34-39; see
Baking; Buead; Mazzah). With few exceptions
(Lev. vii. 13, xxiii. 17), leaven was forbidden in sac-
rificial offerings (Ex. xxiii. 18, xxxiv. 25; Lev. ii. 11,
vi. 10; comp. Amos iv. 5; see Sacrifice). In later
times, "leaven" and "corruption " were regarded as
synonymous terms (Matt. xvi. 6-12; Mark viii. 15;
I Cor. v. 6-8). The Rabbis, in speaking of the
evil desire (" yezer ha-ra' "), called it " the leaven
that is in the dough "(Ber. 17a; comp. Gen. R.
xxxiv. 12; Talk., Ruth, 601), and the term was thus
extensively used by the cabalists of the Middle
Ages (Hastings, "Diet. Bible," «.«.).

During the festival of Mazzot it was strictly for-
bidden to eat anything leavened, or even to keep
such food on one's premises (Ex. xii. 14-20, xiii.
3-7, xxiii. 15, xxxiv. 18; Lev. xxiii. 6; Num. xxviii.
17; Deut. xvi. 3, 4). The punishment for eating
leavened bread during these seven days was " karet "
(Ke*". 2a), and for preparing it, stripes (Maimonides,
" Yad," Hamez, 1. 1-3). The reason for this prohibi-
tion is given in Ex. xii. 34-39, although other rea-
sons have been advanced by modern scholars (see
Mazzah; Passover).

With reference to this prohibition three kinds of
leaven were distinguished by the Rabbis: (1) leav-
ened food prepared from the five kinds of grain,
wheat, barley, oats, corn, and spelt

Kinds of ("hamez gamur"); (2) food in which

lieaven. leaven of the first kind was mixed
("ta'arubot"); and (3) any leavened
substance unfit for food, e.g., the dough which the
cooks used to place over the pot or that which the
bookbinders used for pasting the leaves ("hamez
nuksheh "). Leaven of the first kind carried with it
the punishment of karet; of the second, stripes;
while that of the third kind, being prohibited only
bv a rabbinical decree, carried no punishment witli
it" (Pes. 43a; "Yad,"Z.c. 6; ShulMn 'Aruk, Orah
Hayyim, 442, 1 ; Hayye Adam, 12i, 1).

An Israelite may not derive any benefit from un-
leavened bread during Passover. He may not feed
his animal with il, nor may he burn it and then
make use of the fire (Pes. 5b, 21b). The Rabbis, in
order to puni.sh him who did not remove all leaven
from his house before the holy day, went still further
in their restrictions, and decreed that the use or
benefit from any leaven belonging to an Israelite
left over after the holyday was forever prohibited
{ib. 28a, 29a; "Yad,";.c. i. 4). If, however, tiie
Israelite had sold or given all his leaven to "a non-
Jew before Passover, it might be bought back and
used by the Jew after Passover (Tosef., Pes. ii. 5, 6;
Rosli, ib. ii. 4). It has thus become customary for
one who has much leaven left to sell it to a non-Jew
before Passover. A contract is drawn up in legal
form in which all the details are set

Sale of forth, and earnest-monej' is accepted ;
Leaven to and the key of the room in which the

Gentiles leaven is stored up is delivered to the

Before non-Jew. A common custom, fol-
Passover. lowed by a great many communities,
is for all the Jews of the town to make
the rabbi the agent for selling all their leaven to a
non-Jew. A few days before the festival every
Israelite comes to the rabbi's house and signs a deed
of sale and enters into the symbolical form of sale
("kinyan") with the rabbi; and then tlie rabbi
draws up a separate deed for the non-Jew, to whom
all the other deeds are delivered. It is also neces-
sary to rent to the non-Jew the room in which the
leaven is stored (Sha'are Teshubah to Orah Hay-
yim, 448, 3; Kizzur Shulhan 'Aruk, 114).

If a particle of leaven fall into a boiling pot dur-
ing Passover, even though the pot contain more
than sixty times the amount of leaven, all the food
in the pot is prohibited, and the pot itself can not be
used again during the festival (Pes. 30a; "Yad,"
I.e. i. 5). If, however, the leaven fall into the
pot before Passover, and the amount in the pot is
sixty times the amount of leaven, the food may be
eaten on the festival. Dishes or pots which have
been used during the year for articles containing
leaven can not be used during the festival, unless
they have gone through some process of purification.
Earthenware vessels which liave been used for
leaven must be burned again in the potter's kiln,
while vessels made of metal may be used after they
have undergone a process of purification ("hag'a-
lah "). Vessels used on the fire, such as spits or
broilers, must be made red hot before they can be
used for Passover, while vessels that have been used
in cooking, such as pots and pans, must be boiled
in water ('Ab. Zarah 75b; Rosh Pes. ii. 7; "Yad,"
I.e. V. 21-26; Orah Hayyim, 451). Dishes, spoons,
and forks are made fit for use on Passover by pour-
ing hot water over them. The custom, however, is
to have these as well as all vessels, even such as
have been used only for cold food or drink, boiled
in the same manner as vessels used in cooking.
Large vessels, such as can not be placed in other
vessels in order to have them boiled, can be purified
by being passed over a hot stone while hot water is
being poured over them (Orah Hayyim. 451, 6, and
Isserles' note). Wooden tables upon which hot ves-
sels containing leaven have been placed should be

Leaven
liebensohn

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

656

scrubbed with hot water, and, as is usually the cus-
tom, rubbed over with a hot stone. Polished tables
which can not be washed in this manner must be
covered with heavy cloth for Passover, so tJ*at the
heat of the dishes placed upon them shall not reach
the surface (Orah Hayyim, 451, 20, and Be'er Heteb,
ad loc.). Some rabbis are of the opinion that glass-
ware needs no special purification for Passover;
others, that no process of purilication can make it
fit for use {ib. 26, and " Magen Abraham, " ad loc). In
some countries it is the custom to leave glasses in
water for three successive daj's, changing the water
every day, in order to make them fit for use on the
festival (Hayye Adam, 125, 22). In order to avoid
all doubt, observant Jews provide themselves with

lowing blessing: "Blessed art thou . . . and com-
mandest us concerning the removal of leavened
bread " {ib. 7b). After he has searched all the rooms
and has collected all the morsels of leaven in a
wooden spoon, he carefully ties them up in a rag and
stores them away in a place which can not be reached
by rats, pronouncing the following formula in Ara-
maic or in any language which he understands best:
" Let all leaven that is in my premises which I have
not seen and which I have not removed be as of
no avail and be as the dust of the ground." On
the next morning leaven may be eaten only until the
fourth hour of the day {ib. 12b) ; and soon after that
time all the remaining leaven is carefully collected
and burneil, when the master of the house repeats

The Forest op Lebanon.

(From a photograph.)

separate sets of dishes and kitchen utensils for Pass-
over, which are stored away from year to year, being
used only during the festival.

Many days before Passover the pious Jewish

housewife commences her house-cleaning for the

festival. On the eve of the fourteenth of Nisan,

although most Jewish houses are then

Search, for thoroughly free from all leaven, the

Leaven master of the house proceeds with

Before the ceremony of searching for leaven

Passover. (" bedikat hamez " ; Pes. 2a ; see Bedi-

KAH). Pieces of bread are placed in

conspicuous places which can not be overlooked,

and with a wax candle in his hand the master of the

house begins the search, after pronouncing the fol-

the formula, with a few alterations, which he re-
cited on the previous evening (Orah Hayyim, 431-
437).

Any leaven found in the house during Passover,
if discovered on the week-days of the holy day,
should be immediately burned ; if found on the holy
day itself it should be covered with a vessel and
burned in the evening. While it is being burned the
above-mentioned blessing should be pronounced
(Pes. 6a; "Yad," I.e. iii. 8; Orah Hayyim, 446).

s. s. J. 11. G.

LEAVENWORTH. See Kansas.

LEBANON (}1J3!5) : Name of a range of moun-
tains in Syria. In prose, with the exception of II

657

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Lieaven
Liebensohn

Chron. ii. 8 (Hebr.), the name is always written
with the article, while in poetry it occurs as often
without as with the article. The name (= " white ")
is due either to the snow which covers its peaks for
the greater part of the year, and to which Jer. xviii.
14 alludes, or to the calcareous formations of the
upper ranges. The topography of the Lebanon is
very vaguely indicated in the Bible; it appears only
as the great northern limit of the land assigned to
Israel (Deut. i. 7, xi. 24; Josh. i. 4), and is mentioned
as being not far from the Sea of Joppa (Ezra iii. 7).
It was fully described by Greek geographers, among
others by Strabo (xvi. 754): it consists of two par-
allel ranges running south-southwest and north-
northeast, the western range being called " Lebanon, "
and the eastern, " Anti-Lebanon " ; Mt. Hermon is
the highest peak in the latter range. Between the
two ranges is a valley which the Bible calls " the
valley of Lebanon," where the city of Baal-gad was
situated (Josh. xii. 7); the Greeks gave the name
" Ccele-Syria " to the district. The Lebanon juts
into the Mediterranean south of Tyre, where the
rocks form an ascent to the top of the mountain ;
hence the Talmudic name IIVH XO^ID (= " the ladder
of Tyre"; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah i. 9; 'Er. 80a; Bezah
25b ; comp. the KTiifia^ Tvpiuv of Josephus, " B. J. "
ii. 10, § 2).

"Lebanon" also in the Bible includes the Anti-
Lebanon (comp. Josh. xiii. 5, "all Lebanon toward
the sunrising," and Uant. vii. 5 [A. V. 4], " the tower
of Lebanon which looketh toward Damascus " ; in
both verses the Anti-Lebanon being meant). At the
time of Joshua, the Lebanon was inhabited by the
Hivites a'nd Giblites, and though it formed a part
of the laud assigned to the Israelites it was never con-
quered by them (Josh. xiii. 5; Judges iii. 1-3). In the
time of Solomon, the Lebanon district seems to have
been in the possession of Hiram, King of Tyre (I
Kings V. 6; II Chron. ii. 8). Nevertheless, Solomon
appears to have erected buildings in the Lebanon
(I Kings ix. 19; II Chron. viii. 6). Owing to its
extraordinary fertility, the Lebanon is
Proverbial the mountain range most frequently
Fertility, mentioned in the Bible. Moses, when
looking over the promised land, men-
tioned the Lebanon in particular (Deut. iii. 25). It
was famous for its fruit (Ps. Ixxii. 16), its wine
(Hosea xiv. 8), and especially for its cedars, which
furnished wood for the Temple (I Kings v. 6; Ezra
iii. 7; Ps. xxix. 5, civ. 16; passim). The range had
also an abundance of fir-trees and algum-trees (II
Chron. ii. 8), and the thistle of the Lebanon is once
referred to (ib. xxv. 18). The "smell of Lebanon"
is spoken of in Hosea xiv. 7 and Cant. iv. 11, and
by the Talmudists. " At the arrival of the Messiah,
the young people of Israel will exhale an odor like
that of Lebanon " (Ber. 43b). Lebanon is referred
to as "Eden" by Ezekiel (xxxi. 16), and Isaiah
speaks of the " glory of Lebanon " (Isa. Ix. 13). It
is for this reason that " Lebanon " is taken by the
Prophets to designate Jerusalem (Isa. x. 34; Zech.
xi. 1), while the Rabbis understood it to refer to the
Temple of Jerusalem, supposing that it was so called
because it cleanses Israel of sin (lit. "it whitened
their sins " ; Yoma 39a).

K. G. H. M. Sel.

VII.— 42

LEBENSOHN, ABRAHAM DOB BAR
BEN HAYYIM (surnamed Michailishker ;
pseudouym, Adam): Rus.sian Hebraist, poet, and
grammarian; born in Wilna, Russia, about 1789;
died tliere Nov. 19, 1878. Like all Jewish boys of
that time in Russia he was educated as a Talmudist,
but became interested in Hebrew grammar and
punctuation when, at the age of eleven, he was in-
structed in reading in public the weekly portions of
the Law. He was married, according to the custom
of those times, as soon
as he liad celebrated his
bar mizwah; and he
spent the followingeight
years with liis wife's
parents in Michailishok,
government of Wilna.
This gave him the sur-
name "Michailishker,"
by which he was popu-
larly known ; and it also
accounts for the last
letter in his pen-name
" Adam " (formed from
the initials of Abraham
Dob Michailishker),
while the family name
"Lebensohn," which he
adopted, is a literal
translation of " ben Hay-
yim." He afterward lived about four years in
Osmiyany, in the government of Wilna, where he at-
tempted to establish himself as a merchant. He was
now an accomplished rabbinic scholar; but he de-
voted most of his leisure time to the study of He-
brew poetical and grammatical works. On return-
ing to his native city, where he remained for the
rest of his life, he engaged in teaching, a profession
which he followed until his old age, except for
about fifteen years in which he was engaged in the
business of a broker.

His first poetical work to be published was the
" Shir Habibim " (Wilna, 1822), in honor of the mar-
riage of Count Tyszkiewicz, one of the most pow-
erful noblemen of Lithuania. It was followed by
"Ebel Kabed" (ib. 1825), an elegy on the death
of R. Saul Katzenellenbogen ; this established the
author's reputation as a Hebrew poet. The pub-
lication of the first volume of his poetry, entitled
"Shire SefatKodesh" (Leipsic, 1842;

As Poet. 2d ed. Wilna, 1863), marks the begin-
ning of a new epoch in Neo-Hebrew
literature in Russia. It is the first poetical work of
the rejuvenated literature that can be favorably
compared with the works of that nature which were
produced in western European countries. It was
received with unbounded enthusiasm. Thousands
of young men in sympathy with the Haskalah
movement, of which Lebensohn became the leading
exponent in Lithuania, learned to recite the songs of
" Shire Sefat Kodesh " by heart ; and the fame of
the author spread to all centers of Hebrew learning.

When Sir Moses Montefiore visited Wilna in 1846
Lebensohn prepared for his perusal an article on
the condition of the Jews in Russia and the means
by which it was to be improved. This interesting

Iiebensohn
Lie-Dawid

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

658

document, embodying the views held by the Mas-
kilim of that period, summarized the evils from
which the Jews suffered and boldly stated that they
were themselves to blame for their troubles. Lack
of education and of skill in handicrafts, too early
marriages, the ignorance of tlie rabbis and teachers,
and extravagance were described as the four "abot
nezikin " or chief faults; and relief was proposed, as
was customary in those times, through governmen-
tal intervention (see I. M. Dick, "Ha-Orah," and
Lebensohn, " Yeter Shire Adam," pp. 67 et seq.).

In 1848 Lebensohn was made one of the principal
teachers in the newly established rabbinical school
of Wilna, a position which he creditably filled for
nearly twenty years, until he was forced by age
and impaired eyesight to relinquish it. He was
succeeded by his son-in-law Joshua Steinberg. In
1848, too, he began, conjointly with the bibliog-
rapher Benjacob, the publication of a new edition
of the Bible, with a German translation, himself
adding valuable glosses to the "bi'ur"' ("Mikra'e
Kodesh," Wilna, 1848-53). Some of

As Com- his commentaries on the Bible were
mentator. later printed separately as a supple-
ment to that edition ("Bi'urim Ha-
dashim," ib. 18o8). A second volume of "Shire
Sefat Kodesh" appeared in Wilna in 1856 (2d ed.,
ib. 1869) ; and in 1809 was published " Yeter Shire
Adam," the third volume of the same work, contain-
ing also poems written by his son Micah Joseph
Lebensohn. The most important of his later works
are the allegorical drama "Emet we-Emunah " (/i.
1867; 2d ed., ib. 1870), which has for its theme the
harmonization of science and religion; and "Y'itron
le-Adam " {ib. 1874), a commentary on Ben-Ze'eb's
well-known Hebrew grammar, "■ Talmud Leshon
'Ibri," with which it has been often reprinted. A
new edition of the three volumes of "Shire Sefat
Kodesh " appeared in Wilna in 1895.

Lebensohn was the author of several other, unim-
portant, works and of numerous articles in the peri-
odicals. He exercised almost as much influence by
his powerful personality as by his literary efforts,
and was recognized in his later years as the pioneer
of haskalah in northwestern Russia. The Maskilim
of Wilna considered themselves as his pupils, while
the fanatics saw in him the embodiment of all the
objectionable features of the progressist movement.

He had two sons, >Iicah Joseph, cited above, and
Aryeh Lob, who was a prominent business man in
Wilna.

Bibliography : Fuenn. Safnh Ic-Xe'cmanim, pp. 15&-158,
Wilna, 1881; Idem, Kcncset Vi.-<rael, pp. 36-37; Gordon, in
Yevreiskai/a Bihlioteka. viii. 160-177; Mandelkem, in Ha^-
Asif, ill. 417-425; Zeitlin, BibJ. Post-Mendels. pp. 192-194.

H. K. P. Wl.

LEBENSOHN, MICAH JOSEPH: Russian
Hebrew poet; born in Wilna, Russia, Feb. 22, 1828;
died there Feb. 17, 1852. His father, the poet Abra-
ham Bar Lebensohn, implanted in him the love of
Hebrew poetry, and Micah Joseph began very early
to translate and to compose Hebrew songs. He suf-
fered from consumption during the last five or six
years of his short life. In 1849 he was in Berlin,
and later went to Salzbrunn and other watering-
places, where he vainly sought relief from the terri-

ble disease which had attacked him. About the end
of 1850 he abandoned all hope of recovery and re-
turned to Wilna, where he lingered until his death.

Lebensohn's poetical works are: "HarisutTroya"
(Wilna, 1849; 2d cd., ib. 1869), a translation of the
third and fourth books of Vergil's "^Eneid " after
Schiller" s German translation; " Shire Bat Zi^'j'on "
{ib. 1851; 2d ed., ib. 1869), epic poems on Jewish
subjects, of which his brother-in-law, Joshua Stein-
berg, published a German translation entitled "Ge-
sange Zion's" {ib. 1859); and " Kiunor Bat Ziyyon "
{ib. 1870), a second volume of the foregoing songs,
printed posthumously by his father. The most
noted elegies on his death arc that by his father,
entitled "Mikal Dim'ah" (in the second part of
"Shire Sefat Kodesh") and J. L. Gordon's allegor-
ical drama, "Ho Ah," which is placed in the first
part of " Kol Shire Yehudah. "

Lcbensohn's poetry sui-passes that of his father,

and is characterized by a deep pathos and a beauty of

expression which are rare in Neo-Hebrew verse. It is

ahso noted for its expression of the young poet's

strong longing for life and of the dread of an early

dissolution which preyed on his mind.

Bibliography: Brainin, in Ost unci West, ii. No. 4; Der Jud
(Cracow), iv. No. 15; Mandelliem, in Ha-Anif, ill. 425-439.

H. K. P. Wl.

LEBERT (LEWY), HERMANN: German
physician; born at Breslau June 9, 1813; died at
Bex, Canton Waadt, Switzerland, Aug. 1, 1878. He
studied medicine at the universities of Berlin and
Zurich, graduating in 1834, and spent the following
year traveling through Switzerland engaged in
botanical researches. In 1836 he took a post-gradu-
ate course in Paris, and in 1838 settled in Bex as a
physician. The winter months of 1842-45 he spent
in Paris, occupied with studies in comparative
anatoni}'. During the winter of 1845-46 he lived in
Berlin, and in 1846 he settled in Paris.

In 1853 Lebert was elected professor of medicine
at Zurich Universitj', which position he held for six
years, when he was called in a similar capacity to
the University of Breslau. Resigning in 1874 he
spent the last four years of his life in Nice, Vevey,
and Bex.

Lebert added greatly to the knowledge of pathol-
ogy and biology. He wrote numerous essays in the
medical journals ; among liis independent works may
be mentioned: "Physiologic Pathologique," Paris,
1845; "Traite Pratique des Maladies Scrofuleuses et
Tuberculeuses," ib. 1849 (German transl. Stuttgart,
1851); "Traite Pratique des Maladies Cancereuses,"
Paris, 1851; "Traite d'Anatoinie Pathologique Ge-
nerale et Speciale," ib. 1852-64; "Handbuch der
Praktischen Medicin," Tubingen, 1855; "Handbuch
der Allgemeinen Pathologic und Tlierapie,"«d. 1865;
"Grundzi'ige der Aerztlichen Praxis," ib. 1866;
"Klinik der Brustkrankheiten," Tubingen, 1874;
" Verzeichniss der Schlesischen Spinnen," ib. 1875;
"Bau und Leben der Spinnen," Berlin, 1878; "Die
Krankheiten des Magens," Tubingen, 1878.

His family name was " Lewy " (or " Levy "), which
he changed to " Lebert " when he adopted Chris-
tianity.

Bibliography : Pagel, Bing. Lex. Vienna, 19Ce.

s. F. T. H.

659

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lebensohn
Le-Dawid

LEBERT, SIEGMUND (SIEGMUND

LEVY): Music -teacher and writer on music; born
at Ludwigsburg, Wilrttemberg, Dec. 12, 1822; died
at Stuttgart Dec. 8, 1884. After completing his
studies under Tomaschek, Weber, Tedesco, and
Proksch, at Prague, he taught music at Munich. In
conjunction with Faiszt, Brachmann, Laiblin, Stark,
and Speidel, he founded (1856-57) the Stuttgart
Conservatory. Lebert was highly esteemed as a
music-teacher and published a large number of
works on music, of which the following are the most
important: "Grosse Klavierschule," published in
cooperation Avith Stark (several editions; it has been
translated into English, French, Italian, and Rus-
sian); an edition of dementi's "Gradus ad Par-
nassum " ; an edition of pianoforte classics (in collab-
oration with Faiszt, Ignaz Lachuer, Liszt, and
others).

The University of Ttibingen conferred on Lebert
the degree of doctor of philosophy, and the King of
Wurttemberg bestowed on him the title of pro-
fessor. His methods have gradually come to be re-
garded as somewhat laborious and pedantic. Never-
theless several able pianists were graduated from
his school, among whom Anna Mehlig is one of the
most distinguished.

Bibliography: Kiemnnn, Musik-Lexikon,s.v.; Baker, Bioff.
Diet, of Musicians, s.v.

!?■ J. So.

LEBRECHT, FtJRCHTEGOTT : German edu-
cator; born at Memmelbach, Bavaria, Nov. 16, 1800;
died at Berlin, Sept. 1, 1876. He studied at Fiirth,
and later at Presburg under Moses Sofer, devoting
himself mainly to the Talmud and to the Hebrew
literature of the Middle Ages. In 1827 he went to
Halle, where he received a thorough grammatical
training under Geseuius, whom in turn he aided in
Neo-Hebraic literature. After a few years spent ;
at Halle, he went to Berlin, where he devoted liim-
self to literary work. He secured a position as
teacher at the Lehrer-Seminar (founded under the
direction of Zuuz in 1840), and continued there
until 1848. In 1850 he became head teacher at
the Veitel Heine Epiiraim'sche Lehraustalt (Bet ha-
Mldrash), a position he retained until his death,
serving also as librarian. This institution had been
established in 1774, but was not maintained on a '
high pedagogical plane until Lebrecht introduced '
modern educational methods and elevated it to a
level of efficiency that attracted to it widespread at-
tention.

Lebrecht was a constant contributor to Jevvisii
periodicals, such as Geiger's "Jiid. Zeit.," Fiirst's
"Der Orient," the "Historische Jahrbiicher fiir
Kritik," the "Allg. Zeit. des Jud."; also to the
"Vossische Zeitung" and the " SpenerscheZeituiig."
In 1862 lie published his *' Ilaiidschriften uiid Eiste
Ausgaben des Babylouischen Talmud " in the " Wis-
senschaftlichc Bliitter aus der Veitel Heine Ephra-
im'.scheu Lehranstalt." and two years later Jiis
" Vcrhesserter Kritisclic Lesartcn und Eiklarungen
zum Talmud," Berlin, 1SC4. In 1874 his "Adel-
heid Zuiiz " was reprinted from the "Vossisclie
Zeitung." His last work (posthumously published)
was his -'Bcthar, die Fragliclie Stiidt" iiii Iladiia-
nisch-Jiidischen Kriege: Einl700 Jilliriges .^lissver-

stadniss; Beitrag zur Gesch. und Geographic des
Alten Palastina," Berlin, 1877, an enlarged reprint
of his article in Berliner's "Magazin," 1876, pp. 27-
40, 77-93, the principal addition being a historical
appendix. Together with Johann B. BiesentJial he
edited David Kimhi's "Sefer Shorashim " (Berlin,
1847), and to A. Asher's edition of Benjamin of
Tudela (vol. ii. London, 1841) he contributed an
essay on the state of the califate of Bagdad dur-
ing the latter half of the 12th century. Several
of his essays— "J uden als Arabische Dichter," "Die
Oppenheiiner'sche Bibliothek," "Jehuda ben Ko-
reisch, der Erste Lexicograph der Bibel "—were pub-
lished in the "Orient, Lit." 1841-44. His pamphlet,
"Zum 150. Geburtstage Mo.ses Mendelssohn's," was
edited by Dr. A. Berliner (Berlin, 1878).

Bibliography: Steinschneider, in Boiietino Ital. dealt SttuU
OrieiitaU, 187(5, p. 153.

S5- M. Co.

liECCE : Town of southern Italy, capital of tlie
province of the same name (formerly Terra d'Otran-
to); contained one of the most prominent Jewish
settlements in the Neapolitan kingdom before their
expulsion. There are traces of the existence of
Jews in Lecce at the time of the Normans (G. T.
Tanzi, "Gli Statuti della Citta di Lecce," p. 19,
Lecce, 1898). There .seem to be no special records
concerning the Jews until the tifteenth centurj'.
They occupied themselves at one time with dyeing,
cattle-raising, and money-lending; the last-named
occupation, however, was prohibited in 1471. The
same restrictions were put upon them as in most
other lands: they could not own real estate or en-
gage in the higher callings, and they were compelled
to wear distinguishing badges on their dress. Still,
they were under the protection of the law and seem
to have been free from persecutions, as were the
other Jewish communities throughout Italy. But
when Giannantonio del Balzo-Orsini, the last Count
of Lecce, died in 1468, and the city came under the
direct rule of Ferdinand I., King of Aragon, a vio-
lent outbreak against the Jews occurred, in wliich
the ghetto was sacked, several Jews were killed, and
the remainder driven out of the place. The city then
excused itself before the king by throwing all the
blame upon the Albigenses and other foreigners who
lived there. The king issued a decree June 20, 1464,
ordering the Jews to be called back, and pointing
out the injuries the city had suffered through their
expulsion. On March 21, 1495, a mob invaded and
set fire to the ghetto, and killed a great number of
Jews; the few that saved their lives scattered
throughout the kingdom. The synagogue was de-
molished and a church erected on its site. The
Jews probably never returned to Lecce, as they were
expelled from the whole Neapolitan kingdom in
1540. Lecce Avas the birthplace of the giainmaiian
Abraiia.m de B.\i..mks jjen Mi:rn (1450-1523).

BiBLiOGRAPiiv: (i. (iuerrieri. fill Khrci a Brimlisi ed a
Lecce, Turin, 19()1 ; 11 ]'cssiHii IsracUticn. 1901. pp.
84 et seq., l:il it siii.-. Aar, fili SUmli Siinici it) Taia
(V()trmiti<, p. 2.M. Florence, ISS^J : Vojjclstein and RieRer.
(icfvh.drr Jnihu in Riiin. ji. -ii. 2:$: <!ist«^lli, (Hi Khrei,
p. 431, Florence, iWtit: Coniger, Lc Cruuaclic, annu 1U95,
Naples, 17(10.

D. E. L — r. c.

LE-DAWID BARUK (-[n^ nn^) : Familiar
title for Ps. (xliv.. frnni the initial words of the He-

Lie-Dawid
Lee

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

660

brew text, with especial reference to its employ-
ment, together with Ps. Ixvii., as an introduction to
the evening prayer at the close of the Sabbath.
Alone among the sections of the Hebrew ritual
chanted to traditional tunes, this psalm is always
set to some melody in the bright and cheerful major
mode.

If one rather poor eighteenth-century air pre-
served in south-German congregations be left out of
consideration, there is a remarkable fundamental
similarity in the various chants utilized by the Ger-
man and Polish Jews, by the Spanish and Portuguese
according to the Dutch and West-Indian tradition,
and by the Italians and the Jews of the Orient.
This basal similarity especially struck the traveler
Moses Israel Hazzan ("Kerak shel Komi," p. 4b,
Leghorn, 1876). The Ashkenazic and Sephardic
versions likewise agree in the change from the
major mode to the minor as the end of the verse is
approached. This is possibly an instance of the
intentional application of the teaching of Ps. cxxx vii.
6, which has affected all of the comparatively
few blithe strains in the traditional melody of
Jewish public worship. The influence of the orig-
inally northern melody on the southern usage is

paralleled by that of the tune Addir Hu, of similar
date.

Local variants are numerous. Those in the tra-
dition of Slavonic and Teutonic regions are due
largely to the necessity of transposing the second
phrase of the chant to the upper or the lower
octave, according as the psalm is started in the
range of a bass or a tenor voice. The chief forms
of the northern chant are shown in the transcription
below, at the same pitch however. The first (A)
is rather favored among German, the second (B)
among Polish, congregations. The southern chant
(C) first appears as the subject of the setting of Ps.
ix.in BenedettoMarcello's " EstroPoetico-armonico,"
or "Parafrasi Sopra li Salmi" (Venice, 1724), where
it is headed "Intonazione degli Ebrei Spagnuoli
Sopra il Salmo le-David Baruk." This intonation
exhibits a more marked simplicity than the two
southern versions (obviously variants diverging from
it) quoted by Baer in "Ba'al Tefillah," No. 714.
These developments are due to the personal varia-
tions of successive cantors, a source of change from
which the congregational use of the chant custom-
ary among the northern Jews has preserved their
melody to a marked extent.

dti

Allegretto.

«:

LE-DAWID BARUK (A)

->. s 1 —

lam

Le-Da - wid: 1. Ba

ruk A - do

nai zu

H 1-

-4^ 1^

i^Uf^

med

ya - dai lak

rab.

ez - be - 'c

tai la - mil - ha - mah.

±-

H— «— *-

^=^=t2=t2:

:t?=t?:

— •—— =1-

gin -

2. Has - di u - me - zu - da

^-^--*

ti, mis - gab - bi u - me - fal - ti li,

H H

f q -0—^

L-fft

u - bo

si - ti, ha - ro - ded 'am - mi tab - tai.

Allegretto.

LE-DAWID BARUK (B)

med ya - dai lak - rab, ez - be - 'o

la • mil

661

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Le-Dawld
Lee

r? J ^

^33^

w:^*— *-

— i — ^ — K — ^ — «■ — ^

:t?=t2:

jiZUE

2. Has - di u - me - zu - da - ti, mis - gab - bi u - me - fal - ti

li.

-51-

:pc=e

fe^

gin -

W=^-

itz:

t=r=

ha - 6i

ti,

ha - ro - ded.

'am - mi tab - tai.

Moderato.

-i^-A 1 1—

LE-DAWID BARUK (C)

^=4:

.— ^— J:

Le-Da-wid: Ba - ruk A - do

nai zu - n

ha - me - lam

ez - be - 'o - tai

^g^^^

med ya - dai.... lak - rab,

la - mil - ha

mah.

Bibliography : German forms : A. Baer, Bot'af TefiUah. No.
713, Frankfort-on-the-Maln, 1883 ; E. Breslaur, Sind OriginaU
Melodien hei den Juden GeschicMlichNachweishari p. 71,
Leipslc, 1898 ; S. Naumbourg, Recueil de Chayits Religieux,
No. 43, Paris, 1874. Instrumental : Marksohn and Wolf, Sj/n-
agogal Melodien,No. 15, Leipsic, 1875. Polish forms: Cohen
and Davis, Voice of Prayer and Praise, No. 127, London,
1889; Fowng Israel (Lond(m), 1898, i. 340. Sephardic (Dutch)
forms : De Sola and Aguilar, Ancient Melodies, No. 18, Lon-
don, 1857. Italian : F. (lonsolo. Libra dei Canti d'lt^raele,
part i., Florence, 1892. Oriental : S. Naumbourg, I.e. No. 68.

A. F. L. t.

LEDERER, ABRAHAM : Hungarian educa-
tor and writer; born Jan. 9, 1827, at Libochowitz,
Bohemia. In 1840 he went to Prague, where he
studied at the Teachers' Seminary and at the uni-
versity. In 1853 he taught at Lundenburg, Mora-
via ; and in 1854 he accepted the post of director of
the Jewish school at Tata, Hungary, whence Jie w^as
called to the Israelitische Musterschule in 1857, be-
coming in the following year director of the Israel-
itic Teachers' Seminary at Budapest.

Lederer has contributed much to pedagogics in
general, and to the training of Jewish teachers in
Hungary in particular. He is the founder and or-
ganizer of the Jewish normal school (" Landes-Pra-
parandie "), of the Jewish National Teachers' Asso-
ciation, of the national pedagogical museum, of the
Women's Industrial Association, and of the vacation
colony for children. In 1869 the government com-
missioned him to translate Hungarian text-books
into German, and appointed him director of tlie state
seminaries and a member of tlie supreme board of
education. Of his works the following are note-
worthy: "Heimathskunde" (Pest, 1859); "Erzic-
hungslehre fur Israelitische Eltern und Lehrer " (ib.
1865) ; " Leitfaden und Lesebuch fur Lehrer " (ih.
1870); " Methodischer Leitfaden zum Deutschen
Sprachunterricht " (Budapest, 1873); "Tarsadalmi
Padagogia " (ib. 1885), on social pedagogics ; " Hires
Emberek Ismerteto Jelei " (" Charakteristiken Be-
rlihmter Manner," 1896); "A Testi Blintetes Lelek-
tana " (1901), on the psychology of corporal punish-

ment; and"Iskolai Kirandulas a Csillagos Egbe "
(1903), a guide to instruction in astronomy in schools.

Bibliography : Szinnyel, Magyar Irak Elete ; Izraelita To-
nilgi/i Ertesita, 1897.
s. L. V.

LEDERER, JOACHIM K. : Austrian play-
wright; born at Prague Aug. 28, 1808; died at
Dresden July 31, 1876. Lederer received only a
meager education under a private tutor. He began
the study of medicine, but after a year's experience
discarded it for law, and received his degree of
D.C.L. He found, however, that, being a Jew,
there was no prospect for him as a professor in an}^
of the universities, and, the practise of law offering
no attractions to him, he devoted himself to dra-
matic authorship. He developed great skill in re-
producing, with keen humor and a touch of satire
that won for him an assured place on the Austrian
stage, the peculiar characteristics of his countrym.en.
Among his most successful comedies are : " Hausliche
Wirren," " Geistige Liebe," " Die Weiblichen Studen-
ten," "Eine Rettende That," "Die Zwei Kranken,"
and "Die Kranken Doctoren," in writing the last of
which W. M. Gerle was collaborator.

Bibliography : AUg. Deutsche Biographie, xviii. 116.
s. M. Co.

LEE, SIDNEY: English editor; born in Lon-
don Dec. 5, 1859 ; educated at City of London School
and Balliol College, Oxford. Almost immediately
on leaving college lie became associated with Sir
Leslie Stephen as assistant editor of the " Diction-
ary of National Biography " for the first t went j' -one
volumes (1881-90). For the following five lie was
joint editor, and for vols, xxvii. to Ixiii. and the
supplement and index (41 vols, in all) he was sole
editor of this national undertaking, which was fin-
ished in 1903. In recognition of his work he was
made honorary doctor of letters by the Victoria
University in 1900. Lee visited the United States
on a lecturing tour in 1903.

Lieeds
Ijeeser

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

662

Besides his work on the dictionary he has edited
Lord Berner's translation of "Huon of Bordeaux,"
1883-85; Lord Herbert of Cherbury's "Autobiog-
raphy," 1886; and a facsimile of the first folio of
Shakespeare, 1902. Of the lives contributed by
him to the " Dictionary of National Biography "
two have been issued separately and have estab-
lished themselves as standard biographies, namely :
"William Shakespeare," 1898; and "Queen Vic-
toria," 1902.

Bibliography: TI'/io'x Who, 1904.

IjEEDS : Manufactnring town in Yorkshire,
England. It possessed a small Jewish community
before the year 1840, divine service being held in a
small room in Bridge street, little better than a loft,
access to which was gained by means of a ladder.
On May 12, 1840, a plot of land in the Gelderd road
was granted by the Earl of Cardigan for a cemetery,
Avhich plot was afterward enlarged, and now be-
longs to the Old Hebrew Congregation (the "Great
Synagogue") in Belgrave street. The first Jewish
wedding in Leeds took place on June 1, 1842.

Divine service continued to be held in Bridge
street until 1846, when a room in Back Rockingham
street was transformed into a temporary synagogue,
mainly through the instrumentality of the late Ga-
briel Davis, whose nephew, Edward Davis, contin-
ued to interest himself in the affairs of
The First thesynagogue till his death in 1895. In
Syna- 1850 the rabbi was the Rev. Ephraim

gogue. Cohen. In 1860 the congregation re-
moved to a new building in Belgrave
street. This soon became too small; and in 1877
the present synagogue was erected on a site part of
which had been covered by the original structure.

Meanwhile the community was developing in other
directions. In 1869 a hebra was formed in St. Al-
ban's street, which became a congregation in 1873,
the members at the same time acquiring a cemetery
situated in the Gelderd road, which was extended in
1895 by an additional purchase of land adjoining the
original plot. In 1883 a large private mansion
standing in spacious grounds in St. John's place,
New Briggate, was acquired and adapted for use
as a synagogue. The congregation continued to
worship there till 1894, when the house was demol-
ished, and the present building was erected on the
site, a convenient room for a school being provided
in tlie basement.

Next in order of seniority is the Central Congrega-
tion, founded in 1887. This also was developed from
a hebra, and was originally known as the Maiem-
poler Congregation. A cemetery v,as also acquired
on a site adjoining that of the New Briggate con-
gregation. In 1898 the eongicgation removed to its
present synagogue in Templar street.

In 1876 an association called the "Polish Hebra"
had been formed, the members of which in 1890 re-
solved to form them.selves into a new congregation.
Purchasing a cliajjel with a good basement in Byron
street, they made tiie necessary alterations, and
opened the building for divine service. For some
Time it was known as the "Polish Congregaticm,"
but is now usually called the "Byron Street Con-
irregation " In 1893 the memlx'rs acijuired a plot

of ground in Farnley, which was consecrated as a
cemetery.

The bet ha-midrash began in 1873 with a small

room for the purposes of prayer and study. From

this developed the present Bet ha-

Bet ha- Midrash ha-Gadol, which was opened

Midrash. in Hope street in 1895, in the heart of
the Jewish quarter. Recently there
has been a movement to constitute it a congregation.
A plot of land has been purchased adjoining the
cemetery belonging to the New Briggate congrega-
tion, and a wall enclosing the site has been built.

Classes for religious education were at first formed
in connection with the Great Synagogue, but, these
proving inadequate, in 1876 the Talmud Torah school
for the free education of poor boys was founded.
No provision, however, was made for girls. When
the Rev. M. Abrahams arrived in Leeds classes for
boys and girls were formed in connection with the
Belgrave Street Synagogue. The accommodation
proving insufficient, the Leeds school board was ap-
proached, and it agreed to grant the use of one of
its schools for the purpose of religious education.
In 1888 the Leeds Hebrew and religion classes for
boys and girls were opened in connection with the
board school in Gower street, Leylands. Four of the
board schools are attended almost exchisively by
Jewish children ; and the school in Gower street
showed the most successful record of attendance
(percentage 99.47) in the United Kingdom during the
year ending April, 1901.

The Jewish Board of Guardians was founded in

1878. For many years it has been presided over by

Paul Hirsch. In its benevolent work it

Education has been assisted by two Jewish ladies'

and Phi- societies; by the Dorcas Society,
lanthropy. founded in 1897 to provide clothing
for the poor; by the Bil^kur Holim So-
ciety, founded in 1876 for the relief of the indigent
ailing; by the Haknasat Orehiin, or Poor Jews' Shel-
ter, founded in 1890; and by the Kasher Kitchen,
founded in 1901. There is also a Hebra Kaddisha,
founded in 1895, in connection with the Belgrave
Street Synagogue. In addition to these societies there
exist the Hebrew Literary Society and the Leeds Jew-
ish Young Men's Association. About 1,800 work-
ing men belong to the Amalgamated Jewish Tailors,
Machinists, and Pressors' Trade Union, which is in
part a friendly society and mainly supports a tew
cemetery in Farnley, opened in 1901, and adjoining
that belonging to the Byron Street Congregation.
There are also a branch of the Anglo-Jewish Asso-
ciation, a B'nai Zion Association, several Zionist As-
sociations, a company of the Jewish Lads' Brigade,
and seven friendly societies.

Paul Hirsch, the first Jewish justice of the peace
in Leeds, was elevated to the magisterial bench in
1899. M. Zossesheim, a former vice-president of the
chamber of commerce, is consul for Italy.

The Jewish community of Leeds, numbering
about 20,000 in a total population of 428,953, is the
third largest in the United Kingdom, being exceeded
by those of London and Manchester only.

J. M. A.

LEESEB, ISAAC : American rabbi, author,
translator, editor, and publisher; pioneer of the

663

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Leeds
Ijeeser

Isaac Leeser.

Jewish pulpit in the United States, and founder of
the Jewish press of America ; born at Neuenkirchen,
in the province of Westphalia, Prussia, Dec. 12,
1806; died at Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 1, 1868. Edu-
cated at the gymnasium of Miiuster, he was well
grounded in Latin, German, and Hebrew, besides
having studied the Talmud tractates Bezali, Baba
Mezi'a, and a part of Hullin and Baba Batra under

Hebrew masters. At the
age of seventeen he emi-
grated to America, arri-
ving at Richmond, Va.,
in May, 1824. His uncle,
Zalma Rehine, a respected
merchant of that city, sent
the youth to a private
school ; but after ten weeks
the school was closed, and
for the next five years
Leeser was employed in
his uncle's counting-room.
Unfavorable as were the
circumstances for a
growth of Jewish knowl-
edge, the young man
showed his bent by vol-
untarily assisting the haz-
zan to teach religion on Saturdays and Sundays and
also by appearing in the public prints from time to
time in defense of Judaism when assailed.

In 1828 an article in the "London Quarterly " re-
flecting on the Jews was answered by Leeser in the
columns of the "Richmond Whig"; and the reply
attracted the attention of the Jewish conmiunities
of Richmond and Philadelphia. About that time
(Oct. 18, 1828) the Rev. Abraham I. Keys, hazzan
of the Congregation Mikveh Israel of the latter city,
died, and a successor was needed. Leeser was in-
duced to accept the congregation's invitation to
present himself as a candidate. His own view of
the situation is given in a letter written by him six
years later to the chief rabbi Solomon Hirschel of
London : " Knowing my own want of
proper qualiti cation, I would never
have consented to serve, if others mori'
fitting in point of standing, informa-
tion, or other qualities had been here :
but this not being the case (as is proved by there
being yet two congregations at least in this
country without a regular hazzan), I consented to
serve. "

In Aug., 1829, Leeser went to Philadelphia with
the manuscript of his first book ("The Jews and the
Mosaic Law ") in his pocket and great thoughts for
Israel in his mind. Up to that time the hazzanim
in America had been merely precentors. There was,
however, a new movement in Europe. The Ham-
burg Temple had put forward Gotthold Salomon :
and preaching in German had become the Reformed
fashion, while the new Conservatives had met it by
electing to the Hamburg rabbinate Bernays, who
also delivered sermons in the vernacular. Some-
thing of this ferment had leavened the thoughts of
Leeser; and he hoped to transform the reading-desk
into the pulpit and tlie teacher's rod into the edi-
torial wand.

Elected at
Philadel-
phia.

On June 2, 1830, he delivered his first English
discourse, and thenceforward preached with reason-
able regularity, though on sufferance only, until
June 18, 1843, when the congregation formally ac-
cepted the sermon as regular.

The scarcity of bonks concerning the Jewish re-
ligion emphasized the fact that there was no Amer-
ican Jewish publisher. Having translated Johlson's
"Instruction in the JVIosaic Religion," Leeser issued
in the winter of 1829-30 proposals to publish it and
"The Jews and the Mosaic Law." As no one would
take the risk, however, he became his own publisher.
The following are his publications:

1830 (Aug.). Johlson's Instruction in the Mosaic Religion.
1833. The Jews and the Mosaic Law.

18.37. Discourses. 3 vols. Portuguese prayers, with his own
translation. 0 vols.

1838. Hebrew Spelling-Book.

1839. His Catechism.

1841. The Claims of the Jews to an Equality of Rights. Dis-
courses. 1 vol.

1843. The Occident, a monthly magazine (continued till his
death, and, under the editorship of Mayer Sulzberger, one year
thereafter ; vols. xvii. and xviii. were issued as a weekly. 26
vols.).

1845. The Pentateuch (Hebrew and English). 5 vols.

1848. Daily Prayers, German Rite (with his Eng. transl.). 1
vol.

1853. His translation of the Bible. 1 vol. 4to.

1857. Second edition of the Bible. 18mo. Portuguese prayers.
2d ed. 7 vols.

1859. Dias' Letters.

1860. The Inquisition and Judaism.

1864. Meditations and Prayers. Aguilar's "Jewish Faith"
and her " Spirit of Judaism."
1867. Collected Discourses. 10 vols. Mosaic Religion. 2d ed.

Besides accomplishing the literary work involved
in the foregoing, he translated Schwarz's "Geog-
raphy of Palestine," and witii Dr. Jaquett saw
through Lippincott's pressan edition of the Hebrew
Bible.

Leeser retired from the Congregation Mikveh
Israel in 1850, and did not again take office until
1857, when the newly formed Congregation Beth-
El-Emeth in Philadelphia called him, and he re-
mained its minister until his death.

When Leeser commenced his public career the
scattered Jewish individuals and the members of
congregations in the United States did not number
more than from 12,000 to 15,000. His purpose to
mold these into a community was to be achieved in
part by the pulpit and in part by the press.

Besides engaging in the activities sketched above,
Leeser participated in all Jewish movements. He
was the earnest promoter of all the national enter-
prises— the first congregational union, the first He-
brew day-schools, the first Hebrew college, the first
Jewish publication society — and of numberless local
undertakings. The " Occident " acquired a national
and even an international reputation ; the Maimon-
ides' College, of which he was president, paved the
way for future Jewish colleges in the United States;
and his translation of the Bible became an author-
ized version for the Jews of America.

In the religious controversies of his time Leeser
took an active part on the Conservative side, and
lived and died in the un.shakahle belief that the
existence of opposing parties was but transient and
short-lived.

A. M. Su.

JLeeu-w
Legrhorn

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

664

LEEUW, JACOB HEYMANN DE : Dutch
Talmudist; born at Leyden 1811; died at Amster-
dam Sept. 15, 1883. He removed to the latter city
in 1874, and was appointed rabbi at the bet ha-mid-
rash. He was the author of the following Talmud-
ical works: "Shoshannat Ya'akob," Leyden, 1848;
"Peri 'Ez Hayyim," 46. 1852; "Debarim Ahadim,"
ib. 1853; "Nahalat Ya'akob," Rotterdam, 1857; and
"Helek Ya'akob," ib. 1858.
Bibliography : Roest, in I»r. Nieuwsbode, 1883, No. 13.

8. E. Sl.

LEFMANN, SALOMON : German philologist ;
born at Telgte, Westphalia, Dec. 25, 1831, his fam-
ily being old Westphalian settlers. He was edu-
cated at the Jewish school of his native town, at the
seminary and academy at Milnster, and at the uni-
versities of Heidelberg, Berlin, and Paris (Ph.D.,
Berlin, 1864). In 1866 he became privat-docent, and
in 1870 assistant professor, in the University of Hei-
delberg; and he is at present (1904) honorary pro-
fessor of Sanskrit there.

Lefmann has taken a great interest in Jewish
communal affairs. While preparing himself for the
universitj'' and during his employment as a public
teacher he held also the positions of tutor and school-
master in several small communities of Westphalia ;
and at Heidelberg in 1887 he was president of the
Zedaka Yerein, a society for the aid of the poor.

Through his " Ueber Deutsche Rechtschreibung "
(in "Vircliow und Holzendorff's Wissenschaftliche
Vortrage," 1871) and "Zur Deutschen Rechtschrei-
bung " (in " Miinchner Allgemeine Zeitung," 1871,
Nos. 136, 209, 274) Lefmann took part in the
movement for the establishment of a correct and uni-
form system of spelling in German.

Lefmann's principal philological works are: "De
AristotelisinHominum Educatione Principiis," Ber-
lin, 1864; "August Schleicher," Leipsic, 1870; "La-
lita Vistara" (edited and translated), Halle, 1883,
1902; "Gesch. des Alten Indiens," Berlin, 1879-90;
2d ed., 1898; "Franz Bopp," 2 vols., Berlin, 1891-97.

8. F. T. H.

LEGACY. See Will.

LEGAL INSTRUMENTS. See Deed.

LEGAL PROCESS. See Procedure.

LEGALISM. Sec Nomism.

LEGHORN (Italian, Livorno ; Hebrew,
'J"l13^, IJIu!?) : Seaport city of Tuscany. Its Jew-
ish community, although the youngest among the
large communities of Italy, was for some time the
foremost because of the wealth, scholarship, and
political rights of its members. The first traces of
a Jewish settlement are found about 1583. The en-
deavors of the Medici to promote the growth of the
city and of the harbor brought in many new set-
tlers; and the Spanish Marauos persecuted by Fer-
dinand II. also found a refuge here in 1590. In 1591
and 1593 all persons desiring to settle at Leghorn,
including Jews, were assured the most extensive
rights and privileges. Many Jews were attracted
by tiiis promise ; and the community of Pisa received
the privilege of founding a branch at Leghorn with
a synagogue and cemetery. In 1597 the Jews of
Leghorn received as a community autonomous
rights.

The community had complete jurisdiction both in
civil and in criminal cases. In 1593 a special judge

was assigned to the Jewish court, from
Rights and whose sentence appeal could be made
Privileges, only with the permission of the grand

duke. As controversies arose regard-
ing the extent of the jurisdiction, it was decreed that
the infliction of severe penalties, such as sentences
of death and penal servitude, should be confirmed by
the public court. The Jewish court was abolished

Synagogue at Leghorn.

(From a photograph.)

in 1808, when Tuscany was incorporated into the
French empire; it was revived in 1814, its jurisdic-
tion, however, being confined to questions relating to
marital law. In 1822 such cases also were assigned
to the municipal courts, the directors of the com-
munity retaining the privilege of giving advisory
opinions. Since 1866 the " Codice Civile " and civil
marriage obtain in Leghorn as throughout the king-
dom.

The Leghorn community had the right of succession
in all cases where the deceased died without natural or
legal heirs. This privilege was likewise abrogated
in 1808 by the French laws, and was never re-
stored.

When the Jewish community was established (in
1593) the directors were empowered to grant safe-
conducts and immunity as regards previous crimes
and debts to all Jews who settled at Leghorn, and
the latter were accepted as citizens by the communal
directors on a majority vote of two-thirds. The
right of immunity in the case of previous crimes Avas
soon abrogated, while that of immunity from debt
was limited in 1786 to debts that had been incurred
more than four months previously ; and this rule
continued down to 1836. The right of naturaliza-

665

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lieeu-w
Leghorn

tion, however, remained in force until 1859, when
the Jews received full citizenship.

From the beginning the Jewish community had
the right to impose taxes for the purpose of defray-
ing its expenses. This right was con-
Taxes, tinned in 1715, 1782, and 1814. In
1829 it was even amplified. The taxes
were as follows: (d) "Zorke zibbur," + per cent of
their income, payable by all Jews living at Leghorn,
or engaged in trade or commerce there, and having
a yearly income of more than 1,500 lire.

{b) "Diritto nazionale," a duty on all goods im-
ported or exported by Jews through the port of
Leghorn, at the rate of i per cent for resident and
i per cent for non-rewident Jews. Merchants were
required to keep a special column in their books for
this tax.

(f) Beginning with 1767, a special tax upon pri-
vate synagogues, in order to prevent their multipli-
cation.

(d) Special tax on meat slaughtered according to
the Jewish ritual. In recent times all these taxes
have been gradually abolished, and a single tax,
"sussidio obbligatorio," covering all the needs of
the community, has been substituted.

Wlien the municipality received its constitution in

1780, Jews were declared eligible to the municipal

council, though they were excluded

Constitu- from the magistracy ; but as house-

tion of owners they had the right to send a
1780. deputy to the latter, which deputy
took part in the government of the
city, and had the same privileges and salary as the
Christian magistrates. The municipal constitution
of 1808 abrogated this privilege ; but it was renewed
in 1816 and remained in force down to 1845, when
Jews became eligible to all municipal offices.

The administration of the community, which in
the course of time underwent material changes, was
entrusted at its foundation" in 1593 to a council of
five members, designated "capi" or "massari della
sinagoga." They had to be prominent, well-to-do
merchants ; they were elected for one year, and were
not immediately ^reeligible. In consequence of ir-
regularities during an election, it was decreed in
1637 that the massari should be designated by lot
by the community of Pisa; but owing to repeated
irregularities new methods were adopted in 1643,
and five massari were appointed from a council of
fifty persons who had been chosen from
Organiza- among all merchants and house-own-
tion. ers over twenty -five years of age. In
1667 in addition to the massari there
was a council of twelve deputies, who were elected
for life. There was furthermore a council of forty
"able and capable citizens "in three commissions,
from whom the massari were chosen. In 1693 a
great council of sixty members, having all the rights
of a modern parliament, was introduced ; of this coun-
cil twenty members sat in rotation each year, the en-
tire body being convened only on important occa-
sions. By this constitution (i.e., the constitution of
1693) the administrative corporation was divided into
two bodies, one legislative and the other executive.
It, however, remained in force onl}^ a short time. In
1715 another body of officers was introduced, when

the grand dukeappointed three members of the great
council as censors for a period of two years. They
were empowered to examine the books of the com-
munity and to supervise the expenses. On the
extinction of the house of jMedici the Duke of Lor-
raine confirmed the constitution, with slight mod-
ifications, and it was again confirmed in 1803 under
the short-lived kingdom of Etruria. During this
whole period the important principle prevailed
that all the members be obliged to accept communal
offices, and the administration be aided by a chan-
cellor appointed and salaried by the grand duke.

The privileges as well as the constitution of
the community were temporarily abrogated in
1808, when Tuscany was incorporated with France.
Leghorn received the consistorial constitution
drafted by the Sanhedrin of Paris in 1806, and was
made the seat of a consistory for the Mediterranean
district. Two rabbis and three laymen were appointed
members of this consistory Sept. 6, 1810. In 1814 the
old constitution was revived, and the grand duke
appointed three massari for a period of three years
and a council of forty for life. In 1861, on the es-
tablishment of the kingdom of Italy,

Recent the old constitution was entirely abro-

History. gated ; and during the following inter-
regnum the community was governed
by three members. In 1881 the community was
finally reorganized, with new statutes in conformity
with the principles obtaining in most of the Italian
communities.

The Jews of Leghorn suffered no persecutions,
nor were any restrictions imposed upon them, dur-
ing the entire time of their residence in the city.
Their industry and ambition as well as their connec-
tions with the East contributed greatly to the de-
velopment of commerce and industry. Thus Leg-
horn grew from a small fishing-village into a rich
and powerful commercial center. The Jews domi-
nated part of the commerce. A traveler of the sev-
enteenth century says that the Christians had to
keep holiday on the Sabbath on their account. The
communit)', which consisted mainly of Spanish and
Portuguese immigrants, retained the ancient tradi-
tions. Down to the nineteenth centuiy communal
business was transacted partly in Portuguese; the
Spanish ritual was observed in the synagogue; impor-
tant haftarot were translated into Portuguese; and
sermons were delivered in that language. The Jews
preserved also the gentility and self-confidence char-
acteristic of them in their Spanish homes. In 1603
they built a synagogue which is still one of the finest
architectural monuments of the city.

The rabbinate of Leghorn, continually acquiring
new learned members from the East, and through
its connections with the Sephardim of Amsterdam
and London, was widely known for its scholarship.
Many of the merchants also devoted themselves to
study, taking up under the guidance of their rabbis
medicine, astronomy, philosophy, and the classics,
in addition to Jewish science. Of the numerous
Jewi.sh scholars who either were natives of Leghorn
or lived there for some time niaj' be mentioned:
Solomon Ayllon, Hayyim Josejih David Azulai,
Elijah Benamozegh, David Castelli. Benjamin Espi-
nosa, Jacob Hagiz, Malachi ha-Kohen, Raphael

Xjeg-horn
liehmann

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

666

Meldola, Sabato Morais, Jonah Nabon, Immanuel
Haj Richi, and Hezekiah da Silva. The present
(1904) chief rabbi. Dr. Samuel Colombo Cofin, has
published several sermons.

Through its connection with the East, Leghorn
was always a center for cabaiists, especially at the
time of the Shabbethaian controversies; and even
in recent times cabaiists and mystics found support
and encouragement in the city.

The community evinced interest in the general
welfare, especially by ransoming prisoners landed
at Leghorn. The members were also charitable to-
ward their unfortunate coreligionists in foreign coun-
tries. In 1648 they levied a special tax for the bene-
fit of the Polish Jews; and more recently they were
among the first to join the Alliance Israelite Univer-
selle. At various periods the Jewish community of
Leghorn numbered 10,000 persons; as late as 1848 it
was estimated to number 7,000. As the commerce
of the city declined, many emigrated ; and to-day
(1904) there are about 3,000 Jews in the city. The
community, formerly so wealthy, has become very
impoverished.

Among the many philanthropic foundations the
schools, which were once widely famed, are espe-
cially noteworthy. Besides the chapels, of which
there are a number in addition to the large syna-
gogue (two being named after the rabbis Ergas
and Azulai), the following institutions may be men-
tioned: (1) Beneficenza Israelitica, organized in 1683
by the levying of a special tax and intended for the
relief of the communal poor as well as for the ran-
soming of prisoners. Subsequently its operations
were limited to giving pecuniary relief to the indi-
gent. It has been enriched by many legacies. The
trustees are at the same time trustees of the com-
munal schools, Pie Scuole Israelitiche di Livorno,
which, richly endowed, were the pride of the com
munity, and excited the admiration of educators and
travelers. As early as the beginning of
Founda- the nineteenth century there were two

tions. Jewish schools, an elementary school
with three grades and a higher school
with six grades, having at that time together a fund
of 86,000 florins. The schools subsequently received
bequests from tlie Franchetti family. At present
they include a kindergarten ("a.sili iufantili "), an
elementarv school for boys and girls, a drawing-
scliool for boys learning a trade, and a trade-school
for girls. Instruction is given both in secular and
in religious subjects. Connected with these schools
is a rabbinical seminary (■' istituto rabbinico "), which
gives instruction in advanced Hebrew, rabbinical
science, and theology, in addition to the regular col-
lege course. Included in the bequests made to these
schools, which are among the wealthiest Jewish
educational institutions in existence, are a large
legacy by Samuele del Mare (1885) and a founda-
tion for distributing prizes for scientific works.
(2) Spedale Israelitico. founded in 1826 by Solomon
Abudarliam, and enriched by many beriuests from
his relatives and from the Franchetti family (build-
ing opened in 1863). (3) Moar Abetulot ("inaritare
donzelle"), founded in 1644 by prominent Spanish
families for providing brides with dowries, and
aflording relief to impoverished members. Tlie

membership and government of this institution are
hereditary ; and, being in the nature of a family
foundation, it has preserved the genealogies of all its
members. (4) Malbisc Harumim, Vestire Poveri, in-
stituted in 1654, for clothing the poor, especially the
teachers and pupils of the Jewish schools. (5)
Opera Pia Franco, founded by Joseph Franco in
1772 for the promotion of rabbinical studies, giving
dowries to poor brides, and the support of Jews
in Palestine. All these foundations have been re-
cently obliged to change their statutes and govern-
ment in conformity with the Italian law for the ad-
ministration of philanthropic institutions.

Between 1650 and 1657 there was at Leghorn a
Hebrew printing-press, and in 1703 another was
established there; these together have issued many
prayer-books, especially for the East, in addition to
many cabalistic works.

Bibliography: Antolnaia Israelitica, 1., ii., Leghorn, 1901;
G. B. Depping, Die Juden im Mittelalter, pp. 372-373 ; I.
Rignano, La tfniversita Isj-aelitica di Livorno e le Opere
Pie da Essa Amministrate, ib. 1890 ; Vivoli, Annali di Li-
vorno, in., iv. For the schools : Allge.mecne Vaterlandache
Letter, pp. 353 et seq., Oefeningen, 1805; Sidamith, ii. 1, 145
et sex}.; Zunz, G. S. i. 94; coinp. Corriere Israelitica, xl.
141. Od the printing-press : Steinschneider, JUfZi'.schc Typo-
graphic, pp. 63-63. For the rabbis : Mortara, Iitdice.

D. I. E.

LEHMANN, BEHREND. See Bermann, Is-

S.\CH.\R IIA-LeVI.

LEHMANN, EMIL : German jurist; born at
Dresden Feb. 2, 1829; died there Feb. 25, 1898; son
of the merchant Bonnier Lehmann. He attended
the Israclitische Gemeindeschule and the Kreuz-
schule in Dresden, and then (1848) went to Leipsic
and devoted himself to the study of jurisprudence
until 1851. On his return to Dresden he applied
himself to journalism, and was connected eight years
with the "Siichsische Dorfzeitung." With Bern-
hard Beer, Zacharias Frankel, and Wolf Landau he
engaged in the struggle to secure a larger measure
of legal rights for the Jews of Germany. The leg-
islation of 1868 in Saxony, by which this aim was
attained — at least so far as that kingdom was con-
cerned— is to be credited to his efforts and those
of his collaborators. In 1863 he began the practise
of his profession as an attorney, and later as royal
notary.

Lehmann took an active part in public affairs, and
from 1865 to 1883, with but short intervals, was a
member of the city council of Dresden, and most of
the time its vice-president. He was a member of the
Landtag of Saxony from 1875 to 1880, as an adherent
of the Fortschrittspartei. When the anti-Semitic
agitation, inaugurated by Stocker, set in throughout
Germany, he took a considerable part in the pamplilet
warfare of the period.

For several decades Lehmann was president of
the Jewish congregation in Dresden, an interesting
history of which, covering the period of his recollec-
tion, he wrote under the title " Ein Halbjahrhundert
inder Israclitischen Religionsgemeinde zu Dresden,"
Dresden, 1890. Hewrote also, under the title " Der
Polnische Resident Behrend Lehmann," Dresden,
1885, a sketch of the founder of the congregation, his
own ancestor. Among his other writings should be
noted: "George Gottfried Gervinus," Hamburg,
1871; "Zur Svuode," Breslau, 1871; •' Hore Israel,"

667

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Leghorn
Lenxuann

ib. 1871; "Lessing und Seine Bedeutung fur die
Juden," Dresden, 1879; "Gabriel Riesser," Leipsic,
1881; and "Die Juden Jetzt und Einst: ZurLosung
der Judenfrage," Dresden, 1887.

After his deatii his children and a number of his
friends edited and published a collection of his -wri-
tings under the title "Emil Lehmann, Gesammelte
Schriften." Berlin, 1899.

BiBLiociR.iPHY: H. A. Lier, in Bettellieini, Bioarapldt'Chcs
Jahrbuch, 1899, pp. 343-344.

s. M. Co.

LEHMANN, JOSEPH: German journalist;
born at Glogau Dec. 28, 1801 ; died at Berlin Feb.
19, 1873. At the age of fifteen he found his way to
Berlin, and secured a position as office-boy in a
banking-house. He studied assiduously, and strove
to gain a footing in literature through the channel
of journalism. From 1827 to 1842 he occupied an
editorial position on the " Preussische Staatszeitung."
In 1832 he established the "]\Iagazin fur die Litcra-
tur des In- und Auslandes." published as a supple-
ment to the " Staatszeitung " until 1842, when it
was issued as a separate publication, which occu-
pied a unique position as an intermediary between
German literature and that of non-German countries.

Lehmann was for several decades president of
the Gesellschaft der Freunde in Berlin, founded in
1792 by the Mendclssohnian group. He took an
active part in the establishment of the Hochschule
flir die Wisseuschaft des Judenthums, and coutrili-
uted materially to the poor students' fund of the
Jewish Theological Seminary at Breslau.
Bibliocraphy: AUg. Zeit. tlvsJud. 1873. p. l.'<5.

s. M. Co.

LEHMANN, JOSEPH: French chief rabbi;
born at Belfort Nov. 1, 1843. He numbers among his
ancestors on his fatlier's side R. David Dicspeck, the
author of "Pardes Dawid " (Sulzbach, 1786), and on
his mother's side si.\ Swabian rabbis. Educated at
first by his father, who was for fifty years rabbi at
Belfort, he completed his studies at the rabbinical
seminary of Paris, and was ordained rabbi in Sept.,
1867. Two years later he succeeded Zadoc Kahn
as rabbi of the Temple of the Rue Notre Dame de
Nazareth.

Lehmann was almoner of the army of Paris dur-
ing the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 ; almoner of
the fourth army corps, 1874-90; professor of the
Talmud at the Talmud Torah of Paris, 1874-90;
and was appointed director and professor of the
Talmud in the seminary of that city in 1890. He
was president of the Societe des Etudes Juives in
1898, was elected officer of the Academy in 1886,
and was made chevalier of the Legion of Honor in
1898.

Lehmann's works include : " Le Proces d'Herode :
Sameas et Pollion," Paris, 1892; "Les Sectes Juives
Mentionnees dans la Mischna de Berakhot et de
Meguilla," Paris, 1896; "Assistance Publique et
Privee dans I'Antique Legislation Juive," ib. 1897;
"Quelques Dates Importantes de la Chronologic du
2' Temple a, Propos tl'une Page du Talmud, Aboda
ZaraSb," ib. 1898.

s. J. K.\.

LEHMANN, LEONCE : French lawyer; born
at Augsburg. Bavaria, Feb. 24, 1836; died in Paris

Dec. 27, 1892. He was educated in the latter city,
where he studied law, and in 1856 became private-
secretary to Dr. Spitzer, Turkish minister to Naples,
holding this position until the fall of the kingdom of
Naples in 1860. There he translated the "Tuenzio
Mamiani " under the title " Un Nouveau Droit Euro-
peen," and on his return to France in 1861 received
his doctorate in law, presenting the thesis "La Con-
dition Civile des Ktrangersen France." He was ad-
mitted to the Paris bar, and subsequently practised
law before the Court of Appeals.

At the outbreak of tlie Franco-Prussian war in
1870, Lehmann was appointed by Adolphe Cre-
mieux, then minister of justice, secretary -general of
this department, but on the resignation of his chief
he returned to the Court of Appeals, Avhere he prac-
tised successfully for over twenty years. He was
repeatedly elected a member of the governing board
of the Society of Advocates, while his activity in
the interests of Judaism was evinced by the fact
that he was a member of the Central Consistory after
1873, and of the committee on tlie Jewish Seminary
and of the Ecole de Travail. In addition he was for
twenty-four years one of the central committee of
the Alliance Israelite Universelle, of which he was
at first treasurer and later secretary. In 1869 Leh-
mann and Narcisse Leven traveled in Russia to study
means for the alleviation of the sufferers by the
famine there. He was decorated with the Turkish
Order of the Medjidie, and in 1880 was made a
chevalier of the Legion of Honor.

Bibliography: Leven, Bulletin Alliance 7s7-ae?iU\ 1892, No.
17, p. 14; Zadoc Kahn, Snuvenir.f et Regrets, p. 3:i8.
s. J. Ka.

LEHMANN, MARCUS (MEYER) : German
rabbi; born Dec. 29, 1831, at Yerden, Hanover; died
at Mayence April 14,1890. After graduating from
the gymnasium, he studied Hebrew at Halberstadt
under Israel Hildesheimer. He then went to Berlin
University, and thence to Prague, to continue his
theological and secular studies. He was graduated
Ph.D. from the University of Halle.

In 1853 the congregation of Mayence, when build-
ing its new temple, provided for the introduction of
an organ. Those of the members who were opposed
to this innovation seceded, and organized the Reli-
gionsgesellschaft, which in 1854 extended to Leh-
mann a call as rabbi and preacher. He accepted the
position and remained with the congregation until
his death.

In 1856 he dedicated a new synagogue, which the
congregation owed mostly to his efforts (this was
replaced in 1879 by the present edifice), and he
founded a religious school which in 1859 was devel-
oped into a Jewish school where both religious and
secular branches were taught.

With the establishment of the "Israelii," Lehmann
attained a high position as one of the leaders of the
movement for the maintenance of Ortiiodox Judaism
in Germany. In 1860 Ludwig Philippson's "All-
gemeine Zeitung des Judenthums" was practically
the only Jewisli jieriodical exerting a profound in-
fluence in extending the ideas of the Reform party.
In May of that year the "Israelit" made its appear
ance, and from the outset it acquired a great repu-
tation and wide circulation. In the course of time

Lehranstalt
Leibzoll

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

668

it absorbed the " Jeschurun " and assumed the title
of "Israelit imd Jeschurun," which paper, after the
death of Lehmann, was continued under the edito-
rial care of Jiis son Oskar Lehmann, who for a
number of years had been a member of its staff (see
Israelit, Der).

Lehmann was known as a prolific writer of short
stories, most of them being first published in his
paper. They afterward appeared collectively as
" Vergangenheit und Gegeuwart," 6 vols., Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1872-88. Lehmann wrote also two
novels, "Rabbi Josselmann von Rosheim," 2 vols.,
ib. 1879-80, and "Akiba" (based on Talmudic and
classical sources). Of his other writings may be
mentioned: "Die Orgel inder Synagoge," Mayence,
1862; "Die Abschaffung des Kol Nidre, und Herr
Dr. Aub in Mainz," Mayence, 1863; and "Der Tal-
mud Jeruschalmi. Traktat Berakot. Text mit dem
zum Ersten Male nach einer in Palastina Aufge-
tundenen Handschrift Herausgegebeuem Commen-
tare des R. I. Syrelei," ib. 1874.

Another son, Jonas liehmann (born at Mayence
Sept. 19, 1865; Ph.D. 1889), is a novelist and dra-
matic author. Among his works may be mentioned
"Thomas Bekket" (1893), a drama, and "Der
Gilnstling des Czaren" (1897), a novel. He is the
proprietor of the "Breslauer Zeitung."

Bibliography : GedenhhUltter an Rabbiner Dr. Marcus
Lehmann, Mayence, 1890.
S. M. Co.

LEHRANSTALT FXTR DIE WISSEN-
SCHAFT DES JUDENTHUMS : Rabbinical
seminary at Berlin; founded in 1870 and opened
in 1872 as the " Hochschule fur die Wissenschaft des
Judeuthums," which name, upon the order of the
government, was changed in 1883 to the one it now
bears.

A movement for the establishment in Germany of
a seminary for Jewish science was begun as early
as 1835 by Abraham Geiger, who never ceased ad-
vocating the plan until the establishment of the
"Hochschule." Geiger found a supporter in Lud-
wig Philippsou, who sought to give the thought
currency among the people. Chiefly owing to
Geiger's influence, the theological seminary at Bres-
lau was established in 1854; but its conservative
theological policy was not approved by Geiger.
The "Hochschule" was established upon the princi-
ple that the question of religion should not be deci-
sive in the choice of teachers or in the admission of
students. It was to be devoted purely to scientific
work. Nominally, it has never been a solely theo-
logical school; as a matter of fact, however, the
training of theologians has been its chief task.

For the first twenty-five years the sums received
(excluding stipendiary contributions) totaled 348,-
843.24 marks; the expenses (stipends excluded) to-
taled 341.750.89 marks. The "Lehranstalt" is sup-
ported by annual contributions from the members
of a society established for that purpose and by gen-
eral donations. Contributors and donors elect the
"curatoiium," which elects tlie teaching staff and
controls the finances of the institution. The first
chairman of the "curatorium " was Prof. M. Laza-
rus, who held that office for tweuty-tliree years,
-until his removal to Merau. The present chairman is

Dr. S. Neumann, who also was a member of the first
"curatorium." The faculty at first included David
Cassel, Abraham Geiger, I. Lewy, and H. Steinthal ;
it has since included P. F. Frankl, S. Maybaum, M.
Schreiner, E. Baneth, and I. Elbogen. Any one
attending, or having attended, a German university
and able to pass a simple examination may be ad-
mitted as a regular student. The teachers admit
special students at their discretion. During the
first twenty-five years of the seminary's existence
168 applicants v/ere granted admission as regu-
lar students and 140 as special students. Of the
former, 55 were born within the German empire, 1
in the grand duchy of Luxemburg, 68 in Austria-
Hungary, 27 in Russia, 3 in Rumania, 2 in England,
1 in Sweden, and 3 in America. The locations of
but 75 of the total number graduated were known in
1897; of these, 52 were rabbis and preachers (16 in
Germany, 25 in Austria-Hungary, 6 in Russia, 4 in
America, 1 in Rumania), 21 were teachers(ll in Ger-
many, 2 in Austria-Hungary, 4 in Russia, 2 in Amer-
ica, 1 in Rumania, 1 in England), and 2 were in the
service of Jewish congregations in Germany. Of
the 140 special students, 12 were from the Protes-
tant theological department of the universit5^ 25
from the law department, 25 from the medical de-
partment, and 62 from the philosophical department.
Stipends amounting to 96,218.40 marks were given
to needy students during the first 25 years. The
library now contains about 12,000 volumes.

Geiger's " General Introduction to the Science of
Judaism," " Introduction to the Biblical Writings,"
and " Lectures on Pirke Abot " were originally de-
livered as lectures at the seminary.

Reflecting the tendency of the times, the " Lehran-
stalt " stands for a conservative Judaism ; but its
main object is the scientific study of things Jewish,
freed as far as possible from the rancor of theo-
logical disputes and practical politics.

Bibliography: Lehranstalt fVtr die Wissenschaft des Jit-
denthums : RUchbJick anf die Ersten Filnfundzwanzig
Jahre (1872-97), Berlin, 1897.

D. L. M.

LEHREN : Dutch family whose name is derived
from Lchrensteinfeid, a village in Wiirttemberg.

Akiba Lehren : Dutch banker and communal
worker; born July 30, 1795; died in Amsterdam
Nov. 19, 1876; younger brother of Zebi Hirsch
Lehren and Jacob Meir Lehren. He was " president
of the Pekidim and Amarcalim of the Jewish con-
gregations in the Holy Land, dwelling in Amster-
dam," and in 1844 became involved in the literary
dispute of his brother Hirsch concerning the admin-
istration of the Halukkah (see Fiirst in " Der Ori-
eni," 1844, p. 17).'

Both Akiba and his brother ]\Ieir possessed very
rich and valuable collections of Hebrew books, a
sale catalogue of which was arranged and published
by J. L. Joachimsthal, Amsterdam, 1899 (comp.
"Zeit. fiir Hebr. Bibl." 1899, p. 152).

Akiba published a very poor edition of Isaac ben
Moses' "Or Zarua'," parts i. and ii., according to
an Amsterdam manuscript, Jitomir, 1862 (Stein-
schneider, "Zeit. flir Hebr. Bibl." viii. 1 et tieq.).

Bini.lOGRAPHY: Alhh Zeit. drxjud. 187(5, p. 809; Ha-Mag-
yid, 1876, p. 412; Univ. Isr. 1870, p. 217.

669

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liehranstalt
LeibzoU

Jacob Meir Lehren : Dutch banker and com-
munal worker; born 1793; died in Amsterdam May,
1861 ; younger brother of Zebi Hirsch Lehren. He
was president of the Jewish congregation of Am-
sterdam for more than thirty years, and of many
Jewish educational and charitable institutions.
Lehren was also connected with the Halukkah affair
of his brother Hirsch (see Fiirst in " Der Orient,"
1843, p. 361). He devoted much interest to the
education of Jewish rabbis and religious teachers.
As regards the library left by him see Akiba
Lehren.

Bibliography : AJlg. Zeit. des Jud. 1861, p. 344 : Jew. Encyc.
i. .544a, .s.r. Amsterdam; ih. ili. 312a, s.v. Book-Collectors.

Zebi Hirsch (Hirschel) Lehren : Dutch mer-
chant and communal worker; born 1784; died in
Amsterdam Nov., 1853. Lehren was prominent in
the history of the Halukkah in the first half of the
nineteenth century. Beginning with 1810, he, as a
rich and influential merchant, was entrusted, to-
gether with Abraham Prinz and Solomon Reuben,
"with the responsibilitj^ of forwarding to Palestine
the contributions which were sent annually to Am-
sterdam. In 1822 he ruled that in future only one
representative, instead of two, should be sent from
Palestine for both tlie Sephardicand the Ashkenazic
congregations, and that the money collected for the
Halukkah should be divided in proportion to the
number of persons in the Palestinian congregations
in question. When, in 1829, the young congrega-
tion of the Ashkenazim in Jerusalem had become
involved in financial difficulties tlirough the build-
ing of a new synagogue and school, and was obliged
to appeal for support to its coreligionists in Europe,
Lehren, as president of the Halukkah committee,
prohibited in a very harshly worded circular the
transmission of any further contributions to Jeru-
salem. On this account he was vehemently at-
tacked, and suspicion was even cast on his in-
tegrity in administering the funds. This pro-
duced a bitter literary quarrel (see Fiirst in " Der
Orient," 1843, pp. m\et8eq.,Z11etseq. ; 1844, pp. 1 et
seg. ; " Sendschreiben an Unsere Glaubensgenossen
den 18ten Schebat, 5603"). In his defense Lehren
published " Drei Briefe aus Jerusalem zur Verthei-
digung der Ehrlichkeit des Amsterdamer Comite's in
Betrtff der Palastinaspenden " with the Hebrew title
"Kontres Emetme-Erez "(parti., Amsterdam, 1843;
part ii., ib. 1844), after he had already published
the Hebrew article of Solomon Kohen, "Emet me-
Erez," with the German title "Sendschreiben oder
WahrheitausdemHeiligen Lande " {ib. 1843; Fiirst,
"Bibl. Jud." ii. 228).

In 1840 the oppressed Jews of Damascus appealed
to Lehren for aid, as they did to many other influ-
ential Jews; and he bravely took up their cause.
Together with Aaron Prinz, Lehren sent a circular
letter to many rabbis, which in the autumn of 1844
resulted in a protest, signed by seventy-eight Ortho-
dox rabbis of Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, and
Hungary, against the rabbinical conference of Bruns-
wick (June 12-19, 1844; see "Univ. Isr." 1845, ii.
12 et seg.). The letters of recognition for this serv-
ice, sent to Lehren and Prinz by many rabbis, were
published under the title "Torat ha-Kena'ot" {ib.
1845).

Bibliography: Bemfeld, Tolednt ha-Reformazion he-YiK-
rat>l, p. 199, Cracow, 1900; Alia. Zeit. flex Jud. 1845, p. 125;
1853. p. 664; Gratz. GeKch. xl. m, 482. 517; Jost's Annalen,

^k.^lvJlh ^1"' ^^^' 235, 250. 268; Roest, Cat. Rosenthal.
Biol. 1. 663.

M. Sc.

LEHRERHEIM. See Periodicals.

liEHRS, KARL LUDWIG (KAUFMANN) :
German philologist; born at KOnigsberg, East Prus-
sia, Jan. 2, 1802; died there June 9, 1878; brother
of the philologist F. Siegfried Lehrs (1806-43).
editor of Didot's edition of the Greek epic poets.
Karl was educated at tlie KOnigsberg gymnasium and
university (Ph.D. 1823); in 1822, after entering the
Protestant Church, he passed tlie examination for
teacher in the gymnasium. He was successively
appointed to positions at Danzig, Marienwerder, and
KOnigsberg (1825). In 1831 he established himself
as privat-docent at KOnigsberg University, and in
1835 was appointed assistant professor. Elected in
1845 professor of ancient Greek philology, he re-
signed his position as teacher at the gymnasium; he
held the chair in Greek philology until his death.
Among Lehrs's many works may be mentioned:
"De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis," KOnigsberg,
1833 (3d ed.,by Ludwich, Leipsic, 1882); "Qusss-
tiones Epicae," ib. 1837; "Herodiani Scripta Tria
Minora," ib. 1848; "Populare Aufsatze aus dem
Alterthume," ib. 1856 (2d ed., 1875); "Horatius Flac-
cus," ib. 1869; "Die Pindarscholien." ib. 1873.

Bibliography : L. Frledlander. In Allg. Deutsche Biog. xvlil.
152-166 , Leipsic. 1883 ; Ludwich. Ausgewdhlte Briefe von
und an Lnbeck und Lehrs, Leipsic, 1894.
s. F. T. H.

LEIBZOLL or JUDENGELEIT : A special
toll which the Jews had to pay in most of the Eu-
ropean states in the Middle Ages and up to the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century. The origin of
the LeibzoU may be traced to the political position
of the Jews in Germany, where they were considered
crown property and, therefore, under the king's
protection. In his cai)acity as Roman emperor the
king claimed the exclusive rights of the jurisdic-
tion and taxation of the Jews, and was responsible
for the protection of their lives and their property.
Protection he granted them either by a guard or by
safe-conduct; chiefly by the latter, for the Jews,
being extensive travelers, when they went on long
business trips could not always be accompanied
by imperial guards. The first instance of the grant-
ing of one of these safe-conducts occurred under
Louis le Debonnaire (814-840), and a specimen
of it may be found among the documents preserved
in the " Liber Formularum " of that period. Ac-
cording to this document the king grants freedom
of travel and exemption from all taxes to three Jews
of Lyons "neque teloneum, neque paravereda aut
mansionaticum, aut pulveraticum, aut cespitaticum,
aut ripaticum, aut rotaticum, aut portaticum, aut
herbaticum pra'dictis HebraMS exigere pnesumant "
(DeRozieres, "Recueil General des Formules Usitees
dans I'Empire des Francs," i. 41-43, Paris, 1859-
1871; Simson, " Jalirbiicher des Frtlnkischen Reiches
Unter Ludwig dem Frommen," i. 393-396, Leipsic,
1874-76). For such a safe conduct the Jews were
required to pay a certain fee; but tliis, being under-
stood, is not stated anywhere, as the payment con-

LieibzoU
Leidesdorf

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

670

stitutes the only reason for the exemption from other
taxes. The stipulations regulating the tolls of Raflfcl-
staetten, issued between 904-906, arc to be interpreted
in the same manner — the Jews, as privileged mer-
chants, shall not pay more than the regular toll
("justum theloneum"). The law expressly states
this to be in conformity with the ancient custom
(Pertz, "Mon. Germania3 Leges," iii. 480; Waitz,
"Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte," iv. 1, 70, Kiel,
1884; Scherer, "Kechtsverhaltnisse der Juden," p.
110, Leipsic, 1901); the same is stated in the char-
ter granted to the Jews of Worms, 1090 ('" Zeitschrif t
fiir die Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland," i. 139).
When the Jews passed under the jurisdiction of the
territorial rulers, this principle was acknowledged.
Frederick II. of Austria, in his law on the Jews,
issued 1244, decreed that within the limits of his
state they should not pay more than the legal rate
of toll — the same rate that all other
Rate citizens had to pay (Scherer, I.e. p.

of Toll. 181). As in the stipulations regula-
ting the tolls of RalTelstaetten, and as
in the law of Frederick II., only customs duties for
goods or slaves were mentioned: therefore a per-
sonal tax was unknown.

As the Jews in increasing numbers passed under
territorial jurisdiction, the exemption from personal
tax, which was granted them as long as they re-
mained crown property, was no longer respected, f(n-
each territorial ruler considered himself entitled to
levy taxes on all foreign Jewish subjects who passed
through his territory. But these taxes continued
as customs duties imtil, with the growing hostility
of the free cities, and with the frequent expulsion
from vast territories which became the rule in the
fifteenth century, those rulers who had expelled the
Jews from their domains determined on the adoption
of a policy of keeping them away from their bor-
ders. International relations, however, would not
permit of tlie disregard of a passport granted by a
foreign ruler to one of his subjects, so when Jews
visited a territory in which no Jew was permitted to
settle they were subjected to the payment of a toll.

The adoption of this policy was dictated by abso-
lute necessity. Owing to the weakness of the fed-
eral power of the Gerniiin empire Jews expelled from
a place could easily settle in the vicinity, and on
the strength of their passports do business in the
place from which they had been expelled. So the
Jews expelled from Nuremberg in 1499 settled in
Flirth; those expelled from Nordlingen (1507) set-
tled in Kleineidlingen ; those who could not gain
entrance into the city of Llibeck settled in the vil-
lage of Moisling — all places of .settlement within
easy walking distance of the cities in which they
were denied residence. On the passports issued to
them by their respective sovereigns they could en-
gage in trade in the latter i)luces, at least during tlie
day, and, therefore, since the li^al govcrnmenls
wished to enforce the decrees exclu-

Develop- ding the Jews, they were driven to

ment of adojjt new measures ("H. E. J." viii.

Leibzoll. 212). Soon the financial utility of tlic

Leibzoll was recognized, and the terii-

torial rulers in tlie German emjiire levied such a toll

from all traveling Jews, whether foreigners or their

own subjects. In Nuremberg the average an-
nual value of the toll for the last ten years during
which Leibzoll was levied (1797-1806) was 2,448
florins, or about §1,000 (Barbeck, "Gesch. der Ju-
den in Nilrnberg und Fiirth," p. 106, Nuremberg,
1878).

That it was the purpose also to humiliate the
Jews is shown, sometimes, in the wording of the
law. For example, an ordinance of Philip V. of
Spain (1703) fixes the toll for a wagon-load of mer-
chandise, one head of cattle, or one Jew, when pass-
ing over the bridges of Luxemburg, at four sols (" R.
E.J." viii . 208). Sometimes the humiliation lay in the
form in which the tax was levied. In some places
a Jew passing a toll-gate was required to cast dice in
remembrance of the crucifixion (Gratz, "Gesch."
3d ed., viii. 14); elsewhere, as in Freiberg, in Sax-
ony, Jews were forced to pay for a guard to follow
them as long as they remained within the city. Even
after the Leibzoll had been otticially abolished, as in
Austria b}' Emperor Joseph II. in 1782, Jews entering
Vienna or staying there for some time were re-
quired to pay a special tax which differed from
Leibzoll only in name. The same may be said of
Nuremberg, where Leibzoll was abolished theoret-
ically in 1800, but was levied practically until 1806
under the name of " Passier- und Eintrittsgeld." In
Warsaw, where the French government had eman-
cipated the Jews, the Russian government reintro-
duced the Leibzoll under the name of "Tagzettel,"
lequiring every Jew entering the city to pay five
silver groscheu for the first day and three for every
additional day he remained r'Allg. Zeit. des Jud."
1862, p. 12).

Certain exemptions from Leibzoll were granted.
Under the Austrian law of 1244, corpses were exempt.
Albrecht III. gave free safe-conduct to three Aus-
trian Jews to bring " etrogim" from Triest free of duty
in 1389 (Scherer, I.e. p. 535). The Jews living within
the territory of the Elector of Mayence were ex-
empted from Leibzoll wlien they were

Exemp- traveling to attend one of the regular
tions. landtags, or meetings of the district
congregations (see Bamberger, " His-
tor. Berichte iiber die Juden der Stadt AschafTeii-
burg," p. 26, Strasburg, 1900). As a mark of special
favor, court Jews or mint-farmers were exempt from
the payment of such tolls (see H.viiulug). Later the
exemption was extended to manufacttirers; and
Hirsch David, velvet-manufacturer of Berlin, was
exempted by the king (1731) because his business re-
quired him to travel frequently ("Allg. Zeit. des
Jud." 1902, p. 477). When Meyerbeer went to
Vienna, the "Judenamt" received orders to treat
him "not as a Jew, but as a cavalier "(//j. 1847, p. 91).
Native Jews were often exempted, for a fixed sum,
from paying this toll, but naturally this freed them
from it only within the confines of their own coun-
try. Thus the Jews of Saxony were exempt from
the Leibzoll by an order dated April 16, 1773 (Levy,
"Geschichte der Juden in Sachscn," p. 71, Berlin,
1901). The Jews of Berlin compromised with the
elector, in 1700, by paj'ing 1,000 ducats annually ;
this sum ("Jiidische Presse," Aug. 22, 1902) ex-
empted only those wlio were in the possession of a
lawful charter (" Sclmtzbrief "\ which had replaced

671

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

LeibzoU
Leidesdorf

the old safe-conduct (" Judengeleit "), and who there-
fore were called " veigleitete Juden."

G. D.

In December, 1787, Frederick William II. of Prus
sia abolished the Leibzoll iu Berlin, and in July,
1788, he abolished it iu other places. The abolition
of the toll was due largely to the exertions of David
Friedlander. In 1791 the toll was abolished also by
the Bishop of Salzburg in liis own dominions.

Notwithstanding the liberal spirit which these
abolitions showed, the majority of the German states
still clung to the tax. With the advent of the
French, however, some of them were compelled to
abolish the Leibzoll. Early in July, 1798, the French
general Cacatte informed the meml)ers of the gov-
ernment at Nassau-Usingen that, at tlie order of
the division commander Freitag, the special taxes
of the Jews were to be abolished, as they were
repugnant to justice and humanity. In conse-
quence of this order the Jews on the left bank of the
Rhine were relieved from the paj^ment of Leibzoll.
At the conclusion of the peace of Luueville July
21, 1801, the toll was reimposed.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the

Jews of Germany found a courageous champion in

Wolf Breidenbach, who worked persistently for

the abolition of this impost. Perceiv-

Wolf Brei- ing that ample resources would be re-

denbach. quired to carry on his campaign, and
not being personallj' able to command
these, he invoked the aid of the German and foreign
Jews (1803), asking them to subscribe to the fund
raised for this purpose. He instituted negotiations
with the minor German princes at the Diet of Ratis-
bon, and, aided by Dahlberg, the imperial chancellor,
succeeded in obtaining free passage for the Jews
throughout the Rhine provinces and Bavaria. It
was largely due to his elTorts that the Leibzoll was
abolished in Kurhesscn, Hoheulohe, Neuwied,Wied-
Runkel, Braunfels, Solms-Rodellieim, ■ and also in
Nassau (Sept., 1806). The emancipation of the
Jews from these imposts created much antagonism ;
and among those opposed to it were such men
as Paalzow, Grattenauer, and Buchholz. In the
northern Hanse towns the French gairisons com-
pelled the burghers to relieve the Jews from the
payment of the Leibzoll, and, notwithstanding much
opposition, secured the privilege for the Jews of
Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen. The Leibzoll was
abolished in Brunswick-Llineburg April 23, 1823,
through the efforts of Israel Jacobsohn, court agent
to the Duke of Brunswick. Although the tax had
been almost univcr.«ally abolished, its collection still
continued from the Jews visiting Vienna in the reign
of Francis I. of Austria. Of the German states,
Saxony was the last to abolisli it.

Up to 18G2 the Poli.sh Jews visiting Russia were
treated as foreigners, and as such were not ad-
mitted into the interior of the empire. On the other
hand, the Russian Jews had great ditliculty in enter-
ing Poland, and those wlio went there for business
weie obliged to pa\' a "Geleitzoll."
In Russia. In 1826 the lepresentatives of the
Jewish community of Kovno peti-
tioned the government for the abolition of the tax,
wJiich amounted then to tifteen Polish Horins. Bv

order of Emperor Nicholas I. this apphcation was
referred to the grand duke Constautine Pavlovich,
then viceroy of Poland, who stated that he consid-
ered tlie ab(dilion of tlie tax inexpedient, but pro-
posed decreasing its amount and regulating it accord-
ing to age, sex, and business occupation. He deemed
it advisaljle to introduce a similar tax in Ru.ssia, and
suggested that each Polish Jew entering Russia, and
each Russian Jew entering Poland, should be sup-
plied with a pass descriptive of the place of its issu-
ance, the bearer's business, etc. The local police
was to be charged with the inspection of the passes.
In consequence of this report. Emperor Nicholas
ordered the minister of tinance to communicate
with the proper authorities, and to draft the regu-
lations for the introduction of the tax in ques-
tion. After a prolonged correspondence with the
Polish authorities the minister found the proposed
measure to be inexpedient, not onl}- because of the
decrease in the revenues which it would effect, but
also because of possible complications and abuses
in its enforcement. The "Geleitzoll" was, there-
fore, abolished by a ukase of May 24, 1862.

Bibliography : Geiger, JUd. Zrif. vol. v., pp. 126-1-15, 335-347;
Jeii'i.s7i Vhionide, June la, 190:j; Allg. Zeit. dei< Jud. 1890,
No. 28 ; Gr&tz, Gcschiclite der Judc)}, piussim ; Pcttu Polny
Svod Zakon<n\ vol. x., No. 670;5 ; Mysh, Riikovndstvo k Russ-
knrmi ZakonodateMvu o Yevreiiakli. p. 18, St. Petersbunr,
1890.

G. H. R.

LEICESTER : County town of Leicestershire,
England. A Josce of Leicester is recorded in the
Nottingham " Donum " of 1194 as living in Notting-
ham ; and Benedict of Leicester is mentioned in 1205
(Jacobs, "Jews of Angevin England," p. 238). Part
of the old Roman wall at Leicester is still called the
"Jewry Wall"; it is ligured in Thiosby's "Leices-
ter," plates 1 and 2, and a full description of it is
given in the "Journal of the Archaeological Associa-
tion," iv. 393-402. It is dilhcult to suggest for what
reason the wall received its name. Leicester being
an appanage of the earls of Leicester, Simon de
Montfort took the opportunity to prevent any in-
terference with his seigniorial rights on the part of
the king by expelling the Jews from Leicester in
1231 (C. Bemont, "Simon de Montfort," p. 62, Paris,
1884).

In modern times there has been a small Jewish
congregation, which iu 1898 had increased sufficiently
to build a synagogue in Ilightield street. This had
been preceded ))y a charity organization in 1886, and
by a ISikkur llohm society in 1896. Sir Israel Hart
has been four times mayor of Leicester (1884-86,
1893).

Bibliography : Throsby, Leicester, p. i'-i'Z, Leicester, 1791.

J.
LEIDESDORF, MAX: Austrian psychiatrist;
born at Vienna June 27, 1818; died tiiere Oct. 9,
1889; educated at the university of his native city
(M.D. 1845). After studying for several years in
the principal insane asylums of Italy, Germany,
England, and France, lie established himself as
privat-doeeiitat Vienna rniversity (1856), and, later,
hcki the following appointments: assistant professor
of psychiatry (1864); chief physician of the insane
department of the general liosjiital (" Allgemeines-
Krankenhaus," 1872); and chief of the " Landesirren-

liCidesdorff
Lieipsic

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

672

anstalt" (1875). He resigned these positions in
1888.

Leidesdorf was one of the leading psychiatrists of
Ms time. In 1876 he was called to Constantinople
to examine the mental condition of the dethroned
sultan Murad; and in 1886 he was asked by the
crown of Austria to give an opinion as to the sanity
of Louis II. of Bavaria. He was the author of: "Bei-
trSge zur Diagnostik und Behandlung der Primaren
Formen des Irreseins," Krefeld, 1855; "Das ROmer-
badTtifferin Steierraark," Vienna, 1857; "Compen-
dium der Psychiatrie fiir Aerzte und Studirende,"
ib. 1860 ; " Pathologic und Therapie der Psychischen
Krankheiten," Erlangen, 1860 (2d ed. 1865, and trans-
lated into Italian 1865) ; "Erlauterungen zur Irren-
hausfrage Niederosterreichs," Vienna, 1868; "Psy-
chiatrische Studien aus der KHnik Leidesdorf," ib.
1877; "DasTraumleben,"ift. 1880.

Bibliography : Pagel, Biogr. Lex.
s. F. T. H.

LEIDESDORFF, WILLIAM: One of the

earliest settlers in California; born (at Szathmar,
Hungary ?) about 1802 ; died at San Francisco May
18, 1848. He was the son of Mordecai Leidesdorlf ;
his cousin Yitl (Henrietta) married Akiba Eger, and
their daughter married Moses Sofer (Schreiber).
William Leidesdorff left his home when about fifteen
years of age, and his family never heard frbm him
again. A tradition became current in the Eger and
Schreiber families that he had " gone to America "
and "become a great man." He went to San Fran-
cisco (Yerba Buena) in 1840 ; but his history before
his appearance there is obscure. He passed as a
native of Jamaica, of Danish extraction ; on leaving
that island he went to New York, and subsequently
to New Orleans, in which latter city he held the
office of "captain of the port." On arriving at
Yerba Buena he began the establishment of exten-
sive commercial relations with "the States." When
the American flag was raised over San Francisco
(July, 1846) he became vice-consul. He bore a high
reputation for integrity and enterprise. He is said
to have been "liberal, hospitable, cordial, confiding
even to a fault." Leidesdorff became the wealthiest
man in San Francisco. During the eight years of
his residence there he organized the first American
public school, served as alcalde, as a member of the
Ayuntamiento, as one of the six aldermen, or town-
councilors, and as city treasurer. On the day of
his burial the town was in mourning, the flags were
at half-mast, business was suspended, and the
schools were closed. His remains were interred in
the Roman Catholic graveyard behind the church
of the Mission Dolores. Leidesdorff street was
named for him.

It is reasonably certain that William Leidesdorff
of San Francisco and Wolf Leidesdorfer of Szath-
mar, Hungary, were one person. But legally that
fact has never been established. The California
pioneer died intestate, and the court appointed Cap-
tain John L. Folsora temporary administrator of his
large estate. Folsom visited Jamaica and found
some "relatives" — even a woman who claimed to
be Leidesdorff's mother — and purchased the claims
of all these people. But they obtained no standing
in court. The uncertain condition of the probate

laws, together with the fact discovered that William
Leidesdorff, though he had held federal offices, had
never been a citizen of the United States, and the

additional fact that these Jamaica

The " relatives " had sold titles to Captain

Leidesdorflf Folsom which the courts could not

Estate. approve, created so much confusion

regarding the estate that, in 1854,
Governor Bigler, in a special message to the senate,
recommended the escheat of the estate, then worth
a million and a half, and suggested that proceedings
be commenced for its recovery ("Journal of the Sen-
ate of California," 1854). Another reason why the
courts refused to admit the title of the Jamaica rela-
tives was that there were "other heirs, who had
never convej^ed away their rights in the estate "
(Sweasy, "Early Days and IMen of California").
These " other heirs " lived in Europe.

While Leidesdorff passed as a Christian and was
buried in a Roman Catholic churchyard, he had
never been known to be identified with any church.
Some of his intimates claimed to have known that he
was of Jewish extraction. He is said to have been
a man of fine appearance, " swarthy " (Sweasy),
and of an irascible temperament. He never spoke
of his relatives; he never married; and, though
conducting a great establishment, he practically
lived alone. The following facts appear in con-
nection with his estate: (1) The claims of his
Jamaica "relatives" were thrown out of court,
their evidence of relationship being summarily
rejected. (2) No Danish family of the name of
Leidesdorff ever appeared to claim the estate of
AVilliam Leidesdorff of San Francisco. (3) Since
1854 the descendants of the Leidesdorfers, and the
Eger and Schreiber families of Hungary, through
legal representatives, have continued to contest the
escheat of the estate, and have established their
claims to the satisfaction of many eminent attor-
neys, though there is at the present time (1904) not
the remotest chance of their recovering anything,
the statute of limitations covering and protecting
every title obtained from John L. Folsom and others
who acquired possession.

Bibliography: California Reports, 1854; Journal of the
Senate of California, 1854: Soule, Annals of San Fran-
cisco; RitteM, Historii of Calif ornia,vo\s.il.a.ndlv.; Sweasy,
Early Days and Men of California.
A. J. V.

LEIMDORFER, DAVID: Rabbi; bornatHli-
nik, Hungary, Sept. 17, 1851; educated at his na-
tive place and at Zsolna, Waitzen, Budapest, Pres-
burg, and Vienna. He became a chaplain in the
Austro-Hungarian army ; from 1875 to 1883 he was
rabbi at Nordhausen, Prussia, and since 1883 he has
been rabbi at Hamburg, where he is also principal
of the school for religion and of the Jewish high
school for girls.

Of Leimdorfer's works may be mentioned : " Kurz-
gefasste Religionslehre der Israeliten," Nordhausen,
1876 ; " Die Kilrzeste Darstellung der Nachbiblischen
Gesch. filr die Israelitische Schuljugend," ib. 1880
(4th ed. 1896); " Die ChanukaWunder," Magdeburg,
1888, and "Die Lebende Megilla," Hamburg, 1888,
both festival plays; "Der Hamburger Tempel," ?6.
1889; "Das Heilige Schriftwerk Koheleth im Lichte
der Gesch." ib. 1892; "Die Messias Apokalypse,"

673

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Leidesdorff
Leipsic

Vienna, 1895; "Das Psalter Ego in den Iclipsal-
men," Hamburg, 1898: "Zur Kritik des Buches
Esther," Frankfort-ou-the-Main, 1899; "Die Losung
des Koheletratsels Durcii Ibn Baruch," Berlin. 1900;
and "Der Altbiblisclie Priestersegen," Frankfort,
1900.
8. F. T. II.

LEIPSIC : A city of Saxony. The first mention
of its Jewish comnmnity occurs in the middle of the
thirteenth century in the " Or Zarua' " of Isaac ben
Moses of Vienna (p. 215b), who speaks of a syna-
gogue and of a tax on the community. The oldest
non-Jewish record of the existence of Jews in Leip-
sic dates a century later. On Oct. 28, 1352, Mar-
grave Frederick, "the Stern," of Meissen gave the
synagogue ("scolam Judseorum") in Leipsic as a
fief to his marshal (" Urkundenbuch von Leipzig,"
iii.,No. 44). The Jews' Street ('' ludenburc"), into
"which a special gate ("valva") opened, is first men-
tioned in the " Leipziger Stadtbuch " in 1359.

In Feb., 1349, Margrave Frederick, " the Earnest,"
ordered the burning of the Jews in his territories ;
and although there is no documentary evidence of
the event, the Jews of Leipsic were without doubt ex-
terminated, their houses and lands being confiscated
by the margrave. His successor, the above-men-
tioned Frederick, "the Stern,"' although not less

harshly inclined toward the Jews than

In the Mid- his predecessor, allowed some of them

die Ages, in 1364 to settle in Leipsic on payment

of a large sum for protection. It is
doubtful, however, whether a Jewish communit}'
was again organized there. In 1430, by command
of the elector Frederick, the Jews were expelled
from Saxony, after having been robbed of their
property. By a special patent of freedom and pro-
tection the rich Jewish money-lender Abraham of
Leipsic, together with his family, was exempted
from this order in return for the payment of a large
sura of money; he was also granted extensive priv-
ileges. In recognition of the faithful services which
Tie had rendered the Duke of Saxony he was al-
lowed among other things to have a synagogue
(" Judenschule "). Finally, however, even he and
all his household fell victims to envj^ and hatred.
As the result of a suit brought against him he was
punished in 1439 by the annulment of the greater
part of the bonds wliich he held, by a money fine
of 12,000 gulden, and b}^ perpetual banishment
from the country (" Urkundenbuch von Leipzig,"
iii. 103 et. seq.).

From that time forward for nearly 300 years no
Jews settled permanently in Leipsic. Only after the
middle of the fifteenth century numerous Jews ap-
peared at fair-times, but the first statistics concerning

their attendance at the fairs date from

At the 1675. From that year to 1748 there

Fairs. were at the fairs on an average 750

Jews; 1770-79, 1,652 Jews as against
8,597 Christians; 1786-1839. 3,185 Jews to 13,005
Christians (R. Markgraf, "Der Einfluss der Juden
•auf die Leipziger Messen"; three lectures in the
" Leipziger Tageblatt," ]\Iarch27, 28. 29, 1896). The
Jews took a large share in the trade as regards both
purchase and sales and the variety of the purchases
made for good legal tender. At the same time they
VII— 43

were exposed to endless annoyances, exacting regu-
lations, and burdensome restrictions. At the New-
Year's fair in 1645 an order of the city council of
Leipsic was published forbidding Jews to have open
shops and bootiis facing the street, and permitting
them to sell only in private rooms. This order re-
sulted in an agitation on the part of the Jews which
lasted nearly a century. The shopkeepers and mer-
chants, and with them the city council, repeatedly
sided against the Jews ; but the elector twice decided
in their favor (Oct. 6, 1687, and March 1, 1689). In
1704 the Jews were assigned quarters on the Briihl
during the fair. In 1722, in addition to the quarrel
in regard to open shops, a dispute arose in regard to
peddling. The council, at the instance of the mer-
chants and shopkeepers, wished to forbid this kind
of trade also, but the elector at first permitted it.
On Sept. 3, 1731, August, "the Strong, " issued an
order forbidding Jews to sell in shops open to the
street or to peddle from house to house. This order,
however, does not appear to have been strictly car-
ried out.

In 1713 Gerd Levi of Hamburg, on his appoint-
ment as purveyor to the mint, had received permis-
sion from the elector Frederick August to reside
permanently in Leipsic, he being the first Jew to be

so privileged. This privilege was ex-
Privileged tended to his son Levi Gerd. In 1754
Jews of the another privileged Jew. Baruch Aaron
Eighteenth Levi of Dessau, Avas allowed to settle
Century, in Leipsic (Freudenthal, "Aus der

Heimat Mendelssohns," pp. 122, 130).
During the Seven Years' war several Jewish traders
successfully attempted to settle permanently in
Leipsic. Although the city council, the estates,
the mercantile class, and especially the goldsmiths'
gild, opposed the settlement of Jews, and strove to
have all non-privileged Jews excluded, and al-
though the council refused all petitions from Jews
praying to be allowed to settle in the city, never-
theless from the end of the Seven Years' war on,
some Jews remained settled in Leipsic beyond the
limits of fair-time, probably by permission of the
elector in return for services rendered or to be ren-
dered. Thus, on Aug. 15, 1766, there were thirteen
such settlers; on Sept. 9, twelve; and on Oct. 30,
eleven. After 1788 Jewish visitors to the fair con-
tinued to settle permanently in Leipsic, and the
council tried in vain to secure from the elector an
order for their banishment. They lived in the inner
city and in the suburbs and had their places of busi-
ness wherever thej'^ pleased. But as late as 1835
the Jews living in Leipsic, sixty -six in number, were
still precluded from engaging in any incorporated
trade and could engage only in petty commerce.

Decisions of the two chambers of the Saxon Diet
first brought about a change in favor of the Leipsic
Jews. A law of May 18, 1837. permitted them to
form themselves into a religious community, and as
such to have a common house of praj'er. A second
law, of Aug. 16, 1838, defined t!ie civil position of
the Jews. Civil rights were granted to those who
were already residents, with the exception, how-
ever, of all municipal and political rights. Jews
who were not yet residents had to obtain permission
from the ministry of the interior before settling.

licipsic
Liekah Dodi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

674

The first foreign Jew to obtain the privilege of citi-
zenship (Jan. 7, 1839) was the engraver Solomon
Veith of Dresden.

The Jews present in Leipsic at the fair had their

rooms for prayer (" Judeuschulen "), varying in

number according to the attendance.

Prayer- General]}^ each one was erected by
Rooms at the members of a certain commu-
the Fair, nity and named after the place from
which the majority of them came.
Thus in 1717, besides the Berlin " Judenschule,"
there were those of Dessau, Halberstadt, Hamburg,
and Prague. In the nineteenth century those of
Breslau, Brody, Jassy, and Tiktin (Tikotzin) were
added for the visitors at the fair. Sometimes, how-
ever, as at the New-Year's fair on Jan. 7, 1704, the
Jews were prevented from holding divine service,
"absolutely and with all seriousness, either in secret
or openly in the city or its suburbs."

The position of "rabbi for the fair" until the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century was usually filled
by the rabbi or dayyan of the neighboring commu-
nity of Dessau. Until 1815, also, the bodies of Jews
who died in Leipsic were taken to Dessau for burial
(only exceptionally to Halle). In that year the first
Jewish cemetery was laid out in Leipsic. During
the Michaelmas fair in 1837 Zacharias Frankel, " as
chief rabbi of the Jewish communities in Dres-
den and Leipsic," issued a printed appeal to all
Israelites in Germany to assist in building a syna-
gogue in Leipsic. The appeal proved ineffective.
Ten years passed before the Jewish community of
Leipsic was organized, on the basis of a statute
which was approved by the govern-
Community ment and which was revised in 1884.
Organized. On Sept. 8, 1847, Adolf Jellinek was
installed as preacher and religious
teacher. Preaching in German was introduced in
Leipsic at a comparatively early date ; first in the so-
called Dessau synagogue, then in the German Jew-
ish temple Bet Ya'akob. As early as 1818 Joseph
Wolf, preacher in Dessau, preached in Leipsic dur-
ing fair-time; L. Zunz preached there in 1820;
I. N. Mannheimer in 1821 ; Immanuel Wolf in 1822 ;
and I. L. Auerbach was preacher until 1845. Preach-
ing in German was introduced into Leipsic by the
members of the Namburg congregation in 1820; and
it was due to the popularity of the German sermons
delivered by famous preachers to the throngs which
gathered in Leipsic from various parts that the
practise was introduced also into Berlin, Konigsberg,
Vienna, Magdeburg, Dresden, and many other com-
munities (Kayserling, "Bibliothek Jlidischer Kan-
zeiredner," i. 4 et seq.). Jellinek preaclied at first
(1845) in the Berlin private synagogue for visitors to
the fair in Leipsic. In 1849 tliis synagogue passed
into the hands of the community. On Sept. 10,
1855, a new synagogue was dedicated ; and in 1864 a
new cemetery was opened.

Jellinek, who was called to Vienna at the close of
1857, was succeeded by Abraham Meyer Goldschmidt
(1858-89: from 1887 assisted by Abraham Eckstein).
Since 1888 Nathan Porges has been officiating as
rabbi and preacher in Leipsic. Simon Hurwitz (died
at an advanced age on March 6, 1900), author of
commentaries on the " Tanya " (Warsaw, 1879) and

(in Hebrew) on the Malizor Vitry (Berlin, 1884^93),
from about the year 1875 had charge of matters per-
taining to the ritual slaughter of animals. From
May 29 to July 2, 1869, the sessions of the first Jew-
ish synod and of the first German Jewish " Gemein-
detag " were held in Leipsic. The " Gemeindetag "
developed into the " Gemeindebund" in 1877, which,
finding its existence threatened by an order of the
Saxon ministry of the interior, of Dec. 16. 1881,
changed its seat from Leipsic to Berlin. In 1901 the
Talmud Torah, with Dr. Ephraim Carlsbach as
director, was founded ; and in the following year
another private Orthodox society, the Addi Je-
schurun, was established with Dr. A. N. Nabel at
its head.

The community of Leipsic, of which, according
to civil law, every Jew living in the prefecture of
Leipsic is a member, and which is in a state of con-
tinual growth, numbered at the last census (1900)
6,314 souls, a little more than half of the total num-
ber of Jews in the kingdom of Saxony (12,419).
The capital of all the benevolent institutions within
the Jewish community amounts to about 1,000,000
marks, of which 700,000 marks is controlled by the
directorial board of the communitJ^
Typography : The first book printed with He-
brew type at Leipsic was a Latin work, the "Ele-
mentale Hebraicum," of Novenianus, a pupil of Pel-
licanus and lecturer in Hebrew ; it appeared in 1520.
The first Hebrew work printed there, however, was
an edition of the Psalms published by Melcliior
Lotther in 1533, and prepared for the press by An-
thonius Margarita, who had come to the city two
years before as lecturer in Hebrew. There has never
been a Jewish printing-press in Leipsic, but in the
last quarter of the seventeenth century several He-
brew books were published there through the efforts
of F. A. Christiani, a convert. The edition of the com-
mentary of Abravanel on the later prophets which
appeared in 1685 is especially noticeable for its beau-
tiful print. The numerous Hebrew works published
in Leipsic since the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury have all been printed by non-Jewish firms.

D. N. P.

LEIPZIGER, HENRY MARCUS : American
educator; born at JManchester, England, Dec. 29,
1853; emigrated to New York in 1865; educated at
the College of the City of New York (M.A. 1873)
and at Columbia College (LL.B. 1875; Ph.D. 1878).
Leipziger was a teacher in the New York public
schools (1873-81), becoming assistant superintendent
of schools (1891-96), superintendent of lectures for
the Board of Education (1890-96), and, in 1890, super-
visor of lectures in New York city. He was chair-
man of the library committee of the Aguilar Free
Library (1889-1903), president of the New York
Library Club (1900-2), and a member of the circula-
tion committee of the New York Public Library
(1903).

Leipziger has taken an active interest in -extending
the system of manual and industrial training in
public schools, and has called special attention to
the necessity for Jews to engage in mechanical oc-
cupations. He was the director and organizer of
the Hebrew Technical Institute in New York (1884-
1891), president of the Manual Training Department

675

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Leipsic
Lekah Dodi

of the National Educational Association (1889), a
member of the board of governors of the Hebrew
Union College (1893-1902), and, since 1899, has been
president of the Judieans. Leipziger is the author
of "The New Education," New York, 1888, and of
a large number of articles on educational and ethical
subjects.

The New

Bibliography: Who''sWhn in America, IQOS-o
York Times, Supplement, Jan. 1, 1900.

A. I.

G. D.

LEIBIA : City of Portugal. In 1378 its Jews
complained to the king that they were attacked and
maltreated by the Christian inhabitants, especially
during Holy Week. A Hebrew printing-press was
established liere in the house of Samuel d'Ortas, who
together with his son Abraham issued on July 25,
1492, at the expense of a certain Solomon, an edi-
tion of Proverbs, with Targum and commentary.
Two years later he printed the Earlier Prophets
with tl:e commentaries of Kimhi and Levi ben Ger-
shon. In 1495 the same press issued an edition of
Jacob b. Asher's "Tur Orah Hayyim." Alfonso
d'Orta, who was a printer at Valencia in 1496, was
probably Samuel's son. Lciria, which became later
the rendezvous for many Maranos, was the native
place of the poet Manuel de Leao (Leon).

Bibliography: Kayserling. Gesch. dcr Juden in Portugal,
pp. 27, 90; Ersch and Gruber, Encyc. section ii., part 28, p.
37 : Steinschneider, Hehr. Bihl. ix. 80 ; idem. Cat. Bodl. col.
2820; Freimann, Ueber Hcbr. Inkunabeln, p. 9.

G. M. K.

LEITMERITZ, BENJAMIN WOLF: Ger-
man giossarist and theologian ; son of Isaac Levi ;
lived at the beginning of the seventeenth centur}'.
In his" Amarot Tehorot," published by his son Saul,
he defines and interprets in alphabetical order the
difficult words of the Zohar. His " Yesode Torat
Mosheh," an exhaustive dissertation on the dogmat-
ical and ethical principles of Judaism, exists only in
manuscript.

Bibliography : Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 581.

s. ■ P. B.

liEITNEB, GOTTLIEB WILLIAM: Pro

fessor of Arabic; born at Budapest in 1841; died at
Bonn March 22, 1899. He was educated at Con-
stantinople and at King's College, London. Show-
ing an aptitude for languages, he was appointed at
an ear!}' age interpreter to the British commissariat
during the Crimean war, with the rank of colonel.
He became lecturer in Arabic, Turkish, and Modern
Greek at King's College in 1859, and two years later
was appointed professor of Arabic and Moham-
medan law ; he organized the Oriental section of Ihe
college. Later he accepted the post of principal of
the Lahore Government College, and became the
fii-st registrar of the Punjab University, which he
established. Leitner founded several literary societies
and free public libraries, and published journals in
Hindi, Arabic, and English. In 1866 he undertook
for the Puftjab government an expedition to the al-
most unknown region lying between Kashmir and
Afghanistan.

Leitner wrote a number of works on Indian sub-
jects. He bought a college at Woking, where he
provided religious conveniences for Indian students
who came to England for education. He edited the

" Asiatic Quarterly Review " and took an energetic
part in Oriental congresses. After the congress held
in Sweden there was a split in the camp of the Orien-
talists. Leitner conducted the campaign of liis own
party with the greatest vigor and perseverance, and
succeeded in convening a congress at London in
1891.

Bibliography : Jew. Chron. March 31, 1899 ; The Times (Lon-
don), March 28, 1899.

J. G. L.

LEJBOWICZ. See Frank, Jacob.

LEKAH DODI (nn n3^ = " Come, my friend "
[to meet the bride]) : The initial words of the refrain
of a hymn for the service of inauguration of the Sab-
bath, written about the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury by Solomon ha-Levi Alkabiz, who signed eight
of its nine verses with his acrostic. The author
draws much of his phraseology from Isaiah's proph-
ecy of Israel's restoration, and six of his verses
are full of the thoughts to which his vision of Is-
rael as the bride on the great Sabbath of Messianic
deliverance gives rise. It is practically the latest of
the Hebrew poems regularly accepted into the lit-
urgy, both in the southern use, which the author fol-
lowed, and in the more distant northern rite.

Its importance in the esteem of Jewish worshipers
has led every cantor and choir-director to seek to de-
vote his sweetest strains to the Sabbath welcome-
song. Settings of "Lekah Dodi," usually of great
expressiveness and not infrequently of much ten-
derness and beauty, are accordingly to be found in
every published compilation of synagogal melodies.
Among the Sephardic congregations, however, the
hymn is universally chanted to an an-
Ancient cient Moorish melodj^ of great inter-
Moorish est, which is known to be much older
Melody. than the text of "Lekah Dodi " itself.
This is clear not only from internal
evidence, but also from the rubric in old prayer-
books directing the hymn " to be sung to the melody
of ' Shubi Nafshi li-Menuhayeki,' " a composition of
Judah ha-Levi. who died nearly five centuries be-
fore Alkabiz. In this rendering, carried to Pales-
tine b}^ Spanish refugees before the days of Alkabi?,
the hymn is chanted congregationally, the refrain
being employed as an introduction only. But in
Ashkenazic synagogues the verses are ordinarily
chanted at elaborate length by the hazzan, and the
refrain is properly used as a congregational response.
At certain periods of the year many northern con-
gregations discard later compositions in favor of two
simple older melodies singularly reminiscent of the
folk-song of northern Europe in the
Old Ger- century succeeding that in which the
man and verses were written. The better known
Polish of these is an air, reserved for the
Melodies. 'Omek weeks between Passover and
Pentecost, which has been variously
described, because of certain of its phrases, as an
adaptation of the famous political song"Lilli'burle-
ro "and of thecavatina in the beginning of Mozart's
"Nozze di Figaro." But resemblances to German
folk-song of the end of the seventeenth century may
be found generally throughout the melody.

Less widely utilized in the present day is the spe-
cial air traditional for the " Three Weeks " preceding

liekah Dodi
Xiemans

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

676

the Fast of Ab, although this is characterized bj'
much tender charm absent from the melody of Eli
ZiYYON, which more often takes its place. But it
was once very generally sung in the northern con-
gregations of Europe ; and a variant was chosen by
Benedetto Marcello for his rendition of Psalm xix. in
his " Estro Poetico-Armonico " or " Paraf rasi Sopra
li Salmi " (Venice, 1734), where it is quoted as an air
of the German Jews. Birnbaum (" Der Jildische
Kantor," 1883, p. 349) has discovered the source of
this melody in a Polisli folk-song, " Wezm ja Kon-
tusz, Wezin," given in Oskar Kolbe's "Piesni Ludu

Polskiego" (Warsaw, 1857). An old melody, of
similarly obvious folk-song origin, was favored in
the Loudon Jewr}' a century ago, and was sung in
two slightly divergent forms in the old city syna-
gogues. Both of these forms are given by Isaac
Nathan in his setting of Byron's " Hebrew Melodies"
(London, 1815), where the}' constitute the air selected
for "She Walks in Beauty," the first verses in the
series. But the melody, which has nothing Jewish
about it, was scarcely worth preserving; and it has
since fallen quite out of use in Englisli congrega-
tions and apparently elsewhere as well.

LEKAH DODI (Melody Before the Fast of Ab)

1. Modern Version.
Ayidanlino.

-* s; ( 1 ^-

H !q — ^ ^—^-

Zi. H

Shab

-(S*-

Ltz*

be - lab. Eesponse. Le - kab .... do

lik

:::l3=qs:

— ^-

rat kal - lah, pe - ne Shab - bat.

2. Marcello's Version, 1724.

Quasi Lento. ^^^^^^^^

ne - kab

be - lah.

-0^-^-

:=q=q=4

^ — j't -

Solo. Le - kah do

di.

lik - rat kal

lah.

— ^^ _* '

-^— V

^-^zi=i^

-<^-

■Jt=^-^

«=^=P^

liE -

ne Shab - bat.

ne - kab - be - lah. Response Le - kah do - di.

:d?

:^^r:

Si^

rat kal - lah,

^^=(»-,

''-S-

-1 F— I 1 — I *-*-^ — -0-

-»—^

ne Shab - bat ne - kab - be - lah.

LEKAH DODI (Moorish Chant)

Allegretto moderato.

ne Shab • bat.

kab

be - lah.

1. Sha - mor -weza

2. Lik - rat Shab

677

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lekah Dodi
Lemans

be - dib - bur e - had hish - mi - 'a.

le - kuwe - ne - le - kah, ki hi me - kor.

:t2=S

El - ha-me yu
ha - be - ra

had;. . . .
kah; etc.

A - do

nai

had,

u - she - uio.

ttJ

had,.

=^^=^=^

-i^^—^—m — ^^— ^^

le - shem, u - le - tif

'e - ret, we - lite. . .

hil - lah.

LEKAH DODI (Melody for 'Omer Weeks)

j0 Andaniino.

3e3=

-1-

-\-

-1-

3=5=5

-^f-

tS=^=:

-»—■*-

— I-

-■^-

-^— *-

-H

-^-1-

-+-

Hoio love - ly is the Day of Best, Rich source of bless - ing,

ores.

wel - come guest; 'Twas first in thought, if last ex - press' d, Or- dained ere

-' 1 ' ^

side. Refrain. Then come, my friend, to

aught was form'd

Li=d=

^''-

:=1:

12^

X-

meet the Bride, to greet the joy - ous Sab - bath - tide.

BiBLiOGRAHY : Traditional settings : A. Baer, Ba'al TeHUah,
Nos. 326-329, 340-343, Gothenburg, 1877. Frankfort, 1883 ; Cohen
and Davis, Foice of Prauer and Pi-aise, Nos. 18, 19a, and 19b,
London, 1899; F. Consolo, Libro dei Canti dUsraele, part, i,
Florence, 1892 ; De Sola and Aguilar, Ancient Melodies, p. 16
and No. 7, London, iai7; Israel, London, i. 83; iii. 22,204;
Journal of the Folk-Snnq Society, i.. No. 2, pp. 33, 37, Lon-
don, 1900. Translations, etc.: israei, iii. 22; H. Heine. Trer^re,
iii. 234, Hamburg, 1884 ; J. G. von Herder. Werhe, Stuttgart,
1854; A. Lucas, The Jewish Year, p. 167, London, 1898.

A. F. L. C.

LEL SHIMMTJRIM. See Passover.
LELIO DE LA TORRE. See Torre, Lelio

DE LA.

LEMANS, MOSES: Dutch educationist: bom
at Naarden Nov. 5, 1785; died at xVmsterdani Oct.
17, 1832. He was educated by his father and (in
mathematics) by Littwack. He became a teacher of
religion, and in 1818 chief of the religious school,

then recently founded. In 1828 ho was appointed
teacher of mathematics in the Latin school at Am-
sterdam. In 1808 he published " Imra-Zerufah, '* on
the pronunciation of the Hebrew language, and
some years later a Hebrew grammar, " Rudimenta "
(1820). In collaboration with Mulder he published
a dictionar\', " Hcbreeusch - Nederduitsch Hand-
woordenboek" (1829-31).

To defend the Jews against the accusations of
the novel "Levi and Sara," then much in vogue, he
wrote " De Geest der Talmudische Heer." Besides,
he wrote: abiography of Maimonides, 1815; "'Proeve
van Talmudische Wiskunde," 1816: " Geschiedenis
der Sterrenkunde," 1819; "Handleiding tot het
Teekenen van Land-, Zee-, en Hemclkaarten," 3
vols., 1826.

Lemans' chief services to Judaism, however, con-

Ijemberg

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

678

sisted in his efforts, by translating the prayer-books
(1822), to propagate among his coreligionists a
knowledge of the Dutch language.

Lemans was a member of several mathematical
societies ; and many of his papers were published
in the works of the society Tot Nut en Beschaving.

Deluville wrote an elegy on Lemans ("Elon Muz-
zab," p. 10).

Bibliography: Ulraann, in Jaarhoeken, 1836, p. 297 (por-
trait); Teisjure I'Ange, in Ahjemeene Konst-eii-Letterbode,
laa ii.. Nos. 3", 38.
s. E. Si-.

LEMBERG (Polish, Lwow) : Capital of Gali-
cia, Austria; 180 miles east of Cracow and 60 miles
from the Russian frontiei-. Its population in 1869
was 87,109, of whom 26,694 were Jews; in 1890 it
was 127,943, including 36,130 Jews; in 1900 there
were 44,801 Jews in a total population of 159,618.

The history of the Jews of Lcmberg dates from
its foundation in the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury. The Jews were among the first settlers, with
Ruthenians, Armenians, Tatars, and " Saracens " ;
they eve'ii preceded the German and Poli.sh immigra-
tion. These " Saracens " were Karaites, a remnant
of the Byzantine Chazars, who migrated from Asia
Minor to Ruthenla and Lemberg. The city's rec-
ords of 1356 distinguished tlie Karaites as "Sara-
cens" and other Jews as " Juda'i" (comp. Sokolow,

"Sin'at '01am," p. 82, WarsaAV, 1882).
Karaites. German Jews e.xpclled from their

fatherland settled in Lemberg after
its capture by Casimir the Great (1340), who gave
the Jews equal rights with the Christians. The
Jews of Lemberg enjoyed the same rights under
Casimir's successor, Ludwig of Anjou.

Originally, the Jewish quarter was located within
the city walls, on the southwest side. The Jews
that came later took up their abode outside the walls,
in the environs. For a long time tlie congregation
in the city had its own rabbinate, independently of
that of the Jews outside ; but about the beginning
of the seventeenth century they were united under
a chief rabbi, with a special bet din for each con-
gregation.

Cnder Casimir IV. (1447-91) the Jews of Lemberg
obtained certain privileges on ])ayment of an exor-
bitant ta.x to the king. A general conflagration
which visited Lcmberg on Aug. 5, 1494, destroyed
most of the Jewish dwellings. The Jews were per-
mitted to rebuild on easy terms and, as an induce-
ment to stay, were released from part of their tax'es.
Under Sigisinund I. the Jewsof Lemberg engaged
in many commercial enterprises, but the German
merchants, fearing Jewish competition, induced tlie

Polish noblemen to check tlie Jewish ,
Taxes and expansion of trade. In 1521 the mag-
Business istrate of Lc-mberg joined the magis-
Restric- trates of tlie neighboring cities in a
tions. petition to the king to abrogate all

commerciil privileaes enjoyed by the
Jews. In a letter from the magistrate of Lemberg
to that of Posen the Jews are referred to as " infidels
and dangerous competitors of Christian merchants."
The Cracow diet was induced to propose such meas-
ures "to save the Church from ruin." The king,
however, refused to sanction them. In his veto he

maintained that the Jewish commercial activity was
essential to the welfare of the community at large.
It was shown that out of a total of 3,700 merchants
in Lemberg only 500 were Christians; that the Jews
lived economically and were satisfied with small
gains, while the Christians were spendthrifts and
extorted large profits from purchasers. Further-
more, the Jews promoted a large export trade with
Wallachia and Asia Minor, which exceeded the im-
ports and thereby drew money into the country.
Jewish business privileges then extended only to the
sale of wax, leather, and cattle. The sale of cloth
was not permitted them, except at regular fairs.
Yet the Jewish merchant was indispensable to the
inhabitants of Lemberg; even after the fire in 1527
it was necessary to promise the Jews twenty years'
immunity from taxes and to extend their cattle-deal-
ing privileges from 500 to 2,500 head per annum to
each dealer as an inducement to them to stay in
Lemberg.

Moses Niemiec was made a citizen in return for
his conveying a piece of ground to the city authori-
ties for the erection of a public building. Certain
privileges and restrictions of trade passed by the diet
in 1581 were renewed in 1592 (see Caro, "Gesch. der
Juden in Lemberg," p. 37).

While the Jews in Lemberg suffered restrictions
in business, they were not subjected to religious
persecutions. Indeed, the Ruthenians suffered just
as severely from trade restrictions. It
Protection is to the credit of the magistrate of
of the Mag- Lemberg that he protected the Jews

istracy. against tlie force sent by Pope Pius
II., in 1463, under one Szczesny, to
aid Hungary in her struggle against the Turks.
Szczesny 's soldiers would have slain the Jews, but
the magistrate of Lemberg shut the gates against
them until the Jews had secured themselves by the
payment of a ransom. The per.secution of the Jews
in Lemberg did not commence before Sept. 1, 1593,
when the archbishop, Solikowski, invited the Jes-
uits to build a church in Lemberg; the date of that
event is marked in black letters in the Jewish calen-
dar. It was the beginning of the anti-Jewisli move-
ment in Lemberg, and blood accusations and desul-
tory attacks soon culminated in murder and plunder.
Jesuit machinations in 1603 resulted in the confisca-
tion of the Jewish synagogue and grounds for a
Jesuit church and school, on the pretext that the
Jewish title to the property was invalid. The Jews
protested, Ijut the courts decided against them, and
they were compelled to deliver the keys of the syn-
agogue to the Jesuits. Fortixnately for the Jew.s,
their opponents were divided; Rabbi Kalman of
Worms and his wife, Rosa ("the golden Rose"), ap-
pealed to Archbishop Zamoyski, and finally suc-
ceeded in reclaiming the property, after a lapse of
four and a half years, b}' pacing a ransom of 4,000
guilders. On Purim, 1609, the synagogue was re-
dedicated with great rejoicing, and a special hymn
by Isaac ha-Levi was sung. The hymn was after-
ward inserted in the liturgy for the Sabbath follow-
ing Purim and was recited annually.

In Sept.. 1648, the Cossacks under Chmielnicki
besieged Lemberg and reduced the town to the
verge of starvation, withdrawing upon receiving

679

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

LeiaheTg

an enormous ransom, a considerable part of which
was paid by the Jews.

The Jesuits concocted another blood accusation in
13'28, and incited the followers of Shabbethai Zebi,
the false Messiah, against the Jews in Lemberg.
The Eraukists had been solemnly excommunicated
by the rabbis of Lemberg in 1735; the Jesuits, there-
fore, induced the Frankists to revenge themselves
by embracing Christianity and accusing the Jews
of using Christian blood for the Passover service.
The canon De

Mikulski later
arranged for a
disputation in
Lemberg in
June, 1759, be-
tween the rabbis
and the Frank-
ists, which re-
sulted in re-
newed persecu-
tion of the Jews
of Lemberg.

Lemberg was,
also, a center of
modern Hasi-
dism; but such
men as Joseph
Perl (1773-1839)
and Solomon
Lob Rapoport
(1790-1807) op-
posed the move-
ment, the former
by the establish-
ment of a model
high school for
Jewish and secu-
lar instruction
and with his per-
suasive pen, es-
pecially in his
"Megalleh Te-
mirin," written
in a peculiar He-
brew jargon,
and exposing
the methods of
the Hasidim.
Rapoport found-
ed a literary
circle with a li-
brary supported
by Judah Lob
Mises (d. 1831),

thus providing ambitious young men with a liberal
education.

Lemberg is well provided with Jewish institu-
tions. The first synagogue was built by the Ka-
raites in 1582. The Aslikenazic synagogue, the title
to which was contested by the Jesuits,
followed in 1632; this ancient build-
ing has capacious vestry-rooms that
are now used as sejiarate synagogues.
Since the Karaites removed from Lemberg tlieir syn-
agogue has been occupied by Rabbinite Jews. Al-

together, Lemberg has three large synagogues and
nine smaller synagogues, two batle ha-midrashot,
the " Chorschule," or " Temple " (dedicated in 1846), a
commodious Jewish hospital, an orphan asylum, a
technical school, regular Talmud Torah schools, and
several yeshibot. A new Jewish hospital costing
800,000 crowns ($160,000) was founded Oct. 1, 1903,
to commemorate the seventieth birthday of Prof.
Moritz Lazarus.
Title to the old Jewish cemetery was granted

by the city au-

ihJii!/0;i!4//(','//^"^^^;^^^??«^

Interior of the Synagogue on Weclislergasse, Lemberg.

(l'>om " Die Oe.sterrt-irhisch-Un^.iri>cIie Monarchie in Wort und BiUi.")

Institu-
tions.

thorities in 1414,
when several
burials had al-
ready been
made, as indi-
cated by a tomb-
stone, of a youth
named Jacob,
dated 1348, and
by another
tombstone, of
Miriam, or Ma-
rysia, daughter
of Samuel, dated
1880 (Tammuz
2d). This ceme-
tery is sur-
rounded by a
stone wall, with
Karaite graves
close to the wall.
The second
cemetery was
opened in 1856.
Lemberg has
seven Jewish
printing estab-
lishments, the
first dating from
1611. During
the eighteenth
century it was
the principal
Austrian center
for Hebrew pub-
lications. Since
the removal of
censorship in
1848 the print-
ing of Jewish
works has great-
ly increased. As
a commercial
and industrial

center Lemberg is even more important than Cracow.

Next to tiie Germans, the Jews control the greatest

amount of business.

The following is a list of the rabbis of Lemberg:

Levi b. Jacob Kikenes (d. 1.50:3 : it is douhtful if he was
ever olllciiil rabbi); Kalman of Worms (teacher of Isserles;
rabbi from l.')18 to b'Rid); Asher b. Isaac Kohen (rt. 1.t82);
Eliezer (son-in-law of Kalman of Worms : d. 15it()): Moses b.
Mordecai Ashkenazi (d. lti(Xl); Jacob Koppel b. Asher
ha-Kohen (d. Kaoi; Mordecai Zebi-Hirsch Ashke-
nazi (d. Iti3«); Joshua-Hbschel Falk ^. Joseph (author
of " MaginneShelomoh" and " I'ene Vehoshua"" : d. in Cracow

Liexnberg'
Leuchitza

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

680

1648)- Meshullam Salzburg b, Abraham Ashkenazi
(d. 1645); Joseph b. Eliakim Qoetz (d. 1652); David b.
Samuel ha-Levi (d.l667; author of "TureZahab");Hirsch
Klausner (rabbi in the city); Judah b. Jacob of Lublin
(rabbi outside tlie city ; d. 1697); Elijah b. Abraham Kal-
mankes of Lublin (d. 1636, while delivering a lecture on the
Sabbath preceding Passover); Solomon b. Isaac ha-Levi (d.
1638)- Meir b. Abraham Sack (d. 1654); Naphtali Herz
b. Judah Selki of Cracow (d. 1669); Zebi Hirsch b.
Zechariah Mendel Klausner (d. 1691 in Lublin); Moses
Phinehas b. Israel Harif (d. 1702); Joel b. Isaac (Ei-
sik) Heilprin (d. 1710);' Zebi Hirsch b. Jacob Ashke-
nazi (the-'Hakam Zebi"; d. 1718); Simhah b. Nahman
ha-Kohen Bapopbrt of Lublin (d. 1718); Moses Hay-
yim Lemberger (d. 1725); Jacob Joshua b. Zebi
Hirsch (till 1731; d. 1756 in Berlin); Judah Lob Oettin-
gerb. Eliezer ha-Levi (d.l739); AryehLbbb. Saul of
Cracow (d. 1771); Hayyim ha-Kohen Rapoport b.
Simhah (d. 1741); Solomon b. Moses Chelma (author of
"Merkebet ha-Mishnah " ; d. 1785 in Jerusalem); Meir b.
Zebi Hirsch Margolioth (author of " Meir Netebiin " ;
d. 1790); Abraham b. Jacob Koppel (d. 1828); Jacob
Meshullam Ornstein (author of "Yeshu'ot Ya'akob"; d.
1839); Simhah Nathan Ellenberg ; Joseph Saul Na-
thansohn' (author of " Shoel u-Meshib," responsa; d. 1875);
Isaac Aaron Ettinger (author of a collection of responsa;
d. 1891); Zebi Hirsch Ornstein (d. 1898).

The present rabbis are Isaac Schmelkes and Dr.

Caro.

Among the writers whose names are associated
with Lemberg are :

Joshua Falk ha-Kohen (Katz) b. Alexander (author
of "Sefer Me'irat 'Enayim " ; d. 1614); Abraham Schrenzel
ha-Kohen Rapoport (author of " Et«n ha-Ezrahi " ; d.
1651); Isaac Hay yot b. Jacob (author of "Zerd'Yizhak");
Abraham Hayyim b. Naphtali Schorr (author of
"Torat Hayyim"; d. 1632); Abraham b. Moses Heilbron
Ashkenazi (author of "Ahabat Ziyyon" ; d. 1649); Meirb.
Samuel Te'omim (author of "Birkat Yosef "); Joseph b.
Meir Te'omim (author of " Peri Megadim "): Samuel So-
lar (author of " Shem me-Shemuel"); Zebi Hirsch Rosa-
nus (author of "Tesha' Shittot"); Meshullam b. Joel
Kohen (author of "PitheNiddah"); Isaac b. Zebi Ash-
kenazi (author of " Torat ha-Kodesh ") ; Abraham Mendel
Mohr (author of " Shebile '01am ") .

The present (1904) president of the Cultus Ge-
meinde is S. von Horowitz.

Bibliography: Ezekiel Caro, Gcsch. d. Jiuien in Lewhetv
(up to 1792), Cracow, 1894; Schiitz, Mazzebet Kodesh, Lem-
berg, 1860; Dembitzer, Kelilat Yon, Cracow, 1888; Mohr,
Shebile 'Olaw, 1880, p. Ill; Vnskhod, 1895, x. 7; Buber,
Anshe Shem, Cracow, 1895.
H. R. J. D- E.

Following is a summary of the provisions of the
regulation of 1569:

The waywode must appoint, as his representative
for the administration of Jewish affairs, none but
an estated Polish nobleman.

The Jewish books or records must be kept in the
Jewish prayer-house, or synagogue, encased, and
under lock and key.

If the judge [a Polish nobleman] having the books
in liis possession inserts therein any records or reg-
ulations whatsoever without the consent of the Jew-
ish elders, such records or regulations .shall be void.

The judge has no right to appoint, without tlie
consent of the Jewish elders, a secretary for the
keeping of the Jewish books.

The Jewish elders shall be elected by the members
of the community only. The election of the elders
must be approved by tlie waywode.

The waywode shall not impose upon a Jew a fine
greater than three ten-copeck pieces; the judge re-
ceives as hi3 fee from the offender one pound of
pepper, in compliance with the prescriptions of the

royal statute [«.«., the privileges of Boleslav of Ka-
lisz]. These fines, moreover, must be in conformity
with the law, and must be imposed by the judge in
conjunction with the Jewish elders.

The Jewish synagogue can not be clo-sed nor its
property attached otherwise than by special im-
perial order.

The right is left to the Jews to kill their cattle
and sell them to Christians and to any others as
they will, in compliance Avith the customs practised
among other Jews, as those of Cracow, Posen, and
Lublin.

The Jewish elders have the right to punish Jews by
excommunication or otherwise, in compliance with
their Law, and none shall hinder them in so doing. ^

The waywode has no right to appoint any rabbi
other than the one elected to the office by the Jews
themselves.

The judge appointed by the waywode has no right
to make any decree except in conjunction with the
Jewish elders. The elders shall be tried only by the
waywode or by the judge appointed by him, and
may then appeal to the tribunal of the king himself;
summoned otherwise, they are not obliged to re-
spond, and may treat such a summons as unauthori-
tative.
Bibliography: Bershadski, in Vnskhnd, Sept., 1895, pp. 7-9.

n. R. A. S. W.

liEMBERGEB, JUDAH LOB : Judaeo-Ger-
man author of the seventeenth century. He was
probably the son of the publisher Abraham Lem-
berger of Prague. Judah Lob Lemberger was the
author of a work in Judfco-German, entitled "Ein
Hubsch G5ttlich Biichel " (Prague, n.d.), a selec-
tion of moral sayings from the Talmud and other
rabbinical works, with an appendix, " Hibbut ha-
Keber," on the sufferings of the dead in the grave.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1337; idem, in
Ser-apeum, 1848, pp. 324, 333.
Q A. b. W.

LEMBERGER JtJDISCHE ZEITUNG. See

Periodicals.

LEMMLEIN (LAMMLIN) , ASHER : Pre-
tended forerunner of the Messiah. He appeared in
Istria. near Venice, in 1502, and announced the com-
ing of the Messiah in that very year, provided the
Jews showed repentance and practised charity.
Having gained many adherents in Italy, Lemmlein
traveled through Austria and Germany, receiving
there both sympathy and credence. Even Christians
are said to have believed in his Messianic prophecy.
The chronicler Ganz relates that his grandfather des-
troyed an oven destined for the baking of unleav-
ened bread, firmly believing that at the next Pass-
over he would be with the Messiah in Palestine.
There were much fasting, much praying, and much
distribution of alms wherever Lemmlein passed, so
that the vear of his propaganda was called the year
of penitence. But he suddenly disappeared; and
the agitation came to an end.

Bibliography: Ganz, Zemah Dawid, ed. Frankfort, 1692, p.
43a: Joseph ha-Kohen, Dibrc ha-Yamim, ed. Amsterdam, p.
.53b ; Gratz, Ge.sc/i. ix. 342 and note 3.
G. I- ^^

LEMON, HARTOG (called in contemporary
Hebrew works Hirz b. Hirsch Wiener or Hirz

681

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Liembergr
Lienchltza

liCvi Rofe) : Dutch plnsician and worker i'or tlie
«inaucipatiou of the Jews; buru about the middle ol
the eigliteenth ceuturj ; died at an advanced age at
Amsterdam Dec. 5, 1823. On tlie comi)letion of Ids
medical studies he Avas appointed physician for the
poor by the parnasim of the Ashkenazic community
of Amsterdam (1788). When the French took pos-
session of Holland (1795), Lemon became one of the
leader.s of the Felix Libertate Society, which
aimed at winning civic equality for the Jews (see
A.MSTERD.\M). The parnasim, who did not approve
of this movement, dismissed him from his office
(April, 1795). Lemon, however, continued his ef-
forts to procure the emancipation of the Dutch
Jews; and he interested himself also in the organ-
ization of a new Jewish community at Am.sterdam.
He was successful in both directions: tlie Jews of
Holland were emancipated on Sept. 2, 1796; and on
June 23, 1797, Lemon as president dehvered the in-
augural address of the synagogue of the new con-
gregation Adath Jeschurun (published Amsterdam,
1797). On Aug. 1, 1797, Lemon, together with S.
Bromet, w^as elected a member of the parliament
C'Nationale Conventie"). The Adath Jeschurun
also sent him, together with two other members, as
delegate to the Great Sanhedrin at Paris, where he
delivered two discourses ("Bijdragen Betrekkeiijk
de Verbetering van den Maatschappelijken Staat der
Joden," parti., pp. 471-472, 513-515^ The Hague,
1806-7).

When in 1808 tlie two congregations were re-
united, Lemon was a member of the Opper Consis-
torie der Hollandsche-Hoogduitsche Israelietsche
Geraeenten in Holland.

Accused of participating in a conspiracy against the
French government, Lemon was suddenly arrested
during the night of Feb. 12-13, 1813, and sentenced
to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 500 francs,
with costs. He was taken first to tlie state prison
at Ham (France), and then to Amiens, and was not
liberated until April 6, 1814. On his return to Hol-
land he wrote a defense, under the title "Jets Over
de Nooit Plaats Gehad Hebbende Zamenzwering te
Amsterdam in Februari, 1813" (Amsterdam, 1815).
Lemon was a physician of repute. His two
works, " Voorschrif t ter Genezinge van de Tusschon-
Poozende of Zoogenaamde Koude Koortsen door
Middel van Tourniquets" (ib. 1808), and "Proeve
eener Beknopte en Letterkundige Geschiedenis van
het Stelsel van Brown " (ib. 1811), testify to his scien-
tific attainments. Among his other literary works
may be mentioned a Dutch translation of the Ger-
man tragedy "Bella" (I'b. 1789).

One of Lemon's daughters was married to J. Litt-
wak, a well-known Jewish mathematician of Am-
sterdam, who also took part in the struggle for eman-
cipation.

o- S. Se.

LEMOS, HENRIETTE DE.

RIETTE.

See Herz, Hen-

LEMT7EL: A king mentioned in the superscrip-
tion to Prov. xxxi., whicli is addressed to liim by
his mother. Various theories have been proposed
in explanation of thesuperscrijition. Cheyne reads
"Jerahmeel." Others {e.g., Wildeboer) join the

phrase " Lemuel the king " with the following word,
"massa" (A. V., following the Masoretic punctua-
tion, "prophecy"), which they take as a proper
name, and read "King of Massa," an Ishmaelite
people (Gen. xxv. 14). Toy ("Proverbs," p. .539)
rejects this together with any symbolical interpreta-
tion. The word " Lemuel." like " Lael," means " God-
ward " (comp. Gray, "Hebrew Proper Names," p.
207, s.v. "Nemuel").

E. o. H. E. I. N.

LENCHITZA (Polish, Leczyca): District

town in the government of Kalisz, Kussian Poland.
On April 20. 1G39, members of its Jewish community
were accused of ritual nuirder, owing to the disap-
pearance of a Christian child, aged one and one-half
years, from theneighboring village of Kamashitza,
and the subsequent discovery, in the adjacent
woods, of its body covered with many wounds.
Suspicion fell on a local tramp, Foma, who, wlien
arrested and questioned, confessed to having ab-
ducted the child at the instigation of the Jews of
Lenchitza. The ancient right of appeal to the king
being ignored, the case was tried by the local au-
thorities, who were openly prejudiced against the
Jews. Many members of the community were placed
on the rack; and two of them, Lazar and Maier,
were quartered. The monks in the local Bernardine
monastery made use of the incident to infiame pop-
ular hatred against the Jews. They placed the re-
mains of the supposedly martyred child in the
cathedral, together with a painting and a detailed
description of the murder. The superstitious Cath-
olic masses made pilgrimages to the relics of the
supposed saint; and the income of the Bernardine
monastery was thereby greatly augmented. In
commenting on the frequent charges of ritual mur-
der against the Jews shortly before the Cossack up-
risings, Bershadski says: "Such was the condition
of the Jews on the eve of tlie Cossack and Shlyakhta
wars. Abandoned by the kings and the Shlyakhta,
and in constant warfare with the clergy, they were
helpless in dealing with the accusations of ritual
murder. Such accusations were, moreover, easily
spread. When a child left alone had disappeared,
and its body had been found covered with wounds
several days or a week later in the woods, it was
immediately concluded that the members of the
nearest Jewish community were guilty of the mur-
der. They were formally charged with it; legal
proceedings were instituted ; and the rack invan-
ablj' showed the guilty one! "

Among the prominent rabbis born at Lenchitza
should be mentioned Rabbi Ephraim, author of
"'Olelot Efrayim," who died in 1619.

The Jewish communitv of Lenchitza suffered se-
verely at the hands of the Polish general Czarni-
ECKi, 300 of their number perishing by the sword.
In 1710 seven Jews were burned at the stake under
the accusation of stealing consecrated bread and of
practising the magic arts.

At the present time (1904) the Lenchitza Jews
number about 2,000 in a total population of 9,044.

Bibliography: S. Bershadski, Sn<ri/inoe SredMvn, in Vns-
khi)d. 1894, X.; Dubnow, Mori C/ies/cij/a Soobshcheniua, ib.
1895, ii.
H. R. J. G. L.

Leng^feld
Lieou

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

682

LENGFELD, FELIX: American chemist;
born at San Francisco Feb. 18, 1863; educated at
the San Francisco College of Pharmacy, the Univer-
sity of California, Johns Hopkins University, and
at Zurich, Liege, Munich, and Paris. Lengfeld has
been fellow of Johns Hopkins University (1887-88),
professor of chemistry in the South Dakota School
of 3Iines (1890-91), instructor in chemistry at the
University of California (1891-92), and docent-iu-
structor and assistant professor in chemistiy at the
University of Chicago (1892-1901). He is the author
of "Laboratory Manual of Inorganic Preparations,"
and has contributed numerous articles to American
and foreign journals of science.

A. I. G. D.

LENTILS (Hebr. " 'adashim"; Arabic " 'adas"):
Edible seeds tirst mentioned in the Old Testament in
Gen. XXV. 29-3-1, where it is related that Jacob gave
Esau " bread and pottage of lentils " for his birth-
right. Lentils were also among the provisions
brought by Barzillai to David when the latter was in
exile (II Sam. xvii. 28); and they seem to have been,
as at present in Palestine and in other countries, a
common article of food (comp. ib. xxiii. 11). From
Ezek. iv. 9 it appears that in times of scarcity len-
tils, ground and mixed with other ingredients, were
made into bread, a practise still in vogue in modern
Egypt.

According to De Candolle ("Origin of Plants," p.
257), the lentil (Ervuni Lens) was probably a native
of western Asia. In some parts of Palestine it is
still the predominant crop. Of the several varieties
the red lentil (comp. Gen. xxv. 30) is considered the
best. The lentil held a high place also among the
ancient Egyptians, and the variety of Pelusium was
especially celebrated (comp. Vergil, "Georgics," 1.
228; Pliny, " Historia Naturalis," xvi. 201).

In Talmudic times lentils seem to liave been one
of the staple foods of Palestine. Thus in Pes. 3b
lentils as human food are contrasted with barley as
food for cattle (comp. Shab. 76b). In Bezah 14b
thej' are even referred to as a feast-day dish in the
Louse of Gamaliel. The Egj-ptian lentil is pointed
out as being of medium .size, and as the measure
of a particle from a "creeping thing" ("sherez")
to cause uncleanliness (Kelim xvii. 8; comp. Ma'as.
V. 8). In connection Avith Gen. xxv. it is said (B.
B. 16b; comp. Gen. R. Ixiii. 1-1) that lentils form a
suitable dish for mourners because they liave no
"mouth" (i.e., "slit"), like the mourner who in his
anguisii is struck dumb, and by their round form
they sj-mbolize the going around of trouble and lo.ss
in this world.

Bibliography: Tristram, Xat. Hist. p. 461, London, 1867.
s. s. I. M. C.

LEO: Court physician to Grand Duke Ivan III.
Vassilivicu of Russia; executed at Moscow April
22, 1490. With the arrival at Moscow of the grand
duke's second wife, Sophia Palsologus. niece ot Con-
stantiue, the last Byzantine emperor (1473), active
intercourse began between Russia and western Eu-
rope. In 1490, when the brother of the grand duch-
ess. Prince Andreas of Morea, and the Russian am-
bassador to Rome visited the court of Moscow, they
brought Avith them, besides some artists and me-

chanics, a physician from Venice, named Leo. He
was a Jew by birth, and is mentioned by the Rus-
sian historians as " Mister Leon Zhidovin " (= " the
Jew "). He was probably the first physician from
western Europe to enter Russia.

Leo had to pay for his temerity with his life ; for
he fell a victim to the superstition of the Musco-
vites. Soon after his arrival he had an opportunity
to show his skill. Ivan Ivauovich, the son of the
grand duke, had the gout; Leo, placing too much
faith in his skill, assured the grand duke that he
could effect a cure, and pledged his head in case of
failure. He treated the patient with herbs and dr}'-
cuppings; but the prince became worse, and died
March 7, 1490. At that time the people believed
in the infallibility of medical science, and accordingly
they accused the unsuccessful physician of ill-will.
Leo was arrested, and, after the forty days of
mourning had elapsed, was publicly beheaded at
Bolvanov Place.

Bibi.io(;raphy : Richter, Gcsc/i. iJer Medicin in Rusf:la}uU i-
228-2:3-1: Russknya LMctnpis pn Nikon. Spiskii, vii. 125;
Poliioe Siibra)iie Ru.sskikli Luet(ipit:ei, vi. 239; Vrementioe
yinskiwskne Olislichcsti'o Isti>rii. v. 5; Solovyev, Muriija
R<)ssii,v.Si, 260 (where the author erroneously calls Leo a
German).
H. K. M. R.

LEO III.; LEO TV. See Chazars.

LEO X. (GIOVANNI DE MEDICI) : Two

hundred and twenty-fourth pope; born at Florence
Dec. 11, 1475; elected ]March 11, 1513; died Dec. 1,
1521. His pontiticate Avas \'ery favorable for the
JeAvs in general and for the Jews of Rome in par-
ticular. The latter saAV in the kind treatment they
received at his hands a sign of the arrival of the
Messiah; and so much impressed were they Avith
this idea that the leaders of the Roman community
asked those of Jerusalem if such signs Avere not vis-
ible in the Holy Land. "While still a cardinal, Leo
shoAved his spirit of toleration in bestoAvinghis favor
upon tAvo Jewish musicians, Joan Maria and Jacopo
Sansecondo, especially upon the former, Avho sub-
sequently received from him the title of count.
Like his predecessor, Alexander VI., Leo attached
to his person as physician the JcAvish rab1)i Bonkt
deLates; and De Lates exercised such influence
upon the pope that Reuchlin solicited his interven-
tion in connection Avitli the examination of the
" Augenspiegel." Another Jcav avIio was persona
grata at the papal court Avas Sabbatiano Solomonis,
upon Avliom, in acknoAvledgment of his services,
Leo bestowed a yearlj^ pension of 60 gold ducats.

The JcAvs of Rome Avere not the only beneficiaries
of Leo's generosity. In a bull issued Sept. 8, 1514,
Leo expressed his desire that the rights of the Jcavs
should be respected, and repealed the edict of the
Bishop of Carpentras, Avho had prescribed a special
badge to be worn by the Jcavs of Avignon, Carpen-
tras, and Venaissin. Of still greater importance
Avas the bull of Nov. 1, 1519, in Avliich the pope re-
mitted the JcAvish hearth and banking taxes, granted
amnesty for all offenses cominitt'^d by Jews, con-
firmed all the privileges and advantages granted to
them by his predecessors, and prescribed that a JeAV-
Ish offender should be arraigned before qualified
judges and should be condemned only on evidence
given by trustAvorthy Avitnesses. Leo took a lively

683

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

L.engl'eld
Lieon

interest in Jewish learning. In 1518 lie authorized
the establishment of a Hebrew printing-office in
Rome, and in the same year granted a special privi-
lege for the issuance of a new edition of the Talmud.

Bibliography: Hergenroether, Rcaesta Lcanis X. Romce,
fasc. vii., viii. 8, No. 13,65:2; Burckhardt, Gexcli. der Cultur
dcr Benaisgance. ii. 137 et scq.: Lebanon, v. 40(5 et .seq.:
Kaufmann, in R.E. J. -xxi. 205 ; Griitz, Gcsc/i. ix. 140 ct seq.;
Berliner, Gench. der Juden in Rom, i. 78,83, 103; Vogel-
stein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 33 et seq.

G. I. Br.

LEO HEBR^US (Abravanel, Judah) : Phy-
sician, philosopher, and poet ; born in Lisbon in
the second half of the tifteenth century, and died at
Venice in 1535. He accompanied his father, Isaac
Abravanel, when the latter went to Spain and after-
ward to Naples, and became physician in ordinary to
the Spanish capt&in-general Gonsalvo de Cordova.
Thence he went to Genoa and later to Venice,
where he finally settled. He never abandoned the
faith of his forefathers (B. Zimmels, " Neue Studien,"
Vienna, 1892; E. Carmoly, "Ozar Nehmad," ii. 70;
Steinschneider, "Monatsschrift," xlii. 420). His
most important work, " Dialoghi di Amore " (Dia-
logues of Love) , was written about 1502, and pub-
lished at Rome 1535. Its polished Italian and the
lofty Platonic spirit with which it is imbued made it
very popular. In the space of twenty years it went
through ^ve editions and was translated twice into
French, three times into Spanish, and once into Latin;
later also into Hebrew. Beside this work, he wrote,
at the request of Pico de Mirandola, an astronomical
work, which has remained unpublished, and several
Hebrew poems, which have been embodied in the
works of his father. He wrote also an elegy on
the vicissitudes of the age in which he lived. This
book was quite recently published.

Bibliography: Carmoly. Medccins Jiiifs, pp. 142 et seq.;
Delitzsch, Orient, Lit. 1840, pp. 81 et seq.; Geiger, OzarNech-
mad. ii. 22.5, similarly (iratz, Ge^ich. ix. 7 et seq., 236 et seq.;
. Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1602.
G. M. K.

LEO, LEWIS : Synagogue musician ; born in
London in 1809; died there Sept. 11, 1876; second
son of the Rev. Simon Leo. He was a musician and
composer of much ability, and was the first to ar-
range the various Hebrew chants and melodies for
part-singing (1838), which eventually replaced the
old " bass-and-singer" style. Leo wrote the music
for the inaugural service of the New S3^nagogue,
and for the reconsecration of the Western Syna-
gogue in 1836.

His father, Simon Leo, was hazzau at the Den-
mark Court Synagogue, London. In 1826 he re-
moved with the congregation to St. Alban's Place,
and continued to officiate there. He was succeeded
by his eldest son, Ansell Leo, about 1837. The
latter left England for New York in 1846, where he
held a similar position.

Bibliography: Jew. Chron. Nov. 34, 1876; ib. Nov. 2, 1900.
J. G. L.

LEON : Ancient Spanish kingdom, bounded by
Old Castile, Portugal, and Galicia. The Saracens
ruled here until driven out bj^ the Spaniards, who
founded a kingdom of their own, wiiicli in 1218 was
incorporated with Castile. In this kingdom of Leon,
with its capital of the same name, Jews were living

at an early date, certainly at the end of the tenth
century. They were engaged in cultivating tlie
vine and in various trades. Hebrew bills of sale
dating from the beginning of the eleventh century
have been found at Leon. Before the year 1006 tiie
Abbess of Santiago purchased a vineyard from the
Jew Jayu (Haya). Other Jews of Leon are also
mentioned in this period; e.f/., Ezekiel, Samuel
(1007), Vitas-Hayyim (1008), Jacob (1031), and
Shem-Tob (1049). According to a document pre-
served in the archives of the Cathedral of Leon,
the Infanta D. FroniJda, daughter of D. Pelayo, who
restored Christian supremacy after the invasion of
the Saracens, purchased Nov. 4, 1053, from the Jew
Joseph b. Joab E.scapat for the sum of 50 dineros a
vineyard at Montaurio; and in 1137 Auro Tota,
daughter of Cid Crescent, and her husband, Isaac b.
Moses of Leon, sold one-half of a vineyard situated
in Castrillo de la Ribera. near Leon, to the "canon-
icus " Albertin. In 1151 Pedro Pelasz bought a vine-
yard from Auro, daughter of Cid, and her husband,
Abraham b. Meir Mogusi ("R. E. J." ii. 136, iv.
226).

The earliest Hebrew inscription in Spain was
found at Fuente Castro, the ancient " Castrum Ju-
dfeorum " at Leon ; it came from the tombstone of
Y'ahya, the son of the goldsmith Joseph b. Aziz of
Leon, who died on the 15th of Kislew, 4860 (= Nov.
18, 1100), and is now preserved in the archeological
museum at Leon (Rios, "Estudios," p. 29; ide7n,
"Hist." i. 169; "R. E. J." ii. 135).

The Jews of Leon were assured equal rights with

the Christian inhabitants of the country by the

Cortes assembled at Leon in 1020 as

Rights and well as in the Fuero of 1090; they

Restric- were also permitted to 'take part in
tions. duels; but they were subjected to
special taxes. The Bishop of Leon
received for himself and his clergy 500 sueldos a
year from those taxes. When the Cortes, assembled
at Leon in 1349, proposed that the Jews and Moors
"living in the cities, boroughs, and villages of the
kingdom of Leon" should pay the salaries of the
judges and alcaldes, "because they pronounce sen-
tence for them," the king declared that no taxes in
addition to the special taxes could be imposed upon
the Jews (Cortes de Leon y Castilla, of the year
1349, Pet. ii.). In 1290 the Jews of Leon paid alto-
gether 218,400 maravedis. The most important
"aljamas" of the country were: Leon, MansiUa
(Mansiella) de las Mulas, Mayorga, Sahagun, Pare-
des, Valencia de Don Juan, Rueda, Astorga, Al-
manza, and Carrion de los Condcs. At Leon, where
the Jews, like those at i\Iansilla, were very wealthy,
there lived in the first half of the fourteenth century
D. Abraham Royuelo, who, together with Sara,
widow of Samuel Commineto, and Saul b. Uzziah
of Mansilla, lent money to the knight Pedro Al-
fonso de Boygasof Ruetlaon his estates, which after
his death passed into the possession of the monas-
tery of San Miguel de Escalana. D. Abraham, who
tiien rented from the spendthrift prior of the monas-
tery all the privileges and income of the same for
a period of twenty-five years, in consideration of
5,000 maravedis a year, was ordered bj' the king after
a few years to renounce all his claims. Many Jews

X.eon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

684

at Leon, Mansilla, and other cities succumbed to the
plague in 1348 and 1349. In 1365 King D. Pedro of
Castile obliged the Jews of Leon to contribute to
the municipal taxes, from which they had hitherto
been exempt. The Jews of Leon escaped neither
the persecutions of the year 1391 nor the missionary
sermons of Vicente Ferrer in 1412. The storm
broke out at Benevent, as a dirge says, sweeping
across Leon, Valencia de D. Juan, Astorga, Mayorga,
and Palencia (Introduction to Simeon b. Zemah Du-
ran's "Magen Abot," ed. A. Jellinek, Leipsic, 1855).
King Alfonso VIII. commissioned the Jews of
Mayorga to guard the castle there. Carrion de los
Condes was inhabited chiefly by Jews, who enjoyed
ancient privileges. The Jews of Valencia de D.
Juan erected in 1379 a handsome large

Syna- s^'nagogue in place of a small one,
gogues in thereby incurring the anger and envy

lieon. of the clergy of that city ; the syna-
gogue was in consequence transformed
into a church soon after its completion. The Jews
of Bembibre, a place not far from the city of Ponfer-
rada, had a similar experience. Together with their
coreligionists who lived scattered round about, they
had replaced their old synagogue by a larger and
handsomer building a few years previous to the gen-
eral expulsion. It had just been dedicated when an
abbot of the city forcibly entered it, removed the
Torah rolls, set up a cruciflx, and consecrated the
building as a church. The Jews appealed to the

authorities, who ordered the removal of the crucifix,
and the restitution of the synagogue to its owners.
The abbot, however, insisted that since the building
had been dedicated as a church, it must remain a
church, and he carried the matter to the Bishop of
Cordova, D. Inigo Manrique, formerly Bishop of
Leon and subsequently grand inquisitor. Tiie latter
decided the case in agreement with a bull of Inno-
cent IV., dated April 15, 1250, according to which
the Jews of Leon and Castile were not allowed to
build new synagogues without special permission.
As they had not complied with this condition thej''
had forfeited their property rights ; and the syna-
gogue, having been dedicated as a church, could
not be restored to them. The abbot, however, was
ordered to erect instead a substantial new building,
200 feet (five "tapicas") high, 35 feet long, and 25
feet wide, on a site to be assigned to him by the city,
and to hand it over to the Jews within six months.
This verdict was delivered to the abbot in presence
of the representative of the "aljamas," R. Isaac
Connueto, on May 19, 1490. The synagogue dedi-
cated as a church still exists. Two years later the
Jews of the former kingdom of Leon left the coun-
try. Their movables and real estate, which they
were obliged to sell at any price, fell in part into the
hands of the clergy. See Palencia; Sahagun.

BiBLiocRAPHy : Bnlctin Acad. HM. xxxii. 106 et seq., 116 ct
seq., 132 ; R. E. J. iv. 230. xxxvi. 137 et seq., 140 ct seq.; Rios,
Hist. 1. 174, 180 el seq., 3;U, 546 et seq.; li. 57.
G. M. K.

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Full text of "The Jewish encyclopedia : a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the present day"

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