Full text of "The Jewish encyclopedia : a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the present day"

See other formats

HILLEL LIBRARIES

B'nai B'ritli Women's GranJ LoJge, District No. 4

won CAREFUL -USAGE DF THIS
BDDK \Z;iLL PRESERVE ITS
VALUE FDR THOSE TTHD

FDLLD\z; you

IN HONOR OF

LUCILLE LOWE

DONATED BY

Mr. & I'trs, Roy Paperrnaster

THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF

THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS-
TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE

EARLIEST TIMES

Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD

Cyrus Adler, Ph.D. {Departments of Post-
Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America) .

Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D. {Department
of History from I4g2 to igoi) .

Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D. {Department of
Rabbinical Literature) .

Richard Gottheil, Ph.D. {Departments of
History from Ezra to J4g2 ; History of
Post - Talmudic Literature) .

Joseph Jacobs, B.A {Departments of the
Jews of England and Anthropology ; Revi-
sing Editor) .

Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. {Department of the Talmud).

Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D. {Department of the Bible) .

Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D. {Departments of Theology
and Philosophy) .

Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D. {Chief of the
Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor).

Isidore Singer, Ph.D. {Department of Modern
Biography from ly^o to igoi) .

Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. {Departments of
Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature) .

ISIDORE SINGER. Ph.D.

Profector and Managing Editor

ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS

(see page v)

VOLUME X

PH I LI PSON— SAM OSCZ

KTAV PUBLISHING HOUSE, INC.

N.Y. 2, N.Y.

PRINTED AND BOUND IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

VRt

LITERARY DIRECTORxVTE v./^

EDITORIAL BOARD

CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D.

(Depart merif." of I'oM-llihlUal Antiquities; the Jews of
America.)

President of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Librarian,
Smithsonian Institution, Washin(i:ton, D. C.

GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D.

(Dcpartiuad of Hii^ttiiii fiDin lUiJ-i to 1901.)

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,

Ohio ; Editor of " Deborah."

LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D.

(Department of Rahhinical Literature.)
New Yorlf ; Author of "' Die Haggada bel den Klrchenvatem."

RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

(Departments of Hi~<oru from Ezra to 11*92 ; History of Post-

Talmudic Literature.)

Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New Yorl£;

Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ;

President of the Federation of American Zionists.

JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A.

(Departments of the Jews of EnghDid and Anthropology;
Revising Editor.)

Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England ;
Author of "Jews of Anurevin England," etc.

MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D.

(Department of the Talmud.)
Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel-
phia, Pa. ; Author of " Dictionary of the Talmud."

MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D.

KDepartmeid of the Bihlc.)

Professor of SemUlc Languages and Librarian In the University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of "Relig-
ion of the Babylonians and Assyrians," etc.

KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D.

(Departments of Theology and Philosophy.)

Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York ; President of the Board of
Jewish Ministers, New York.

FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, Ph.D.

(Chief of the Bureau of Trandation; Revising Editor.)

Rabbi of the West End Synagogue, New York ; Vice-President

of Board of Jewish Ministers, New York.

ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.

Ma.xaci.ng Editor.
(Department of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1901.)

CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D.

(Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic

Literature.)

Professor of Hebrew In Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. ;

Author of " The Religion of Israel," " Judaism and

Christianity," etc.

AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim, Dean of the Jewish
Theological Seminary, New York.

B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago ; Author of " A
Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language."

GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-EI, New York.

EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, 111.; Professor of

Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of

Chicago ; Editor of the " Reform Advocate."

HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D.,

Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures,
Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C.

J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto,

Canada; Author of " History, I>rophecy, and

the Monuments."

H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D.,

Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu-
guese), New York ; President of the Advisory Board of
Ministers of the Jewish Theological Seminary.

MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D.,

Professor of Talmudic Literature, Hebrew Union College, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio ; Author of " Introduction to the Talmud."

GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature and President of

Andover Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass.; Author

of a Commentary on the Book of Judges, etc.

DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Bene Israel ; Professor of Homiletics,

Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio ; President of

Hebrew Sabbath School Union of America.

IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literature, University of

Chicago, 111. ; Author of " The Monuments and

the Old Testament," etc.

LITERARY DIRECTORATE

HERMAN ROSENTHAL,

CHIET or TUK ULSSlAN StCTION Or TUK JEWISH ENCTCLO-

P£DIA.

In charve of Slavonic Department, New York Public Library.

JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D.,

President of Ceniral Conference of American Rabbis ; Rabbi of
Temple Emanu-El, New York.

JACOB VOORS ANGER, D.D,,

Rabbi of the Con(?reRatlon Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal. ;
feasor of Semitic Languaj^es and Literatures, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, Cal.

EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A.,

Editor of " The Uterary Digest," New York.

Pro

FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.,

Coedltor of the " Jewish Quarterly Review " ; Author of "Jew-
ish Life In the Middle Ages," etc. ; Senior Tutor
In Jews' College, Loudon, England.

W. BACHER, Ph.D.,

Professor In the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest,
Hungary.

M. BRANN, Ph.D.,

Profcaror Id the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger-
many ; Editor of " Monatsscbrift fur Geschlchte und
Wlssenschaft des Judeuthums."

H. BRODY, Ph.D.,

R&bbU Nachod, Bohemia, Austria ; Coedltor of "Zeltschrift fiir
Hebralsche Bibliographic."

ABRAHAM DANON,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople,

Turkey.

HARTWIG DERENBOTJRG, Ph.D.,

Profeasor of Literary Arabic at the Special School of Oriental
Lanifuages, Paris, France ; Member of the French Institute.

S. M. DUBNOW,

Author of " istoriya Yevreyev," Odessa, Russia.

MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D.,

Principal of Jews' College, London, England; Author of "The

Jewish Religion," etc.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D.,

Professor of s<-mitlc Philology, University of Budapest, Hungary.

M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria.

BARON DAVID GUNZBURG,

St. Petersburg, Russia.

A. HARKAVY, Ph.D.,

Chief of the Hebrew Uepiirtmeut of the Imperial Public Library,
St. Petersburg, Russia.

ZADOC KAHN,

Chief Rabbi of France ; Honorary President of the Alliance

Israelite Unlverselle ; Officer of the Legion

of Honor, Paris, France.

M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D.,

Babbl, Budapest, Hungary ; Corresponding Member of the

Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain.

MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D.,

Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin ; Meran,

A ustria.

ANATOLE LEROY-BEATJLIETJ,

Member of the French Institute : Professor at the Free School

of Political Science, Paris, France ; Author of

" Israel chez les Nations."

ISRAEL LEVI,

Professor In the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of
" Revue des Etudes Julves," Paris, France.

ETJDE LOLLI, D.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Padua ; Professor of Hebrew at the University,
Padua, Italy.

IMMANTJEL LOW, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Szegedln, Hungary ; Author of " Die Aramaischen

Pflanzennamen."

S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D.,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Chief Rabbi of
Florence, Italy.

H. OORT, D.D,,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State
University, Leyden. Holland.

ABBE PIETRO PERREAXT,

Formerly Librarian of the Reale Blblloteca Palatlna, Parma,

Italy.

MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D.,

Formerly Professor of HisUjry at the Universities of Bonn and

Brussels; President of the Deutsch-Judlsche

Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany.

SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D.,

Rabbi In Warsaw, Russia.

SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D.,

Professor of Hebrew, University College, London, England;

Reader in Rabbinic, University of Cambridge;

Author of "Studies In Judaism "

E. SCHWARZFELD, Ph.D.,

Secretary -General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris,

France.

LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D.,

Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor
of " Archlv fiir Geschlchte der Phllosophle," etc.

HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages,
University of Berlin, Germany.

CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D.,

Master of St. John's College, Cambridge, England ; Editor of
" Sayings of the Jewish Fathers," etc.

CONTIUBUTORS TO VOLUME X

A Cyrus Adler, Ph.D.,

I'residfnl of ilif Aiiicricaii Jewisli Historical
Society: I'lvsidciU otitic BoarU of Directors
of the Jewisli Tlieologiciil .Seminary of Amer-
ica ; Assistant Secretary of the Smitlisonian
Institution, Washington, D. C.

A. Bii Alexandei- Buchler, Ph.D.,

Hablii, Kcszlhely, lliintJraiy.

A. Co A. Cowley, M.A.,

oiieiiuil Suhlibrarian, Bodleian Library, O.x-
ford University, Oxford, Encland.

A. E A. Eckstein, Ph.D.,

Uuljbi, I5aml>crK, Bavaria, Germany.

A. F A. Freimann, Ph.D.,

Editoi' of the " Zcitschrift fiir Hebraische
BiblioM:raphie " ; Librarian of the Hebrew De-
partment, Stadtbibliotlick, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, Germany.

A. G Adolf Guttmacher, Ph.D.,

Rabl)i, Baltimore Hebiew ConRregation, Bal-
timore, Md.

A. Go A. Gornfeld,

Counselor at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.

A. Ki Alexander Kisch, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Meysel Syuagoge, Prague, Bohemia,
Austria.

A. M. F Albert M. Friedenberg, B.S., LL.B.,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

A. P A. Porter,

Formerly Associate Editor of "The Forum,"
New York ; Revising Editor "Standard Cyclo-
pedia" ; New York City.

A. Pe A. Peig-insky, Ph.D.,

New York City.

A. S. I Abram S. Isaacs, Ph.D.,

Professor of (icrman Language and Litera-
ture, University Graduate Seminary, New
York City ; Rabbi, B'nai Jeshurun Congrega-
tion, Paterson, N. J.

A. S. W A. S. Waldstein, B.A.,

New York City.

A. Ta Aaron Tanzer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Hohenems, Tyrt)l, Austria.

A. W Albert Wolf,

Dresden, Sa.xony, (iermany.

S. Ei Benzion Eisenstadt,

Teacher, New York City.

B.'Fr Bernhard Friedberg-,

l"rankfoit-on-tlie-Main, Germany.

B. Qr Bernhard Greenfelder,

St. Louis, Mo.

B. P Bernhard Pick, Ph.D., D.D.,

Pastor of St. John's Lutheran Church, New-
ark, N. J.

C. A. R C. A. Rubenstein,

Rabbi, Har Sinai Temple, Baltimore, Md.

C. I. de S... Clarence I. de Sola,

President of the Federation of Canadian Zion-
ists ; Belgian Consul, Montreal, Canada.

C. L Caspar Levias, M.A.,

Instructor in Exegesis and Talmudic Aramaic,
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

C S Carl Sieg-fried, Ph.D., LLi.D. (deceased).

Late Professor of Theology at the University
of Jena. (;erraany.

D Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D.,

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union
College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

D. L David Leimddrfer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Hamburg, Germany.

D. M. H D. M. Hermalin,

Editor of tlu( "Daily Jewish Herald" and
" Volksadvocat," New York City ; Brooklyn,
N". Y.

D. P David Philipson, D.D.,

Rabbi, B'ne Israel Congregation; Professor of
Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincin-
nati, Ohio.

D. Su. David Sulzberg-er,

Philadelphia, Pa.

E. C Executive Committee of the Editorial

Board.

E. G. H EmilG. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Rabbi, Sinai Congregation ; Professor of Rab-
binical Literature and Philosophy, University
of Chicago ; Chicago, 111.

E. J Emil Jelinek,

Vienna. Austria.

E. K Eduard Kbnig', Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of old Testament Exegesis, Univer-
sity of Bonn, (ienuany.

E. M. E Ezekiel Moses Ezekiel,

Bombay, India.

E. Ms Edg'ar Mels,

New York City.

E. N Eduard Neumann, Ph.D.,

Chief Itabbi, Nagy-Kanisza, Hungary.

E.N. S Elvira N. Solis,

New York City.

E. So Emil Schlesing-er, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, St. (iallen. Switzerland.

E. Schr E. Schreiber, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Eiiianu-El Congregation, Chicago, III.

E. SI E. Slijper, Ph.D.,

Leydeii, Holland.

F. C Frank Cramer, B.Sc,

New York City.

F. H. V Frank H. Vizetelly, F.S.A.,

Associate Editt)r of the "Columbian Cyclo-
pedia " and of the SrAXDARD Dictionary ;
New Y'ork City.

F. J. B Frederick J. Bliss. Ph.D.,

New Y'ork City.

F. L. C Francis L. Cohen,

Chief Minister, Sydney, N. S. W., Australia.

F. S Flaminio Servl (deceased).

Late Chief Rahbi of Casale Monferrato. Italy ;
Editor of "11 Vessillo Israelitico."

F. T. H Frederick T. Haneman, M.D.,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

G Richard Gottheil, Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia
University, New York; Chief of the Oriental
Department, New York Public Library; New
York City.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME X

G. A. B George A. Barton, Ph.D.,

rrvtt-?s.r vl BU>lii-iil Literaiure and Semitic
LanpuaRvs, Brvn Mawr I oIleKe, Bryn Mawr,
Pa.

G. D. R ...George D. Rosenthal,

l:;if»tni-ul Kiis-'iiiitT. St. l.ouis. Mo.

G. F. M George F. Moore, M.A., D.D.,

Pn>K-ss<ir of l«iblic-al Liit-nitiire and tlie His-
tory of IJt'lifrions, Harvard Iniversity, Caiii-
tirldkr>'. M;iss.

G. H. C G. Herbert Cone,

counselor at Law, .\lbany, N. Y.

G. L Goodman liipkind. B. A.,

Knl'iii. .Ni'W Voik (, iiy.

H. B H. Brody, Ph.D.,

KiiMii ; t'oeditor of the "Zeitschrift fiir He-
braic be Bibliosrraphie"; Naeliod, Bohemia,
.\ustria.

H. F Herbert Friedenwald, Ph.D.,

Fonm-rly siiperimendeiu of tlit' l)epartment of
Manu.vTipts, Library of Coiifiress, Washinsr-
ton, D.C; necordiiigSecrelaryof thf.\iiH'rican
Jcwiish Historical Society. IMiiladelphia, Pa.

H. Fr Harry Friedenwald, M.D.,

I'loffssur of oplitlmlmoluffy and Otology, Col-
lege of I'hysiciaiis aud Surgeons, Baltimore,
Md.

H. G. F H. G. Friedmann, B. A.,

.\fu York City.

H. M Henry Malter, Ph.D.,

Profcs-sor of Talmud and Instructor in Judaeo-
Arabic Philosophy, Hebrew Union College,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

H. M. H Henry Minor Huxley, A.M.,

Formerly .\ssistaiit I'rofessor ol Anthropology
ut Harviinl I'liiversily ; Worcester, Mass.

H. R Herman Rosenthal,

Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New
York Public Library, New York City.

H. S Henrietta Szold,

Secretary of the Publication Committee of the
Jewish Publication Society of America, New
Y'ork City.

H. V Hermann Vog'elstein, Ph.D.,

Itabbi. Kiinig.sberg, East I'russia, Germany.

I. B Isaac Bloch,

( liii-f llabbi, Nancy, France.

I. Be Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D.,

Professor of t )ld 'lestament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Berlin, Germany; Jerusalem, Pal-
estine.

I. Ber Israel Berlin,

ciiemist, .New Y'ork City.

I. Br Isaac Broyde' (Office Editor),

UiK'torof the University of I'aris, France; for-
merly Librarian of the Alliance Israelite Uni-
verselle, Paris, France ; New Y'ork City.

I. Bro I. Brock,

T'-acher, Roga.sen, Posen, Germany.

I. Co Israel Cohen,

l.oiidoii. Eiiglariii.

ID Israel Davidson, Ph.D.,

S'-iniiic .Scholar ancl Author, New York City.

I- E Ismar Elbogren, Ph.D.,

Professor of History at the Lehranstalt fiir
die Wls.sens(haft drs Judenthums, Berlin, Ger-
many.

I- G- D I. George Dobsevage,

New York ( Ity.
I- H Isidore Harris, A.M.,

Kabbi, West Loudon Synagogue, London,

England.
I. L. B I. L. Bril,

As.«ociate Editor of " The American Hebrew,"

New York f itv.

I. Lb ImmanueHibw, Ph.D.,

I bief Kabbi, Szegedin, Hungary.
I. M. C I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D.,

tniied states National Museum, Washington,
11. C.

I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, Ph.D., L.L.D.,

Profes.sor of Seuulic Languages and Litera-
tiM-e, University of Chicago. Chicago, 111.

I. War Isidor Warsa-w,

Kalilil, Woodville. Mi.<s.

J Joseph Jacobs, B.A.,

Formerly President of the Jewish Historical
Society of England ; Corresponding Member
of the lioyal Academy of History, Madrid;
New Y'ork City.

J. Br J. Brennsohn, Ph.D.,

Milau, Courhimi. Iius>ia.

J. D. E Judah David Eisenstein,

Author, New York City.

J. F Julius Frank,

Rabbi, olieb Shalom Reform Congregation,
Ucading, Pa.

J. F. McC.J. Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University
College, Toronto, Canada.

J. F. McL...J. F. McLaughlin, M.A., B. D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages and Litera-
ture, Victoria College, Toronto, Caiuida.

J. G. L, J. G. Lipman, Ph.D.,

.\ssistaiu Agritulturist. New Jersey State Ex-
periment Station, New Brunswick, N. J.

J. Go Julius Gottlieb, M.A., Ph.D.,

New York City.
J. H J. Hessen,

Counselor at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.

J. de H J. de Haas,

Journalist, New Y'ork City.

J. H. G Julius H. Greenstone,

Rabbi. Philadelphia, Pa.

J. H. Ho J. H. Hollander, Ph.D.,

.Assistant Professor of Political Economy,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Md.

J. Ka Jacques Kahrl^

Rabt)i, Paris, France.

J. Leb Joseph Lebovich,

Ilar\ard University, Cambridge, Mass.

J. Li. Li J. Leonard Levy, Ph.D.,

Rabhl, Rodeph Shalom Congregation, Pitts-
burgh, Pa.

J. L. La J. L. Lait,

Joiu-nalist, Chicago, 111.

J. M. M Jonas M. Myers,

Rabiii, i!risi)aiie, Queensland, Australia.

J. Re J. Reach, Ph.D.,

Ualihi. Kaudnitz, Bohemia, Austria.

J. So Joseph Sohn,

Contributor to "The New International En-
cyclopedia " : formerly Musical Critic on the
New Y'ork " American and Journal" ; New
York City.

J. S. R J. S. Raisin,

Rabbi, (ieuiilut Chesed Congregation, Fort
Gibson, Miss.

J. Sto Joseph Stolz, D.D.,

Kabhi, Isaiah Temple, Chicago, 111.

J. Ta Jacob Tauber, Ph.D.,

Kalibi. I'n-iau, Moravia, -Austria.

J. Z. L Jacob Zallel Lauterbach, Ph.D. (Office

Editor),
Rabbi. New York City.

K Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D.,

Rablii Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New
Y'ork ; President of the Hebrew Union Col-
lege, Cincinnati, Ohio.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME X

Vll

L. A. R LiUdwig: A. Rosenthal,

i;;ilil>i, Kni.'ii.st'n, I'l'scii. (iennany.

li. B Liudwig- Blau, Ph.D.,

Professor, Jewish Tlieolopical Seminary ; Edi-
tor of " Magyar Zsidrt Szemle " ; Budapest,
Hunpary.

L. Q Louis Ginzbergr, Ph.D.,

Professor of Talmud, Jewish Theological Sem-
inary of America, New Yorli City.

L,. H. G Louis H. Gray, Ph.D.,

Assistant Kditor of the " Orientali.sche Blbllo-
graphle"; formerly on the editorial staff of
"The New International Encyclopedia";
Newark, N. J.

L. Hii L. Hiihner, A.M., LL.B.,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

L. Lew Louis Lewin, Ph.D.,

Kabbi, Piniie, Posen, (iermany.

L. N. D Lewis N. Dembitz, D.H.L.,

Counselor at Law. Louisville. Ky.

L. V Ludwig- Venetianer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Ujpest, Hungary.

L. Wy L. "Wygrodsky,

Journalist. St. Petersburg, Russia.

M. Bu Moses Buttenwieser, Ph.D.,

Assistant Professor of Exegesis, Hebrew Union
College. Cincinnati, Ohio.

M. Co Max Cohen,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

M. Fr M. Franco,

Principal. Alliance Israelite Universelle
School. Demotica, Rumelia, Turkey.

M. Gr M. Grunwald, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Israelitische Kultus-Gemeinde, Vienna :
Editor of the " Mitteilungen zur Jiidischen
Volkskunde" ; Vienna, Austria..

M. H. H M. H. Harris, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Temple Israel of Harlem, New York
City.

M. J. K Max J. Kohler, M.A., LL.B.,

Counselor at Law ; Corresponding Secretary
of the American Jewish Historical Society,
New York City.

M. K Meyer Kay serling-, Ph.D.,

i;abbi. Budapest, Huntrary.

M. Lan Max Landsberg, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Berith Kodesh Congregation, Roches-
ter, N. Y.

M. L. B Moses Lob Bamberger, Ph.D.,

Uabbi ; Lecturer in Rabbinic, Jewish Semi-
nary, Wurzburg, Bayaria, Germany.

M. Lib Morris Liber,

Kabbi. Paris, France.
M. Mr M. Margrel, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Pozega, blavonia, Austria.
M. My M. Mysh,

Counselor at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.
M. R Max Rosenthal, M.D.,

Visiting Physician, German Dispensary, New

York City.

M. So Max Schloessinger, Ph.D. ,

Librarian ami Lecturer on Biblical Exegesis,
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

M. Sch M. Schorr, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Leiiibcrp, Galicia, Austria.

M. Schl Max Schlesinger, Ph.D.,

Ratibi, Beth Emeth Congregation, Albany,
N. Y.

M. Sel Max Selig-sohn (Office Editor),

Doctor of the University of Paris, France;
New York City.

M. Sz Moritz Schwarz, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi, Raab, Hungary.

M. W. M Mary W. Montg-omery, Ph.D.,

New York ( ity.

P. Wi Peter Wiernik,

Journalist, New York City.

R. H. K Rosa H. Knorr,

New Y'ork City.

R. Ka. R. Kalter, Ph.D. ,

Rabbi, Potsdam, Prussia. Germany.

R. N Regina Neisser,

Author, Hreslau. Silesia, Germany.

R. P Rosalie Perles,

Author, Konlgsberg, East Prussia, Germany.

S Isidore Singer, Ph.D.,

Managing Editor. New York City.

S. F S. Funk, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Boskowitz, Moravia, Austria.

S. Fu Samuel Fuchs, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi, Luxemburg. Luxemburg.

S. G S. Gundelfinger. Ph.D.,

Darmstadt, (iermany.

S. H. L Sylvan H. Lauchheimer,

Counselor at Law, New York City,

S. Hu S. Hurwitz,

New York City.

S. J. L S. J. Levinson,

Brooklyn, N. T.

S. K S.Kahn,

Rabbi, Nimes, France.

S. Kr Samuel Krauss, Ph.D.,

Professor, Normal College, Budapest, Hungary.

S. M S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D. ,

Rabbi. Temple of Israel, Wilmington, N. C.

S. Man S. Mannheimer, B.L.,

Instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

S. O Schulim Ochser, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, New Y'ork City.

S. S Solomon Schechter, M.A.. Litt.D., "

President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary of America, New York City.

T Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D..

Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University,
Cambridge. Mass.

U. C Umberto Cassuto,

Editor of " La Rivista Israelitica," Florence,
Italy.

v. E Victor Rousseau Emanuel,

Laurel, Md.

■y. R Vasili Rosenthal,

Krenientchug, Russia.

"W. B Wilhelm Bacher, Ph.D.,

Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Buda-
pest, Hungary.

W. M. M....W. Max Miiller, Ph.D.,

Professor of Bible E.xegesis, Reformed Episco-
pal Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa.

W. N Wilhelm Nowack, Ph.D.,

Professor of old Testament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Slrasburg, Germany.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME X

N. B. — la the following list subjects likely to be sought for under varioiis headings are repeated
under each heading. Cross-references in this list are to oilier items in the list, not to articles in
the Encyclopedia.

PAGE

Altneuschule, Exterior and Interior Views of the, at Prague 156-158

America: see Kichmond.

Amsterdam, Interior of a Synagogue at. From an etching by Rembrandt 374

Purim Ceremonies in the Synagogue at, 1731 jj^rtie between 280-281

Arch of Octavian, the Entrance to the Old Ghetto at Rome 449

Archeology: see Coins; Inscription; PiERi.EONr; Pottery; Prague; Rachel; Rome.
Architecture: see Prague; Rasiii Chapel ; Rome; Rothschild "Stammhaus"; Synagogues.

Ark of the Law in the Castilian Synagogue at Rome 452

in the Syuagoga dos Templos at Rome 454

in the Synagogue at Konigliche Weinberge, near Prague 160

Arms of the Rapoport Family 320

Art: see Archeology; Architecture; Chairs; Phylacteries; Prague; Pulpit; Purim; Rings;

Typography.
Austria : see Prague.

Baer, Seligman, Page from the Siddur Edited by, Rodelheim, 1868 177

Bassevi House, Court of the, Prague 161

Betrothal Rings 428, 429

Bible, Hebrew, Page from the, Printed at Riva di Treuto, 1561 432

see also Plan.

Marriage Rings 428, 429

Midrash Tehillim, Title-Page from, Prague, 1613 249

Music : " Rahem na ' Alaw " 810

Musical Instruments : see Pipes.

Naples, Censored Page from Hebrew Psalms with Klmhi's Commentary, Printed in 1487 at 247

New York, Title-Page from Isaac Pinto's Translation of the Prayer-Book, Printed in 1766 at 55

Octavian, Arch of, the Entrance to the Old Ghetto at Rome 449

Pale of Settlement, Map of Western Russia Showing the Jewish 531

Palestine, Map Showing the Road System of 435

see also Pottery; Safed ; Samaria; Samaritans.

PJiillips, Henry Mayer, American Lawyer and Politician 4

Jonas, American Revolutionary Patriot 4

Pliylacteries and Bags 21, 22, 25, 26

and Tlieir Arrangement on Head and Arm 24

Picart, Bernard, Title-Page from the " Tikkun Soferim," Designed by 29

Pierleoni, Tomb of, in the Cloisters of St. Paul, Rome 33

Pinsker, Lev, Russian Physician 52

Pinto, Isaac, TitlePage from His Translation of the Prayer-Book, Printed at New York, 1766 55

Pipes in Use in Palestine 57

Pisa, Old Tombstones from the .Jewi.sh Cemetery at 61

Pithom-Heroopolis, Map of 63

Plagues, Tlio Ten, According to a Passover Haggadah of 1695 71

Plan of the City of Prague in 1649, Showing Position of Jewish Quarter 153

of the Ghetto at Rome, 1640 447

Platea Judaea of the Old Ghetto at Rome 448

Poltava, Russia, Synagogue at 119

Ponte, Lorenzo da, Italian-American Man of Letters 124

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME X

Portraits: sec

run. I. IPS, Hf.xkv Mavkk.
I'Hii.i.ii's, Jonas.

PINSKKR, LK\ .
I'ONTE, LORK.NZO DA.
I'OSSART, ER.NST V0.\.

Haiibinovicz, Raphaki..
Hahinovicii, Osip.
Hakinowitz, HiKscii.

RAPOPORT, SOLO.MON LOb.

UKfUiio, Isaac Samiki..
Ukikma.n. .Iacoh.

IlKI.A.Nl), ADRIAN.

IliCARDo, David.
Kick, Abraham.

RiKSSKR, (iAHRIKl,.

RoTiisciiii.D, Baron Alphonsk.

ROTH.SCllII.D, Haron Ja.mks.
RoTHSfiiiLD, Baron Lionkl Nathan.

ROTHSCIIll.D. MaYKR AMSCHEL.

HoTnscHii.D, Nathan Maykr.
Rothschild, Nathamki., Lord.
Rubinstein, Anton.
Sachs, Michael.
Sachs, senior.
Ralant, Sa.MI'EL.
Salomon, Go'tthold.
Salo.mons, Sir Uavid.

PAGE

Portsmouth, England, Interior of Synagogue at 135

Possart, Ernst vou, German Actor and Author 146

Pottery Discovered in Palestine 148, 149

Prague, Altneusclniie at, E.xterior and Interior Views of the 106-158

Court of the Bassevi Hou.se at 161

Exodus of Jews from, 174."i 155

Gild-Cup of the Jewi.sh Shoemakers of, Eighteenth Century 156

Interior of the Synagogue at Koiiigliche Weiuberge, near 160

Jewish Butcher of, Eighteenth Century 156

Jewish Cemetery on Josefstrasse 162

Plan of the City of, in 1649, Showing Position of Jcswisli Quarter 153

Procession of Jews of, in Honor of the Birthday of Archduke Leopold, i\Iay 17, 1716 154

Purim Players at. Early Eighteenth Century 276

TJabbiner Gassc 162

Shames Gasse 163

Tombstones in tlie Old Jewish Cemetery at 165

Wechsler Gasse Synagogue 159

Typography : Page from the First Illustrated Printed Haggadah, 1526 167

Title-Page from Midrash Tchillim, 1613 249

Prayer-Book : Colophon Page of the Siddur Rab Amram, Written in 1506 at Trani 173

Illuminated First Page of a Siddur, Written by Abraham Farissol. Ferrara, 1528 175

Karaite Siddur, Budapest, 1903 179

Page from the Baer Siddur, Rodelheim, 1868 177

— Title-Page from Isaac Pinto's Translation of the, New York, 1766 55

Presburg, Host Desecration at, 1591 188

Visit of King Ferdinand to a Jewish School at, 1830 189

Printer's Mark of Abraham Usciue, Ferrara 202

of Antonio Giustiano, Venice 202

of the Bragadini, Venice 202

of Cavalli, Venice 203

of Gad ben Isaac Foa, Venice 203

of Gersonides, Prague 203

of Isaac ben Aarcm of Prossuitz, Cracow 200. 202

of Jacob ]\[ercuria, Riva di Trento 202

of Judah Lob ben Moses, Prague 203

■ of Meir ben Jacob Firenze 203

■ of Mo.ses and Mordecal Kohen 203

of Paul Fagius, Isny 202

of Solomon Proops, Amsterdam 203

of Soncino, Rimini 202

of Tobiali Foa, Sabbionetta 203

of Zalman, Amsterdam 203

Procession of Jews of Prague in Honor of the Birthday of Archduke Leopold, May 17, 1710 154

Proops, Solomon, of Amsterdam, Printer's ^laik of . . . 203

P.salms, Censored Page from Hebrew, with Kind.ii's Commentary, Naples, 1487 247

Page from Polyglot, Genoa, 1516 243

Title-Page from Midrash to, Prague, 1613 249

Pulpit from a Synagogue at Modena, Early Si.xteenth Century. 268

Interior of Synagogue Sliowiiig the. From a fourteenth-century manuscript 267

xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME X

PAGE

Piiiim CiTfinonies in tlit- Syiuigogiie at AiiiMeiilani, 1781 plate betireen 28U-281

Hmnau Klopfei-s " Used by Jewisli ( 'liildren of Russia tm 276

Observance of. in a German Synagoirue of the EigliteenUi Century 277

Players. From Leusdeu. 1657 276

at Praeuc Early Eighteenth Century 376

Queensland : sec Hhimiank.

Rabbiner Gasse, Pmgue 162

Rabliinovicz, Raphael. Talniudical Scholar 298

Rabinovich, Osip. I{ussian Author and Journalist 301

Rabinowitz, Hirsch, Russian Scientist and Publicist 303

Rachel. Traditi.nial Tomb of 306

-Rahem na Alaw." Mu.sic of 310

Rapoport Family, Arms of 320

Solomon LOb, Austrian Rabbi antl Scholar 322

Rashi, Colophon of the First Edition of the Commentary on the Pentateuch by, the First Dated Hebrew

Book, 1475 329

Chapel at Worms 324

Chair in the 327

Cross-Section of the 326

Interior of the 325

Ratisbon, Interior of the Old Synagogue at 330

Raziel. Sepher, Page from the, Amsterdam, 1701 336

Reggio, Colophon Page from the First Edition of Rashi on tlie Pentateuch, the First Dated Hebrew-
Book, Printed in 1475 at 339

Isaac Samuel, Austro-Italian Scholar and Rabbi 360

Reifman, Jacob, Russian Hebrew Author 366

Reland, Adrian, Dutch Christian Hebraist. ... 369

Rembrandt, Interior of a Synagogue at Amsterdam, from an Etching by 374

Jewish Beggar, from an Etching by 371

Portraits of Seventeenth-Century Jews, Painted by 372, 373, and Frontispiece

Ricardo, David, English Political Economist 402

Rice, Abraham, American Rabbi 405

Richmond. Va., Synagogue at 407

Riesser, Gabriel, German Advocate of Jewish Emancipation 410

Riga, Russia, Synagogue at 417

Rings, Jewish Betrothal and Marriage 428, 429

Riva di Trento, Page from Hebrew Bible Printed in 1561 at 433

Road System of Palestine, Map of the 485

Rodenberg, Julius, German Poet and Author 439

Rome, Arch of Octavian, the Entrance to the Old Ghetto at 449

Ark of the Law in the Synagoga dos Templos at 454

Arks of the Law in the Castilian Synagogue at 452

Chair of Elijah in a Si'nagogue at 458

Entrance to the Ancient Catacombs at 447

Entrance to the Ghetto at, About 1850 462

Exterior and Interior Views of the New Synagogue at 464, 465

" Five Synagogues " of the Old Ghetto at 451

Nook in the Old Ghetto at 460

Plan of the Ghetto at, 1640 446

Platea Juda-a of the Old Ghetto at 448

Rabbis' Chairs in Synagogues at 456, 457

Rua Via in, Showing Entrance to the Old Talmud Torah 461

Tomb of Pierleoni in the Cloisters of St. Paul at 33

Rothschild, Baron Alphonse, Present Head of the French House 498

Baron James, Founder of the French House 501

Baron Lionel Nathan, Financier and First Jewish Member of English Parliament 501

Mayer Amschel, Founder of the Roth.schild Family 490

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME X xiii

PAGE

Uotlischild, Nathan Mayer, Fouudcr of the English House 494

" A PillMi- of the Exchange. " From an old print 496

Nathaniel, Lord, Present Head of English House 503

" Staninihaus, " Frankforl-ou-the-Main 490

Rubinstein, Anton, l{ussian Pianist and Composer 507

Russia, Map of Western, Showing the Jewisli Pale of Settlement 531

Polish Coins of the Middle Ages, with Hebrew Characters 562, 563

see also Poltava ; Rkja ; Saint Pktkhsiuim;.

Sabbath, Device for Keeping Water and Food Warm on 594

Eve Ceremonies in a German Jewish Home of the Eighteenth Century 593

Light, Candlestick Used in Blessing tlie .591

Sachs, Michael, German Rabbi 613

Senior, Russian Hebraist 614

Sacrifice, Samaritan Place of 673

Safed, View of the Jewish Quarter at 634

Saint Petersburg, Russia, Synagogue at 641

Views of the Old and Modern Cemeteries at 643, 645

Salant, Samuel, Jerusalem Rabbi 647

Salomon, Gotthold, German Rabbi 653

Salomons, Sir David, English Politician and Communal Worker 656

Salonica, Group of Jews of 658

Scene in the Old Jewish Quarter at 657

Samarcand, High Street in Old, Showing the Ghetto 667

Jewess of 668

Samaria, View of, from the Southeast 669

Samaritan Characters, Ancient Inscription in 670

Place of Sacrifice 673

Samaritans at Prayer 674

Groups of 672, 678

Shames Gasse, Prague 163

Siddur: see Prayer-Book.

Solomon, So-Called Coin of 203

Soncino, Printer's Mark of 203

Synagogues: see Amsterdam; Brisbane; Poltava; Portsmouth; Prague; Richmond; Riga;

Rome; Saint Petersburg.
see also Pulpit ; Purim ; Rashi Chapel.

TefiUin and Bags 21--36

Title-Page from Isaac Pinto's Translation of the Prayer-Book, New York, 1766 55

from Midrash Tehillira, Prague, 1613 249

from the "Tikkun Soferim," Designed by Bernard Picart 29

Tomb of Pierleoni in the Cloisters of St. Paul, Rome 33

of Rachel, Traditional 306

Tombstones from the Old Jewish Cemetery at Pisa 61

from the Old Jewish Cemetery at Prague 165

Types: see Salonica; Samarcand; Samaritans.

Typography: see Genoa; Naples; New York; Picart: Prague; Printer's Mark; Raztel; Reggio.

TTsque, Abraham, Printer's Mark of 202

Worms, Exterior, Interior, and Cros.s-Sectional Views of tlie Rashi Chapel at 324-326

Zalman of Amsterdam, Printer's Mark of 203

THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

PHILIPSON, DAVID : American rabbi ; born
at Wabasli, lud., Aug. 9, 1862; educated at the
public scliools of Columbus, Ohio, tlie Hebrew
Union College of Cincinnati (graduated 1883; D.D.
1886), the University of Cincinnati (B.A. 1883), and
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. On Jan.

1, 1884, he became rabbi of the Har Sinai congrega-
tion at Baltimore, Md., -which position he held until
Nov. 1, 1888, when he became rabbi of the B'ne
Israel congregation of Cincinnati. He is also pro-
fessor of homiletics at the Hebrew Union College.

Philipson has held many offices of a public nature
in Cincinnati. He has been a trustee of the Asso-
ciated Charities (since 1890) ; trustee of the Home
for Incurables (1894-1902); director of the Ohio
Humane Society (since 1889) and of the United Jewish
Charities (since 1896); corresponding secretary of
the Central Conference of American Rabbis (1889-
1892; 1894-98), and director of the same society
(since 1898); governor of the Hebrew Union College
(since 1892); director of the American Jewish His-
torical Society (since 1897) ; member of the publica-
tion committee of the Jewish Publication Society
(since 1895); and president of the Hebrew Sabbath
School Union of America (since 1894).

He is the author of "Progress of the Jewish Re-
form Movement in the United States," in "J. Q.
R." X. (1897) 52-99; and "The Beginnings of the
Reform Movement in Judaism," ib. xv. (1903) 575-
621 ; " The Jew in English Fiction," Cincinnati, 1889
(revised and enlarged, 1902) ; " Old European Jew-
ries," Philadelphia, 1894; "The Oldest Jewi.sh Con-
gregation in the West," Cincinnati, 1894; "A Holiday
Sheaf," ih. 1899; and, jointly with Louis Grossman,
he has edited " Reminiscences of Isaac M. Wise," ib.
1901.

A. F. T. H.

PHILISTINES : A people that occupied terri-
tory on the coast of the ^Mediterranean Sea, south-
west of Jerusalem, previouslj' to and contemporane-
ously with the life of the kingdoms of Israel. Their
northern boundary reached to the " borders of Ekron, "
and their southwestern limit was the Shiiior, or brook
of Egypt (Wadi al-'xVrish), as described in Josh. xiii.

2, 3. Their territory extended on the east to about
Beth-shemesh (I Sam. vi. 18), and on the west to the
sea. It was a wide, fertile plain stretching up to the
Judean hills, and adapted to a very productive
agriculture.

X.— 1

In Biblical times this territory was occupied by
several peoples, the most prominent of all being the
I'hilistines proper. There are found the giants or
Anakim in Joshua's day and even down to David's
time in Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. It must be con-
cluded, too, from Joshua's conquests that the Ca-
naanites were to be met with here and there through-
out tliis territory. It is also to be
Territory, presumed from the records that other
peoples, such as the Amalekites and
the Geshurites, lived near this territory if they did
not actually mingle with the Philistines.

Who were the Philistines proper? The Biblical
record states that they came from Caphtor (Amos
ix. 7; Deut. ii. 23), that they were Caphtorim (Dent.
I.e.), and that they were "the remnant of the sea-
coast of Caphtor" (Jer. xlvii. 4, Hebr.). The table
of nations (Gen. x. 13, 14) names the Philistines and
the Caphtorim as descendants of Mizraim. The
gist of these references leads one to look for
Caphtor as the native land of the Philistines. There
is a variety of opinion as to the location of this place.
The Egj'ptian inscriptions name the southern coast
of Asia Minor as " Kef to." The latest and with some
plausibility the best identification is the island of
Crete. The Septuagint makes the Cherethites in
David's body-guard Cretans. Others have identified
Caphtor with Cappadocia, or Cyprus, or with some
place near the Egyptian delta. The prevailing
opinion among scholars is that the Philistines were
roving jurates from some northern coast on the
Mediterranean Sea. Finding a fertile plain south of
Joppa, tliey landed and forced a foothold. Their
settlement was made by such a gradual process that
they adopted both the language and the religion of
the conquered jieojiles.

When did the Philistines migrate and seize their
territory in this maritime plain V The inscriptions of
Rameses III., about Joshua's da}', de-
Origin, scribe sea-peoples wliom he met in
conflict. Among these foreigners are
found the Zakkal from Cyprus, and the Purusati
(Pulusata, Pulista, or Purosatha). Both liave Greek
features; and the second are identified with the
Philistines. In the inscription of this Egyptian
king, they are said to have conquered all of north-
ern Syria west of the Euphrates. It is known, too,
that the successors of Rameses III. lost their Syrian
possessions. It is supposed that during this period

Philistines
Phillips

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

tlje Purusati, accompanied by their families, were
pushed or crowded out of their homes by the uational
migrations from the northeast in Asia Minor, and,
coming both by hiud and by sea, secured a foothold in
southwestern Palestine. The time of this supposed
settlement wasthatof the twentieth dynastyof Egypt.
Of course their first settlements were on a small
scale, and probably under Egyptian suzerainty.
Later, as Egypt lost her grip on Asia, the Puru-
sati became independent and multiplied in numbers
and strength until they could easily make good their
claim to the region in which they had settled.

According to the Old Testament, the Philistines
were in power in their new land at least as early as
the Exodus (E.\. .xiii. 17, xxiii. 31). Josh. xiii. 2, 3
lends color to the view that they had specific bound-
aries in the time of tiie conquest. During the period
of the Judges they were a thorn in the side of
Israel (Judges iii. 31, v. 6, x. 11, xiii.-xvi.). They
were so well organized politically, with their five
great capitals, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and
Gaza, and a lord over each with its surrounding
district, that Israel in its earlier history was put to
a decided disadvantage (I Sam. iv. 17, vii. 2-14).
Their supremacy over Saul's realm {ib. xiii. 3 et
S€(j.) and their restriction of Israel's arms made the
Philistines easy rulers of their mountain neighbors.
Saul's defeat of them at Michmash {ib. xiv.) was
only temporary, as he finally fled to Gilboa before
the invincible ranks of these warriors.

Not until David's assumption of supremacy over
all Israel and after two hard battles were the Philis-
tines compelled to recognize the rule of their
former subjects. This broke their
Conquered, power so effectually that they never
by entirely recovered. After the disrup-

David. tion of the kingdom of Solomon the
Philistines secured their independence,
which they possessed at intervals down to the over-
throw of the Israelitish kingdoms. During this en-
tire period they are found exerci-sing the same hos-
tility toward the Israelites (Amos i. 6-8; Joel iii.
4-«) that characterized their earlier history. In this
same period the Assyrian conquerors mention sev-
eral Philistine cities as objects of their attacks. The
crossing and recrossing of Philistines territory by the
armies of Egypt and Asia finally destroyed the
Philistines as a separate nation and people; so that
when Camby.ses the Persian crossed their former
territory about 625, he described it as belonging to
an Arabian ruler.

The Philistines' language was apparently Semitic,
the language of the peoples they conquered. Their
religion, too, was most likely Semitic, as they are
found worshiping the deities met with
Language among other Semitic peoples. They
and Gov- were governod, in Isniol's early liis-
ernment. tory, by a confederation of five kiiagsor
rulers of their chief cities. Their army
was well organized and brave, and consisted of in-
fantry, cavalry, and cliariotry. In fine, they were a
civilized people as far back as they can be traced ; and
as such they became relatively strong and wealthy
in their fertile plains. They engaged in commerce,
and in their location became thoroughly acquainted
with the great peoples of their times. Their dis-

appearance as a nation from history occurred about

the time of the conquest of Cyrus.

Bibliography : McCurdy, lUxturti, Pri^phecy. and (he Mimu-
mtntx, I.. S8 liC UH; G. A. Siiiitli. HiiitorUal Geoynip/ij/"/
the Holii La tut, cli. ix.; BruRsch, Egypt Uuiler the Fharaohs,
ch. ix., .xiv.; W. M. Muller, .4sit» uud Kurnpa, eh. xxvl.-
xxix.: Schwally, Die liasxe der FhHi.ttder. in Zeitschrift
fllr WiioieiiKchaftUche Theologie, xxxiv. 1(13 et seq.; W.J.
Beeclier, in Hustings, Diet. Bible, s.v.; G. F. Moore, in Cheyno
and Black, Eneuc. Bill. s.v.
K. O. II. I. M. P.

I'HILLIPS : American family, espcciallj'' prom-
inent in New York and Philadelphia, and tracing its
descent back to Jonas Phillips, who emigrated from
Germany to England in 1751 and thence to America
in 1756. The genealogical tree of the family is given
on page 3.

Henry Phillips, Jr. : Archeologist and numis-
matist; born at Philadelphia Sept. 6, 1838; died
June, 1895; son of Jonas Altamont Phillips. He
was well known for his studies in folklore, philology,
and numismatics, both in the United States and in
Europe. Two gold medals were conferred upon him
by Italian societies for his writings. He was treas-
urer (1862) and secretary (1868) of the Numismatic
and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, and a sec-
retary (from 1880) and the librarian (from 1885) of the
American Philosophical Society, as well as member
of many other learned societies at home and abroad.

Phillips' works on the paper currency of the
American colonies and on American Continental
money were the first on those subjects. His works
have been cited by the United States Supreme Court
in a decision on the "Legal Tender Cases." Among
his writings may be mentioned : " History of Ameri-
can Colonial Paper Currency " (1865); "History of
American Continental Paper Money " (1866) ; " Pleas-
ures of Numismatic Science" (1867); "Poems from
the Spanish and German" (1878); "Faust" (1881);
and four volumes of translations from the Spanish,
Hungarian, and German (1884-87; see Appleton's
"Cyclopedia of American Biography," iv. ; Henry
S. Morals, "The Jews of Philadelphia," s.v.; Oscar
Fay Adams, "A Dictionary of American Authors,"
p. 295, New York, 1897; "Proceedings of the
American Philological Association," 1896).

A. L. Hij.

Henry Mayer Phillips : American lawyer,
congressman, and financier; son of Zalegman and
Arabella Phillips; born in Philadelphia June 30,
1811, where he attended a private school and the
high school of the Franklin Institute; died Aug. 28,
1884. Phillijjs was admitted to the bar Jan. 5, 1832.
Immediately after his admission he accepted the po-
sition of clerk of the Court of Common Pleas.

In Dec, 1841, he was elected solicitor of the dis-
trict of Spring Garden. In the October election of
1856 he was chosen a member of the thirty-fifth
Congress and served during 1857-59. He addressed
the House of Representatives on the admission of
Kansas into the Union under the Le Compton Con-
stitution on March 9, 1858, and on June 12 he spoke
on the expenditures and revenues of the country.

In Dec, 1858, he was elected grand master of the
Grand Lodge of F'ree and Accepted Masons of the
State of Penn.sylvania, and was reelected in 1859 and
1860. On Dec 4, 1862, he was chosen trustee of the
Jefferson Medical College to fill a vacancy caused

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philistines
Phillips

e
2

•a •
a) .
S2

111

A
OS

(D.O

a"
E

_ — ._— -'OS oi o

tS3 -

5^ II ""

A o.-*x: 2

, cc

.i:::— -00 3
♦J •- g o •"

Kt. II *

111
rt x: .

Mg,

«9 to* _

«^ ao a

•r 2"^ o

a;2.

■Ci=

t-2 o i « 3

^ — S com

_ >-.'.3 00

^£3

a
E«o

a t-

O Eu

'^ II

55 'T

-§.=S

o;
■c

■Sco c S
OS • — tn

«g
=;S

^X3
II S

CO 2 *

ax: '"^ a .-2

C to

£.£■

ajx:

psfu

S >J " a>

- 3
td

a
• o

I— &- I

M II »1

-^ co-

. a>

-€ = izS os- 3
i:— .'- — ~-a>co

r^^SaS

2=^11^

a—
c

i_ to

.^x:— -r 3

£»

CX3'* Bi£
"**< II g'^

fc^«

o a.

OSS

e-j'O

fe—

to >->

= - -« o S

^£,,00

^_^

»— I

ftO

_ 0/ zn ■•^ T 3

^£ II -^^

- to aj ,^
a o-^'O »

-1=35^
* II

to=*§

a=¥5S '^^

^ II . P.

-;^ll|-

SCO X

.5= Q m 3

= x:'^= «
SCu II «-'

P^fi'd

PL.

p:
o

Pu,

Phillips
Phillips, Morris

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Henry M. Phillips.

by the death of his brother J. Altamout Phillips,
and subsequently became its treasurer.

The Court of Common Pleas appointed him a
member of the board of park commissioners May
13. 1867, and March 12, 1881, he was elected presi-
dent of the board. He was appointed a member of
the board of city trusts Sept. 2, 1869, became its

vice-president May 11,
1870. and on March 13,
1878, was chosen its presi-
dent, which office he re-
signed in Dec, 1881.

In 1870 Phillips was
appointed a member of
the commission for the
construction of a bridge
crossing the Schuylkill
River. He was one of the
original members of the
Public Buildings Com-
kV'^</ mission established in 1870,

Z-K^'^v y' but resigned the next year.

^^* '^' In 1870''he was chosen a

director of the Academy
of Music, became its presi-
dent in 1872, and resigned in 1884. He was elected
a member of the American Pliilosophical Society
in Jan., 1871, and a director of the Pennsylvania
Railroad, Northern Central Railroad, Philadelphia,
"Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad, and of the
Western Union Telegraph Company in March, 1874.
He became a director of the Pennsylvania Company
for Insurance on Lives and Granting Annuities on
Oct. 16, 1874.

On Dec. 20, 1882, he presided at the "bar dinner"
given to Chief Justice Sharswood on the retirement
of the latter; this Avas the last public occasion in
which he participated as a member of the Phila-
delphia bar, of which he had become a leader.

Phillips was a member of the Sephardic (Spanish
and Portuguese) Congregation Mickve Israel of
Philadelphia. In former years, more especially in
the period from 1836 to 1851, he took considerable
interest in its affairs, taking an active part in the
controversy between Isaac Leeser and the congre-
gation ; his efforts were largely instrumental in elect-
ing Sabato Morais as minister of the congregation on
April 13, 1851.
A. D. Su.

Isaac Phillips : Lawyer ; born in New York
June 16, 1812; died there 1889; son of Naphtali
Phillips. He was appointed by President Pierce
appraiser of the port of New York, which position
he occupied for many years, and he was well known
politically. He took a deep interest in educational
matters, being a commissioner of the New York
board of education ; he was likewise the editor of va-
rious newspapers in the city of New York, grand
ma.ster of the freemasons of the state of New York,
and an active member of the New York Chamber
of Commerce. He married (1) Sophia Phillips and
(2) Miriam Trimble.

Jonas Phillips : The first of the family to settle
in America ; born 1 736, the place of his birth being va-
riously given as Busick and Frankfort-on-the-Main ;
died at Philadelphia, Pa. , Jan. 29, 1803 ; son of Aaron

Phillips. He emigrated to America from London in
Nov., 1756, and at first resided in Charleston, S. C,
where he was employed by Closes Lindo. He soon
removed to Albany, and thence, shortly afterward,
to New York, where he engaged in mercantile pur-
suits. As early as 1760 he was identified with a
lodge of freemasons in that city. In 1762 he mar-
ried Rebecca Mendez
Machado (see M.\-
CH.\Do). In 1769 he
became a freeman of
New York.

At the outbreak of
the American Revo-
lution Phillips fa-
vored the patriot
cause; and he was an
ardent supporter of
the Non-Importation
Agreement in 1770.
In 1776 he used his
influence in the New
York congregation to
close the doors of the
synagogue and re-
move rather than Jo°'is Phillips.
continue under the

British. The edifice was abandoned ; and, with the
majoritj' of the congregation, Phillips removed to
Philadelphia, where he continued in business until
1778. In that j-ear he joined the Revolutionary
army, serving in the Philadelphia Militia under Colo-
nel Bradford.

When Congregation Mickve Israel was estab-
lished in Philadelphia, Phillips was one of its active
founders, and was its president at the consecration
of its synagogue in 1782. After the Revolution he
removed to New York, but soon returned to Phila-
delphia, where he continued to reside until his death.
His remains, however, were interred at New York
in the cemoterj-, on New Bowery, of Congregation
Shearith Israel. His widow survived until 1831.
Of his twenty-one children, special mention should
be made of the following si.x:

(1) Rachel Phillips: Born 1769; died 1839;
married iSIichacl Levy, and was the mother of Com-
modore Uriah P. Levy of the United States navy.

(2) Naphtali Phillips : Born 1773; died 1870;
married (1797) Rachel Mendez Sei.xas (d. 1822) of
Newport, R. I. One year after her death he married
Esther (b. 1789; d. 1872), the daughter of Benjamin
Mendez Sei.xas. Phillijjs was the proprietor of the
"National Advocate," a New York newspaper, and
was also president of Congregation Shearith Israel
in that city.

(3) Manuel Phillips : Assistant surgeon in the
United States navy from 1809 to 1824; died at Vera
Cruz in 1826.

(4) Joseph Phillips : Died 1854. He served in
the War of 1S12.

(5) Aaron J. Phillips : Actor and playwright;
born in Philadelphia; died at New York in 1826.
He made his first appearance at the Park Theater,
New York, in 1815, and was successful in Shakes-
peare's "Comedy of Errors." Later he became a
theatrical manager (see Charles P. Daly, "Settle-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phillips
Phillips, Slorris

inent of the Jews in North America," pp. 102-103,
120, New York, 1893).

(6) Zalegman Phillips: Lawyer; born 1779;
died Aug. 21, iy3'J. He was graduated from tiie
Vniversity of Peniisylvauia in 1795, and became one
of the leading criminal lawyers of Philadelphia.

Jonas Altamont Phillips: Lawyer; born at
PhihulelpiiialbUG; diedtiiere 18(32; brother of Henry
M. Phillips. He became prominent as a lawyer, and
in 1847-48 was the Democratic candidate for tiie
mayoralty of Philadelphia. President Buchanan is
said to have tendered him the position of judge of
the United States District Court, which he declined.
In 1837 he married Frances Cohen of Charleston,
8. C.

Jonas B. Phillips: Dramatist; born Oct. 28,
180"), at Philadelphia; died 1869; son of Benjamin J.
Phillips. He became known as a dramatist as early
as 1838. Among the plays he produced were : " Cold
Stricken" (1838), "Camillus," and "The Evil Eye."
Subsequently he studied law and became assistant
district attorney for the county of Ncav York, hold-
ing that aiipointmeut under several successive ad-
ministrations (see Daly, I.e. p. 145).

Jonas N. Phillips: Born 1817; died 1874; son
of Naphtali Phillips. He was chief of the volunteer
fire department in the city of New York for many
years, and president of the board of councilraen and
acting mayor in 1857.

Naphtali Taylor Phillips: Lawyer; born in
New York Dec. 5, 1868; sou of Isaac Phillips by his
second wife. He has held various political offices, e.g. :
he was member of the New York state legislature
(1898-1901), serving on the judiciary and other com-
mittees and as a member of the Joint Statutory
Revision Commission of that body (1900) ; and dep-
uty comptroller of the city of New York (from 1902).
He is also a trustee of the American Scenic and His-
toric Preservation Society, and a member of the Sons
of the American Revolution and of the New York
Historical Society. He is treasurer of the Jew-
ish Historical Society and lias contributed several
papers to its publications. For fifteen years he has
been clerk of Congregation Shearith Israel. In
1892 Phillips married Rosalie Solomons, daughter of
Adolphus S. Solomons. Mrs. Phillips is an active
member of the Daughters of the American Revo-
lution.

Bibliography: Charles P. T)s.\j, SetiUment of the Jews in
North Aiiinica, New York, 1893; Isaac Markens, The He-
7>reics in America, ib. 1888; Henrv S. Moniis, The Jews of
Philadelphia, Philadelphia, 18&i; H. P. Rosenbach. The
Jews in Philadelphia, 188;i; N. Taylor Phillips, in Pnbl.
Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. ii. 51, iv. 204 et seq.; Sabato Morals, ih.
1.; M. J. Kohler. ih. iv. 89 ; Herbert Friedenvvald, i/). vi. 50 et
seq. (other references are found in almost all the volumes
issued by the society); L. Hiihner, A'fKJ York Jews in the
Strunqle for American Tudcucudence ; Pennsi/lrania As-
snciatin-s and Militia in the lievolution, i. f>82; Nciv York
Gazette and Weeklu Post Buy, July 23, 1770; New York
Hist. Soc. Col. for 1885, p. 49.
A. L. Hv.

PHILLIPS, BARNET : American journalist ;
born in Philadelphia Nov. 9, 1828; educated at the
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, whence
he was graduated in 1847. Shortly afterward he
set out for Europe, where he continued his studies
and engaged in journalism. On his return to the
United States, Phillips joined the staff of the " New

York Times " and published two books, " The Strug-
gle " and " Burning Their Ships." Phillips' connec-
tion with the "New York Times" extends over
thirty years.
A. F. H. V.

PHILLIPS, SIR BENJAMIN SAMUEL:

Lord mayor of London; born in London in 1811;
died there Oct. 9, 1889. He was a son of Samuel
Phillips, tailor, and was educated at Neumegen's
school at Ilighgate and Kew. In 1833 he married,
and soon afterward entered into partnership with
his brother-in-law Henry Faudel, thus laying the
foundation of the firm of Faudel, Phillips & Sons.
He then became an active worker in the community,
being elected president of the Institution for the Relief
of the Jewish Indigent Blind in 1850 and president
of the Hebrew Literary Society. He rendered im-
portant services in the foundation of the United
Synagogue, of which be was elected a life-member
in June, 1880. For thirty years Phillips was a mem-
ber of the Board of Deputies as representative of
the Great and Central synagogues ; he served as a
member of the Rumanian Committee, and was a
vice-president of the Anglo-Jewish Association.

Benjamin Phillips will be chiefly remembered for
the prominent part he took in the struggle for the
removal of Jewish disabilities. In 1846 he was
elected a member of the common council as repre-
sentative of the ward of Farringdon Within. After
being returned at every subsequent election, he was
elected alderman of the ward in 1857. In 1859 he
held the office of sheriff, and on Sept. 29, 1865, was
elected lord mayor. He performed the duties of
mayor with marked distinction, and the King of the
Belgians, whom he entertained, conferred upon him
the Order of Leopold. During his mayoralty he
rendered considerable help in personally raising
£70,000 toward the great Cholera Fund. In recog-
nition of these services he was knighted by Queen
Victoria. In 1888, owing to advancing years, he re-
tired from the court of aldermen, being succeeded
in the office by his second son, Alderman Sir George
Faudel-Phillips, who was unanimously elected.

Sir Benjamin Phillips was for many years a mem-
ber of the Spectacle-Makers Company (of which he
was master) and was on the commission for the Lieu-
tenancy of the City of London.

BmLiOGRAPHv: Jew. Chrnn. and Jew. World, Oct. 18,1889;
The Times aad other London newspapers, Oct. 10, 1889.
J. G. L.

PHILLIPS, GEORGE LYON : Jamaican pol-
itician; born in 1811; died at Kingston, Jamaica,
Dec. 29, 1886. One of the most prominent and in-
fluential residents of Jamaica, he held the chief
magistrateship of the privy council and other im-
portant executive oftices on the island. During the
an.xious period known as tlie " Saturnalia of Blood "
Phillips especially conserved the interests of the col-
ony by his gentle and calm demeanor at councils of
state.

BiBiionRAPHY : Falmouth Gazette (JamaicaK Dec. 31. 1885 ;
./(If. World, Jan. 28, 1887 ; Jew. Chnoi. Feb. 4, 1887.

J. G. L.

PHILLIPS, MORRIS: American journalist
and writer; born in Loudon, England, May 9, 1834.

PhillipB. Philip
Philo Judaeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phillips received his elementary education in Cleve-
land, Ohio, and later continued his studies under
private tutors in New York. He studied for the
legal profession, first in Buffalo and later in New
Vurk. But the opportunity being open to him of
ussociation with Nathaniel Parker Willis as joint
editor of the "New York Home Journal," he em-
braced it at once, and from Sept., 1854, until the
death of Willis in Jan., 1867, Phillips was associate
editor of that periodical, of which he then became
chief editor ami sole proprietor. Phillips was a
prolific writer and an extensive traveler; as such
he held commissions as special correspondent for
several daily newspapers, and published in many
magazines the fruits of his observations.
A. F. H. V.

PHILLIPS, PHILIP: American jurist; born
in Charleston, S. C, Dec. 17, 1807; died in Wash-
ington, D. C, Jan. 14, 1884i He was educated at
tlje Norwich Military Academy in Vermont and at
3Iiddletown, Conn. He then studied law and was
admitted to the bar in 1829, settling in Cheraw,
S. C. He was a member of the Nullification Con-
vention of 1832. Elected to the state legislature
in 1834, he resigned in 1835 and moved to Mobile,
Ala., where he practised law. He was president
of the Alabama State Convention in 1837, and was
elected to the state legislature in 1844, being re-
elected in 1852. In 1853-55 he was a member of
Congress from Alabama. He then moved to Wash-
ington, where lie continued his profession until the
Civil war, when he migrated to New Orleans. After
the war he returned to Washington and resided there
until his death. In 1840 he prepared a "Digest of
Decisions of the Supreme Court of Alabama, " and he
wrote '* Practise of the Supreme Court of tlie United
States." He married Eugenia Levy of Charleston,
S. C, on Sept. 7, 1836.

BinuonRAPHT: Brewer, ^ialia ma, pp. 406-407; Garrett, 7?em-
iniscences of Public Men in Alabama, 1872, pp. 4(J5-407.

A. A. S. L

PHILLIPS, PHINEAS: Polish merchant;
flourished about 1775. He held the position of chief
of the Jewish community at Krotoschin, at that
time a fief of the princes of Thurn and Taxis. The
reigning prince held Phillips in considerable esteem
and entrusted him with personal commissions.

In the course of business Phillips attended the
Leipsic fairs and tho.se held in other important Con-
tinental cities. In 1775 he extended his travels to
England. Once there, he settled for some time in
London, where he carried on an extensive business
in indigo and gum.

After his dciitli. while on a visit to his native
town his son Samuel Phillips estai)lished himself
in London and became the father of Sir Benjamin
Phillips and grandfather of Sir George Faudel-
Phillips, Bart., both lord mayors of London.

Bibliography: Jew. Chron. Oct. 18, 1889.

•' G. L.

PHILLIPS, SAMUEL: English journalist;
born at London 1815; died at Brighton Oct., 1854.
He was the son of an English merchant, and at fif-
teen years of age made his debut as an actor at Cov-

ent Garden. Influential friends then placed him
at Cambridge, whence he passed to Gottingen Uni-
versity. Phillips then came to London, and in 1841
turned his attention to literature ami journalism.
His earliest work was a romance entitled ''Caleb
Stukeley," which appeared in "Blackwood's Maga-
zine " and was reprinted in 1843. Its success led to
further contributions to "Blackwood's," including
" We Are All Low People There " and other tales.

Phillips continued to write for periodicals, and he
was subsequently admitted as literary critic to the
staff of the "Times." His articles were noted for
their vigor of expression and their wealth of ideas.
Dickens, Carlyle, Mrs. Slowe, and other popular
writers were boldl}' assailed by the anonymous
critic, whose articles became the talk of the town.
In 1852 and 1854 two volumes of his literary essays
were published anonymously. Phillips was also
associated with the "Morning Herald " and "John
Bull."

When the Society of the Crystal Palace was formed
Phillips became secretary and afterward literary
director. In connection with the Palace he wrote
the "Guide" and the "Portrait Gallery."

Bibmograpiiy: The Times (London), Oct. 17, 1854: Didot,
Nnuvcnu Biugraphie General; Chambers, Cue. of English
Literature.

J. G. L.

PHILO JUD^US: Alexandrian philosopher;
born about 20 b.c. at Alexandria, Egypt; died after
40 c.E. The few biographical details concerning
him that have been preserved are found in his own
works (especially in "Legatio ad Caium," t;i; 22, 28;
ed. Mangey [hereafter cited in brackets], ii. 567,
572; "De Specialibus Legibus." ii. 1 [ii. 299]) and
in Josephus ("Ant." xviii. 8, § 1; comp. ib. xix. 5,
§ 1 ; XX. 5, g 2). The only event that can be deter-
mined chronologically is his participation in the
embassy which the Alexandrian Jews sent to the
emperor Caligula at Rome for the purpose of asking
protection against the attacks of the Alexandrian
Greeks. This occurred in the year 40 c.E.

Philo included in his philosophy both Greek wisdom
and Hebrew religion, which he sought to fuse and
harmonize by means of the art of allegorj' that he
had learned from the Stoics. His work was not ac-
cepted b}' contemporary Judaism. "The sophists
of ]iteralne!5s,"as he calls them ("De Somniis,"i. 16-
17), "opened their eyes superciliously " when he ex-
plained to them the marvels of his exegesis. Greek
science, suppressed by the victorious Phariseeism
(Men. 99), was .soon forgotten. Philo was all the
more enthusiastically received b}' the early Chris-
tians, some of whom saw in him a Christian.

His Works : The Church Fathers have preserved
most of Philo's works that are now extant. These
are chieflj' commentaries on the Pentateuch. As
Ewald has pointed out, three of Philo's chief works
lie in this field (comp. Siegfried, "Abhandlung zur
Kritik der Schriften Philo's," 1874, p. 565).

(a) He explains the Pentateuch catechetically, in
the form of questions and answers ("Z?/r^^a-a /cat
Avaeir, Qufestiones et Solutiones "). It can not now
be determined how far he carried out this method.
Only the following fragments have been preserved :
passages in Armenian in explanation of Genesis and

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phillips, Philip
Philo Judaeus

Exodus, an old Latin translation of a part of the
"Genesis," and fragments from the Greek text in
the "Sacra Parallela," iu the "Catena," and also in
Ambrosius. The explanation is conlined cliiclly to
determining the literal sense, although Philo fre-
quently refers to the allegorical sense as the higher.

(b) That he cared mainly for the latter he shows
in his scientific chief work, the great allegorical
commentary, i^ofiuv 'lepdv ' Alhiyopiai, or "Legum

Allegoria'," which deals, so far as it
His Alle- has been preserved, with selected
gorical passages from Genesis. According to
Coramen- Philo's original idea, the history of
tary. primal man is here considered as a
symbol of the religious and moral de-
velopment of the human soul. This great commen-
tary included the follovving treatises: (1) " De Alle-
goriis Legum," books i.-iii., on Geu. ii. 1-iii. la,
8b-19 (on the original extent and contents of these
three books and the probably more correct combina-
tion of i. and ii., see Schiirer, "Gesch." iii. 503); (2)
" De Cherubim," on Gen. iii. 24, iv. 1 ; (3) " De Sacrili-
ciis Abelis etCaini," on Gen. iv. 2-4 (comp. Schiirer,
I.e. p. 504); (4) "De Eo Quod Deterius Potiori Insi-
diatur"; (5) "De Posteritate Caini," on Gen. iv.
16-25 (see Cohn and Wendland, "Philonis Alex-
andrini," etc., ii., pp. xviii. et seq., 1-41; "Philolo-
gus," Ivii. 248-288); (6) " De Gigautibus," on Gen.
vi. 1-4; (7) "Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis," on Gen.
vi. 4-12 (Schiirer [I.e. p. 506] correctly combines Nos.
6 and 7 into one book ; Massebieau [" Biblioth(^que de
I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes," p. 23, note 2, Paris,
1889] adds after No. 7 the lost books ITept Aia-^r/Kuv) ;
(8) " De Agricultura Noe," on Gen. ix. 20 (comp. Von
Arnim, "Quellenstudien zu Philo von Alexandria,"
1899, pp. 101-140); (9) " De Ebrietate," on Gen. ix.
21 (on the lost second book see Schiirer, I.e. p. 507,
and Von Arnim, I.e. pp. 53-100); (10) "Resipuit
Noa, sen De Sobrietate," on Gen. ix. 24-27; (11)
" De Conf usione Linguaruni," on Gen. xi. 1-9; (12)
"De Migratione Abrahann'," on Gen. xii. 1-6; (13)
"Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," on Gen. xv.
2-18 (on the work Ilepl Miai^uv cited in this treatise
see Massebieau, I.e. pp. 27 etseq., note 3); (14) "De
Congressu QuferendsE Eruditionis Gratia," on Gen.
xvi. 1-6; (15) "De Profugis," on Gen. xvi. 6-14;
(16) "De Mutatione Nominum," on Gen. xvii. 1-22
(on the fragment " De Deo," which contains a com-
mentary on Gen. xviii. 2, see Massebieau, I.e. p.
29); (17) "DeSomniis," book i., on Gen. xxviii. 12
etseq., xxxi. 11 <'<.<(e9. (.Jacob's dreams) ;" DeSomniis,"
book ii., on Gen. xxxvii. 40 et seq. (the dreams of
Joseph, of the cupbearer, the baker, and Pharaoh).
Philo's three other books on dreams have been lost.
The first of these (on the dreams of Abimelech and
Laban) preceded the present book i., and discussed
the dreams in which God Himself spoke with the
dreamers, this fitting in very well with Gen. xx. 3.
On a doxographic source used by Philo in book i.,
§ 4 [i. 623], see Wendland in "Sitz(mgsbericht der
Berliner Akademie," 1897, No. xlix. 1-6.

(c) Philo wrote a systematic work on Moses and
his laws, which was jirefaced bj^ the treatise " De
Opificio Mundi," which in the present editions pre-
cedes "De Allcgoriis Legum," book i. (comp. "De
Abrahamo," § 1 [ii. 1], with " De Prsemiis et Poenis,"

§ 1 [ii. 408]). The Creation is, according to Philo,
the basis for the Mosaic legislation, wliich is in
complete harmony with nature ("De Opificio
Mundi," ^ 1 [i. 1]). The exposition of the Law then
follows in two sections. First come the biographies
of the men who antedated the several written laws of
the Torah, as Enos, P^noch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob. These were the Patriarchs, who were
the living impersonations of the active law of virtue
before there were any written laws. Then the laws

are discussed in detail: first the chief

On the ten commandments (the Decalogue),

Patriarchs, and then the precepts in amplification

of each law. The work is divided info
the following treatises: (1) "De Opificio Mundi"
(comp. Siegfried in "Zeitschrift fiir Wi.ssenschaft-
liche Theologie," 1874, pp. 562-565; L. Cohn's im-
portant separate edition of this treatise, Breslau, 1889,
preceded the edition of the same in "' Philonis Alexan-
drini," etc., 1896, i.). (2) " De Abrahamo," on Abra-
ham, the representative of the virtue acquii-ed by
learning. The lives of Isaac and Jacob have been
lost. The three patriarchs were intended as types of
the ideal cosmopolitan condition of the world. (3)
"De Josepho," the life of Joseph, intended to show-
how the wise man must act in the actually existing
state. (4) "DeVita Mosis," books i.-iii.; Schiirer,
I.e. p. 523, combines the three books into two; but,
as Massebieau shows {I.e. pp. 42 et seq.), a passage,
though hardl}' an entire book, is missing at the end
of the present second book (Wendland. in "Hermes,"
xxxi. 440). Schiirer {I.e. pp. 515, 524) excludes this
work here, although he admits that from a literary
point of view it fits into this group ; but he considers
it foreign to the work in general, since Moses, un-
like the Patriarchs, can not be conceived as a uni-
versally valid type of moral action, and can not be
described as such. The latter point may be ad-
mitted; but the question still remains whether it is
necessary to regard the matter in this light. It
seems most natural to preface the discussion of
the law with the biography of the legislator, while
the tran.sition from Joseph to the legislation, from
the statesman who has nothing to do with the divine
laws to the discussion of these laws themselves, is
forced and abrupt. Moses, as the perfect man,
unites in himself, in a way, all the faculties of the
patriarchal types. His is the "most pure mind"
("De Mutatione Nominum," 37 [i. 610]), he is the
"lover of virtue," who has been purified from all pas-
sions (" De Allegoriis Legum, " iii. 45, 48 [i. 1 1 3, 1 15]).
As the person awaiting the divine revelation, he is
also specially fitted to announce it to others, after

having received it in the form of the

On the Commandments (i7). iii. 4 [i. 89 et seq.]).

Law. (5) "De Decalogo," the introductory

treatise to the chief ten command-
ments of the Law. (6) "De Specialibus Legibus,"
in which treatise Philo attempts to systematize the
several laws of the Torah, and to arrange them in
conformity with the Ten Commandments. To the
first and second commandments he adds the laws
relating to priests and sacrifices; to the third (mis-
use of the name of God), the laws on oaths, vows,
etc. ; to the fourth (on the Sabbath), the laws on
festivals; to the fifth (to honor father and mother),

Philo JudeeuB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the laws on respect for parents, old age, etc. ; to the
sixth, the marriage laws; to the seventh, the civil
and criminal laws; to the eighth, the laws on theft;
to the ninth, the laws on truthful testifying; and to
the tenth, the laws on lust (comp. Stade-Holtzmann,
"Gesch. des Volkes Israel," 1888, ii. 535-545; on
Philo as iurtuenced by the Halakah, see B. liitter,
"Philo uud die Halacha," Leipsic, 1879, and Sieg-
fried's review of the same in the "Jenaer Litera-
turzeitung," 1879, No. 35). The first book includes
the following treatises of the current editions: "De
Circumcisioue " ; "De Monarchia," books i. and ii. ;
"De Sacerdotum Honoribus"; "De Victimis." On
the division of the book into these sections, the titles
of the latter, and newly found sections of the text,
see SchUrer, I.e. p. 517; Wendland, I.e. pp. 136 et
teq. The second book includes in the editions a sec-
tion also entitled " De Specialibus Legibus " (ii. 270-
277), to which is added the treatise " De Septenario,"
which is, however, incomplete in Mangey. The
greater part of the missing portion was supplied,
under the title " De Cophini Festo et de Colendis
Parentibus," by Mai (1818), and was printed in
Richter's edition, v. 48-50, Leipsic, 1828. The com-
plete text of the second book was published by
Tischendorf in his "Philonea" (pp. 1-83). The
third book is included under the title "De Speciali-
bus Legibus " in ed. Mangey, ii. 299-334. The fourth
book also is entitled "De Specialibus Legibus"; to
it the last sections are added under the titles "De
Judice " and '' De Concupiscentia " in the usual edi-
tions; and they include, also, as appendix, the sec-
tions "De Justitia " and "De Creatione Princi-
pum." (7) The treatises "De Fortitudine," " De
Caritate," and " De Poenitentia " are a kind of appen-
dix to "De Specialibus Legibus." Schlirer (^.c. pp.
519 [note 82], 520-522) combines them into a special
book, which, he thinks, was composed by Philo.
(8) "De Praemiis et Pconis" and "De Execratione."
On the connection of both see Schiirer, I.e. pp. 522
et seq. This is the conclusion of the exposition of
the Mosaic law.

Independent Works: (1) "Quod Omnis Probus
Liber," the second half of a work on the freedom of
the just according to Stoic principles. The genu-
ineness of this work has been disputed by Frankel
(in "Monatsschrift," ii. ^Oetseq., Qletseq.), by Gratz
("Gesch." iii. 464 et seq.), and more recently by Ans-
feld(1887), Hilgenfeld (in "Zeitschrift fiir Wissen-
schaftliche Theologie," 1888, pp. 49-71), and others.
Now Wendland, Ohle, Schiirer, Massebieau, and
Krell consider it genuine, with the exception of the
partly interpolated passages on the Essenes. (2)
" In Flaccum " and " De Legatione ad Caium," an ac-
count of the Alexandrian persecution of the Jews
under Caligula. This account, consisting originally
of five books, has been preserved in fragments only
(see Schiirer, I.e. pp. 525 et seq.). Philo intended to
show the fearful punishment meted out bj'^ God to
the persecutors of the Jews (on Philo's predilection
for similar discussions .see Siegfried, " Philo von Al-
exandria," p. 157). (3) "De Providcntia," preserved
only in Armenian, and printed from Aucher's Latin
translation in the editions of Richter and others (on
Greek fragments of tlie work see Schnrer, I.e. pp.
531 et seq.). (4) "De Animalibus" (on the title see

Schiirer, I.e. p. 532; in Richter's cd. viii. 101-144).
(5) 'TrrodeTiKd ("Counsels"), a work known only
through fragments in Eusebius, " Pneparatio Evan-
gelica," viii. 6, 7. The meaning of the title is open
to discussion; it may be identical with the follow-
ing (No. G). (6) Hf/jt 'Iov6(iiuv, an apology for the
Jews (Schiirer, I.e. pp. 5d'2 et seq.).

For a list of the lost works of Philo see Schiirer,
I.e. p. 5:U.

Other Works Ascribed to Philo : (1) " De Vita Con-
templativa "' (on the dilferent titles comp. Schiirer,
I.e. p. 535). This work describes the mode of life
and the religious festivals of a society of Jewish
ascetics, who, according to the author, are widely
scattered over the eurtii, and are found especially
in every^ nome in Egypt. The writer, however,
confines himself to describing a colony of hermits
.settled on the Lake Mareotis in Egypt, where each
lives separately in his own dwelling. Six days
of the week they spend in pious contemplation,
chiefly in connection with Scripture. On the sev-
enth day both men and women assemble together in
a hall ; and the leader delivers a discourse consist-
ing of an allegorical interpretation of a Scriptural
passage. The feast of the fiftieth day is especially
celebrated. The ceremony begins with a frugal
meal consisting of bread, salted vegetables, and
water, during which a passage of Scripture is inter-
preted. After the meal the members of the society
in turn sing religious songs of various kinds, to which
the assembly answers with a refrain. The ceremony
ends with a choral representation of the triumphal
festival that Moses and lyiiriam arranged after the
passage through the Red Sea, the voices of the men
and the women uniting in a choral symphony^ until
the sun rises. Aftera common morning prayer each
goes home to resume his contemplation. Such is
the contemplative life (Sio^ deufjTjTiKdc) led by these
QepaTTEvrai (" servants of Yiiwh ").

The ancient Church looked upon these Therapeutoe
as disguised Christian monks. This view has found
advocates even in very recent times; Lucius' opin-
ion particularly, that the Christian monkdom of the
third century was here glorified in a Jewish disguise,
was widely accepted ("Die Therapeuten," 1879).
But the ritual of the society, which was entirely^ at
variance with Christianity, disproves this view.
The chief ceremony especially, the choral represen-
tation of the passage through the Red Sea, has no
special significance for Christianity ; nor have there
ever been in the Christian Church nocturnal festi-
vals celebrated by men and women
"DeVita together. But Massebieau ("Revue
Contempla- de I'Histoire des Religions," 1887, xvi.
tiva." 170 et seq., 284 et seq.), Conybeare
("Philo About the Contemplative
Life," Oxford, 1895), and Wendland ("Die Thera-
peuten," etc.. Leipsic, 1896) ascribe the entire work
to Philo, basing their argument wholly on linguistic
reasons, which seem sufficiently conclusive. But
there are great dissimilarities between the funda-
mental conceptions of the author of the "De Vita
Contemplativa " and those of Philo. The latter
looks upon Greek culture and philosophy as allies,
the former is hostile to Greek philosophy (see Sieg-
fried in " Protestantische Kirchenzeitung," 1896, No.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo Judaeus

42). He repudiates a science that numbered among
its followers the sacred baud of the Pythagoreans,
inspired men like Parmenides, Empedocles, Zeno,
Cleanthes, lleraclitus, and Plato, whom Philo prized
("Quod Ouuiis Probus," i., ii. ; "Quis Rerum Divi-
narum Heres Sit," 43; "De Providentia," ii. 42, 48,
etc.). He considers the symposium a detestable,
common drinking-bout. This can not be explained
as a Stoic diatribe ; for in this ca.se Philo would not
have repeated it. And Philo would have been the
last to interpret the Platonic Eros in the vulgar way
in which it is explained in the "De Vita Contempla-
tiva," 7 [ii. 480], as he repeatedly uses the myth of
double man allegorically in his interpretation of
Scripture ("De Opificio Mundi," 24; "De Allegoriis
Legum," ii. 24). It must furthermore be remem-
bered that Philo in none of his other works men-
tions these colonies of allegorizing ascetics, in which
he would have been highly interested had he known
of them. But pupils of Philo may subsequently
have founded near Alexandria similar colonies that
endeavored to realize his ideal of a pure life tri-
umphing over the senses and passions; and they
might also have been responsible for the one-sided
development of certain of the master's principles.
While Philo desired to renounce the lusts of this
world, he held fast to the scientific culture of Hel-
lenism, which the author of this book denounces.
Although Philo liked to withdraw from the world
in order to give himself up entirely to contempla-
tion, and bitterly regretted the lack of such repose
("De Specialibus Legibus," 1 [ii. 299]), he did not
abandon the work that was required of him by the
welfare of his people.

(2) "De Incorruptibilitate Mundi." Since the
publication of I. Bernays' investigations there has
been no doubt that this work is spurious. Its Peri-
patetic basic idea that the world is eternal and in-
destructible contradicts all those Jewish teachings
that were for Philo an indisputable presupposition.
Bernays has proved at the same time that the text
has been confused through wrong pagination, and
he has cleverly restored it (" Gesammelte Abhand-
lungen," 1885, i. 283-290; "Abhandlungder Berliner
Akademie," 1876, Philosophical-Historical Division,
pp. 209-278; ib. 1882, sect. iii. 82; Von Arnim, I.e.
pp. 1-52).

(3) "De Mundo," a collection of extracts from
Philo, especially from the preceding work (comp.
Wendland, "Philo," ii., pp. vi.-x.). (4) "DeSamp-
sone " and "De Jona," in Armenian, published with
Latin translation by Aucher. (5) " Interpretatio
Hebraicorum Nominum," a collection, by an anony-
mous Jew, of the Hebrew names occurring in Philo.
Origen enlarged it by adding New Testament
names ; and Jerome revised it. On the etymology of
names occurring in Philo's exegetical works .see be-
low. (6) A "Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum,"
which was printed in the sixteenth century and then
disappeared, has been discussed by Cohn in "J. Q.
R." 1898, X. 277-332. It narrates Biblical history
from Adam to Saul (see Schiirer, l.r. p. 542). (7)
The pseudo-Philonic " Breviarium Temporum," pub-
lished by Annius of Viterbo (see Schiirer, I.e. note
168).

His Exegesis. Cultural Basis : Philo, of Jewish

descent, was by birth a Hellene, a member of one
of tiiose colonies, organized after the conquests of
Alexander the Great, that were dominated by
Greek language and culture. The vernacular of
the.se colonies, Hellenistic Greek proper, was every-
wiiere corrupted by idiotisms and solecisms, and in
specifically Jewish circles by Hebraisms and Semi-
tisms, numerous examples of which are found in the
Septuagint, the Apocrypha, and the New Testa-
ment. Tiie educated classes, however, had created
for themselves from the classics, in the so-called
KotvT/ Sid/.eKToc, a purer medium of expression. In
the same way Philo formed his language by means
of extensive reading of the classics. Scholars at an
early date pointed out resemblances to Plato (Suidas,
s.v. ; Jerome, " De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis," Cata-
logue, S.V.). But there are also expressions and
phrases taken from Aristotle, as well as from Attic
orators and historians, and poetic phrases and allu-
sions to the poets. Philo's works offer an anthology
of Greek phraseology of the most different periods;
and his language, in consequence, lacks simplicity
and purity (see Treitel, "De Philonis Judaei Ser-
mone," Breslau, 1870; Jessen, "De Elocutione Phi-
lonis Alexandriui," 1889).

But more important than the influence of the lan-
guage was that of the literature. He quotes the
epic and dramatic poets with especial frequency, or
alludes to passages in their works. He has a wide
acquaintance with the works of the Greek philos-
ophers, to which he was devoted, owing to them his
real scholarship, as he himself says (see "De Con-
gressu Quaerendae Eruditionis Gratia," 6 [i. 550];
"De Specialibus Legibus," ii. 229; Deane, "The
Book of Wisdom," 1881, p. 12, note 1). He holds
that the highest perception of truth is possible only
after a study of the encyclopedic sciences. Hence
his system throughout shows the influence of Greek
philosophy. The dualistic contrast between God
and the world, between the finite and the infinite,
appears also in Neo-Pythagorism. The influence
of Stoicism is unmistakable in the doc-
Influence trine of God as the only efficient cause,
of in that of divine reason immanent in

Hellenism, the world, in that of the powers ema-
nating from God and suffusing the
world. In the doctrine of the Logos various ele-
ments of Greek philosophy are united. As Heinze
shows ("Die Lehre vom Logos in der Griechischen
Philosophic," 1872, pp. 204 et seq.), this doctrine
touches upon the Platonic doctrine of ideas as well
as the Stoic doctrine of the yeviKurardv ti and the
Neo -Pythagorean doctrine of the type that served at
the creation of the world; and in the shaping of the
/l(5yof TOfiEvg it touches upon the Heraclitean doctrine
of strife as the moving principle. Philo's doctrine
of dead, inert, non-existent matter harmonizes in its
essentials with the Platonic and Stoic doctrine. His
account of the Creation is almost identical with that
of Plato; he follows the hitter's "Timseus" pretty
closely in his exposition of the world as having no
beginning and no end ; and, like Plato, he places the
creative activity as well as the act of creation out-
side of time, on the Platonic ground that time begins
only with the world. The influence of Pythago-
rism appears in the numeral-symbolism, to which

Philo JudeeuB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo frequently recurs. The Aristotcliau contrast
between liivafii^ and h-rc/.cxeta ("Metaphysics," iii.
73) is found in Philo, "De Allegoriis Leguni," i. 64
(on Aristotle see Freudenthal in "Monatsschrift,"
1875. p. 233). In his psychology he adopts cither the
Stoic division of the soul into eight faculties, or the
Platonic trichotomy of reason, courage, and desire,
or the Aristotelian triad of the vegetative, emotive,
and rational souls. The doctrine of the body as the
source of all evil corresponds entirely with the
Neo-Pythagorean doctrine: the soul he conceives as
a divine emanation, similar to Plato's vovg (see
Siegfried, "Philo," pp. 189 et seq.). His ethics and
allegories are based on Stoic ethics and allegories.
Although as a philosopher Philo must be classed
with the eclectics, he was not therefore merely a com-
piler. He made his philosophy the means of de-
fending and justifying the Jewish religious truths.
These truths he regarded as fi.xed and determinate;
and philosophy was merely an aid to truth and a
means of arriving at it. With this end in view
Philo chose from the philosophical tenets of the
Greeks, refusing those that did not harmonize with
the Jewish religion, as, e.g., the Aristotelian doc-
trine of the eternity and indestructibility of the
world.

Although he devoted himself largely to the Greek
language and literature, especially Greek philoso-
phy, Philo's national Jewish education is also a fac-
tor to be taken into account. While he read the Old
Testament chiefly in the Greek trans-
His Knowl- lation, not deeming it necessary to use

edge of the Hebrew te.xt because he was imder

Hebrew, the wrong impression that the Greek
corresponded with it, he nevertheless
understood Hebrew, as his numerous etymologies of
Hebrew names indicate (see Siegfried, "Philonische
Studien," in Merx, "Archiv filr Wissenschaftliche
Erforschung des A. T." 1871, ii. 2, 143-168; id^yn,
"Hebraische Worterklarungen des Philo und Ihre
Einwirkung auf die KirchenvSter," 1863). These
etymologies are not in agreement with modern He-
brew philology, but are along the lines of the etymo-
logic midrash to Genesis and of the earlier rabbinism.
His knowledge of the Halakah was not profound.
B. Ritter, however, has shown (I.e.) that he was
more at home in this than has been generally assumed
(see Siegfried's review of Ritter's book in "Jenaer
Literaturzeituug," 1879, No. 35, where the principal
points of Philo's indebtedness to the Halakah are
enumerated). In the Haggadah, however, he was
very much at home, not only in that of the Bible, but
especially in that of the earlier Palestinian and the
Hellenistic Midrash (Frankel, "Ueber den Einfluss
der Paliistinensischen Exegese auf die Alexaudri-
nische Hermeneutik," 1851, pp. 190-200; SchUrer,
I.e. p. 540: "De Vita Mosis," i. 1 [ii. 81]).

His Methods of Exegesis: Philo bases his doctrines
on the Old Testament, which he considers as the
source and standard not only of religious truth but
in general of all truth. Its pronouncements are for
him divine pronouncements. They are the words
of the kpbr ?.6}'n(, ^cior '/.dyo^, bpdu^ }^yo^{"' De Agricul-
turaNoe,"gl2[i. 308]; " De Somniis," i. 681, ii. 25)
uttered sometimes directly and sometimes through
the mouth of a prophet, especially through Moses,

wiiom Philo considers the real medium of revelation,
while the other writers of the Old Testament appear
as friends or pupils of Moses. Although he distin-
guishes between the words uttered by God Himself,
as the Decalogue, aud the edicts of Moses, as the
special laws (" De Specialibus Legibus," §§ 2 et seq.
[ii. ZQOet seq.] ; " De Pra?miis et Pa'nis,"§ 1 [ii. 408]),
he does not carry out this distinction, since he be-
lieves in general that everything in the Torah is of
divine origin, even the letters and accents (" De Mu-
tatione Nominum," § 8 [i. 587]). The extent of his
canon can not be exactly determined (comp. Horne-
mann, " Observationes ad lUustrationem Doctrin.t
de Canone V. T. ex Philone," 1776; B. Pick.
"Philo's Canon of the O. T.," in "Jour, of Excg.
Society," 1895, pp. 126-143; C. Bissel, "The Canon
of the O. T.," in " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1886. pp.
83-86; and the more recent introductions to the Old
Testament, especially those of Buhl, "Canon and
Text of the O. T. " 1891, pp. 17, 43, 45 ; Ryle, " Philo
and Holy Script," 1895, pp. xvi.-xxxv. ; and other
references in Schilrcr, I.e. p. 547, note 17). He does
not quote Ezekiel, Daniel, Canticles, Ruth, Lamen-
tations, Ecclesiastes, or Esther (on a quotation from
Job see E. Kautzsch, "De Locis V. T. a Paulo
Apostolo Allegatis," 1869, p. 69; on Philo's manner
of quoting see Siegfried, I.e. p. 162). Philo regards
the Bible as the source not only of religious revela-
tion, but also of philosophic truth; for, according
to him, the Greek philosophers also have borrowed
from the Bible: Heraclitus, according to "Quis
Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 43 [i. 503]; Zeno,
according to "Quod Omnis Probus Liber," § 8 [ii.
454].

Greek allegory had preceded Philo in this field.
As the Stoic allegorists sought in Homer the basis
for their philosophic teachings, so the Jewish alle-
gorists, and especially Philo, went to the Old Testa-
ment. Following the methods of Stoic allegory,

they interpreted the Bible philosoph-

Stoic ically (on Philo's predecessors In the

Influence, domain of the allegoristic Midrash

among the Palestinian and Alexan-
drian Jews, see Siegfried, I.e. pp. 16-37). Philo bases
his hermeneutics on the assumption of a twofold
meaning in the Bible, the literal and the allegorical
(comp. "Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis," g 11 [i. 280];
"De Somniis," i. 40 [i. 656]). He distinguishes the
pTiTTj Kal (pavepa a7v66oaic (" De Abrahamo," § 36 [ii. 29
et seq.]), "ad litteram"in contrast to "allegorice"
(" Quaestioues in Genesin," ii. 21). The two inter-
pretations, however, are not of equal importance:
the literal sense is adapted to human needs; but the
allegorical sense is the real one, which only the ini-
tiated comprehend. Hence Philo addresses himself
to the iihtyTai ("initiated ") among his audience, by
whom he expects to be really comprehended (" De
Cherubim," § 14 [i. 47]; "De Somniis," i. 33 [i.
649]). A special method is requisite for determin-
ing the real meaning of the words of Scripture
("Canons of Allegory," " De VictimasOfferentibus,"
§ 5 [ii. 255] ; "Laws of Allegory," " De Abrahamo,"
§ 15 [ii. 11]); the correct application of this method
determines the correct allegory, and is therefore
called "the wise architect" (" De Somniis," ii. 2 [i.
660]). As a result of some of these rules of inter-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo JudaeuB

prctatinn the literal sense of certain passages of
the Bible must be excluded altogether; e.g., passages
in which according to a literal inter-
Attitude pretation something unworthy is said
Toward of God ; or in which statements are
Literal made tlmt are unworthy of the Bible,
Meaning, senseless, contradictory, or inadmissi-
ble; or in which allegorical expres-
sions are used for the avowed purpose of drawing
the reader's attention to the fact that the literal sense
is to be disregarded.

There are in addition special rules that not only
direct the reader to recognize the passages wliich
demand an allegorical interpretation, b>it help the
initiated to find the correct and intended meaning.
These passages are such as contain: (1) the doubling
of a phrase; (2) an apparently superfluous ex-
pression in the text; (3) the repetition of statements
previously made; (4) a change of phraseology — all
these phenomena point to something special that the
reader must consider. (5) An entirely different
meaning may also be found by a different combination
of the words, disregarding the ordinarily accepted
division of the sentence in question into phrases
and clauses. (6) The synon5Mns must be carefully
studied; e.r/., why Idbq is used in one passage and
ykvoq in another, etc. (7) A play upon words must be
utilized for finding a deeper meaning; e.y., sheep
(■n-pSfiarov) stand for progress in knowledge, since
they derive their name from the fact of their pro-
gressing (Trpofiaiveiv), etc. (8) A definite allegorical
sense may be gathered from certain particles, ad-
verbs, prepositions, etc. ; and in certain cases it
can be gathered even from (9) the parts of a word ;
e.g., from rJm in 6idXevKoq. (10) Every word must
be explained in all its meanings, in order that
different interpretations may be found. (11) The
skilful interpreter may make slight changes in a
word, following the rabbinical rule, "Read not so,
but so " (Ber. 10a). Philo, therefore, changed ac-
cents, breathings, etc., in Greek words. (12) Any
peculiarity in a phrase justifies the assumption that
some special meaning is intended; e.g., where iiia
(" one ") is used instead of np6)Ti^ (" first " ; Gen. i. 5),
etc. Details regarding the form of words are very
important: (13) the number of the word, if it show-s
any peculiarity in the singular or the plural; the
tense of the verb, etc. ; (14) the gender of the
noun; (15) the presence or omission of the article;
(16) the artificial interpretation of a single expres-
sion ; (17) the position of the verses of a passage ; (18)
peculiar verse-combinations; (19) noteworthy omis-
sions; (20) striking statements; (21) numeral sym-
bolism. Philo found much material for this 83'm-
bolism in the Old Testament, and he developed it
more thoroughly according to the methods of the
Pythagoreans and Stoics. He could follow in many
points the tradition handed down by his allegorizing
predecessors ("Dc Vita Contemplativa," § 8 [ii.
481]).

Philo regards the singular as God's number and
the basis for all numbers ("De Allegoriis Legum,"
ii. 12 [i. 66]). Two is the number of schism, of that
which has been created, of death ("De Opificio
Mundi, § 9 [i. 7] ; " De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44] ;
*'De Somniis," ii. 10 [i. 688]). Three is the number

of the bodyC'De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44])
or of the Divine Being in connection with His fun-
damental powers (" De Sacrificiis Abe-
Views on lis et Caini," ^15 [i. 173]). Four is
Numbers, potentially what ten is actually, the
perfect number (" De Opificio Mundi,"
^^ 15, 16 [i. 10, 11], etc.); but in an evil sense
four is the number of the passions, Tr^af^T/ ("De Con-
gressu Quserendtt; Eruditionis Gratia." § 17 [i. 532]).
Five is the number of the senses and of sen.sibilitj'
("De Opificio Mundi," § 20 [i. 14], etc.). Six, the
product of the masculine and feminine numbers 3x2
and in its parts equal to 3-f-3, is the symbol of the
movement of organic beings (" De Allegoriis Legum, "
i. 2 [i. 44]). Seven has the most various and mar-
velous attributes (" De Opificio Mundi," ^g 30-43 [i.
21 et seq.] ; comp. I. G. MQller, "Philo unddie Welt-
sch5pfung," 1841, p. 211). Eight, the number of the
cube, has many of the attributes determined by the
Pythagoreans (" Quoestiones in Genesin," iii. 49 [i.
223, Aucher]). Nine is the number of strife, ac-
cording to Gen. xiv. (" De Congressu Q'u. Eruditionis
Gratia," § 17 [i. 532]). Ten is the number of per-
fection (" De Plautatione NoK," § 29 [i. 347]). Philo
determines also the values of the numbers 60, 70,
and 100, 12, and 120. (22) Finally, the symbolism of
objects is very extensive. The numerous and
manifold deductions made from the comparison of
objects and the relations in which they stand come
very near to confusing the whole system, this being
prevented only by assigning predominance to certain
forms of comparison, although others of secondary
importance are permitted to be made side by side
with them. Philo elaborates an extensive symbol-
ism of proper names, following the example of the
Bible and the Midrash, to which he adds manj' new
interpretations. On the difference between the
physical and ethical allegory, the first of which
refers to natural processes and the second to the
psychic life of man, see Siegfried, I.e. p. 197.

Philo 's teaching was not Jewish, but was derived
from Greek philosophy. Desiring to convert it into
a Jewish doctrine, he applied the Stoic mode of alle-
goric interpretation to the Old Testament. No one
before Philo,. except his now forgotten Alexandrian
predecessors, had applied this method to the Old
Testament — a method that could produce no lasting
results. It was attacked even in Alexandria (" De
Vita Mosis," iii. 27 [ii. 168]), and disappeared after
the brief florescence of Jewish Hellenism.

His Doctrine of God: Philo obtains his theol-
ogy in two ways: by means of negation^nd by posi-
tive assertions as to the nature of God (comp. Zeller,
"Philosophie der Griechen," 3d ed., iii., § 2, pp.
353-360; Drummond, "Philo Jud8eus,"ii. 1-64. Lon-
don, 1888). In his negative statement he tries to
define the nature of God in contrast to the world.
Here he can take from the Old Testament only cer-
tain views of later Jewish theology regarding God's
sublimity transcending the world (Isa. Iv. 9), and
man's inability to behold God (Ex. xxxii. 20 et seq.).
But according to the conception that predominates
in the Bible God is incessantly active in the world,
is filled with zeal, is moved by repentance, and
comes to aid His people ; He is, therefore, cntirelj'
different from the God described by Philo. Philo

Fhilo Judaens

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

does not consider God similar to heaven or the world
or man; He exists neither in time nor space; He has
no human attributes or emotions. Indeed, He has
no attributes whatever (dT/otf), and in consequence
no name (a^pjyrof), and for that reason he can not be
perceived by man {aKara/j^-roi). He can not change
(drpf^TTOf) : He is always the s&me{ai6to(). He needs
no other being {xp',K<^^ ov^evdc 'o TopdTav), and is self-
sufficient (eni-rCi Uavdc). He can never perish (aodap-
Tof). He is the simply existent (6 uv, to dv), and as
such has no relations with any other being (to yap ri
6v iariv ovxi tuv ~p6q ti).

It is evident that this is not the God of the Old
Testament, but the idea of Phito designated as Geoc,
in contrast to matter. Nothing remained, therefore,
but to set aside the descriptions of God in the Old
Testament by means of allegory. Fhilo character-
izes as A monstrous impiety the anthropomorphism
of the Bible, which, according to the literal mean-
ing, ascribes to God hands and feet, eyes and ears,
tongue and windpipe (" De Confusione Linguarum,"
§ 27 [i. 425]). Scripture, he says, adapts itself to
human conceptions {ib.)\ and for pedagogic reasons
God is occasionally represented as a man ("Quod
Deus Sit Immutabilis," § 11 [i. 281]). The same
holds good also as regards His anthropopathic at-
tributes. God as such is untouched by unreason-
able emotions, as appears, e.g., from E.\. ii. 12, where
Moses, torn by his emotions, perceives God alone to
be calm ("'De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 12 [i. 943] ).
He is free from sorrow, pain, and all such affections.
But He is frequently represented as endowed with
human emotions; and this serves to explain expres-
sions referring to His repentance.
Views on Similarly God can not exist or change
Anthropo- in space. He has no " where " (toi', ob-
mor- tained by changing the accent in Gen.

phisms. iii. 9: "Adam, where [ttov] art thou?"),
is not in any place. He is Himself the
place; the dwelling-place of God means the same
as God Himself, as in the Mishnah ClpO =: " God is "
(comp. Freudenthal, " Hellenistische Studien," p.
73), corresponding to the tenet of Greek philosophy
that the existence of all things is summed up in God
(comp. SchQrer, "Der Begriff des Himmelreichs,"
in "Jahrbuch fiir Protestantisclie Theologie," 1876,
i. 170). The Divine Being as such is motionless, as
the Bible indicates by the phrase "God stands"
(Deut. v. 31 ; Ex. xvii. 6). It was difficult to har-
monize the doctrine of God's namelessness with the
Bible; and Philo was aided here by his imperfect
knowledge of Greek. Not noticing that the Sep-
tuagint translated the divine name Yiiwii by Kvfuoc,
he thought himself justified in referring the two
names Stof and Kipioc to the two supreme divine
faculties.

Philo's transcendental conception of the idea of
God precluded the Creation as well as any activity
of God in the world; it entirely separated God from
man; and it deprived ethics of all religious basis.
But Philo, who was a pious Jew, could not accept
the un-Jewish, pagan conception of the world and
the irreligious attitude which would have been the
logical result of his own system ; and so he accepted
the Stoic doctrine of the immanence of God, which
led him to statements opposed to those he hud

previously made. While he at first had placed God
entirely outside of the world, he now regarded Him
as the only actual being therein. God is the only
real citizen of the world ; all other beings are merely
sojourners therein ("De Cherubim," i^ 34 [i. 661]).
While God as a transcendent being could not
operate at all in the world, He is now considered
as doing everything and as the only cause of all
things ("De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 3 [i. 88]). He
creates not only once, but forever {ib. i. 13 [i. 44]).
He is identical with the Stoic "efficient cause." He
is impelled to activity chiefly by His goodness,
which is the basis of the Creation. God as creator
is called Qe6c (from Tltiz/fn; comp. "De Confusione
Linguarum," § 27 [i. 425]). This designation also
characterizes Him in conformity with His goodness,
because all good gifts are derived from God, but
not evil ones. Hence God must call upon other
powers to aid Him in the creation of man, as He
can have nothing to do with matter, which con-
stitutes the physical nature of man : with evil
He can have no connection ; He can not even pun-
ish it. God stands in a special relation to man.
The human soul is God's most characteristic work.
It is a reflex of God, a part of the divine reason,
just as in the system of the Stoics the human soul is
an emanation of the World-Soul. The life of the
soul is nourished and supported b^' God, Philo using
for his illustrations the figures of the light and the
fountain and the Biblical passages referring to these.
Doctrine of the Divine Attributes : Al-
though, as shown above, Philo repeatedly endeav-
ored to find the Divine Being active and acting in
the world, in agreement with Stoicism, yet his Pla-
tonic repugnance to matter predominated, and con-
sequently whenever he posited that the divine could
not have any contact with evil, he defined evil as
matter, with the result that he placed God outside
of the world. Hence he was obliged to separate
from the Divine Being the activity displayed in the
world and to transfer it to the divine powers, which
accordingly were sometimes inherent in God and
at other times exterior to God. This doctrine, as
worked out by Philo, was composed of very differ-
ent elements, including Greek philosophy, Biblical
conceptions, pagan and late Jewish views. The
Greek elements were borrowed partly from Platonic
philosophy, in so far as the divine powers were con-
ceived as types or patterns of actual things ("arche-
typal ideas "), and partly from Stoic philosophy, in so
far as tho.se powers were regarded as the efficient
causes that not only represent the types of things,
but also produce and maintain them. Thej' fill the
whole world, and in them are contained all being and
all individual things ("De Confusione Linguarum,"
§ 34 [i. 481]). Philo endeavored to harmonize this
conception with the Bible by designating these
powers as angels ("De Gigantibus," § 2 [i. 263];
"De Somniis," i. 22 [i. 641 et seq.]), whereby he des-
troyed an essential characteristic of the Biblical view.
He further made use of the pagan conception of
demons (ib.). And finally he was influenced by the
late Jewish doctrine of the throne-chariot (^£^•yo
nSD'IO), in connection with which he in a way de-
taches one of God's fundamental powers, a point
which will be discussed further on. In the Haggadah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Fhilo Judaeus

this fundainontal power dividi-s into two contrasts,
which modify each other: D^DHin moi ]nr[ mO-
In the same way Philo contrasts the two divine at-
tributes of goochiess and power {ayadd-r/g and apx'/,
(Vivdfiii ;);ut)ia7iK// and avynoAaaTiKij). They are also ex-
pressed in the names of God; but Philo's explanation
is confusing. " Yiiwii " really designates God as the
kind and merciful one, wiiile "Elohim" designates
liim as the just one. Philo, however, interpreted
"Elohim" (LXX. Ofof) as designating the "cosmic
power " ; and as he considered tiie Creation the most
important proof of divine goodness, he found the
idea of goodness especially in Qeoq (" De Migratione
Abrahami," ti, '62 [i. 4G4]). On the parallel activity
of the two powers and the symbols used therefor
in Scripture, as well as on their emanation from
God and their further development into new pow-
ers, their relation to God and the world, their
part in the Creation, their tasks toward man, etc.,
see Siegfried, "Philo," pp. 214-218. Philo's expo-
sition here is not entirely clear, as he sometimes con-
ceives the powers to be independent hypostases and
sometimes regards them as immanent attributes of
the Divine Being.

The Logos : Philo considers these divine powers
in their totality also, treating them as a single
independent being, which he designates "Logos."
This name, which he borrowed from Greek philos-
ophy, was first used by Heraclitus and then adopted
l)y the Stoics. Philo's conception of the Logos is
influenced by both of these schools. From Heracli-
tus he borrowed the conception of the "dividing
Logos" {'Ao^oq TOfievQ), which calls the various objects
into existence by the combination of contrasts (" Quis
Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 43 [i. 503]), and
from Stoicism, the characterization of the Logos as
the active and vivifying power. But Philo borrowed
also Platonic elements in designating the Logos
as the "idea of ideas" and the "archetypal idea"
(" De Migratione Abrahami," § 18 [i. 4o2] ; "Dc Spe-
cialibus Legibus," § 36 [ii. 333]). There are, in ad-
dition. Biblical elements: there are Biblical passages
in which the word of Yiiwii is regarded as a power
acting independently and existing by itself, as
Isa. Iv. 11 (comp. Matt. x. 13; Prov. xxx. 4); these
ideas were further developed by later Judaism in
the doctrines of the Divine Word creating the world,
the divine throne-chariot and its cherub, the divine
splendor and its shekinali, and tlie name of God as
well as the names of the angels ; and Philo borrowed
from all these in elaborating his doctrine of the
Logos. He calls the Logos the "archangel of many
names," "taxiarch" (corps-commander), the "name
of God," also the "heavenly Adam" (comp. "De
Confusione Linguarum," tij 11 [i. 41 Ij), the "man,
the word of the eternal God." The Logos is also
designated as "high priest," in reference to the ex-
alted position which the high priest occupied after
the Exile as the real center of the Jewish state.
The Logos, like the high priest, is the expiator of
sins, and the mediator and advocate for men: iKerriq
("Quis Rerum Divinarum Hercs Sit," § 42 [i. 501],
and -apnK?j/Toq ("De Vita Mosis," iii. 14 [ii. 155]).
From Alexandrian theology Philo borrowed the idea
of wisdom as the mediator; he thereby somewhat
confused his doctrine of the Logos, regarding wis-

dom as the higher jjrinciple from which the Logos
proceeds, and again coordinating it with the latter.
Philo, in connecting his doctrine of the Logos
with Scripture, first of all bases on Gen. i. 27 the re-
lation of the Logos to God. He trans-
Relation of lates this passage as follows: "lie
the Logos made man after the image of God,"
to God. concluding therefrom that an image
of God existed. This image of God
is the type for all other things (the "Archetypal
Idea " of Plato), a seal impressed upon things. The
Logos is a kind of shadow cast by God, having the
oiitiines but not the blinding light of the Divine
Being.

The relation of the Logos to the divine powers,
especiall}' to the two fundamental powers, must
now be examined. And here is found a twofold
series of exegetic expo.sitions. According to one,
the Logos stands higher than the two powers ; ac-
cording to the otlier, it is in a way the product of
the two i)owers; similarly it occasionally appears
as the chief and leader of the innumerable powers
proceeding from the primal powers, and again as
the aggregate or product of them. In its relation
to the world the Logos appears as the universal
substance on which all things depend ; and from this
point of view the manna (as yeviK<l)TaT6v -i) becomes
a symbol for it. The Logos, however, is not only
the archetype of things, but also the power that
produces thefn, appearing as such especially under
the name of the Logos -o/zf ;? (" the divider"). It
separates the individual beings of nature from one
another according to their characteristics; but, on the
other hand, it constitutes the bond connecting the
individual creatures, uniting their spiritual and
phj^sical attributes. It may be said to have in-
vested itself with the whole world as an inde-
structible garment. It appears as the director and
shepherd of the things in the world
Pneuma- in so far as they are in motion. The
tology. Logos has a special relation to man.
It is the type ; man is the coi)y. The
similarity is found in the mind (volx) of man. For
the shaping of his nous, man (earthly man) has the
Logos (the "heavenly man") for a pattern. The
latter officiates here also as "the divider" (rofievg),
separating and uniting. The Logos as " interpreter "
announces God's designs to man, acting in this
respect as prophet and priest. As the latter, he
softens punishments by making the merciful power
stronger than the punitive. The Logos has a spe-
cial mystic influence upon the human soul, illu-
minating it and nourishing it with a higher spiritual
food, like the manna, of which the smallest piece has
the same vitality as the whole.

Cosmology : Philo's conception of the matter
out of which the world was created is entirely un-
Biblical and un-Jewish; he is here wholly at one
with Plato and the Stoics. According to him, God
does not create the world-stuff, but finds it ready
at hand. God can not create it, as in its nature it
resists all contact with the divine. Sometimes, fol-
lowing the Stoics, he designates God as "tlieetticient
cause, " and matter as " the affected cause. " He
seems to have found this conception in the Bible
(Gen. i. 2) in the image of the spirit of God hover-

Philo Judaeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ing over the waters ("De Opificio Mundi," § 2 [i.
12]). On the connection of these doctrines with the
speculations on the n'K'Kia n\r]}^. see Siegfried. I.e.
pp. 230 et 8fq.

Philo. again like Plato and the Stoics, conceives
of matter as having no attributes or form; this,
however, does not harmonize with the assumption
of four elements. Philo conceives of matter as evil,
on the ground that no praise is meted out to it in
Genesis ("Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 32
[i. 49.^]). As a result, he can not posit an actual
Creation, but only a formation of the world, as Plato
holds. God appears as demiurge and cosmoplast.

Philo frequently compares God to an architect or
gardener, who formed the present world (the Koafio^
a/ffi^vrtif )accordiug to a pattern, the ideal world (Koa/unc
:■■-■<). Philo takes the details of his story of the
Creation entirely from Gen. i. A specially impor-
tant position is assigned here to the Logos, which
executes the several acts of the Creation, as God
can not come into contact with matter, actually
creating only the soul of the good.

Anthropology. The Doctrine of Man as a Nat-
ural Being : Philu regards the physical natuie of man
as something defective and as an obstacle to his de-
velopment that can never be fully surmounted, but
still as something indispensable in view of the
nature of his being. With the body the necessity
for food arises; as Philo explains in various alle-
gories. The body, however, is also of advantage
to the spirit, since the spirit arrives at its knowledge
of the world by means of the five senses. But
higher and more important is the spiritual nature of
man. This nature has a twofold tendency: one
toward the sensual and earthly, which Philo calls
sensibilit}' (aia^/juig), and one toward the spiritual,
which he calls reason (voix). Sensibility has its seat
in the body, and lives in the senses, as Philo elabo-
rates in varying allegoric imagery. Connected with
this corporealit)^ of the sensibility are its limitations;
but, like the body itself, it is a necessity of nature,
the channel of all sense-perception. Sensibility,
however, is still more in need of being guided by
rea.son. Reason is that part of the spirit whicli
looks toward heavenly things. It is the highest,
the real divine gift that has been infused into man
from without (" De Opiticio Mundi," i. 15; "De Eo
Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur," i. 206); it is the
masculine nature of the soul. The voi;f is originally
at rest; and when it begins to move it produces the
several phenomena of mind ih^vfiT/nnra). The prin-
cipal powers of the voif are judgment, memory,
and language.

Man as a Moral Being : More important in Philo 's
system is the doctrine of the moral development of
man. Of this he distinguishes two conditions: (1)
that before time was, and (2) that since the begin-
ning of time. In the pretemporal condition the
soul was without body, free from earthly matter,
■without sex, in the condition of the generic (yeviKoc)
nmn, morally perfect, i.e., without flaws, but still
striving after a higher purit}'. On entering upon
time the soul loses its punt)' and is confined in a
bodj'. The nous becomes earthly, but it retains a
tendency toward something higher. Philo is not
entirely certain whether the body in itself or merely

in its preponderance over the spirit is evil. But
the body in any case is a source of danger, as it
easily drags the spirit into the bonds of sensibility.
Here, also, Philo is undecided whether sensibility is
in itself evil, or whether it may merely lead into
temptation, and must itself be regarded as a mean
(/ifffov). Sensibility in any case is the source of the
passions and desires. The passions attack the sensi-
bility in order to destroj' the whole soul. On their
numberand their sj'mbolsin Scripture see Siegfried,
I.e. pp. 245 et seq. The "desire "is either the lustful
enjoyment of sensual things, dwelling as such in the
abdominal cavity (Koi?Ja), or it is the craving for this
enjoyment, dwelling in the breast. It connects the
nous and the sensibility, this being a psychologic
necessity, but an evil from an ethical point of view.

According to Philo, man passes through .several
steps in his ethical development. At first the sev-
eral elements of the human being are in a state of
latency, presenting a kind of moral neutrality whicli
Philo designates by the terms "naked " or "medial."
The nous is nude, or stands midway so long as it
has not derided either for sin or for virtue. In this
period of moral indecision God endeavors to prepare
the earthly nous for virtue, presenting to him in the
"earthly wisdom and virtue" an image of heavenly
wisdom. But man (nous) quickly leaves this state
of neutrality. As soon as he meets the woman
(sensibility) he is filled with desire, and passion en-
snares him in the bonds of sensibility. Here the
moral duties of man arise; and according to his at-
titude there are two opposite teadencies in hu-
manity.

Ethics. Sensual Life : The soul is first aroused
by the stimuli of sensual pleasures; it begins to turn
toward them, and then becomes more and more in-
volved. It becomes devoted to the body, and begins
to lead an intolerable life {tiiog a,3iuToc). It is inflamed
and excited by irrational impulses. Its condition is
restless and painful. The sensibility endures, ac-
cording to Gen. iii. 16, great pain. A continual
inner void produces a lasting desire which is never
satisfied. All the higher aspirations after God
and virtue are stifled. The end is complete moral
turpitude, the annihilation of all sense of dut}', the
corruption of the entire soul: not a particle of the
soul that might heal the rest remains whole. The
worst consequence of this moral death is, according
to Philo, absolute ignorance and the loss of the
power of judgment. Sensual things are placed
above spiritual; and wealth is regarded as the high-
est good. Too great a value especially is placed
upon the human nous; and things are wrongly
judged. Man in his folly even opposes God, and
thinks to scale heaven and subjugate the entire
earth. In the field of politics, for example, he at-
tempts to rise from the position of leader of the
people to that of ruler (Philo cites Joseph as a type
of this kind). Sensual man generally employs his
intellectual powers for sophistry, perverting words
and destroying truth.

Ascent to Reasons Abraham, the "immigrant," is
the symbol of man leaving sensuality to turn to
reason ("De Migratione Abrahami," § 4 [i. 439]).
There are three methods whereby one can rise toward
the divine: through teaching, through practise

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo Judaeus

(uaKTjaic), and througli natural goodness (ooioTijg).
On Philo's predecessors on this point see Siegfried,
I.e. p. 257.

The metliod through teaching begins Avith a pre-
liminary presentiment and hope of higher knowl-
edge, Avhich is especially exemplified in Enos. The
real "teaching" is represented in the case of Abra-
ham, the " lover of learning." The pupil has to pass
througli three stages of instruction. The first is that
of "physiolog}'," during which physical nature is
studied. Abraham was in this stage until he went to
Ha ran ; at this time he was the " physiologer " of na-
ture, the "meteorologer. " Recognizing his short-
comings, he went to Ilaran, and turned to the study
of the spirit, devoting himself at first to the prepara-
tory learning that is furnished by general education
{iyKiK/.to^ :vai6cia); this is most completely anah'zed
by Philo in "De Congre.ssu Quaerendie Eruditionis
Gratia," § 3 [i. 520]. The pupil must study gram-
mar, geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, music, and
logic; but he can never attain to more than a partial
mastery of these sciences, and this only -with the
utmost labor.. He reaches only the boundaries of
knowledge (eTrtarT/fir/) proper, for the "soul's irra-
tional opinions" still follow him. He sees only the
reflection of real science. The knowledge of the
medial arts (/leaai Tex^nt) ofter^ proves erroneous.
Hence the "lover of learning " will endeavor to be-
come a "wise man." Teaching will have for its
highest stage philosophy, which begins to divide
the mortal from the immortal, finite knowledge from
infinite knowledge. The tendency toward the sen-
suous is given up, and the insufficiency of mere
knowledge is recognized. He perceives that wisdom
{ao(pi(i) is something higher than sophistry {ao(piaTEia)
and that the only subject of contemplation for the
wise is ethics. He attains to possession (kytjoic) and
use ixPV'^i-i) ; and at the highest stage he beholds
heavenly things, even the Eternal God Himself.

By the method of practise man strives to attain to
the highest good by means of moral action. The
preliminary here is change of mind (/leravota), the
turning away from the sensual life. This turning
away is symbolized in Enoch, Avho, according to
Gen. v. 24, " was not." Rather than undertake to en-
gage in the struggle with evil it is better for man to
escape therefrom by running away. He can also
meet the passions as an ascetic combatant. Moral
endeavor is added to the struggle. Many dangers
arise here. The body (Egypt), sensuality (Laban
and others), and lust (the snake) tempt the ascetic
warrior. The sophists (Cain, etc.) try to lead him
astray. Discouraged by his labors, the ascetic
flags in his endeavors; but God comes to his aid, as
exemplified in Eliezer, and fills him with love of
labor instead of hatred thereof. Thus the warrior
attains to victor}'. He slays lust as Phinehas slays
the snake; and in this way Jacob ("he who trips
up"), the wrestling ascetic, is transformed into
Israel, who beholds God.

Good moral endowment, however, takes prece-
dence of teaching and practise. Virtue here is not
the result of hard labor, but is the excellent fruit
maturing of itself. Noah represents the prelimi-
nary stage. He is praised, while no really good deeds
are reported of him, whence it may be concluded

that the Bible refers to his good disposition. But
as Noah is praised only in comparison with his
contemporaries, it follows that he is not yet a per-
fect n)an. There are several types in the Bible rep-
resenting the perfect stage. It appears in its purest
form in Isaac. He is perfect from the beginning:
perfection is a part of his nature (cpvai^); and he can
never lose it (av-r/Koog kuI airofxadr/c). With such per-
sons, therefore, the soul is in a state of
Views on rest and joy. Philo's doctrine of vir-
Virtue. tue is Stoic, although he is undecided
whether complete dispassionateness
{cnrd'dEia; " De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 45 [i. 513]) or
moderation {fiETpio-^a^elv; "De Abrahamo," § 44 [ii.
137]) designates the really virtuous condition. Philo
identifies virtue in itself and in general with divine
wisdom. Hence he uses the symbols interchange-
ably for both ; and as he also frequently identifies
the Logos with divine wisdom, the allegoric desig-
nations here too are easily interchanged. The Gar-
den of Eden is " the wisdom of God " and also " the
Logos of God " and " virtue." The fundamental vir-
tue is goodness; and from it proceed four cardinal
virtues — prudence, courage, self-control, and justice
(<pp6vr/aig, dvdpia, au<ppo<svvri, diKaioavvt)) — as the four
rivers proceed, from the river of Eden. An essential
difference between Philo and the Stoics is found in
the fact that Philo seeks in religion the basis for all
ethics. Religion helps man to attain to virtue,
which he can not reach of himself, as the Stoics
hold. God must implant virtue in man ("De Alle-
goriis Legum," i. 53 [i. 73]). Hence the goal of the
ethical endeavor is a religious one: the ecstatic con-
templation of God and the disembodiment of souls
after death.

Hellenistic Judaism culminated in Philo, and
through him exerted a deep and lasting influence on
Christianity also. For the Jews themselves it soon
succumbed to Palestinian Judaism. The develop-
ment that ended in the Talmud offered a surer guar-
anty for the continuance of Judaism, as opposed to
paganism and rising Christianity, than Jewish Hel-
lenism could promise, which, with all its loyalty ta
the laws of the Fathers, could not help it to an inde-
pendent position. The cosmopolitanism of Chris-
tianity soon swept away Hellenistic Judaism, which
could never go so far as to declare the Law super-
fluous, notwithstanding its philosophic liberality.
(For the extent and magnitude of Philo's influence
on Judaism and Christianity see Siegfried, I.e. pp.
275-399.)

Bidliography: Schurer. Gesch.; Siegfried, P7n7o vnn Alex-
andria, etc., 1875. On the Greek MSS. of Philo's extant
works: Schurer, I.e. lil. 493, note 26; Cohn-Wendland, P/it-
loni.s Alexandnni Opera Qiiw Supermnt, vol. i.. pp. 1.-
cxiv.; vol. )!., pp. i.-xxxiv.; vol. iii., pp. l.-xxil. On the indi-
rect sources that may be used for reconstructing the text:
Schurer, i.e. pp. ■t94c(.<eq.,notes28,29. On tninslationsof Phi-
lo's works : Schurer, I.e. p. 496. note 30: Cohn-Wendland. I.e.
vol. i., pp. Ixxx.etseq. Other German translations : M.J [est],
Philox (iemmmelte Schriften Ucbcraetztyheipsic, 18.^)6-73;
M. Friedlander, Ueher die Philanthropie ties Mosaischen
Gesetzes, Vienna, 1880.
T. C. S.

-His Relation to the Halakah : Philo's rela-

tion to Palestinian exegesis and exposition of the
Law is twofold : that of receiver and that of giver.
While his method of interpretation was influenced
by the Palestinian Midrash, he in his turn influenced

Philo Judaeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

this Midrash ; for many of bis ideas were adopted
by Palestinian scliolai-s, and are still found scattered
throughout the Talmud and the Midrashim. The
Palestinian Halakah was probably known in Alexan-
dria even before the time of Philo, and was appar-
ently introduced by Judah b. Tabbui, or Joshua b.
Penihyah. who tied from the persecutions of Hyr-
canus to Alexandria, where he remained for some
time. Philo had, moreover, the opportunity of
studyiun Palestinian exegesis in its home; for he
visiteil Jerusalem once or twice, and at these times
could communicate his views and his method of
exegesis to the Palestinian scholars. Furthermore,
later teachers of the Law occasionally visited Alex-
andria, among tliem Joshua b. Hananiah (comp.
Niddah (j9b); and these carried various Philonic
ideas back to Palestine. The same expositions of
the Law and the same Biblical exegesis are very
frequently found, therefore, in Philo and in the
Talmud and 3Iidrashim. The only means of as-
certaining Philo's exact relation to Palestinian
exegesis lies in the determination of the priority of
one of two parallel passages found in both authori-
ties. In the solution of such a problem a distinction
must first be drawn between the Halakah and the
Haggadah.

With regard to the Halakah, which originated in
Palestine, it may be assumed with certainty that the
interpretations and expositions found in Pliilo which

coincide with those of the Halakah

His Debt have been borrowed b}' him from the

to the latter; and his relation to it is, therc-

Halakah, fore, only that of the recipient. Any

influence which he may have exercised
upon it can have been only a negative one, inasmuch
as he aroused the opposition of Palestinian scholars
by many of liis interpretations, and inspired them
to controvert him. Tlie following examples may
serve to elucidate his relation to the Halakah: Philo
says (•' De Specialibus Legibus," ed. Leipsic, § 13, ed.
ilange}' [cited hereafter as M.], 312), in interpreting
Deut. xxii. 23-27, that the distinction made in the
Law as to whether the violence was offered in the
city or in the field must not be taken literally, the
point being whether the girl cried for help and could
have found it, without reference to the place where
she was assaulted. The same view is found in the
Halakah : " One might think that if the deed occurred
in the city, the girl was guilty under all circum-
stances, and that if it took place in the field, she
was invariably innocent. According to Deut. xxii.
27, however, 'the betrothed damsel cried, and there
was none to save her.' This shows that wherever
help may be expected the girl is guilty, whether
the assault is made in tlie city or in the field ; but
where no lielp is to be expected, she is innocent,
whether the assault occurs in the city or in the field "
(Sifre, Deut. 243 [ed. Friedmann, p. 118b]). Piiilo
explains (I.e. g 21 [M. 319-320]) the words "God
delivers him into his hand" (E.x. xxi. 13, Hebr.)as
follows: "A man has secretly committed a premed-
itated murder and lias escaped human justice; but
his act has not been hidden from divine vengeance,
and he shall be punished for it by death. Another
man who lias committed a venial offense, for which
he deserves exile, also has escaped human justice.

This latter man God uses as a tool, to act as the
executioner of the murderer, whom He causes him
to meet and to slay unintentionally. The murderer
has now been punished by death, while his execu-
tioner is exiled for manslaughter; the latter thus
suft'ering the punishment which he has merited be-
cause of his original minor oilense." This same in-
terpretation is found in the Halakah as well (Mak.
10b; comp. also ^lek., Mishpatim, iv. [ed. Weiss,
p. 86a]). In explaining the law given in Deut. xxi.
10-14, Philo says, furthermore ("De Caritate," § 14
[M. 394]), that a captive woman taken in war shall
not be treated as a slave if her captor will not take
her to wife. The same interpretation is found in
the Halakah (Sifre, Deut. 214 [ed. Friedmann, p.
113a]), wliich explains the words "lo tit'amer bah"
(= "thou shalt not do her wrong") to mean, "thou
shalt not keep her as a slave."

Numerous instances are also found in which,
though Philo departs in the main point from the
Halakah, he agrees with it in certain details. Thus,
in interpreting the law set forth in Ex. xxi. 22
("De Specialibus Legibus, "§ 19 [M. 317]) he differs
entirely from the Halakah, except that he says that
the man in question is liable to punishment only in
case he has beaten the woman on the belly. The
Halakah (Mek. I.e. v. [ed. Weiss, p. 90a]) deduces
tliis law from the word "harah"(= "pregnant").

Philo agrees with the Halakah also in his justifi-
cation of various laws. The law given in Ex. xxii.
1, according to which the owner lias the right to
kill a thief, is based by Philo on the assumption that
the thief breaks in with murderous intent, in which
case he would certainly be ready to kill the owner
should the latter try to prevent him from stealing
("De Specialibus Legibus," § 2 [M. 337]). The
ISIishnah (Sanh. viii. 6 and Talmud 72a) gives the
same explanation.

It is especially interesting to note that Philo bor-
rowed certain halakot that have no foundation in
Scripture, regarding them as authoritative interpre-
tations of the law in question. He says, for instance
[I.e. g 5 [M. 304]), that the marriage of a Jew with
a non-Jewish woman is forbidden, no matter of
what nation she be, although the Talmud says ('Ab.
Zarah 36b) that, according to the Pentateuchal law
(Deut. vii. 3), only a marriage with a member of any
of the seven Canaanitish peoples was forbidden, the
extension of this prohibition to all other nations
being merely a rabbinic decree.

The most important feature of Philo's relation to
the Halakah is liis frequent agreement with an
earlier halakah where it differs from a later one.
This fact has thus far remained unnoticed, although
it is most important, since it thus frequently be-
comes possible to determine which portions of the
accepted halakah are earlier and which are later in
date. A few examples may serve to make this
clear. Philo says (" De Caritate," § 14
Agreement [M. 393]), in explaining the law given

with the in Deut. xxi. 10-14, regarding a

Earlier woman taken captive in war, that she
Halakah. must cut her nails. This interpreta-
tion of verse 12 of the same chapter
agrees with the earlier halakah. represented by H.
Eliezer (Sifre, Deut. 212 [ed. Friedmann, p. 112b]);

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo Judseus

])ut tlie later lialakah (Sifro, I.e.), represcnled
by K. Akiba, ('.\i)laiiis the words "wc-'asctah
et-ziparnolia " as meaning "she shall let lier nails
grow. " Again, Philo says (" De Specialibus Legibus, "
§ 19 [M. 317j), in interpreting the law of Ex. xxi.
18-19: "If the person in question lias so far recov-
ered from his hurt that lie is able to go out again,
although it may be necessary for him to be assisted
by another or to use crutches, his assailant is no
longer liable to jninishment, even in case his victim
subsequently dies; for it is not absolutely certain
that liis death is a result of the blow, since he has
recovered in the meantime." Hence Philo takes tlic
phrase " upon his stall " (ib. verse 19) literally. In
like manner he interprets {I.e. § 2 [M. 336-337]) the
passage "If the sun be risen upon him " (ib. xxii. 3)
as follows: "If the owner catches the thief before
sunrise he may kill him; but after the sun has risen,
he no longer has this right." Both these explana-
tions by Philo contradict the accepted halakah,
which interprets the passages Ex. xxi. 19, xxii. 3,
as well as Deiit. xxii. 17, figuratively, taking the
phrase "upon his staff" to mean "supported by his
own strength," and interpreting the passage "If the
sun be risen upon him" to mean "when it is clear as
daylight that the thief would not have killed the
owner, even had the latter prevented him from the
robber}^" (conip. Mek., Mishpatim, vi. [ed. Wei.ss,
p. 88b]). Philo here follows the earlier halakah,
whose representative, R. Eliezer (Sifre, Deut. 237
[ed. Friedmann, p. l'18a]), saj^s "debarim ki-keta-
bam " (="the phrases must be taken literally").
Although only Deut. xxii. 17 is mentioned in Ket.
46a and Yer. Ket. 28c in connection with R. Eliezer's
statement, it is not expressly said that such state-
ment must not be applied to the other two phrases;
and it may be inferred from Philo that these three
phrases, wliich were explained figuratively by R.
Ishniael, were taken literally by the old halakah.

The same agreement between Philo and the earlier
halakah is found in the following examples: Philo
takes the phrases Ex. xxi. 23-25 and Deut. xix. 21,
"eye for eye," "tooth for tooth," etc., literally, say-
ing {I.e. § 33 [M. 329]) that, according to the Mo-
saic law, the " lex talionis " must hold.

Supports This explanation differs from that of

the " Lex the accepted halakah, which interprets

Talionis." the phrases in question as meaning

merely a money indemnity (Mek. I.e.

viii. [ed. Weiss, p. 90b] ; B. K. 93b-94a), whereas

the earlier halakah (as represented by R. Eliezer, B.

K. 94a) says " 'ajin tahat 'ayin mammash " (= "an

eye for an eye " is meant in the literal sense). This

view of the earlier halakali was still known as such

to the later teachers; otherwise the Talmud (B. K.

I.e.) would not have taken special pains to refute this

view, and to prove its incorrectness.

It frequently liappens that when Philo differs
from the Halakah in expounding a law, and gives
an interpretation at variance with it, such divergent
explanation is mentioned as a possible one and is dis-
proved in the Talmud or the lialakic midrashim. This
fact is especially noteworthy, since in many cases it
Tenders possible the reconstruction of the earlier hala-
kah by a comparison with Philo's interpretations,
as is shown by the following example: Philo says
X.— 2

{I.e. § 27 [M. 323J), in discussing the law of Ex. xxi.
28-29, that if an ox known to be vicious kills a per-
son, then the ox as well as its owner shall be sen-
tenced to deatli. Philo interprets the words "his
owner also shall be put to death" {ib. ver.se 29) to re-
fer to "death by legal sentence," although in certain
circumstances tlie Law may exempt the owner from
this penalty and impose a fine instead. The ac-
cepted Halakah, however, explains the phrase in
question to mean that the owner Avill suffer death
at the hand of God, while human justice can punish
him only by a fine, in no case having the right to
])ut him to death because his ox has killed a man
(Mek. I.e. x. [ed. Weiss, p. 93a] ; Sauli. 15a, b).
This interpretation of the Halakah was not, on the
other liaud, imiversally accepted; for in Mek. I.e.
and especially in the Talmud, I.e. it is attacked
in tlie remark: "Perhaps the passage really means
that the owner shall be sentenced to death by a
human court." It appears from this statement as
well as from Sanli. i. 4 (comp. Geiger, "Urschrift,"
pp. 448 et scq.) that the earlier halakah held that the
owner should be sentenced to death. Tliis view
was vigorously opposed by the later halakah, and
was not entirely set aside until a very late date, as
appears from Sauli. I.e.

It is impossible, however, to ascribe to the earlier
Halakah all the interpretations of Philo that are
mentioned and refuted in the Talmud and the hala-
kic midrashim ; and extreme caution must be ob-
served in determining which of Philo's interpreta-
tions that differ from the accepted Halakah are to be
assigned to the earlier one. Many of Philo's ex-
planations are quoted according to the
Influence rulings of the court of Alexandria and
of the to its interpretation of the Law, and
Court of Al- were never recognized in the Pales-
exandria. tiuian Halakah. They are, neverthe-
less, cited as possible interpretations,
and. are refuted in the Talmud and in the 3Iidrashim,
Alexandrian judicial procedure in general being
frequently made an object of criticism.

Philo's relation to the Palestinian haggadic exe-
gesis is different, for it can not be said that wherever
Palestinian ideas coincide with his own it must in-
variably have formed the basis of his statements
(comp. Freudentlial, " llellenistische Studien," pp.
57-77). While this dependence may have existed
in numerous instances, it may confidently be afiirmed
that in many other cases the Palestinian sources bor-
rowed ideas which Philo had drawn from Hellenistic
authorities. The following examples may serve to
show that the Palestinian Ilaggadah is indebted to
Philo: Gen. R. viii. 1 explains the passage Gen. i. 27
to mean that God originall}' created man as an An-
DROGYNOS, this idea being first expressed by Philo
in explanation of the same pa.ssage (" Dc Opificio
Muudi," § 24 [M. 17] and more clearly in "De Alle-
goriis Legum," ii. 4 [M. 49]). In like manner the
idea expressed in Gen. R. xiv. 3 of a twofold creation
of man, in part divine and in part earthly, has been
taken from Philo, who was the first to enunciate this
doctrine (" De Opificio Mundi," § 12 [M. 49-50]), while
the interpretation given in Ex. R. xxvi. 1, that Closes
was called by the same carne as the water, is certainly
taken from Philo, who says ("Vita Mosis," i. 4 [M.

Fhinehas

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

83]) that Moses receivetl Lis name because lie was
found in the water, the Egyptian word for whicli is
** mos. "

In the case of many of the ideas and principles
found both in Philo and in the Talmudic and
Midrashic literature it is impossible to
Relation to assert that there has been borrowing
Palestinian on either side; and it is much more
Hagg-adic justifiable to assume that such ideas
iixegesis. originated independently of each
other in Palestine and in Alexandria.
This may have been the case also with the rules of
hermeneutics. The principles which Philo framed
for the allegoiic interpretation of Scripture corre-
spond in part to the exegetic system of the Pales-
tinian Halakah. It is highly probable, however,
that neither borrowed these rules from the other,
but that both, feeling the need of interpreting Scrip-
ture, though for dififerent purposes, independently
invented and formulated these methods while fol-
lowing the same trend of thought. Some examples
of similarity in the rules may be given here. Philo
formulates the principle that a deeper meaning is
implied in the repetition of well-known facts C'De
Congressu Eruditionis Gratia," § 14 [M. 529]); and
this same rule was formulated by Akiba also (Sifre,
Num. 2, according to the reading of Elijah Wilna).
Philo states as another rule that there is no superflu-
ous word in the Bible, and Avherever there is a word
which seems to be such, it must be interpreted.
Hence he explains (" De Profugis," § 10 [:\I. 554]) the
apparently superfluous word in Ex. xxi. 12. This
principle is formulated by Akiba also (Yer. Shab. xix.
17a; comp. also Sanh. 64b, Avhere Akiba deduces the
same meaning from the apparently redundant word
in Num. xv. 31, as Philo does from Ex. xxi. 12).

Bibliography : Z. Frankel, Ueber den Einfluss der Palitsti-
nf.u><ii!chfn Excgcue nufdie Alerandrinv^cheHermeneutik,
pp. liXKia-^, Leipsic. 18.51; idem, Ueber PnU'iatinen.'iUiChe uud
Alesandrinifclie Schriftforscluina, in The Programme of
the lirexlnu Semiiniry, 18.54; Bernhard Ritter. Philo iind
die Halachn. ib. 1879; lirilz, Dax Korbfcxt der Erstlinge bei
Philo, in MniuititKchrift, 1877, pp. 433-442; Carl Siejrlried,
Philo von Alexandria als Au.sleger dei> Alien Testaments,
Jena, 1875: N. J. VVeinstein, Zitr Genenisder Agada: pariii.,
Die Alexandrinii<che Agada, GOttingen, 19f)l.
T. J. Z. L.

PHINEHAS: 1.— Biblical Data : SonofElea-
zar and grandson of Aaron (Ex. vi. 25; 1 Chron. v.
30, vi. 35 [A. V. vi. 4, 50]). His mother is said to
have been one of Putiel's (laughters; and it seems
that he was the only child of his parents (Ex. I.e.).
Pliinehas came into prominence through his execu-
tion of Zimri, son of Sabi, and Cozbi, daughter of
Zur, a Midianite prince, at Shittim, where the Israel-
ites worsiiiped Baal-peor. Through his zeal he also
stayed the plague which had broken out among the
Israelites as a punishment for their sin ; and for this
act be was approved by God and was rewarded
with the divine promi.se that the priesthood should
remain in his family forever (Num. xxv. 7-15).
After this event Phinehas accompanied, as priest,
the expedition sent against the Midianites, the result
of which was the destruction of the latter {ib. xxxi.
6 et set).). When the Israelites had settled in the
land of Canaiin, Phinehas headed the party which
was sent to remonstrate with the tribes of Reuben
and Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh because

of the altar that had been built by them east of th
Jordan (Josh. xxii. 13).

At the time of the distribution of the land, Phine
has received a hill in Jlount Ephraim, where hi
father, Eleazar, was buried (ib. xxi v. 33). He i
further mentioned as delivering the oracle to th
Israelites in their war with the Benjamites (Judge
XX. 28). In I Chron. ix. 20 he is said to have beei
the chief of the Korahites who guarded the eutrano
to the sacred tent.

The act of Phinehas in executing judgment am
his reward are sung by the Psalmist (Ps. cvi. 30
31). Phinehas is extolled in the Apocrypha also
" And Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, is the third ii
glory" (Ecclus. [Sirach] xlv. 23); "And he \va;
zealous for the law, even as Phinehas did unt(
Zimn, the son of Salu " (I Mace. ii. 26).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature : Phinehas i:

highly extolled by the Kabbis for his promptnesi
and energy in executing the prince of the tribe o
Simeon and the Midianitish woman. While evei
Moses himself knew not Avhat to do, and all tli«
Israelites were weeping at the door of the Taber
nacle (Num. xxv. 6), Phinehas .alone was self-pos
sessed and decided. He first appealed to the brav*
men of Israel, asking who would be willing to kil
the criminals at the risk of his own life ; and, receiving
no answer, he then undertook to accomplish the ex
ecution himself (Sifre, Num. 131; Targ. pseudo
Jonathan to Num. xxv. 7). According to Midr
Agada to Num. I.e., however, Phinehas thought thai
the punishment of Zimri was inc\imbeut on him, say ■
ing: "Reuben himself having committed adultery
[Gen. XXXV. 22], none of his descendants is qualifiec
to punish the adulterers; nor can the; punishment bt
inflicted by a descendant of Simeon, because the
criminal is a Simeonite prince; but I, a descend
ant of Levi, who with Simeon destroyed the inhab
itants of Shechem for having committed adultery,
will kill the descendant of Simeon for not having
followed his ancestor's example." Phinehas, having
removed the iron point from his spear (according tc
Pirke R. El. xlvii., it was Moses' spear that Phine-
has had snatched), leaned on the shaft as on a
rod; otherwise the Simeonites would not have al
lowed him to enter the tent. Indeed, the people in-
quired his object in entering the tent, whereupon
he answered that he was about to follow the ex-
ample of Zimri, and was admitted imopposed.
After having stabbed the man and the woman,
Phinehas carried both of them on his spear out of
the tent so thatall the Israelites might see that they
had been justly punished.

Twelve miracles were wrought for Phinehas at
this time, among others the following: he was
aided by divine providence in carrying the two
bodies on his spear (comp. Josephus, "'Ant." iv. 6,
§ 12); the wooden shaft of the spear supported the
weight of two corpses; the lintel of
The the tent was raised by an angel so

Twelve tiiat Phinehas was not required to
Miracles, lower his spear; the blood of the
victims was coagulated so that it
might not drop on Phinehas and render liim un-
clean. Still, when he came out the people of the

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Fhiaebaa

tribe of Simeon gatbered around liim with tlie in-
tention of killing him, upon which the angel of
death began to juow down the Israelites with greater
fury tlian before. Phinehas dashed the two corpses
to the ground, saying: "Lord of th(( world, is it
worth while tiiat so many Israelites perish through
these two? " and thereupon the plague was stayed.
An allusion to this incident is made by the Psahn-
ist: "Then stood up Phinclias, and executed judg-
ment" (Ps. cvi. 30), tlie Eabbis explaining tlie word
" wa-yefallcl" as meaning "he disputed witli God."
Tiie archangels were about to eject Phinehas from
liis place, but God said to them: "Leave him; lie
is a zealot, llie son of a zealot [that is, Levi], one
who, like his father [AaronJ, appeases My anger"
(Sanh. 82b; Sifre, l.c.\ Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to
Num. XXV. 7; Tan., Balak, 30; Num. K. xx. 26).
In Ber. 6b, however, the above-quoted passage from
the Psalms is interpreted to mean that Phinehas
prayed to God to check the plague. The ])cople of
all the other tribes, out of envy, mocked Phinehas,
saying : " Have ye seen how a descendant of one who
fattened ["pittein "] calves for sacrifices to the idol
[referring to his grandfather Putiel; comp. Jetiiuo
IN R.\BBiNiCAL Liteuatuke] killed the prince of a
tribe?" God then pointed out that Phinehas was
in reality the son of Eleazar and the grandson of
Aaron (Sanh. I.e.; B. B. 109b; Sifre, I.e.).

Although the priesthood had been previously
given to Aaron and his oiTspring, Phinehas became
a priest only after he had executed Zimri, or, ac-
cording to K. Ashi, after lie had reconciled the tribes
in the allair of the altar (Zel). 101b; comp. Phine-
has, Biblical Data). The priestly jiortions of
every slaughtered animal — the shoulder, the two
cheeks, and the maw (Deut. xviii. 3) — were assigned
by God to the priests solely because of the m(!rit of
Phinehas in killing Zimri and Cozbi: the shoulder
as a reward for carrying (m his shoulder the two
corpses; the two cheeks, for having pleaded with
liis mouth in favor of the Lsraelites; and the maw,
for having stabbed the two adulterers in that part
(Sifre. Deut. 165; Hul. 134b; Midr. Agada to Num.
XXV. 13). Owing to the sad consequences attending
the Israelites' lapse into idolatry, Phinehas pro-
nounced an anathema, under the autliority of the
Unutterable Name and of the writing of the tables,
and in the name of the celestial and terrestrial courts
of justice, against any Israelite who should driniv
the wine of a heathen (Pirke \\. El. xlvii.).

Phinelias accompanied, in the capacity of a priest
specially anointed ("meshuah milhamah") for such
purposes (comp. Deut. xx. 2), the ex-
Other pedition sent by Moses against IMidian.
Exploits. Tlie question why Phinehas was sent
instead of liis father is answered by
the Rabbis in two different ways: (I) Phinehaswent
to avenge liis maternal grandfather, Joseph (with
whom certain rabbis identify Putiel), upon the j\Iid-
ianites who had sold him into Egj'pt (comp. Gen.
xxxvii. 28-36). (2) He went simply because Moses
said that he who began a good deed ought to finish
it; and as Phinehas had been the first to avenge
the Israelites upon the IMidianitcs, it was proper that
he should take part in the war against the latter
(Sifre, Num. 157; Sotah 43a; Num. K. xxii. 4).

Phinehas was one of the two spies sent by Joshua
to explore Jericho, as mentioned in Josh. ii. 1 etstq.,
Caleb being the otlier. This idea is based on the
Masoretic text of verse 4 of tlie same chapter, which
reads" wa-tizpeno " = "and she hi(V him," that is to
say, one spy only; for Phinehas, being a priest, was
invisible like an angel (Num. K. xvi. 1). This is
apparently tlie origin of the Rabbis' identification
of Phinehas with tlie angel of God sent to liochim
(Judges ii. 1; Seder 'Olam, xx. ; Num. R. I.e.;
comp. Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Num. xxv. 12).
On the identification of Phinehas with Elijah see
Elijah in Rabbinical Liteuatlre.

According to B. B. 15a, the last verse of the Book
of Joshua was written by Phinelias. The Raiibis,
however, hold that tlie hill where Eleazar was
buried (see Phinehas, Biblical Data) was not ap-
portioned to Phinehas as a special lot, but was in-
herited by him from his wife, and was therefore
called by his name (B. B. 11 lb). Apart from his
identification with Elijah, Phinehas is considered by
the Rabbis to have attained a very great age, since
according to them he was still living in the time of
Jephthah, 340 years after the Exodus (comp. Judges
xi. 26). In the matter of Jephthah 's vow, Phinehas
is represented in a rather unfavorable light (see
jEPnTiiAii IN Rabbinical Literature). For him
who sees Phinehas in a dream a miracle will be
wrought (Ber. 56b).

E. c. 31. Sel.

2. Son of Eli, the high priest and judge of Israel ;
younger brother of Hoplini. According to I Sam.
ii. 12-17, the two brothers broke the law given in
Lev. vii. 34 (whence they were termed "sons of
Belial ") by striking the llesh-hook in the pot and
taking for themselves whatever meat it brought up,
even against the wish of the sacrificer. As judges
they sinned through licentious conduct with the
women who went to Sliiloh (I Sam. ii. 22). In
punishment for these sins it was announced to Eli
that his sons should perish on the same day {ib. ii. 34) ;
and in the ensuing battle between Israel and the
Philistines both fell beside the Ark (ib. iv. 11).

A posthumous son was born to the wife of Phine-
has, whom .she called Ichabod (I Sam. iv. 19); and
in continuation of the priestlj' genealogy a grand-
nephew of Phinehas, named Aliijah, is mentioned in
connection with the battle of Jonathan against the
Philistines (ib. xiv. 3).

3. Father of Eleazar, a priest who returned from
captivity with Ezra (Ezra viii. 33).

E. G. II. S. O.

PHINEHAS : Guardian of the treasury at Jeru-
salem. In the last days of Jerusalem, in the year
70 C.E., he followed the example of his priestly col-
league Jesus b. Thcbouthi, and betrayed his trust;
collecting many of the linen coats of the priests, their
girdles, much purple and silk wliicli had been pre-
pared for the sacred curtain, and the costly spices
for the holy incense, to save his life he went over
to the Romans (Josephus. "B. J." vi. 8, § 3). He
appears to be identical with the Phinehas mentioned
in the ]\Iishnah Shckalim v. 1. who was guardian of
the sacred wardrobe. See Phinehas b. Samvel.

G. S. Kr.

Phinehas ben Clusoth
Phylacteries

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PHINEHAS BEN CLUSOTH : Leader of the
Idumcaus. Siiuou b. Gioni uutiL-itook several ex-
peilitious into the territory of the Idunieans to req-
uisition provisions for his people. The Idunieans,
after their complaints in Jerusalem had not brought
assistance, formed a band of volunteers numbering
20,000 men, who from that time acted as wildly
and mercilessly as did the Sicarians. Their lead-
ers were Johannes and Jacob b. Sosa, Simon b.
Kathla, and Phinehas ben Clusoth (Josephus, " B. J."
iv. 4. t; 2).

G. ' S. Kr.

PHINEHAS B. HAMA (ironcrally called R.
Phinehas, aiui occasionally Phinehas ha-Ko-
hen) : Palestinian amora of the fourth century ;
born probably in the town of Siknin, where he was
living when his brother Samuel died (Midr. Sliemuel
ix.). He was a pupil of R. Jeremiah, of whose
ritual practises he gives various details {e.g., in Yer.
Kil. 29b; Yer. Hag. 8Ub; Yer. Ket. 41a), and of R.
Hilkiah. He seems also to have lived for a time in
Babylonia, since a R. Phinehas who once went from
that country to Palestine is mentioned in Yer. 'Er.
22d as conversing with R. Judah b. Shalom. This
passage apparently refers to Pliinelias b. Hama, as
a conversation between him and Judah b. Slialom is
also related elsewhere (e.g., Ex. R. xii.); and it like-
wise explains the fact that R. Phinehas transmitted
a halakah by Hisda (Yer. Sanh. 25c). His haggadic
apliorisms, mentioned in B. B. 116a, were, therefore,
probaldy propounded by him during his re.sidence
in Babylonia, and were not derived from Pales-
tine, as Bacher assumes ("Ag. Pal. Amor." p. 311,
note 5).

Wlien the purity of the descent of the Jewish
families in Babylonia was doubted in Palestine,
Phinehas publicly proclaimed in the academy that
in tliis respect Palestine outranked all countries ex-
cepting Babylonia (Kid. 71a). Man^^ halakic sen-
tences by Phinehas have been preserved, most of
which occur in citations by Hananiah {e.g., Yer.
Demai 23b ; Yw. Ma'as. 50c ; Bik. God ; Yer. Pes.
30(1 ; and elsewhere). Phinehas liimself occasionally
transmitted earlier halakic maxims {e.g., Yer. Pes.
29c), and is frequently the autiiority for haggadic
aphorisms by such .scholars as R. Hoshaiah (Lam.
R. proem xxii. ; Cant. R. v. 8, end), Reuben (Tan.,
Kedoshim, l)eginning), Abbaliu (Gen. R. Ixviii.
1;, and many others (comp. Bacher, I.e. p. 314,
note 4).

Pliinelias' own haggadah is very extensive, and
includes many maxims and aphorisms, as well as
homiletic and exegetic interpretations. The follow-
ing citations may serve as examples of liis style:
"Poverty in the liousc of man is more bitter tiian
fifty plagues" (B. B. 116a). "A chaste woman in
the Iiouse protectctli and reconcileth like an altar"
(Tan., Wayisiilah, on Gen. xxxiv. 1). " Wiiile oilier
laws decree that one must renounce his parents on
pledging his allegiance as a follower and .soldier of
tlif king [the reference may be to Matt. x. 35-37],
the Decalogue .saitii: 'Honor tliy father and thy
mother'" (Num. R. viii. 4). "Ps. xxvi. 10 refers
to dice-plaj'crs, who reckon with Die left hand and
sum uj) Willi the right, and thus rob one another"

(Midr. Teh. adloc.). "The name that a man wins
for himself is worth more than that which is given
him by his father and mother"' (Eccl. R. vii. 4).

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 310-344.
E. C. J. Z. L.

PHINEHAS BEN JAIR : Tannaof the fourth
gcneralion ; lived, piobahly at Lydda, in the second
half of the second century; son-in-law of Simeon
ben Yohai and a fellow disciple of Judah I. He
was more celebrated for piety than for learning, al-
though his discussions with his father-in-law (Shab.
33b) evince great sagacity and a profound knowl-
edge of tradition. A haggadah gives the follow-
ing illustration of Phinehas' .scrupulous honesty:
Once two men deposited with him two seahs of
wheat. After a prolonged absence of the depositors
Phinehas sowed the wheat and preserveil the har-
vest. This he did for seven consecutive years, and
when at la.st the men came to claim tlieir deposit
he returned them all the accumulated ajrain (Deut.
R. iii.).

Phinehas is said never to have accepted an invita-
tion to a meal and, after he had attained his major-
it5% to have refused to eat at the table of his father.
The reason given by him for this course of conduct
was that there are two kinds of people r (1) those
who are willing to be hospitable, but can not af-
ford to be so, and (2) those who have the means but
are not willing to extend hospitality to others (Hul.
7b). Judah I. once invited him to a meal, and ex-
ceptionally he decided to accept the invitation; but
on arriving at the house of the patriarch he noticed
in the yard mules of a certain kind the use of which
was forbidden by local custom on account of the
danger in handling them. Thereupon he retraced
his steps and did not return (I.Iul. I.e.).

Special weight was laid by Phinehas upon the
prescriptions relating to the tithe. This feature of
Phinehas' piety is described hyperboHcally in the
Haggadah. The latter relates a story of a mule be-
longing to Phinehas which, having been stolen, was
released after a couple of days on account of its re-
fusal to eat food from which the tithe had not been
taken (Gen. R. xlvi. ; comp. Ab. R. N. viii., end).
To Phineliasisattributcd the abandonment by Judah
I. of his project to abolish the }'ear of release (Yer.
Demai i. 3; Ta'an. iii. 1).

Phinehas draws a gloomy picture of his time.

"Since the destruction of the Temple," he says,

"the members and freemen are put to

Account of sliame, those who conform to the Law

His Own are held in contempt, the violent and

Times. the informer havetlie upper hand, and
no one cares for the ])eop]e or asks
pit}- for them. "We have no hope but in God"
(Sotah 49a). Elsewhere lie says: " Why is it that
in our time the ])rayeis of the Jews are not heard?
Because they do not know the holy name of God"
(Pesik. R. xxii., end; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xci. 15).
Pliinchiis, however, believes in man's perfectibility,
and enumerates the virtues which render man
worthy to receive the Holy Spirit. The Law, he
says, leads to carefulness; carefulness, to diligence;
diligence, to cleanliness; cleanliness, to retirement;
retirement, to purity; purity, to piety; piety, to

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phinehas ben Clusoth
Phylacteries

liumility; Immility, to fear of sin; fear of sin, to
Jiolincss; lioliness, to the reception of tiie lloly
Spirit; and tlie Holy Spirit, to resurrection ("Ab.
Zarah 20b; with some slight variants, Sotah ix. 15).

The Hairiiadah records many miracles jjcrformed

by Phinehas. Among these is that of having passed

on dry ground througli the River Ginai, Avhicli lie

had to cross on Ids way to ransom

Miracles prisoners (Yer. Demai i. 3). Accord-
Attributed ing to another version, Phinehas

to Him. performed this miracle wliile he was
going to the school to deliver a lec-
ture. His pupils, who had followed him, asked if
they might without danger cross the river by the
same way, whereupon Phinelias answered: "Only
those who Iiave never offended any one may do so "
(Hul. 7a). To Phinehas is attributed the authorship
of a later midrash entitled "Tadshe" or "Baraita
de-Rabbi Pinchas ben Ya'ir." The only reasons for
tills ascription are the facts (1) that the midrash be-
gins with Phinehas' explanation of Gen. i. 11, from
which the work derives its name, and (2) that its
seventh chapter commences with a saying of his on
the tree of knowledge (see Ji'^w. Encyc. viii. 578,
s.v. MiDKAsn T-\DSiiE). Phinehas was buried in Ke-
far Biram.

BiBLiOGRAniY : Heilprin, i^cdrrhn-Dorot, ii.; Jellinek, B. H.
iii. lt)4 et seq., v\. '^.i ; lien Cliaiunijn. iv.'S'Ii- P.aclier. .1(7.
'fan. ii. 405 ct seq.; Isaac Halevy, Doroi ha-Rifhinihu, ii. 4S;
Uraunsolnveiger, 7)i(' Ldirer dcr Mischtia, p. 241, Fraiik-
foit-on-the-Main. 1903; Epstein, Beitraye zur JiuHxcltcn
Alterthumskwidc, i., p. x.
W. B. I. Bu.

PHINEHAS B. SAMUEL: The last liigh
priest ; according to the reckoning of Josephus, the
eighty-third since Aaron. He was a wholly un-
worthy person who was not of high-priestly lineage
and who did not even know what the high priest's
office was, but was chosen by lot, and in 67-68 was
dragged by the revolutionary party against his will
from his village Ajihthia, where he was a farmer, to
Jerusalem, to take the place of the deposed j\Iatthias
ben Theophilus. He was clothed in the high-priestly
garments and instructed as to what he had to do on
every occasion. He was an object of ridicule for
the evil-minded, but this godlessness drew tears
from the e^ves of the worthy priests. He mot his
death probably in the general catastrophe. His name
is written in various ways by Josephus ("B. J." iv.
3, ^ 8, ed. Niese). It is su])posed that he was iden-
tical with the Dnj2 mentioned in the Mi.shnah as a
functionary of the Temple ; in this case his correct
name would lie Phineas. But Josephus writes this
Biblical name dilferently. In regard to the Phinehas
mentioned by the Rabbis see Puinehas, guardian of
the treasury.

Binr.iocRAPiiY : Derenliourg, Essai ^•^(r VHistnirede la Pales-
tine, p. 26!»; Ora.lz, Gesch. iii. 4, 751; Scliurer, Gesch. i . 3,
618 ; ii. 3. --_'0.

G. S. Kr.

PHOCYLIDES. See PsEUDO-PnocYLiDE6.

PHRYGIA : Province in Asia iMinor. Anti-
ochus the Great transferred 2,000 Jewish fannlies
from Mesopotamia and Babylonia to Phrygia and
Lydia (Josephus, "Ant." xii.'S. ^ 4). They settled
principally in Laodicca and Apamea. The Christian
Apostles also were familiar with Jews from Phrygia

(Acts ii. 10). Christian teachings easily gained en-
try there on account of the numerous Jews in tlie
country. It is noteworthy that in the Plirygiau city
Mantalos tliere is an inscription written from right
to left (Ramsay, "Th(! Historical Geographj' of Asia
Minor," j). 150, London, 1890). In the Byzantine
period Amorion was a Phrygian city, in which Jews
held the supremacy (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 453, s.v.
JiYZANTiXE E.mi'IKe). Ibu Kliunladhbah also men-
tions a Hisn al-Yahud (= "Jews' Castle " ; Ramsay,
i/>. ]). 445) in this region.

niin.iooRAPUY: Schurer, Ge^ch. lil. 3, .5, 10, 13; W. M. Ram-
say, Tin: Citien and BinhopricH of Plirygia, i., part ii., OHT-
1)7(1, London, 1897.
G. S. Ku.

PHYLACTERIES ("tefillin").— Legal View :
The laws governing the wearing of piiylacteries
were derived by the Rabbis from four Biblical ])as-
sages (Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18; Ex. xiii. 9, 16). While
these passages were interpreted literally by most
commentators (comp., however, Ibn Ezra and
RaShbaM on Ex. xiii. 9), the Rabbis held that the
general law only was expressed in the Bible, the
application and elaboration of it being entirely mat-
ters of tradition and inference (Sanh. 88b). The

(In the Uritish Musvum.)

earlier tannaim had to resort to fanciful interpreta-
tions of tiie texts in order to find Biblical support
for the custom of inscril)ing the four selections in
the phylacteries (Men. 341): Zeb. 37b; Sanh. 4b;
Rashi and Tos. ad U/c). There are more laws —
ascrilied to oral delivery l)y God to Moses — clus-
tering about the institution of tefillin than about any

Phylacteries

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

other institution of Judaism (Men. 35a: Yer. Meg.
i. 9; Mairaonides, in "Yad." Tefillin, i. 3, mentions
ten; Rodkinssohn, in "Telillah le-Moslieb," p. 20.
ed. Presburg, 1883, mentions eighteen; comp. Weiss,
"Dor," i. 74-75). Thus, even if most Jewish com-
mentators are followed in their literal interpretations
of the Biblical passages mentioned above, rabbinic
interpretation and traditional usage must still be
relied upon for the determination of the nature of
the tefillin and the laws concerning them (see Phy-
L.\CTEUiEs — nisToiiic.\i. and CitiTrc.\L Views).
Pliylactcrics, as universally used at the present

(NniDyD: ^len. 35a) at the ends, through which are
passed leathern straps (niyiV^^ made of the skins of
clean animals (Shab. 28b) and blackened on the out-
side (Men. 35a; comp. "Sefer Hasidim," ed. Wisti-
netski, § 1669). The strap that is passed through
the head-phylactery ends at the back of the head in
a knot representing the letter i ; the one that is
pa.ssed through the hand-phylactery is formed into
a noose near the box and fastened in a knot in the
shape of the letter '(comp. Heilprin, "Seder ha-
Dorot," i. 208, ed. Maskileison, Warsjiw, 1897, where
a wonderful storv in relation to the laws governinsr

Phylacteries a.nd Bag.

(In the United St«tes Natlunal Museum, Washington, D. C.)

time, consist of two leathern boxes — one worn on
the arm and known as "shel yad " (Men. iv. 1) or

'• shel zeroa' " (Mik. x. 3), and the other

Details of worn on the head and known as "slid

Manu- rosh " — made of tlie skins of clean ani-

facture. mals (Men. 42b; Sanh. 48b; "Yad,"

l.i-. ill. 15). The boxes must be square
(Men. 35a): their height may be more or less than
the length or the width ("Yad," I.e. iii. 2); and it
is desirable thai they be black (Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah
Hayyim, 32, 40). The boxes are fastened on tiie
under side with square pieces of thick leather
(Klin^n: Men. 35a) by means of twelve stitches
made with threads prepared from the veins of clean
animals (Shab. 28b), and are provided with loops

the making of these knots is told). The box con-
taining the head-phylactery has on the outside the
letter {»>, both to the right (with three strokes:
5J>) and to the left (with four strokes: {2>; Men. 35a;
comp. Tos., s.t. "Shin"; probablj' as a reminder to
insure the correct insertion of the four Biblical pas-
sages): and this, together with the letters formed by
the knots of the two straps, make up the letters of
the Hebrew word "Shaddai" (nK' = "Almighty,"
one of the names of God; Men. 35b; Kashi, s.v.
" Kesher '"). The measurements of the boxes are not
given ; but it is recommended that they should not
be smaller than the width of two lingers ('Er. 95b;
Tos.,s.r. "Makom"; Men. 35a: Tos., «.?•. "Shin").
The width of the straps should be equal to the

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phylacteries

length of a grain of oats. The strap that is passed
throiigli the lieud pliyhxctery should he long onoiigli
to encircle the hend and to allow for the knot; and
the two ends, falling in front over either shoulder,
should reach the navel, or somewhat above it. The
strap that is passed through the hand-phylactery
should be long enough to allow for the knot, to en-
circle the whole length of the arm, and then to be
wound three times around the middle linger (" Yad,"
I.e. iii. 12; Orah Hayyim, 27, 8, 11).

Each box contains the four Scriptural passages
Ex. xiii. 1-10, 11-16; Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21 (conip.
Zohar, ed. Amsterdam, 1789, to Bo, p.
Contents. 43a, b), written with black iidc (Yer.
Meg. 1. 9) in Hebrew scjuare charac-
ters (n^llK'X; Meg. 8b; Soferim xv. 1) on parch-
ment (Shab. 79b; Men. 32a) si)ecially prepared for
the purpose (Orah Hayyim, 32, 8; comp. "Be'er
Heteb" and "Sha'are Teshubah," ad loc.) from
the skin of a clean animal (Shab. 108a). The hand-
phylactery has only one compartment, which con-
tains the four Biblical selections written upon a
single strip of parchment in four parallel columns
and in the order given in the Bible (IMen. 34b). The
head-phylactery has four compartments, formed
from one piece of leather, in each of which one selec-
tion written on a separate piece of parchment is de-
posited perpendicularly. The pieces of parchment
on which the Biblical selections are written are in
either case tied round with narrow strips of parch-
ment and fastened with the thoroughly washed hair
of a clean animal (Shab. 28b, 108a), preferably of
a calf ("Yad," I.e. iii. 8; Orah Hayyim, 32, 44).
There was considerable discussion among the com-
mentators of the Talmud (Men. 34b) as to the order
in which the Biblical selections shoidd be inserted
into the head-phylactery. The chief disputants in
this case were R. Solomon Yizhaki
Arrange- (Raslii) and H. Jacob b. Meir Tam
ment of (Rabbenu Tam), although different
Passages, possible arrangements have been sug-
gested by other writers ("Shimmusha
Rabba" and RABaD). The following diagram
shows the arrangements of the Bible verses as ad-
vocated respectively by Rabbenu Tam and Rashi
(comp. RodUinssohn, "Tefillali le-Mosheh," p. 25):

R. Tam

Raslil .

E.X. xiii. 1-10,

Ex. xiii. 1-10,

Ex. xiii. 11-16,

Deut. xl. 13-;

21,

Deut. vi. 4

-9,

The prevailing custom is to follow the opinion of
Rashi ("Yad," I.e. iii. 5; comp. RABaD and " Kesef
Mishneh" ad loc; Orah Hayyim, 34. 1), although
some are accustomed, in order to be certain of per-
forming their duty properly, to lay two pairs of
tefillin (comp. 'Er. 95b), one prepared in accordance
with the view of Rashi, and the other in accordance
with that of Rabbenu Tam. If, however, one is
uncertain as to the exact position for two pairs of
tetillin at the same time, one should tlrst "lay " the
tefillin prepared in accordance with Rashi's opinion,
and then, removing these during the latter part of

the service, without pronouncing a blessing lay
those prepared in accordance with Rabbenu Tain's
opinion. Only 'the specially pious wear both kinds
(Orah Hayyim, 34, 2, 3).

The i)ar(hment on which the Biblical passages are
written need not be ruled ("Yad," I.e. i. 12), al-
though the custom is to rule it. A pointed instru-
ment that leaves no blot should be used in ruling;
the use of a pencil is forbidden (Orah Hayyim, 32,
6, Is.serles' gloss). The scribe should be very care-
ful in writing the selections. Before
Mode of beginning to write he sliould pro-
Writing, nounce the words, "I am writing this
for the sake of the holiness of tefillin " ;
and before he begins to write any of the names of
God occurring in the texts, he should say, "I am
writing this for the sake of the holiness of the
Name. " Throughout the writing his attention must
not be diverted; "even if the King of Israel should
then greet liim, he is forbidden to reply " ("Yad,"
I.e. i. 15; Orah Hayyim, 32, 19). If he omits even
one letter, the wliole inscription becomes unfit. If
he inserts a superfluous letter at the beginning
or at the end of a word, he may erase it, but if
in the middle of a word, the whole becomes unfit
("Yad," I.e. ii. ; Orah Hayyim, 32, 23, and "Be'er
Heteb," ad loe.). The letters must be distinct and
not touch each other; space must be left between
them, between the words, and between the lines, as
also between the verses (Orah Hayyim, 32, 32, Is-
serles' gloss; comp. "jNIagen Abraham" and "Be'er
Heteb" ad loc.). The letters p ]^nv^ where they
occur in the selections are adorned with some
fanciful ornamentation (Men. 29b; see Tos., s.v.
" Sha'atnez ") ; some scribes adorn other letters also
(Orah ilayyim, 36, 3, and "Be'er Heteb," arf loc.).
In writing the selections it is customary to devote
seven lines to each paragraph in the hand-phylac-
tery, and four lines to each paragrapli in the head-
phylactery (Orah Hayyim, 35).

In putting on the tefillin, the hand-phylactery is
laid first (Men. 36a). Its place is on the inner side
of the left arm {ih. 36b, 37a), just above the elbow
(comp. " Sefer Hasidim," §§ 434, 638, where the exact
place is given as two fist-widths from the shoulder-
blade; similarly the head-phylactery is worn two
fist-widths from the tip of the
nose) ; and it is held in position
by the noose of the strap so that
when the arm is bent the phy-
lactery may rest near the beait
(Men. 37a, based on Deut. xi. 8;
comp. "Sefer Hasidim," §§435,
1742). If one is left-handed, he
lays the hand-phylactery on the same place on his
right hand (Men." 37a; Orah Hayyim, 27b). After
the phylactery is thus fastened on the
How bare arm, the strap is wound seven

Put on. limes round the arm. The head-phy-
lactery is phtced so as to overhang the
middle of the forehead, with the knot of the strap at
the back of the head and overhanging the middle of
the neck, while the two ends of the strap, with the
blackened side outward, hang over the shoulders in
front (Orah Hayyim, 27, 8-11). On laying the hand-
phylactery, before the knot is fastened, the following

Deut. vi. 4-9,

Deut. xi. 13-21.

Phylacteries

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

benediction is pronounced: "Blessed art Thou . . .
who sanctilietli us with His commaudintuts and
hast commanded us to lay tetillin. " Before the head-
phylactery is fastened the blessing is repeated with
the substitution of the phrase "concerning the com-
maudnieut of tefillin " for "to lay telilliu." Some

glorious kingdom for ever and ever," lest the second
benediction be pronounced unnecessarily. If lie who
lays the tefilliu has talked between the laying of the
hand-phylactery and that of the head-phylactery,
he should repeat both blessings at the laying of the
latter (Men. 3Ga ; " Yad," I.e. iv. 4, o ; Oruh Hayyim,

rilVLACTERIES AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT.

A. For the arm. B. As aUJusted un the arm. C. For the head. D. Jew wearing phylacteries.

(From Plcsrt, 1725.)

authorities are of the opinion that the blessing on
laying the head-phylaetcry should be pronounced
only when an inleiruption has occurred through
conversation on the part of the one engaged in per-
forfiiing thecoiiiiiiandment; otherwise the one bless-
ing ijroiiounccd on laying the hand-piiylaetery is
suflicieut. The prevailing custom, however, is to
pronounce two blessings, and, after the second bless-
ing, to say the words, "Blessed be the name of His

25, 5; Isserles' gloss, 9, 10; comp. ib. 206, 6). Then
the strap of the hand-pliylactery is wound three
times around the niiddU; linger so as to form a

{j> and the passages Hos. ii. 21 and

The 22 are recited. The seven twistiiigs

Blessings, of the strap on the arm are then

counted while the seven wordsof Dent,
iv. 4 are recited. A lengthy prayer in which the sig-
niticance of the tetillin is exjilained and which con-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phylacteries

tains traces of cabalistic influence is recited by some
before putting on tlie tefilliu. After the tetilliu are
laid Ex. xiii. 1-lG is recited. In removing the tetil-
lin the three twistings on the middle finger are
loosened first; then the hcud-phylactery is removed ;
and finally the hunil -phylaclery (Men. 36a). It is
customary to lay and to remove the tefilliu -while
standing; also to kiss them when they are taken
from and returned to the phylactery-bag (Orah
Hayyim, 28. 2, 3).

Originally tefilliu were worn all day, but not
during the night (Men. 86b). Now the prevailing
custom is to wear them during the daily morning
service only (comp. Bcr. 14b). They are not worn
on Sabbaths and holy days ; for these, being in them-
selves "signs," render the tefilliu, which are to serve

is engaged in the study of the Law (K. Jonah to
Alfasi on Ber. il. 5, s.r. "Le-Memra"), and .scribes
of and dealers in tetillin and mezuzot while engaged
in their work if it can not be postponed, are also
free from this obligation (Suk. 26a; Orah Hayyim,
38, 8-10). It is not permitted to enter a cemetery
(Ber. 18a) or any unseemly place {ib. 23a; Shab.
10a), or to eat a regular meal or to sleep (Ber. 23b;
Suk. 26a), while wearing tetillin. The bag usexl for
tefilliu should not be used for any other purpose, un-
less a condition was expressly made that it might
be used for any purpose (Ber. 231); Sanh. 48a).

Maimonides (" Yad," I.e. iv. 25, 20) concludes the
laws of tetillin with the following exhortation (the
references are not in Maimonides) :

"The sanctity of teflllin is very great (comp. Shab. 49a;

^^^^^^^^^^^H

^A^^^l

t^H

^^^^^^^H

Phylactkry for arm.

(From the Cairo Genizah.)

as signs themselves (Ex. xiii. 9, 16), unnecessary
(Men. 36b; 'Er. 96a). In those places where tetillin
are worn on the week-days of the festivals (see
Holy Days), and on New JNIoons, they are re-
moved before the "Musaf " prayer (Orah Hayyim,
25, 13).

The duty of laying tefillin rests upon males
after the age of thirteen years and one day. Women
are exempt from the obligation, as are also slaves
and minors (Ber. 20a). Women who wish to lay
tetillin are precluded from doing so (Orah Hayyim,
38, 3, Isserles' gloss); in ancient times this was not
the case ('Er. 96a, b). A mourner during the first
day of his mourning period (M. K. 15a; Suk. 25b),
a bridegroom on his wedding-day (Suk. I.e.), an
excommunicate, and a leper (^M. K. 15a) are also
exempt. A suflerer from stomach-trouble (Hul.
110a), one who is otherwise in pain and can not
concentrate his mind ("Yad," I.e. iv. 13), one who

Masseket Teflllin, toward the end: Zohar, section " Wa'etha-
nan," p. 269b). As long as the teflllin are on the head and on
the arm of a man, he is modest and God-fearinp and will
not be attracted by hilarity or idle talk, and will have no evil
thoughts, but will devote all his thoughts to truth and right-
eousness (comp. JSIen. 43b ; "SeferHasidim,"§5.54). Therefore,
every man ought to try to have the teflllin upon him the whole
day (Masseket Teflllin. I.e.; comp. SIfre t^) Deut. v. 9); for only
in this way can he fulfll the commandment. It is related that
Kab (Abba Arika), the pupil of our holy teacher (R. Judah ha-
Nasi), was never seen to walk four cubits without a Torah, with-
out fringes on his garments (" zizit"), and without teflllin (Suk.
29a, where R. Johaiian b. Zakkai and R. Eliezer are mentioned ;
comp. Meg. 24a. where R. Zera is mentioned) . Although the Law
enjoins the wearing of teflllin the whole day. it is especially com-
mendable to wear them during prayer. The sages say that one
who reads the Shenia' without teflllin is as if he testifled falsely
against himself (Ber. 14b, 15a). He who does not lay teflllin
transgresses eight commandments (Men. 44a ; comp. R. H. ITa);
for in each of the four Biblical passages there is a commandment
to wear teflllin on the head and on the arm. But he who is ac-
customed to wear teflllin will live long, as it is written, ' When
the Lord is upon them they will live ' " (Isa. xxxviii. Iti, Hebr.;
comp. A. v.; Men. 44a).

Phylacteriea

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

BiBLlOGRAPHT: Miunekft Tt-nUin, published by KIrchheim in
his edition of the seven smaller treatises of the Talmud. Frank-
fort-on-the-Main. 1851 ; Rosh. Hilkot Ttfillin, in Halaknt
Ktiannot, hnd ShimmuKha Rabba, published with Menahot
In mtwt editions of the Talmud: K'll Ii<>, §21. FQrth, 1782;
Hambuiver. li.B.T. ii., s.v. TephiUin ; Hastings. Dirt. Bible ;
Friediander. I7u Jtuw/i IitU\/ion, pp. SU-SW. London, 1900;
Rodkins.in. Ttnilali U-Mofheh, Pivsbui>r, 1SW3 ; Zunz, G.S.
11. 172-176, Berlin. U<76. t tt /-•

E. c. J- H. G.

Historical View : The only instance of the

name " iihyhiciories " in Biblical times occurs in the
New Testament (Matt, xxiii. 5). whence it has passed
into the 1 a n -
guages of Eu-
rope. In rab-
binical literature
it is not found
even as a foreign
word. The Sep-
tuagint renders
"totafot" (A.
y. and E. V.
"frontlets'-;
Ex. xiii. 16 and
Deut. vi. 8) by
aaa/.evrdv ( =
"something im-
movable ") ; nor
do Aquila and
Symmachus use
the word " phy-
lacteries." The
Targumim (Jon-
athan, Onkelos)
and the Peshitta
use "tefillin "
(Ex. xiii. 9, 16;
xxviii. 37; Deut.
vi. 8, xxviii. 10;
Ezek. xxiv. 23;
Cant. viii. 1) or
"totafot" (II
Sam. i. 10; Ezek.
xxiv. 17 et seq.).
The terms "te-
fiUah," "tefillin"
only are found
in Talmudic lit-
erature, al-
though the word
" totafah " was
still current, be-
ing used with
the meaning of "frontlet " (Shab. vi. 1). The con-
clusions in regard to the tefillin wiiich are based
on its current uame "phylacteries,"
therefore, lack historical basis, since
this name was not used in truly Jew-
ish circles.
In regard to their origin, however, the custom of
wearing protecting coverings on the head and hands
must be borne in mind. Saul's way of appearing in
battle, with a crown on his head and wearing l)race-
lets, is connected with this idea. The Proverbs re-
flect popular conceptions, for they originated in
great part with the iieople. or were addressed to
them. Prov. i. 9, iii. 3, vi. 21, and vii. 3 (comp.
Jer. xvi-i. 1, xxxi. 32-33) clearly indicate the custom

Phylactery-Bap.

(Id the j>n«»;aBioD of M.iurlce Herrmann,

Name and
Origin.

of wearing some object, with or without inscription,
around the neck or near the heart ; the actual cus-
tom appears in the figure of speech. In view of
these facts it may be assumed that Ex. xiii. 9, 16,
and Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18 must be interpreted not fig-
uratively but literally ; therefore it must be assumed
that the custom of wearing strips inscribed with
Biblical passages is commanded in the Torah.
" Bind them as signs on thy hand, and they shall be
as totafot between thy eyes " assumes that totafot

were at the time
known and in
use, but that
thenceforth the
words of the
Torah were to
serve as totafot
(on signs see also
I Kings XX. 41 ;
Ezek. ix. 4, 6;
Psalms of Solo-
mon, XV. 9; see

BUE.\ST - PI..A.TE

OF THE High
Phiest; Caix).
It is not known
whether this
command was
carried out in
the earliest time,
and if so , in
what manner.
But from the
relatively large
number of regu-
lations referring
to the phylac-
teries— some
of them con-
nected with the
names of the
first tannaim —
and also from
the fact that
among the fifty-
five "Sinaitic
c o m m a n d s "
("halakah le-
>I o .5 h e h m i -
Sinai '').eiglit re-
fer to the tefillin
alone and seven to the tefillin and the Torah to-
gether, it follows that they were used as early as
the time of the Soferim — the fourth,
Epoch, of or at least the thiid, century u.c.
In- The earliest ex illicit reference to them

troduction. that has been preserved — namely, in
the Letter of Aristeas (verse 159; see
Kaulzsch, " Apokryphen," ii. 18) — speaks of them
as an old institution.

Josephus ("Ant." iv. 8, § 13) also regards them
as an ancient institution, and he curiously enough
places the tefillin of the head first, as the Talmud
generally does (comp. Justin, "Dial, cum Tryph."
ed. Otto, ii. 154). The tefillin are mentioned in con-
nection with Simeon b. Shetah, brother-in-law of

New York.)

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phylacteries

Alexander Janna'us (Ycr. IIuij. 77(1): uiul Sliammai
produces tlie tefillin of his motlier's father (Mek., Bo,
§ 17 [ed. Friedmann, 21b] ; the parallel passage Yer.
'Er. 20a reads " Ilillcl "). The date here given is the
seventh decade of the first century ii.c. Schorr (in
"Ile-Haluz," vol. iv.) assumes that they were intro-
duced in the Maccabean period, and A. Krochinal re-
gards the reference to Elisha's "wings" (Shab. '14a;
Yer. Ber. 4c) as indicating that lie was one of the first
of the high priests to wear the tefiUah (" 'lyyun Te-
lillah,"' pp. 27 et seq.). Johanan 1). Zakkai never
went four ells without tefillin ; neither did his pupil
Eliezer (Yer. Ber. 4c). Gamaliel II. (r. 100 O.K.)
gives directions as to what shall be done with te-
fillin found on the Sabbath, making a distinction
between old and new tefillin ('Er. x. 1), a fact that
clearly indicates the extent to which they were used.
Even the slaves of this patriarch wore tefillin (Yer.
'Er. 26a). Judali b. Bathyra refers, about 150 c.e.,
to llie tefillin which he inherited from his grand-
father; these were inscribed to the dead awakened
by Ezekiel (xxxvii. ; Sanli. 92b). In the following
centuries they were used to an increasing extent, as
appears from the numerous sentences and ndes re-
ferring to them by the authorities of the Babylonian
and Palestinian Talmuds.

Tefillin resembled amulets in their earliest form,

strips of parchment in a leather case, which is called

either " bag " or " little house." Tefil-

Earliest lin and " keme'ot " are, in fact, often
Form. mentioned side by side (SJiab. vi. 2:
]Mik. vi. 4; Kelim xxiii. 9; et al.), and
■were liable to be mistaken one for the other ('Er. x.
1 et al.). iis in the case of the Torah roll, the only
permissible material was parchment, while the "me-
zuzah " was made of a different kind of parchment
(Shab. viii. 'Set al.)\ for this reason a discarded
tefillah could be made into a mezuzah, but not vice
versa (Men. 32a). It was made square, not round
(Meg. iv. 8). The head-tefillah consisted of four
strips in four compartments, while the hand-tefillah
consisted of one strip. The former could be made
out of the latter, but not vice versa ; and they were
independent of each other (Kelim xviii. 8; Men. iii.
7, iv. 1, 34b; Yer. Hag. 77d et passim). The here-
tics had a way of covering the tefillah with gold,
■wearing it on the sleeve and on the forehead (Meg.
iv. 8). The straps (Yad. iii. 8) were made of the
same material as the boxes, but could be of any color
except blood-red ; they were sometimes blue or of a
reddish purple (Men. 35a).

The most important tefillah was the head-tefillah
(Kelim xviii. 8 et passim). It was put on according
to rule (Sheb. iii. 8, 11; Men. 36a) and was worn
fron\ morning until night, with the exception of
Sabbath and feast-days (Targ. to Ezek. xiii. 10;
Men. 36b); some wore tefillin also in theevening, as
did Akiba ('Er. 96a), Abbahu (Yer. 'Er. 26a), Rabba
and Iluna (Men. 36b) during the evening prayer,
and Ashi (beginning of 5th cent.).

The head-tefillah was the principal one, because
the tefillah worn on the arm was not visible (Men.
37b). A Jew was recognized by the former, which
he wore proudly, because, according to Deut. x xviii.
10, all peoples knew thereby that the Name of the
Eternal had been pronounced over him (Men. 35b ;

Targ. Esth. viii. 15; comp. Cant. viii. 1; Ezek.
xxiv. 17, 23). Jerome says (on Galatians iv. 22)
that the Jews feared to appear in the cities, because
they attracted attention; jirobably they Avere recog-
nized by the tefillah. It was not worn in times of
danger ('Er. x. 1). The law in regard to tefillin,
therefore, which did not demand obedience at the
jK'ril of life, had not taken such a deep hold upon
the people as other laws (Shab. 130a; R. H. 17a;
Yer. Ber. 4c; Pesik. R., ed. Friedmann, p. 111b).
However, it must not be inferred from this state-
ment that the tefillah was not w^orn to any great
extent (Rodkinson, "Ursprung und Entwickelung
des Phylacterien-Ritus bei den Juden," p. 5), but
merely that it was not generally worn.

Tlie tefillin have been connected with magic, as
the name " phylacteries " primarily indicates. Fried-
lander takes the tefillah to be a substitute for the

"signum serpentinum " of the antino-

Tefillin mistic Gnostics. The tefillin, how-

and Magic, ever, originated at a time prior to that

of the Gnostics, as has been shown
above. Although the institution of the tefillin is re-
lated in form to the custom of wearing amulets, in-
dicating the ancient views regarding that means of
protection, yet there is not a single passage in the
old literature to show that they were identified with
magic. Their power of protecting is similar to that
of the Torah and the Commandments, of which it is
said, "They protect Israel " (Blau, " AltjLidisches
Zauberwesen," p. 152). One of the earliest tannaim,
Eliezer b. Ilyrcanus (b. 70 C.E.), who laid great
stress upon the tefillin, actively advocating their
general use, derives the duty of wearing them from
Josh. i. 8, "Thou shalt meditate therein day and
night" (treatise Tefillim, near end). In conform-
ity with this view they contain chiefl}' the Shema',
the daily reading of which takes the place of the
daily study of the Bible.

The tannaitic Midrash, indeed, takes pains to prove
that the Decalogue has no place in the tefillin (Sifre,
Deut. 34, 35 ; Ber. lib). Jerome, therefore (to Matt.
XXV. 3), is not correct in saying that the tefillin con-
tain also the Ten Commandments; although this
may have been the case among the "minim," or
heretics. The newlj^ discovered Hebrew papyrus
with Shema' and Decalogue belonged, perhaps, to
the tefillah of a " min." The Samaritans did not ob-
serve the command to wear the tefillah (Men. 42b,
above). They are ranked with the pagans, there-
fore, as persons not fit to write them (ib.).

Although the tefillin were worn throughout the
day, not only in Palestine but also in Babylon, the

custom of wearing them did not be-

In the come entirely popular; and during

Diaspora the Diaspora they were worn no-

and Post- where during the day. But it ap-

Talmudic pears from the Letter of Aristeas and

Times. from Josephus that the tefillin were

known to the Jews of the Diaspora.
At this time it may have become customary to wear
them only during prayer, traces of this custom
being found in Babylon (Men. 36b). In France
in the thirteenth century they were not generally
worn even during prayer (Rodkinson, I.e., quoting
Tos. Shab. 49a; comp. "Semag," Commandment

Phylacteries
Picart

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

No. 3; Gratz, "Gesch." vii. 71). The diflference of
opinion between Isaac ( Uaslii ; d. 1105) and his grand-
son Jacob Tarn (d. 1171) in regard to thearningemeut
of the four sections indicates that no tixed custom iu
wearing them had arisen. Rashi and Tam's tefillin
are referred to ; scruindously pious persons put ou
thetelillinofH. Tarn after prayer (Men. 34b; Shulhan
Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 34). There were differences
of opinion between the Spanish and the German Jews
iu regard to the knot iu the strap (see iUustratious in
Surenhusius, cited below). At the time of the Re-
form movement, in the tirst half of tiie nineteenth
century, especially in Germany, the custom of wear-
ing the tetillin. like other ritual and ceremonial ordi-
nances, was attacked, calling forth the protests of
Zunz.

BiBLiOGR.\PHY: The chief works are: Klein, Die Totaphnt
nach Dihd utul Traditimi la Jahrfi. fllr Pn)t€i>tantische
r/.<< •/'.(/!«, 1S81, pp. ti«k>-689, and M. L. Rodkloson, Ur-
ftpniim ttnil EtitwickehttiiHies I'hflJncterieu-RiUts hei deii
Jwhu, Prrtburp, 18K{ (reviewed in /\'. E. J. vi. 2S8); idem,
HiMDrtinf A inulet.i, ClinrinMaiKt Tali^smau.i, New York, 189:}.
Fordescrlption and illustrations see Surenhusius. 3/i.s7i/ifl/i. vol.
l...\msterdain. 16W (before p. Ui, and Bodensrhatz, Kirchlkhe
Vfrfa-^tuugder HeutiiiiiiJudcii, iv. 14-19; see also Winer.
B. R. 3d ed.. 1. .%, ii. 2«(»: Hamburger. R. B. T. ii. KJtio. 1203-
laW; Hautinps. DiVf. iJiWf, iii. 86&-874 ; Z. Frankel, Lehcr
deii Kiiirtuiis dtr PaUMiiti.scheti Exegcse axif die AJexan-
driiiisrhf Ifcrmoirutik. pp. 90 et «CQ., Leipsie, 1851; M.
Friedlunder, Dcr AtitichriM in den Vnrchristlichen JU-
dwc/if )i ijiuUen. pp. 1.'>.>-Iti">. Goitingen, 19t)l ; M. Griinbaum,
Gcsammeltc AufMltze. pp. 208 et »io., Berlin, 1901 ; Herrfeld,
GcKch. des I'oJAcs 7j<rne/, lil. 223-2ii. Nordhausen, 18.57; A.
Kn>chmal. "lujnin TefiUah, pp. 24 ct scq., Lemberg, 1883; S.
Munk. PaleMine, p. 2«8; O. H. Schorr, in He-Holuz, vol. iv.;
Sehurer, Ge.ich. M ed., ii. 484 et sei/.; Zunz, d. S. ii. 172-176
{TefiUin. €i)ie Dctrachtunij). See earlier Christian bibllog-
raphv in Sehurer, Gcscli.
J. L. B.

Critical View : The etymology of the term —

from the Gi'isi^k vi'/ auri/piov, itself derived from (pv/.da-
a£tv{= "to guard against evil," "to protect") — indi-
cates the meaning, in the Hellenistic period, to have
been "amulet" (an object worn as a protection
against evil). The language of the four passages iu
which a reference occurs to "sign upon the hand"
and " frontlets," or " memorials," " between the eyes "
(E.\. xiii. 9, 16; Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18, Hebr.) proves
that among the Hebrews the practise of wearing ob-
jects of this kind around the forehead and on the hand
must liave prevailed. Later rabbinical exegesis re-
garded the figurative reference and simile in Deut.
vi. 8 and xi. 18 as a command to be carried out liter-
ally. Comparison with Ex. xiii. 9, 16, where the same
terminology is employed, sutttces to demonstrate that
in Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18 the writer expressed himself fig-
uratively, with allusion, of course, to a popular and
wide-spread custom. It is plain that a sound con-
struction of the Deuteronomic passages must reject
the interpietation which restricts the
Figurative bearing (jf the phrase " ha-debarim ha-
Ex- elleh " (Deut. vi. 6) to the immediately

pressions. i)re(eding Shema", or of "debarai el-
leh " of Deut. xi. 18 to the preceding
verse. In the phraseology of Deuteronomy, "these
my words " embrace the whole book, the Torah, and
it would have been as impossible to write the whole
book on one's hand as it was to carry the sacrifice of
the first-born (Ex. xiii.) as "a sign on one's hand."
Prov. i. 9, iii. 3. vi. 21, vii. 3, and Jer. xvii. 1, xxxi.
33 illustrate in what sense the expressions "write"
or "bind " in this connection are to be taken. As a
matter of fact, phylacteries as described by the Rabbis

did not come into use before the last pre-Christian
centur}'; the Samaritans knew nothing of them.

That amulets and signs were iu use among the an-
cient Hebrews is evident from Gen. iv. 15 (Cain's,
sign), I Kings xx. 41, and Ezek. ix. 4-6 (comp. Rev.
vii. 3; xiii. 16; xiv. 1, 9; Psalms of Solomon, xv. 10).
Originally, the "sign " was tattooed ou the skin, the
forehead ("between the eyes") and the hand natu-
rally being chosen for the display. Later, some
visible object worn between the eyes or bound on
the hand was substituted for the writing on the skin.

But the original practise is still discernible in the
use of the word "yad " (hand) to connote a " token "
(Ex. xvii. 16) with an inscription, the "zikkaron,"
which latter is the technical term, apjiearing in Ex.
xiii. and Deut. xi. 18. This fact explains also the
original value of the word "yad "in tJie combina-
tion "yad wa-shem " (hand and name; Isa. Ivi. 5).
The jiassage from Isaiah just quoted plainly shows
that such a yad wa-shem was effective against that
the Semite dreaded most — oblivion after death.
The words "ot," "shem," and "zeker" are often
used interchangeably (e.g., Isa. Iv. 13 and Ex. iii.
15), and it is probable that originally they desig-
nated visible tokens cut into the flesh for purposes-
of marking one's connection with a deity or a clan
(see Circumcision; Covexaxt; Totemis.m). The
common meanings of these words, "sign," "name,"
and " memorial," are secondary. The phrase " to lift
up the name" in the Decalogue indicates fully that
"shem " must have been originally a totemisticsign,
affixed to a person or an object.

The etymology of "totafot," wliicli, probably,
should be considered singular and be pointed "tote-
fet," is not plain. The consensus of modern opin-
ion is that it designates a round jewel, like the
"netifot" (Judges viii. 26; Isa. iii. 19), therefore a
charm, though others believe its original meaning to
have been " a mark " tattooed into the flesh (Siegfried-
Stade, "Lexicon"). It is to the habit of wearing
amulets or making incisions that the law of Deute-
ronomy refers, as does Ex. xiii., advising that only
God's Torah, as it were, shall constitute the pro-
tecting "charm" of the faithful.

Bibliography : 7>r(.s A'ai'»U(:i(?i((i,inStade"sZfif,'*c;iri/M894;
(i. Klein, Totajilidt >i(H)t liihcl u)id Traditinn, in Jdlirlmch
fl'tr l'rota<ta)iti)ichc Thcologic, 1881 ; Hastings, Diet. Bible.

E. G. H.
PHYSICIAN. See Medicine.
PIATELLI. See Anaw.

PICART, BERNARD : French designer and
engraver; Ijorn at Paris June 11, 1678; died at Am-
sterdam ^lay 8, 1733. He was descended from a
Protestant family and received his earliest instruc-
tion from his father, Ktienne Picart, and from Le
Brun and Jouvenet. At an early age Picart showed
a marked facility in the imitation of the great mas-
ters. In 1710 he settled at Amsterdam, where he
supplied plates and engravings to printers and book-
sellers. Picart designed and executed avast num-
ber of plates, about 1,300 of which are still extant.
The.se represent a variety of subjects, a number of
them dejiicting Biblical topics. That part of his
work which is of Jewish interest is contained in the
"Ceremonies des Juifs," the first volume of the
"Ceremonies et Coutumes Reliirieuses de Tons les

/9./\.:r'r y.:' /.•■•<

TiTI.K-I'AGK H'.OM TIIK "TiKKlX SOFKRIM," DESIGNED BY BERNARD PiCART.

(From ihe Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Semlosry of America, New York.)

Picciotto
Pick

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Peuplcs du Monde" (11 vols., Amsterdam, 1723-
1743). These plates, all of wliicli are faithfully and
carefully prepared, are among the earliest engra-
vings on Jewish ecclesiastical and ceremonial sub-
jects. Tlie following is a list of iheni, given in the
order in which they appear in the original edition:
(1) Interior of the Portuguese Synagogue at Amster-
dam ; (2) Jew with Phylacteries and Praying-Scarf;
(3) Arba' Kanfot, Sabbath Lamp, Mazzot, Lulab,
Etrog, Mezuzah, and Shofar; (4) Benediction of the
Priests in a Portuguese Synagogue at Tiie Hague ;
(5) Elevation of the Law; (6) Sounding the Shofar
on New-Year's Day ; (7) The Day of Atonement (in
the Synagogue); (8) Search for Leaven; ('J) Pass-
over Meal; (10) Feast of Tabernacles (in the Syna-
gogue); (1') Feast of Tabernacles (at Home); (12)
Rejoicing of the Law (in the Synagogue); (18) Es-
corting Home the Bridegroom of the Law; (14) Im-
plements of Circumcision; Scroll of the Law, with
Mantle, Crowns, etc. ; (15) Circumcision; (Ki) Re-
demption of tlie First-Born ; (17) Marriage Among the
Portuguese Jews ; (18) Marriage Among the German
Jews; (19) Circuit Round the Coffin ; (20) Interment.
An English translation of the work cited was
printed by William Jackson (London, 1733). It
contains, in addition to Picart's drawings, which in
this translation are engraved by Du Bosc, several
good engravings of similar Jewish subjects by F.
Morellon la Cave.

Bibliooraphy: Brj/nnN Dictionary nf Painters and En-
(iraverK, iv. 112. London, 1904; Jacobs and Wolf, liibl. Aii-
l/lo-Jud. p. 76, London. 1888; Thomas, Dk^ of BUHjrapJqi
and Muthiiloou^ Philadelphia, 19()1.
J. I. G. D.

PICCIOTTO, HAIM MOSES: Communal
worker; borual Aleppo 1806; died at London, Eng-
land, Oct. 19, 1879. He was a member of an ancient
Eastern family; his immediate ancestors were en-
gaged in the Russian consular service. He went to
England about 1843, and soon after his arrival there
became active in communal affairs. He advocated
the founding of Jews' College, and was a member
of its council until his death. He was one of the
founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Relig-
ious Knowledge, and wrote many of its tracts. A
good Hebrew scholar, he wrote several odes for reci-
tation on public and festive occasions.

Picciotto was for a considerable period a member
of the Board of Deputies, and was conspicuous in
the deliberations of that body for his indefatigable
Zealand his experience in Eastern affairs. He acted
as commissioner for the board at the time of the war
between ^Morocco and Spain in l8.')9-60. He visited
Gibraltar and Morocco to distribute relief and wrote
a report, as a result of which the Jewish schools at
Tetuiin, Tangier, and Mogador were founded.

His son James Picciotto (born in 1830; died in
London Nov. 13, 1897) was for man}' j^ears secretary
to the council of administration of the Morocco Re-
lief Fund. He retired in 189G, failing health com-
pelling liis resignation. He is known as the author
of "Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History," London,
1877, a reprint of articles which originally appeared
in the "Jewish Chronicle."

BiBi.mfjRAPiiv: Jnr. H'orW, Oct. 24. 1879; Jew. Chrnn. Oct.
;J4, 1879, and Nov. 19, 1897.

J. G. L.

PICHLEB, ADOLF: Austrian painter; born

ill 1834 at Czilfer, in tlie county of Presburg, Hun-
gary. At the age of thirteen he went to Budapest,
where he supported himself by tutoring while pre-
paring himself to teach. After receiving his teach-
er's diploma he entered the Academy of Fine Arts,
where lie soon won the first prize for a study of a
head. Before long he was one of the most popular
drawing-teachers in Budapest. He then went to
Munich to study under Wilhelm von Kaulbach and
Volz. One of his works dating from that time is
the "Jew at Prayer." His best-known picture is
his first work, "Moses, on His Descent from Sinai,
Finds the People Worshiping the Golden Calf. " His
other works include: "The Death of Jacob," "The
]Maiden of Judah," "Spinoza as Glass-Polisher," "Ju-
dah ha-Levi," and many historical paintings and
portraits.

s. R. P.

PICHON (PICHO), JOSEPH: " Almo.xarife "
and "conlador mayor" {i.e., tax-collector-in-chief)
of the city and the archbishopric of Seville; ap-
pointed in 1369 by Henry II. of Castile, who es-
teemed him highly on account of his honesty and clev-
erness. But on charges brought by some rich core-
ligionists who also had been admitted at court,
Pichon was imprisoned by command of the king and
.sentenced to pay 40,000 doubloons. On paying this,
large sum within twenty days he was released and
restored to office; in turn, he brought a serious ac-
cusation against his enemies, either in revenge or in
self- justification.

Henry had died in the meantime, and his .son,
John I., was his successor. Many rich and influen-
tial Jews had gathered from different parts of the
country for the auction of the royal taxes at Burgos,
Avhere the coronation of John took place. These Jews
plotted against the life of Pichon, who was very
popular among the Christians and who had received
marked attentions from the courtiers. It is not
known whether he is in any degree to be blamed for
the extraordinary tax of 20,000 doubloons which
Henry had imposed upon the Jews of Toledo; but,
however this may have been, some prominent Jews,
representing various communities, went to the king-
on the day of the coronation, and, explaining to him
that there was among them a "malsin," i.e., an in-
former and traitor who deserved death according to
the laws of their religion, requested him to em-
power the royal ofliccrs to execute the offender. It
is said that some minions of the king, bribed by the
Jews, induced John to give the order. The dele-
gation then took this order, together with a letter
from several Jews who were the leaders of the com-
munity, to Fernan Martin, the king's executioner.
The latter did not hesitate to fulfil the royal com-
mand. At an early hour on Aug. 21, 1379, he went
with Don Zuleina (Solomon) and Don Zag (Isaac) to
the residence of Pic'lioii, who was still sleeping.
Pichon was awakened on the pretext that some of
his mules were to be seized ; and as soon as he ap-
]ieare(l at the door Fernan laid hold of him and, with-
out saying a word, beheaded him.

The execution of Pichon, whose name had been
concealed from the king, created an uni)leasant sen-
.sation. The monarch was exceedingly angry that

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Picciotto
Pick

he had been inveigled into signing tlie death-war-
rant of a respected and popuhir man who liad fiiitli-
fully served his father for many years. He liad Zu-
lenia, Zag, and tlie chief rabbi of Burgos, who was
in tlie i)l()t, beheaded; and Martin was to have
shared tlie same fate, but was spared at the interces-
sion of some knights. He, liowever, paid for his
hastiness in tlie affair by tlie loss of his right hand.
As a consequence of Pichon's execution, the Cortes
deprived the rabbis and the Jewish courts of the
country of the right to decide criminal cases. The
affair had the most disastrous consequences for the
Jews of Spain, stimulating the hatred of the popu-
lation against them, and contributing to the great
massjicre of the year 1391.

BiBMOGRAPHY : Ayala, Cronica dc D. Junii I. li. 126 et scq.\
ZiinlKa, Analeii dc Sevilla, il. 136, 211 et sea.; Hlos. HM. 11.
3;!;! ct se(/.; Griitz, Gesch. vlll. 45 et scq.; R. E. J. xxxviil. 258
et aecj.
6. M. K.

PICHON (PITCHON), JOSEPH : Kabbinical
author; liveil in Turkey at the end of the seven-
teenth century. He was the author of '• Minhage
ha-Bedikah be-'Ir Saloniki," a work relating to the
method which was follow-ed of making meat kasher
in the slaughter-house at Salon ica.

BiBi.iOGRAPiiv : .Azulai. Shem ha-OeAnlim.s.v.: Franco, Hi's-
toire dcs Israelites de VEmpirc Ottoman, p. 125, Paris, 1897.
B. M. Fr.

PICK, AARON: Biblical scholar; born at
Prague, where he was converted to Christianity and
lectured on Hebrew at the university ; lived in Eng-
land during the first half of the nineteenth century.
He was the author of translations and commentaries
of various books of the Bible, his works comprising:
a literal translation from the Hebrew of the twelve
Minor Prophets (1833); of Obadiah (1884); and of
the seventh chapter of Amos with commentary. In
1837 he produced a treatise on the Hebrew accents;
and in 1845 he published "The Bible Student's Con-
cordance." He was, besides, the author of a work
entitled "The Gathering of Israel, or the Patriarchal
Blessing as Contained in the Forty-ninth Chapter of
Genesis: Being the Revelation of God Concerning
the Twelve Tribes of Israel, and Their Ultimate
Restoration."

s. I. Co.

PICK, ALOIS : Austrian physician, medical au-
thor, and dramatist; born at Karolinenthal, near
Prague, Bohemia, Oct. lo, 1859. lie studied medi-
cine at the universities of Prague and Vienna (M.D.,
Prague, 1883). The same year he joined the hospi-
tal corps of the Austrian army ; and at present (1905)
he holds the position of regimental surgeon (" Regi-
mentsarzt,"). He is also chief physician at the first
Army Hospital, Vienna. In 1890 he became privat-
docent and in 1904 assistant professor at the Uni-
versity of Vienna.

Pick has contributed many essays to the medical
journals, among which may be mentioned: "Zur
Lehre von den Atembewegungen der Emphyse-
matiker,"in "Prager Medizinische Wochciischrift."
1883, No. 17; "Beitrage zur Pathologic und Thera-
pie der Herzneurosen," ih. 1884, No. 44: "Der Re-
spiratorische Gaswechsel Gesunder und Erkranktcn
Luniren," in "Zeitschrift fiir Klinische Medizin,"

Berlin, xvi. ; " Ueber das Bewegliche Herz," in
"Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift," 1889; "Zur
Frage der Ilepatcjgeuen Dyspepsie," ib. 1903. He is
also the author of " Vorlesungen tlber Magen- und
Darmkraiiklieiten," Vienna, 1895. Aside from these
medical works, Pick is the author of two small
farces, " Briefsteller f l\r Liebende " and " Lonl Beef-
steak."

Bini.iofiKAPiiv : Elsenl)er(r, DaA Gewtige Wicn, I. 409, il. 372-
:i7:3, Vienna, 189:3; I'aKel, Bio(j. Lex.
R. F. T. H.

PICK, ARNOLD : Austrian psychiatrist ; born
at Gross-Meseritsch, Moravia, July 20, 1851; edu-
cated at Berlin and Vienna (M.D. 1875). He became
assistant physician at the lunatic asylum at Wehnen,
Oldenburg (1875), and at the state asylum at Prague
(1877); privat-docent at Prague University (1878);
and was appointed in 1880 chief physician at the
asylum in Dobrzan, which position he held till 1886,
when he was elected professor of psychiatry at
Prague.

Among his many works may be mentioned : " Bei-
triige zur Pathologic und zur Pathologischen Ana-
tomic dcs Centralnervens3'stems " (with Kahler),
Leipsic, 1880; and "Beitrage zur Pathologic und
Pathologischen Anatomic des Centralnervensystems
mit einem Excurse zur Normalen Anatomic Dessel-
ben," Berlin, 1898.

Bibliography: Papel, Bing. Lex.

s. F. T. II.

PICK, BEHRENDT: German numismatist and
archeologist ; born Dec. 21, 1861, at Posen. After
passing through the Friedrich-Wilhclms Gymna-
sium of his native city, he went in 1880 to the Uni-
versity of Berlin (Ph.D. 1884), -where he studied
classical philology. On the advice of Theodor
Mommsen, of whose favorite pupils be was one, he
took upas his specialty epigraphy and numismatics.
After a short term of service as librarian at the Royal
Library, Berlin, Pick in 1889 became privat-docent
in archeology at the University of Zurich, and in
1891 was appointed assistant professor there. In
1893 he accepted a position at the ducal library and
in connection with the ducal coin-collection of Gotha,
being made director of the latter in 1899. He was,
besides, appointed in 1896 lecturer on numismatics
at the University of Jena, which position he still
(1905) holds.

Pick's chief work is volume i. ("Dacia und Moe-
sia") of "Die Antiken ]\riinzen Nordgriechenlands"
(Berlin, 1898), a publication issued by the Berlin
Academy of Sciences. S.

PICK, ISAIAH. See Berlin, Is.uati b. Loeb.

PICK, PHILIPP JOSEPH: Austrian deima-
tologist; born at Neustadt, Bohemia, Oct. 14, 1834.
He studied natural sciences and medicine at Vienna
(M.D. 1860) and acted as assistant in several uni-
versity hosjiitals. In 1868 he removed to Prague
and became privat-docent in the German university
there. In 1873 he was appointed assistant professor,
and in 1896 professor, of dermatology in the same
universit}'.

In 1869 Pick founded in conjunction with Hein-
rich Auspitz the "Archivflir Dermatologie." etc.,
of which, since the death of his colleague in 1886,

Pico de ISirandola
Pierleoni

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

he has been sole editor. Muuy essays of his have
appeared in this journal and in the medical papeis
of Vienna and Prague. In 1889 he helped to found
the Deutsche Dermatologische Gesellschaf t, of which
he was the first president.

At the celebration, in 1898, of the twenty-fifth an-
niversary of his appointment as assistant professor
his pupils ami colleagues prepared a jubilee volume,
edited by Xeis.ser.

BiBLiOGR.vPUY : Papel, Biog. Lex.

s. F. T. II.

PICO DE MIRANDOLA, COUNT GIO-
VANNI FREDERIC© (Prince of Concordia):
Italian itliilusopher, theologian, and cabalist; born
Feb. '24. 1463. at Mirandola; died at Florence Nov.
17, 1494. Gifted with high intellectual powers, he
commeuced tiie study of theology at an early age,
graduated from the University of Bologna, and at
the age of twenty-three published 900 theses against
the views of the philosophers and theologians of his
time (•• Couclusiones Philosophica; Cabalisticse et
Theologicjc," Rome, 1486). These theses included
one which postulated that tiie Cabala best proves
the divinity of Jesus. Pico received his cabalistic
training from Johanan Aleman, from whom he also
obtained three cabalistic works wiiirh he translated
into Latin : the commentary of ]Menahem Recanati
on the Pentateuch, the "Hokmat ha-Nefesh"(=
"Scientia Animtc ") of Eleazar of "Worms (printed at
Lemberg. 1875), and the "Sefer ha-Ma'alot" of
Shem-Tob Falaquera. He tried to harmonize the
philo-sopiiy of Piato and Aristotle with the (Jabala
ami Neo-Platouism, but his excessive devotion to
the Cabala resulted in an ascetic and mystical
tendency, which brought him into conflict with
the Church. He was accu.sed of heresy, but was
acquitted, and retired to Florence, where he spent
the rest of his life with a friend.

Pico was one of tlie first to collect Hebrew manu-
scripts. Of his books, which were widely read, two
may liere be mentioned: (1) "Cabalistarum Sclec-
tiones," Venice, 1569: (2) "Opera," Bologna, 1496;
Venice, 1498; Basel, 1557.

Bibmography: DrnyflorlT, Dnx f^uxtem rlfx J. Picn, Marlnirg,
1858: Di (ilovanni. Pico deUn Mirnndola, FUosofo PUitu-
71ICO. Florence, 18.S2: itlein, Picn Xella Storia del JJoiaxci-
ynfutn, etc.. Palermo, 18!t4; (iriitz, Of.sc/i.viii. 245-247 ; Geda-
Ifah ibn Yahya, ShtiMielet ha-Kahbalah, p. 50a, Amsterdam,
1697 : Zunz, Z. O. pp. 8, 522.

I' S. O.

PICTORIAL ART : There are no ancient re-
mains showing in what way, if any, the Jews of
Bible times made use of painting for decorative or
other purposes. For the references in the Bible
see Painting. During the Middle Ages painting
was a craft which was monopolized Ijv the gilds,
and Jews were thereby prevented from sliowingany
proficiency in the art. The only direction in which
the latter eviflenced any skill was in the illumina-
tion of manuscripts (see Manusckii'Ts).

In modern times painting Avas at first mainly
directed to sacerdotal, decorative purposes, but
Jews were i)recluded from thus employing it, even
in their own synagogues, by the rabbinical inter-
pretation of the second commandment. It is not,
therefore, surprising that it is only with enianri-
pation that any JewLsh names are found in the an-

nals of painting. During the last 150 years a cer-
tain number of Jews have displayed considerable
skill as artists, chief among them being Joseph Is-
raels in Holland. A few Jewish painters, prominent
among whom are S. J. Solomon in England and E.
yi. Lilien in Germany, have in recent years devoted
their talent to specifically Jewish subjects. The
following is a partial list of Jewish painters who
have distinguished themselves in modern times:

America: Max Rosenthal (b. 1833), historical
portraits; ]\Ia.x Weyl (b. 1837), landscapes; Henry
Mosler (b. 1841), genre and portraits; Toby Edward
Rosenthal (b. 1848), genre; Herman Naphtali Hyne-
man (b. 1849), genre; Katherine M. Cohen (b. 1859).
portraits; George da Maduro Peixotto (b. 1859),
portraits and mural decorations; Albert Rosenthal
(b. 1863), portrait-etching; Albert Edward Sterner
(b. 1863), genre and water-colors; Louis Loeb (b.
1866), landscapes and portraits; Augustus Koopman
(b. 1869), genre and portraits; Leo ]\[ielziner (b.
1869), portraits; Louis Kn)ul)erg(b. 1872), portraits;
Edmoud Weill (b. 1872), genre; J. Campbell Phillips
(b. 1873), negro life, and portraits; J. Mortimer
Lichtenauer (b. 1876), mural decorations.

Austria-Hungary : Anton Rafael ]\Iengs (1728-
1779), historical, genre, and portraits; Friedrich
Friedlan(ler(b. 1825), military subjects and portraits;
Adolf Pichler (b. 1834), historical : Leopold Horo-
witz (b. 1837), portraits and subjects from Jewish
life; Lajos Bruck (b. 1846), subjects from Him-
gariau folk-life and portraits; Karl Karger (b.
1848), genre; Joseph Kovcs (b. 1853), portraits and
genre; Isidor Kaufmann (b. 1853), subjects front
Jewish life and genre; Gustav Mannheiiner (b.
1854), landscapes; Camilla Friedliinder (b. 1856;
daughter of Friedrich Friedliinder), still life; Ernst
Berger (b. 1857), Biblical subjects; Gyula Basch (1).
1859), genre and portraits; Adolf Hirschl (b. 1860),
historical; Alexander Nyari (b. 1861); Max Bruck
(b. 1863), genre; Adolf Fenyes (b. 1867), genre;
Philip Luszlo (1). 1869), portraits; Karl Reinhard
(b. 1872), genre; Arpad Basch (b. 1873), water-colors;
Leopold Pollak (1806-80), gein-e and portraits.

Denmark: Israael Israel INIengs (1690-1765),
miniature and enamel; Karl Ileinrich Bloch (b.
1834), scenic and genre: Ernst Meyer (1797-1861),
genre; David ^Monies (1812-94), historical, genre,
and portraits; Geskel Saloman (1821-1902), genre.

England : B. S. Marks (I). 1827), portraits; Felix
3roscheles (b. 1833); Carl Schloesser (b. 1836);
Simeon Solomon (c. 1850), Preraffaelite; Solomon
J. Solomon, A.R.A. (b. 1860), geiu-e and portraits;
Alfred Praga (b. 1860), genre and miniature; Abra-
ham Solomon (1824-63); Isaac Snowman (b. 1874);
Ellen Gertrude Coiien (1). 1876), portraits and genre;
Solomon Alexander Hart, R.A. (1806-81), scenic,
genre, and portraits; Lionel Cowen (1846-95).

France: Felix Dias (1794-1817); Emile Levy
(b. 1826), subjects from Jewish religious history;
Jacob Emile Edouard Brandon (b. 1831), genre;
Constant Mayer (b. 1832), genre and jiortraits; Jules
Worms (b. 1832), liumoristic genre; Zachaiie Astruc
(b. 1839), genre and panels in Avater-color; Henri
Leopold Levy (b. 1840), Jiistorieal and genre: Al-
plionse Levy (b. 1843), Jewish life; Leo Herrmann
(b. 1853), genre; Ferdinand Heilbuth (1826-79),

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pico de Mirandola
Pierleoni

genre and portraits; Alphonse Hirsch (1843-84),
genre and portraits ; Henry Baron (1816-85), his-
torical and genre; Auguste lladainard (1823-86),
genre; Benjamin Eugene Fichel (1826-95), historical
and genre; Eugene Alcan (1811-98), genre.

Germany: Philipp Arous (b. 1831), portraits;
liiuiolf Jonas (b. 1822), landscapes; Louis Katzen-
stein (1). 1824), portraits; Karl Daniel Friedrich
Bach (1756-1829), historical, genre, animals, and
portraits; Moses Samuel LOwe (1756-1831), minia-
ture and pastels; Felix Possjirt (b. 1837), landscapes
and genre; Hermann Junker (b. 1838), subjects from
Jewish life; Julius Bodenstein (b. 1847), land-
scapes; Jeremiah David Alexander Fiorino (1796-
1847), miniature; Max Liebcrmann (b. 1849), scenic
and genre; Rudolf Christian Eugen Bendemann (b.
1851), historical, genre, and mural decorations; Karl
Jacoby (b. 1853), historical and genre; Felix Bor-
chardt (b. 1857), scenic and portraits; Max Kahn
(b. 1857), genre; Wilhelm Feldmann (b. 1859), land-
scapes; Karl Blosz
(b. 1860), genre;
Julius Muhr (1819-
1865), genre; Her-
mann Goldschmidt
(1802-66), historic-
al; Eduard Magnus
(1799-1872), por-
traits and genre;
Johannes Veit
(1790-1854) and
Philipp Veit (1793-
1877), religious, his-
torical, and genre;
Julius Jacob (1811-
1882), landscapes
and portraits ;
Moritz Daniel Op-
penheim (1801-82),
subjects from Jew-
ish life, portraits,
and genre; Benja-
min Ulmann (1829-84), historical ; Eduard Julius
Friedrich Bendemann (1811-89), Biblical subjects,
portraits, and genre ; Max Michael (1823-91), genre ;
Alfred Kethel (1816-59) and Otto Rethel (1822-93),
frescos, historical, and genre; Karl Morgenstern
(1812-93), landscapes; Friedrich Kraus (1826-94),
portraits and genre; Louis Neustiittcr (1829-99),
genre and portraits; Solomon Hirschfeldcr (1832-
1903), genre.

Holland : Joseph Israels (b. 1834), genre ; David
Bles (1821-99), genre.

Italy : Raphael Bachi (c. 1750), miniature; Tullo
Massarani (b. 1826), genre; Giuseppe Coen (1811-
1856), landscapes and architectural ; Leopold Pollak
(1806-80), genre and portraits.

Rumania : Barbu Iscovescu (1816-54) ; Julius
Feld (1). 1871), portraits and genre.

Ilussia and Poland : Isaac Lvovich Asknazi
(b. 1856), religious subjects, genre, and portraits;
Jacob Semenovich Goldblatt (b. 1860), historical ;
Moisei Leibovich Maimon (b. 1860). genre and por-
traits; Peter Isaacovich Geller (b. 1862), Jewish his-
torical subjects; Samuel Ilirszenberg (b. 1866),
genre and scenic; Maurice Grun (b. 1870), genre
X.— 3

Tomb of Pierleoni In the

(From LauciaDi, *' New

and portraits; Jacques Kaplan (b. 1872), portraits
and genre; Alexancier Lesser (1814-84), historical;
Leonid Osipovich Pasternak (b. 1862), genre and
portraits.

Biiii.iocKAPHY : JUdiitche KUnstler, Berlin, 1903; S. J. Solo-
inoii. lu J. Q. It. 190a.

J. F. C.

PIDYON HA-BEN. See Primogenituue.

PIERLEONI : Noble Roman family of Jewish
origin. A Jewish banker of Rome who had acquired
a princely fortune was baptized in the first half of
the eleventh century, took the name of Benedictua
Christianus, and married the daughter of a Roman
nobleman. Leo, the offspring of this union, and
one of the most powerful magnates of the city, had
a castle in Trastevere and afflliated himself with
the papal party, and his son Petrus Leonis, from
whom the family derives its name, continued his
father's policy, controlling the Isola Tiberina in ad-
dition to the castle
in Trastevere, and
having another
castle opposite the
Tiber bridge near
the old theater of
Marcellus, which
was included in the
fortitications. He
was the leader of
the papal party and
the most faithful
and powerful pro-
tector of the popes.
Urban II. died in
Petrus' castle, and
the latter defended
the cause of Paschal
II. against the anti-
popes and the em-
peror. When
Henry V. came to
Rome Petrus Leonis was at the head of the papal
legation which eiTected a reconciliation between the
pope and the emperor, but Paschal's attempt to make
the son of Petrus i)refect of the city caused a riot.
Petrus was prominent in the liberation of Pope
Gelasius II., and when Petrus died in 1128 his son of
the same name was cardinal, and had on several
occasions rendered service to the Church. In 1130
Cardinal Pierleoni was elected pope under the name
of An.\cletus II., while the counter party chose
Innocent II. The schi.sm lasted for eight years, until
the death of Anacletus, after which the family of
Pierleoni made peace with the pope, retaining its
power and influence, and being distinguished by
various honors. Leo and Petrus, the brother and
nephew of Anacletus, were papal delegates at Sutri
in 1143, and another brother, Jordan, with whom the
era of senators begins, became the head of the Roman
lepublic as Patricius in 1144, while a sister is said
to have been the wife of Roger I. of Sicily. In tlic
twelfth century Cencius Pierleoni was "scriniarius"
of the Church, and in 1304 John Pierleoni, who had
been appointed elector by Pope Innocent III., chose
Gregory Petri Leonis Rainerii as senator. The leg-

Cloisters of St. Paul, Rome.

Tales of Ancient Rome.")

Pigeon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

end vfhich traces the lineage of the family of Pier-
leoni to the ancient Roman noble family of the Anicii
is as apocryphal as the story of the descent of the
Hap^burgs from the counts of Aventin, who be-
longed to the F*ierleoni.

BiBLiOGRAPHT: BaTODius. -4 nnaJ<v EcfU*^i<istici, years 1111,
1115: QKgoTovius, GcMch. tit'f Stiuit Hum im Mittelalter,iv.
349 ct «:q., 3yi et seq.; vols. iv. and v., passim ; Liber Pntitift-
calin, ed. Duchesne, li. aU, 3(i7,318. 3ii. X*i, 344, 347 ; Monu-
menta (jennaukr HinOirka, v. 47- «-( *€</., xi. 614, xli. 711 ;
Ducbesoe, Hiit(«ntr fVn/iconmi :Stri><orM, iv. 376; Ollvleri,
n Seiiato di Roma. p. 185; Vogelsiein and Riejrer, Gesch.
der Judtn in Rmn. 1. 214 ft seq., 218, 221 et seq.; Kehr, in
Archiviit lUlla R. S'JcUtd Romana di Sturia Patria, xxiv.
(1901). pp. :Jo3 et se4i.
8 H. V.

PIGEON. See Dove.

PIGO : Italian family of rabbis. Formerly the
name was as a rule transcribed Figo ; in an Ital-
ian document of 1643 it appears in the form " Pichio " ;
and in Hebrew it is sometimes written Vp'D. To
this family belong Ephraim Pigo, a learned man
who died in Venice in UiUo or 1606, and the rabbis
Judah Pigo and Solomon Pigo ; the latter appear
in the responsa "Mayim Habbim " of Rabbi Raphael
Meldola.

Another branch of the family lived in Turkey.
Moses Pigo (d. in Adrianople 1576) wrote "Zik-
ron Torat Mosheh," a dictionary of the haggadic
themes (Constantinople, 1554; Prague, 1623). His
son Joseph Pigo of Salonica was the author of
"Teslmbol" and "Dine Bedikat ha-Re'ah " (Salo-
nica, 1652).

Bibliography: Mortara, Indice, pp. 49, 50; Berliner, Luhot
Ahanim, Nos. 130, 131; Winter and WQnsche, Die JVUUsche
Literatur. ii. 652 et Keg.; Sttiinschneider, Cat. Bodl. ool. 746;
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 232; Furst, Bihl. Jud. 1. 240.

G. I. E.

PI-HAHIROTH: A place in the wilderness
where the Israelites encamped when they turned
back from Etham. It lay between Migdol and the
sea "before Baal-zephon " (Ex. xiv. 2, 9; Num.
xxxiii. 7, 8). The etymology of the name, which is
apparently Egyptian, was the subject of much spec-
ulation by the ancient commentators. The Septua-
gint, while treating the word as a proper name in
Numbers (E(/3£jr>; translating, however, ^Q by crrd/za),
translates it in Exodus by rfjg kna'vT^ug (= "sheep-
fold " or "farm-building"), thus reading in the He-
brew text n-njn ■•a. The Mekilta (Beshallah, Wa-
yehi, 1) identifies the place with Pithom, which was
called Pi-hahiroth (= " the mouth of freedom ") after
the Israelites had been freed from bondage, the place
itself being specified as a valley between two high
rocks. The Targum of pseudo-Jonathan {ad loc),
while following the Mekilta in the interpretation of
"Pi-hahiroth," identifies the place with Tanis.

The theory of an Egyptian etymology was ad-
vanced by Jablonsky, who compared it to the Cop-
tic "pi-akl)irot" = "the place where sedge grows,"
and by Naville, who explained the name as "the
house of the goddess Kerliet." On the basis of tliis
latter explanation, Fulgence Fresnel identified Pi-
haliiroth with the modern Ghu\vaibatal-Bus(= "the
bed of reeds"), near Has Atakah.

Bibliography: Selble, in HastlnRs. Diet. Bible.

E. G. ii: M. Sel.

PIKES, ABRAHAM B. ELIJAH HA-
KOHZN : Genuau rabbi; meulioued in "Likku^e
Maharil," hilkots "Shabbat" and "Yom Kippur."
He addressed two letters to the community of Hal-
berstadt, in which he discussed the commandments
and prohibitions. He requested that his epistles
might be copied and read to others. These letters
were printed at Basel in 1599.

Bibliography : Michael, Or hon^am/im. No. 42.
E. c. S. O.

PILATE, PONTIUS : Fifth Roman procurator
of Judea, Samaria, and Idumaea. from 26 to 36 of the
common era; successor of Valerius Gratus. Accord-
ing toPhilo("De Legationead Caium,"ed. Maugey,
ii. 590), his administration was characterized by cor-
ruption, violence, robberies, ill treatment of the peo-
ple, and continuous executions without even the
form of a trial. His very first act nearly caused a
general insurrection. While his predecessors, re-
specting the religious feelings of tlie Jews, removed
from their standards all the effigies and images when
entering Jerusalem, Pilate allowed his soldiers to
bring them into the city by night. As soon as this
became known crowds of Jews hastened to Caesarea,
where the procurator was residing, and besought
him to remove the images. After five days of dis-
cussion he ordered his soldiers to surround the peti-
tioners and to put them to death unless they ceased
to trouble him. He yielded only when he saw that
the Jews would rather die than bear this affront.
At a later date Pilate appropriated funds from the
sacred treasury in order to provide for the construc-
tion of an aqueduct for supplying the city of Jeru-
salem with water from the Pools of Solomon; and
he suppressed the riots provoked by this spoliation
of the Temple by sending among the crowds dis-
guised soldiers carrying concealed daggers, who
massacred a great number, not only of the rioters,
but of casual spectators.

In spite of his former experience of the sensitive-
ness of the Jews with regard to images and emblems,
Pilate hung up in Herod's palace gilt shields dedi-
cated to Tiberius, and again nearly provoked an in-
surrection. The shields were removed by a special
order of Tiberius, to whom the Jews had protested.
Pilate's last deed of cruelty, and the one which
brought about his downfall, was the massacre of a
number of Samaritans who had assembled on Mount
Gerizim to dig for some sacred vessels which an
impostor had led them to believe Moses had buried
there. Concerning this mas.sacre the Samaritans
lodged a complaint with Vitellius, legate of Syria,
who ordered Pilate to repair to Rome to defend him-
self. On the participation by Pilate in the trial and
crucifixion of Jesus see Cuucikixion; Jesus of
Nazaketh.

The end of Pilate is enveloped in mystery. Ac-
cording to I>usebius ("Hist. Eccl." ii. 7), he was
banished to Vienna (Vienne) in Gaul, where various
misfortunes caused him at last to commit suicide;
while the chronicle of Malalas alleges, with less
probability, that he was beheaded under Nero. A
later legend says that his suicide was anticipatory of
Caligula's sentence; that the body was thrown into
the Tiber, causing disastrous tempests and floods;

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pigeon
Pili^riinag'e

that it afterward produced similar effects in tlie
Rlione at Vienue; and that, finally, it had to be con-
signed to a deep pool among the Alps.

Bibliography: Josephus. Ant. xvlll. 3, § 12; idem. B.J. 11. 9
6§ 2A ; Ewald, Gtach. iv. 594 ; v. 4»-9.') ; vl. 319. 322-;{;£J 343 •
Gratz, Gesch. 111. 253-271 ; Schurer, Gesch. 1. 4«8 -492; Bniiini
Die S6hiu dee Herodes, 1873, pp. 1-16; Mommsen, HOininche
Geschichte, v. 508 ct acq.

6- I. Br.

PILEGESH (Hebrew, {J^J^^D; comp. Greek, TraA-
Aa«/f).— Biblical Data: A concubine recognized
among the ancient Hebrews. She enjoyed the same
rights in the house as the legitimate wife. Since it
was regarded as the highest blessing to have many
children, while the greatest curse was childless-
ness, legitimate wives themselves gave their maids
to their husbands to atone, at least in part, for their
own barrenness, as in the cases of Sarah and Hagar,
Leah and Zilpah, Rachel and Bilhah. The concu-
bine commanded the same respect and inviolability
as the wife ; and it was regarded as the deepest dis-
honor for the man to whom she belonged if hands
were laid upon her. Thus Jacob never forgave his
eldest son for violating Bilhah (Gen. xxxv. 22, xlix.
4). According to the story of Gibeah, related in
Judges xix., 25,000 warriors of the tribe of Benja-
min lost their lives on account of the maltreatment
and death of a concubine. Abner, Saul's first gen-
eral, deserted Ish-bosheth, Saul's son, who had re-
proached his leader with having had intercourse
with Rizpah, the daughter of his royal father's con-
cubine, Aiah (H Sam. iii. 7); and Absalom brought
the greatest dishonor upon David by open inter-
course with his father's concubines (zJ. xvi. 21 etseg.).
The children of the concubine had equal rights
with those of the legitimate wife. Abraham dis-
missed his natural sons with gifts (Gen. xxv. 6), and
Jacob's sons by Bilhah and Zilpah were equal with
his sons by Leah and Rachel ; while Abimelech, who
subsequently became king over a part of Israel, was
the son of Gideon- jerubbaal and his Shechemite con-
cubine (Judges viii. 31). In the time of the Kings
the practise of taking concubines was no longer due
to childlessness but to luxury. David had ten con-
cubines (II Sam. XV. 16), who, however, also did
housework; Solomon had 300 (I Kings xi. 30); and
his son Rehoboam had sixty (II Chron. xi. 21).

Bibliography : Hastings, Diet. Bible, s.v. Marriage ; Stade
Gesch. lar. 1. 385, 636 ; Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Kch»weib.
I'-- G. II. S. O.

In Rabbinical Literature : According to the

Babylonian Talmud (Sanh. 21a), the difference be-
tween a concubine and a legitimate wife was that
the latter received a Ketubah and her marriage
was preceded by a formal betrothal ("kiddusliin "),
which was not the case with the former (comp. Rashi
on Gen. xxv. 6, and Nahmanides ad loc). Accord-
ing to R. Judah (Yer. Ket. v. 29d), however, the
concubine also received a ketubah, but without the
aliment pertaining to it.
E. c. S. O.

PILGRIMAGE : A journey which is made to
a shrine or sacred place in performance of a vo« or
for the sake of obtaining some form of divine bless-
ing. Every male Israelite was required to \ isit the
Temple three times a year (Ex. xxiii. 17; Deut. xvi.

16). The pilgrimage to Jerusalem on one of the
three festivals of Passover, Shabu'ot, and Sukkot
was called "re'iyah" (="the appearance"). The
Mishnah says, "All are under obligation to appear,
except minors, women, the blind, the lame, theagedi
and one who is ill physically or mentally." A minor
in this case is defined as one who is too young to be
taken by his fatlier to Jerusalem. According to the
Mosaic law every one should take an
Pilgrimage offering, though the value thereof is
to First not fixed (comp. Ex. xxxiii. 14; Deut.
Temple. xvi. 17); the Mishnah, however, fixed
the minimum at three silver pieces,
each of thirty-two grains of fine silver (Hag. i. 1, 2).
While the appearance of women and infant males
was not obligatory, they usually accompanied their
husbands and fathers, as in all public gatherings
(Deut. xxxi. 12). The Talmud plainly infers that
both daughters and sons joined the pilgrims at the
Passover festival in Jerusalem (Pes. 89a; Git. 25a).
According to the Biblical accounts, Jeroboam,
who caused the secession of Ephraim from Judah[
made two calves of gold, placing one in Dan and the
other in Beth-el, to divert the pilgrims from Jerusa-
lem (I Kings xii. 26-33). He stationed guards on
the boundary-lines of his dominions to prevent the
festival pilgrimages to the Temple (Ta'an. 28a). So
great a menace to the Ephraimite government were
the Temple pilgrimages that even King Jehu, who
destroyed the Ba'al, feared to remove the golden
calves of Jeroboam (II Kings x. 28, 29). In Judea
the pilgrimages to Jerusalem were kept up regu-
larly, but the principal gathering of the people was
on the Sukkot festival, called "Hag ha-Asif" =
"Festival of Gathering" (I Kings viii. 65; II Chron.
vii. 8, 9). King Josiah revived the Passover pil-
grimage to Jerusalem (II Kings xxiii. 23). King
Hoshea, son of Elah, dismissed the guards and per-
mitted the people to go undisturbed to Jerusalem
for the festivals (Yer. Ta'an. iv. 7; Git. 88a).

During the time of the Second Temple, the Ju-
deans ruled Palestine and as a united people cele-
brated the Feast of Sukkot in Jerusalem (Neh. viii.
17). From beyond Palestine, especially from the
River Euphrates, they journeyed to
Pilgrimage Jerusalem for the festivals. Some
to Second even endangered their lives passing
Temple, the guards posted to stop the pilgrim-
ages (Ta'an. 28a: Gratz, "Gesch." 3d
ed., iii. 157, 668). The number of Jewish pilgrims
to the Temple was computed by the governor
Gesius Flouus (64-66), who counted 256,500 pas-
chal lambs atone Passover festival; allowing ten
persons to one lamb, this would make 2,565,000 pil-
grims (Josephus, "B. J." vi. 9). The Tosefta re-
cords the census of Agrippa, who ordered the priests
to take one hind leg of every paschal lamb, and
counted 1,200,000 legs, which would make the total
12,000,000 (Tosef., Pes. iv. 64b). These figures are
evidently exaggerated, and are based on the desire
to double the 600,000 of the Exodus, a tendency
frequently noticed in the Haggadah. It is calculated
that ancient Jerusalem comprised an area of 2,400,-
000 square yards, and, allowing 10 yards for each
person, would contain 240.000 persons (see Luncz,
"Jerusalem," i., English part, pp. 83-102).

Pilgrimage

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

The facilities provided for the convenience of the
pilgrims were such as to encourage pilgrimages.
Special measures were taken to repair the roads
leading to Jerusalem and to dig wells along the
route (Shek. i. 1, v. 1). Thirty days before the fes-
tival it was forbidden to engage professional mourn-
ers to bewail the dead lest they get their compensa-
tion from the money intended to be spent in Je-
rusalem (M. K. viii. 1). The hides of the sacrifices
•were left to compensate the innkeepers for lodging
the pilgrims, and no other fee was allowed (Yoma
12a). The inhabitants of Jerusalem received the
pilgrims hospitably ; the priests permitted them to
see the show bread and told them of the miracle
connected with it (Yoma 21b). Public speakers
praised and thanked the pilgrims (Suk. 49b; Pes.
5b). The ceremony attending the offering of the
first-fruits (see Bikkcrim) in Jerusalem (Deut. xxvi.
a-4), which commenced on Shabu'ot (the Feast of
Harvest; comp. E.\. xxiii. 16), is supposed to give
a general idea of the reception accorded to the
pilgrims.

The pilgrimages to Jerusalem did not cease with
the destruction of the Temple (Cant. R. iv. 2). The
■women often joined their husbands, sometimes in
spite of the protests of the latter (Ned.
Post-Exilic 23a). But the joy that attended the
Pil- former pilgrimages, when the Temple

grimages. was still in existence, changed to
lamentations for the loss of national
and political independence. The pilgrims mourned
the destruction of the Temple and cried : " Thy holy
cities are now in ruins; Zion is a wilderness; Jeru-
salem is a desolation. Our Sanctuary, the pride of
our ancestors, is burned down, and all our precious
things are destroyed " (M. K. 26a).

The Karaites, in the ninth century, likewise
showed great devotiowto Jerusalem. Their hakam,
Sahl ibn Mazliah, wrote to Jacob b. Samuel that
Karaite pilgrims of various towns gathered to pray
for the restoration of Zion; these pilgrims he de-
scribed as Nazarites who abstained from wine and
meat (Pinsker, " Likkute Kadmouiyyot," Appendix,
p. 31). A company of Karaites, headed by Moses
ha-Yerushalmi, journeyed from Chufut-Kale ("The
Jewish Rock "), from tlie Crimea, and from the Cau-
casus. The inscription on Moses' tombstone, dated
4762 (1002), reads: " Good luck followed him and his
companions to the tomb of King David
Karaite and of his son Solomon, which no
Pil- other persons heretofore had been per-

grimages. mittcd to enter." All pilgrims to Pal-
estine were sent out with music and
song in honor and praise of the Holy Land. The
pilgrims on their return were known as " Jerusalem-
ites" (see tlie Karaite Siddur, part iv. ; " Luah Ere/
Yisrael." v. 22).

The Turkish conquest under Saladin (1187) secured
to the Oriental Jews the privilege of visiting Jeru-
salem and the sacred places. Numerous pilgrims
went from Damascus, Babylonia, and Egypt, and
they remained in Jerusalem over Passover and Sha-
bu'ot. Na^mani, in a letter dated 1268, writes:
"Many men and women from Damascus, Babylon,
and their vicinities come to Jerusalem to see the site
of the Holy Temple and to lament its destruction."

About fifty years later Estori Farhi notes the custom
of the brethren of Damascus, Aleppo, Tripoli, and
Alexandria to go to Jerusalem for the holy days " in
order to express their grief" ("Kaftor wa-Ferah,"
ed. Edelmann, vi. 19). Among the Eastern Jews,
especially those of Babylonia and Kurdistan, it has
been the custom from the fourteenth century onward
to go on a pilgrimage at least once a year, many of
them actually walking the whole distance. The
era of the Crusades evidently encouraged pilgrim-
ages of Jews from Europe; a most noteworthy ex-
ample is that of JcDAU ii.\-Levi (1140). Mei'r of
Rothenburg was made a prisoner on his way to Pal-
estine. Samuel b. Simsou (13th cent.) received per-
mission from the governor of Jerusalem to visit the
cave of Machpelah at Hebron. It was on his invi-
tation that 300 rabbis journeyed from France and
England into Palestine in 1210. These pilgrimages
became so frequent that Hayyim benHananeel ha-
Kohen felt compelled to issue a warning against
them (Tos. Ket. 110b, s.v. IDIS Nim).

The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, and
the consequent settlement of manj' exiles in Turkish
territory, largely increased the number of pilgrims.
The goal of their journeys was chiefly
European the tomb of Samuel the Prophet at
Pil- Ramah, where they held annual com-

grimages. munions and celebrations, similar in
character to the celebrations instituted
on Lag be-'OMER, a century later, at the tombs of
R. Simeon b. Yohai and his son Eleazar in Mcron.
In 1700 Judah he-Hasid of Siedlce and Gedaliah of
Siemjatiszcz started upon a pilgrimage from Poland
(Griitz, "Gesch." x. 340); they were accompanied
by R. Nathan Note, rabbi at The Hague and author
of "Me'orot Natan." In 1765 a company of four-
teen families from Poland and Lithuania, mostly
Hasidim, went on a pilgrimage to Palestine. Among
them was Simhah b. Samuel, author of "Binyan
shel Simhah." He writes that he stayed at Con-
stantinople, where the Jewish community provided
passage for the pilgrims to Palestine. There were
110 Sephardim in the vessel that took him to Jaffa
(Luncz, "Jerusalem," iv. 137-152).

In modern times the term "pilgrimage," with Its
ancient and medieval meaning, has ceased to be ap-
plicable. Sir Moses Montefiore and his wife Judith
made a visit of piety to the Holy Land in 1828; in
a later one they were accompanied by L. L5we,
and many other individuals made similar visits.
The Zionist movement led to the formation of a
number of parties for the purpose of making visits
of piety to Palestine and the holy places. While
on such a visit, in 1890, R. Samuel Mohilewer and
Dr. Joseph Chazanowicz founded a Jewish library
in Jeru.salem. The Jews of Palestine complain of
the lack of interest on the part of their coreligionists
elsewhere as compared with the thousands of Chris-
tians who avail themselves of modern opportunities
to visit the Holy Land.

The following is a partial list of noted Jewish
pilgrims and visitors to Palestine from the twelfth
century up to the present time:

114(1. Judah ha- Levi.
116.5. Mo.ses Malmonldes.
1171. Benjamin of Tudela.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pilsrimaere

1178. Petliahlnh of Rppensburg.
1^10. Abruhain Muirnonldes.

1210. Samuel b. Siiiison with R. Jonathan ba-Koben of Lunei
("Itint-raires," pp. 115, 122).

1216. Judah al-Harizi.
1257. Jehicl of Paris.

12.58. Jacob of Paris ("Slmane ha-Kebarim ").

1207. Moses Nahiiiani.

i:?18. Kstori Far'hl.

1334. Isaac b. Joseph Chelo of Spain (author of "Sblbhe dl-Ye-
ruslialayim ").

1438. Elijah of Ferrara (author of " Ahabat ZIyyon ").

1440. Isaac b. Alpera of Malaga (wlio corresponded with Rabbi
Duran ; " Sefer Yuhasin," ed. Filipowski, p. 228).

1450. Jose|>li 1). Nahniau ha-Levl (sent list of sacred tombs to
Rat)ln Durau; " Sefer Yuhasin," i.e.).

1481. MeshuUain b. Menahem of Volaterra (see bis letters in
Luncz's "Jerusalem," i. 166-227).

1488. Obadiah da Bertinoro.

15(K). Jacol) Silkili of Sicily ("Sefer Yuhasin," I.e.).

1523. Israel of i'crugia ("Jerusalem," iii. DT).

1523. David Ucubeni.

15;}5. Isaac Meir Latif.

1540. Gershon b. Asher Scarmelo (author of "Yihus ha-Zaddl-
kim").

1564. I'ri b. Simeon of Biel (author of " Yiljus ha-Alxit").

1582. Simeon Hack (letters in "Jerusalem," ii. 141-157).

1600. Solomon Shlomel b. Havyim of Lattenburg.

1614. Mordecai b. Isaiah Litz of Raussnitz, Austria.

1624. Gershon b. Eliezer ha-Levi (author of " Gelilot Ere? Yis-
rael").

IMl. Samuel b. David Yemsbel i^Z'r:"^), a Karaite. (The name
" Yemshel" is the abbreviation of di^'^' 13D1I'0 '"'H nij\)
He was accompanied by Moses b. Elijah ha-Levi of
Kafla, Feodosia (Gurland, "Ginze Yisrael," pp. 31-43).

1650. Moses b. Naphtali Hirsch Priiger (author of " Darke ?iy-
yon ").

16R5. Benjamin b. Elijah, a Karaite (" Ginze Ylsrael," pp. 44-64).

1701. Judah he-Hasid of Siedlce.

1740. Hayyim Abulafla of Smyrna.

1747. Abraham Gershon Kutewer (of Kuty), brother-in-law of
Israel BeSHT.

1753. Aryeh Judah Meisel of Opatow.

17.58. Joseph Sofer of Brody (author of " Iggeret Yosef," a jour-
nal of his travels, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1761).

176.'). Siuihah b. Joshua (author of "Sippure Erez lia-Galil ").

1765. Moses lia-Yerushalml (author of " Yede Mosheh," de-
scription of sacred graves).

1768. Perez b. Moses (author of "Shebah u-Tehillah le-Erez
Yisrael," Amsterdam, 1769).

1777. Israel Politzkl, Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk, and Abraham
Kallsker (Luncz, "Jerusalem." v. 164-174).

1799. Nahman Bratzlavof Horodok, a Hasid (author of " Maggid
Slhot," a description of his journey to Palestine).

1805. Menahem Mendel and Israel of Shklov (disciples of Elijah
of Wilna).

1828. Moses Monteflore.

]83;5. Joseph Schwarz (author of " Tebu'ot ha-Arez ").

1837. Menahem Mendel b. Aaron of Kamenec (author of " 'Aliy-
yat ha-Arez," Wilna, 1839).

1854. Albert Colin of Paris.

18i56. L. A. Frankl (authorof " Nach Jerusalem ").

1867. Charles Netter of Paris.

1872. Heinncli Graetz.

1890. R. Samuel Mohilewer.

1897. Israel Zangwill.

1898. Theodor Herzl.

For a list of sacred tombs see Tombs; see also
TuAVEi.ERs IN Palestine.

Bini.iOGRAPiiY: Carmoly, Ttinfraires de la Terre Sainte,

Brussels, 1847; Gurland, Ginze Yisrael, vol. 1., Lyck, 1865;
Luncz, Luah, v. 5-59.
D. J. D. E.

Pilgrimages are made usually on fixed days in the

year, called by the Oriental and North-African Jews

"days of zi'arah " ; on such days it is customary to

visit the tombs or relics of certain per-

Customs. sonagos wlin in earl}' or medieval times

were famous as kings or prophets or

for their holy lives. There are other lioly places

which the people honor as thcj' Avill and at any

time. Tiie days of pilgrimage are celebrated by

prayers, rejoicings, and popular festivals.

In Jerusalem a crowd of Jews gathers before the
western wail of tlie Temple of Solomon ("Kotel
Ma'arabi") every Friday evening and on the eves of
feast-days, as well as on twenty-three successive
days from the eve of the 17th of Tammuz to tlie
9tii of Ab inclusive. On the latter date this re-
ligious service occurs at midnight. On the 6th of
Siwan, the Day of Pentecost, the Sephardic Jews
go to pray at the tombs of the kings of Judah at the
foot of JMount Zion. On the following day they
pray at tlie tomb of the high priest Simon the Just,
and at the tombs of other holy men in the neighbor-
hood, while the Ashkenazim gather at the tombs of
the kings of Judah. On the 18th of lyyar, called
" Lag be-'Omer," all the Jews of Jerusalem, Sephar-
dlm and Ashkenazim, pray at the tomb of Simon
the Just.

At liurak, between Jerusalem and Bethlehem, is
tlie tomb of Rachel, wife of the patriarch Jacob, to
which the Jews of Jerusalem go by turns during
the thirty days of the month of Elul. But the 15th
of Heshwan is especially consecrated to this pilgrim-
age (Benjamin II., "Mas'e Yisrael," pp. 3-6, Lyck,
1859). At Kama, near Jerusalem, known in Arabic
as "Nabi Samwil," all the Jews of the latter city
gather on the 28th of lyyar at the
In tomb of the prophet Samuel. The

Palestine, pious even pass the night there. At
Khaifa, a port of Palestine, on the eve-
ning of the Sabbath which foUoAvs the anniversary
of the destruction of the Temple, the Jews hold a
popular festival, with illuminations, in a grotto, .sit-
uated on the summit of Mount Carmel, in which the
prophet Elijah is said to have taken refuge from
tlie persecution of King Ahab. At Tiberias on the
night of the 14th of lyyar, known as " Pesah Sheni "
(Num. ix. 9-14), Jews gather from all parts of Pal-
estine, and there are brilliant illuminations and a
popular festival at the tomb of Rabbi Meiu ("Ba'al
ha-Nes" = "the miracle-worker").

At Safed, from the morning after Passover (22d
of Nisan) till the 18th of lyyar, every week the
Jewish population ceases to work, and makes pil-
grimages to the suburbs in the following order;
namely, to (1) Biria, where is the tomb of Beuaiah
ben Jehoiada, David's general; (2) the tomb of
the prophet Hosea in the cemetery; and (3) 'Ain
Zaitun, to the tomb of Joseph Saragossi, a Spanish
immigrant who reorganized the commimity of Sa-
fed in 1492. On tlie night of Lag be-'Omer all tlie
able-bodied Jews of Safed and several thousands
of pilgrims from Palestine, Turkey, northern Africa,
the Caucasus, and Persia celebrate a great popular
festival witli illuminations at Meron, near Safed, at
the mausoleum of Si.meon ben Yotiai. At each
new moon it is considered essential among the Ash-
kenazim of Safed — men, women, and children — to
make a pilgrimage to the tomb of Isaac Lvuia, the
famous cabalist. At Sidon, toward the end of ly-
yar, people from the most distant parts of Palestine
make a pilgrimage to tiie tomb of Zebulun, one of
the sons of the patriarch Jacob.

Places of pilgrimage exist not only in Palestine,
but also in Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, Egypt, Algeria,

Pilgrimage
Pilpul

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

and Morocco. In Mesopotamia the places of pilgrim-
age are Bagdad, KiffL-l, and Bassora. At Bagdad,
at the very gates of the towu, is the mausoleum of the
high priest Joshua, known under the popular name
of the " Kohen Mausoleum. " At each new moon it is
visited by thousands of Jews and cs-
In Meso- pecially by barren women. In the
potamia. local cemetery the tomb of the sheik
Isjiac, a revered Jew, is also an object
of frequent pilgrimages. At Ketil, a locality in Irak
near the ruins of Babylon, is the tomb of the prophet
Ezekiel, to which the Jews of Mesopotamia go on
pilgrimage on the (ith of Siwan (Pentecost). At Bas-
sora the tomb of Ezra is visited on the same date.

In Kurdistan the Jews have three places of pil-
grimatre: (1) In the district of Elkosh, near Mosul,
the tomb of the prophet Nahum is a place of pil-
grimage for fourteen days, the eight days preceding
and the six following Pentecost. Readings are given
from the prophecy of Nahum from a manuscript
supposed to have been written by the prophet him-
self. (2) At Kerkuk, between the upper and lower
parts of the town, are four tombs, said
In Kurdis- to be those of Daniel, Hananiah, Misli-
tan and ael, and Azariah, to which the Jews of
Persia. the district make pilgrimages at Pen-
tecost. (3) In the locality of Bar-Ta-
nura, thirty hours distant from Mosul, is a grotto in
which the prophet Elijah is said to have taken ref-
uge. Several times a year the Jews of this region
go thither on pilgrimage and contribute to the main-
tenance of the grotto.

In Persia there are two places to which Jews
make pilgrimages. (1) At Ramadan, near the for-
tress, is an ancient mausoleum containing the tombs
of Mordecai and Esther. On the 14th of Adar, the
festival of Purim, the Jews of the region read the
Book of Esther at these tombs; pilgrimages to them
are made also at each new moon and in times of
danger. (2) Twelve and one-half miles from Ispa-
han, in the middle of the fields, is a little synagogue
which, according to local tradition, contains the
tomb of Sarah, daughter of Aslier (Num. xxvi. 46).
The Jews of the neighborhood go thither on jiil-
grimage on the 1st of Elul.

At Fostator Old Cairo, in Egypt, three miles from
Cairo, is a synagogue built in the year 1051 (29
Sha'han, A.n. 429) by Abu Sa'ad, a favorite of the
calif Al Mustansir Ma'ad (Griltz, "Gescli." vi. 152).
This synagogue contains a tomb in
In Eg-ypt, which, according to local tradition,
Algeria, the prophet Jeremiah rests, and two
and little rooms built over the |)laces where

Morocco, the prophets Elijah and Ezra prayed.
On the 1st of Elul all the Jews of
Cairo go on pilgrimage to Fostat and hold a mag-
nificent festival there.

Thereexistin Algeria traditional tombs of revered
Jews which are venerated e(|ually by Jews and Mo-
hammedans. Prayers are said at them in times of
stress, but not at regular dates. In the district of
southern Oran. in the region of Nedrona, inliabited
by the Traras, are the tombs of Sidi Usha (Joshua)
and his father, Sidi Nun. In the department of
Oran on the Ilif frontier is the tomb of a certain
R. Jacob Roshdi, which is frequently visited.

In Morocco, as in Algeria, certain tombs are
equally venerated by Jews and Mohammedans, but
there are no fixed days for prayer ; e.g. : at Al-Kasar,
that of H. Judah Jabali; atTarudaut, that of H. Da-
vid ben Baruch ; and at Wazan, that of R. Amram
ben Diwan. Amram was one of the rabbis sent out
periodically by the rabbinate of Palestine to collect
money, lie traveled in company with his son; and
when the latter fell sick, Amram prayed to God to
accept the sacrifice of his own life and to save that of
his child. The son recovered, but the father died, and
was buried at Jabal Assen. His tomb is said to be
surrounded b}' a halo, and miracles are said to have
taken jilace there. The 7th of lyyar is the principal
dav of the local pilgrimages (see "Journal des De-
bats," Paris, Oct. 27, 1903).

In Podolia and Galicia and even in the northern
parts of Hungary the tombs of Hasidic rabbis and
niiraclc-workers are visited on the anniversaries of
their deaths, and on other occasions by people in dis-
tress. Lamps are burned and prayers are recited;
and often letter-boxes are found at the tombs, in
which the pilgrims deposit slips on which their
wishes are written.

Biiii.ior.RAPHY : Luncz, Lvah Erez Ym-aeU IntrfxiuPtlon, Jeru-
salem, 189.^; Benjamin 11., 3/a.s'e I'israc/, Lyck, 1K59; Bui'
Jetiii Amiuel de VAUiaJice IsraHite Uiiivenelle, 1888,
1898; Revue des Ecolen de VAUiance Israelite Univeiselle,
Paris, 1901, 1902.

D. M. Fr.

PILLAR: The word "pillar" is used in the
English versions of the Bible as an equivalent for
the following Hebrew words:

(1) "Omenol," feminine plural of the active par-
ticiple of |0X = "support," "confirm." This word
occurs only in II Kings xviii. 16. In the Revised
Version (margin) the rendering is "door-posts."

(2) " Mazzebah " (R. V. , margin, " obelisk "). This
denotes a monolith erected as a monument or me-
morial stone (as the " pillar of Rachel's grave," Gen,
XXXV. 20, and "Absalom's monument," II Sam.
xviii. 18; comp. I Mace. xiii. 27-30), or as a bound-
ary-mark and witness of a treaty (Gen. xxxi. 44-54;
comp. Isa. xix. 19), or as a memorial of a divine ap-
peaiance or intervention. Such stones often ac-
quired a sacred character, and were regarded as
dwelling-places of the Deity or were made to serve
as rude altars upon which libations were poured

(Gen. XXXV. 14, xxxviii. 18-22; I Sam.
Memorial vii. 12; possibly also Gen. xxxiii. 20,
Stones. where the verb used indicates the orig-
inal reading to have been n3VD =
"pillar," instead of n3TD = "altar").

In the earlier periods of Hebrew history and as
late as the reign of Jo.siah one or more of these stone
pillars stood in every sanctuary or "high place."
Thus Moses built an altar at Sinai, and "twelve pil-
lars according to the twelve tribes of Israel" (Ex.
xxiv. 4; comp. Josli. xxiv. 26; IIos. iii. 4, x. 1-2;
I.sa. xix. 19). Similar pillars stood at the Canaan-
itish altars of Baal (Ex. xxiii. 24, xxxiv. 13; Deut.
vii. 5, xii. 3; II Kings iii. 2, x. 26-27) and in the
sanctuaries of Tyre (Ezek. xxvi. 11) and of Ileliop-
olis, in Egypt (.Jer. xliii. 13). The recent excava-
tions of the Palestine Exploration Fund at Gezer
have revealed a row of eight monoliths on the .site
of the ancient high place. These are hewed to a

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Filgrrima^e
Pilpul

roughly square or round section and one to a sliarp
point ("Pal. Explor. Fund Quarterly Statement,"
Jan., 1903).

By the Deuteronomic and Levitical codes the use
of the mazzebah as well as of the asherim at the
altars of Jehovah was forbidden as savoring of idol-
atry (Deut. .\vi. 21-32; Lev. .xxvi. 1). It is proba-
ble that these had become objects of

Deutero- worship and as such were denounced
nomic and by the Prophets (Mic. v. 13-14; comp.

Levitical I Kings xiv. 23; 11 Kings xvii. 10,
Pro- xviii. 4, xxiii. 14). Some such stone

hibitions. idols seem to be referred to in Judges
iii. 19, 26 (comp. the Arabic "nusb").
The term "hammanim," rendered "images" and
"sun-images," is probably used of later and more
artistically shaped or carved pillars of the same
character as the mazzebah (Lev. xxvi. 30; Isa. xvii.
8, xxvii. 9; Ezek. vi. 4, 6; II Chron. xiv. 3, 5;
xxxiv. 4, 7).

(3) "Nezib " (from the same root as " mazzebah "),
while rendered "pillar" in Gen. xix. 26, is eLsewhere
translated "garrison" (I Sam. x. 5) and "officer"
(I Kings iv. 19). In the second passage, however,
the JSeptuagint renders it by avcicTTjfia, ''■i.e., prob-
ably a pillar erected as a symbol or trophy of Phi-
listine domination " (Driver, " Hebrew Text of Sam-
uel," p. 61; so, also, H. P. Smith, Wellhausen, and
others).

(4) "Mis'ad " (I Kings x. 12; R. V., margin, "rail-
ing," "prop "). The precise meaning is unknowm.

(5) "'Ammud," the word which occurs most fre-
quently in this sense, is used of the pillars or col-
umns which support a house or the roof of a house
(Judges xvi. 25-29), of the posts which supported
the curtains of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvii. 10, 17;
xxxvi. 36-38; Num. iii. 36-37), and of the pillars in
the Temple (I Kings vii. 2, 3, 6; comp. Ezek. xlii.
6; Prov. ;■ 1). They were made of acacia-wood
(Ex. xxvi. 32, 37; xxxvi. 36), of cedar (I Kings vii.
2), or of marble (Esth. i. 6; comp. Cant. v. 15). A
detailed description is given in I Kings vii. of two
bra.ss or bronze pillars which were fashioned by Hi-
ram for King Solomon and set up in the

Pillars of porchof the Temple, and to which were
the given the names "Jachin" ("He [or

Temple, "It"] shall establish") and "Boaz"
(" In him [or " it "] is strength "). The
word is used also of the columns or supports of a
litter (Cant. iii. 10). It denotes, too, the column of
smoke rising from a conflagration (Judges xx. 40), and
particularly the column of smoke and of flame which
attended the Israelites in the wilderness (Ex. xiii.
21-22, xiv. 24; Num. xiv. 14). An iron pillar isa
symbol of strength (Jer. i. 18); and in poetry the
earth and the heavens are represented as resting on
pillars (Job ix. 5, xxvi. 11; Ps. Ixxv. 4).

(6; "Mazuk," probably a molten support; hence
a "pillar" (I Sam. ii. 8).

(7) " Timarah " ; in the plural, " pillars " of smoke
(Cant. iii. 6; Joel iii. 3). Compare "tomer" (Jer. x.
5, H. v., margin; Baruch vi. 70), which probably
means a "scarecrow."

Bibliography : W. R. Smith. Rel. nf Sem. 2d ed., pp. 201-212,
456-457; Nowack, Hehriiische Arc)i{lnU>fjie; Wellhausen,
Reste Arnbu<chen Heidentumes, 2d ed.. pp. 101, 141 : Conder,
Syrian Stone Lore, new ed., p. 86 ; Driver, Commentary on

Oen. TTviU. 2S, and on Dexit. xvi. Si ; Dlllmann. Commentary
on the same passagea ; Whitehouse, PiUais, in Hastlnirs, Diet.
JiibU.
E. C. J. F. McL.

PILLAR OF FIRE: The Israelites during their
wanderings liirough the desert were guided in the
night-time by a pillar of fire to give them light (Ex.
xiii. 21 ; Num. xiv. 14; Neh. ix. 12, 19). The pillar
of fire never departed from them during the night
(Ex. xiii. 22); according to Shab. 33b, it appeared
in the evening before the pillar of cloud had disap-
peared, so that the Lsraelites were never without a
guide. God troubled the Egyptian hosts through
a pillar of fire and of cloud (Ex. xiv. 24). Tliere is a
legend that Onkelos, by narrating to the messen-
gers sent by the emperor to seize him that God
Himself was the torch-bearer of the Israelites, con-
verted them to Judaism ('Ab. Zarah 11a).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

PILLITZ, DANIEL. See Burger, Theodor.

PILPUL : A method of Talmudic study. The
word is derived from the verb "pilpel" (lit. "to
spice," "to season, "and in a metaphorical sense, "to
dispute violently" [Tosef., B. B. vii. 5] or "clev-
erly" [Shab. 31a; B. M. 85b]). Since by such dis-
putation the subject is in a way spiced and seasoned,
the word has come to mean penetrating investiga-
tion, disputation, and drawing of conclusions, and
is used especially to designate a method of studying
the Law (Ab. vi. 5; Baraita, B. B. 145b; Tem. 16a;
Ket. 103b; Yer. Ter. iv. 42d). For another explana-
tion of the word, as derived from the Hebrew "pil-
lel," .see J. B. Lewinsohn, "Bet Yehudah," ii. 47,
Warsaw, 1878.

The essential characteristic of pilpul is that it
leads to a clear comprehension of the subject under
discussion by penetrating into its essence and by
adopting clear distinctions and a strict difl"erentiation
of the concepts. By this method a sentence or maxim
is carefully studied, the various concepts which it
includes are exactly determined, and all the possible
consequences to be deduced from it arc carefully
investigated. The sentence is tiien examined in its
relation to some other sentence harmonizing with it,
the investigation being directed toward determining
whether the agreement appearing on a superficial
contemplation of them continues to be manifest when
all the possible consequences and deductions are
drawn from each one of them; for if contradictory
deductions follow from the two apparently agreeing
sentences, then this apparent agree-

Descrip- ment is not an agreement in fact,
tion of Again, if two sentences apparently

Method. contradict each other, the pilpulistic
method seeks to ascertain whether this
seeming contradiction may not be removed by a more
careful definition and a more exact limitation of the
concepts connected with the respective sentences.
If two contiguous sentences or maxims apparentlj'
imply the same thing, this method endeavors to
decide whether the second sentence is really a repe-
tition of the first and could have been omitted, or
whether by a more subtle differentiation of the con-
cepts a different shade of meaning may be discovered
between them. Similarly if a regulation is mentioned
in connection with two parallel cases, this method

Pilpul

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

determines whether it might not have Ijeen concluded
from the similarity of the cases itself that the regu-
lation appl.ving to the one applied to the other also,
and why it was necessary to repeat explicitly the
same regulation.

The pilpulistic method, however, is not satisfied
wiih merely attaining the object of its investiga-
tion. After having reached the desired result in one
way, it inquires whether the same result might not
have been attained in another, so that, if the first
method of procedure should be eventually refuted,
another method and another proof for the result at-
tained may be forthcoming. This method is fol-
lowed in most of the Talmudic discussions on regu-
lations referring to the Law, and in the explanations
of sentences of tlie Mishnah, of which an example
may be given here.

The Mishnah says (B. M. i. 1): "If two persons
together hold a garment in their hands, aind one of
them asserts "I have found it,' and the other like-
wise says ' I have found it, ' and the first one says ' It
belongs entirely to me,' and the second likewise
says ■ It belongs entirely to me,' then each one shall
swear that not less than one-half of the garment is
rightfully his, and they shall divide the garment
between them." The Gemara explains this mishnah
as follows: "The reason for the two expressions,
' the one says "I have found it," ' and ' the one says
"It belongs entirely to me," ' is sought because it is
obvious that, if the person insists that he found it,
he lays claim to its possession." After some futile
attempts to prove by means of quibbling interpre-
tations that one of these sentences alone would have
been insufficient, the Gemara comes to the conclusion
that two different cases are discussed in the Mish-
nah. In the first case a garment has been found,
and each of the two persons insists
An that he has found it; in the second

Example, case a garment has been acquired by
purchase, each person insisting that it
belongs to him, since he has purchased it. Then the
Gemara inquires why decisions had to be rendered
in both cases, and if it would not have been suffi-
cient to give a decision in the one case only, either
that of acquisition by purchase or that of finding.
The Gemara then proves that the two ways of ac-
quisition, by purcha.se and by finding, differ in cer-
tain respects, and that if a decision had been given
for the one case, it could not have been concluded
therefrom that it applied to the other case also.

After this Mishnah sentence itself has been ex-
plained, its relation to other sentences is inquired
into. Does this Mishnah .sentence, according to
which both parties swear, agree with the principle
of Ben Nanos, who says, in a case in which two
parties contradict each other (Shebu. vii. 5), that
both parties sliould not be allowed to swear? It is
then shown that, according to Ben Nanos, too, both
parties might be allowed to take the oath, since both
might swear truthfully; for it might be possible
that the garment in dispute belonged to both of
them together, since both together might have
found or purchased it, each one swearing merely
that not less than one-half belongs to liim. Then it
is sought to ascertain whether the Mishnah contra-
dicts the decision of Symmachus (B. K. 35b ; B. M.

102), according to whom the two parties should di-
vide the object in dispute between them without
swearing. After a few other attempts at a solution,
which are, however, futile, the Gemara comes to the
conclusion that the mishnah in question agrees in
principle with Symmachus, and that the oath which
the Mishnah prescribes for both parties is merely
an institution of the sages; otherwise any one
might take hold of another person's garment and
insist that it belonged to him, in order to obtaij>
possession of at least one-half of it (B. M. 2a-3a).

This example, although presented here in a very
abbreviated form, will suffice to give an idea of the
pilpulistic method of Talmudic discussion. As a
method of studying the Law, there was, even in
the Talmudic period, side by side and in contrast
with it, anotlier method, which consisted rather in
collecting, arranging, and preserving-
Tradition the halakic sentences. The represent-

Versus ative of the last-named method was

PilpuL called " ba'al shemu'ot " = " possessor
of the tradition," while the represent-
ative of the former was called "ba'al pilpul " =
"master of ingenious disputation and deduction"
(B. B. 145b). In Yer. Hor. iii. 48c the one is called
" sadran " (arranger), while the other is termed " pal-
pelan " (disputator).

Both methods were necessary for Talmudism,
which rested, on the one hand, on the solid ground
of tradition, and, on the other, on the independent
development of what had been handed down. The
one method furnished the technical knowledge of
the traditions, while the other furnished the means
of creating by ingenious deductions something new
out of that which existed anil had been transmitted.
The method of arranging and collecting was pre-
ferred to the method of ingenious disputation and
deduction (Yer. Hor. iii. 48c); and the learned man,
called "sinai," was considered to be greater than
the clever pilpulist, who was termed "uprooter of
mountains" (Ber. G4a; Ilor. 14a). Although the pil-
pulist had the advantage of being able to arrive at
new conclu.sions and new doctrines and to render
new decisions in cases Avliich had not been provided
for in the works of tradition, and before which the
student of tradition stood helpless, he had neverthe-
less to contend with certain disadvantages. The
clever person is often careless ('Er. 90a); and the
more acute and hair-splitting Jus arguments are, the
more likely they are to result in false deductions, as
Kaba pointed out (B. M. 96b ; Niddah 33b). Many
of the amoraim were opposed to the method of
the jiiipul, which was cultivated especially at
Pumbedita from the time of R. Judah b. Ezekiel.
Some even went so far as to designate this method,
on which the Babylonian Talmud is based, although
in a more rational and logical form, as "ambiguous
obscurity" (Sanh. 24a; comp. Samuel Edels in his
"Hi(l(hislie Ilaggadot," ad loc).

in the po.st-Talmu(lic period the Geonim and the
first commentators on the Talmud confined them-
selves more to arranging and explaining the text,
some even despising the ingenious method of the
pilpul (comp. Kashi on Hul. 81a and on Sanh. 42a).
But the tosafists again introduced the method of
the pilpul, which then became predominant. Dur-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pilpul

ing the fourteenth century and tlie first decades of

the fifteenth, however, the study of the Talmud was

pursued along different lines, probably

Develop- in consequence of the pitiful condition
ment of the Jews in most countries. It

of Pilpul. became shallow and weak and entirely
lacking in independence. Memo-
rizing and technical knowledge (" beki'ut ") took the
place of minute analysis. A rabbi was considered
great in proportion to his knowledge of the te.xtof
the different codes necessary for practical decisions.
But about the middle of the fifteenth century
new life was infused into the study of the Talmud
by the reintroduction of the pilpulistic method,
which laid greater stress on the clever interpreta-
tion of the text than on the study of its lialakic re-
sults. This method, which, in its hair-splitting dia-
lectics and its detailed analysis as well as in its sur-
prising deductions, surpasses the clever tosafistic
method of teaching, originated in Poland and Ger-
many, and spread thence to other countries. It was
cultivated by the most prominent rabbis; and the
real importance of a rabbi was thought by some to
lie in liis ability to analyze cleverly and treat crit-
ically the subject in question (Israel Bruna, in
Joseph Colon's Responsa, No. 170). Nor does Jo-
seph Cohm deny {ib.) that the method of the pil-
pul is an excellent one, saying merely that the
knowledge of the Talmud and of the codes is more
val liable and more useful for the rabbi.

The pilpulistic method of study soon degenerated
into sophistry. It was no longer regarded as a
means of arriving at the correct sense of a Talmudic
passage and of critically examining a decision as to
its soundness. It was regarded as an end in itself;
and more stress was laid on a display
Tendency of cleverness than on the investigation

Toward of truth. This new development of
Casuistry, the pilpul is ascribed to Jacob Pol-
LAK, who lived at the end of the fif-
teenth century and in the beginning of the sixteenth.
Tills pilpul par excellence was pursued especially
under two forms. In the one, two apparently widely
divergent halakic themes were placed in juxtaposi-
tion, and a logical connection between them was
sought by means of ingeniousand artificial interpreta-
tionsand explanations, but in such a way that the con-
nective thread between them appeared only at the end
of the treatise : this was the " derashali. " In the other
form an apparently homogeneous theme was dis-
sected into several parts, which were then again com-
bined into an artistic whole: this was the so-called
" hilluk " (analysis, dissection). The treatises follow-
ing this method of the pilpul in both of these forms
were called "hiddushim" or "novellie" (original
products) because thereby the most familiar objects
were made to appear in a new light. Various meth-
ods of dialectics were originated by
The means of which these hillukim and

Hillukim. derashot were built up and developed.
Every school had its own way of find-
ing and disclosing the hiddushim; as examples the
method of Nuremberg and that of Ratisbon may be
mentioned.

General rules were laid down even for the applica-
tion of this sophistic treatment to the Talmud, the

codes, and the commentaries. The following rule,
for instance, was formulated : " If any person raises
an objection at the end of a sentence, he must at
once be asked why he reserved his objection until
the end of the argument, instead of speaking at the
beginning of it. Then it must be proved by the ob-
jector that if the objection liad been raised at the
beginning of the sentence a refutation of it might
have been found, and that only if the objection is
raised at the end of the discussion, can it be claimed
that all possible refutations of the main argument
have been removed and that .such an argument be-
comes valid " (comp. on this rule Jellinek in "Bikku-
riin," pp. 3 et seq.).

The adherents of this pilpulistic method did not,
however, intend, by their ingenious disputations, to
draw deductions for practical purposes. Its chief
representatives, in order that they might not
inlluence any one in practical matters, did not
commit the results of their disputations or their
hiddu.shim to writing. They intended merely to
sharpen the minds of their pupils and to lead
them to think independently; for this course prece-
dent was to be found in the Talmud (Ber. 33b; 'Er.
13a). To this end riddles were often given to the
pupils; also questions that were manifestly absurd,
but for which a clever pupil might find an answer.
The earliest collection of such riddles is found in a

work by Jacob b. Judah Landau, who

Riddles of lived at the end of the fifteenth cen-

Pilpul. tury, hence about the time when this

new method of the pilpul was devel-
oped; this collection is appended to his work
"Agur" (ed. Piotrkow, 1884, pp. 72a et seq.). The
following example may be quoted: "How was it
that of two boys who were born on two successive
days of the same year the one who was born a day
later than the other attained first to the legal age of
thirteen years required for becoming a bar miz wah ? "
Answer : " The bo3's were born in a leap-year, which
has two months of Adar. One boy was born on the
29th of the first Adar; the other, on the first of the
second Adar. The thirteenth year following, in
which the boys became bar mizwah, was an ordi-
nary year, with only one month of Adar. The
younger boy, who was born on the 1st of Adar
(Sheni), reached his legal age on the 1st of Adar in
that year, while the elder boy, who was born on the
29th of the first month of Adar, reached his legal age
only on the 29th of Adar in the thirteenth j'ear."

Many prominent rabbinical authorities protested
against this degenerated method of the pilpul (e.g.,
R. Liwa b. Bezaleel, MaHaRaL of Prague, Isaiah
Horowitz [author of "Shene Luhot ha-Berit"J, Jair
Hayj'im Bacharach in his responsa "Hawwot Yair"
[No. 123J, and other Polish and German rabbis;
comp. Jellinek in "Bikkurim," i. 4, ii. 5); but their
attacks upon it were futile. The method predomi-
nated down to the nineteenth century, being culti-
vated by the most gifted rabbis in all countries, al-
though in a more or less modified form, according
to the individuality of the rabbis in question and
the dominant movements in the countries them-
selves. It applies the same treatment to the Talmud
as to the codes and the commentaries, and attempts
to confirm or refute the view expressed in one com-

Pilpul
Pilsen

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

mentary, or the rule laid down in one code, by
means of ingenious and at times hair-splitting de-
ductions drawn from an earlier commentary or code,
or especially a remote Talmudic passage. Two ex-
amples may be cited here:

Maimonides ("Yad," 'Edut, xviii. 2) lays down
the principle that a witness can be convicted of hav-
ing given false testimony and becomes amenable to
punishment by proof of an alibi only when such
proof does not disprove the facts set forth in his tes-
timony. When the testimony of those who bring
proof of the alibi refutes at the same time the testi-
mony of the witness for the prosecution, then this is
regarded merely as a contradiction between the two
groups of witnesses, and the one group is not con-
sidered to be refuted by the other. This principle
is attacked by R. Hayyim Jonah (quoted by U. Jona-
than Eybeschntz in his " Urim we-Tummim," section
"Tummim," 38) through the combination of two Tal-
mudic passages and a clever deduction therefrom.
There is a Talmudic principle to the effect that the
testimony of a witness in which he can not possibly be
refuted by proof of an alibi is in itself invalid (Sanh.
41a ; B. K. 75b). This principle is perhaps based on
the supposition that the witness, if not restrained by
the fear of being convicted and punished, will more
readily make false statements. Another Talmudic
sentence says: ''A appears as witness against B
and testifies that the latter committed an assault
upon him (A) against his will. If another witness,
C, can be found to corroborate this statement, then
B is liable to be executed on the testimony of the
two witnesses A and C" (Sanh. 9b). Now, if the
statement of A should be refuted by a proof of
alibi, then this proof would at the same time dis-
prove the alleged commission of the crime; for, in
the absence of A, B could not have committed the
assault in question upon him. According to the
principle laid down by Maimonides, the refutation
of A's statement by proof of an alibi would be con-
sidered merelj^ as a contradiction and not as a refu-
tation, and A would not be punished as a person
who had been convicted. Hence A would not be
in danger of being refuted and punished, and his
testimony would, according to the principle (Sanh.
41a), be invalid in itself. It therefore necessarily
follows from the Talmudic sentence in question
that the testimony of A is valid, and that the prin-
ciple of Maimonides in regard to the nature of the
proof of alibi is erroneous. Eybcschlitz attempts to
uphold the jirincipleof Maimonides by quoting even
more ingenious combinations.

Another example, by Aryeh Lob b. Asher. one of
the keenest casuists of the eighteenth century, may
be given. He proves the correctness
Examples of one view, and "eo ipso" the in-
of Method, correctness of another, from a Tal-
mudic passage. The Talmud says
(Pes. 4b): "The search for and removal of leav-
ened matter on the eve of the Passover is merely a
rabbinical prescription ; for it is sufficient, according
to the command of the Torah, if merely in words or
in thought the owner declares it to be destroyed and
equal to the dust." Rashi says that the fact that
such a declaration of the owner is sufficient is do-
rived from an expression in Scripture. The tosafot.

however, claim that this can not be derived from the
particular expression in Scripture, since the word
there means "to remove" and not "to declare des-
troyed." The mere declaration that it is destroyed
("bittul ") is sufficient for the reason that thereby
the owner gives up his rights of ownership, and
the leavened matter is regarded as having no owner
(" hefker "), and as food for which no one is responsi-
ble, since at Passover only one's own leavened food
may not be kept, while that of strangers may be
kept. Although the formula which is sufficient
to declare the leavened matter as destroyed is not
sufficient to declare one's property as having no
owner, yet, as R. Nissim Gerondi, adopting the
view of the tosafot, explains, the right of owner-
ship which one has in leavened matter on the eve
of the Passover, even in the forenoon, is a very
slight one; for, beginning with noon, such food may
not be enjoyed ; hence all rights of ownership be-
come illusory, and, in view of such slight right of
ownership, a mere mental renunciation of this right
suffices in order that the leavened matter be consid-
ered as without an owner. R. Aryeh L5b (in his
"Sha'agat Aryeh, Dine Hamez," § 77) attempts to
prove the correctness of this tosafistic opinion as
elaborated by R. Nissim, and to prove at the same
time the incorrectness of Rashi's view, from the fol-
lowing Talmudic passage: "Pes. 6b says that from
the hour of noon of the eve [of Passover] to the con-
clusion of the feast the mere declaration of destruc-
tion does not free a person from the responsibility
of having leavened matter in his house; for since he
is absolutely forbidden to enjoy it, he has no claim
to the ownership, which he renounces by such a
declaration." The Gemara (7a) endeavors to refute
this assertion by the following baraita : " If a person,
sitting in the schoolhouse, remembers that he has
leavened matter in his house, he shall mentally de-
clare it to be destroyed, whether the day is a Sab-
bath or the feast-day." Although the tasting of
leavened matter is forbidden on the feast-day, yet
the baraita says that the owner shall mentally de-
clare it to be destroyed; hence it follows from the
baraita that a declaration of destruction is effective
even at a time when one may not enjoy the leavened
food at all. R. Aha b. Jacob declares thereupon
that the baraita deals with a case in which a person
remembers that he has left some freshly kneaded
dough at home which is not yet leavened, but may
become leavened before the owner

Further returns home in order to bake it. At
Examples, the moment of his remembering it,
liowe ver, the dough is not yet leavened ,
and hence may be used for all purposes; it is there-
fore the property of the owner, who can mentally
declare it to be destroj'ed, i.e., he may renounce his
right of ownership.

Thus far the Talmudic passage. The "Sha'agat
Aryeh" then asks how the Gemara can conclude
from the baraita, which says that during the feast
even leavened matter may be mentally destroyed,
that such a declaration of destruction is valid if one
may not partake at all of such leavened food. This
baraita perhaps agrees with the view of Jose the
G.\i,ii,E.\N, who says that leavened matter may be
enjoyed during the feast in any way excepting by

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pllpul
Pilsen

eating it. If the baraita adopts the point of view of
Jose the Galilean, then it may declare correctly that
leavened matter may be mentally destroyed on the
feast-day also, since the owner may enjoy it in every
way except as food and hence has the right of own-
ership. When, however, the leavened matter may
not be enjoyed, as is the ruling of the accepted hala-
kah, no one has the right of ownership and, there-
fore, of declaring the leavened matter in question des-
troyed. But if one assumes with K. Nissim and the
tosafot that a mental declaration of destruction is ef-
ficacious because it is a form, though a weakened
cue, of the hefker declaration, then this weakened
form of the hefker declaration is sutticient in the
case of leavened matter only because the right of
ownership in it is a weakened one. The right of
ownership in the leavened matter is a weakened one
only because through the interdiction against par-
taking of such food this right becomes of itself illu-
sory from a certain period, namel}', from the hour
of noon of the eve of the feast. If this view is as-
sumed to be correct, then the baraita can not ex-
press the view of Jose the Galilean; for, according
to him, the right of ownership in the leavened mat-
ter is a strong and inalienable one, since one may
fully enjoy it even during the feast, with tlie excep-
tion that one may not use it as food. But if the
right of ownership is not a weakened one, then, ac-
cording to the foregoing statements, a weakened
form of the hefker declaration is not sufficient; hence
the bittul declaration is insufficient for the purpose
of declaring the leavened matter to be property be-
longing to no one. The baraita, which refers to a
mental declaration of destruction, can not therefore
express H. Jose's view.

The attempt of the Gemara to conclude from the
baraita that a bittul declaration would be valid also
in case a person might have noenjoy-
Complica- ment whatever from leavened matter
tions. is therefore a correct one. According
to Rashi's view, however, that the
view of the bittul declaration being sufficient is de-
rived from a certain expression in Scripture, this
bittul declaration is valid according to R. Jose too;
since it does not depend on the kind of riglit of
ownership, the baraita passage quoted might ex-
press the view of R. Jose, although it speaks of
bittul. Hence the attempt of the Gemara to con-
clude from the baraita that bittul would be valid
even if one might not in any way enjoy the leavened
matter, is erroneous; for the baraita, which refers
to bittul during the feast, expresses R. Jose's
view, that during the feast also leavened matter
may be enjoyed in any way except by eating it.
The method of the Gemara, therefore, proves the
correctness of the tosafistic opinion, represented by
R. Nissim, and the incorrectness of Rashi's opinion.

This latter example is especially interesting be-
cause it shows the weak foundation on which such a
pilpulistic structure is reared. It rests on the highly
improbable, if not false, assumption that the Gemara
has carefully weighed and considered all points, and
still can find no other refutation of its attempt to
draw the desired conclusion from the baraita than
that advanced by R. Aha b. Jacob. And the whole
fabric falls to pieces with the assumption that the

Gemara could have refuted its attempt by assuming
that the baraita expressed the view of ]{. Jose, but
that R. Aha b. Jacob thought to find a better refu-
tation by assuming that the baraita expressed the
view generally accepted, and not the single view of
R. Jose, which was rejected by the majoiity of
teachers.

The method of the pilpul was not confined to the
study of the Talmud and the codes; it was applied
also in the field of Homilktics and in that of the
Haggadah. A short haggadic sentence of the Tal-
mud or Midrash was cleverly interpreted so as to af-
ford material for an entire treatise on some halakic
theme. Sometimes such a so-called

Applied " curious midrash sentence " (" midrash
Outside the peli") was invented as a starting-point

Talmud, for some ingenious explanation. The
Biblical personages were made the
mouthpieces of the principles of Maimonides accord-
ing to Joseph Caro's interpretation, or of decisions
by Isaac Alfasi according to R. Nissim Gerondi's
interpretation. Abimelech is said to have been
guided by a Talmudic principle in his behavior to-
ward Abraham and Sarah. The antagonism between
Joseph and his brothers is ascribed to differences of
opinion regarding a halakic regulation. Pharaoh is
said to have based his refusal to liberate Israel on
certain Talmudic-rabbinic principles; and Haman's
wife, Zeresh, is said to have deduced from certain
Talmudic teachings that her husband would not
be able to maintain his position against the Jew
Mordecai.

Many homiletic works and commentaries on the
books of the Bible, from the beginning of the six-
teenth century down to the nineteenth, follow
this method. Among these R. Judah Rosanes'
"Parashat Derakim" and R. Jonathan EybeschiUz's
" Ya'arat Debash " are especially noteworthy for
their acuteness and their clever combinations. On
the special forms of pilpulistic methods in different
countries and at different times, see Talmud.

Bibliography: Gudemann. Die Neuoei>taUuna des Rahbi-
nerwei^eivf im Mittelalter. In Monntsxchrift, 1864. pp. 425-
433; Idem, Gesch. Hi. 79-83 ; Jelllnek, Le-Korot Seder ha-
Limmtui, In Keller's Bikkuiim, 1. 1-26, 11. 1-19.
E. C. J. Z. L.

PILSEN : City in Bohemia. According to doc-
uments of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
Jews were then living in Pilsen, and they had a syn-
agogue and a cemetery. In the sixteenth century
they were expelled, as were the Jews of most of the
other cities of Bohemia. It was not until after 1848
that Jews were allowed to resettle in Pilsen. An
increasing number of Jewish families from several
villages in the neighborhood, where they formed
large communities, then removed to the city ; serv-
ices were at first held in a rented chapel ; and soon
afterward the district rabbi of Pilsen, Anschel Kaf-
ka, took up his residence in the city. In 1859 the
community, which then numbered seventy families,
received its constitution, being one of the few newlj'
formed congregations in Bohemia whose statutes
were confirmed. In the same year a synagogue was
dedicated, and a four-grade school was organized.
In 1875 another .synagogue was annexed to the
older one ; and in 1893 a handsome new building was
erected at a cost of nearly 1,000, 000 crowns. Heine-

Pimentel
Piuea

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

mann Vogelstein was called to the rabbinate in 1867,
afid oflQciated until 1880, his successors being Nathan
Porges (1880-82), Jecheskel Caro (1882-91), and
Adolf Posnanski (since 1891).

In 1904 the community numbered 3,170 persons,
including 724 taxpayers, in a total population of
68,079; and the annual budget amounted to 73,756
crowns.

BiBUOGRAPHT : JohrbucJi fUr die Israflitischen Oemeinden
in BOhmen, 18&4 ; Union Kcdender, 1905.
D. A. Kl.

PIMENTEL, SABA DE FONSECA PINA

T: Poetess of Spanish descent; lived in England
in the early part of the eighteenth century, as did also
Abraham Henriques Pimentel. She wrote " Es-
pejoFielde Vidas" (London, 1720), laudator}' Span-
ish verses on the Spanish metrical translation of the
Psalms by the Marano poet Daniel Israel Lopez
Laguna.

BiBLioGRAPHT : Kayserlin?. Sephardim Romanische Poesien
der Juden in Spanien, pp. 251, 299.

J. I. Co.

PIN. See Tent.

PINA, DE : Portuguese jVIarano family some
members of which were able to escape the Inquisi-
tion and to confess Judaism openlj' in Amsterdam.

Jacob (Manuel) de Pina : Spanish and Portu-
guese poet; born of Marano parents in Lisbon in
1616; went to Holland about 1660. In Amsterdam
he openly accepted Judaism and took the name
Jacob. In Lisbon he had published a "comedia
burlesca " entitled " La Mayor Hazana de Carlos
VI." and a volume of humorous poems entitled
"Juguetes de la Niiiez y Travesuras del Ingeuio"
(1656), which are the same as the " Chansas del lu-
genio y Dislatas de la Musa " mentioned in Wolf (see
bibliography below). Jacob mourned in elegies the
deaths of Saul Levi Morteira and the martyrs Bernal
and Lope de Vera; and in 1673 he celebrated in a
Portuguese poem the verses of Joseph Penso, and
in a Spanish one the translation of the psalms of Ja-
cob Judah Leon.

Bibliography : Barrios, Relacion de Ids Poetas, p. 54 ; idem,
Coro de las Mxtsan, p. .505; Idem, Goviei-no Popular Ju-
dayco, p. 45; Barbosa Machado, Bihliotheca Litsitana, 111.
341 ; Wolf. Bibl. Hehr. 111. .521, Iv. 870; Kayserllng, Sephar-
dim, pp. 253 et seq.; idem, Bi?jl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 89.

8. M. K.

Paul de Pina : Born after 1580 in Lisbon. Poet-
ically gifted and inclined to religious fanaticism, he
was about to become a monk, and for this purpose
made a journey to Rome. One of his relatives rec-
ommended him to the physician Filotheo Eliau (Eli-
jah) MoxTALTO in Leghorn, and the latter won the
young man for the religion of his ancestors. Paul
went to Brazil, and thence returned to Lisbon, where
ne still continued to appear as a Christian. He did
not fully embrace Judaism until after the Franciscan
monk Diego de la Axum(;ao had courageously suf-
fered the death of a martyr for the Jewish faith. In
1604 Paul hastened to Amsterdam, where as a Jew he
was called Bohel Jeahurunand became prominent
in the community. In honor of the synagogue Bet-
Ya'akob he in 1624 composed in Portuguese poet-
ical dialogues between the seven principal moun-
tains of Palestine in praise of the faith of Israel.

These dialogues were printed in Amsterdam in 1767,
and they are reprinted in Kayserling, "Sephardim,"
p. 340.

Bibliography : Grfttz, Geach. 3d ed., ix.484, x. 4 ; Kayserllng,
Sephardim, p. 175.
G. I. E.

PINCZOW, ELIEZER B. JUDAH: Polish
rabbi; flourished at the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury ; grandson of R. Zebi Hirsch, rabbi of Lublin.
He was rabbi of Pinczow and other places, and
parnas at Cracow. Pinczow was the author of
"Dammeselj: Eli'ezer" (Jesnitz, 1723), notes on the
Masoretic text of the Bible, and "Mishnat Rabbi
Eli'ezer" (Amsterdam, 1725), expositions of Tal-
mudic haggadot.

Bibliography: Fuenn. Keneset Yi^Tachp. 131, Warsaw, 1886;
Furst, Bibl. Jud. 1. 2:i3; Roest, Cat. lioseuthal. Bibl. 1. 347,
11. Supplement, No. 396; Stelnschnelder, Cat. Bodl. No. 4993.
n. n. A. S. W.

PINCZOW, ELIJAH B. MOSES GEB-
SHON : Polish physician and Talmudist of the
eighteenth century. He was the author of : " Meleket
Mahashebet," parti., "Ir Heshbon " (Frankfort-on-
the-Main, 1765), on arithmetic and algebra; part ii.,
"Berure ha-Middot " (Berlin, 1765), on geometry;
"Ma'aneh Eliyahu " (Zolkiev, 1758), discussions on
the Talmudic treatises Bezah and Baba Mezi'a, to-
gether with some rabbinical decisions and responsa;
"Nibhar me-Haruz " (1772), extracts from the book
"Ha-'Ikkarim," reproduced in an easy style and in
the form of a dialogue between teacher and pujiil;
"Hadrat Eliyahu "(parti., Prague, 1786), homiletics;
"She'elot u-Teshubot Ge'one Batra'e " (Sudilkov,
1795), collected from the responsa of the later rabbis.

Bibliography : Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 118, Warsaw, 1886 ;
Furst, Bihl. Jnd. i. 237 ; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 134,
330, Wilna, 1880.
H. R. A. S. W.

PINCZOW, JOSEPH B. JACOB : Polish rabbi
and author; flourished in Poland in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries; descendant of R. Jacob
Pollak, son-in-law of R. Moses Krjimer, chief rabbi
of Wilna, and pupil of Zebi Hirsch, rabbi of Lublin.
Pinczow was at first head of a yeshibah at Wilna;
he then became rabbi of Kosovi (1688), and afterward
of Seltz3^ where he maintained a yeshibah. On ac-
count of persecutions he in 1698 fled to Hamburg,
where he remained till 1702, returning then to Seltzy.
Here the plague broke out in 1706; and Pinczow,
whose life had often been threatened on account of
accusations made against the Jews, fled to Berlin.
In this city he printed his book " Rosh Yosef " (1717),
on Talmudic halakot and haggadot, and arranged
according to the order of the treatises. The rabbis
who wrote the haskamot for this work, among whom
was R. Jeliiel Michael of Berlin, praise efiusively
Joseph's learning and piety.

One of Pinczow 's sons, Moses, was rabbi of
Copenhagen.

Bibliography : Fuenn, Keneset, YinraeJ. p. 493, Warsaw, 1886;
idem. Kirmh Ne"t'ma7mh. p. 96, Wllna, im); F'iirst, BUiL
Jnd. II. 114; Walden, Shem ha-Gcdolim he-Hadash, 1. 55,
Warsaw, 1882.
H. n. A. S. W.

PINE (PNIE), SAMSON : German translator
of the fourteenth century. He was probably born
at Peine, a city in the province of Hanover, whence

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pimentel
Pines

his name is derived and where a Jewish community
had existed from very early times. Later he lived
at Strasburg. Fine is chiefly remembered for the
assistance he rendered iu 1336 to two German poets,
Claus Wysse and Philipp Kolin of Strasburg, who
prepared a continuation of Wolfram vou Eschen-
bach's Middle High German poem "Parzival," after
the French poem in the liuediger von Mauesse man-
uscript. In the parchment manuscript on which
they wrote, these poets thank Pine for liis services in
translating the poem into German and in inventing
rimes for it. Incidentally, Pine is thanked as a Jew
by faith; the note is couched in metrical terms;
and Pine is referred to twice in ten lines as a Jew.

Bibliography: Gudeinann, Gesch. lii. 159 et seq.i Karpeles,
Uesch. ilerjildischen Literatur. p. 7()9, Berlin, 1886; idem,
Jewish Literature, pp. 35, 87, Philadelphia, 189.5.
D. A. M. F.

PINELES, HIRSCH MENDEL: Austrian
scholar; born at Tysmenitz, Galiciu, Dec. 21, 1805;
died at Galatz, Rumania, Aug. 6, 1870. After hav-
ing studied Talmud and rabbinics in his native
town, Pineles at the age of fifteen removed to Brody,
where he married. In his new home he began to
study German and the secular sciences, particularly
astronomy. As most of the Jews of Brody at that time
were of the Hasidic type, Pineles was, on account
of his scientific studies, accused of heresy, and was
obliged to justify liimself before his fatherin-law.
About 1853 Pineles went to Odessa, where he lived
till the Crimean war (1855), and then hesettled perma-
nently at Galatz.

Pineles wrote articles on various scientific sub-
jects, particularly on astronomy and calendar-ma-
king, in most of the Hebrew periodicals, and carried
on in "Kerem Hemed " (vol. ix., letters 4, 5, 16, 17,
18) and in " Ha-Maggid " a polemical correspondence
on astronomical subjects with Hayyim Selig Slo-
nimski. He acquired particular renown on account
of his work "Darkah shel Torah " (Vienna, 1861),
a critical interpretation, divided into 178 paragraphs,
of several passages of the Talmud, particularly of
the Mishnah, followed by a treatise on calendar-
making, including tables. Pineles says in the
preface that the objects of the book are: (1) to jus-
tify tiie oral law; (2) to defend the Mishnah against
both its admirers and its detractors; and (3) to ex-
plain several sayings of the earlier amoraim as well
as difficult passages in the Jerusalem Talmud and
some in Babli. The most noteworthy feature of this
work is its defense of the Mishnah. Pineles explains
several mishnayot differently fi-om the Amoraim,
who, as he declares, " very often distorted the Mish-
nah." It is true that Rapoport, Hirsch Chajes,
Nachman Krochmal, and other critics had similarly
differed from the Amoraim ; but besides extending
his criticism to the whole Mishnah, his predeces-
sors having dealt with only a small portion of it,
he also deviated from the amoraic interpretation
even where it concerned the Halakali. This and
his interpretation of the sayings of the earlier amo-
raim, which differed from that of the later amoraim,
called forth protests from some of his contempora-
ries. Waldberg, a Rumanian sciiolar, published a
polemical work entitled "Kakh Hi Darkah slid
Torah" (Jassy, 1864-68), in refutation of Pineles'

criticisms. It is evident, however, that Pineles did
not act in an autireligious spirit; for, as stated
above, he defended the Mishnah against its detract-
ors like Schorr and Geiger, attacking the latter'a
"Urschrift und Uebersetzung der Bibel " (^i^ 144-
167), to which Geiger replied in his " jQd. Zeit." (v.
146 et 8eq.).

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keneset YinrarU pp. 286 et seq.; Zelt-
lin, BilA. Post-MeiuhUi. pp. 288, 367, 402.
S. M. Sel.

PINERO (PINHEIROS), ARTHTIR WING :

English dramatist; born in London May 24, 1855;
eldest son of John Daniel Pinero. He is descended
from a Sephardic family. As a boy Pinero was
articled to a firm of solicitors; and while in their
ofiice he absorbed much of that knowledge of human
nature and human emotions which has made his
productions famou.s.

The law, however, had few attractions for him,
and in 1874 he joined the company of the Theatre
Royal, Edinburgh, being engaged as "general util-
ity man." Two years later he went to the Lyceum,
London, where he gained invaluable experience in
stageciaft under (Sir) Henry Irving. As an actor
Pinero was not successful, and he soon turned his
thoughts to play-writing. In 1877 he wrote in a sin-
gle afternoon "Two Hundred a Year," which was
produced at the Globe Theatre with some measure
of success. Soon afterward " The Money Spinners,"
written with almost equal rapidity, was produced at
the St. James's by John Hare and the Kendalls and
made a great hit (1880). He then produced in ten
days " Lords and Commons, " following it with " The
Magistrate," which made Pinero famous and estab-
lished his reputation on a firm foundation.

His literary activity has been remarkable and un-
flagging; and "The Schoolmistress," "The Squire,"
"Dandy Dick" (written in three weeks), "The
Rocket," and "The Hobby Horse" appeared succes-
sively at short intervals. Then came his first real
success, "Sweet Lavender," a play redolent with
pathos and sweetness. Subsequently the influence
of Ibsen began to make itself felt in Pinero's work,
after he had written " The Profligate," " The Weaker
Sex," "The Cabinet Minister," "The Times,"
"The Amazons," and "Lady Bountiful." "The
Second Mrs. Tanqueray" was distinctly in Ibsen's
manner ; it was succeeded by " The Notorious Mrs.
Ebbsmith," followed, in the same style, by "The
Benefit of the Doubt" aud "The Princess and the
Butterfly."

In 1898 Pinero, reverting to his earlier models,

produced "Trelawny of the Wells." He returned

to the problem play in "The Gay Lord Quex "

(1899), followed by " Iris " (1901) and " Letty " (1903).

of the same class.

Bibliography: Thr Critic. xxxyiLUT: CasxcU's Magnzine,
x.wiii. 3.54 ; Pall Mall Mauaziue, July, 1900, p. 331 ; H'/io"*
ir/io, 1904. „ ,,

J. E. Ms.

PINES, ELIJAH B. AARON: Rabbi at
Shklov, government of Moghilef, Russia, in the
eighteenth century ; descendant of the families of
Jacob Polak and Jiulah L5b Puchowitzer. He was
the author of " Tanna debe Eliyahu " (Zolkiev, 1753),
on religion and ethics, divided into seven parts ac-

Pines
Pinner

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

cording to the seven days of the week, with an ap-
pendix containing discussions on Berakot, extracted
from his unpublished book, "Tosafot Me'ore ha-
Gole."

Bibliography: Fuenn. Keneset TiJtrael. p. 118; Benjacob,
Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 657 ; Kalian, Atiaf 'Ez Ahot, p. xix.,
tlHicow. 190^. A S W

H. R. A. b. W.

PINES, JEHIEL MICHAEL: Russian Tal-
mudist and Hebraist; burn at liozhany, govern-
ment of Grodno, Sept. 26, 1842. He was the son of
Noah Pines and the son-in-law of Shemariah Luria,
rabbi of Moghilef. After being educated in the local
Hebrew school and in theyeshibah, where he distin-
guished himself in Talmudic study, he became a
merchant, giving lectures at the same time in the
yeshibah of his native town. He was elected dele-
gate to a conference held in London by the associa-
tion Mazkereth Mosheh, for the establishment of
charitable institutions in Palestine in commemora-
tion of the name of Sir Moses Montefiore ; in 1878
he was sent to Jerusalem to establish and organize
such institutions. He has lived since then in Pales-
tine, working for the welfare of the Jewish commu-
nity and interesting himself in the organization of
Jewish colonies in Palestine. He was excommuni-
cated by the Palestinian rabbis for interfering in
communal affairs, but was sustained by the Euro-
pean rabbinates. He is now (1905) director of the
Ashkenazic hospital at Jerusalem and lecturer at
several of the yeshibot. He has written: "Yalde
Ruhi"(part i., "Rib 'Ammi," Mayence, 1872, on the
position of Israel among the nations; part ii., "Ha-
Hayim weha-Yahadut," ib., 1873. on the relation of
Judaism to the times); "Torat Mishpete Togarraa"
(in collaboration with his son-in-law David Yellin;
Jerusalem, 1887); " 'Abodat ha-Adamah," on agri-
culture in Palestine (Warsaw, 1891). He was one of
the founders of the Orthodox biweekly journal
"Ha-Lebanon" (1864), has edited and annotated
Shershevsky's "'01am Katan," on anatomy and
chemistry (Jerusalem, 1886), and has contributed
to numerous journals and magazines published in
Hebrew.

BiBLiOORAPHr: Elsenstadt, Dor Rabbanaw we-Soferaw, Hi.
a5. Wllna, 1901 : Zeltlin, Bibl. PoHt.-yiendels. p. 267, I^lpsic,
1891-ft5 ; Llppe, Amf ha-Mazkir, I. 367, Vienna, 1881 ; Ha-
Zefirah. 1880, No. 34.
H. R. A. S. W.

PINHAS, JACOB: German journalist and com-
munal worker; born Aug., 1788; died in Cassel Dec.
8. 1861. He was the son of Salomon (1757-1837), a
miniature-painter who had received special privi-
leges exempting him from some of the Jewish dis-
abilities (comp. "Sulamith," viii. 406), and had been
granted the title of court painter to the Elector of
Hesse-Cassel. Jacob Pinhas prepared to follow his
father's calling; but the events of tlie Napoleonic
era caused him to abandon the vocation of an artist
for that of a journalist. When Cassel became the
seat of the kingdom of Westphalia, the "Moniteur,"
its official organ, was published there, and Pinhas,
being conversant witli both German and French,
was appointed a member of its editorial staff. After
the battle of Waterloo he obtained from tiie elector
license to publish the "Kassel'sche Allgemeine Zei-
lung, " which he continued to edit till his death. He

advocated a constitutional form of government, and
although this was considered revolutionary, hia
moderation and his honesty gained for him the con-
fidence of the government, which always sought his
advice on Jewish matters. For his literary merits
the University of Marburg in 1817 bestowed on him
the degree of Ph.D.

When, in 1821, the Jewish congregations of Hesse-
Cassel received a new organization, being divided
into four territories, P*inhas was appointed head of
the " Vorsteheramt" of Niederhessen. As such he
was instrumental in drawing up the law of Dec.
23, 1823, on the organization of the Jews, and in
establishing the normal school of Cassel. When,
later on, the " Landesrabbinat " was organized,
Pinhas was made its "secular member." He was
iustriimental also in the drafting of the law of Oct.
31, 1833, which gave full citizenship to such Jews as
were willing to abandon petty trading. This law
was the first of its kind in Germany ; but it remained
to a great extent a dead letter owing to the reaction-
ary policy of the government authorities.

The year 1848 brought upon Pinhas all the unpopu-
larity which was the lot of those known to be sympa-
thizers with the government, even when, like Pinhas,
they had always defended moderately liberal prin-
ciples. During the period of reaction following the
abrogation of the constitution in 1852, even Pinhas'
enemies acknowledged the far-sightedness of the
man whom they had bitterly opposed ; and it was
due to his influence that the reaction did not go as
far as had been demanded.

Of Pinhas' literary works, two volumes of the
"Archives Diplomatiques Geuerales des Annees
1848 ct Suivantes " (Gottingen, 1854-55), which he
published conjointly with Carl Murhard, deserve
mention.

Bibliography : Allq. Zeit. des Jud. 1862, No. 2.

PINHEIRO, MOSES : One of the most influ-
ential pupils and followers of Shabbethai Zebi ; lived
at Leghorn in the seventeenth century. He was
held in high esteem on account of his acquirements;
and, as the brother-in-law of Joseph Ergas, the well-
known anti-Shabbethaian, he had great influence
over the Jews of Leghorn, urging them to believe
in Shabbethai. Even later (1667), when Shabbcthai's
apostasy was rumored, Pinheiro, in common with
other adherents of the false Messiah, still clung to
him tlirough fear of being ridiculed as his dupes.
Pinheiro was the teacher of Abraham Michael Car-
doso, whom he initiated into the Cabala and into the
mysteries of Shabbethaianism.

Bibliography : Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., x. 190. 204, 225. 229. 312.
J. M. Sel.

PINKES (Dp3D. from viva^="& board," "a
writiiig-tiil)let ") : Term generally denoting the regis-
ter of any Jewish community, in which the proceed-
ings of and events relating to the community are
recorded. The word originally denoted a writing-
tablet, of which, according to the Mislinah (Kelim
xxiv. 7), there were three kinds: (1) a tablet covered
with dust, used chiefly for marking thereon arith-
metical calculations, and large enough to serve as a
seat ; (2) one covered with a layer of wax, the wri-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pines
Pinnei

ting upon •which was executed with a stylet; and
(3) a smooth tablet written upon with ink. Later
the term was applied to a book composed of such
tablets (comp. Shab. xii. 4-5), and afterward to any
book. The term "pinkes" as denoting a register
occurs in the Mishnah : " The pinkes is open, and the
hand writes" (Ab. iii. 16). See Council op Four
Lands; Takkanah.
E. c. M. Sel.

PINKHOF, HERMAN: Dutch physician;
born at Rotterdam May 10, 1863; educated at the
University of Leyden (M.D. 1886). He established
himself as a physician in Amsterdam. Since 1893
he has been collaborator on the " Nederlandsch Tijd-
schrift van Geueeskunde," for medical ethics and
professional interests. In 1895 he founded the Soci-
ety for the Promotion of the Interests of Judaism in
Holland, and since 1898 he has been president of the
society formed for the purpose of combating the
Neo-Malthusian principles, of which he is one of the
most vigorous opponents. He has written many
articles on this subject.

In 1890 he publislied "Abraliam Kashlari: over
Pestachtige Koortsen(Werkeu van het Genootschap
voor Natuur Genees en Heelkunde)."

Pinkliof is a member of the curatorium of Dr.
DQnner's Theological Seminary of Amsterdam.

s. E. Sl.

PINNE : City in the province of Posen, Ger-
many. Jews are first mentioned there in 1553, in
connection with a " privilegium " issued by the lord
of the manor restricting them in the purchase of
leather. In 1624 Juspa Pinner, and from 1631 to
1652 his son in-law Leiser Pinner, are mentioned as
holding various honorary offices in Posen. The
community of Pinne, owing to the practise of the
Polish kings and nobles of endowing churches with
sums exacted from the Jews, became heavily in-
debted to Catholic churches and hospitals. A di-
vorce case in Pinne in 1764 created a sensation.
After the decree had been granted, the man con-
cerned asserted that he had not been the woman's
husband, but was another person from Przemysl.
This statement led to lengthy discussions, which are
given in two contemporarj' collections of responsa,
the controversy continuing until two authorities
finally declared the divorce to be illegal. The Jew-
ish tailors of Pinne originally belonged to the Chris-
tian tailors' gild, which had received its charter
from the lord of the manor; but subsequently they
formed a gild of their own, which still existed in
1850.

A " privilegium " was given to the community by
the lord of the manor under date of June 10, 1789;
but the document refers to rights which had been
granted before that time. Its thirty-four articles
may be summarized as follows: The rabbi, hazzan,
teachers, and the cemetery are exempt from taxation
by the lord; there shall be unrestricted riglits of
trade ; butchers may sell only in the Jews' .street, and
shall pay two stone of tallow to the castle; admis-
sion of foreign Jews may be granted only by the
elders of the community, who shall be elected annu-
ally at the Passover ; the rabbi shall officiate as lower
judge, while the lord of the manor shall be the su-

perior judge; if one party to a case is a Christian,
the elders of the Jews shall act as lower judges;
criminal cases may be brought only before the court
of the castle; Jews may not acquire real estate out-
side of the glietto; a tax of 600 gulden a year shall
be paid to the castle; Jews may not leave their
houses during Catholic processions ; assaults on Jews
by Christians shall be severely punished.

When the city came under Prussian rule in 1793
it contained 39 Jewish houses in a total of 129, and
219 Jews in a population of 789. There were 86
Jewish families in the town in 1795; more than 350
Jews in 1827; 847 in 1857; 672 in 1871; and 376 in
1895. The reader's prayer-book contains a prayer for
Napoleon I. dating from the time when Pinne be-
longed to the duchy of Warsaw (1807-15).

Since the second half of the eighteenth century
the following rabbis have officiated:

Isaac b. Moses ; Solomon b. Isaac ; Napbtali b.
Aaron; Mordecai b. Michael Moses (d. 182;j or 1824);
Dob Bar b. Schragrera Philippsthal (until 18^2), auttior
of "Nahale Debash "' ; Isaac b. Jacob Lewy (until 1834);
Aryeh liubush Landsbergr (WM 39): Joseph Hayyim
Caro ; Jacob Mattithiah Munk (ia')2-5.5), author of
•"Et Sefod"; Oberdorfer (18.')7-6:i); Abraham Isaiah
Caro (1864-88), author of an extract in Mecklenburg's " Ha-Ke-
tab weha-Kabbalah " ; Solomon Goldschmidt (1889-90),
author of "Gesch. der Juden ia England": Moses Schle-
singrer (1890-96), author of "Das Aramaische Verbuin iin Je-
rusaleniischen Talmud," and editor of Aaron ha-Kohen of
Lunel's "Orhot Hayyim"; and Louis Liewin (since 1897),
author of " R. Simon b. Jochai," " Gesch. der Juden in Inow-
razlaw." " Juden verfolgungen im Zweiten Schwedisch-Pol-
nlschen Kriege," and "Gesch. der Juden in Llssa."

The community has produced a number of Jewish
scholars, among whom may be mentioned Gustav
Gottheil and E. M. Pinner.

Bibliography: Louis Lewln. Axis der Verganaetiheit der
JUdi^chen Gemeinde zu Pinne, Pinne. 19118 ; manuscripts
in the archives of the Jewish congregation of Posen.
u. L. Lew.

PINNER, ADOLF: German chemist; born at
Wronke, Posen, Germany, Aug. 31, 1842; educated
at the Jewish Theological Seminary at Breslau and
at the University of Berlin (Doctor of Chemistry,
1867). In 1871 he became privat-docent at the Uni-
versity of Berlin. In 1873 he became assistant pro-
fessor of chemistry at the University of Berlin, and in
1874 professor of chemistry at the veterinary college
of that city. In 1884 he was appointed a member
of the German patent office, and in the following
year, of the technical division of the Prussian De-
partment of Commerce. He has received the title
"Geheimer Regierungsrath."

Pinner has contributed many essays to the profes-
sional journals, among which maj' be mentioned:
" Darstellungund Untersuchungdes Butylchlorals,"
in "Annalen der Chemie," clxxix., and in "Berichte
der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft." 1870-77;
"Ueber Iniidottther. " in "Annalen," ccxcvii. and
ccxcviii., also in "Berichte," 1877-97 (which essays
he combined in book form under the title "Ueber
Imidoather und Dessen Derivate"); "Die Conden-
sation des Acetous," in "Berichte," 1881-83; "Ueber
Ilvdantoie tmd Urazine," in "Berichte," 1887-89;
"Ueber Nicotin," in "Berichte," 1891-95, and in
"Archiv der Pharmazie," ccxxxi,, ccxxxiii. ;
"Ueber Pilocarpin," in "Berichte," 1900-3.

He is also the author of "Gesetze der Naturer-

Pinner
Pinsk

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

scheinungen " and of " Repetitorium der Chemie."
in two volumes, on organic and inorganic cbemis-
try respectively (Utli ed., Berlin, 1902). The latter
work is well known to all German students of
chemistry, and it has been translated into English,
Russian, and Japanese.

e. F. T. H.

PINNER. EPHRAIM MOSES B. ALEX-
ANDER StJSSKIND : German Talmudist and
archeologist ; born in Piuue about 1800 ; died in Berlin
1880. His first work, bearing the pretentious title
of "Kizzur Talmud Yerushalmi we-Talmud Babli"
= "Compendium of the Jerusalem Talmud and of
the Babylonian Talmud" (Berlin, 1881), contained
specimens of translation of both Talmuds and an at-
tempted biography of the tanna Simeon b. Yohai.
It was published as the forerunner of his proposed
translation of the Talmud ; and his travels through
Germany, France, England, Italy, Turkey, and Rus-
sia were probably undertaken for the purpose of
furthering that plan. Pinner went from Constanti-
nople to St. Petersburg in 1837, and secured the per-
mission of Emperor Nicholas I. to dedicate the trans-
lation to him. It was to have been completed in
twenty-eight folio volumes; but only one appeared,
the tractate Berakot, which was published five years
later (Berlin, 1842). This is a splendidly printed
book, dedicated to the emperor, who also heads the
list of subscribers. The latter includes the names
of the kings of Prussia, Holland, Belgium, and Den-
mark, and of about twenty-five dukes, princes, arch-
bishops, and bishops. The volume contains appro-
bations from several rabbis, none of whom lived in
Russia, in wliich country only representatives of
Haskal.\h, like Abraham Stern, Isaac Baer Levin-
sohn, Jacob Tugendhold of Warsaw, and Abraham
b. Joseph Sack of Wilna, favored the undertaking.
Their approval was given in signed eulogies, which
follow the approbations of the non-Russian rabbis.

Three years after the appearance of the tractate
Berakot, Pinner, who had apparently remained in
Russia in the hope of being able to continue the
publication of the translation, gave to the world his
famous " Prospectus der Odessaer Gesellschaft f iir
Geschichte und Altherthum GehOrenden Aeltes-
ten Hebraischen und Rabbinischen Manuscripte"
(Odessa, 1845), -which for the first time brought to
the attention of the world the archeological dis-
coveries (mostly spurious) of Abraham Fikkovicii.
The publication of facsimiles, on which Simhah
Pinsker and other investigators founded their the-
ories on "nikkud" (punctuation), was, according to
GeigerC'Wiss. Zeit. jQd. Theol." vi. 109), Pinner's
only service to science. His own investigations, like
his translations, were considered by competent crit-
ics to be of no value.

Other works of Pinner were : " Was Haben die
Israeliten in Sachsen zu Hoffen und Was 1st Ihnen
zu AVilnschenV" Leipsic, IS'6'S; "OlTenes Send-
schreiben an die Nationen Europa's und an die Stande
Norwegens," Berlin, 1848; " Denkschrift an die
Juden Preussens, Besonders f(ir die Juden Berlins,"
ib. 1856, on the political and religious condition of
the Jews; " Kol Kore, Aufruf an die Orthodo.xen
Rabbinen Europa's und die Nothwendigkeit einer
Streng Orthodoxen, Allgemeinen Rabbiner-Ver-

sammlung Dargestellt," ib. 1858. He is, besides, sup-
posed to be the author of an incomplete catalogue
of Hebrew books and manuscripts (see Roest, "Cat.
Rosenthal. Bibl." s.v.).

BrBLior.R.^PHV : Alio- Zeit. des Jud. vol. 1., No. 1; Bischoff,
Kritische Gcsiliiclitc der Talmnd-Uebersetzuuoen, p. 68,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, lt<99 ; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. iii. 103; Ke-
rem Hcmal. il. 174, 194; Orient, Lit. 1»47, Nos. 1-2; Mc-
Cllntock and Strong, Cyc. xii. 77(5; Steinschnetder. Cat. Bodl,
S.V.; Zeitlin, Bibl. Pust-Mendels. pp. 2C8-2(i9.

6. P. Wl.

PINSK : Russian city in the government of
Minsk, Russia. There were Jews in Pinsk prior to
the sixteenth century, and there may have been an or-
ganized community there at the time of the expul-
sion of the Jews from Lithuania in 1495; but the
first mention of the Jewish community there in Rus-
sian-Lithuanian documents dates back to 1506. On
Aug. 9 of that year the owner of Pinsk, Prince Feo-
dor Ivanovich Yaroslavich, in his own name and in
that of his wife. Princess Yelena, granted to the Jew-
ish community of Pinsk, at the request of Yesko Mey-
erovich, Pesakh Yesofovich, and Abram Ryzhkevich,
and of other Jews of Pinsk, two par-
Early eels of land for a house of prayer and

Jewish a cemetery, and confirmed all the

Settlers, rights and privileges given to the
Jews of Lithuania bylving Alexander
Jagellou. This grant to the Jews of Pinsk was con-
firmed by Queen Bona on Aug. 18, 1533. From 1506
until the end of the sixteenth century the Jews are
frequently mentioned in various documents. In
1514 they were included in the confirmation of privi-
leges granted to the Jews of Lithuania by King
Sigismund, whereby they were freed from special
military duties and taxes and placed on an equality,
in these respects, with the other inhabitants of the
land, while they were also exempted from direct
military service. They were included among the
Jewish communities of Lithuania upon which a tax
of 1,000 kop groschen was imposed by the king in
1529, the entire sum to-be subject to a pro rata con-
tribution determined upon by the communities.
From other documents it is evident that members of
the local Jewish community were prominent as tra-
ders in the market-place, also as landowners, lease-
holders, and farmers of taxes. In a document of
March 27, 1522, reference is made to the fact that
Lezer Markovich and Avram Volchkovich owned
stores in the market-place near the castle. In an-
other document, dated 1533, Avram Markovich was
awarded by the city court the possession of the estate
of Boyar Fedka Volodkevich, who had mortgaged it
to Avram's father, Mark Yeskovicli. Still other
documents show that in 1540 Aaron llich Khoroshenki
of Grodno inherited some property in Pinsk, and
that in 1542 Queen Bona confirmed the Jews Kher-
son and Nahum Abramovich in the possession of the
estate, in the village of Krainovichi, waywode.sliip
of Pinsk, wliich tiiey hud inherited from their father,
Abram Ryzhkevich.

Abram Ryzhkevich was a prominent member of
the .Jewish community at the beginning of the six-
teenth century, and was active in communal work.
He was a favorite of Prince Feodor Yaroslavich, who
presented him with the estate in question with all
its dependencies and serfs. The last-named were

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pinner
Pinsk

relieved from the payment of any crown taxes, and
were to serve Abram Ryzhkevicli exclusively. He
and his children were regarded us boyars, and shared
the privileges and duties of that class.

Pesakh Yesofovich, mentioned with Yesko Meyer-
ovich and Abram Ryzhkevicli in the grant to the
Jewish community of 1506, took an important part
in local alTairs. Like Abram Ryzhkevicli, he was in-
timate with Prince Feodor Yarosla-
Pesakh Ye- vich, was presented by the prince with
sofovich. a mansion in the town of Pinsk, and
was exempted at the same time from
the payment of any taxes or the rendering of local
services, with the exception of participation in the
repairing of the city walls. The possession of this
mansion was confirmed by Queen Bona to Pesakh 's
son Nahum in 1550, he having purchased it from
Bentz Misevich, to whom the property was sold
by Nahum's father. Inheriting their father's in-
fluence, Nullum and his brother Israel played im-
portant roles as merchants and leaseholders. Thus
on June 23, 1550, they, together with Goshka Mosh-
kevicli, were awarded by Queen Bona the lease of
the customs and inns of Pinsk, Kletzk, and Goro-
detzk for a term of three years, and had the lease
renewed in 1553 for a further term of three years,
on payment of 875 kop groschen and of 25 stones of
wax. In the same year these leaseholders are men-
tioned in a characteristic lawsuit. There was an
old custom, known as "kanuny," on the strength of
which the archbishop was entitled to brew mead
and beer six times annually without payment of
taxes. The Pesakhovich family evidently refused
to recognize the validity of this privilege and en-
deavored to collect the taxes. The case was carried
to the courts, but the bishop being unable to show
any documents in support of his claim, and admit-
ting that it was merely based on custom, the queen
decided that the legal validity of the custom should
not be recognized; but since the income of the
" kanuny " was collected for the benelit of the
Church the tax-farmers were required to give an-
nually to the archbishop 9 stones of Avax for can-
dles, "not as a tax, but merely as a mark of our
kindly intention toward God's churches."

The Pesakhovich family continues to be mentioned
prominently in a large number of documents, some
of them dated in the late sixties of the sixteenth
century. Thus in a document of May 19, 1555,
Nahum Pesakhovich, as representative of all the
Jews in the grand duchy of Lithuania, lodged a
complaint with the king against the magistrate and
burghers of Kiev because, coutrar}' to the old-estab-
lished custom, they had prohibited the
The Pe- Jews from coming to Kiev for trading
sakhovich in the city stores, and compelled them
Family. to stop at, and to sell their wares in,
the cit}^ market recently erected by the
burghers. Postponing his final decision until his
return to Poland, the king granted the Jews the
right to carry on trade as theretofore.

In a document of Oct. 31, 1558, it is stated that
the customs, inns, breweries, and ferries of Pinsk,
which had been leased to Nahum and Israel Pesak-
hovich for 450 kop groschen, were now awarded to
Khaim Rubinovich for the annual sum of 550 gro-
X.— 4

schen. This indicates that the Pesakhovich family
was yielding to the competition of younger men.

An interesting light is shed on contemporary con-
ditions by a document dated Dec. 12, 1561. This
contains the complaint of Nahum Pesakhovich
against Grigori Grichin, the estate-owner in the
district of Pinsk, who liad mortgaged to him, to
secure a debt of 33 kop groschen and of 5 pails of
unfermented mead, six of his men in the village
of Poryechye, but liad given him only live men.
The men thus mortgaged to Nahum Pesakhovich
were each compelled to pay annually to the latter
20 groschen, one barrel of oats, and a load of hay ;
they served him oneday in every seven, and assisted
him at harvest-time. This would indicate that the
Jesvs, like the boyars, commanded the services of
the serfs, and could hold them under mortgage.
In another document, dated 1565, Nahum Pesakho-
vich informed the authorities that he had lost in the
house of the burgher Kimich 10 kop groschen and
a case containing his seal with his coat of arms.

In 1551 Pinsk is mentioned among the communi-
ties whose Jews were freed from the pa3'ment of the
special tax called "serebschizna." In 1552-55 the
starostof Pinsk took a census of the district in order
to ascertain the value of property which was held in
the district of Queen Bona. In the data thus secured
the Jewi.sh hou.se-owners in Pinsk and the Jewi.sh
landowners in its vicinity are mentioned. It ap-
pears from this census that Jews owned property
and lived on the following streets: Dymiskovskaya
(along the river), Stephanovskayaulitza (beyond the
Troitzki bridge), Velikaya ulitza from the Spasskiya
gates, Kovalskaya, Grodetz, and Zhi-
The Pinsk dovskayaulitzi, and the street near the

Jewry in Spass Church. The largest and most
1555. prominent Jewish property-owners in
Piu.sk and vicinity were the members
of the Pesakhovich family — Nahum, Mariana, Israel,
Kusko, Rakhval (probably Jerahmeel), Mosko, and
Lezcr Nahumovich ; other prominent property-
owners were Ilia Moiseyevich, Nosko Moiseyevich,
Abram Markovich, and Lezer Markovich. The syn-
agogue and the house of the cantor were situated
in the Zhidovskaya ulitza. Jewish settlements near
the village of Ku.stzich are mentioned.

A number of documents dated 1561 refer in vari-
ous connections to the Jews of Pinsk. Thus one of
March 10, 1561, contains a complaint of Pan Andrei
Okhrenski, representative of Prince Nikolai Radzi-
will, and of the Jew Mikhel against Matvei Voitek-
hovich, estate-owner in the district of Pinsk; the
last-named had sent a number of his men to the
potash-works belonging to Prince Radziwill and
managed by the Jew above-mentioned. These men
attacked the works, damaging the premises, driving
off the laborers, and committing many thefts.

By a decree promulgated May 2, 1561, King Sigis-
mund August appointed Stanislav Dovorino as su-
perior judge of Pinsk and Kobrin. and placed all
the Jews of Pinsk and of the neighboring villages
under his jurisdiction, and their associates Avere
ordered to turn over the magazines and stores to the
magistrate and burghers of Pinsk. In August of the
same year the salt monopoly of Pinsk was awarded
to the Jews Khemiya and Abram Rubinovich,

Pinsk
Pinsker

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

But on Dec. 25, 1564, the leases were awarded to
the Jews Vaska Medenchich and Gershon Avramo-
vich, who offered the king 20 kop gioschen more
than was paid by the Christian merchants. In the
following year the income of Pinsk was leased to
the Jew David Shmerlevich.

In the census of Pinsk taken again in 1566, Jew-
ish house-owners are found on streets not mentioned
in the previous census; among these were the Stara,
Lyshkovska, and Sochivchinskaya ulitzy. Among
the house-owners not previous)}' mentioned were
Zelman, doctor ("doctor," meaning "rabbi " or "day-
yan "), Meir Moiseyevia, doctor, Novach, doctor,
and others. The Pesakhovich family was still
prominent among the landowners.

In a circular letter of 1578 King Stephen Bathori
informed the Jews of the town and district of Pinsk
that because of their failure to pay their taxes in
gold, and because of their indebtedness, he would
send to them the nobleman Mikolai
Under Ste- Kindei with instructions to collect the
phen sumdue. By an order of Jan. 20, 1581,

Bathori. King Stephen Bathori granted the
Magdeburg Uiglits to the city of
Pinsk. This provided that Jews who had recently
acquired houses in tiie town were to pay the same
ta.xesas the Christian householders. Thenceforward,
however, tiie Jews were forbidden, under penalty
of confiscation, to buy houses or to acquire them in
any other way. Elsewhere in the same document the
citizens of Pinsk are given permission to build a
town hall in the market-place, and for this purpose
the Jewish shops were to be torn down. The grant
of the Magdeburg Rights was subsequently con-
firmed by Sigismund III. (1589-1623), Ladislaus IV.
(1633), and John Casimir (1650).

In spite of the growing competition of the
Christian merchants, the Jews must have carried on
a considerable import and export trade, as is shown
by the custom-house records of Brest-Litovsk.
Among tho.se who exported goods from Pinsk to
Lublin in 1583 Levko Bendetovich is mentioned (wax
and skins), and among the importers was one Hay-
vim Itzkhakovich (steel, cloth, iron, scythes, prunes,
onion-seed, and girdles). Abraham Zroilevich im-
ported caps, Hungarian knives, velvet girdles, linen
from Glogau, nuts, prunes, lead, nails, needles,
pins, and ribbons. Abraham Me}'erovich imported
wine. Other importers were Abram Yaknovich,
Yatzko Nosanovicli, Yakub Aronovich, and Hilel
and Rubin Lazarevich.

About 1620 the LiTnr.\Ni.\N Cou>'ciL wf sorgan-
ized, of which Pinsk, witli Brest-Litovsk and Grod-
no, became a part. In 1640 the Jews Jacob Rabin -
ovich and Mordecai-Shmoilo Izavelevioh applied in
their own name, and in the names of all the, Jews
then living on church lands, to Pakhomi Oranski,
the Bisiiop of Pinsk and Turov, for permission to
remit all taxes directly to him instead of to tiie par-
ish priests. Complying with this request, the
bishop reaffirmed the rights previously granted to
the Jews; they were at liberty to build houses on
their lots, to rent them to newly arrived people, to
build inns, breweries, etc.

Toward the middle of the seventeenth century the
Jews of Pinsk began to feel more and more the ani-

mosity of their Christian neighbors; and this was

true also of other Jewish communities. In 1647

" Lady" Deboraii Lezerovaaud her son

Increasing- "Sir" Yakub Lezerovich complained

Anti- to the magistrates that their grain and

Jewish hay had been set on fire by peasants.

Feeling. In the following year numerous com-
plaints of attack, robbery, plunder,
and arson were reported by the local Jews. Rebel-
lion was in the air, and with the other Jewish com-
munities in Lithuania that of Pinsk felt the cruelties
of the advancing Cossacks, who killed in great num-
bers the poorer Jews who were not able to escape.
Prince Radziwill, who hastened to the relief of the
cit3\ finding the rioters there, set it on fire and
destroyed it.

Hannover, in " Yewen Mezulah," relates that the
Jews who remained in Pinsk and those who were
found on the roads or in the suburbs of that city
were all killed by the Cossacks. He remarks also
that when Radziwill set fire to the town, many of
the Cossacks endeavored to escape by boats and
Avere drowned in the river, while others were killed
or burned by the Lithuanian soldiers. Meir ben
Samuel, in "Zuk ha-'Ittim," says that the Jews of
Pinsk were delivered by the townspeople (i.e., the
Greek Orthodox) to the Cossacks, who massacred
them.

Evidently Jews had again appeared in Pinsk by
1651, for the rural judge Dadzibog Markeisch, in
his will, reminds his wife of his debt of 300 gulden
to the Pinsk Jew Gosher Abramovich, of which he
had already repaid 100 gulden and 110 thalers, and
asks her to pa}' the remainder. In 1(562 the Jews of
Pinsk were relieved by John Casimir of the head-
tax, which the)' were unable to pay on account of
their impoverished condition. On April 11, 1665,
the heirs of the Jew Nathan Lezerovicli were
awarded by the court their claim against Pana
Tcrletzkaya for 69.209 zlot. For her refusal to al-
low the collection of the sum as ordered by the
court she was expelled from the country. In 1665,
after the country had been ruined by the enemy, the
Jewish community of Pinsk paid its proportion of
special taxation for the benefit of the nobility.

Beyond the fact that Hasidism developed in the
suburb of Karliu (see Aakon hen J.vcob of Kar-
lin), little is known about the history of the Pinsk
community in the eighteenth century; but since the
first quarter of the nineteenth century the Jews
there have taken an active part in the development
of the export and import trade, especially with Kiev,
Krementcluig, and Yekaterinoslav, with which it is
connected by a steamship line on the Dnieper.
jNIany of the members of the Jewisii community of
Pinsk removed to the newly opened South-Russian
province and became active members of the various
commimities there. In the last quarter of the nine-
tecntii century prominent Jewish citizens of Pinsk
developed to a considerable extent
In the its indu.stries, in which thousands of
Nineteenth Jewisii workers now find steady oc-

Century. cupation. They have established
chemical-factories, sawmills, a match-
factory (400 Jewish workers, producing 10,000,000
boxes of matches per annum ; established by L. Hirsch-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pinsk
Piusker

man in 1900), shoe-nail factor\' (200 Jewisli work-
ers), candle-factory, cork-factory, parquet-factory,
brewery, and tobacco-factories (with a total of 800
Jewish workers). The Liiriesand Levineshavel)een
especially active in that direction. Another cork-
factory, owned by a Christian, employs 150 Jewish
workers: and the shipyards (owned by a French-
man), in which large steamers and sailing vessels are
built, also employs a few hundred Jews. Besides
these, there are many Jewish artisans in Pinsk who are
occupied as nailsmiths, founders, workers in brass,
and tanners; in soap-manufactories, small brew-
eries, violin-string factories, the molasses-factory,
the flaxseed-oil factory, and the tallit-factory. In
all these the Jewish Sabbath and holy days are
strictly observed. Many Jewish laborers are cm-
ployed on the docks of Pinsk and as skilled boatmen.
Pinsk has become one of the chief centers of Jew-
ish industry in northwest Russia. The total out-
put of its Jewish factories is valued at two and a
half million rubles. The pay of working men per
week in the factories is:

Industry.

Men.

Women.

Sawmills

3 to 7 rubles.

3 to .5 "

3.60

6 to 18 "

6 to 16 "

1.20 to 2..''.0 rubles.

MaU-h -factories

Caudle "

Shipyards

1.20 to 2.50 "
1.80

Since 1890 there have been technical classes connected
•with the Pinsk Talmud Torah, where the boys learn
the trades of locksmiths, carpenters, etc., and technol-
ogy, natural history, and drawing.

Bibliography: Reaestu i Nadpisi; Russltn-Yevreiski Ar-
khiv. vols. i. and li.; Voskhud, Oct., 1901, p. 23; Welt, 1898,
No. 11.

J. G. L.

The first rabbi mentioned in connection with Pinsk
is R. Simson. With R. Solomon Luria (MaHRaSh)
and R. ^lordecai of Tiktin, he was chosen, in 1568,
to adjudicate the controversy relating to the asso-
ciation of Podlasye. His successors were: R. Naph-
tali, son of R. Isaac Katz (removed to Lublin; d.
1650); R. Moses, son of R. Israel Jacob (c. 1073;
his name occurs in the "Sha'are Shamayim ") ; R.
Naphtali, son of R. Isaac Ginsburg (d. 1687); R.
Samuel Halpern, son of R. Isaac Halpern (d. 1703;
mentioned in "Dibre Hakamim," 1691); R. Isaac
^leir, son of R. Jonah Te'omim; R. Samuel, son of
R. Naphtali Ilerz Ginzburg (mentioned in " 'Am-
mude 'Olam," Amsterdam, 1713); R. Asher Ginz-
burg (mentioned in the preface to "Ga'on Lewi");

R. Israel Isher, son of R. Abraham
Rabbis. Mamri (mentioned in Tanna debe

Eliyahu, 1747); R. Raphael, son of
R. Jekuthiel Slissel (1763 to 1773; d. 1804); R.
Abraham, son of R. Solonum (mentioned in the
"Netib ha-Yashar"); R. Levy Isaac; R. Abigdor
(had a controversy with the Hasidim on the ques-
tion of giving precedence in prayers to " Ilodu "
over "Baruk she-Amar"; the question was sub-
mitted for settlement to Emperor Paul I. : "Vosk-
hod," 1893, i.): R.Joshua, son of Shalom (Phine-
has Michael, "Masseket Nazir," Preface): R. Hay-
yim ha-Kohen Rapoport (resigned in 1825 to go to
Jerusalem; d. 1840); Aaron of Pinsk (author of

"Tosefot Aharon," KOnigsberg, 1858; d. 1842); R.
i\Iordecai Sackiieim (1843 to his death in 1853); R.
Eleazar Moses Hurwitz (1860 to his death in 1895).

Among those members of the communit}- of
Pinsk who achieved distinction were the following:
R. Elijah, son of R. Moses ("Kiryah Ne'emanah,"
p. 125) ; R. Moses Goldes, grandson of the author of
"Tola'at Ya'akob"; R. Kalonymus Kalniau Ginz-
burg (president of the community); R. Jonathan
(•'Dibre Rab Meshallem ") ; R. Sf>lomon Bachrach,
sou of ]{. Samuel P-.ichrach ("' Pinkas Tiktin"); li.
Hayyimof Karlin("'Ir Wilna," p. 31); R. Solomon,
son of R. Asher ("Geburath He-Or"); R. Joseph
Janower ("Zeker Yehosef," Warsaw, I860): R.
Samuel, son of Moses Levin ("Ba'al Kedoshim,"
p. 210): R. Asher, son of R. Kalonymus Kalinan
Ginzburg ("'Kiryah Ne'emanah," p. 185); R. (Jad
Asher, son of R. Joshua Rokeah (" Anshe Shem," p.
63); R. Joshua Ezekiel (ih.); R- Hayyim SchOnlinkel
(ib. p. 70); R. Abraham Isaac ("Birkat Rosh"); R.
Notel Michael Sch5ntinkel ("Da'at Kedoshim," p.
181); Zeeb, Moses, Isaac, and Solomon Wolf, sous
of R. Samuel Levin; R. Jacob Simhah Wolfsohn
("Anshe Shem," p. 40); R. Aaron Luria; R. Samuel
Radinkovitz.

The writers of Pinsk include: R. Moses Aaron
Schatzkes (author of "Mafteah"), R. Zebi Hirsch,
Shereshevski, A. B. Dobsevage, N. M. Schaikewitz,
Baruch Epstein, E. D. Lifshitz. Abraham Kunki
passed through Pinsk while traveling to collect
money for the support of the Jerusalem Talmud To-
rah (preface to " Abak Soferim," Amsterdam, 1701).

In 1781 the heads of the Jewish congregations of
Pinsk followed the example of some Russian Jewish
communities by excommunicating the Hasidim. In
1799 the town was destroyed by fire, and its records
were lost. Pinsk has two cemeteries : in the older, in-
terments ceased in 1810. The total population of the
town (1905) is about 28,000, of whom 18,000 are Jews.

Karlin : Until about one hundred 3'ears ago Kar-
lin was a suburb of Pinsk, and its Jewish residents
constituted a part of the Pinsk community. Then
R. Samuel Levin obtained the separation of Karlin
from Pinsk (Steinschneider, "'Ir Wilna," p. 188).
In 1870 the Hasidim of Karlin removed to the
neighboring town of Stolin. The rabbis of the Mit-
naggedim of Karlin include: R. Samuel Antipoler;
R. Abraham Rosenkraiiz; the "Rabbi of Wolpe"
(his proper name is imknown); R. Jacob (author of
"Miskenot Ya'akob") and his brother R. Isaac (au-
thor of " Keren Orah ") ; R. Samuel Abigdor Tose-
fa'ah (author of "She'elot u-Teshubot'") : David
Friedmann (the present [1905] incumbent: author
of " Yad Dawid ").

n. R. B. Ei.

PINSKER, DOB BAR B. NATHAN : Polish
Talmudist of the eighteenth century. He was a
descendant of Nathan Spira of Cracow, and the
author of the Talmudical work " Neta' Sha'ashu'im "
(Zolkiev, 1748), which contains novella? on the sec-
tion Nashim of the Babylonian Talmud and on the
tractates Makkot and Shebu'ot, besides some collec-
tanea.

Bibmooraphy: Fiirst. Bihl. Jud. Hi. 104; Zedner, Cat. Hchr.
nniika lirit. ^hl!>. p. 210; Fuenn, Keticset Yisrad, pp. 186-

187, Warsaw, 1886.

E. C. P. Wl.

Pinsker
Pinto

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lev Pinsker.

PINSKER, LEV (LEV SEMIONOVICH) :

Russian plivsiciau; burn at Tuniaslicv, govLTunieut
of Piotrkow (Piotrikov), Poland. 1821; son of Sim-
hah Pinsker; died at Odessa Dec. 21, 1891. Pinsker
obtained his early education in his father's school,
the curriculum of which included not only general
subjects but also specifically Jewish ones. After
finishing his course there he entered the gymnasium,
and later the Richelieu Lyceum. On graduating
from the latter institution he accepted the position
of instructor hi the Russian language at the Jewish
school in Kishiuef. In the following yeav he began
a medical course in the University of Moscow, and

while still a student dis-
played great courage in
devoting himself to the
care of hospital patients
suffering from cholera,
which disease was at that
time (1848) epidemic. On
completing his course he
returned to Odessa, and
soon after was appointed
to the staff of the city hos-
pital, having been highly
recommended by the au-
thorities. His great in-
dustry and thoroughness
gradually won for him the
recognition of his col-
leagues and of the public,
and within ten years he became one of the foremost
physicians of Odessa.

Pinsker likewise took an active interest in com-
munal affairs. He also published occasional arti-
cles in the periodicals "Sion," "Den," and "Raz-
svyet." Though not a prolific writer, Pinskerevinced
much originality and feeling; and his articles were
always forceful. He pleaded earnestly for more
freedom for the Russian Jews, and endeavored to
convince the latter of the great value of modern
education. In time Pinsker came to see that the
Russian Jew could not expect much from an auto-
cratic government, and that any deliverance for him
must come through his own exertions. The expres-
sion of this conviction appears in his " Autoemanci-
pation," which appeared in 1881 over the nom de
plume "Ein Russischer Jude." The author's name
soon became known, however, and the pamphlet
created much comment and discussion. Pinsker
advocated therein the acquisition of land by the
Jews, inasmuch as without homes of their own they
would always remain strangers.

A congress of delegates from almost all the coun-
tries of Europe met to discu.ss the fundamental idea
set forth Ijy Pinsker, but failed to formulate an ef-
fective plan for the solution of the problem. The
only practical outcome was the establishment of a
society for the aid of Jewish inmiigrants in Pales-
tine and Syria. As chairman of this .society Pinsker
energetically devoted himself to the question, work-
ing patiently throughout the remainder of his life for
the establi.shment of Jewish settlers in the Holy Land.

BinLior.RAPnv: N. R. Rashkovskl, SSovrememtyye Ru!>slso-
Yevreinldyc Dyeyatcli, p. (U, Odessa, 1899.
H. R, J. G. L.

PINSKER, SIMHAH : Polish Hebrew scholar
and archeologist ; born at Tarnopol, Galicia, JIarch
17, 1801 ; died at Odessa Oct. 29, 1864. He received
his carl}-- Hebrew education in the heder and from
his father, Shebah ha-Levi, a noted preacher, who
instructed him in mathematics and German also.
In his youth Pinsker was an enthusiastic admirer of
the Hasidim, but soon forsook them. He at first
engaged in business, but, having no aptitude there-
for, was obliged to abandon it. He then went to
Odessa, and, owing to his calligraphic skill, became
secretary to the rabbi. Here, in conjunction with
Lsaac Horowitz of Brody and Littenfeld, Pinsker
succeeded in establishing a public school for Jewish
children, of Avhich he himself served as principal
until 1840.

At that time Abraham Fiimovicn, a Karaite
scholar, brought to Odessa a number of ancient
manuscripts, unearthed in the Crimea. Among
these was one of the Later Prophets which had a
singular punctuation, differing widely in the form
of the vowels and singing-accents from the one then
in use. This manuscript gave ample opportunity
to Pinsker to satisfy his propensity for research.
He at once set himself to the task of deciphering the
system of punctuation, and satisfactorily acconi-
plished it. He had already become known as an ar-
cheologist of merit through his contributions to the
" Orient " ; but with this di.scovery his fame was es-
tablished. He was thereupon honored by the Rus-
sian government with two gold medals and with the
title "Honorable Citizen"; and the communit}' of
Odessa bestowed upon him a life-pension of 300
rubles a year.

Pinsker then retired from communal work, and
repaired to Vienna in order to devote the rest of his
life to his researches and to the arrangement and
publication of his works. Of these the first and
most important one was"Likkute Kadmoniyyot"
(Vienna, 1860), in which he describes the different
periods of development in the history of Karaism.
He maintains that the term " Karaite " is derived
from the Hebrew " kara " (Xtp) = " to call," " to in-
vite," and that its u.se dates from the first period of
the schism, when the members of this sect sent mes-
sengers throughont Jewry "to invite" the people
to join their ranks ("' Likk\itc Kadmoniyyot," p.
16). Pinsker moreover attempts to show through-
out the whole work that to the scholars of this
sect who preceded the orthodox Biblical scholars
and grammarians is due the correct system of Bib-
lical orthography, grammar, and lexicography ; and
that even in their poetry the Karaites were models
for the Hebrew poets of the Middle Ages, such as
Ibn Gabirol and Jiidah ha-Levi (ih. p. 107). The
"Likkute Kadmoniyyot" made such an imjiression
upon the scholarly world that Jost and Graetz pub-
licly avowed their indebtedness to the author, the
former even changing, in consequence, some of the
views expressed in his history of the Jewish sects.

The other great work of Pinsker, published in
his lifetime, was "Mabo el ha-Nikkud ha-Ashshuri
weha-Babli " (Vienna, 1863), an introduction to the
Babylonian-Hebraic system of punctuation ; it con-
tains tiie results of his examination of the manu-
scripts in the Odessa library. As an appendix to it is

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Finsker
Pinto

printed the " Yesod Mispar," by Abraham ibn Ezra,

ou the Hebrew numerals. Pinsker's other works are :

an edition of the "Miklol" (Lyck, 1862). Hebrew

grammar by D. Kimhi, with emendations by Pinsker

and others; "Sefer ha-Ehad " (Odessa, 1867), on the

nine cardinal numbers, by Abraham ibn Ezra, with

commentary; and "Mishle lia-Gezerah weha-Bin-

yan " (Vienna, 1887), on the Hebrew verb. Pinsker

left, besides, a considerable number of manuscripts

ou the Hebrew language and literature.

At Vienna, Pinsker lectured for some time at the

bet ha-midrasli; but, his health soon failing, he was

brought back by his children to Odessa, Avherc he

died.

Bibliography : Zederbaum, In Mizpah, Iv. 13-U ; idem, in
Ha-Mcliz, 18(54, No. 43; Ha-Magliid, 18&'), Nos. 7-10 ; Mo-
natsschrift, x. 176 et ^eq.: Hc-Haht:}, v. 56 et seq.; Mazkir
li-liene lieshef, in Ha-Shahai; i. 40 et seq.; H. S. Morais,
Eminent l»raeliles of the iVinetcenth Century, pp. 279 et
seq., Philadelphia, 1880.
H. 15. A. S. W.

PINTO or DE PINTO : Family of financiers,
rabbis, scholars, soldiers, and communal workers,
originally from Portugal. Members of it lived in
Syria in the beginning of the sixteenth century; and
in 1535 there was at Rome a Diogo Rodrigues Pinto,
advocate of the Maranos. But its most prominent
members lived in Holland, particularly in Amster-
dam, in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
They were among the greatest financiers in that
city ; and one of them bequeathed several millions
to the Jewish community, to the state, to Christian
orphanages and churches, and to the Christian clergy
(see his testament in Schudt, "Jlidische Merkwur-
digkeiten," i. 292). Members of the family were also
prominent in South America, namelj^ in Brazil and
in Dutch Guiana, in the beginning of the eighteenth
century. About the same time other members set-
tled in the United States, becoming very influential,
especially in the state of Connecticut, where they
took an active part in the Revolution. The earliest
mention of the Pintos in the Connecticut records is
under date of 1724; in those of New York, 1736.
The best-known members of this family are:

Aaron de Pinto : Trustee of the Portuguese con-
gregation at Amsterdam in the beginning of the
eighteenth century. He supported Solomon Ayl-
LON against Zebi Hirsch Ashkenazi. Ayllon con-
vinced Pinto that it was his duty to uphold the
superiority of the Portuguese community over the
Ashkenazim. He thus helped greatly to protect Ne-
Lemiah Hayyun and to persecute Ashkenazi. Pinto
and Ayllon even suggested that Ashkenazi should
be cited before the Portuguese council, which, since
he did not heed the summons, excommunicated him.

T>. M. Sel.

Aaron Adolf de Pinto: Dutch jurist; son of
Moses de Pinto and Sara Salvador; born at The
Hague Oct. 24, 1828; studied law at Leyden (LL.D.
1852). In 1862 he was appointed referendary in the
Department of Justice, in 1871 "Raadsadviseur,"
and in 1876 justice of the Supreme Court; he be-
came vice-president of that court Dec. 31, 1903.
He has been a member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences since 1877. The law of i872, abolishing
tithes, was drawn up by De Pinto. From 1870 to
1881 he was secretary of a commission appointed to

prepare a penal code, which was put in force in
1886; he Avas a member also of the colonial penal
code commission. He is the author of the "Me-
morie van Toelichting op liet Wetsontwerp tot Af-
schaffiug van de Doodstraf." From 1888 to 1902 De
Pinto was editor-in-chief of the " WeekbJad voor het
Reclit," and lie was one of the founders of the Juris-
tenvereeniging. He has published : " Wetboek van
Strafrecht voor Nederland.sch IndiG; Wetboek voor
Europeanen, Gevolgd door Memorie van Toelich-
ting" (The Hague, 1866); "Hezzien Wetboek van
Strafvoidering " (2 vols., Zwolle, 1886-88); "Het
Proces Dreyfus Getoetst met Wet en Recht " (2
vols., 1898-99). De Pinto is commander of the
Order of the Netherlands Lion and oflicer of the
Crown of Italy.

Bibliography: Enien Haard, 1898 (with portrait); Een
Halve Eeuw, i. 190 ; ii. 52, 57, 60.

s. E. Si..

Abraham Pinto : Cofounder, with his brother
David Pinto, of the Portuguese community at Rot-
terdam in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
The two brothers established also a school (Jesiba de
los Pinto.s), ■which, in 1669, after the death of one of
the touiiders, was transferred to Amsterdam.

Abraham Pinto : Soldier in the American army
in 1775, at the time of the Revolution. He Avas a
member of Companj' X, Seventh Regiment of the
State of Connecticut.

i>. M. Sel.

Abraham de Pinto: Dutch jurist; born at The
Hague May 27, 1811 ; died there May 26, 1878. He
studied law at Leyden (LL.D. 1835) and was awarded
a gold medal by the university for a competitive
thesis entitled "E.xponaturetad Examen Revocetur
Locus C. C. de Causa Obligandi" (1835). In 1835
he became editor-in-chief of the " Weekblad voor het
Recht," and from 1840 to 1876 he edited the period-
ical " Themis, " which he had founded. Abraham de
Pinto was a member of the municipal council of The
Hague from 1851 until his death. He was president
of the Sephardic congregation, and on his initiative
was founded the "Maatschappij tot Nut der Israe-
lieten in Nederland " (1850). He was appointed
" Landsadvocaat " Dec. 27, 1863.

De Pinto published the following works: "Een
Woord over de Circulaire van den Minister van
Justitie" (The Hague, 1850); "Handleiding tot de
Wet op den Overgang van de Vroegere tot de
Nieuwe Wetgeving" (ib. 1850); "Handleiding tot
het Wetboek van Burgerlijke Rechtsvordering "
(2d ed., 3 vols., 1857) ; " Adviezen 1838-52 " (Zwolle,
1862); "Handleiding tot het Wetboek van Koop-
handel " (3d ed., 2 vols., ib. 1879); "Handleiding tot
de Wet op de Rechterli jke Organisatie en het Beleid
der Justitie" (2d ed., rt. 1880); "Handleiding tot
het Wetboek van Strafvordering ' (2d ed., 2 vols.,
lb. 1882); "Handleiding tot het Burgerlijk AVet-
boek" (6th ed., ib. 1883-85).

Bibliography: Wcckhlad roor het Eecht, 1878. Nos. 4240,
4241; Uoest, NieitiLsbodc, iii. 49; Brinkman, Catah>gus.
s. E. Sl.

Daniel Pinto : Syrian Talmudi,st; lived at Aleppo
in the seventeenth century. He and Moses Galante
went to Smyrna in order to pay homage to Shab-
bethai Zebi.

Pinto

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

David Pinto : Cofounder, with his brother Abra-
ham, iif tile Portuguese community at Rotterdam.

David Pinto : A rich broiier of Amsterdam in
the eigliteentli century who sided with Jonathan
Eybesciutz in his controversy with Jacob Emden.

Biblio(;rapiiv : Griitz. Gesch. 3d ed.. Ix. 262; x. 13, 211, 321,
368 ; Hiihner. in Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. xi. 88 et seq.

Isaac Pinto : Dutch captain of the beginning of
the eigliteentli century. At the head of a company of
Jews, Pinto in 1712 heroically defended the village
of Savanna in Surinam and beat off the French
under Cassard. Southey ("History of Brazil," ii.
241) speaks of a captain named Pinto, wiio, when
the Dutch were for the second time besieged at Re-
cife, defended the fort single-handed, until, over-
whelmed by superior numbers, he was obliged to
surrender. He is probabl}' identical with the sub-
ject of this article.

Bibmography: Felsenthal and Gottheil in Puhl. Am. Jew.
Hist. Sue. iv. 3; G. A. Kohiit, il). iii. 118 ct seq.; Koenen,
(ie:<chieileui.'! ili:i-Ji>(le)i iit yideiiatul, pp. 281,294; Simon
Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Huldier, and Citizen,

p. 452.

U. M. Sel.

Isaac Pinto: American ritualist; born about
1721; died Jan., 1791; member of Congregation
Shearith Israel in the city of New York. He is re-
membered chietiy for having prepared what is prob-
ably the earliest Jewish prayer-book published in
America, and certainly the first work of its kind
printed in New York city. The work appeared in
1766, and the title-page reads as follows: "Prayers
for Shabbath, Rosli-llashanah and Kippur, or the
Sabbath, the beginning of the j'ear, and the Day of
Atonement, with the Amidah and Musaph of the
Moadim or Solemn Seasons, according to the Order
of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews. Translated
by Isaac Pinto and for him printed b}' John Holt in
New York. A.]\I. Oi")26." It seems that the ma-
liamad of the London congregation would not per-
mit this translation to be published in Enijland (see
Jacobs and Wolf, "Bibl. Anglo-Jud." p. 174. Lon-
don, 1888; G. A. Kohut, in ">ubl. Am. Jew. Hist.
Soc." iii. 121; Lady Magnus, "Outlines of Jewish
History," p. 348, Philadelphia, 1890).

Pinto was the friend and correspondent of Ezra
Stiles, president of Yale College, who as late as 1790
mentions him in his diary as "a learned Jew at New
York." From Stiles' account it appears that Pinto
was a good Hebrew scholar, studying Ibu Ezra in
the original. An Isaac Pinto, po.ssibly identical
with tlie subject of tliis article, appears to have been
a resident of Siratford, Conn., as early as 1748
("Colonial Records of Connecticut," ix. 406).

Bibliography : The Literary Diarjj of EzraStileit. ed. F. B.
I)t'Xt<!r, .New York. liiOl ; (ieorpe A. Kohut, Kzra Stik.i ri/id
the Jews. il». liXKi ; Morris .Iristrow. in I'lilil. Am. Jew. Hist. ■
Soc. X. 2!) ; Leon Huhner, TItc Jews of Xew Ktmlnnd Prior

to mx), il). Xi. 90.

•T. L. Hi:.

Isaac de Pinto : Portuguese moralist of Jew-
ish origin; born 1715; died Aug. 14. 1787, at The
Hague. He first settled at Bordeaux, and then re-
moved to Holland. Pinto was a man of wide infor-
mation, but did not begin to write until nearly fifty,
when he acqiiire<l a i-eputation by defending his co-
religionists against Voltaire. In 1762 he published
his "Essai sur le Luxe" at Amsterdam. In tlie

same year appeared his " Apologie pour la Nation
Juive, ou Reflexions Critiques." The author sent
a manuscript copy of this work to Voltaire, who
thanked him. Guenee reproduced the "Apologie"
at the head of his " Lettres de Quelques Juifs Portu-
gais, AUemands et Polouais. a M. de Voltaire." In
1768 Pinto sent a letter to Diderot on "Du Jeu de
Cartes." His " Traitede la Circulation etdu Credit "
appeared in Amsteidam iu 1771. and was twice re-
printed, besides being translated into English and
German. His "Precis des Arguments Contre les
]\hiterialistes" was published at The Hague in 1774.
Pinto's works were published in French (Am-
sterdam, 1777) and also in German (Leipsic, 1777).

Bibliography: Didot, iN'oiu-eZ/c Biographic Geni'rale,r).282;
Barbier, Dietinnnaire dcA Auounines; Dictinttnaire d' Eco-
nomic Politicale, ii.; Qut?rard, La France Litteraire, in^lJJ-
ijemeine Litteraturzeituug, 1787, No. 273.
D. I. Co.

Jacob Pinto : Earlj' Jewish settler at New Haven,
Conn., where he was residing in 1759; brother of
Solomon Pinto. He figures repeatedly in C(jnnecti-
cut records between 1765 and 1776. Pinto espoused
the patriot cause at the outbreak of the American
Revolution ; and he appears to have been a member
of a political committee at New Haven in 1775. His
name appears, with that of other influential citizens
of the place, in a petition to the Council of Safety
for the removal of certain Tories in 1776.

Bibliography: J. W. Barber, Connectintt Historical Collec-
tions, p. ITti. New Haven, n.d.; Leon Hiihner. The Jewn of
New Eiifilond Prior to ISOO, in Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.
xi. 93, and aiiUiorities there cited.

Joseph Jesurun Pinto : American rabbi; born
probably in England; died 1766. He was leader
of Congregation Shearith Israel, New York, from
1759 to 1766, having been selected for tiie posi-
tion and .sent to New York by the London con-
gregation pursuant to a request from that of New
York. A letter from the former to the latter, dated
1758, relating to the matter is still extant. Pinto
became a minister as a very young man, and in
1762 married Rebecca, daughter of Moses de la
Torre of London. The only literary production of
his that has come down is a form of prayer for a
thanksgiving service for the "Reducingof Canada,"
published at New York in 1760.

Bibmography: N. T. Phillips, in Puhl. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.
ii.49-.">l. vi. 12!); Charles V. Daly, The Settlement of the Jews
in Nortli America, p. .')(), Nrw York, 1893; M. tiaster. Hist,
of Bevis Marks, London, 19(11.
J. L. Hi).

Josiah. ben Joseph Pinto (RIF) : Syrian labbi
and preacher; born at Damascus about 1505; died
there Feb. or March, 164S. His father, Joseph
Pinto, was one of the rich and chaiitable men of
that city. Josiah was a jmpil of various rabbis in
Talmud and Cabala, and later, after his father's
death, he studied Talmud under Jacob Abulafia, who
ordained him as rabbi. Pinto's perinaneiit residence
was at Damascus, where later he ollicialed as rabbi
until his death. lie went twice to Aleppo, and
in 1625 he removed to Safed with the intention of
settling there; but the death of his young son,
Joseph, which occurred a year later, induced him to
return to Damascus.

Pinto was the author of tlie following works:
" Kesef Nibl.iar" (Damascus, 1616), a collection of

n — -VK — t!—-r-

R A Y E R S

FOR
SHABBATI-J, ROSH-HASHANAH, and KIPPUR,

O R

The SABBATH, the BEGINNING of the YEAR.

AND

The D A Y of ATONEMENTS;

WITH

The ^iMIDAH and MUSAPH of the MO^DIM,

O R
SOLEMN SEASONS.

According to the Order of the Spanifh and For tugucfc Jews,
Translated by ISJJC PINTO.

And for him printed by JOTTN HOLT, in New- York,

. A. M. 55^6.

I
'■",i

Title-Page from Isaac Pinto's Translation of the Prayer-book, Printed at New York, 17t

(From the Sulzberger collection In the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.)

Plotrkow
Pirbright

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

homilies and comments on Genesis and Exodus;
"Kesef Mezukkak " (finished IG'25, and published at
Venice, 1628), a homiletic commentary on the Pen-
tateuch, followed by a pamphlet entitled "Kesef
To'afot," glosses on the Pentateuch; "Me'or 'Ena-
yira," commentary on Jacob ibn Habib's "'En
Ya'akob," which is a collection of the haggadot of
the Babylonian Talmud (part 1., with the text, Ven-
ice, 1643; part ii., with other commentaries and the
text. Amsterdam, 1754); "Kesef Zaruf " {i/>. 1714),
commeutar}' on Proverbs; and "Nibhar mi-Kesef "
(Aleppo, 1869). Some of his responsa are to be
found in the collection of Yom-Tob Zahalon and in
Aaron Alfandari"s " Yad Aharon." His unpublished
works are: "Kesef Nim'as," a commentary on
Lamentations; "Kebuzzat Kesef." a collection of
civil laws and of laws concerning women; and a
collection of responsa.

BiBLioORAPHV : Azxi\aUShemha-GednJim,l.: Tuenn, Keneset
riVj-flf/, p. 382; Furst, Bi7;/.7i<(/. iii. 104 ; Klijali Vita Sa.ssoon,
In Ha-Lcbanon, vli. 15, 23; Steinschneider, Cat. liodl. cols.
1546-1547.
D. M. Sel.

Juan Delgado Pinto. See Delgado.

Solomon Pinto : American patriot in the Revo-
lutionary war. A settler at New Haven, Conn., he
served as an officer in the Connecticut line through-
out the war, and was among the patriots wounded
in the British attack upon New Haven July 5 and
6, 1779. Pinto's name appears repeatedly in Revo-
lutionary records; and he has the additional distinc-
tion of having been one of the original members of
the Society of the Cincinnati in Connecticut. He is
mentioned as late as 1818.

Bibliography: Becord «f Service of Connecticut Men in
the War of the Revolution, pp. 218, 325, 360. 373, 553, 636,
Hartford. 1889; Leon Hiihner, The Jeu'.s of New Eng-
land Prior to 1800, In Puhl Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. xl. 94-95,
and authorities there given; G. H. HoUister, The History
of Connecticut, 11. 372, New Haven, 1855; Royal R. Hlnman,
Historical Collection, p. 567, Hanford, 1842.

J. L. Hu.

PIOTRKOW: Town in Russian Poland, near
Wars.'iw\ For some time Piotrkow was the seat of
the Polish diet. At the diet of 1538, held there, it
■was enacted that no Jew should be permitted to
farm the taxes, and that Jews should wear distinct-
ive garments, "so that they might be distinguished
from Christians." Anti-Jewish laws were passed
also by the diets of 1562, 1563, and 1565, these diets
being influenced by the Jesuits. The Jewish com-
munity of Piotrkow, however, is specifically men-
tioned for the first time in 1567, when two Jews,
Isaac Borodavka and Mendel Isaakovich, were tax-
farmers in that town ("Gramoty Velikikh Knyazei
Litovskikh," p. 104). In the disastrous time be-
tween 1648 and 1658, the period of the Cossack up-
rising, the Jewish community of Piotrkow suffered
with the other communities in Poland. There were
then fifty families there, "almost all the members of
which were killed" by the Co.ssacks ("Le-Korot ha-
Gezerot," v. 19). In 1897 Piotrkow liad a large
Jewish community, having one synagogue, several
houses of prayer, and thirty six Hebrew schools.
An old and celebrated Hebrew printing-press is
established there. The town has a total population
of 24,866.

Bibliography: Entziklopcdichexhi Shwar, xxiii. 472; Gnitz,
(.'(W/i. (Hebrew transl.) vli. 318, 328 ; viii. 152 : Rcgcsty, i.. No.
551.

11. R. A. S. W.

PIOVE DI SACCO (ipL*"n K^T'D) : Small Ital-
ian city in tlu'dislrictof Padua; the first in that terri-
tory to admit Jews. A loan-bank was opened there
by an association ("consortium") before 1373, and
Avas probably an unimportant institution, as it paid
a yearly tax of only 100 lire. "Wiien, in 1455, the
Jews of Padua were forbidden to lend money, they
transacted their business through their fellow bank-
ers at Piove. No Jews except a few money -brokers
seem to have lived here; and apparently these were
expelled at an early date. Piove never had a
ghetto. Leone Komanini Jacur is now (1905) the
representative for Piove in the Italian Chamber of
Deputies.

The city owes its importance to the fact that a
Hebrew printing-press was temporarily established
there. Meshullam Cusi Rafab. Moses Jacob printed
at Piove Jacob b. Asher's "Arba' Turini " in folio,
1475, this being the second work issued there.
Complete copies of this edition are extremely rare.
A fine impression on parchment is in the citv library
at Padua (B. P. 574). The "Arba' Turim " was
circulated both as an entire work and in the sepa-
rate parts.

Bibliography: A. Ciscato. Gli Ehrei in Padova, 1901, pp. 21,
5:3, 158 ; G. B. de Rossi, Annates Hebrceo-Typoaraphici, etc.,
XV., No. 2.

G. L E.

PIPE : Musical instrument akin to the flute.
The flute was a favorite instrument of the ancients.
The monuments show flutes of various shapes. On
the Egyptian monuments are pictured (1) single-
tubed direct flutes made of reed or wood, (2) rather
long cross-flutes, and (3) long, thin, double-tubed
flutes, the tubes of which, liowever, were not fast-
ened together. On Assyrian monuments is depicted
a shorter, more trumpet-shaped double flute. The
Syrians used the small gingras — known also to the
Athenians — only a span long, with a penetrating,
mournful sound. The flutes used by the Greeks
were very varied; and it is probable that the Israel-
ites, too, played several kinds; but, unfortunately,
nothing definite about their sliape is known.

(1) The "halil," from "halal" (to bore through),
was a hollowed piece of wood. The name is evidence
for the fact that the flute was made from cane or
wood. It consisted of a tube and a tongue of cane.
The number of holes in the tube Avas originally only
two, three, or four; later it was increased. The
tones of such an instrument Avere naturally limited,
and it was manifestly necessary to have a special
flute for each key. It was not until art was more
highly developed that an instrument was made
which could be played in different keys. Among
the Israelites the halil was used for music played at
meals on festive occasions (Isa. v. 12), in festal pro-
cessions (I Kings i. 40), and during the pilgrim-
ages to .lerusalem (Isa. xxx. 29). The Israelites used
also the "nebi'im"in connection with the kettle-
drum (I Sam. X. 5). The flute was, in addition, the
special instrument to denote mourning (.Ter. xlviii.
36); and among the later Jews flute-playing was

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Piotrko-w
Pirbright

considered so essential at fvinerals that even the
poorest would not do Avitliout it.

In tlie days of the Old Testament there were no
flute-players in the Temple orchestra. In the Mish-
nah, 'Ar. ii. 3, mention is made that flutes were
played; it states that at the daily services from
two to twelve flutes were used. But they accom-

^ ■!

Kh«*^^^B

*■

•H

«■

^^^1

^Bkt ^ - >-^

'T^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ T^H

^K ■ ■ ••-,'*'-' -

;__-!■

y -

— ~M

■RpflL"'""- "^

P^^'

^HHM|L.*^''''* * "'''

^^^^^^^^KS?w

:^M

H| ^^^1

Pipes in Use in Palestine.

(In-the United States Natloual Museum, Wa8hing;ton, D. C.)

panied psalm-singing only at the slaughtering of
the paschal lambs, on the first and seventh daj's of
the Passover, and during the eight days of the
Feast of Tabernacles, when a flute was plaj'cd be-
fore the altar to accompany the singing of the
"Hallel" (comp. Tacitus, "Historia," v. 5).

(2) A second kind of wind-instrument, known from
very early times, was the "'ugab," which was es-
sentially an instrument to express joyousness. and
was played for the amusement of the people, but
never at divine service. According to tradition,
which connects the use of the 'ugab Avith Jubal
(Gen. iv. 21), the instrument was a bagpipe ("sum-
pongah " ; Dan. iii. 5). The same sort of instru-
ment— called "ghaitah" in North Africa — is used in
Arabian music. The older descriptions correspond

in tiie main with the form now found in Egvpt,
Aral)ia, and Italy. Two pipes are inserted in a
leathern bag; one above, into which the player
blows; and the other, provided with holes, at the
bottom or slanting at the side, so that it may be
played with the fingers.

(3) The instrument mentioned in the Hebrew text
of Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15, imder the name "mashro-
kita," is the syrinx, or Pan flute, which generally
consisted of seven to nine reed tubes, of different
lengths and thicknesses, arranged in a row. It was
the favorite instrument of shepherds in the Orient,
where it is used even at the present time. Whether
it was known to the Hebrews is very doubtful.

(4) "Nekeb" (Ezek. xxviii. 13 ct seq.) is generally
understood to denote a kind of flute; but this is
more than doubtful. The word is most likely a
technical term used in the goldsmith's art.

K. fi. n. W. N.

PIPERNO, SETTIMIO : Italian economist;
born at Rome 1834. He is (1905) professor of statis-
tics and political economy in the Technical Institute
of Rome, director of the Cesi Technical School,
and a member of the board of administration of the
Jewish community of Rome. Piperuo is the author
of the following works, in addition to various journal-
istic articles: "Studio sulla 3Iorale Indipendente ";
"Studio sulla Percezione"; "Elementi di Scienza
Ecouomica Esposti Secondo i Nuovi Programmi
Governatici per gl' Istituti Tecnici," Turin, 1878;
"II Riconoscimento GiuridicodelleSocietadi 3Iutuo
Soccorso," Rome, 1882; "La Pensioui di Vecchiaia
Presso le Societa di Mutuo Soccorso Italiane,"
Turin, 1883; "La Nuova Scuola di Dlritto Penale
in Italia, Studio di Scienza Sociale," Rome, 1886.

Bibliography : De Gubematis, Diz. Biog.; idem, Ecrivains
du Jour.
s. U. C.

PIRBRIGHT, HENRY DE WORMS, BAR-
ON: English statesman; born in London 1840;
died at Guildford, Surrey, Jan. 9, 1903; third son of
Solomon Benedict de Worms, a baron of the Austrian
empire. He was educated at King's College, Lon-
don, and became a barrister in 1863. As Baron Henry
de Worms he sat in the House of Commons as Con-
servative member for Greenwich from 1880 to 1885,
and for the East Toxteth division of Liverpool from
1885 to 1895, when he was created a peer. He was
parliamentar}^ secretary to the Board of Trade in
1885 and 1886 and from 1886 to 1888, and under-sec-
retary of state for the colonics from 1888 to 1892.
In 1888 he was president of the International Con-
ference on Sugar Bounties, and as plenipotentiary
signed the abolition treaty for Great Britain. He
became a member of the Privy Council in the same
year. He was a royal commissioner of the Patri-
otic F'und, and one of the royal commis.sioners of
the French Exhibition of 1900. His works include:
"England's Policy in the East" (London, 1876),
"Handbook to the Eastern Question " (5th ed., Lon-
don, 1877), "The Austro-Hungarian Empire"
(2d ed., London, 1877), "Memoirs of Count Beust"
{ib. 1887).

In 1864 he married Fanny, daughter of Baron von
Tedesco of Vienna, and in 1887, after her death,
Sarah, daughter of Sir Benjamin Samuel Phillips.

Pirhe Zafon

Pirke de-Rabbi Eli'ezer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lord Pirbright was for several years president of
the Anglo-Jewish Association, but resigned in 1886
owing to objections raised to his having attended
the nuptials of his eldest daughter in a church.
During his parliamentary career he was a warm ad-
vocate of the cause of Jews in lands of oppression,
especially Rumania ("Jew. Chron." Jan. 16, 1903).

BiBLiOGRAPUT: n'/io's Who, 1903; Jewish Year Dnnk, 1903.
J. V. E.

PIRHE ZAFON. See Periodicals.

PIRKE ABOT. See Abot.

PIRKE DE-RABBI ELI'EZER: Ilaggadic-
midrashic work on Genesis, part of Exodus, and a
few sentences of Numbers; ascribed to li. Eliezer
b. Hyrcanus, and composed in Italy shortly after
833. It is quoted immediately before the end of the
twelfth century under the following titles: Pirke
Rabbi Eli'ezer ha-Gadol (Maimonides, "Moreh,"
ii., xxvi.); Pirke Rabbi Eli'ezer ben HjTcanus
("Seder R. Amram," ed. Warsaw, 1865. p. 32ci);
Baraita de-Rabbi Eli'ezer ('"Aruk," s.v. Dpip; Rashi
on Gen. xvii. 3; gloss to Rashi on Meg. 2'2b; David
Kimhi, "Sliorashim," s.r. iiy); Ilaggadah de-Rabbi
Eli'ezer ben Hyrcanus (R. Tarn, in Tos. Ket. 99a).
The work is divided into fifty-four chapters, which
may be divided into seven groups, as follows:

i. Ch. i., ii. : Introduction to the entire work,
dealing with the youth of R. Eliezer, his thirst for
knowledge, and his settlement at Jerusalem.

ii. Ch. iii.-xi. (corresponding to Gen. i.-ii.): The
six days of the Creation. On the first day occurred
the creation of four kinds of augels
Contents, and of the forty-seven clouds. The
second day: the creation of heaven,
other angels, the tire in mankind (impulse), and the
fire of Gehenna. The tiiird day: the division of the
waters, fruit-trees, herbs, and grass. The fourth
day: creation of the lights; astronomy and the
determination of the intercalation. The leap-year
reckoning is imparted to Adam, Enoch, Noah,
Sheni, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The fifth day:
birds and fishes; enumeration of the kinds which
may be eaten. The story of Jonah, which is said
to belong to the fifth day. The sixth day: God's
conference with the Torali in regard to the way in
which man should be created. Since God is the
first king of the world, all the great rulers are enu-
merated in order to refer to God as the first one.

iii. Ch. xii.-xxiii. (=Gen. ii.-viii., xxiv., xxix.,
1.): The time from Adam to Noah. The placing of
man in the Garden of Eden and the creation of Eve.
Description of the tliree evil qualities which shorten
the life of man — envy, lust, and ambition. Identi-
fication of the serpent with Samael. Announcement
of the ten appearances of God upon eartli (" 'eser
yeridot"). First appearance of God in the Garden
of Eden, and the punishment of the first pair. The
two wa3s, the good and the evil, are pointed out to
Adam, who enters upon his penitence. (The story
is interrupted here, to be continued in ch. xx.) De-
tailed discussion of the three pillars of the world—
the Torah, the 'Abodah, and the Gemilut Ilasiulim.
God's kindness toward Adam, that of the llananites
toward Jacob, and the con.sideration to be shown to

those in mourning. The literary quarrel between
the Shamniiiites and the Hillelites as to whether
heaven or earth was created first. The ten things
wiiich were created on Friday evening. Exegesis of
P.^lm viii., which Adam sang in the Garden of Eden.
Di.scussion of the Halxlalah blessing of the Sabbath
evening and the completion of Adam's penitence.
Cain and Abel; Cain's penitence. Birth of Seth;
the sinful generation. Story of Noah.

iv, Ch. xxiv. -XXV. (= Gen. ix., x., xi., xviii.,
xix.): The sinful generation. Nimrod. God's sec-
ond appearance. The confusion of tongues and the
Dispersion. Nimrod is killed bj^ Esau, who takes
his garments, which Jacob then puts on in order to
secure the blessing.

V. Ch. xxvi. -xxxix. (=: Gen. xl.,1.): From Abra-
ham to the death of Jacob. The ten temptations of
Abraham. Lot's imprisonment and Abraham's pur-
suit of the kings. God's covenant with Abraham.
Tiie circumcision, and the appearance of tlie angels.
Identification of Hagar with Keturah, and the story
of Ishmael. The sacrifice of Isaac. Isaac and Re-
bekah, Jacob and Esau. Proofs given by Elijah,
Elisha, and Sliallum b. Tikwah that the dead are
resurrected through the liberality of the living.
Those that will be found worthy to be resurrected.
From the sale of the birthright to the time when
Jacob left Beer-sheba. From Jacob at the well to
his flight from Laban's house. Repetition of the
three preceding chapters. Story of Dinah and of
the sale of Joseph. God's fourth appearance — in
the vision of Jacob while on his way to Egypt. Jo-
seph and Potiphar. Joseph in prison ; interpretation
of the dream; the sale of the grain. Jacob's bless-
ing and death.

vi. Ch. xl.-xlvi. (rrEx. ii.-iv., xiv.-xx., xxxii.-
xxxiv.): From the appearance of Moses to the time
when God revealed Himself to him in the cleft of
the rock. Fifth appearance of God — to Moses, from
the burning bush. The miracles performed by Moses
before Pharaoh. God's sixth appearance — on Sinai.
Pharaoh's persecution. The value of penitence;
Pharaoh is not destroyed, but becomes King of Nin-
eveh. Amalek's pursuit in the desert: Saul and
Amaiek ; Amalek and Sennacherib. The golden
calf; Moses' descent from the mountain; his prayer
because of Israel's sin. Moses on Sinai ; his descent,
and the destruction of the golden calf. Seventh ap-
pearance of God — to Jkloses,

vii. Ch. xlvii.-liv. (=Ex. xv. ; Num. ii., v., xi.-
xiii., XXV., xxvi.; in these chapters the sequence
thus far observed is broken): The sin committed at
Baalpeor. The courage of Phinehas. The priestly
ofiice conferred upon him for life as a recompense.
Computation of the time Israel spent in servitude
down to tiie exodus from Egypt. Continuation of the
story of Amalek. The passing over to Nebuchad-
nezzar and Ilaman. Story of Esther. Holiness of
the months and of Israel. Enumeration of the seven
miracles: (1) Abraham in the furnace; (2) Jacob's
birth; (3) Abraham's attainment of manhood (comp.
Sanh. 107b); (4) Jacob sneezes and does not die; (5)
the sun and moon remain immovable at the com-
mand of Joshua ; (6) King Ilezekiah becomes ill, but
recovers; (7) Daniel in the lion's den. Moses is
slandered by Aaron aad Miriam. Ab.salom and his

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pirhe Zafon

Pirke de-Kabbi Eli'ezer

death. God's eighth appearance — in punishment
of Miriam.

The Pirke appears, according to Zunz, to be in-
complete, and to be merely a fragment of a larger
work. Sachs, on the other hand, thinks tliat it was
compiled from two previous works
Com- by the same author, the relation of the

position, two productions to each other being
tiiat of text and commentary, the text
giving merely the story of tiie Bible, whicii was in-
terrupted by the commentary in the form of the
Haggadah, and the commentary being intended for
reading during the ten days of penitence. Horwitz
thinks that the author developed those Bible stories
whicli bore relation to the entire nation, dealing
lightly with those that concerned only individuals.

Jost was the first to point out that in the thirtieth
chapter, in which at the end the author distinctly
alludes to the three stages of the Mohammedan con-
quest, that of Arabia (niya XC'O). of Spain (D\T "'''N).
and of Rome ('nil i^Hi "|"I3 ; H80 c.e.), the names of
Fatinia and Ayesha occur beside that of Ishmael,
leading to the conclusion that the book originated
in a time when Islam was predominant in Asia
Elinor. As in ch. xxxvi. two brothers reigning
simultaneously are mentioned, after whose reign
the ^lessiah shall come, the work might be ascribed
to the beginning of the ninth century, for about
that time the two sons of Harun al-Rashid, El-
Amin and El-Mamun, were ruling over tiie Islamic
realm. If a statement in ch. xxviii. did not point
to an even earlier date, approximately the same
date miglit be inferred from the enumeration of the
four powerful kingdoms and the substitution of
Ishmael for one of the four which are enumerated
in the Talmud and the Mekilta.

The author seems to have been a Palestinian; this
appears not only from the fact that some of the cus-
toms to which he refers (in ch. xiii. and xx.) are
known only as Palestinian customs, but also from
the fact that nearly all the authorities he quotes are
Palestinian, the exceptions being R. Mesharshia
and R. Shemaiah. In no case can this work be
ascribed to R. Eliezer (80-118 c.e.), since he was a
tanna, while in the book itself the Pirke Abot is
quoted. Late Talmudic authorities belonging to the
third century c.e., like Shemaiah (ch. xxiii.), Ze'era
(ch. xxi., xxix.), and Shila (ch. xlii., xliv.), are also
quoted.

The following customs and regulations of the Jews
are referred to in the Pirke de-Rabbi Eli'ezer: Reci-
tation of Ps. xcii. during the Friday evening serv-
ices (ch. xix. ; comp. Shab. 118a). The blessing
"Bore me'orc ha-esh " (Praised be the Creator of the
tire) recited during the Ilabdalah (ch. xx. ; comp.
Pes. ;")9a). Contemplation of the finger-nails during
tiiis blessing (ch. xx.). After the Ilabdalah, pour-
ing of the wine upon the table, extinguisiiing the
candle in it, dipping the hands in it, and rubbing
the eyes (ch. xx.). Tiie prohibition against women
doing fancy-work on tlie day of the New Moon (ch.
xlv.). The blessing of "tal" on the first day of the
Passover (xxxii.). The sounding of the shofar after
the morning services in all the synagogues on the
New Moon of the month of Elul (ch. xlvi.). The
regulation that during the recitation of the "Kol

Nidre" on the Day of Atonement two prominent
members of the community shall stand beside the can-
tor (xliv.), and that on Tluirsday all
Customs worshipers must stand while reciting
Mentioned, prayers (ch. xlvi.). Tlie addition of
Deut. xi. 20 to the daily reading of
the"Shema' " (ch. xxiii.). The banquet after the cir-
cumcision (ch. xxix.; comp. Midr. Teh.,ed. Buber,
p. 234b). The chair of Elijali during the circum-
cision (cii. xxix.). The covering of the prepuce
with earth (ch. xxix.). The performance of the
marriage ceremony under a canopy (ch. xii.). The
standing of the hazzau beside the bridal couple (ch.
xli.). The pronouncing of the blessing upon the
bride by the hazzan (ch. xii.). The regulations pro-
viding that no woman may go out with uncovered
head (ch. xiv. ; comp. Ket. 72a); that the groom
may not go out alone on the bridal night (ch. xvi. ;
comp. Ber. 54b); that mourners must be comforted
in tiie chapel (ch. xvii.); that the dead may be
buried only in "takrikin " (ch. xxxiii. ; comp. M. K.
27a, b) ; that a person sneezing shall say, " I trust in
Thy help, O Lord," while any one hearing him shall
say, "Your health!" (ch. lii.) — sickness having been
unknown before the time of the patriarch Jacob,
whose soul escaped through his nose when he sneezed.
The following chapters close with benedictions
from the " Shemoneh 'Esreh": ch. xxvii. : "Praised
be Thou, O Lord, the shield of Abraham"; ch.
xxxi. : "Praised be Thou, O Lord, who revivest the
dead " ; ch. xxxv. : " Praised be Thou, O Lord, Holy
God"; ch. xl. : "Praised be Thou, O Lord, who
dost pardon knowingly"; ch. xliii. : "Praised be
Thou, O Lord, who demandest penitence." Chap-
ters xvii., xxx., xxxi., xlvi., li., lii., liv. also remind
one of the " Amidah."

The author dwells longest on the description of
the second day of Creation, in which the "Ma'aseh
Mcrkabah " (Ezek. i.) is described in various forms,
and although this passage recalls Donolo and the
Alphabet of R. Akiba, it is evidently much older,
since it does not mention the "Hekalot." This de-
scription is connected with that of the creation of
the seven planets and the twelve signs of the zodiac,
the reference to the "mahzors" and
The the " tekufot," and the discussion of

Tekufot. the intercalation. In the series of
years (3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19 in the
cycle of 19) in whicii the intercalation takes place
the author substitutes the fifth year for the sixth.
His cycle of the moon, furthermore, covers twenty-
one years, at the end of which ]U'riod the moon again
occupies the same position in the week as at tlie be-
ginning, but tills can happen only once in 689,472
j'ears, according to the common computation.

On tlie connection of the Pirke de-Rabbi Eli-
'ezer witli tiie Biraita of Samuel, see Sachs in "Mo-
natssciirift," i. 277. JManuscrijits of the Pirke are
found at Parma (No. 541), in the Vatican (No. 303;
dated 1509), and in the Ilalbcrslam library. Tlie
following editions are known : Cnn.<;tantinople, 1518;
Venice, 1548; Sabbionetta, 1568; Amsterdam, 1712;
Wilna, 1837; Lemberg, 1864. A commentary upon
it, by David Luria, is included in the "Wilna edition,
and another, by Abraham Broyde, in the Lemberg
edition.

Pirogov
Pisa

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bibliography: Zunz. G. V. pp. 283 et geq.; Jost, Gesch. des
Judenthum^ und Sdner Sekten. p. 35, note 2. Leipsic, 1858;
Senior Sachs, in Kerem Hemed, viii. 34; Ueher dojiGeijen-
Beitige Verh(Htnii<^, etc., in Mutialsschrift, i. 277; Tehiualt,
Berlin, 1850, p. U, note 5; p. 20, note 2; H. Kahana. In Ha-
Mauaid, viii. 6; S. Frledmann, in Ilahtner's J(J(J. Lit.-Blatt.
viii. 30-31, 34, 37 ; M. Steinschuelder, in Ha-Yoiialt, i. 17, Ber-
lin, 1851; R. Kirchheim, in hitmductin in Lilirum Talinu-
dicum de Samaritanis. p. 25, Krankfort-on-the-Main, Itol ;
Meir ha-Levi Honvitz, SlUhnat Habbi Eliezei\m Ha-Mag-
gid, xxiii., Nos. 8-30; Fuenn, Kene.'<ct YisraeU 1. 321-344, War-
saw. 1886 ; Israel Luria, in Knkehe Yizhak, xxv. 82 ; Israel
L^vi, in R. E.J. xviii. 83; Creizenach, in Jost's AtmaUn, li.
140; Gnitz, in MouaU'^chrift, 1859, p. 112, note 5; Bacher,
Ag. Tan. i. 122-123. Strasburg, 1903.

J. S. O.

PIROGOV, NIKOLAI IVANOVICH : Rus-
sian physician and pedagogue ; born 1810 ; died Nov. ,
1881. He was professor at the University of Dor-
pat. As a statesman Pirogov belonged to that re-
nowned circle of men whose cooperation in educa-
tional matters was sought by Alexander II. in the
first years of his reign. His " Voprosy K Zliizni,"
in "Morskoi Sbornik" (1856), dealing mainly with
educational problems, led to his appointment as
superintendent of the Odessa school district (1856-
1858), and later to that of the Kiev district (1858-
1861). In this capacity he learned to know, for the
first time, the Jewish people; and as scholar and
seeker after truth, as the true friend of enlighten-
ment and the enemy of class antagonism, he treated
the Jews in a kindlj- spirit and displaj'ed unusual
interest in the educational problems concerning
them. His attitude toward the Jews is best shown
by the words which he addressed to the Jewish
community of Berdj'chev on his retirement from
the superintendency of the Kiev district : " You are
conveying to me the appreciation of my sj'mpathy
for the Jewish people. But I deserve no credit for
it. It is a part of my nature. I could not act con-
trary to mj' own inclinations. Ever since I began
the study of civics from the standpoint of science, I
have fejt the greatest antagonism for class preju-
dices; and involuntarily I applied this point of view
also to national distinctions. In science, in practi-
cal life, among my colleagues, as well as among my
subordinates and superiors, I have never thought of
drawing distinctions as prompted by
Friendly cla.ss and national exclusiveness. I
Attitude have been guided by these convictions

Toward also in my relations with the Jews
the Jews, when brought in contact with them in
private and public life. These con-
victions, the result of my education, having been
developed by lifelong experience, are now second
nature with me, and will not forsake me to the end
of my life."

This attitude of Pirogov, acknowledged by all as
a ])rominent man, was for the Jews of great social
moment; but aside from this he took an active part
in the development of Jewish education also. No-
ticing that the Jewish youth in the .search for en-
lightenment encountered obstacles on the part of the
Russian government as well as of the Jewish people,
tiie great mass of which was hostile to general edu-
cation, Pirogov made timely appeals to the Chris-
tians as well as to tlie Jews. Being familiar with
the methods of instruction in the various Jewish and
Christian schools, Pirogov, while superintendent of
the Odessa district, published a special paper on the

Odessa Talmud Torah in the "Odesski Vyestnik,"
citing it as an example for the Christian elementary
schools, and noting also the conscious efforts of the
Jews in the acquisition of knowledge. Further-
more, while still superintendent he published in the
Russo-Jewish journal " Razsvyet," in 1860, an article
on the necessity of enlightenment among the Jewish
masses; and he invited the educated Jews to form
an organization for the purpose, avoiding violent
and unworthy methods in the treatment of their
opponents. Pirogov also deemed it the duty of the
Russian public to lend its aid to young Jewish stu-
dents. " Where are religion, morality, enlighten-
ment, and the modern spirit," said Pirogov, "when
these Jews, who with courage and self-sacrifice en-
gage in the struggle against prejudices centuries
old, meet no one here to sympathize with them and
to extend to them a helping hand? "

There existed at that time Jewish government
schools which were very unpopular among the
Jewish masses owing to the manner in
Appoints which thej' were conducted; and Piro-
First Jew- gov devoted much work toward ma-
ish School king them really serve their avowed
Principal, purpose. His initiative and exertions
led, among other things, to the aboli-
tion of the rule under which only Christians were
eligible for appointment as principals of these
schools. In most cases the principals, coarse and
uneducated, were unfriendlj' to the Jews. Pirogov
appointed the first Jewish principal, U. S. Rosen-
zweig, one of the most eminent Jewish pedagogues
in Russia.

Pirogov rendered a further service of great im-
portance to the Jews by aiding those who wished to
enter the general middle and higher institutions of
learning, and in this connection he worked out and
presented to the ministry plans for the reorganization
of the Jewish schools, etc. His task was by no
means an easy one ; for at that time Pirogov was the
only patron of the Jewish youth. It is said that the
contemporary minister of public instruction meas-
ured the distance between the Jewish schools and
the churches.

Pirogov lent his aid particularly in the organiza-
tion at the University of Kiev of a fund for aiding
Jewisli students ; it was also he who
Aids Jew- took the first steps toward enabling

ish Stu- Jews to carry on their studies with

dents at government aid, to receive scholar-
University, sliips, etc. Guided by the same edu-
cational motives, while superintendent
of the Odessa district he advocated allowing the
publication of the first Russo-Jewish journal, the
"Razsvyet," and the Hebrew paper "Ha-Meliz."

Unfortunately Pirogov's efforts met with no sup-
port; his views on the education of the Jews evoked
no sympathy; and in the course of time access for
the Jews to the general schools became more difficult.

BiBi.iOGRAPHT: M. MorRulis, N. I. Pimanv, in Vnskhod, 1881,
No. 5; N. Botvinnik, VziiU/ad]! Pimudra na Vopras^i Pros-
vue^cheniun Ycvrcyci\ in Voahhod, 1903, No. 8 ; N. Bakst.
Pamyati Pirngova, in RxiiviUi Yevrei, 1882, No. 1 ; Sochine-
nlya, N. I. Pirogova, 2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1900.
II. R. *

PISA : Town in Tuscany, Italy, at the mouth of
the ]{iver Arno; formerly a port of the Tyrrhenian

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pirogrov
Pisa

Sea. The settlement of Jews in Pisa dates back to
very early times; the first mention of a congrega-
tion is n)et with in the "'Itinerary " of Benjamin of
Tudela, who found twenty families there {c. 1165).
The importance of Pisa as a commercial town ren-
ders it probable that the congregation continued to
exist; and this supposition is directly confirmed by
statutes of the republic issued during the thirteenth
century, which exclude Jews from giving evidence,
and command them to wear the Jews' badge. The
population, possibly envious of the trade of the
Jews, was hostile to them.

Some distinction was bestowed upon the congre-
gation by the settlement of the Da Pisa family, whose
members, by their eminence, education, and readi-
ness to sacrifice, were extensively and benevolently
active in behalf of the Jews. About 1400 Jchiel b.

and had become subject to the Medici, who, well
aware of the advantages wliich the state would de-
rive therefrom, permitted tlie settlement of Jewish
immigrants from Spain and Portugal. When, about
1590, the Medici opened the harbor of Leghorn, they
asked Jews to .settle there also; and in 15'J3 the
autiiorities of the congrega:ion of Pisa, to which
Leghorn was for the time being subordinate, were
granted the privilege of naturalizing foreign Jews.
The young congregation of Leghorn soon separated
from that of Pisa and outnumbered the latter consid-
erably. The Jews of Pisa fared as did those of other
Tuscan towns. They were obliged to live in a
ghetto, and were restricted in their rights; but iu
general they were treated kindly. With the en-
trance of the French, in 1798, the Jews were accorded
full citizenship. The Restoration of 1814 acknowl-

^2^

Old Tombstones from the Jewish Cemetery at Pisa.

(From a drawing by Albert Hochreiter.)

Mattithiah da Pisa founded a loan-bank in Pisa.
He represented the congregation at tlie Congress of
Bologna in 1415, and at Forli in 1418. His grand-
son, Jehiel, a MjEcenas of Jewish poets and scholars,
was a friend of Don Isaac Abravauel, who was as-
sociated with him and who while still in Spain laid
claim to his assistance for his oppressed brethren.
At the same time, Jehiel himself was in danger; as
elsewhere iu Italy after 1450, the Dominicans harassed
the Jews in Pisa; and in 1471, apparently during
the presence of Bernardin of Feltre in the city, an
assault was made upon their houses. Numbers of
fugitives from Spain and Portugal disembarked at
the port of Pi.sa, among them the Yahya family.
Isaac da Pisa, the son of Jehiel, took care of the fu-
gitives and assisted them to find new means of sup-
port. The same intentions guided also his nepliew,
Jehiel Nissim b. Samuel da Pisa, who, iu 1525, shel-
tered David Reubeni under his roof for several
months, and furthered his enterprises, from which
Jehiel expected much benefit for all Jews.

Pisa in the meanwhile had lost its independence

edged the independence of the congregation; the
ghetto was abolished ; and gradually the rights of
the Jews were extended; but only the establish-
ment of the kingdom of Italy (1861) brought full
equality.

Of rabbis and scholars in Pisa the following are
known: Jehiel b. Mattithiah da Betel (14th cent.);
Daniel b. Samuel Rofe b. Daniel Dayyan da Pisa;
Raphael b. Eleazar Meldola (1750) ; Jacob b. Moses
Senior; Eliezer b. Jacob Supino (about 1800); Judah
Coriat; and A. V. de Benedetti. Active at the uni-
versity were: Salvadore de Benedetti, the translator
of Judah ha-Levi; Alessandro d'Ancona, for many
years the dean; and Vittorio Supino, now (1905) also
rector. David Castelli was secretary of the Jewish
congregation in 1865. Pisa had temporarily a He-
brew printing-office in the eighteenth century.

In 1865 the Jews numbered 450; in 1901 there

were 500 in a total population of about 61,300.

BiBi.iORRAPMY : Ersph and Gniber, E)if{/c. section il.. part 27,
p. 151 : Ci>rricrc Israelitico, x., xi.; R. E. J. xxvl.; Mortara,
Indice, passim.
G. L E.

Pisa. Da
Pitisburgr

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PISA, DA : Italian family, deriving its name
from tlie city of Pisa. It can be traced back to the
fifteenth century.

Abraham ben Isaac da Pisa : Talmudist; son
of Isiiac ben Ji-hiel; lived in Bologna, where he died
in 1554. He was often consulted about religious
questions. One of his responsa is found in the col-
lection of Menahem Azariah da Fano, in which, de-
spite liis veneration for Meir ben Isatic K.\tzenel-
LENBOGEN of Padua, Abraham refutes the latter 's
arguments and expresses the wish that, for the sake
of harmony, the rabbis would agree upon one au-
thority in accordance with whose decisions religious
questions might be decided. A court banker, Abra-
ham suffered much from the exactions of the popes
during the Turkish wars, and consequently was in
straitened circumstances. Not being able to pub-
lish his responsa, he left them in manuscript, with
other works of his.

In the list of names in the archives of the Jewish
community of Rome for the years 1536 to 1542 is
found the name of Solomon da Pisa (see Vogelstein
and Rieger, "Gesch. tier Juden in Rom," ii. 419), and
among the prominent members of the community
during the period 1542-1605 were Abraham ben
Joseph and Moses ben Solomon da Pisa (ib. ii.
421). Two of the later descendants of this family
were Giuseppe Pisa (b. 1827, Ferrara; d. Milan,
Feb. 24, 1904) and his nephew Ugo Pisa. The for-
mer, a merchant and manufacturer, took an active
part in the revolutionary movement of 1848.

Other distinguished members of the family were
Jehiel (see Jew. E>'cyc. vii. 83) and Isaac ben Je-
hiel (for whose son Abraham see above).

Daniel ben Isaac da Pisa : Wealth}' and learned
philanthropist of the sixteenth century. lie was
called to the rabbinate of Rome during the pontifi-
cate of Clement VII., and succeeded in bringing
harmony into that community. He united into one
congregation the different elements, consisting of
Italian and foreign-born Jews, and instituted a coun-
cil of sixty members to administer the affairs of the
amalgamated congregation. The decisions of this
council were declared legal by a papal decree of
Dec. 12, 1524. While David Reubeni was at Rome,
Daniel da Pisa provided for his wants and served as
his interpreter before the i)ope. Through Daniel's
influence Reubeni received from Clement VII. letters
of recommendation to the King of Portugal and to
other Christian monarchs.

BiBLiof.RAPHT: Gratz. Gesch. ix. 248; Gedallah Ibn Yahya,
ShahheJet ha-Kabhalnh, ed. Venice, p. 6")b; Heilprln. Seder
h<uDoroU 1. 23«. 24-^.. Warsaw, 1883 ; David Kaufmann. in R.
E. J. xxvi. 81-96, xxlx. 146-147. xxxi. 6.5 et seq., xxxii. 130-
134 : Michael, Orha-Hayyim. No. 144 : II VessiUo Israeliticn,
1904, p. 10.5; Vopelsteln and Eieger, Gesch. der Juden iti
Rom, 11. 40. 44, 128.

D. 8. Man.

TJgo Pisa: Italian writer and senator; born
Aug., 1845. After taking part in the campaign of
1866 he studied law. In 1869 and 1870 he was at-
tached to the Italian consulate at Constantinople,
and was then secretary of legation in China, Japan,
London, and Berlin successively. In 1873 he entered
the Banca Pisa of Milan ; he was elected common
councilor, judge of the tribunal of commerce, coun-
sel and president of the chamber of commerce, and
finally senator (Nov. 17. 1898).

Pisa is the author of the following works: "As-
sicurazione Colletiva Contro gl' Infortunii sul La-
voro, ed Interveuto del Patronato Milanese per Fa-
cilitarne I'Applicazione," Milan, 1885; "Liberi Pro-
tezionisti e Socialisti," ib. 1892 ; in collaboration with
G. Fraschi, "Sulla Opportuuita di Dare Maggiore
Efficacia Practica all' Azione del Consiglio ilell' In-
duslria e del Commercio," ib. 1893; "Relation sur
la Prevoyance pour les Accidents de Travail en
Italie 1882-89" (in "Congr^s International des Acci-
dents du Travail et des A.ssurances Sociales i
Milan "), tb. 1894; " Delle Norme per Regolare il Li-
ccnziamento degli Agenli di Commercio," etc., ib.
1894 ; " Relation sur la Prevoyance pour les Acci-
dents du Travail en Italie " (in " Comite Italien de»
Sciences Sociales pour I'Exposition de Paris"), ib.
1899.
Bibliography : lUiuftrazione Italiana, 1898, part 11., p. 425.

s. U. C.

PISGAH (always with the article: Ha-Pia-
gah) : ^Mountain iu Moab, celebrated as one of the
stations of the Israelites in their journey through
that country (Num. xxi. 20) and as the place of one
of Balak's sacrifices {ib. xxiii. 14), but chiefly as the
place of Moses' death after he had beheld from
its summit "all the land of Gilead, unto Dan; and
all Naphtali, and the land of Ephraim and Ma-
nasseh, and all the land of Judali, unto the hinder
[western] sea; and the south, and the plain of the
valley of Jericho, the city of palm-trees, unto Zoar"
(Dent, xxxiv. 1-2, R. V.). It is identified (ib.
xxxiv. 1) with Mount Nebo; and in Num. xxiii.
14 the "field of Zophim " is the "top of Pisgah."
Under the " slopes of Pisgah " was the " sea of the
Arabah " or Dead Sea (Deut. iii. 17, iv. 49; Josh. xii.
3, xiii. 20, R. V.).

Pisgah has been identified also with the modern
Naba, a ridge which projects westward from the
plateau of Moab, near the northeastern end of the
Dead Sea, about five miles southwest of Heshbon,
and 2,643 feet above the Mediterranean and 3,935 feet
above the Dead Sea. It is described by G. A. Smith
("Historical Geography of the Holy Land," p.
563) as about two miles long, with a level top about
one-half mile broad. "It is of flinty limestone,
mostly barren." It commands an extensive view of
the whole of western Palestine. There are two
summits: the higher, Ras Naba; the lower and out-
ermost, Ras Siyaghah. The latter commands the
whole of the Jordan valley and is probably identical
with the " top of Pisgah which looketh down upon
Jeshimon " (Num. xxi. 20, R. V., margin).

The name "Pisgah " has not survived till modern

times, unless in "Ras Fashkah," a headland on the

opposite or western side of the Dead Sea. It is said

to have been still used, however, in the time of

Eusebius (in the form ^aayu; comp. LXX. 4>aa-)d,

<J>aff,va) for a district in that region (Eusebius,

"Onomasticon," ed. Lagarde, pp. 124-125, 237).

Bini.infiRAPiiY : G. A. Smith, JTMorical Geographu of the
Hull/ Land, pp. 502-.5()6 ; Tristram, Land of Moah, pp. 339-
:^40; Surveiiof Ea.'^teni Palestine, pp. 154-1.56. 198-203; Con-
d('r, Heth and Moah, 3d ed.. pp. 132 c( seq.; Driver. Commei>
tarn on Deuteronomy (xxxiv. 1).
E. r. J. F. McL.

PISGAH, HA-. See Periodicals.

PISTACHIO-NTJT. See Nut.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pisa, Da
Pittsburer

MAP OF
PJTHOa - lIEIiOOPOLIS

p ?Q 40 60 eo 100 _ _ ^9"* METRES

Q 20 40 fiO RO 100

ES£«f

PITHOM (DnS: LXX. nafltj. XiiBLii): One of the
cities whicli, according to Ex. i. 11, was built for
the Pharaoh of tlie oppression by the forced labor
of the Israelites. The other city was Raamses; and
the Septuagint adds a third, "On, which is Ileliop-
olis." The meaning of the term niJSDD ^"iy, ren-
dered in the Authorized Version "treasure cities"
and in the Revised Version "store cities," is not defi-
nitely known. The Septuagint renders ■K6lEiq bxvpai
"strong [or "fortified"] cities." Tlie same term
is used of cities of Solomon in I Kings ix. 19 (comp.
also II Chron.
xvi. 4). The lo-
cation of Pithom
was a subject of
much conjec-
ture and debate
until its site was
discovered by E.
Niiviile in the
spring of 1883.
Ilerodotus (ii.
158) says that
the canal made
by Necho to con-
nect the Red Sea
with the Nile
"passes Patu-
mos, a city in the
Arabian nonie."
This district of
Arabia was the
twentieth nome
of Lower Egypt,
and its capital
was Goshen
(Egyptian," Ko-
sen").

The site of
Pithom, as iden-
tified by Naville,
is to the east of
the Wady Tu-
milat, south-
west of Ismailia.
Here was for-
merly a group
of granite stat-
ues representing
Rameses II.,
standing b e -
t w e e n t w o
gods; and from

this it liad been inferred that this was the city
of Raamses mentioned in Ex. i. 11. The excava-
tions carried on by Naville for the Egypt Ex-
ploration Fund disclosed a city wall, a ruined
temple, and the remains of a series of brick buildings
Avith very thick walls and consisting of rectangular
chambers of various sizes, opening only at the top
and without any communication with one another.
These are supposed to have been the granaries or
store-chambers, from which, possibly, the army may
have been supplied when about to set out upon ex-
peditions northward or eastward. The city stood in
the eighth nome, adjoining that of Arabia; so that

the statement of Herodotus is not exactly correct.
It was known in the Greek period as Ileroopolis
or Ileroonpolis. The Egyptian name, "Pithom"
(Pi-Tum or Pa-Tum), means "house of Turn" [or
"Atum"], i.e., the sun-god of Heliopolis; and the
Greek word "Hero" is probably a translation of
"Atum."

The discovery of the ruins of Pithom confirms the
Biblical statement and points to Rameses II. as the
Pharaoh that oppressed Israel. The name of the
city Pi-Tum is first found on Egyptian monuments

of the nineteenth
dynastj'. Im-
portant evidence
is thus afforded
of the date of the
Exodus, which
must liave taken
place toward the
end of the nine-
teenth dynasty
or in the be-
ginning of the
twentieth dy-
nasty.

In the Middle
Ages Fayum
was called
"Pithom" by
the Jews, so that
the Gaon Saadia
is termed "Al-
Fayj'umi" in
Arabic (Hebr.
"Ha-Pitomi"),
and he himself
translates " Pi-
thom " in Ex. i.
11 by "Al Fay-
yum."

'f!mfm^^!^r^^^^^0

ROMAN CITY ^^ ^
HEROOPOLIS^ ^

..■•'"1. .j-> jP"

/SiW^-^^-Cs; J) E

'^WW

^ "--■••" -'^r — - 2^'"^"'-.: •■•"'••■-•: ■■"'■-■-

„ .7ts^.™< -., , ^M>"-* , "^ \«.. "" ,,1'* ■""■ %

*«t ■ .f-y ,«llllb

,„,,„jjiaaj]jjauiMMjto ^ •■■■•";::■• t ■■■;;::•■■■■■■■:.■.' ,:;,?■ :":•'•'.:: T ■"•-,»,•■--

'"'*'''•■■ ■'■■'" " BORMAV A CO., N.Y.

Bibliography: Na-
ville, T?!C Sttyre
Citu of Pithom,
etc., in Memoir of
Egiipt Explora-
tion PumI, 1885;
Sayce, Higher
Criticism an<ithe
J\/o;iHnif ;if.sl894,
pp. 2)9 et .teq., 2.50
ct iteq.: Driver, in
Hoparth's An-
thoritii and Ar-
chcroloau, 1899,
pp. &i ct ifcq., 61,

m.
E. c. J. F. McL.

PITTSBUBG : Second largest city in the state
of Pennsylvania. With Allegheny, the twin-city
on the north side of the Allegheny River, it is the
chief city of western Pennsylvania.

There are no reliable records of the beginnings of
the Jewish community; but it has been ascertained
that between 1838 and 1844 a small number of Jews,
mostly from Baden, Bavaria, and WUrttemberg, set-
tled in and around Pittsburg. These were joined
by others in 1847 and by still others in 1852, who
included in their numbers the founders of Jewish
communal life. The first Jewish service was held
in the autumn of 1844, while the first attempt at

Pittsburg'
Piyyut

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

organization was made in 1847, when a mere hand-
ful of men combined with the hope of forming a
congregation. They worshiped in a room on Penn
street near Walnut (now 13th) street, having en-
gaged the Rev. Mauuheimer as cantor. They
formed also a Bes Almon Society, and purchased
a cemetery at Troy Hill. The congregational body
finally became known as "Ez Hajjim." It lacked
homogeneity on account of the varying religious
views of its members; ami divisions and reunions
took place from time to time until about 1853, when
a united congregation was formed under the name
"Rodeph Shalom." In 1864 a further division oc-
curred, the seceders chartering a congregation under
the name "Ez Hajjim" in 1865, and purchasing a
cemetery at Sharpsburg.

Congregation Rodeph Shalom first worshiped in

a hall over the Vigilant engine-house on Third

avenue, then in the Irish hall on Sixth street, and

in 1861 built on Hancock (now Eighth)

Congrega- street the first synagogue in western

tion Pennsylvania. In 1879 it purchased

Rodeph the West View Cemetery. In 1884 the

Shalom, synagogue was enlarged, but it was
subsequently torn down, and the pres-
ent building, under erection during 1900 and 1901,
vpas dedicated on Sept. 6 and 7 of the latter year.
Among the early readers and teachers of Rodeph
Shalom were Sulzbacher and Marcuson. In 1854
William Armhold took charge of the congregation,
remaining till 1865, when he went to Philadel-
phia. During his administration the congregation
erected the temple on Eighth street; and, in con-
junction with Josiah Cohen, he conducted a school
which was maintained from 1860 to 1868. From
1865 to 1870 L. Naumburg was teacher and reader;
and in his day the Reform movement was con-
siderably advanced. The first rabbi of the con-
gregation was Lippman !Mayer, who came from
Selma, Ala., in the spring of 1870. He success-
fully guided the congregation along advanced
Reform lines until his retirement as rabbi emeritus
in 1901. By that time he had seen his congregation
grow from a membership of 65 to 150. He was
succeeded (April 1, 1901) by J. Leonard Levy, the
present (1905) incumbent, who was called from
Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel, Philadel-
phia. In the past two years Rodeph Shalom has
grown considerably. Its present number of mem-
bers and seat-holders exceeds 400 ; and it is worthy
of record that on the day after the dedication of the
new temple (Sept. 8, 1901) the congregation con-
tributed a sum of money which not only liquidated
a debt of nearly $100,000, but left a surplus of over
§30,000.

Rodeph Shalom, which during the past sixteen
years has been presided over by Abraham Lippman,
has since 1901 issued, for the use of its members and
others: " A Book of Prayer " for the Sunday services;
"A Text-Book of Religion and Ethics for Jewish
Children"; "A Home Service for the Passover";
" A Home Service for Hanukkah " ; " The Children's
Service"; "Sabbath Readings" for each Sabbath of
the year; and three volumes of Sunday lectures.
The congregation distributes these Sunday lectures
weekly in pamphlet form to all who attend the serv-

ices, and also furnishes gratuitously a special edi-
tion to non-Jewish residents of Allegheny county.

The Ez Hajjim congregation worshiped for a time
in a hall in the Dennis block on Second avenue,
and in 1882 purchased its present building on Fourth
and Ross streets. It has prospered, and is an active
force in Jewish congregational and communal life.
Among its ministers may be mentioned : A. Crone
(1874-81) ; A. Bernstein (1881-91) ; F. Salinger (1891-
1897); Michael Fried (since 1898), the present (1905)
incumbent, a graduate of the Jewish Theological
Seminary of America. Ez Hajjim belongs to the
school of progressive conservatism, and now has
famil}' pews and confers the rite of confirmation.
It has inaugurated Friday evening services and
has a Ladies' Auxiliary Societj-, a flourishing re-
ligious school, and a growing alumni as.socialion.

Pittsburg is notable in American Jewish history
on account of the conference (see Jew. Encvc. iv.
215, s.v. Conferences, Rabbinical) held there in
1885, and is also well known as a generous supporter
of all national Jewish movements, notably the He-
brew Union College and the Denver Hospital.
Among the more prominent local philanthropic and
charitable institutions maybe mentioned the follow-
ing: (1) J. M. Gusky Orphanage and Home, with
the Bertha Rauh Cohen Annex. The Home was
founded in 1890 by Esther Gusky, in memory
of her husband, Jacob Mark Gusky. The Annex
was the gift in 1889 of Aaron Cohen in memory of
his wife, Bertha Rauh Cohen, the only daughter
of Rosalia Rauh and the late Solomon Rauh.
The Home has 63 inmates, an annual

Philan- income of about §10,000, and an en-
thropic As- dowment fund of $67,000. (2) The
sociations. United Hebrew Relief Association,
a union of the Hebrew Benevolent
Society and the Hebrew Ladies' Aid Society. It
dispenses §10,000 yearly, and has a sinking-fund
of §29,000. (3) The Columbian Council School, a
social settlement. It conducts a large number of
classes, public lectures, a library, public baths, a
gymnasium, etc. The bath-house was the gift of
Alexander Peacock. The disbursements are about
§6,000 annually. (4) The Ladies' Hospital Aid se-
curesand pays for hospital attention for the sick poor.
Ithasanannualincome of about §8,000, and isat pres-
ent endeavoring to erect a Jewish hospital. (5) The
Young Ladies' Sewing Society, which dispenses
clothing to the poor; income about §2,000 annually.

The Concordia Club fosters Jewish social life
in Pittsburg. The Council of Jewish Women
is represented by the Columbian Council. The
Y. M. H. A. has been reorganized, and gives
promise of great activity. The Independent Or-
der of B'nai B'rith has five lodges; and the Inde-
pendent Order of the Free Sons of Israel, the Sons
of Benjamin, Sons of Israel, and Sons of Abraham
have two each. There are two weekly papers, one
in English, "The Jewish Criterion," of which Rabbi
Levy and Charles II. Joseph are the editors, and one
in Judteo-German, the " Volksfreund."

The Jews of Pittsburg are prominent in the profes-
sions and in commerce. Donors to non-sectarian
charities include J. D. Beknd and Isaac Kaufmann,
the latter of whom in 1895 gave the Emma Kaufmann

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pittsburg
Piyyut

Free Clinic to the medical department of the West-
ern University. Among those who have held posi-
tions in public life are Emannel Wert-
Prominent heimer, select councilman and member
JeAvs. of the state house of representatives;
Morris Einstein, select councilman (15
years); Josiah Cohen, judge of the Orphans' Court;
E. E. Mayer, city physician ; L. S. Levin, assistant
city attorney. Isaac W. Frank is president of the
National Founders' Association, and A. Leo Weil is a
member of the executive committee of the Voters'
Civic League.

Since 1882 there has been a steady increase in the
number of Jews in Pittsburg, the new settlers com-
ing mostly from eastern Europe. Russian, Ruma-
nian, and Hungarian Jews have come in large num-
bers, and are beginning to display an appreciable
interest in public affairs. They have si.x synagogues
(whose rabbis include A. M. Ashinsky and M. S.
Sivitz), many hebras, and a number of small relig-
ious societies. The Pittsburg Jewry strongly sym-
pathizes with the Zionistic movement, liaving a
large number of Zionistic societies. The number of
Jewish inhabitants is estimated at between 15,000
and 25,000, in a total population of about 322,000.

Bibliography: History of Congregation Rode ph Shalom,
1899; articles in the Jewish Criteriori, 1901, and AinericaJi
Im-aclite, 1893.
A. J. L. L.

PIUS rV. (Gian Angelo Medici) : Pope from
1559 to 1565. He was a Milanese of humble origin,
and became cardinal under Paul III., through the
latter's relations with Gian's brother Giangiacomo,
who had made himself master of Sienna. Gian, who
enjoyed the pope's confidence, was clever, good-
natured, condescending, somewhat worldly-minded,
and in every way a complete contrast to the fanatical
Paul IV., after whose death he succeeded to the
papacy. This contrast appeared in the severity
with which he dealt with Paul's favorites. Al-
though he did not favor the Inquisition, he did not
dare attack it. He convened the Council of Trent
for the third time, and succeeded in having it
"brought to a satisfactory termination through the
ability of the president of his choice, Marone.

The Jews breathed more freely under Pius. It
■was due to his intervention that Emperor Ferdinand
canceled the edict of expulsion which had been is-
sued against the Bohemian Jews. He bettered the
condition of the Jews in Rome and in the Pontifical
States by changing and in part revoking the restric-
tions imposed by Paul IV., and by granting them
the following privileges: to lay aside the Jews'
badge when traveling, if they remained only for one
day in any place ; to enlarge the ghetto, and to open
shops outside of it; and to acquire real estate be3'ond
the ghetto limits to tlie value of 1,500 gold ducats.
The Jus Gazaka or Gazaga, of later date, rests
upon a decree to prevent the increase of rent in the
ghetto.

Pius ordered the restoration of account-books and
communal records which had been confiscated, and
pardoned all the trespasses committed by the Roman
Jews against Paul's decrees except murder, coun-
terfeiting, mockery of Christianity, and lese-majesty.
He even granted the Jews permission to print the
X.— 5

Talmud, though under a different name. His suc-
cessor, Pius v., followed in Paul IV. 's footsteps.

BiBLiofiRAPHY : (iralA Gem-h. Ix. -.m ; Joseph ha-Kolien, 'Emek
ha-Iinlui, pp. VM ct i<e(j.; David (Jans, .?c»ifl^i Dawid for the
year 1559; Uanke, GcKvh. der I'dpxtf, 1. 2(fi et ,se(/.; Stern.
Vrkundliche licitrUoi., p. 137 ; VoRelsteln and I!ie(?er, GcKch.
der Judcn in Horn, il. lOO et 8cq.; Zuuz, In Geiger'a WiisH.

Zcit. JUd. Tltcol. V. 40
n.

H. V.

PIYYUT (plural, Piyyu^m) : Hymn added to
the older liturgy that developed during the Tal-
mudic era and up to the seventh century. The
word is derived from the Greek term for poetry,
perhaps more directly from noiT/r^c. The author of
a piyyut is called "payyetan," a Neo-Hebrew form
derived from " piyyut." In midrashic literature the
word "piyyut" is used merely in the general sense
of "fiction" (Gen. R. Ixxxv.; Yalk., Dan. 1063),
while " payyetan " is used in the technical sense of an
autlior of synagogal poetry. R. Eleazar, son of
Simon b. Yohai, was called a student of the Bible
and the Mishnah, a payyetan, and a preacher (Lev.
R. xxx. ; Pcsik. 179a, ed. Buber; Zunz, "G. V." p.
380; ide7n, "S. P." p. 60).

The oldest piyyutim are anonymous. They were

written during the era of the early Geonim (c. 7th

cent.) and are embodied in the prayer-book. They

show an attempt at meter, and, as in

Historical some late Biblical poetical composi-

Develop- tions, the successive lines are often al-
ment. phabetically arranged. Examples of
this kind are found in the Sabbath morn-
ing prayer "El Adon, ha-Kol Yoduka," in the peni-
tential prayers "We-IIu Rahum" for Mondays and
Thursdays, and elsewhere.

The oldest payyetan known by name is Jose ben
Jose (ha-Yatom); his date can be fixed only from
the fact that he was known to Saadia, who quotes
him; but this merely proves that he lived not later
than 850. The next payyetan known is Yannai,
who is said to have been the teacher of the most pro-
lific and popular of the old payyetanim, Eleazar ben
Kalir. The latter's most famous successor was Saadia
Gaon, in the tenth century. From that time the pay-
yetanim become very numerous and are found in
all larger Jewish settlements, notably in Germany,
France, Spain, and Italy. Zunz (" Literaturgesch.")
counts over 900 names of payyetanim. It seems
likely that they were influenced by the troubadours
and the minnesingers, both in the writing of their
poems and in their musical settings.

In Germany in the eleventh century there were

Moses ben Kalonymus, Meshullam ben Kalonymus,

Simon ben Isaac, and Gershom ben

In Judah ; in the twelfth century Jeku-

Germany, thiel ben Moses of Speyer, Menahem

France, ben Machir of Ratisbon, Meir ben
Spain, and Isaac (the hazzan), Kalonymus ben
Italy. Judah, Eliezer ben Nathan (author of
the history of the persecutions during
the Crusades), Ephraim l)en Isaac of Ratisbon, and
Ephraim ben Jacob of Bonn ; in the thirteenth cen-
tury Moses ben Hasdai ipn (of Tachau ?), Eleazar
ben Judah of Worms, and Eliezer ben Joel ha-Levi.

In France Benjamin ben Samuel of Coutances
(11th cent.; Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 553), Yom-
Tob ben Isaac of Joigny (martyred at York in 1190),

Piyyut

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rashi, and many of the tosatists, were liturgical
poets, as were Moses of Coucy and Abraham and
Jedaiah Bedersi.

In Spain, where Hebrew poetry reached the high-
est development, the best liturgical poets were Sol-
omon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi, and Abraham and
Moses ibn Ezra. A large number of others whose
names are famous in philosophical and Talm\idic
iit«rature wrote liturgical poems, as Joseph ben
Isaac ibn Abitur, Isaac Ghayyat, Judah ben Bileam,
Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda, and Isaac ben Reu-
ben of Barcelona; even Maimonidesis known as the
author of a few hymns.

lu Italy, where, according to some, Eleazar Kalir
had his home, there were payyetauim from the tenth
to the eighteenth century. According to Zunz, Sol-
omon ha-Babli of tlie tenth century lived in Rome
(" Babel " being a metonj^mic name for Rome). To
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries belong Isaiah
di Trani and Immanuel of Rome. After the four-
teenth, payyetanim became fewer, and their produc-
tions were rarely embodied in the official liturgy.
Generally their piyyutim were written to commemo-
rate some local event. Thus Baruch ben Jehiel ha-
Kohen wrote on the devastation wrought during the
time of the Black Death (1347) ; Abigdor Kara, ou the
persecution in Prague (1389); Samuel Scliottcn, on
the fire in Frankfort-on-the-Main (1711); Jacob ben
Isaac, on the conquest of Poscn by a hostile army
(1716); and Malachi ha-Kohen, on an earthquake
that threatened Leghorn (1742). The Thirty Years'
war (1618-48), also the Cossack persecutions under
Chmielnicki (1648), produced an extensive literature
of such piyyutim.

The piyyutim are of various kinds, according to
their theme, their place in the liturgy, or their form.
The Selihah, the penitential prayer.
Classifica- occupies the foremost rank and is
tion. most likely the oldest. The "We-Hu
Rahum," for Mondays and Thursdays,
was known as early as the time of the Geonim. It
was originally composed for fast-days, as were some
of the older, anonymous selihot: the "El Melek
Yosheb" and the various litanies, which are, in
parts, found in Talmudic literature; the "Abinu
Malkenu " ; and the "Mi she-'Anah." A common
theme of the selihot is the sacrifice of Isaac (see
'Akedah). Another regular feature of the peniten-
tial prayers is the confession of sins ("widdui"),
in which the initial letters of the successive lines are
generally in alphabetical order. The introductory
part is called the"petihah,"and the closing part the
PizMON, to which there is a refrain.

The hymns for holy daA's and some special Sab-
baths are more specifically called "piyyutim," or
often, wrongly, "yozerot." They are divided ac-
cording to their place in the regular liturgy. Those
that are inserted in the evening prayer (" 'arbit")arc
called Ma'arabiyyot ; those inserted in the first
benediction of the morning prayer are called Yozer,
from the benediction "Yozer Or " ; in
Special the second benediction, Ahabah,

Names. from the initial word of that benedic-
tion ; those in.sertcd in the benediction
following the Shema' are called Zulat, from the key-
words "En Elohim zulateka," or Ge'ullah, from

the benediction "Go'el Yisrael." Other names
taken from the characteristic words of the passages
in which the piyyutim are inserted are Ofan and
Me'orah. Kerobot (incorrectly Keroboz, i)Liiiaps
uudi-r French influence; Zunz, " S. P." p. 6o) is the
name of a piyj'ut inserted in the Tefillah proper (see
Keuobot and Siiemoneh 'Esueii). Anntlier name,
rarely used, for the same piyyut is Shib'ata, from
"shib'ah" (= "seven"), because the telillot for Sab-
bath and holy days consist of seven benedictions.
A special class of piyyutim is formed by the Toka-
hah (= "reproof "), penitential discourses some-
what similar to the widdui, and tiie Kinah for the
Ninth of Ab.

According to their poetical form there are to be
distinguished the Sheniyah, the stanzas of which
consist of two lines eutli ; the Shelish.it, consisting
of three lines; the Pizmon, already mentioned ; the
Mostegab, in which a Biblical verse is used at the
beginning of every stanza ; the Shalmonit, a meter
introduced by Solomon ha-Babli (Zunz, " S. P." p.
167; idem, "Ritus," p. 135). The poetical form was
originally acrostic, according to the alphabet in
proper order (3K) f^r reversed (p "iBTl) or in some
artiticial form (D"3^K)- In later times, beginning
with the eleventh century, it became customary
for the author to weave his name into the acrostic,
sometimes adding an invocation ; forinstance, "May
he prosper in the Law and in good deeds."

The days on which pivyu^im are inserted in the

regular liturgy are the holy days (including Purim

and the Ninth of Ab) and a number of Sabbaths

which possess special significance, as

When Piy- the Four Parashiyyot, including the

yutim Are Sabbaths falling between them (" Haf-

Recited. sakot"); the Sabbaths on which New
Moon falls; Hanukkah Sabbath; Sab-
bath Bereshit, when the first portion of the Torah
is read; Sabbaths on which the Scriptural reading
has some special significance, as when the sacrifice
of Isaac (Wayera), or the Song of Moses (Beshal-
lah), or the Ten Commandments (Yitro), or the law
of the Red Heifer (Hukkat) is read; and other Sab-
baths. The persecutions during the Crusades con-
stitute the theme of the "Zulat," on the Sabbaths
intervening between Passover and Pentecost. Spe-
cial events, as a circumcision on the Sabbath or a
wedding during the week, are celebrated by appro-
priate piyyutim. On this point the various rites, as
the Ashkenazic, the Polish, the Sephardic, the Italian,
those of Carpcntras and Oran, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, Worms, and Prague, and other prominent
old communities, differ very greatly, as they differ
also with regard to the pieces selected for the holy
days. In general, however, every minhag has given
preference to the works of local authors.

The natural development of the language intro-
duced into the piyyutim not only the Neo-Hebrew
words which are found in the prayers of Talmudic
times, such as " 'olam " in the sense of " the uni-
verse" (Biblical Hebrew, "eternity"), "merkabah"
( = " the divine chariot "), " hitkin " (— " to arrange "),
but also a large number of new words formed on
models and from roots found in Talmudic and mid-
rashic literature or arbitrarily developed from such
words as are met with in the works of the oldest

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Piyyut

payyetanim. Thus Jose ben Jose employs "shu'at
ketoret" (="the service of the frankincense") in
his ritual for the Day of Atonement (Landshutli,
"Siddur Ilegyon Leb," p. 507, KOnigsberg, 1875),
an expression the use of which has
Philolog- only a weak support in tlie Biblical

ical and " sha'ah " (comp. Gen. iv. 5). The
Dogmatic typical development of the mannerism

Charac- of the payyetanim is found as early as

teristics. in the works of Yanuai — for instance,
in his piyyut. f"i" Passover eve, em-
bodied in the Haggadaii and in the Ashkenazic
ritual for the Sabbath preceding Passover ("Az
Rob Nissim "). He uses by preference such rare
and poetical expressions as " zarah " (= " to call ") in-
stead of " kara," and " sah " ( = •' he spoke ") for " dib-
ber" ; and such midrashic allegorical designations
as "ger zedek " for Abraham, " Patros" for Egypt;
and he arbitrarily mutilates Biblical and rabbin-
ical words {e.g., flD^ta [="the camp"] from Dp'D
[Greek, rd^L^'], the Aramaic translation of "degel"
in Num. ii. 2).

The master in this line is Kalir, whose |*V1p y^ in
the kerobah for Sabbath Zakor (the Sabbath prece-
ding Purim) has become proverbial for its manner-
isms (see Erter, " Ha-Zofeh, " Vienna, 1864). No bet-
ter, as a rule, is its intrinsic worth as poetry. The
piyyut suffers from endless repetitions and from ex-
cessive attention to rime and the acrostic. One of
the most curious instances is afforded by the selihah
of Ephraim ben Jacob of Bonn (12th cent.), beginning
"Ta shema'," and found in the Ashkenazic ritual for
the fifth day after New-Year. The author, who
shows a remarkable command of the Talmudic idiom
and a profound knowledge of Talmudic dialectics,
argues with God, in the style of the Talmudic dis-
course, to prove that Israel should receive far better
treatment at His hands, saying, " To every question
there is an answer ; only mine remains unanswered ! "

There are, however, a few noble exceptions, as
Judah ha-Levi's poems, notably his famous ode on
Zion, found in the liturgy for the Ninth of Ab, and
Solomon ibn Gabirol's hymns, as hiswonderful pen-
itential hymn " Shomamti be-Rob Yegoni " in the
Ashkenazic ritual for the Fast of Gedaliah. Abra-
ham ibn Ezra's religious poetry, while noble in
thought and grammatically correct, lacks the in-
spiration of true poetry.

Among the German and French payyetanim, Solo-
mon ben Abun of France (12th cent.) and Simon
ben Isaac of Worms (10th cent.) likewise may be
quoted as exceptions. While both poets labor
under the difficulties created by the customs of
acrostic, rime, and midrashic allusion, they display
deep religious sentiment and are free from that
mannerism which seeks distinction in creating diffi-
culties for the reader. Simon ben Isaac's poem
beginning " Atiti le-hananek," which serves as an
introduction to the kerobah for the Shaharit serv-
ice of the second New-Year's day (Ashkenazic
ritual), is a noble expression of trust in God's
mercy, not unworthy of Ps. cxxxix., from which
the author drew his inspiration. The ]iizmon
"Shofet Kol ha-Arez," by Solomon ben Abun (Zunz,
"Literaturgesch." pp. 311-312), found in the Ash-
kenazic ritual for the day preceding New-Year and

for the Shaharit service on the Day of Atonement,
expresses in profoundly religious tones the belief in
divine justice.

It seems, as has already been stated, that the
payyetanim, like the troubadours, conceived their
poetry as something that po.ssessed no
Opposition liturgical character in the strict sense
to of the word. The degree of approval

Piyyutim. with which these hymns were re-
ceived, or of personal respect which
the author, in many instances a local rabbi, enjoyed,
decided for or against the insertion of the pi3'yutim
in the Mahzou of the congregation. Opposition to
the inclusion of the piyyut in the regular prayer as
an unlawful interruption of divine service is found
as early as the eleventh century. Rabbenu Tam
(Jacob ben MeVr) defends the practise against the
objections of Hananeel and Hai Gaon (" Haggahot
Maimoniyyot," in "Yad," Tefillah, vi. 3). Jacob
ben Asher disapproves of the practise, quoting the
opinion of his father, Asher ben Jehiel, and of Mei'r
ha-Kohen. Still, in the fourteenth century the cus-
tom was so well established that Jacob Molln
(Maharil ; Hilkot Yom Kippur, p. 47b, ed. War-
saw, 1874), disapproved not only of the action of his
disciples, who preferred to study in the synagogue
while the congregation recited the piyyutim, but
also of any departure from local custom In the selec-
tion of the piyyutim and the traditional airs(Isserles,
in notes on Tur Orah Hayyim, 68; Shulhan 'Aruk,
Orah Hayyim, 619).

Other objections, from the esthetic standpoint,
and on account of the obscure and often blasphe-
mous language used, have been presented in a mas-
terly criticism upon Kalir's piyyutim by Abraham
ibn Ezra (commentary on Eccl. v. 1). These objec-
tions, against which Heidenheim endeavored to de-
fend Kalir (commentary on the ^erobah for the
Musaf of the Day of Atonement), were revived in
the earliest stages of the Reform movement (see
Zunz, "Ritus," pp. 169 et seq.). Indeed, as early as
the beginning of the eighteenth century dogmatic
objections to the piyyutim were raised, chiefly in
regard to addressing prayers to the angels, and to
certain gross anthropomorphisms (Lampronti, "Pa-
had Yizhak," 8. v. V3nV. pp. 33b et sf?.)— objections
the force of which some of the strictest Orthodox
rabbis, like Moses Sofer, recognized. (See Anthro-

POMOUPIUSM AND ANTHUOPOPATniSM.

The Reform movement resulted in the general
disuse of the piyyutim even in synagogues in
which otherwise the traditional ritual was main-
tained ; but in such synagogues and even in almost
all those which use the Reform ritual, some of the
most popular piyyutim for New-Year and the Day
of Atonement have been retained.

The verbal difficulties of the piyyut made com-
mentaries a necessity, so that even the authors them-
selves appended notes to their piyyutim. An ex-
haustive commentary by Johanan Treves was pub-
lished in the Bologna (1541) edition of the Roman
Mahzor. Of the later commentators none has done
more valuable work than Wolf Heidenheim, who,
however, limited himself to the Ashkenazic and to
the Polish ritual. He was the first, also, to write a
correct German translation of the whole Matizor, but

Pizmon
Flagrue

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

neither his nor Michael Sachs's translation succeed
in tlie almost impossible task of remaining faithful to
the original and producing at the same time a road-
able text in German. The same may be said of the
translations in other modern languages. An excep-
tion exists in the work of Seligmann Heller, who
succeeded in producing a really poetical veraion of
some of the piyyutim.

BiBLiOGRAPH V : 3X<itiJ<>r, ed. Heidenhelm, Introduction ; Zunz,
S. P.; idem, Lifirufuri/of/i.; idem, Ki'ttw; Gestettner, 3/af-
teach ha-Piju(im, Berlin, 18i<9; Weiss, Dor. iv. 2--»l-22t);
Landsbutb. 'Ammude ha-'Ahodah ; Fleckeles, Te.'ihuhali mc-
Aluitiah. \o\. 1., No. 1, Prajrue, 1K)9 ; Wolff, I>ic Stimmen
der Aeltesten und GlaubwUrdiostcn Rabbincn Ubci' die
Pijutim, Leipslc, 1857.

PIZMON : Hymn with a refrain ; usually the
chief poem in the scheme of selihot sung or recited
by the cantor and congregation in alternation. Of
the many etymological derivations suggested for
the word, " psalm " (Greek, rpaTifiSg) seems the most
likely. Others which have been offered find the
origin of the word in the Aramaic D|3 (lamenta-
tion), the Hebrew |Q (treasure; comp. Dn30). the
Greek Tzoir/fxa (poem), or the French "passemente-
rie " or German " posamentir " (embroidery).

Among the Sephardim any important hymn, in
parts of the service other than the selihot, con-
structed in metrical stanzas with a refrain, is termed
a pizmon. Such, for example, are AnoT Ketannaii
and 'Et Sha'are Razon. These and others like
them are distinguished by a special traditional mel-
ody. This is also the case with the chief pizmonim
of the Ashkenazim (comp. Bemoza'e Menxhiah;
YisRAEL Nosha' ; Zekor Berit); but several are
chanted to a general melody for such poems, for
which see Selihah.

On the use of the word " pizmon " among the Jews

of South Arabia, see "Berliner Festschrift," p. 12.

Bibliography: Aruch Completum, ed. Kobut, s.v. pcro,
wbere valuable material Is given.

A. F. L. C.

PIZZIGHETTONE, DAVID BEN ELIE-
ZER HA-LEVI : Italian Talmudist and physi-
cian ; flourished in the first half of the sixteenth cen-
tury. As physician he was active in Cremona; as
editor, in Venice. In the latter city he was em-
ployed in the Bomberg printing establishment, and
wrote an introduction to the edition of Maimonides'
"Yad ha-Hazakah " published there.

According to a statement of Landshuth, Pizzi-

ghettone was rabbi in Ferrara ; but this statement is

erroneous.

Bibliography : Mortara, Tndice ; I. T. Eisenstadt, Da'at ICe-
d(is:)iim. p. .58; Landshutb, 'Ammude ha-'Abndah, p. 343;
Furst, Bibl. Jud. lil. 106.
e. c. a. Pe.

PJURKO, ABRAHAM MARCUS : Russian

Hebraist and pedagogue; born at Lomza Feb. 15,

1853. After having studied Talmud and rabbinics,

he devoted himself to modern Hebrew literature,

publishing successively : " Bat Yiftah " (Lyck, 1873),

a Biblical poem ; " He'uyim ha-Debarim le-Mi slie-

Amaram" (Warsaw, 1880), criticisms on Bibliral and

Talmudical legends; "Sefer Miktabim ha-Shalem"

{ib. 1882), a Hebrew letter-writer, containing 150

specimens of letters on different subjects; "Nit'e

Na'amanim " (ib. 1884), 100 stories for tiie young;

"Kur ha-Mibhan" (ib. 1887), a book for teachers,

containing a Biblical catechism ; " Haskalah ^ledu-
mah" (ih. 1888). a sketch of Jewish life.

In 1893 Pjurko published eleven stories for chil-
dren, two of whicli were written by his son Hay-
yim, and in 1894 " Sliebot Sofer ha-Siialem," a new
letter-writer, also containing 150 specimens. In the
same j-ear he published " Yalkutha-Re'im,"a gram-
matical work in verse, and issued a new and revised
edition of his " Nit'e Na'amanim. " " Elef ha-Magen,"
a grammar for school courses, was published in
1898.

In 1899 Pjurko began the publication of the
weekly periodical "Gan Slia'ashu'im," in which, be-
sides numerous articles by him, two of his works
deserving special mention were published, namely,
" Ab le-Banim " (1899) and " Ha-Rab we-Talmidaw "
(1900). Tiic latter work consists of essays on gram-
mar. In addition, Pjurko has contributed to many
Hebrew periodicals.

II. n. B. Ei.

PLACE-NAMES : The geographical names of
Palestine are not so often susceptible of interpreta-
tion as the personal names, which frequently form
regular sentences referring to divine action (see
Names). The majority of place-names, probably,
preceded the Israelitish conquest, as is shown by the
fact that several of them have already been identified
in the name-list given in the Egyptian and Assyrian
monuments (see map, Jew. Encyc. ix. 486). Here
there are towns, like Joppa, Jerusalem, Gaza, Dor,
and Ajalon, which have had a continuous existence
under one name for over three thousand years. Even
of the compound names, some existed in the early
lists, showing that Abel, Ain, and Beth were used
from the earliest times to designate respectively
meadows, springs, and shrines.

Some of the names of places bear evidence of the
existence of shrines of local deities; thus, Beth-
shemesh and En-shemesh were devoted to the wor-
ship of the sun; Beth-anath and Beth-dagon to
Anath and Dagon respectively. Ashtart seems to
have been the local deity of Ashteroth Karnaim,
and it has been suggested that the various place-
names containing "rimmon" (En-rimmon, Gath-
rimmon, etc.) indicate a deity of that name, though
"rimmon " itself means "pomegranate." In a few
cases the indefinite term "el " is used, as in Beth-el,
Penuel, and Jezreel. It is uncertain whether these
places were named in honor of the Israelitish god or
of some Canaanite local deity.

In addition to such theophorous names there are
many which are derived from plants, as Beth-tap-
puah (the apple-tree) ; Hazezon-tamar (the city of
palm-trees; another name for Jericho); while Elira
and Elon imply the oak. Similarly, ]ilare-nainesare
derived from animals, as from the stag (Ajalon), the
gazel (Ophrah), the wild ass (Arad), the calf
(Eglon), and tiie kid (En-gedi). Bird-names are
more rare, Beth-hoglah (the partridge) being the best
known. The place Akrabbim was probably named
after the .scorpions which abounded there (for a
fuller list see Jacobs, "Studies in Biblical Archaeol-
ogy," pp. 101-103).

Some of these names occur in plural or in dual form,
as Eglaim, Mahanaim, Diblatiiaim; in tlie vocalized
text of the Bible, Jerusalem also has this form. In

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pizmon
Plague

the majority of cases, it appears this refers to some
duplication of objects — in the case of Jerusalem, to
the twin hills upon which it is situated. There are
a certain number of compound names conveying in-
formation as to the localities, as those compounded
with "en" (spring), e.g., Enrogel, En-gedi; with
"beer" (well), e.g., Beer-sheba, Beeroth; witii
"hazar" (village), e.g., Hazar-gaddah ; with "ir"
(town), e.g., Ir-nahash; with "kir" or "kiryah"
(city), e.g., Kir-Moab; and with "gath" (wine-
press), e.g., Gath-rimmon.

Natural features gave names to other places, as
the predominant color in Lebanon (white), or Adum-
mim (red). The size of a town gave rise to the
names Kabbah (great), and Zoar (small), while its
beauty is indicated in Tirzah and Jotbah. The
need of defense is indicated by the frequency of
such town-names as Bozrah, which means literally
a "fortified place," Geder, a "walled place," and
Mizpah, a "watch-tower."

Perhaps the most frequent component is "beth,"
implying, as a rule, a sacred shrine. This, however,
is sometimes omitted, as is shown in the case of Beth-
baal-meon, Avhich occurs also as Baal-meon, though
sometimes the second component is omitted and the
word reduced to Beth-meon. It has been conjectured
that the name of Bethlehem is connected with the
Babylonian god Lahamu. Especial interest at-
taches to the place-names Jacob-el and Joseph-el,
which occurred in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and
are supposed to throw light upon the names of the
Patriarchs.

Altogether, there are about fifteen hundred place-
names occurring in the Old Testament and Apocry-
pha, the majority of which still need philological
inquiry. Many names relating to places occur in
the Old Testament with specialized meanings which
are not adequately represented in the English ver-
sions, as Shefelah (the maritime plain of Phenicia) ;
so with Negeb (southern Judea).

Bibliography : G. B. Gray, In Cheyne and Black, Encyc.
Bibl.; G. Grove, in Stanley's Sinai ajid Palestine, pp.
479-534.

PLAOZEK, ABRAHAM: Austrian rabbi;
born at Prerau Jan., 1799; died at Bo.skowitz Dec.
10, 1884. In 1827 he became rabbi in his native
city, and from 1832 to 1840 he officiated at Weiss-
kirchen, in Moravia, whence he was called to Bos-
kowitz. In Oct., 1851, he succeeded S. R. Hirsch as
acting " Landesrabbiner " of Moravia, and in this office
he successfully defended the rights of the Jews, espe-
cially during the period of reaction. Placzek was
one of the most prominent Talmudists of his time,
as well as a successful teacher, and carried on corre-
spondence with eminent rabbis, in whose collections
of responsa his name is frequently mentioned.

Birliograpiiy: Die iVeKzeif, 1884, p. 483; G. Deutsch, In
Luah, ed. Epstein, Briinn, 1885.
s. ■ S. F.

PLACZEK, BARUCH JACOB: Austrian
rabbi; born at Weisskirchen, Moravia, Oct. 1, 1835;
son and successor of Abraham Placzek. In 1858 he
founded a high school at Hamburg, and two years
later was called to Brlinn. Since 1884 he has been
styled " Landesrabbiner " of Moravia, after having

had charge of that rabbinate as assistant to his father
from 1861. It is mainly due to him that only men
with an academic and theological training are ap-
pointed as rabbis in Moravia. Placzek is now (1905)
chief rabbi of Brlinn, a knight of the Order of Fran-
cis Joseph, and curator of the Israelilisch-Theolo-
gische Lehranstixlt at Vienna; he was likewise
founder of the Proseminar, witii which a cantors'
school is connected, as well as of a number of phil-
anthropic societies. He is an honorary member also
of several political societies.

Placzek has published, in part under the pseudo-
nym Benno Planek : "Gedichte" ("Im Eruw,
Stimmungsbilder," 1867), the novel " Der Takif,"
and other works, several of which have been trans-
lated into English, French, and Hebrew. He is
known also as a naturalist (comp. "Kosmos," v.,
vols. iii. and X.), his scientific works including: "Die
Affen," " Wiesel und Katze," "Der Vogelgesang
nach Seiner Tendenz und Entwicklung," " Vogel-
schutz oder Insektenschutz," "Zur Kliirung in der
Vogelfrage," " Atavismus," and "Kopf und Herz "
(an introduction to the study of animal logic).

s. S. F.

PLAGUE. — Biblical Data : Word which is
used in the English versions of the Bible as a
rendering of several Hebrew words, all closely re-
lated in meaning. These are: (1) "Maggefah"(a
striking, or smiting): Used in a general way < f the
plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians (E.x. ix. 3-4);
of the fatal disease which overtook the spies (Num.
xiv. 37), and of that which slew many of the people
after the rebellion of Korah (Num. xvi. 48-49), and
at Shittim because of idolatrous practises at the
shrine of Baal-peor (Num. xxv. 8, 9, 18; Ps. cvi. 29-
30); of the tumors which attacked the Philistines on
account of the presence of the Ark (I Sam. vi. 4), and
of the three days' pestilence which ravaged Israel
after David's numbering of the people (II Sam.
xxiv, 21, 25); of a disease of the bowels (II Chron.
xxi. 14-15), and, propheticallj', of a plague which
shall consume the flesh of the enemies of Jerusalem,
both man and beast (Zech. xiv. 12, 15, 18).

(2) "Negef," from the same root and with the
same general meaning as " maggefah " (a blow,
a striking): Used of the plague of Baal-peor
(Josh. xxii. 17), of that which followed the rebellion
of Korah (Num. xvi. 46-47), and with a general ap-
plication {Vj\. xii. 13, XXX. 12; Num. viii. 19). The
corresponding verb is used with the sense of " to
plague "in Ex. xxxii. 35, Josh. xxiv. 5, and Ps.
Ixxxix. 23.

(3) " Nega' " (a touch, a stroke) : Used of the last
of the Eg3'ptian plagues (Ex. xi. 1) and manv times
of leprosy (Lev. xiii., xiv., and xxiv., and generally
in I Kings viii. 37-38 and Ps. xci. 10). The corre-
sponding verb, in addition to a general use in Ps.
Ixxiii. 5, 14, is used of the plague which afflicted
Pharaoh and his house because of the wrong done
to Abram (Gen. xii. 17).

(4) "Makkah" (a blow, a wound): Used of the
plague which was due to the eating of quails (Num.
xi. 33), of tlie plagues of Egypt (I Sam. iv. 8\ and
more generally (Lev. xxvi. 21 ; Deut. xxviii. 59, 61;
xxix. 22; Jer. xix. 8, xlix. 17, 1. 13).

Plague

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDLl

(5) "Deber": Rendered "plagues" in Hos. xiii.
14; "murrain" (i.e., catlle-plague)in E.\. ix. 3; and
"pestilence" in Ex. v. 3, ix. 15; Num. xiv. 12, and
Hab. iii. 5.

E. c. J. F. McL.

In Rabbinical Literature : Commenting on

the words of Jethro, "For in the thing wherein they
dealt proudly he was above them" (Ex. xviii. 11),
the Talmud says: "The Egyptians were cooked in
the pot in which they cooked others" (Sotah 11a),
that is, the punishment was made to correspond to
their crime, on the "jus taiionis" principle. This
refers to Pharaoh's edict to the effect that all Jew-
ish infants were to be cast into the Nile, the Egyp-
tians being punished by the plague that turned the
water of the Nile to blood. Af the same time this
plague proved that the Nile was not a deit}' as the
Egyptians believed. Furthermore, the Egyptians
suffered to the full extent the evils of the plagues,
and did not derive any benefit, however indirect,
therefrom. Hence, the frogs died in heaps "and the
land stank"; while the " 'arob," which the Rabbis
say was a mixture or drove of wild animals (not
"a swarm of flies "), disappeared after the plague

ceased, and " there remained not one " ;

' ' Lex so that the Egyptians might not profit

Taiionis." from the hides of the animals, which

they might have done had the latter
died like the frogs. Two theories have been ad-
vanced for the plague of darkness, one of which
is that the plague was intended to hide the anni-
hilation of the wicked Israelites who, refusing to
leave Egypt, died there.

The period of each plague was seven days (Ex.
vii. 25); and twenfy-four days intervened between
one plague and the next. The ten plagues lasted
nearly twelve mouths ('Eduy. ii. 10; comp. Ex. R.
ix. 12). The order and nature of the plagues are
described by R. Levi b. Zachariah in the name of R.
Berechiah, who says: "God used military tactics
against the Egyptians. First, He stopped their
water-supply (the water turned to blood). Second,
He brought a shouting army (frogs). Third, He shot
arrows at them (lice). Fourth, He directed His le-
gions against them (wild animals). Fifth, He caused
an epidemic (murrain). Sixth, He poured naphtha
on them (blains). Seventh, He huiled at them stones
from a catapult (hail). Eighth, He ordered His
storming troops (locusts) against them. Ninth, He
put them under the torturing stock (darkness).
Tenth, He killed all their leaders (first-born) " (Yalk.,
Ex. 182; Pe.sik. R. xvii. [ed. Friodmann, 89bJ)."

Ten other plagues were inflicted on the Egyptians
in the Red Sea (Ab. v. 6; Ab. R. N. xxxiii. ; conip.

ed. Schechter, 2d version, xxxvi.), in

Plagues in the various ways in which Pharaoh

the and his hosts were drowned. R.Jose

Red Sea. the Galilean says: "The Egyptians

in the Red Sea sufl'ered fifty plagues.
In Egypt the 'finger 'of God was recognized by the
ten plagues; but at the Red Sea God's powerful
' hand ' was visible [Ex. xiv. 31, Hebr.], which being
multiplied by five fingers makes fifty plagues." R.
Eliezer multiplied these by 4, making 200 plagues;
and R. Akiba multiplied them by 5, making 250
plagues. Each adduced his multiplier from the

verse: "He cast upon them (1) the fierceness of his
anger, (2) wrath, (3) and indignation, (4) and trouble,
(5) by sending evil angels among them " (Ps. Ixxviii.
49). R. Eliezer does not count "fierceness of his
anger" (Mek., Ex. vi. ; comp. Ex. R. xxiii. 10; see
also the Passover Haggadah).

The order of the plagues in the Psalms differs
from that in Exodus. R. Judah indicated the latter
order by the mnemonic combination 3nX3 ll'l]) 1^1,
consisting of the initial letters of the ten plagues

as follows: nniN Ti2 ^ni*' im nny d^js vtisv dt

niTian (n30)1trn = (l) water turning to blood, (2)
frogs, (3) lice, (4) swarms of beasts, (5) murrain, (6)
blains, (7) hail, (8) locusts, (9) darkness, (10) slaying
of the first-born. The ten plagues are further-
more divided thus: three performed through Moses,
three through Aaron, three directly by God, and
one, the sixth, through Mcses and Aaron together
(Ex. vii. 17-x. 21; "Shibbole ha-Leket," ed. Ruber,
p. 97b).
E. c. J. D. E.

Critical View: In the majority of cases the

plague is regarded and spoken of as a divine visita-
tion, a penalty inflicted upon the individual, family,
or nation because of sin. Even the common disease
of leprosy is said to be " put in a house " by God
(Lev. xiv. 34). The exact nature of the fatal sickness
which attacked the people on more than one occasion
in the wilderness is a matter of conjecture, but there
can be little doubt that it was the bubonic plague
which destroyed the Philistines (I Sam. v. 6-12).

The calamities inflicted upon the Egyptians be-
cause of Pharaoh's refusal to let the people of Israel

go into the wilderness to observe a feast

Plagues of to Yiiwn are designated " plagues "

Egypt- (Ex. ix. 14, xi. 1). The narrative in

Exodus tells of ten such visitations.
According to the critical aualj^sis of the sources of
this narrative it appears that one, probably the ear-
liest, story (J) tells of seven of the ten plagues (viz.,
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10); another (E), of four, or possibly
six (viz.. 1, 3 [?J,7, 8, 9, 10 [?]); and the third (P),
of six (viz., 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10). P.salm Ixxviii. recalls
seven, and Psalm cv. eight, of these. It is possible
that one or more of the plagues may be duplicated
in the narrative as it now stands.

The first plague was the defilement of the river.
" All the waters that were in the river were turned
to blood. And the fish that was in the river died "
(Ex. vii. 21). The Egyptians regarded tlie Nile as
a god (seeMaspero, "Dawn of Civilization," pp. 36-
42), and no doubt, to the Hebrew writer, this visita-
tion seemed peculiarly appropriate. Tiie water of
the Nile regularly becomes discolored from minute
organisms or from decaying vegetable matter and
mud carried down by the floods which reach Egypt in
June. The color is said to vary from gray -blue to
(lark red. A cause of this plague might therefore
be found in the presence of an unusually large
quantity of such impurities, making the water

putrid. The second plague was a

Details of multitude of frogs. The third and

Plagues, fourth consisted of swarms of insect

pests, probably stinging flies or gnats.
The fifth was a murrain, or cattle-plague, probably
anthrax or rinderpest. Pruner ("Krankheiten des

I; ■

.■■
■f

crw

[06* ■'TO '■!>'') fr'l I'ft

lifnp I'm T* |3^' '

Ifin6>'>9 n31K

Of^'J BBO pft? 'I'c?

•r?

^nj^

- -^— **■ -^•. • " • /•■■

n;3"TiK

nnDD. nao

a>:3

■L lU. 1*,!!. . -.7i'ir-,i

If f*M<> -I^JX-ii

^i;!!

■T'

112

WF-'^T'^f^^^

Mil -'^"li^C (i

• p'pjift c;o

•J'lJCTI

to' SIP" JjfrP'J"
p^? If)? <rfi !'/» ■n

. p's"?!*}*! *n$i^in

■5* tip »ywe5'fi'c^

pnm.jo'njpn

(nj i?'p 36x' '3>^

. pppnr7P5

'21

The Ten Plagues, Accordixq to a Passover Hagoadah of 1695.

(From the Sulzberger collection In the Jewish Theological Semlotr; of Amerlcs, New York.)

Plants

THE JEWISH E^X^YCLOPEDIA

Orients," Erlangen, 1847) describes an outbreak of
the last-named in Egypt in 1842.

The si.\tli plague was one of boils which Philo (" De
Vita Moysis") describes as a red eruption in which
the spots became swollen and pustular, and in which
"the pustules, confluent into a mass, were spread
over the body and limbs." This description, if cor-
rect, would point to smallpox. The seventh plague
was a great storm of hail ; the eighth, a swarm of
locusts destroying the crops and even the leaves and
fruit of the trees. The ninth was a "thick dark-
ness " continuing for three days. It has been sug-
gested that such a darkness might have been caused
by the south or southwest wind, which blows about
the time of the vernal equinox, bearing clouds of
sand and fine dust that darken the air (see
Denon, "Voyage dans I'Egypte," p. 286, Paris,
1802); this wind blows for two or three days at a
time. The tenth and last plague was the destruc-
tion of the first-born, when Yhwh "gave their life
over to the pestilence and smote all the first-born of
Egypt" (Ps. Ixxviii. 50-51).

Bibi,io(;raphy : Dilimann-Ryssel, Exodus und Leviticus,
Lelpsic, 1897; Pruner, Krnhkheiten des Orients, Erlangen,
1847; A. Macalister, Medicitie and Plague, in HastiDRs,
Diet. Bible.
E. c. J. F. McL.

PLANTS.— In the Bible : The following names
of plants and plant materials are found in the Old

Testament:

[The plant-names in this table follow the order of the Hebrew
alphabet, but are transliterated according to the system adopted
by The Jewish Encyclopedia.]

Hebrew Name.

Botanical Name.

Popular Name.

Ebeh

AbaUihim (plu-
ral).

Abiyyonali

Egoz

Agam, agmon..

Atialim, abalot
(pl).

Orot

Cyperus Papyrus, Linn. (?)....
CitruUus vulgaris, Schrad

fruit of Capparis spinosa, Linn.

Juglans regia, Linn

Juncus, Arundo. Phragmites. .
Aquilaria Agallocha, Roxb.

(Gildemeister and Hoffmann,

" Die Aetherischen Oele," p.

64.=), note).

Eruca satlva. Lam. (?)

Origanum Maru, Linn

Cyperus Papyrus, Linn

Lyclum europsEum, Linn

Pistacia Terebinthus, var. Pal-

aestina, Engl.
Quercus

Papyrus (?).
Watermelon.

Thorny caper.
Walnut.
Rush, reed.
Aloes-wood.

Ezob

Wild marjoram.
Papyrus.

Ahu, gome

Atad

Elah (see zori)..

Allah, allon

Algummim, al-

Terebinth.

Oak.
Sandalwood (?).

mugglm (pl.).
Erez

Cedrus Libanl

a conifer, Pinus or Abies

Tamarix Syrlaca, Bolss.,orTa-
marix articulata, Vahl.

Cfiiar of T<pha-

Oren

non.
Pine or fir

Eshel

3
Bo'shah

Stinkweed (?).

Pistachio.
In the Mishnah
a sort of fruit.
Onion

Bedolah

Botnlm (pl.)...
Beka'lm

Bezallm (pl.)...

gum of the Balsamodendron

Mukul, Hooker,
fruit of Pistacia vera, Linn.. . .
mulberry

Allium Cepa, Linn

Barkanlm

Berr^h, berot. . .
Borlt

Phicopappus s'-oparlus, Sleb.. .
Abies Cilicica, Ant. and Ky . . .
vegetable lye of Mesembryan-

themum, Sallcomia, Alzoon.

etc.
Balsamodendron Opobalsa-

mum, Kunth.
not a plant, but erroneously

Identlfled by Wellhauscn and

Kautzschwith Malabathrum.

Coriandrum sativum, Linn

Pha^opappus.
Cilician spruce.

Basam, bosem..
Beter

J
Gad

Coriander.

Hebrew Name.

Galgal

Gome (see ahu) .

Gefen

Gefensadeh(see

pakku'ot).
Gofer'

Duda'lm (pl.).

Dohan

Dardar

n
Hobnim .
Hadas ...

Zayit.

Habazzelet . . .

Hedek
Hoah.".

Hittah . . . .
Helbenah .
Hallamut ,

Hazir..
Haful ..
"i'izhar .

Kammon..
Kussemet .

Kofer

Karkom...

Libneh ..
Lebonah ,

Luz (see sha

ked).
Lot

La'anab.

Malluah.
Mor

J
Nahalollm(pl.),

Nahal (see ta-
iiiar).

Nataf

Nekot

Na'azuz.
Nerd....

Suf.
Sir.

Sillon (pl. sallo-
. nlm).
Seneh

Botanical Name.

Popular Name,

(prototype) Plantago Cretica,. rolling balls of

Linn., Gundelia Tournefor-
tii, Linn., Centaurea myrio-
cephala, Schrad., and others
(Fonck, "Streifziige," etc.,
p. 87; Kerner, " Pflanzenle-
ben." il. 787).

dry weeds,
"witch-balls."
as explained
by Bar He-
bneus on Ps.
Ixxxiii. 14.

Vitis vinifera, Linn 'Grape-vine.

Cupressus Cypress.

Mandragora offlcinarum, Linn. Mandrake.
Andropogon Sorghum, Linn.. .Bread, durra.
a thistle, especially Centaurea Star-thistle.
Calcitrapa, Linn., and others.

Ebony.
Myrtus communis, Linn j Myrtle.

Olea Europaea, Linn Olive.

Colchicum, especially Colchi-

cum Steveni, Kuntli.

Solanum coapulans, Forsk

probably Echinops viscosus.

DC: perhaps Acanthus Syri-

acus, Linn.

Triticum vulgare, Linn.

resin of Ferula galbaniflua,

Boiss. and Buhse.
Anchusa, Linn

Allium Porrum, Linn.

Lathyrus, Linn

figurative for " zayit "

Meadow-
saffron.
NlghtvShade.
j According to

tradition, a

fodder for

camels.
Cultivated

wheat.

Bugloss or alka-

net.
Leek.
Vetchllng.
Olive.

Cuminum Cyminum, Linn..

Triticum Spelta. Linn

Lawsonia alba, Lam

root of Curcuma longa, Linn.
(sic).

Populus alba, Linn

from Boswellia Carteria, Bird-
wood, and others.

mastic isic) of Pistacia Len-

tiscus, Linti.
Artemisia monosperma, Delile,

Artemisia Judaica, Linn.

Atrlplex Halimus, Linn

especially from Commiphora
Abyssinica, Engl., and Com-
miphora Schiniperi. Engl,
(according to Holmes, per-
haps Coiniiiiphiira Kataf,
Engl., Balsamodendron Ka-
fal, Kunth : see Gildemeister
and Hoffmann, I.e. p. 639
Schweinfurth. " Berichte der
Deutschen Pharmacologisch-
en Gesellschaft," iii. 237.
cited by Gildemeister and
Hoffmann, I.e. p. 637).

according to Saadia, Prosopls
Stephanlana, Willd.

resin of Styrax officinalis, Linn,
tragacanth of Astragalus gum-

mifer, Labill., and others.
a prickly plant, which can not

be identified with certainty.
Nardostachys Jatamansi, DC.

Juncus

Poterium splnosum, Linn {?).

Rubus sanctus, Schreb.

Cumin.
Spelt.
Henna.
Turmeric.

White poplar.
Frankincense.

Absinth.

Orach.
Myrrh.

Storax.

Varieties of as-
tragalus.
AlhagiC?).

Spikenard.

Rush.

Thorny bumet;
perhaps, also,
other thorn-
bushes.

Thorn, thorn-
bush.

Blackberry.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

Hebrew Name.

SIrpad

'Adashim (pi.),
'Ez shemen —

'Arabah.

'A rot, consid-
ered by the
LXX. as iden-
tical with
"ahu."

'Armon

'Ar'ar

Botanical Name.

according to Ibn Janah, Atra-
phaxis spinosa, Linn.; ac-
cording to Jerome, Urtica,
I.lnn.

Lens esciilenta, Mnch

Eheagnus hortensis, M. Bleb.
CO, Finns Halepensis, Mill.
(V).

Populus Euphratica, Ollv

Pol.

Pannag

Paklfu'oKpl.).

Plshtah.

ze-

Ze'ellm

Zinnim (pi
ninim).

Zafzafah

Zori (see elah).

I'
^iddab, ke
zi'ah.

Ktiz

Kikayon

Platanus orlentalis, Linn

Juniperus oxycedrus, Linn —

Vlctafaba. Linn., probably also
Vigna Sinensis, var. sesqui-
pedalis, Linn.

Panicum mlliaceum, Llnn.(?).

Citrullus Colocyntnis (Linn.),
Schrad.

Linum usitatlsslmum, Linn. . .

Zizyphus spina-ChristI, Linn...

Popular Name.

Atraphaxis, or
nettle.

Lentil.
Pine.

Euphrates pop-
lar.

Plane-tree.
Juniper.

Horse-bean,
bean.

Salix safsat, Forsk

resin of Pistacia Tereblnthus,
var. PalEestina, Engl., but,
according to Jewish tradi-
tion, resin of Commiphora
Kafaf, Engl. (Balsamoden-
dron Kafal, Kunth).

varieties of Cinnamomum Cas-
sia, Bl.

Millet.
Bitter
ber.
Flax.

cucum-

Ricinus communis, Linn.

Klmmos.
5aneh. . .

Keneh bosem
' and kaneh ha-
tob. ■

Urtica, Linn (?)

Arundo Donax, Linn., and

Phragmites communis, Trin.

Acorus Calamus, Linn

Klnnamon

Kezah

Klshshu'im (pi.)

-\
Rosh

Rim men
Rotem . . .

Sorah (same as
dohan [?]).

Siah

Sikkim(pl.)....

Se'ora

Shum

Shoshannah,
shushan.

Shittah

Shayit (?).

Shamir

Shaked, luz . . ,

Shikmah . . .
n

Te'enah

Te'ashshur
Tidhar

Christ's-thorn.
Thorn-hedge,

thorns.
Willow.
Terebinth.

Cassia.

Thorn-bush.
Common castor-
oil plant.
Nettle.
Reed.

Cinnamomum Zeylanlcum,

Breyne.

Nigella sativa, Linn

Cucumis Chate, Linn., and Cu-

cumis sativus, Linn,
according to Post, Citrullus

Colocynthus (Linn.), Schrad.

(see pakku'ot), but this is

very doubtful).

Punica Granatum, Linn

Retama Raetam (Forsk.), Web.

Artemisia, Linn

Hordeum, Linn

Allium sativum, Linn...
Lllium candidum, Linn.

Acacia Nilotica,Del.,and
others.

Paliurus aculeatus, Linck (?)
Prunus Amygdalus, Stokes

(Amygdalus communis,

Linn.).
Ficus Sycomorus, Linn

Tamar, and pos-
sibly also na-
hal.

Tappuah

Tirzah .'.

Ficus Carica, Linn

Cupressus sempervirens, Linn
according to the Targ., Comiis

mas,Linn.,orComus Austra

lis. Cam.
Phoenix dactyllfera, Linn

Calamus (Gilde-
meister and
Hoffmann, I.e.
p. 384).

Cinnamon-
bush.

Nutmeg-flower.

Cucumber.

Pomegranate.
Juniper-bush.

Wormwood.

Brambles.

Barley.

Garlic.

Lily.

Acacia.

Garland-thom.
Almond.

Sycamore.

Mains communis, Desf .

(1) according to Saadia and
Ibn Janah, Pinus Halepensis.
Mill.; (2) according to the
Vulgate, Ilex, either Quercus
Ilex, Linn., or Quercus coc-
cifera, Linn.

Fig.

Cypress.
Cornel, do g-
wood.

Palm.

Apple.

(1) Pine; (2) oak.

In the Apocrypha : In the Apocryphal books

tlie following pjiints and plant-products are men-
tioned: vine, palm, lig, olive-tree, mulberry-tree
(pomegranate), wheat, barley, pumpkin, rush, reed,
grass, cedar, cypress, terebinth, mastic, holm-oak,
rose, lily, ivy, hedge-thorn, spices, cinnamon, aspal-
athus, myrrh, galbanum, stacte, and incense. The
rose and ivy are mentioned in the Mishnah also;
but they do not occur in the Hebrew Old Testa-
ment.

The rose-plant of Jericho, mentioned in Ecclus.
(Sirach) xxiv. 14, has been identified, through over-
hasty speculation, with Anastatica Ilierochuntica,
which, however, is not found in that district. This
Anastiiticn is frequently used by the Christians as a
symbol, while the modern Jews have frequently
mentioned it in their poetry. The Asteriscua pyg-
mcBus, Coss., which grows at Jericho, also has been
regarded as the rose of Jericho. The branches of
the Anastatica bend inward when the fruit becomes
ripe, so that the numerous closed, pear-shaped pods,
found at the ends of the branches, seem to be sur-
rounded by a lattice. In the case of the Asteriscua,
on the other hand, after the time of ripening it is
not the branches, but the top leaves, grouped in
rosettes, which close over the fruit (Robinson,
"Palastina," ii. 539; Sepp, "Jerusalem und das
Heilige Land," i. 610; Post, "Flora of Syria, Pales-
tine, and Sinai," p. 67; Kerner, "Pflanzenleben,"
ii. 783).

In Philo and Josephus : Philo gives no addi-
tional iufonnatiou regarding the knowledge of bot-
any possessed by the Jews in antiquity. It is true
that he made allegorii al use of grass and flowers,
wild trees and those t.-^at bear fruit, the oak, the
palm, and the pomegrmate, incense, and the tree of
life (Siegfried, "Philo von Alexandria," pp. 185
et seq., Jena, 1875), but he wrote neither on botany
nor on agriculture (Meyer, "Gesch. der Botanik," ii.
80). Josephiis, on the other hand, deserves special
mention, since he was the only author in Jewish an-
tiquity who attempted to describe a plant in exact
detail. He says, in his discussion of the head-dress
of the high priest (" Ant." iii. 7, § 6) : " Out of which
[the golden crown] arose a cup of gold like the herb
that we call 'saccharus,' but which is termed
'hyoscyamus' by the Greeks." The form aoKxapov
is the Greek transliteration of the Aramaic " shak-
runa," which is not mentioned again until it is named
in the medical work ascribed to Asaph ben Bere-
CHiAH. The next description of the plant is given
in Hebrew by Azariah dei Rossi ("Me'or 'Enayim,"
ch. xlix.). Josephus describes it from personal
observation and shows a very clear knowledge of the
peculiarities of the plant. In describing it he men-
tions the ptjKcn', or poppy, for the first time in Jew-
ish literature, as well as the plants ei^u/iov (rocket),
(iowiaq, and ai^iipinq. He is likewise the first to refer
to the chick-pea in 'epe'^ivOuv o'tKOi ("B. J." v. 12,
§ 2), the vetch (" karshinna " ; Vicia Ervilia, Linn. ;
5po/3of, ib. V. 10, § 3), the fenugreek {Ti-igonella
Famim-Qmcum, Linn. ; r^P/c, ib. iii. 7, § 29), the
amomum ("Ant." xx. 2, § 3) growing near Carrhne,
and the laurel- wreaths of the Romans {6d<pvT], "B. J."
vii. 5. § 4).
The second specifically botanical reference is to

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the -ijyavov, a lue of extraordinary size growing in

the precincts of tlie palace at Macharus. The rue is

mentioned by Josephus (" B. J. " vii. 6,

Plants § 3) for the first time among Jewish

First Men- writers, though it occurs also in Luke

tioned by xi. 42. Later the Greek name appears

Josephus. as a foreign word in the Mishnah. The
rue at Macha?rus was equal to any fig-
tree in height and breadth, and according to tradition
it had been standing since the time of Herod ; the
Jews cut it down when they occupied this fortress.
The valley bounding the city on the north, Josephus
continues, is called Ba'arah (my3; Epstein, "Mi-
Kadmoniyyot," p. 108), and produces a marvelous
root of the same name. " It is a flaming red, and
shines at night." Then follows the popular de-
scription of a magic root that can be drawn from
the earth only by a dog, which loses its life thereby.
^Elian {c. 180) repeals the tale; but a picture in the
Vienna manuscript of Dioscorides, made in the fifth
centurj-, is the earliest proof that this mysterious
root was supposed to be the mandragora or man-
drake (Ferdinand Cohn, in " Jahresbericht der
Schlesischen Gesellschaft filr Vaterlitndische Cul-
tur," botanical section, 1887, 27, x. ; " Verhaudlungen
der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft," 17, x.
[1891] 730; 19, xii. 749. Instead of a dog, an ass
pulls out the root according to Midr. Agada, ed.
Buber, on Gen. xlix. 14. On the human form of the
mandrake see Ibn Ezra on Cant. vii. 14; Salfeld,
"Hohelied," p. 72. The popular belief regarding
the mandragora is given in full by Judah Hadassi
[1148] in "Eshkol ha-Kofer," 152c; Maimonides,
"Moreh," French transl. by Munk, iii. 235; Giide-
mann," Gesch."iii. 129; GrUnbaum, " jQdisch-Deut-
sche Chrestomathie," p. 176).

Josephus was also the first to mention the so-called

Sodom-apple, Calotropis procera, Willd. (Post, I.e.

p. 526), describing it as a fruit exactly resembling

edible apples in color, but composed only of ashes,

and crumbling in the hand to dust

The (" B. J. " iv. 8, § 4). He speaks highly

Sodom- also of the fruitfulness of Palestine,

Apple. mentioning particularly the palms
("Ant." iv. 6, § 1; " B. J." i. 6, § 6;
iii. 10, § 8; iv. 8, §§ 2, 3, 4) and balsam at Jericho
("Ant." xiv. 4, § 1 ; xv. 4, § 2) and Engedi (ib. ix. 1,
§ 2), as well as the palms at Phasaelis, Archelais (ib.
xviii. 2, § 2), and Persea ("B. J." iii. 3, § 3). The
balsam-tree was introduced by the Queen of Sheba,
and was afterward planted ("Ant." viii. 6, § 6) and
tapped ("B. J." i. 6, § 6). At Jericho the cypress
(/ciTrpof, ib. iv. 8, § 3) and the fxvpojid'kavoq {ib. iv. 8,
t5 3) also grew. In Pera?a, furthermore, there were
fruitful places where olive-trees, vines, and palms
flourished (/6. iii. 3, ^ 3), but the fruits of Gennesaret
surpassed all {ib. iii. 10, § 8, a statement which is
confirmed by the Talmud).

Naturally every recapitulation of Biblical history
contains references to all the Biblical plants; and in
Jo.sephu8 references are found to Adam's fig-leaves
(" Ant."i. 1, § 4); the olive-leaf of Noah's dove (26. 1.
8, §5); Noah's vine (i'ft.i. 6, §3); Ishmael's fir-tree (iVj.
i. 12, § 3, kldTT], as LXX. and Josephus render D^IT'K'n
by analogy with NHIti'N); Abraham's oak, Ogyf/es
{ib. i. 10, § 3); the terebinth standing near Hebron

since the creation of the world ("B. J." iv. 9, § 7);

Esau's lentil pottage ("Ant.". ii. 1, § 1); Reuben's

mandrakes (?'6. i. 19, ^8); the wheat-sheaf in Joseph's

dream {ib. ii. 2, § 2) and the grapes in

Biblical the visions of the two Egyptians {ib.

Names ii. 5, § 2); Moses' ark of bulrushes (j6.

Recapitu- ii. 9, § 4), and the burning bush {iidro^,

lated by ib. ii. 12); tlie manna that was like

Josephus. bdellium and coriander {ib. iii. 1, § 6);

the blossoming almond-rod (i'6. iv. 4, §

2); the seventy palms (?6. iii. 1, §3); Ruhab's stalks

of flax {ib. V. 1, § 2) ; the trees in Jotham's parable {ib.

V. 7, § 2); the cypress and thistle of the parable in II

Kings xiv. 9 {ib. ix. 9, § 2); Hiram's cedar-trees {ib.

Vii. 3, §2; viii. 2,^7; SigS; " B. J." v. 5, ^2); the

pine-trees, which Josephus says were like the wood

of fig-trees {nevKiva, "Ant." viii. 7, § 1); the lilies

and pomegranates on the pillars of tiie Temple

{ib. viii. 3, g 4) and on the golden candlestick (iii.

6. § 7).

Solomon " spoke a parable on every sort of tree,
from the hyssop to the cedar" {ib. viii. 2, § 5) and
built the Af)Vfi6v {ib. viii. 6, § 5; comp. 6pvfi6q, " oak-
coppice, "?6. xiv. 13, ^ 3; "B. J." i. 13, § 2; Boett-
ger, "Topographisch-Historisches Lexicon zu den
Schriften des Flavins Josephus," p. 105).

Josephus, as well as the Biblical narrative, men-
tions apples eaten by Herod ('' Ant."xvii. 7; "B.J."
i. 33, § 7); fig-trees ("Ant." viii. 7, § 1 ; "B.J." vii.
6, ^3); pomegranates ("Ant." iii. 7, ^ 6); cages of
sedge (i"6. ii. 10, § 2); wheat (/6. xvii. 13, §3; "B. J."
V. 13, ^ 7); wheat and barley ("Ant." ix. 11, §2;
"B. J." V. 10, $^ 2); barley alone ("Ant." iii. 10, § 6;
V. 6, § 4); and herbs {laxavEin, "B. J." iv. 9, § 8).

In describing the legal code, Josephus recapitu-
lates the following Biblical plants: hyssop at vari-
ous sacrifices ("Ant."ii. 14, § 6; iv.
Plants 4, § 6) ; flax in the priestly robes {ib.
Named in iii. 7, § 7) ; pomegranates, signifying
the Legal lightning, on the high priest's gar-
Code, ments ("B. J." v. 5, § 7); lilies and
pomegranates on the golden candle-
sticks ("Ant." iii. 6.^7); cinnamon, myrrh, cala-
mus, and iris (" kiddah ") in the oil of purification {ib.
iii. 8, I 3; Whist on: "cassia"); cinnamon and cassia
("B. J." vi. 8, § 3); the first-fruits of the barley
("Ant." iii. 10, §5); he likewise cites the precept
against sowing a diversity of plants in the vineyard
{ib. iv. 8, § 20). In like manner the Biblical meta-
phor of the broken reed {ib. x. 1, § 2) is repeated.

Josephus is of course acquainted with the citron-
apple, mentioned in the Mishnah and forming part
of the festival-bush together with the palm-branch,
willow, and myrtle, although he calls it vaguely the
" Persian apple "(u^Aov TTjqllepciag), not the" Median"
("Ant." iii. 10, § 4). He is more accurate in desig-
nating the fruit itself {Kirpia, ib. xiii. 13, ^ 1). The
golden vine of the Temple is mentioned twice {ib.
xiv. 3, § 1; "B. J." v. 5, % A).

The "Yosippon" (ed. Gagnier, ii. 10, § 70) men-
tions among the wonders seen by
The Alexander on his way to India a tree,

"Yosippon." ptOpUD'N, which grew until noon,
and then disappeared into the earth.
In the same work (ii. 1 1 , § 77) the trees of the sun and
moon forewarn Alexander of his early death.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

In the New Testament : Tlie following names

of plants may be cited from the New Testament:

New Testament
Name.

oypitAaios (op

posed to KoA.
Xte'Aoto!).

aKavOtL

<>Ad>)

o/aiTfAos (ffTai^v-

_ A.)).

afiiiJtxov

avrfffov

i\j/u'9o<;

flarot

cAata

ii^dviov

jjiuoa'/aoc

6vifo<:, deriva-
tive from Ovia.

<cdAa/xO!

«epaTio>'.

Kpi0ri

KpLfOV

KVIilVOV

Ai^ai'os ....
Xivov

^tai'i'a .

ydpSov

nriyavov

(TlVaTTt

<tIto<;, (TTaxvi.. .

tjfJ^vpvix

trvKa^nvoi;

iTVKO^opaia

(rvKY), crvKov,
oAui'Sot.

Tpi^oAo?

ii<7<TU)7rO?

Botanical Name.

Olea Europaea, Linn., var. syl-

vestrls.

Aqullarla Agallocba, Roxb.

Anethum graveolens, Linn..

Artemisia, Linn

Rubus, Linn

Olea Europa?a, Linn

Lolliim temulentum. Linn...

Mentha

Thuja aiticulata, Vahl

Arundo Donax,

Phragmitls

nis, Trln.
Ceratonia Siliqua, Linn

Linn., and
commu-

Hordeum, Linn

Lilium candidum, Linn

Cuminum Cymlnum, Linn . .

Linum usitatissimum, Linn.

from the Tamarix mannifera,
Ehrenberp, and Alhagi Mau-
rorum, DC.

Nardostachys Jatamansl. DC.

Ruta, Linn

Sinapis, Linn

Triticum

Morus nigra, Linn

Ficus Sycomorus, Linn.
Ficus Carica, Linn

Trlbulus terrestris, Linn

Origanum Mam, Linn

Phoenix dactylifera, Linn . . .

Popular Name.

Wild olive of
northern Syria.

Thorn.

Aloe.

Vine.

Amomum.

Dill.

Wonnwood.

Blackberry.

Olive.

Bearded darnel.

Mint.

Arbor-vitae.

Reed.

Salnt-John's-
bread, carob.

Cinnamon.

Barley.

Lily.

Cumin.

Frankincense.

Flax (used only
metaphorically
for wick and
for linen gar-
ments).

Manna.

Spikenard.

Rue.

Mustard.

Wheat, grain.

Myrrh.

Mulberry.

Sycamore.

fig.

Land-caltrop.
Wild marjoram.
Palm.

More general terms are a.v9o^ (flower), poravT} (herbage), Sfv-
ipov (tree), xA^iia (branch), \dxavov (vegetable), <t>pvyavov
(brushwood), vTeia (plant), \Aa>pds (green), xopro^ (grass).

The following names of plants are found in proper
names in the New Testament: the palm (Thamar),
the lily (Susanna), the fig (Beth-phage), the narcis-
sus (as tlie name of the Roman Narcissus) ; the name
of the date has been conjectured to form part of the
name of Bethany (Bet-hine). The crown of thorns
placed on Jesus may have been composed of the
gatland-thorn, Paliurus acideatus, Lam., of the ju-
jube, Zizyphus vulgaris. Lam., or of a variety of
hawthorn, the Cratmgns Azarolus, Linn., or the Cra-
taegus monogyna, Willd.

In the Pseudepigrapha : There are few ref-
erences to plants in the pseudepigrapha, so far as
the latter are included in Kautzsch's collection ("Die
Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testa-
ments," Freiburg-im-Breisgau and Leipsic, 1900,
cited here as K.). In these references Biblical figures
and concepts prevail for the most part. The fertilitj'^
("shebah ha-arez ") which was the glory of Pales-
tine (Deut. viii. 8) is lauded by Aristeas (§ 112; K.
ii. 15), who praises the agriculture there. "The
land," he says, "is thickly planted with olive-trees,
cereals, and pulse, and is rich in vines, honey, fruits,
and dates." When Abraham entered Palestine he
saw there vines, figs, pomegranates, the " balan "
and the "ders" (two varieties of oak, /Jd^vof and

''pi'C). terebinths, olive-trees, cedars, cypress-trees,
frankincense-trees (Xi^nvoq), and every tree of the
licld (Book of Jubilees, xiii. 6; K. ii. 63).

According to the later (Christian) version of the
Greek Apocalyp.se of Baruch (iv. ; K. ii. 451), Noah
planted the vine only because the wine was destined
to become the blood of Jesus; otherwise, the vine
from which Adam ate the forbidden fruit would
have fallen under a curse. Noah is saved like one
grape of a whole cluster, or one sprig in an entire
forest (II Esd. ix. 21 ; K. ii. 384). The vine is also
mentioned in the Sibylline Books (iv. 17; K. ii. 201),
the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (x. 10; K. ii. 415),
and in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
(Levi, 2; K. ii. 466), where the Lord becomes to
Levi his farm, vine, fruits, gold, and silver. When
the Messiah shall come the earth will bring forth
its fruit ten thousandfold ; and on each vine there
will be 1,000 branches; on each branch, 1,000 clus-
ters; and on each cluster, 1,000 grapes; and each
grape will yield a "cor" of wine (Syriac Apoc.
Baruch, xxix. 5; K. ii. 423). The Syriac Apoc-
alypse of Baruch (xxxvi. 3 et seq. ; K. ii. 424 et seq.)
contains also a vision of a forest, a vine, and a cedar,
and the Book of Jubilees (xiii. 26; K. ii. 65) men-
tions tithes of seed, wine, and oil.

Fig-leaves are said to grow in paradise, a belief
based upon the Biblical account (Apoc. Mosis,
§ 21 ; K. ii. 522), while, according to the Ethiopia
Apocalypse of Baruch, the figs which Ebed-melech
carries remain fresh anduuwithered during his sleep
of sixty-six years and are taken to Babylon by an
eagle (p. 402).

Among other trees and fruits mentioned in the
pseudepigrapha are: the olive-tree (Sibyllines, iv.
17; K. ii. 201; Test. Patr., Levi, 8, p. 467; instead of
" siah " [Gen. xxi. 15], the Book of Jubilees, xvii. 10 ;
K. 11. 70, reads "olive-tree "), palms (Enoch, xxiv. 4;
K. 11. 254), dates of the valley (Jubilees, xxix. 15;
K. 11. 90), nut-tree (Enoch, xxix. 2; K. 11. 256; not
the almond -tree, which is mentioned shortly after-
ward, ib. XXX. 8), almonds and terebinth-nuts (Jubi-
lees, xiii. 20; K. 11. 109, following Gen. xliii. 11),
aloe-tree (Enoch, xxxl. 2; K. 11. 256), cedar (Test.
Patr., Simeon, 6; K. il. 464). A book sprinkled with
oil of cedar to preserve it Is described in the As-
sumption of Moses (i. 17; K. 11. 320); the locust-tree
(Enoch, xxxli. 4; K. ii. 256), and, especially, oaks
also are mentioned, as In the Syriac Apocalypse of
Baruch (Ixxvii. 18; K. Ii. 441); they are said to grow
at Hebron (Enoch, vl. ; K. 11. 414), at Mamre (Jubilees,
xlv. 10; K. 11. 65), and in the land of Sichem( Jubilees,
xxxi. 2; K. il. 92); the oak is likewise mentioned
in the lament over Deborah (Jubilees, xxxll. 30; K.
Ii. 96).

Of all the Information regarding trees the most
interesting is the list of evergreens given in Jubilees
(xxi. 12; K. 11. 76), while this class of trees is also
alluded to In Enoch (ill. ; K. ii. 237) and in the
Testament of Levi (ix. ; K. ii. 468; Lihv, p. 59).
Similar catalogues occur in the Talmud and Mish-
nah, and In the Greek writings on agriculture. The
Book of Jubilees mentions the following as appro-
priate for the altar: cypress, juniper, almond-tree
(for whicli, following Dillmann, "acacia" has been
suggested as an emendation), Scotch pine, pine,

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

cedar. Ciliciau spruce, palm ('?), olive-tree, myrtle,
laurel, citron (Citrus medicn, Risso), juniper (? Ethi-
opic "arbot," for which Dillmann conjectures "ar-
kot," apKo.'dog), and balsam.

On account of their beauty the following flowers
are mentioned in the pseudepigrapha: lily (Test.
Patr, Joseph. 18; K. ii. 5U2), rose (Test. Patr.,
Simeon, 6; K. ii. 464; Enoch, Ixxxii. 16; K. ii. 287;
cvi. 2. 10; K. ii. 308 et seq. : "rubra sicut rosa" and
"rubrior rosa " : it is also mentioned in the Apocry-
pha, Mishnah, Targum, and LXX.). and the rose-
laurel. The oleander seems to be intended by "the
field of Ardaf " in II Esd. (ix. 26; K. ii. 385) (the last
letter with the variants "s," "d," "t," and "b").
"Harduf" ("hirduf," "hardufni") is a borrowed
word even in the .Mishnah, and shows, together with
the Arabic "diflah," that the JV'mwni Oleander, Linn.,
came from Europe, or, more exactly (according to
O. Schrader, in Hehn, " Kulturpflanzen," 6th ed., p.
405), from the Spanish west. The plant had reached
Greece before the time of Dioscoridesand Pliny; and
it may have grown wild in Palestine by the end of
the first century just as it does at present; it is
always found in water-courses, and flourishes from
the level of the Ghor to an altitude of 3,280 feet in
the mountains (Post, I.e. p. 522). To such a region
the seer of II Esdras was bidden to go, there to sus-
tain himself on the flowers of the field. In Sibyl-
lines (v. 46; K. ii. 206, a passage originally heathen)
the flower of Nemea, akTuvov (parsley), is mentioned.

As in the Bible narrative, thorns and thistles ap-
peared after the fall of man (Apoc. Mosis, § 24 ; K.
ii. 522), while thorns and prickly briers are men-
tioned in the Sibyllines (Preface, 24 et seq. ; K. ii.
184). The Biblical "duda'im," mentioned in the
Testament of Issachar (i. ; K. ii. 478), are mandrakes,
which grow in the land of Aram, on an elevation, be-
low a ravine. Tithes of the seed are mentioned (Jubi-
lees, xiii. 26; K. ii. 65); while according to Aris-
teas (§ 145; K. ii. 17), the clean birds eat wheat
and pulse. Egypt is mentioned (Sibyllines, iv. 72;
K. ii. 202) as producing wheat; and the marrow of
wheat, like the Biblical "kilyot hittah" ("kidneys of
wheat," Dent, xxxii. 14), is spoken of in Enoch (xcvi.
5; K. ii. 302), while II Esdras (ix. 17; K. ii. 384) de-
clares (R. v.): "Like as the field is, so is also the
seed ; and as the flowers be, such are the colors also."
In the same book (iv. 31 etseq. [R. V.]; K. ii. 357)
occurs also an argument "de minore ad mains,"
found in the Bible likewise: "Ponder now by thy-
self, how great fruit of wickedness a grain of evil
seed hath brought forth. When the ears which are
without number shall be sown, how great a floor
shall they fill!" (comp. the "kal wa-homer" in II
Esd. iv. 10, end; K. ii. 355; and see Schwarz, "Der
Hermeneutische Syllogismus." p. 82, "Vienna, 1901).
Lolium (Ci^dviov) is mentioned in Apoc. Mosis, ^ 16
(K. ii. 520). Among the spices and condiments, cin-
namon is described as obtained from the excrement
of the worm which comes from the dung of the
phenix (Greek Apoc. Baruch, vi. ; K. ii. 453), and is
also mentioned in Enoch, XXX. 3, xxxii. 1; K. ii. 256;
Apoc. Mosis, ^29; K. ii. 524; Vita Adie et Evae, §
43; K. ii. 520. Pepper, spoken of in Enoch (xxxii.
1 ; K. ii. 256), is new, although it is met with as
early as the Mishnah.

Among other plants mentioned in the pseudepig-
rapha are: aloe- trees (Enoch, xxxi. ; K. ii. 256);
balsam {ib. xxx. 2); galbanum {ib.; Jubilees, iii.
27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69); sweet-calamus and saffron
(Apoc. Mosis, I.e. ; Vita Ada? et Eva?, I.e.); costus-root
(Jubilees, xvi. 24; K. ii. 69); ladanum, and similar
almonds (Enoch, xxxi. 2; K. ii. 256); gum-mastic
(Enoch, xxxii. 1, xxx. 1 ; K. ii. 256; myrrh (Enoch,
xxix. 2; K. ii. 256; Jubilees, xvi. 24; K. ii. 69);
nard (Jubilees, iii. 27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69;
Enoch, xxxii. 1; K. ii. 256; Apoc. Mosis, § 29;
K. ii. 524); nectar, called also balsam and galbanum
(Enoch, xxxi. 1 ; K. ii. 256); storax (Jubilees, iii. 27,
xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69); incense (Enoch, xxix. 2; K.
ii. 256; Jubilees, iii. 27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69; Test.
Patr., Levi, 8; K. ii. 467).

Aristeas (§ 63; K. ii. 10) describes pictorial repre-
sentations of plants as decorations on state furniture,
including garlands of fruit, grapes, ears of corn,
dates, apples, olives, pomegranates, etc. He speaks
also (§ 68, p. 11) of the legs of a table which were
topped with lilies, and (§ 70; K. ii. 11) of ivy, acan-
thus, and vines, as well as of lilies (§ 75; K. ii. 11), and
of vine-branches, laurel, myrtle, and olives (^ 79; K.
ii. 12). Plant-metaphors taken from the Bible and
applied to Israel and Palestine are: vines and lilies
(II Esd. V. 23 et seq.; K. ii. 361) and the vineyard
(Greek Apoc. Baruch, i. ; K. ii. 448).

In poetic and haggadic interpretations wood shall
bleed as one of the signs of the approaching end of
the world (II Esd. v. 5; K. ii. 359; Barnabas, xii. 1),
and the trees shall war against the sea (II Esd. iv. 13
et seq. ; K. ii. 356). At the last day many of man-
kind must perish, even as the seed sown by the hus-
bandman ripens only in part {ib. viii. 41 ; K. ii. 381),
although every fruit brings honor and glory to
God (Enoch, v. 2; K. ii. 237). In the Greek Apoca-
lypse of Baruch (xii. ; K. ii. 456) angels bear baskets
of flowers which represent the virtues of the right-
eous. In the sacred rites, palm-branches, fruits of
trees (citrons), and osier-twigs are mentioned (Jubi-
lees, xvi. 31 ; K. ii. 70).

At the commandment of God on the third day of
Creation, "immediately there came forth great and
innumerable fruits, and manifold pleasures for the
taste, and flowers of inimitable color, and odors of
most exquisite smell " (II Esd. vi. 44, R. V. ; K. ii.
367) ; and the beauty of the trees in paradise is also
emphasized {ib. vi. 3; K. ii. 364). The tree of
knowledge and the tree of life appealed powerfully
to the fancy of the pscudepigraphic writers. The
former, from which Adam ate, is supposed, on the
basis of other Jewish traditions, to have been either
the vine (Greek Apoc. Baruch, iv. ; K. ii. 451) or the
fig (Apoc. Mosi.s, § 21; K. ii. 522). The Book of
Enoch (xxxii. 3 et seq. ; K. ii. 256) describes the tree
of knowledge thus: "Its shape is like the pine-tree;
its foliage like the locust-tree; its fruit like the
grape." The tree of life is planted for the pious (II
Esd. viii. 52; K. ii. 382), and is described in Enoch
(xxiv. 3 et seq. ; K. ii. 254) as fragrant and with un-
fading leaves and blossoms and imperishable wood,
while as in the accounts in the Old and the New
Testament its fruit, which is like that of the palm,
gives eternal life (Enoch; II Esd. I.e.; Test. Patr.,
Levi, 18; K. ii. 471, reads " tree " instead of " wood ").

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

It is the tree of paradise, and from it flows the heal-
ing oil, the oil of life, the oil of mercy (Vita Adoe et
Eva", §§ 36, 41 ; Apoc. Mosis, ^ 9; K. ii. 518. 520).

In the Mishnah and Talmud : The Mishnah

has preserved ouly about 2'M names of plants, of
which about 180 are old Hebrew and forty are de-
rived from Greek terms. In the Talmudic literature
of the post-Mishnaic period 100 names of plants are
found in the Jerusalem Talmud and 175 in the Baby-
lonian; about twenty of these names are of Greek
origin. In the Mishnah, Talmud, Midrash, and
Targum the following plants are mentioned as in-
digenous to Palestine and Babylon :

[Abbreviations : B. = Babylonian Talmud ; Y. = Jerusalem
Talmud; M. = Mishnah; Mldr. = Midrash ; T. = Tarfnim. In
the following table the name of the botanical family Is printed
In small capitals.]

Name in Mishnah.
Talmud, etc.

Botanical Name.

Popular Name.

Alismace^.

»<rjNn Nn>Tin

Allsma Plantago aqua-
tica, Linn.

Water- plan-

tain.

AMARYLLIDACEiE.

O'p-iJ.B

Narcissus poeticus,
Linn., Narcissus Ta-
zetia, Linn., and vari-
eties.

Ampelidace^.

Narcissus.

7DJ, Bible, M.; NJDU,
pj-M, M., Y., B.

Vitls vlnifera, Linn —
Anacardiace^.

Grape-vine.

i^w M

Rhus Coriarla, Linn —

Pistacia Tereblnthus,
var. Palsestlna, Engl.

Pistacia vera, Linn

reslu of >3iBDa, M., Pis-
tacia Lentiscus, Linn.

Sumach.

nVN, Bible, M.; ndoo,

T.. Y., B.
nri33. M.. Bible

Terebinth.
Pistachio -nut.

T^DHD^O M

Pistachio.

OOlS, M.; didS, m., t...

Mastic.

Apocynace^.

r|mn, B.; •'jDinn, M...

Nerium Oleander, Linn.
Araliace^.

Oleander.

01D>p,M., Y

Hedera Helix, Linn —

AROIDE.*:.

Ivy.

«lf, M

Arum orlentale, M. Bleb.

naiifn Hi'?. M

Arum Palaestinum,

Boiss.
Colocasia antiquonim,

Schott.

Arum.

ori'^ir', M., Y

Cocoa-root.

AURANTIACEiE.

jnPN, M.; Njntan, T.,

Y., B.

Citrus medlca, Reiss —

BERBERIDACEiE.

Citron.

jSb-n, M.; nnnnxNC?),
Y.

Leontice Leontopeta-
lum, Linn.

BORAGINACEiE.

Llon's-leaf.

]jcij, M.; Njeu ^S-'K'.

pDOIS, B.
rccSn, Bible, M

Cordla Myxa, Linu

Anchusa olBcinalls,
Linn.

CAPPARIDACEiE.

Cordla.
Bugloss.

noxj, nSx, M.; Nmo, B.
(Dnop, bud; Nn-»D,
B., blossom; mjvaN,
Bible, M.; NPiDO, B.,
fruit).

Capparis spinosa, Linn.,
and varieties.

Chenopodiace^.

Thorny caper.

tia-\\ M., Y

I'toiifn j^tiaT

Blitum virgatum, Linn.
Chenopodium, Linn

Beta vulgaris, Linn

Blite.
(ioosefoot.

^nin, M.; N|iS'D, B —

Beet.

O'jijjS, M.; pjoSiDip,
PMJ7D. Y.

N>Sipi N|->-\\ B

Shn, M., B

Atriplex Tataricum,
Linn., Atriplex Hall-
mus, Linn.

Salicomia herbacea,
Linn.

Salsola, Linn

Orach.

Glasswort (see
also under
Ficoideae).

Saltwort.

Name in Mishnah,
Talmud, etc.

KJ11

'^.B.

PO'O, B.

N'lXllB', B

njyS, Bible; j^nrDOK
Y., B.; KTJ, T.

NDTM, M., T., B

D->r|i, M., Y., B., Midr.
IJJD, B. (not Pvijo,
despite Kohut,"Aruch
Completum," s.v.)
(T'D'Ma. N'">313, M.?)

n''33}?, M., T., Midr....

■mt. Bible, M.. T..

Midr.; K-\t'n, B.
y>n, nxip, M.; [<|"»mc.

T., Y.; 'nim'c, NT^Ti

B.
NDtanjp

pcSip. M.; jiD'Dpna,

paioj« (''^mo''?), Y.;
^3ij'n, B.

mis' >vh^y, M.; pnSiy.Y
(inn, M.) NnniD, B.,

mtn, M.; NDn, Y., B.,
Midr.

d>Sj mtn, M

Botanical Name.

CiSTACEf.
Cistu.s cretlrus, Linn.,
cistus ladanifrrus.
Linn., and otbem.

Composite:.
Matricaria rhamomlUa,

Linn., and Matricaria

aun-a.
Artemisia vulgaris,

Linn.
Artemisia monusperroa,

Del., and Artemisia

Judaica, Linn.
Ecliinops splnosus,

Linn., or Echlnops

vlscosus, DC.
Cynara Scolymua, Linn

Cynara Syrica, Bolss.,
and Cynara Cardun-
culus, Linn.

Centaurea Calcltrapa,
Linn.

Caribamus

Linn.
Clchorium Endlvla,

Linn.

Popular Name.

Ladanum-
bush, rock-
rose.

Feverfew.

Wormwood.
Wormwood.

Echlnops (?).

Artichoke.

Cardoon.

Star-thistle.

Seed of

ttafflower.

Nj''3ii8',T.,B.; wn'mn

(?), B.
pSianoD'N, M.; k-\''c

Nnw, B.
IDiy yy> Bible. M.; ca?,

M.; pjii, Y.

nN, Bible, M. ,B.; ntin.

If •'dSu, NJ'Sar, onip,
Dn.ip, B.
tfna, nna, Bible, M.,

T., Y., B.; KmB***, B.:
PdSn, Midr.

nW3, M., B.; NDO, B...

j-nc. T., Midr.

PfiS, M., B.; n<Sj"Mj

nodS, B.
ana, M.. Y.. B

Smn, M., B

pe"?, M.

-iinann, M.; p^pTana,

lUlJ (IDN W 'j), M.,
B.

D'':'ntf', M.; iSnp, B.;

pDiSnp. Y.
na2P. M.; unaon, B.:
p-iujj, Y.

tlnctorius, Safflower, saf-
fron.
Chicory.

Chicory.

Clchorium dlvarica- (

tum, Schousb.
Plcrls SprengerianajPlcrts or

(Linn.), Polr., or, dandelion.

Taraxacum, Juss.
Lacluca Scariola, var. , Lettuce.

satlva (Linn.), Boiss.

Lactuca saligna, Linn.
(V).

WlUow-Iet-
tuce.

Conifer.*.
Cupressus sempervl-' Cypress.

rens, Linn,
fruit of Plnus plnea, Pine.

Linn.
Plnus Ualepensls, MUl.

Cedrus Ubanl.

Abies Cillclca, Ant. and
Ky.

CONTOLVULACE^.

Cuscuta, Linn

CORNACE.E.

Comus mas, Linn., and
Cornus Australia,
Cam.

CRUCIKERiS.

Brasslca Rapa, Linn —

Brasslca oleracea, Linn.

Sinapis alba, Linn., and
Slnapls juncea, Linn.

Brasslca nigra (Linn.).
Koch, or Slnapls ar-
vensis, Linn.; Slnapls
ar\'ensls, var. turglda
(Del.). Asch. and
Schwelnf., and var.
AlUonll (Jacqu.),
Asch. and Schwelnf.

Brasslca oleracea, var.
boirytls. Linn.

Eruca satlva. I. am

Aleppo pine.

Cedar of Leba-
non.

CUlcian

spruce.

Lepidlum sativum,
Linn.

Lepidlum Chalepense,
Linn., or Erucarla
Alepplca, Gaertn. (?).

Dodder.

Cornel, dog-
wood.

Turnip.

Cabbage.
.Mustard.

Wild mustard.

Cauliflower.

Eruoa. wild
and culti-
vated.

Pepperwort
<f).

Pepperwort.

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Name in Mishnab,
Talmud, etc.

Botanical Name. Popular Name.

h-\H. >i;, M..

D'SO'K, D'2D. M

|UX. D1CJ. M.; t<^i^s, Y.
B.; Nr>n, B.

C13C0. Y.
nj-ij-i, M

, Iberis (Iberis Jordan!, 'Candjrtuft.

Boiss., Iberis Taurica,
I DC, ll)em odorata,,
j Linn.).
'Isatis tinctoiia, Linn. . . Dyer's-wttad.

, Raphanussatlvus, Linn.iRadlsh (two

varieties).

CRYPTOr.AMI.K.

M.;|Equl8etum, Linn Scou ring-rush,

olBcinarum, Miltwaste (?).

Ceterach

I Willd.
Kirj, B jPterls aquilina, Linn. .

^tpr, M.; p3'^3'SiD, T.lAdlantum CaplUus-Ve

(?).

neris, Linn.

Brake.

Maidenhair
(but see
Mentha Pu-
1 e g i u m ,
Linn., penny-
royal, under
Labiata?).

rJ3*iiT. M., Y Scolopendrium vulgare, Hart's-tongue.

DV1C, M Roccella tlnctoria, Litmus.

Achar.

tvn, B iLecanora or Sphiero-'Manna-lichen.

I thalliaesculenta,Nees.j

nvnsij (pi.), M., Y.; Fungus Fungus.

N"<3'D, B. I

D^nco. yp-icc. M.;iTuber Truffle.

nSt\J7, Y.; K-nx, B

CCCURBITACK.K

Cucumis Chate, Linn., Cucumber.

and Cucumis sativus,

Linn
Cucumis Melo, Linn

p^vp, Bible, M.; N^ap
{pL),T.;Nj''Xi3,{<ti^0,

]^DD^^•::, M.. T., Y.
Midr. I

n'oas, Bible, M iCitrullus vulgaris,

Schrad.

nppD, Bible, M Citrullus Colocynthis

(Linn.). Schrad.
ny7i, KM-tp, M.; N-\p,Lagenaria vulgaris, Ser,
«3?-»p. B.

r'^^anp, M., Y

"Men .-piT

Luffacylindrica(Linn.),
Roem., or Luffa
.figyptiaca. Mill. (?).

Ecballium Elaterium,
Rich.

Cupuliferj:
inoS'K, M.; p1i^D, Y . . Corylus Avellana, Linn.
B^Sa, T.. Y., B.; 3'j-<D

(pL), Midr. (Biblical

proper name c-ia').

p^N

M. ; NxciN

O'JIB'JK (?), M.

KCJ, Bible; 'SJ, M.
p-MN. M., T., B.

Midr.).
"hyo (pi.), T., B., Midr.

B.; Quercuscoccifera,Linn.,
and varieties Quercus
Lusitunica, Lam.,
Quercus Cerris, Linn.,
etc.

CTPERACE.E.

Cyperus Papyrus. Linn.,
and others.
Y. (Palestinian Cyperus esculentus,
Llun. (and Cyperus
longus, Linn., Cyperus
capitatus. Vent.).

Cyperus rotund us, Linn.

ynsc-N, M., T., B.
(pri'O.M.?);nj«opifl,
Y., Midr.

PV. V't'^SH, M.; N3'SiSx,
B.

P'-iU, Bible, M.; NnM,
B.; nj;-^>, M. (?).

D'J-i-j (pi.). M.; JJB (?),

Bible.

nw, M.. Y., B

im-i. Bible, M. (rnii' ?.

Bible, y.).
KC"! ND"?'n. B

ID^C, M.

ECPHORBIACEiE.

Buxus longiiolla, Bolss.

Ricinus communis,
Linn.

FiCOIDEiE.

Mesembryan them urn,
LI nn ., or A izoon,
Linn. (? corap. Sall-
cornia, Linn.).

Graminace^.

Panicum miliaceum,

Linn.

Oryza satlva, Linn

Andropogon Sorghum,

Linn.
Andropogon Schoenan-

thus, Linn.
Avena

Muskmelon.
Watermelon.
Colocynth.
Gourd.

Washing-
gourd.

Squirting cu-
cumber.

Hazel.
A com.

Turkey
etc.

oak.

Papyrus.
Gallngale.

Galingale.
Box.

Castor
plant.

oil

Fig -marigold,
ice-plant.

Panic.

Rice.

Dunra. gulnea-

gra.ss.
Beard-grass.

Oat.s.

Name in Mishnab,
Talmud, etc.

n'Sav

N'^a'

Botanical Name.

Popular Name.

(identical with 2^'sn.
M., Y., B., Midr. >).
njp, Bible, M.; N'jp, Y.,
B.; DJ1B, T.

iSn, pSin, M.

pjv, M., Midr.

nan, Bible, M., T., Y.,

B., Midr.
PCD2, Bible; pcDO, M.;

N.-ijo, T., B.; naSu,

Syic rSnr, M.; 'S^ac

nSpp, N-\s'n, B.
mijrc, Bible, M.;
N.-i->yD, T., Y.

HTip, M.; KP'JS'C. B.

CynortonDactylon.Berm uda-
Linn. I grass, scutoh-

gras.*!.

ArundoDonax,Linn., or Persian reed.
Phragniites com-
munis. Trin.

Eraprostis cynosuroldes
(Retz.), Roem. and
Scb.

Lollum temuientum. Bearded dar-
Llnn. nel. tares.

Tritioum vulgare, Linn. Wheat.

Triticum Spelta, Linn.. Spelt.

.(Egilops, Linn. (?) ,

Goat-grass.

pc"*, Bible, M.; nj::i-«,
T., B., Midr.; iNj, B.

\-i2in, B. (?)..

Dn'N, M., Y

Hordeum distychum' Barley.

and Hordeum vulgare,

Linn.
Hordeum bulbosum,

Linn. (?).

GRANATiE.

Punica Granatum, Linn.

Pomegranate.

a^D-12, M., Y., B.; N:n<3i'i.

HypERicixE.e.

. Hypericum. Linn St. John's-

wort.

iRIPACEiE.

Iris PalaBstina, Baker, Iris.

Iris pseudacorus.'

Linn., and other?.
Crocus sativus, Linn Crocus.

pCD>, B.

njN, Bible, M.; ntun, B.

ja^n ('"N), M., B.; jjc,
M.; NP3X, B.; nfiv^jn
{no^-i^, M.).

Jasmi.nace.e.

Jasminum offlcinale,
Linn.

JUGLANDACE.«.

Juglans regia, Linn

JCNCACEiE.

Juncus or Cyperus

Jasmine.

Walnut.

Reed or sedge.

LABIATiE.

P'3?N, M Lavandula Stoechas, Lavender (?).

Linn.
njjjj,yj>'j, M.; Nnj''D (?), MenthasyIvestrls,Llnn., Mint.

Y. i and others.

ntpv, M.; pjniD.B Mentha Puleglum, PennyroyaL

j Linu.
3itN, Bible, M.; Nnr, Origanum Maru, Linn.. Marjoram.

nnmc. picrric, B. ; I

nu'D, M.; nrx, Y., B.; Thymus, Linn., and Sa-'Savory.

>N!:'n, NP-\3N, B. I tureia. Linn.
n^mP' M., Y., B iCalamintha. Moench.... Calamlnt.

LACRACEiE.

]-\is. Bible, M. ?; 'i>', Laurus nobilis, Linn. ^?)

NJD1, B.

D1D-MP, M., Y., B., Midr.
P'DD;', M

Ncnn, T. (Dm, Bible).

]pSp, m.; unSiVatt',

N^an, B.
nimjnj (pi.), M.;

■"pipijn, Y., B.; S'Sa

NaSc, B.
»Nia 'pipnin (?)

ttrODOH, B.
HVW, B....

Leguminosa.
Lupinus Termls, Forsk.
Lupinus Palsestinus,

Boiss., and Lupinus

ptlosus, Linn.
Retama Raetam,

(Forsk.), Web.
Trigonella Fcenum-

gntciim, Linn.
Melllotus. Tourn

.-ijn. M.; N,"jv-i, T., B.
(Bible, vixpj, ?).

PCN. M.; •'XC'n. B

K'p-a, M., Y

Melllotus (?), Medlcago

(?), Trigonella (?),

Trifollum Vn.
Medlcago satlva, Linn.,

orTrifolium,Linn.(V).
Glycyrrhlza glabra,

Linn.
Alhagl Maurorum. DC.

Cicer arletlnum. Linn..
Vicla satlva, Linn

Laurel, bay-
tree.

Lupine.

Juniper-bush.

Fenugreek.

Sweet clover,
honey-lotus.

Medic, or
I'lover, trefoil.
Licorice.

Alhagl.

Chick-pea.
Vetch.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

Name in Misbnah,
Talmud, etc.

nj'r-is, M.; Nirn, B...
ncny, M. (Bible);

, wnci'^D. T., B.

ViD, Bible, M., T., v....

ra'^n ^id, M.; njnc^s
{?),Y.

Y.; •'DJU, Nr'^'DD.

(V), M.: ]'-\in'>U".
npicD (variants
nnic^D. noiciD).

->iDD, M.; NJ1!r''D, Y

w-iin (Snn, Bible) . . . .
nctn, M.; npiSt, Y...
pp^1C, M.; Njia?u, Y..

Botanical Name.

Popular Name.

NXcn, B

n-'jijr, M —

ann, M., Y. B

D'D^Ss (?)

Vlcla ErvlUa, Linn Vetch.

Lens esculenta, Moench. Lentil.

Vlgna Sinensis (Llnn.),[Bean.
Endl. (not Phaseolus
vulgaris, Linn.;.
Vlcla Faba, Linn. (Faba Straight bean,
vulgaris, Moench.).

Four Indeter-
minate varie-
ties of beans.

Three Indeter-
minate varie-
ties of pulse,
probably
- S y r 1 a c
N P D 1 D, a
variety of
lupine.

Hairy - podded
kidney-bean.

Vetchling.

Everlasting
pea.

Lablab.

Aleppo senna,
or senna.

Phaseolus Mungo, Linn,

n!2'ii\ Bible, from which
comes NP^nn npj^'h,
B.

hcppN, B

D^DH >JD Spu' r^p^'s'', M.;
•«im JP''^, Y. (NPcaiN

N3nNl, B. ?).

>lSv, M.; niSn, B.; miSn,

Sx3, Bible, M.; NDCB", B.
D'CiDH c'^sa, M. (I)..

D'JIS^Tl D''Ss3, M

SixSxa, M.; nSijSjb, Y.
ntf n3, M. (-I'xn, Bible):

of op, M.,T., Y., B.;
■•pns, T., Y., B.
mi* 'U'nD, M

Name in Mlshnah,
Talmud, et*'.

Lathyrus, Linn

Lathyrus Clcera, Linn..
Lathyrus sativus, Linn.

Dollchos Lablab, Linn..
Cassia obovata, Collad.

or Cassia acutifolia,

Del. (?)
Ceratonia Siliqua, Linn.

Prosopis Stephanlana
(Willd.), Spreng.

Two varieties of Acacia,
Willd.

sap of Acacia Nilotlca,
Del.

Lemnace^.
Lemna minor, Linn

Liliace^.
Aloe vera, Linn..

Allium Cepa, Linn

Allium Ascalonicum,
Linn.

Diti", Bible, M.; P''jcii:',

M.; ND1P, NP'JDIP, Y.
3?nn y:, M

}»>3Sn, M

Allium Cepa, Linn

Allium Porrum, Linn..

Allium curtum, Bolss.

and Gain. (?).
Allium sativum, Linn. . .

njtyvi', Bible, M., T.;

pj^ip, Y.
"l?cn T^yyw, M

Omithogalum, Linn —
Lilium candidum, Linn.
Fritlllaria, Linn

LlNKiE.

IPU'D, M.; NJP'3, T.,Y.,
B.

NJij-^n, n'] Njijin
[NP''cn NPj''m.

1D3, Bible, M.; njun^
(?), M.

NJN1N, NJN-\n, B

]DJ irx, M., D3V (?).
M.; Njou -\cy, Y., B.;
Ntp, B.

D-in, Bible, M.; NDN, T.,
B.

Llnum
Linn.

usltatisslmum,

Saint -John's -
bread, carob.
(see below).

Acacia.

Duckweed,
duckmeat.

Aloe.

Onion.

Shallot.

Summer on-
ions.
Onion.
Leek.

Garlic.

Onion.

Star-of- Beth-
lehem.
Lily.

FritUlary (?).

Flax.

LORANTHACE^.

Loranthus Acacise,
Zucc.

LYTHRACEJv.

Lawsonla alba, Linn —

Malvace.e.
Malva rotundifolia,
Linn.

Gossypium herbaceum,
Linn.

Myrtace^.
Myrtus communis,
Linn.

Mistletoe.

Henna.

Common mal-
1 o w and
others.

Cotton-plant.

Myrtle.

>iJtDn

Botanical Name.

NYMPHiEACEiE.

"\JtDn Sid, M.: K^iD'Nelumblum speclosum.
N^^XD.'JiSY.onn?) Willd.

Oleace^.

FraxlnuH OrnuB, Linn..

P-r. Bible. M., T., Y., Olea Europa-u, Ltnu

B., Mldr.

n-<'e, M.

-\3P, Bible, M.; Spi,M..
,T., Y., B.

N?NP

D»«, M.; KP>«:X, B

NP'jSo, B

JVDIN, Y

paSj, M.

nnnj?, Bible; t<37n, T.
Y., B.

POLYGO.NACE.K

nyn 313N, M.; untJCin, Polygonum avirulare

Popular Name.

Lotus.

Alb.
Ollvo.

PAI.MACE.E.

Phoenix dactyllfera, l)ati'-i>iiun.
Linn.

Papaverace.*;.

Papaver Hha-aH, Linn.

opium from Papaver
somnlftTum, Linn.,
var. glabniiii. Bolss.

Glaurium cornk-iilatum.
Linn.

Plata NACEiK.

Platanus orlentalls,
Linn.

Young palmi.
A variety of
palm.

Corn-poppy.
Common pop-
py-

Horn-poppy.

Oriental plane-
tree.

N'V">"' N-iDin, B.

NrnciD, Y., B.

NC31, M.

HN^n (n^'^T, n'P), M.
Nn>11JT N">p^v, B.

nsp, Bible

P>B'^8'S(B'), M. (?)

pen (pi.), M.; N1J3, B.
pBt'C, M., Y.; nO'lJ', B.

^pB'. tiS Bible, M., T.;

NlJ'Ii', B.

poncCN], M., Y

prjpDE-in, M.; ppc,
M. (?); PvjiHN, Y.;

nu'D, B. (?).

njD, Bible, M.; N'jD.

NJDN, T.. Y., B.

Linn., or Polygonum
e(4Uisetifonne, Slbtb.
and Sm.

PORTCLACACE^.

Portulaca oleracea,
Linn.

PRIMCLACEiE.

Cyclamen Coum, Mill.,
and Cyclamen lall-
follum, S. et 8. (?)

RANU.NCCLACE.E.

Ranunculus sceleratus.
Linn., and other spe-
cies.

Nlgella saliva, Linn

RESEDACE.E.

Luteola tlnctorla, Web.
Reseda luteola, Linn

Knot-grass.

Purslane.

Round -leaved

ivclaiiii'ii.

Crowfoot, but-
tercup.

Nutmeg - flow-
er.

DyerV

weed (?).

RHAMNACE.S:.

Zizyphus lotus. Lam. .Jujube, and
and Zizyphus spina- Chrlst's-
Chrisil, Linn. thorn.

Zizyphus vulgaris. Lam. iCommon Ju-
jube.

ROSACEJE.

Amygdalus communis. Almond.

Linn.
Persicavulgark, Mill... Peach.
Prunusdomestlca, Linn. Plum.

Blackberry.

mn, M., T., Y., B

DjN, p'^^ciaonp, M —

D>>Da, M. (Y.)

ni£3P, Bible, M.; -\itn.
T., Mldr.; Cm, 'in)
a'tt'3ij.'i ^'-i t<!i'^3n
B. , ,

pcno. n?'D''7''D, M.;

p'^J-lDD'N, Y.

Nrcns, B

T\rn('iN),M. [PVjccn,

pvtt"cn!].
-\-\Ti>% M.; •e'S>o, B....

PNID, M.; NP1D, B.

DJ-D. M.; NS'r3 (?).

NJJ'O, B.

Rubus sanctus, Schreh..
or Rubus discolor,
Willd. and Nees.

Rosa, Linn

Pyrus communis, Linn.

P'yrus Syrlaca, Bolss. (?)

Malus communis, Desf..

Cydonia vulgaris, Willd.

Sorbu."*. Linn
Mespllus

Linn.
CratiFgus Azarolus.

Linn.

Rose.
Pear.

Apple.

Quince.
Service-tree.

Germanlca, I Medlar.

Hawthorn.

RCBIACEf.

Rublatlnctorum, Linn.,

Madder.
Rue, and Alep-

RrTACK.K.

Ruta grnveolt-ns. Linn.,
and Uuta Chalepensls,^ po rue
Linn., and varieiyi
bracteosa, Bolss. '

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Name in Misbnata,
Talmud, etc.

lairn r^'Ps, M.. ideo'
tlcalwlihs->ar, B.(?)

."iDXCS, Bible, M.

KPB^n. n'^'j Hs^-n, B.
nan;:, Bible, M.; N.-a^N
Kjiinn, B.

01CS1P, M.; Nce'ir, T.,
B.

pin, Bible, M.(T.,Y..B.)

n'^n.-! '3J?, B

IBK, Bible, NOCN, T

Botanical Name.

Pefranum Harmala,
Linn.

SALICACEiE.

Sallx Safsaf. Forsk.,
or SalLx alba, Linn

Sallx (nigricans. Fries.?)

Populus Eupbratica,

Ollv.

SCROPHrLARIACE^.

Verbascum, Linn

Popular Name.

SESAMACELE.

Sesamum Indlcum,
Linn.

SOLANACE.E.

Solanum coagulans,

Forsk.
Solanum nigrum, Linn.
LyciumKuropseum,

Linn.
Mandragora of ficina-

rum, Linn.

I Tamariscine^.

(Srw, Bible) Nra, B...!Tamarix articulata,
Vahl, and others.

O'Kin, Bible; Nnn3>,
T.; pD'2D, B.

V'jsVd.y

nj'jnnn, M

13DO. M., Y.. B.; -\i
Bible.

mr '3

onnsr'o

OB-iS, M., Y., B

nnnjac 13D13, M.

pj>S'Dna>D, Y.
nn^Dn ('n).m.; m'j^j, b

HM-\3, B.; D3"\|"i, M. (?).
]Ji3U, M.; N-«2i8', Y.;

D'Oie', M. (V).
-\Kn\ M.; 011DP, hniB,

B. (?)

Harrael, Syr-
ian rue or
a variety
of mullein
(Scrophu-
lariace^e).

Willow, or
w h i t e w 1 1 -
low.

Black willow.

Euphrates
poplar (3;'r,
osier, accord-
ing to Hai
Gaon. Salix
vimlnalis,
Linn. [?]).

Mullein (see
Peganum
Harmala,
Linn., under
Rutaceae).

Sesame.

Nightshade.

Nightshade (?).
Box-thorn.

Mandrake.

Tamarisk.

nac M.

l^JICODK, M.. Y

J1D3, Bible, M., T., B..

r"D, Mm Mldr.

nin, M., Y., B..

Tiliacej:.

fiber of Corchorus, Corchorus.
Linn.

UMBKLLIFERiE.

Eryngium Creticum, Button snake-
Lam, root.

Coriandrum sativum. Coriander.
Linn.

Biforatesticulata, DC.(?)

Coriandrum tordylioi-
des, Boiss. (?)

Apium graveolens. Celery.
Linn.

Petroselinum sativum. Parsley.
Hoflm. I

Ammi majus, Linn., Bullwort, bish-
Ammi copticum, op' s-w e e d ,
Linn., and Ammi Vis- Spanish
naga, Linn. toothpick.

Carum Carui Linn Caraway.

Foeniculum oflBcinale, Fennel.
All.

A variety of Ferula.

Anethum graveolens,

Linn.
Daucus Carota, Linn...
Cumlnum Cymlnum,

Linn.

Urticace^.
Celtis australis, Linn. . .

Morufl nigra, Linn.,
Ficus Carlca, Linn.

nj^Kr, Bible, M.;
K.-'rN.-i. T., Y., B.

nci">''2', Bible, M., Midr.;|Flcu8 Sycomorus, Linn
Krpir, T. I

pam.n, M.; pair. Y.... Capriflcus. wild varie-
ties of Ficus Carica,
Linn., variety of Fi-
cus genuina, Boiss.,
of Ficus rupestris,
Uaussk., etc.

Diajp, M. Cannabis satlva, Linn.,

Kainp, T ortlca urens, Linn.

Fennel.

Dill.

Carrot.
Cumin.

Southern hack-
berry.

Black mul-
berry.

Fig.

Sycamore.
Fig

Hemp.

Nettle (?) (see
Tribulus ter-
restils, un-
der Zygo-
phyllaceae
I?]).

Name in Misbnah,
Talmud, etc.

NCJNT ^mp.

Ka ix"\p, corrupted
N^ionp, T. <?).

Botanical Name.

verbe.nacej:.

Avicennia ofHcinalls,
Linn. (?).

ZVGOPHYLLAOl*:.

Tribulus terrestris,
Linn., or Urtlca urens,
Linn.

Popular Name.

Avicennia (?).

Land - caltrop,
or nettle.

The foreign plants mentioned in the Tahnud in-
clude the following, although the Boswellia was
cultivated in Palestine in antiquity :

Hebrew Name.

as'3 nj|i, Bible; 'jp

NCD13, T.
2::n, M

ryiDViJ, M.; •'Sipp, Y., B

t3tJ'ri(nB'i3), M.; N.-nr3
(?).

nir, Bible, T., B., Midr,

rjtap, M. (pcD^BN,

psoSa); DS'a, Bible.
njiaS, Bible, M., T., B.

n.iCD

p:;jp, Bible, M., Y„

Midr.; NDjip.pxm, B.

HDiSip, M

DO'DS, B. (readcD'D)..
DJV

njaSn, Bible, M.. T., B.
csra ^e'Ni

-nj nSias', M., Bible;

KSavi*, T.
SdSd, m., y., b

DiSn, M.; NjnjN, T., B.;
from this, n\n'?n.

Botanical Name.

Acorus Calamus, Linn.
Amomum, Linn

Popular Name.

Sweet-flag, cal-
amus-root.
Amomum.

Cardamom.

Costus.

Amomum Cardamo-

muin

Saussurea Lappa, Clarke

(Aucklandia Costus.,

Falconer ; Glldemels-I

ter and Hoffmann,!

I.e. p. 901).
gum-resin of Commt-I

phora Abyssinica,

Engl., Commiphora!

Schimperi, Engl., and

others.
Balsamodendron Opo- Balsam.

balsamum, Kunth.,

Commiphora Opobal

samum (Linn.), Engl,
frankincense of Bos-
wellia serrata, Roxb.,

and others,
resin of the dragon-tree.

Calamus Draco, Willd

(Dracaena Draco,

Linn., etc.).
(Tlnnamomum Zeylanl-

cum, Nees.

KJNK', B.; from this,
N^iajjr

bark of Cinnamomum

Zeylanicum, Nees.
Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxb.
DiospyrosEbenum,

Retz.
Galbanum from Ferula

galbaniflua, Boiss. and

Buhse.
Myristica fragrans,

Houtt., and others.

Nardostachys Jataman-
si, DC.

Piper nigrum, Linn

Scorodosma (Ferula)
Asafoetlda (Linn.),
Bentb. and Hook.

Tectona grandis, Linn..

Zingiber officinale.
Rose.

Dragon's-
blood.

Cinnamon.

Sissoo-wood.
Ceylon ebony.

Galbanum.

A species of
nutmeg and
mace from
tbe nutmeR-
tree.

Spikenard.

Black pepper.
Asafetida.

Teak.
Ginger.

The following are names of briers not yet identi-
fied: -Nain, mn, Niyv xaia, n'jnvy, }*ip. Tradi-
tion, comparative philology, and botany alike fail
to furnish any aid in the identification of the follow-
ing names of plants, which appear, for the most
part, only once:

pN, M. (N.n>j-\% Y.); nvjTN, M. (not lichens); Ni>r''M, Y.;
NnDf\N, B. (not St.-John's-wort); piai, M.; pniSnSn (pVnSn),
M.; N."i''^Dn, Y.; I'^r, M. (not blossoms of the (tiVtrapos);
nS'C, M. (not the oak or the ash); nrs, B. ; nSnoo, Y. ;
\vy nS;rr:, M. ; n^ama (niflmD), M. ; n.-ti>d-id, Y. ; nn'«j;

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plantfl

(ni-cv). (not Ferboscum, mullein); d^zz' nxy, M.; hm'^i^d (not
(it\i<7<T6<t>v\\ov, balm); p^ nio and varieties; Njta^B'D and
varieties; njjS mp (not Cosfiis ^raWcus, Linn.).

Where tradition is lacking it is extremely diffi-
cult to identify the plant-names recorded in the
Mishnah and Talmud, though inferences may occa-
sionally be drawn from the plants mentioned in
connection witli a problematical term. An instance
of this is the D''D'^3. mentioned together with the
3<nn, carob, St.-John's-bread (Ter. ii. 4; Tosef. v.
33 = Yer. 'Orlah ii. 62a; Yer. Bik.
XJnidenti- iii. 65, 13c; 'Uk. i. 6), and which oc-
fied curs by itself (D'O'^Datr J"':rin"' : Tosef . ,

Names. Ter. vii. 37; Yer. Ter. viii. 45, 68b;
Sifra, Shemot, 57a; Hul. 67a). This
was traditionally explained as a variety of bean
(" Halakot Gedolot," ed. Hildesheimer, 547, 4, where
the correct reading is ■'^pa = TaSHBaZ, iii. 11,
^^pN2), but later was regarded as an acorn. The
proximity of the carob suggested Cercis Siliqiias-
trum, Linn. (Leunis, "Synopsis," § 437, 14), the
Judas-tree, on which Judas Iscariot is said to have
hanged himself, although according to other tradi-
tions he died on an elder or a jujube. Pulse is called
"false carob," aypia ^yXoKeparta (Lenz, "Botanik der
Griechen und Romer," p. 733; Fraas, "Synopsis,"
p. 65; Post, I.e. p. 297). It is, however, to \)g identi-
fied with the Prosopis Stephaniana (Willd.), Spreng.,
which belongs to the same family. This is in ac-
cordance with the view of Ascherson, who was sur-
prised, while in the oases, by the similarity of the
sweet, well-flavored pulp of the fruit of this tree
with that of the St.-John's-bread {ib. p. 298).

In the Geonic Literature : The geonic

period, which came to an end In 1040 (see Gaon),
saw a development of the botanical knowledge of
the Babylonian Jews, as is evident from the deci-
sions of the Geonim and the first great post-Tal-
mudic-halakic work, the " Halakot Gedolot " (cited
hereafter as "H. G."). The chief cultivated plant
that is mentioned in this work for the first time in
Hebrew literature is the sugar-cane. Other im-
portant trees, plants, and fruits mentioned are the
following: tree and fruit of the Musa sapientium,
Linn., the banana, perhaps also a variety of the
Musa paradisiaca, the plantain, under the Arabic
name "mauz," derived from the Sanskrit ("H. G."
66, 19; 57, 5; "Responsa der Geonim, "ed. Lyck, No.
45, p. 18; "Toratanshel Rishonim," ii. 56; "Shibbole
ha-Leket," 12b; RaDBaZ, ed. FUrth, No. 531, a.v.
"Hai"; "Bet Yosef," Orah Hayyim, 208; L5w,
"Aramaische Pflanzennamen," p. 336); Daucus
Carota, Linn., carrot, ITJ (also in Arabic and Syriac,
"H. G." ed. Hildesheimer, 60, 19; ed. Venice, 8. b4;
"E.^hkol,"i. 68, 10; Post, I.e. p. 372; L5w, I.e. p. 86);
"'^131p, Sinapis arvensis, Linn., a variety of mustard,
put in brine in Roman fashion ("H. G." ed. Hildes-
heimer, 72; read thus instead of "i3J1D; Post, I.e.
p. 76; L5w, I.e. p. 178); plums, under the name of
^nxn, like the Syrian " haha " (" H. G."
The ed. Venice, 7, cl5; Law, I.e. p. 149);

"Halakot >3)0 ("H. G." ed. Venice, 8, b23; lack-
Gedolot.'' ing in ed. Hildesheimer, 58, 28 ; " Esh-
kol," i. 68, ■•J10, as in Syriac), a vari-
ety of bean (in this same passage and in "H. G." ed.
Hildesheimer, 547, 5, also ^^'p3, Arabic " bakilta ") ;
1 X.— 6

another variety of bean (L(iw, I.e. p. 245); 'p^J'^n
("II. G." 58, 4-5), myrobaltm, as in Syriac, from the
Arabic "halilaj," not mentioned again until tin- time
of Asaph ben Berechiah, but used later in all the
works on medicine (Steinsciinoider, " Heilmittelnu-
niender Araber," No. 1997; Liiw, I.e. p. 12'J); KH'^C
(" II. G." ed. Venice. 8b. 21-22). the Aramaic form of
the mishnaic DQC, a Persian loan-word, appearing
again in Asjipli ([..iiw, I.e. p. 373) ; mJU ( '0, inarj^inal
gloss in "H. G."(('d. Hildesheimer, 57. 6). a ground-
fruit. In " H. G." 70, last line = " Eshkol." i. 68. the
Arabic "hinnah" is used for the Hiblical "henna"
(LOW, I.e. p. 212).

Other Arabic and Persian names of plants wliirh
are mentioned in works of the Geonim are: JJTnc,
hemp-seed ("H. G." 56, 20; "i:sliko)." i. 68, with
"resh," but in ed. Venice, 7b, rightly with "daiel ";
RaDBaZ, ed. FUrtli, 531, s.v. "Hai"; LOw, I.e. pp.
211, 248); 33Dn. Polypodium (" H. G." Ill, 5; Lilw,
I.e. p. 268); m^^, Bransiea JitijHi,
Persian Linn., turnip ("H. G. "72,21 ; Mislmah.
and Arabic Talmud, nC?; Low, I.e. p. 241); nx;r
Names. D1DDK ("H. G." ed. Venice, 8c), (Jry-
mum boMlieum, Linn., basil; n313V,
pine-nuts {ib. ed. Hildesheimer, 57, 8; ed. Venice,
7d; "Eshkol," i. 67); XT01J("H. G." 57, end; Hai,
in "Responsa der Geonim, Kehillat Shelomoh," ed.
Wertheimer, No. 9; Harkavy, " Responsen der Geo-
nim," p. 28 ; L5w, I.e. p. "286); JD1D, the Arabic
equivalent of D'PDyn DJ^IK', lily (**H. G." 70, end);
KQ^n {ib. 646, 10). A number of Arabic names
of plants may be found in the marginal glosses of
the Vatican manuscript of the "Halakot Gedolot."
as "hasak," thorn, gloss on >yr\ {ib. 160, No. 36);
JDBJ (read JDBJ3), violet, on >^rD {ib. 70. No. 102;
"Eshkol," i.- 68; RaDBaZ, i. 44 = n^lK'1. "Keneset
ha-Gedolah," Orah Hayyim, 204; D^IK'1. responsa,
"Debar Shemuel," No. 2; {^^IK^V Lehush, Ora^i
Hayyim, 216, 8); p^KDII. equivalent to the Arabic
"sil," on p-in("H. G." 92, No. 29; Harkavy. I.e.
p. 209).

The Geonim, especially Hai Gaon (see Hai ben
Sherira), prefer to give their explanations in Ara-
bic. In the responsa the Harkavy edition, for exam-
ple, has " abnus," " shauhat," " sasam "(p. 135 ; Krauss,
"LehnwOrter," ii. 46), "abhul" (p. 23; "Responsa
der Geonim," ed. Cassel, p. 42a), "anjudan " (p. 23).
" babunaj ''{ib. p. 209), " sunbul al-nardin" (p. 29), and
"kurnub" (ib. p. 208). In his commentary on the
Mishnah (Toharot) Hai Gaon gives, as a riile, the
Arabic names of the plants side by side with the
Aramaic terms, as, for example: "isfunj," "asal."
"thayyil" (Harkavy, I.e. p. 22). "jauz buwa."
"juliban," "harshaf," "hulbah" (ib. p. 23).
"hiltith." "haifa," "khiyar," "khayzuran." "dar
sini," "rajlah," "rumman," "za'faran." "sadhab."
"safarjal," "silk," "shuniz," "shaytaraj." "fuU."
"kitha' al-himar," "kirtim," "kar'ah," "ka.^ib al-
bardi." "kummathra," "mahruth," "na'na'."

The Arabic names of plants in the " 'Aruk " are
drawn almost without exception from geonic
sources. The list is as follows (in the order of the
Arabic alphabet):

Alam. OJK (this and 'uyun al- Akak-lya, nv.'^n.
bakar, 8.U. rpDC"^")- ^°^"'' i>.\-n'a^ 'a^ al™ »-

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Baklah. rui^ji'rn (111. 396a).

Bakkam. n£j3-\.

Ballut, cri*^.

Bunduk, |i-»jic.

JlUauz." NJ20 f'^JO.

Juminalz, t"SJ.

Julban, ^^E. nc>J.

5abb al-muluk, rvj3i3i.

Parmal. k">3S'.

yulbah, jrSp.

5alfa, r|Vn.

Qimmls, C'JiCN.

Handakuk, rvjijnj.

^anzal. -ijj3.

khlnva', X3'':'i^x, ynoN.

Khashkhash, J'j-^d.

Dar stnl, prj,-". am. p3t"n

(HI. 161b. 428b).
Dar kisah, nci'^'i"'.
Rajlah, n'^'J"*. ruiSjiSn (11.

Zaghab al-khlyar, ?;• nis'3

■ rwp.

Zarghun, jdj Va' jna*.

Za'rur, n-ity.

Zawan. y:v.

Safarjal, 2"-\o.

Silk, B'jiy'', p^D (1. V9b).

Summak, jin (also s-v. .--a
y3XK, No. 2 in Paris MS.).

Slmslm, =-j-:ir.
Shajar maryam, no^-^'
Shuh, 'mrN.
?aKhir al-adhnab, a'jaip.
Sanaubar, pr }";.

•Af9, NXDN.

'L'kruban. s^jani-'j:.
Ghubalra'. "cSia (inrp.
Fuji. pjs.

Farfahln. r^JiSji'^n.
Fustak, pPD^D is-v. pD).
Fukka', ."v-\BD (s.u. pnc;).
Faljan. nyc-
Fuwwah. riNic.
KakuUah. ^iDi'D (11. 241b).
Karnabit, ■>.-^3">."'.
Karanful, "^oio.
Kutniyya, rvr^"'.
Kuikas, opir' (not t]^'^).
Kabar (kifar), I'-x, Nmc

(viil. 248).
Karratb, n^j'-^s.
Karafs, DD">3.
Kuzburah. ■>3DU "^J.
Kushut, rw2.
Kamah, ]'<7y::j.
Labsan, poS.
Na'na', Krj3.
N'il, DCDS.
Hindaba, "a-'jn.

For a proper understanding of the Talmudic
writings constant reference must be made to the
traditions of the Babylonian schools, preserved in
the decisions, commentaries, and compendiums of
the Geonim and their pupils. Most
Hai Gaon. Jewish statements about plants like-
wise rest on such traditions, of which
the greatest number is preserved in the writings of
Hai Gaon. Hehasalsokeptanumberof old Aramaic
words in his explanations, such as ND'H, radish;
N^31p, camomile; NJKa^''n(N^a^3n[?] ; LOw.^.c. pp.
140, 309, 326; Harkavy, I.e. p. 209). R. Hananeel
BEN Hushiel preserved a considerable amount of
botanical information from geonic sources, and this
was made more generally known by the " 'Aruk."
For example, he strikingly describes sago as "a
substance like meal, found between the fibers of the
palm" (Kohut, "Aruch Completum," vi. 65a); co-
conuts as coming from India {ib. vi. 10a) ; arum (S)"ip)
as a plant whose roots are eaten as a vegetable with
meat, and which has leaves measuring two spans
in length and two in breadth {ib. v. 29a); and reeds
as growing after their tops have been cut off {ib. iii.
420b). Mention is made of a prickly food for camels
{ib. ii. 180b), as well as of castor-oil and its use {ib.
vii. 19b). Lupines and a certain other
Hananeel pulse, he declares, do not grow in
b. Hushiel. Babylon {ib. vi. 229b). He is unable to
describe Peganum Harmnla, Linn., ac-
curately, but says it is one of the plants used for
medicinal purposes, while its small, blackish seed,
which has a strong and unplea.sant smell, is very hot
{ib. viii. 19b), in the technical sense of the Greek
medical writers; it is mentioned here for the first
time in rabbinical literature (Meyer. "Gesch. der
Botanik," ii. 192; comp. Galen, xii. 82: "It is hot
in the third degree"). According to Sherira Gaon,
pU seeds are hot, and therefore the seed-bearing
onion-stalk also is hot (Kohut, I.e. v. 330a; these
are the first traces of Greek medicine in rabbinical

literature). Cedar-wood becomes moist in water, but

fig-wood remains dry (" Da'at Zekenim, Hukkat,"

beginning), according to Saadia Gaon,

Saadia. whose translation of the Bible is the
chief source of many identifications
of Biblical plants, since, where definite traditions
were lacking, he introduced definite Arabic terms
to make his translation readable (Bacher, "Die
Bibelexegese," p. 6).

In conclusion, a few more botanical details from the
writings of the Geonim may be mentioned : the ac-
curate differentiation of capers, their buds, blossoms,
fruit, and parts; the correct explanation of "'aspara-
gus " as the tender roots of cabbage, not asparagus
(Harkavy, I.e. p. 196); and an accurate definition of
n'DIp {ib. p. 179). Hai Gaon clearly describes the
Cuscuta(e6. p. 215; LOw, I.e. p. 231) and the heads of
camomile, and gives a brief account of the XK'01"13
= Arabic "' giiubaira' " (Harkavy, I.e. p. 28; "Ke-
hillat Shelomoh, " ed. Wertheimer, No. 9). The arti-
choke is also well characterized by Sherira and Hai
when they say that the spines are taken off, and the
inside of the plant iseaten(Abu al- Walid, Dictionary,
115. 17; 392, 4 [ed. Bacher] ; D. Kimhi, "Miklol,"«.t!.
lyiy). One geonic writer, probably Hai, identifies
niyipD ■^vith the eggplant, but for historical reasons
this can not be accepted.

In the geonic period Eldad ben Maiili ha-Dani
invented his "darmush" for pepper, and also de-
clared that neither thorns nor thistles grow in the
lands of the Lost Ten Tribes (D. H. Miiller, "Die
Kccensionen und Versionen des Eldad
Eldad ha-Dani," pp. 18, 68, Vienna, 1892),
ha-Dani. which devote themselves to tlie culti-
vation of flax {ib. p. 1). To the same
period belongs the medical work of Asaph ben Bere-
CHiAii, which is based upon the Syriac translation of
Dioscorides, and has thus preserved many Syriac
names of plants. Shortly after Asaph came Shab-
bethai Donnolo (946), who was primarily a writer
on medicine. In the "Sefer ha-Yakar." ch. iii.-iv.,
however, he enumerates the plants that improve or
injure the quality of honej'.

The list of thirty varieties of fruit given by
pseudo-Ben Sira is noteworthy, even though it is
borrowed from Greek sources. The passage is dis-
cussed by Low {I.e. pp. 2 et seq.) with reference to
Mas'udi {ib. p. 4; see also Brull, "Jahrb."i. 205).
Even before Low, Noldeke had suggested that
there were Arabic recensions of the passage (LOw,
I.e. p. 417); and their existence is evident not only
from Mas'udi but also from Tabari (" R. E. J." xxix.
201). According to Stcinschneider ("Hebr. Bibl."
1882, p. 55), the thirty varieties of fruit are mentioned
as Palestinian also by Hayyim Vital in Natan Spira's
"Sha'are Yerushalayim," vi. 6, end.

In the Post-Geonic Period : Information

concerning the knowledge of plants in the post-
geonic period must be sought in the translations of
the Bible, the commentaries on the Bible and Tal-
mud, and the lexicons. Here it will be sufficient
to mention some of the statements of R. Gershom,
the 'Aruk, Rashi, and a few other writers.

In the commentaries which are probably correctly
ascribed to him R. Gershom ben Judah has the
oldest foreign words (KOnigsberger, " Fremdsprach-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

liche Glossen, I.— R. Gerschom b. Jehiida," 1896;
Brandin, "Les Loazim de R. Geislioin," iu "Publ.
Ecole iSationale des Cliartes," pp. 15 ct scq., Tou-
louse, 1898; "R. E. J." Nos. 83, 84, 85. Braiuiiii
consulted the mauuscripts also; but, strangely
enough, he has not the gloss 13''D^D, B. B. 2b, and
this is also lacking in Low's aliihabctical list of Gcr-
shom's foreign words). Braudiu transcribes the
following foreign plant-names: "aveine," wild bar-
ley ; " bayes," fruits of the laurel ; " boso " (Italian),
"bois," boxwood; "cro," "crocu orientel," salTron ;
"honilon," hop; "kmel" ("ehmiel," Slavonic);
" kos," " kost," costmary ; " laSre " (Italian, " lasero "),
laserwort; "lesche," sedge; "lor," laurel ; "molse,"
moss; "ortyes," nettles; "pores,"

R. Ger- leek; "sape," fir-tree; "sigle," rye;

shorn. "spicu," ear of corn, spikenard;

" tel," linden-tree ; " ternure," ternage ;

"tora," torus (Menahem b. Solomon, mn) ; " wa-

ranze," madder-root; and y^P (<'" pt^* |*y, Tamid

29b).

The linden is mentioned here for the first time in
Jewish literature. Later, npK is translated " linden "
iu Germany (Grlinbaum, I.e. p. 27), and Baruch
Lindau (1788) renders mt^X by " linden." The only
linden that Post {I.e. p. 8) knows in Palestine is the
Tilia argentea, Desf., the Oriental silver linden,
Avhich grows in the region of the Amana. No linden
is mentioned as coming from Egyjit (Ascherson and
Schweinfurth, "Flore d'Egypte*" p. 53). Nor did
the Syrians know liow to translate (pil'vpa, the name
of silver linden; the Arabic rendering by Berggren
(in a manuscript belonging to the Deutsche Morgen-
landische Gesellschaft) is "zihr al-mahlab." The
word "thore," mentioned above, also is of interest,
as R. Gershom ben Judah is the oldest source for
the word.

According to Gustav Schlessinger, Rashi has the
following French names of plants:

French Name.

Aloe's (aloine).. .
Aloisne, aliilsne.
Amandelier.
Amerfoille.

Aneth

Apje

ArisUilocbe (?)..

Arnica (?)

Asperelle

Asperge

Avene

Bale

Balsine

Blet

Bolet

Broce

Bills

Caprler

Cep

Cerfiiel, cerfoll..

Cerise

Cerque

Chardon

C h a s t a 1 K n e .
chastalgnier.

Chesne

Chiche

Clpoule, ciboule,

Coinz

Coldre

Conrombre

Corme, cormier

Colon

Englisli
Name.

Aloes.
Wormwood.

Dill.

Smallage.
Birthwort.
Arnica.
Horsetail,
shave-grass.
Asparagus.
Oats.
Berry.
Balsam.
Wild blite.
Boletus.
Shrubs.
Bo,x\vood.
Caper-bush.
Vine-stock.
Chervil.
Cherry.
Oak.
Thistle.
Chestnut.

Oak.

Chickpea.
Shallot, clbol.
Quince.
Hazelnut.
Cucninber.
Sorb, service-
tree.
Cotton.

French Name.

Cresson

Croc, groc.

Fglantier

Eliandre

Erbe felchiere . .
Erbe sabonaire..
Erugue.

Espeltre

Espic, spic

Fspine

Fasele, faseole . .
Fenocle, fenoil..
Fenugrec, fene-

gre.

Galle

Galvan

Geneivre, geni-

evre.

Girofle

G land

Grespignolo,

crespigno (?).
Guesde, waisde .
Homlon.
lerre. ere. edre. .

Jote, jotte

June, ]onc

Laitiigiie

I.anbruis

Lasre

Lesche

Lor

Lupine

Maro

Malve

English
Name.

Cress.

Eglantine.
Oleander.
Fern.
Soapwort.

Spelt, [nard.
Nard, spike-
Thorn.
Kidney-bean.
Fennel.
Fenugreek.

Oak-apple.
Galbanum.
Juniper-

berry.
Clove.
Acorn.

Woad.

Ivy.

Beet.

Rush.

Lettuce.

Wild vine.

Laserwort.

Sedge.

Laurel.

Lupine.

Poppy.

Mallow.

French Nunie.

Marrubje

M.'lon

Mcnte

Meiirlcr. moll-
rler.

Mil

Molse

Nesple, niiple . . .
Nlele

F.ngll8b
Name.

Oline

OrUe

Oseille

Osre, osier

Faille, poile fo-
arre {'<)■

Funis, penlz

rnsitV|ue

I'erseche, pre-
seche.

Peupller, pou-
pller.

Plan(;on (?)

I'oiuel.

Porchallle, por-
chilague.

Pore, porele

PoulieuLpouUol,
poliol.

Provain

Prune, prunler. .

Pulpiet, pour-
pier.

Hoarbound.

Melon.

Mint.

Mulberry
tree.

Millet.

Mods.

Medlar.

11 o B e - c n m
plon, rnul-
leln-plnk.

Elm.

Nettle.

isorri-l.

lOsllT.

Isiruw.

French Name.

Panic-grass.
Waleniielon.
Peucli.

Poplar.

Pine-tree.
Sapling.

Purslane.

Pore.

Slip.

Plum-tree.

Purslane.

Pyr&thre

Kafne

Ilonce

RoHe

rt'ittell, roMiaii.. .

Kude

Sadree.

Sale**

Siilve<', i-elvle.

Saiiibuc.

Slip.

s<'igle

.Sevol

Sorbler, cormier,

Souche

Tnn

Thore

ril, Icil, tel

Tn-lljf

Tn-iiible

Troche

Tudel, pecce

Vedllle

Veranee, va-
rance.

Verdure

Vice, vece..,..
VIole, viol^ . ..
Zinzlbre

BpaiiUh rnnin-
iiille. fcvur-

fl'W.

ItHdUh.

u luck berry -

bllhh.

lOrW.

Rue.
Willow.

EnglUb
Name.

tree.

Kye

He<lge.

Servl<-<'

sorb.
Stunip.
Tan.

Crowfofit.
LInden-harl.
Vlne-urlKjr.
Aspen.
Cluster of

flowers or

fruit.
Halm.
Tendril.

Verdure.
Vcich.
Vloli-t.
Ginger.

Most of the "loazim" of the Mahzor Vitry, ad-
mirably discussed by Gustav Schlessinger, come
from Rashi. Among the names of plants arc:

Araerfollle

Apje

Aspic

Cerfeuil

Chanve

Chardon

Cresson

Crlspigno

Croc
Cumin
Eliandre (for

coriandre)
Erbe felchiere
Erbe sabonaire
Erugue
Glanz

Gome

Homlon

Jonc

Laitugue

Marrubje

Mire (myrrhe)

Nlele

Pels (pois)

Port-

Poulplet

Pnin

Rafne

Reslne

Rude (rue)

Safran

The Arabic names of plants found in the " "Aruk"

of R. Nathan b. Jehicl have already been given, since

they are derived for tlie most part.

The though not exclusively, from gconic

'Aruk. sources. Ilis vernacular glosses, in

part taken from Gershom, are better

preserved than Rashi 's foreign words, of whicli

twelve are lacking iu Kohut's Italian index.

[In the following list the references, unless otherwise stated,
are to Kohut, "Aruch Completum."]

Albatro (vl. 185a).

Aloe (i. 2.5'Jb).

Aneto (viil. ~'4a).

Appio (iv. 341a; "R. E. J."
xxvii. 241).

Armoracclo (vll. 28b).

Asparago (iv. l.'>8a).

Assafetida (error for "la-
sero").

Atreplce (v. 49b).

Avellana (11. 4~'a): nocella (vl.
3()7b ; Menahem b. Solomon,
"SekelTob," p. xil.).

A vena (see segale).

Balsamo (vli. 84b).

Bambagia (vli. 2.'ib).

Ba.>islllco (Iv. 234b).

Bieta. bliti (1. T9b. 138b; Sl-
ponto [hereafter cited as
Sip.l on Kll. i. 3; not "ble-
tola").

Bosso, busso (I. 314a, vl. 328a).

Braslle (vll. STTb; Sip. on

Kll. II. .'■)>.
Canapa (vll. 131a; Sip. on Kll.

V. 8: "R. E. J."xxvll.246).
Canella (111. I6lb).
Cappero (v. 374b, vl. 421a, vll.

21a; Sip. on Dem. I. 1:

Ma'as. Iv. 6).
Cardl dom««tlcl (vl. 90b: Sip.

on Slieb. Ix. 5; comp. car-

(Inton-, vl. 144 1.
Cardo (vl. 19(5a ; " R. E. J."

xxvll. 248).
Caretto, not corteccia (111.

408a).
Cerasa (111. 5b).
CIcen-hla. cicercia (III. 431b.

vl. 3018, b; Sip. on Kll. 1. !).
CIcerl (I. 22na: Sip. on Kll.

111.2; Peah III. 3).
Clnnnmomo (III. 3(6a).
Colocasla (v. 28b ).

Plants
Pledges

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Coriandro, culiandro (Li. 239a.

241b, iv. 272a; Meaahem,

"Sekel Tob." p. xii.; Sip.

on Kil. i. 2; Sbeb. ix. 1;

"R. E. J." xxvii. 245, note).
Conne (French) salvatico (iv.

333a).
Costo (vil. &la, 223b; Sip. on

Kil. i. 8).
Cotogna (til. 313a; "R. E. J."

xxvii. 24J5 : Sip. on Kil. 1. 1).
Crespino (vi. 2U»a ; " R. E. J."'

xxvii. 216; Menahem, I.e.

p. xi.).
Croco orientale (vi. 329b, vli.

310b).
D&ttile. gloss (vi. 32b).
Eliotropio <vi. 252b).
Ellera. edera (iil. 472a, vil.

IKJb; "R. E.J." xxvii. 247;

Sip. on Kil. V. 8).
Erbaglaucio lii. 290b).
Fagiuolo, fasolo (vi. 301b ; Sip.

on Kil. i. 2).
Fava, faba, faba blanca (vi.

301b; Sip. on Kil. i. 1).
Ferula (viii. 19b).
Finocchio, fenuclo (iv. 158a,

viii. 61a; "R. E.J." xxvii.

245 ; Sip. on Sheb. ix. 1) .
ForragRio (i. 190a).
Fungo (iil. lib. vi. 318b; **R.

E. J." xxvii. 248).
Galla (iii. 431b).
Garofano, giroflo (Iv. 301b;

"R. E.J." xxvii. 242).
Gelso (il. 129b; o'^'X on •'aSi'?

hSkh ; Sip. on Sheb. vti. 5 ;

'D'^'X, Ma'a.s. i. 2).
Glande (v. 36a. 393a ; vi. 104b) .
Gomma (ti. 378b. vii. 122a).
Indaco, Indicum (i. 172a; Sip.

on Kil. li. 5).
Indivia (error for "sena-

zione").
Isopo (vi. 2b ; Sip. on Sheb.

viii. 1).
Lambrusco (ii. 339b).
Lasero puzzolento or purulen-

to (Menahem. I.e., ikjnSid),

not laserpitium (iii. 421a).
Lattuga (iii. 364b ; " R. E. J."

xxvii. 243, Kiya^, NpioS;

Menahem, I.e. ; Sip. on Kil.

i. 2).
Laudano (error for "ladano")

(v. 18b).
Lauro (vi. 2.56b ; " R. E. J."

xxvii. 243).
Legume (vii. 83a ; Sip. on Hal.

1.4).
♦Llsca (vi. 7.5n).
Lupino (false reading, 11. 362a,

iv. 333a).
Malva (iil. 246b. 404b ; vl. 391a;

Sip. on Kil. 1.8).
Marrobbio (v. oSb, vlll. 245a ;

"R. E. J." xxvii. 244 ; Men-
ahem, I.e.).
Menu (i. l.Jla ; v. 181a. ^9b ;

"R. E.J." xxvll. 243).
Mora (vlll. 291a).
*Nervolo (?. vl. 30b; ''hyy-\(i.

Sip. on Kil. 1. 1; iSiaij.

Caleb Afendopolo, Kil. 16b ;

Kohut, "Aruch Comple-

tum," ervolo [?].
Nigella (vli. 17.-)b. lii. 306b;

not gloglio. logllo, but ni-
gella. corn-campion, con-
fused with darnel).
Nocella (see avellana).
Orlgano (vl. 2b ; Sip. on Sheb.

vill. 1).

0r20 (vii. 256b).

Papavero (vi. 410).

Pastlnaca (v. 346b).

Pera (i. 25a; Sip. on Kil.

i.4).
Persica (1. 242a).
Pigna (vi. 239b).
Pilatro (iii. 243b. 441b).
Pisi (pisello ; vi. 301b; Sip. on

Kil. i. 1).
Polio (iii. 248b ;vl. 315b, 2b;

Sip. on Sheb. viii. 1).
Porri (iv. 342b; "R. E. J."

xxvii. 245; Sip. on Sheb.

vii. 1; Kil. i. 2).
Procacchia, porcacchia (ill.

395a, iv. 263a, vii. 253a ; Sip.

on Sheb. ix. 1).
Pmgua (iii. 155a, iv. 351b, vl.

294a ;"R. E. J." xxvii. 248);

Ni'D rzn-\si'h— ti-f^^B (vi.

412a; Mussafla, Jujubes, ac-
cording toBuxtorf),'|i-ix''ic,

\">''X^iO (viii. 281a; Ben

Sira, " Pflanzenuamen," 3;

Caleb Afendopolo, twice

with " r." Kohut, I.e. iv.

263a, is incorrect) .
Radice (v. 361b ; Sip. on Kil.

i..5).
Ramolaccio (see armoracclo).
Robbia (vii. 175b; Sip. on

Sheb. v. 4, N^n).
cncn (vi. 196a; neither ra-

muccio nor rusco).
Rosmarino (iii. 410a; "R. E.

J." xxvii. 246).
N^n. N-\''n, n'l (111. 262a).
Ruchetta oruga (i. 305a, iv.

34.5a ("Ruca di Petro";

Sip. on Sheb. i. 1).
Ruta (vi. 291b; "R. E. J."

xxvii. 246 ; Sip. on Kil. i. 8 ;

Sheb. ix. 1).
Salvatico, selvatico (vi. 355b).
Sanguine (iii. 241b).
Satureia (iii. 511a; v. 349b;

vi. 2b, 173a).
Segale (n^P'^d, Sip. on Kil. 1. 1),

variant reading, avena (vlll.

13b; NJM\ Menahem, I.e.).
Senazione (Iii. 222a; Caleb

Afendopolo, Kil. 17a,

■*J«rx), domestlche and fo-

restiche (vl. 210a), not sonco

(comp. "R. E. J." xxvii.

241).
Sesamo (viii. 109b).
Sisimbrlo (i. 297a, vl. 2b ; Sip.

on Sheb. viii. 1).
Sorbo (vl. 185a; see "alba-

tro," "R. E.J." xxvii. 218;

Sip. on Dem.l. 1).
Sorgo (viii. 144a).
Spelda, espelta (111. 168a;

NX^'Dtt', Menahem, I.e.; Sip.

on KU. 1. 1).
Splcanardi (v. 334b, viii. 13a;

"R. E. J." xxvii. 242).
Tartufo, tartufolo (vl. 318b;

"R. E. J." xxvii. 248).
Vecda (Hi. 221b. iv. »l,3b, vl.

liOlb; Sip. on Kil. I. 1).
Zenzero (ill. .30.Ta ; "R. E. J."

xxvii. 247; >i3fr. Sip. on Ur-
iah 11.10).
Zenzevero, zenzlberl (ii.

31tib).
Zizzanladl. 233) Is wrong, even

if the word were Italian ; it

Is Aramaic, however.
Zizzlba (?) (III. 321b).
Zucchero (iii. 47.3a) is iriD.

and is not Italian.

Cocco

Espino

Rise

Costola

Fenugreco

Rosa

di cavolo

Lupino

Salvia

Cucuraeri

Meli porcaroll

Senape

Endivia

Miglio

Sicomorl

E.-ipioa vulpl

Mirtilli

Timo

In the twelfth century R. Isaac ben Melchize-
DEK OF SiPONTO took over from the " 'Aruk " forty-
one Italian names of plants and a few
R. Isaac Arabic ones, while the Greek terms,
Siponto. such as Of/?.ic and ^v/.oKepara, and the
following Italian words occur for the
first time in his work :

Aglio

Amandola

Carruba

Carvi

Ciceri llmpldl

Cicorea

Clpolla

A large number of his plant-names still await iden-
tification. Asparagus proper, which has erroneously
been supposed to be mentioned in the Talmud
(Krauss, "Lehnw5rter," ii. 93), seems to occur first in
Isaac'scommentary onSheb. ix. 1 as»'T13T="lDD^X,
"sparagio" (cited in " Kaftor wa-Ferah," 107b, Ber-
lin; J1SDN, corresponding to. the Arabic " hilj'aun "
= "asparagus"; see Aldabi, "Shebile Emunah," p.
75a; Tobias Cohen, 151a: D'tOIB' or p'i5\T is wild
asparagus; j'lni', the cultivated kind). Isaac is
also the first post-Talmudic author to mention the
cornel or dogwood (corniolo ; Kpavia), in the passages
Peah i. 5, Ma'as. i. 2, where he rejects the view that
it is identical with Jis, sumac.

Maimonides gives the names of plants exclusively
in Arabic in his commentary on the Mishnah ; and
these terms have been discussed by LOw in his
"Aramiiische Pflanzennamen," on the basis of the
Berhu manuscripts of this gloss. In his medical wri-
tings likewise Maimonides follows the Arabic phar-
macology; for instance, ninety-one vegetable reme-
dies are mentioned in Ins " Dietetics " ; but these be-
long rather to the history of medicine. From his
"Moreh" mention may be made of the story of the
Nabatsean cultivation of the mandrake and althea
("Moreh," French transl. by Munk, iii. 235), the
reference to indigo (ib. i. 392), and the expression
"like a locust-bean," meaning "practically worth-
less" (ih. 1. 157). Maimonides has won a lasting
name in the history of botany. Even after Sprengel
("Gesch. der Botanik," i. 178) had tried to identify
the plants mentioned in the mishnaic tractate Kila-
yim, basing his investigation on the Latin transla-
tion of the commentary of Maimonides in the edition

of the Mishnah by Surenhuis, Mayer

Mai- ("Gesch. der Botanik," iii. 220), allu-

monides. ding to the plants mentioned in "'Uk-

zin," declared that Maimonides had
given his interpretations with discrimination and
had displaj'ed an unmistakable knowledge of bot-
any ; but that, though he had a wide acquaintance
with plants, his explanations were drawn chiefly
fiom school traditions, and were not the result of
independent investigation. Proceeding on the an-
thropocentric theory of the universe, Maimonides
declares in his introduction to the Mishnah that trees
and plants were created for tlie nourishment or heal-
ing of man, even though in some cases he fails to
recognize this, or has never known it; and although
the uses of all tiie plants on the earth may not yet
be understood, each successive generation will be-
come acquainted with new herbs and fruits which
will prove of great advantage to it.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants
Pledges

Of the later halakic writers the only one to be
mentioned here is Estori Fakiii (flourished in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries),
Estori who made a careful geographical and
Farhi. scientific exploration of Palestine.
His remarks on plants in his " Kaftor
wa-Ferah " may readily be seen in the third index of
Luncz's edition of that work, for which Low ar-
ranged the data in their proper order. The com-
ments in Wiesner's Hungarian biography of Farhi
(p. 31, Budapest, 1896) on certain botanical notes of
the hulakist are very inadequate. Farhi 's statements
regarding shallots and onions in Syria are note-
worthy, as are also his identification of Cordia Myxa,
his accounts of Musa and Bndingan, and the collo-
quial Arabic name for Pyrns Syriaca (Boiss.), equiva-
lent to 'OtJID^K, which explains the Syriac KD'^DID
(Low, I.e. p. 208).

According to Buber("Sekel Tob," Introduction,
p. xi.), Menahem b. Solomon (1139) has the follow-
ing names of plants in addition to the
Menahem list already quoted from the " 'Aruk " :
b. Solomon, -jmn KTlJ on NSOn; 'rVIIQ "'mJ
on pj-'J-in; nin on n-'-n (probably de-
noting R. Gershom's "thora"); in^ on n"'J03: its
resin 1031^; 'l^llp'V, chicory (see Isaac Siponto
above); iDHin on p^niH; 1PJ''12K' on 01^.

In order to define the heterogeneous plants more ac-
curately, the Karaite Caleb Afendopolo of Adria-
uople (end of the 15th cent.) arranged an alphabetical
list of about sixty plant-names, and, following Mai-
monides in the main, tried to identify the plants and
explained them in Arabic, Turkish, modern Greek,
and Rumanian. Of this list, which appeared in the
appendix to "Adderet Eliyahu," the
Caleb following may be mentioned as of
Afendo- botanical importance: D'K'Un he re-
polo, gards as medlars, called also nvt^'^on
(Low, I.e. p. 114; "R. E. J. "xviii.
112, on "nespole"; Joseph Perles, "Beitrage zur
Gesch. der Hebraischen und Aramilischen Studien,"
pp. 135 et seq.), because they have five seeds. He
relates that the banana, T1XD, was described by
Japheth ha-Levi (953) as a cross between the date-
palm and the colocasia; while he (Afendopolo)
learned from the Karaite Joseph ha-Kohen that it
was a cross between the date-palm and the sugar-
cane. Joseph told him also that the colocasia had a
rootstock as large as an ox-hcad, and that it w^as the
daily food in Egypt, where one head often brought
as much as 900 dirhems. He describes the cucum-
ber {Cucumis Chnte, Linn.), which was widely cul-
tivated in Egypt, as very long and as thick as the
finger {ib. vii. 17b). The "nabk" {Zizyjihus spina-
Christi, Linn.), Christ's-thorn, he describes as sweet,
and as large as a hazelnut (see Post, I.e. p. 201),
while its shell was half red and half green, and its
kernel was like that of an olive or common jujube.
In his time, as at present, the tree was very common
in Egypt (Ascherson and Schweinfurth, I.e. p. 59).
Why Afendopolo ("Adderet Eliyahu," Appendix, p.
16c) uses the Hebrew or Aramaic KVn (L5w, I.e. p.
225) for " parsley " is not clear.

In connection with Afendopolo two older Karaite
lexicographers may be mentioned, David b. Abka-

1IAM(A1-Fasi)and Ali b. Sidalnmn, in whose works,

according to Pinsker's extracts ("Likkute Kadmo-

iiiyyol," pp. 206 d hoj.), the fallowing

David names of plants are nieutiuned: **^n-

Al-Fasi dal/'D'^nX. sundalwoijd ; " ma'atar"or

and Ali b. " zaatur, " aUN . "' wisum " or " abnus,"

Sulaiman. D'Dj!?N, ebony ; " kamu."nn»<, fuiiguB;

" ka/,ljarah,"*l3, ctjriander ; "saj,"lQl3;

"khatmiyah," nioSn; "zaarur" or "ansul," pvyj;

"wars" or "nilular," mj; "sa'atar" (= "zu'ular").

IQID; "dulb,"pD-iy; " l.ianzal." niypD; "karfah"or

"kist," nip; "karnafal,"pD:p; " kuzah," "sliuniz,"

nvp (Pinsker, erroneously. D'^JVa ]nh: ".salikhah."

n^nt'; "sant," D't3L''; " jummaiz," nopt;'; "sharhin."

"abhal," "saj," or "siiiniasiiar," -i,-nn "Henna"

in Pinsker, I.e. p. 212, note 2, is an error.

BnJLiOGRAPHY : Gcorgi' E. Post, Flora of .S)/r(a. T'alfi^ine,
and Sinai from the TauruK (o lian Muhnmnuul, niut from
the Medi(erraui(Ui Sea to the Syrian iJexi rl, Beirut, 1W«1;
J. Bornmullor, Kin Deitran zur Krnntni.Ks <ler flora ron
Surien und Paid.^tina (In Verhnnillruiurn ilir /.onlmiiiTh-
IiotaniiiChcJi GeitelUehaft in Wien. inyHi; l>-n|,i;irl Kunck,
Streifzlii/e Durch die BihliMrhc Flora, Frt-ibiiru-lin-Brvls-
gau, 1900. with a complete blbllograpby, pp. xl. tt ««</.

E. G. H. I. Lo.

PLATON(PLATYON)OFROME: Scholar of

the second century c.k. Like T()(li»s( Thcodorus) the
Roman, his probable contemporary, Plalon s(jught
to inspire his persecuted coreligionists with resigna-
tion and steadfastness, reminding them tliat others
had suffered before them for their faith and liad been
ultimately delivered. "Hananiah, Misiiael. and
Azariah," said he, "derived courage to resist Nebu-
chadnezzar, at the risk of being burned " (Dan. iii.
13), from the Scriptural assurance (Dcut. iv. 29),
"If from thence thou slialt seek the Lord tiiy God.
thou shall find him, if thou seek him with all thy
heart and with all thy soul" (Midr. Teh. xxviii. 1).
Platon construes literally the Scriptuml sjiying
(Deut. iv. 11), " Ye came and stood under the moun-
tain." According to him, Sinai was detached from
the earth and suspended in the air, while tiie Israel-
ites stood under it (Cant. R. viii. 5; comp. Abdimi
B. Hamar).

Bibliography: Vogelsteln and RleRcr, Oesch. dcr Judcn in
Rom. 1. 109 et seq., 176.
E. c. S. M.

PLEDGES : The law against taking pledges for
debt is drawn from the following passages: "No
man shall take the mill or the upper millstone to
pledge : for he taketh a man's life to pledge " (Deut.
xxiv. 6, R. v.), "nor [shall he] take the widow's
raiment to pledge" {i'Ij. xxiv. 17. R. V.); "And if
he be a poor man, thou shalt not sleep with his
pledge: thou shalt surely restore to him." etc. (ib.
xxiv. 12-13, R. V): and Ex. xxii. 26 to like effect.
The " taking to pledge " in these passages is under-
stood as meaning a seizure to secure an overdue
debt, not the taking of a pledge by consent at the
time of a loan.

The oral law goes in its interpretation far beyond

the letter of Scripture. The Mishnah .says (H. M.

ix. 13): "He wliotjikesamill topledgc

In the breaks a negative conunand. and is

Mishnah. guihy for eacii of twoimplemcnt.s, the

lower and the upper millstone [refcr-

rinnto Deut. xxiv. 6]; and this applies not only to

a mill, but to any implement wherewith life-giving

Pledges

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

food is made, for it is said, ' he taketh man's life to
pledge.'" "One does not distrain the goods of a
widow, whether she be poor or rich " (referring to
ib. xxiv. 17). "He must return the pillow for the
night, and the plow for the day; but if the debtor
dies, they need not be returned to the heirs." The
seizure in this way is of use to the creditor only to
preserve his lien and to prevent the debt from run-
ning out in the year of release. Elsewhere ('Ar.
vi. 3), on the occasion of an execution on behalf of
the Sanctuary, but as a rule applicable to all debts,
the Mishnah reserves to the debtor (1) food for thirty
days; (2) clothing for a year, bed and bedding, san-
dals, and phylacteries; (3) to a mechanic his tools,
such as adzes and saws, two of each kind, and, ac-
cording to R. Eliezer also, to a farmer his yoke of
beasts for the plow, and to a carrier his ass. But ac-
cording to the prevailing opinion (' Ar. 23b), oxen and
asses are not regarded as tools and are not exempt.

There is a discussion in the Talmud (Shab. 128a)
as to what should be done in the case of a man
heavilj- in debt and clothed in a robe worth 2,500
shekels. Should it be taken from him and clothing
suited to his position given him? R. Ishmael an-
swers, "All Israelites are the sons of kings, and no
garment is above their rank." From these passages
in Mishnah and Talmud the Shulhan 'Aruk draws
the following rules (Hoshen Mishpat, 97) :

The officer of the court can not seize a hand-mill,
but a water-mill is landed estate, and, without being
actually seized, is treated like lands (see Appr.\ise-
mext). But if the creditor undertakes to remove
parts of a water-mill, they become personalty and ex-
empt. Pans and pots for cooking, a knife for slaugh-
tering, and the like, are "implements for life-giving
food." If such things are taken to pledge, the
creditor must return them. Accord-
Further ing to R. Moses Isserles, such tools as
Develop- barber's scissors are not exempt, nor
ment. are beasts of the plow. Scissors for
cutting gra.ss are clearly exempt, the
grass being food. If a man has five hand-mills in
use, none of them can be seized ; but if only one is
in use, the others are subject to seizure. Food itself
is subject after the lawful allowance is set aside.

The officer can not seize a garment which the
debtor has on his body, nor the ves.sel from which
he is eating, and he must leave a couch or bench to
sit upon, and a bed and mattress to sleep upon.
Though seizing all the rest, he must return bed-
clothes for the niglit, and tools for tiie daytime. It
should be remembered that household goods are not
sold, but simply held as security; other goods are
sold after the lapse of thirty days. The obligation
to return household goods holds even when the
debtor is rich in lauded estate.

The officers who arrange satisfaction say to the
debtor: "Bring all your movuble property, not
keeping buck as much as one needle."
Exemp- From the whole they set aside for him
tions from provisions for thirty days (as a "mid-
Pledge, dling man," says R. Moses Isserles,
though he had lived like a poor man
before) and clothes for twelve months, excepting,
however, silken garments or a gold-embroidered
turban; .these things they take from him, and give

him a sufficient supply of clothing better suited to
his condition (contrary to R. Ishmael's view). They
set aside also bed, mattress, and bedclothes, but these
things are not set aside as exempt if they are the prop-
erty of the wife and children, who simply keep what
they have; for it is the husband's duty to support
them. Sandals and phylacteries are exempt. A me-
chanic is allowed a double set of tools (as in the
Mishnah); farm- or draft-animals are not set aside,
nor the skipper's ship or boat, nor the professional
scholar's books. The creditor has priority over the
wife's right of maintenance, but he can not seize her or
her children's clothing, nor the cloth which has been
dyed for their use, nor the shoes bought for them, even
though they have not been worn, nor books bought
for the children's education. According to some
opinions, the finer clothes for the wife's wear on Sab-
baths and festivals are not exempt, and certainly' gar-
ments containing gold or silver clasps, if bought by
the husband for the wife, are subject to his debts.
Where, however, they form part of her dowry they
are exempt.

The allowances named above are to be set aside
from either land or personalty. There is some dis-
pute as to whether the allowance ("siddur") is to
be set aside where the debt has been incurred for
wages or for the hire of beasts, and not for money
or property ; also as to how far the debtor can waive
the allowance when contracting a loan. But the
debtor can not waive the exemption of "implements
for life-giving food, "as no stipulations can be made
contrary to the provisions of the Torah. However,
the Hoshen Mishpat closes the subject with a
clause which might defeat all these humane provi-
sions: if the debtor has sworn that he will pay the
debt, he must give up even his last shirt — a clause
which allows the parties to supersede by private
arrangement the words of the Law.

Maimonides, who treats of exemptions in the

" Yad,"Malweh, iii., says nothing about the debtor's

oath as a means of nullifying clauses.

Waiving- either in written or in oral law, made in
of Rights, favor of poor debtors — an oath which
the creditor might have forced from
him as a condition of the loan. In fact, the creditor
may not be allowed to accept such a suicidal fulfil-
ment of the oath, for all standards acknowledge the
Scriptural conmiandment "thou shalt not exact of
thy brother " (Deut. xv. 3, Ilebr.) as forbidding such
harsh measures as well as such pressure as would
drive the debtor to encroach on his wife's property.

The standards agree on the treatment of widow
debtors. Maimonides(/.r.) says: " Whethera widow
be rich or poor you can not take her goods in pledge,
either at the time of tin; loan or by way of execu-
tion." This leaves really no way of enforcing a de-
mand against a widow, unless she have real estate
or ontstaiiding loans, and the rule, if fully enforced, I
would have destroyed the credit of widow traders. I

The Mi.shnah gives tiie measure of a debtor's ex-
emptions in dealing with the demands of the treas-
urer of the Sanctuary, as shown under Esti.matk.
Here the exemption is based on Lev. xxvii. 8
(Ilebr.): "If thy I)rother has comedown" (become
poor), etc. (see 'Ar. 24a).

B. 8. L. N. D.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pledges

Historical View : In ancient Israel every

loan was an act of charity. Therefore, if the cred-
itor had taken a garment as a pledge he had to return
it before nightfall, whether he had received pay-
ment or not (Ex. xxii. 26-27; Dout. xxiv. 13-14).
The Talmud (B. M. 14b) explains this to include
every article ■which can not be spared, so that the
garment needed during the day must be returned
before morning, and the garment needed at night
must be returned before nightfall. Similarly, the law
wliich prohibits the taking of a millstone as a pledge
{Deut. xxiv. 6) is explained as applicable to every ar-
ticle which is as necessary as a millstone (Sif re, I.e. [ed.
Friedmann, p. 123a]). Therefore the creditor should
not make any use of the pledge ; and he is responsible
for its safety, just as every depositary is responsible
for things held in trust (Hoshen Mishpat, 72).

The development of money-lending among the

Jews as their almost exclusive occupation, which

began in the twelfth century, was in

Medieval all likelihood the consequence of the

Times. persecutions during the First Crusade
(Honiger, "'Zur Gesch. der Juden im
Frilhern Mittelalter," in "Zeitschrift fur Gesch. der
Juden in Deutschland," i. 65-97, 136-151); and the
laws of pawnbroking became more and more detailed.
This is shown by the fact that the charter granted
by Henry IV. to the Jews of Speyer and Worms
(1084-90) does not mention money-lending as an oc-
cupation of the Jews at all, while the charter of
Frederick II. of Austria (1244) devotes nine of its
thirty sections to the regulation of pawnbroking.
This negative evidence is strengthened by the fact
that in the ninth century the anti-Jewish writers
Agobard and Amui.o, who were so bitter in their de-
nunciation of the Jews, are silent on this point. It
remains evident, therefore, that loaning money on
pledges, as money-lending in general, has been the
occupation of the Jews only since the twelfth century,
when St. Bernard of Clairvaux condemned the per-
secution of the Jews, saying that where there were
no Jews, Christian usurers acted much worse
(Migne, "Patrologia," clxxxii. 567; Aronius, "Rc-
gesten," p. 112; Gratz, "Gesch." vi. 166; Stobbe,
"Die Juden in Deutschland," p. 107).

The law of Frederick II. of Austria expressly
permits Jews to take any article as a pledge, without
inquiring into the right of possession of the bor-
rower; the exception to this is that bloody or wet
garments may not be accepted, for in such a case
suspicion of robbery is reasonable. On the " Privile-
gium Fridericianum " were based such later laws as
that i.ssuod by Ottocar II. of Bohemia in 1254, the
laws of Bela IV. of Hungary, of the dukes of Silesia
and Poland, and a prohibition against lending money
on sacred objects — Pope Gregory I. (590-604) and
Charlemagne (806) had already declared that such
olijects should not be sold to Jews. A similar pro-
hibition is found in a law issued by Philip August
of France (1206). The rabbinical synods of the
twclftii and thirteenth centuries adopted the same
law, evidently because of the excuse which the dis-
covery of church articles in a Jewish liouse would
give for riots (Griltz, "Gesch." vi. 199). This prin-
ciple is often repeated in legislations of the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries.

In general, legislation concerning the Jews recog-
nized the rabbinical law, even in dealings between
Jews and Christians ; so a Jew who had
Rabbinical advanced money on a stolen article was
Law. entitled to recover the amount he liad
loaned on it, including interest, if he
could swear that he did not know it had been stolen.
The same held good with regard to 8t(jlen property
which had been bought. This law is explained by
the Talmud as necessitated by the needs of buBiness
life (pltJ^n njpn ; B. K. 11.5a; Hoshen .Mishpat, 857.
1). Various German laws demanded that the goods
must have been delivered in daytime and without
any secrecy ("unveriiohlen und unverstohlen ").
This recognition of tlie rabbinical law was fiercely
condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities — e.g., by
the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) and by various
diocesan synods— as favoring the Jews at the ex-
pense of the Christians, who were compelled by law
to return stolen property wliich they had bought, but
without any prospect of indemnity. The "Privi-
legium Fridericianum" (§ 7), and a great many
other laws, freed the Jewish pawnbroker from re-
sponsibility in case of the lo.S3 of the pledge by fire
or robbery, or in any other way. The manner and
fact of loss, however, had to be established by oath
or through witnesses. This legal enactment is in
conflict with the rabbinical law wliich considers the
pawnbroker as a depositary (^Dt^' 1D1{J'), i.e., re-
sponsible in case of death or theft (Hoshen MishpaJ,
72, 2). _

While the state law in this case is more favorable
to the pawnbroker than is the rabbinical law, in re-
gard to the unredeemed pledge it is more favorable
to the debtor. The rabbinical law declares that the
pledge is forfeited if it is not redeemed on the day
the payment falls due (Hoshen Mishpat, 73, 13),
though some authorities demand that the pledge
shall not be sold until thirty days after payment falls
due {lb. 3, 14). The " Priviiegium Fridericianum "
(t^ 27), however, demanded that the pledge should
be kept one year and one day. This stipulation was
adopted in many places up to the fifteenth century.
The privilege of lending money on pledges carried
with it a certain obligation. Thus the Augsburg
law declares that every Jewish money-
Special lender is bound to advance money on
Regu- a pledge to the extent of two-thirds of
lations. its value; while the city of Wintertluir
found it necessary to declare, in a
charter of 1340, that a Jew is not liable to i)unisli-
ment if he is unable to lend a Ciiristian the sum de-
manded (Stobbe, "Die Juden in Deut.scliiand." pp.
\\%et seq.). The Strasburg law of 1375 makes it the
duty of the Jews to lend money on pledges to any
citizen.

In the frequent anti-Jewish riots which occurred
from the twelfth to the fifteenth century the mob
sacking the houses of the Jews often took the
pledges, and, as a rule, the king issued quitclaims
after he had received part of the plunder. This
was done very frequently by Charles IV., after
the Black Death (1348-51). A typical instance is
that of NOrdi.ikgen. Under these circumstances it
is not to be wondered at that Jewish law at that
period dealt with the Christian debtor as with an

Pledges
Plessner

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

enemy in war. Thus medieval rabbis decided that
if a non-Jew loaned to a Jew money on a pledge,
and then lost the pledge, and a Jew found it, the
latter should return it to the Jewish debtor (Hoshen
Mishpat. 72, 38). Similarly, the law permits a Jew-
ish creditor to keep the pledge after the death of
the Christian debtor, even where its value much ex-
ceeds the amount of the debt (ib. 73, 40).

The Jewish concern with pledges is especially
connected with the Italian "monte di pieta," pawn-
shops established by the ecclesiastical authorities in
the fifteenth century, in opposition to Jewish money-
lenders and for charitable purposes. The name is
found also in French ("'mont de piete")and in Latin
("mons pietatis"; lit. "mountain of charity"); it
is supposed to have originated from the use of the
word "monte " in tlie sense of "store " or "stock of
goods," and especially with regard to banking, in
the sense of a " pile of coin."

The great change of economic conditions in the
fifteentli century in connection with the troubles in
the Church created among the mendicant orders an
eager desire to bring themselves into prominence.
The Franciscans were especially active in promoting
schemes for economic improvement.
Monte Barnabas of Terni began preaching

di Pieta. against money-lenders in Perugia, and
succeeded in forming a company of
citizens who furnished money for a loan-bank which
would lend at a lower rate of interest than that
charged by the Jews. This first "mountain of
piety " was founded in 1462, and others followed
very soon in various cities of Italy ; that in Orvieto,
1464, was sanctioned by Pope Sixtus IV. Espe-
cially active was the Franci.scau Bi^rnardinus of
Feltre, who worked for the promotion of the pop-
ular pawnshops, chiefly in order to create an oppor-
tunity to attack the Jews. The Dominicans, jeal-
ous of the success of the Franciscans, opposed this
movement, claiming that the exaction of even a low
rate of interest was contrary to the Christian law ;
while the Lateran Council (1512-17) and the Council
of Trent (1545-63), as well as various popes, declared
for the Franciscans.

But in Rome, which was under the direct govern-
ment of the pope, such institutions were not organ-
ized. While the operations of tiie loan-banks inter-
fered with the business of the Jews, they were not
able to drive the Jews to abandon mone^^-lending
altogether; and therefore a special law was passed
by the "signoria" of Venice, in 1547, prohibiting
money-lending by Jews in Padua. In Istri.\, Jews
who had lost their business opportunities elsewhere
were privileged to conduct loan-banks. So in
Pirano. in 1484, where a bank was founded by Moses
Sacerdote and three others; it continued its opera-
tions until 1634, when a monte di pietd was estab-
lished and their privilege was witlidniwn. In Capo
d'Istria, Jewish money-lenders were called upon
when tlie monte di pieti\ liad become bankrupt. In
1611 France introduced the system, but tiiere it had
no anti-Jewish purpose. Since the middle of the
eighteenth century the restrictions against Jewish
money-lenders in Italy have been removed.

In the fifteenth century tiie business of the Jews
consisted chiefly in pawnbroking, as Israel Isserlein

states (" Teruniat ha-Deshen, " part i. , No. 309). They
dealt with all classes of people, even with princes
and kings. King Rupert (1403) pawned his silver
to Jews (Stobbe, I.e. p. 240); the empress Maria,
widow of Maximilian II., pawned her
In silver to Mordecai Meisel (1578) for

Germany. 2,000 florins ("Zeit. filr Gesch. der Ju-
den in Deutschland," ii. 175). From
the fifteenth century on, however, the restriction of
money-lending by Jews became the rule. In 1530
and 1544 respectively, the Reichstags of Augsburg
and Speyer issued strict regulations in regard to ex-
cessive rates of interest and other abuses (see Josel
OF Roshei.m). The Landesordnung for Bohemia,
1579, restricted the monej'-lending of the Jews to
pawnbroking in order to exclude them from banking
on a larger scale ("Zeit. filr Gesch. der Juden in
Deutschiand," ii. 173).

The Judenstattigkeit of PYankfort-on-the-Main,
1614, limited the rate of interest for loans on pledges
to 8 i)er cent ; the same was done for Fulda in 1615
{ib. iii. 178). How precarious this business was
even then is proved by Gliickel von Hameln, who
tells in her memoirs of an attempt to take a pledge
from her father's shop by force. The danger in
dealing with creditors of this class evidently induced
some medieval rabbis to permit a pawnbroker to
redeem a pledge for a creditor on the Sabbath (Orah
Hayyim, 325, 3).

With the development of the banking business
through the court Jews in the seventeenth century,
and the gradual concession of economic freedom,
pawnbroking among the Jews became rare, and, in
fact, in recent times, disreputable (see also Bank-
ing).

Bibliography: Slnilhan 'Anik, JJnshen Mishpat, 7^7,?;
Zeitschrift filr Gesch. der J^ideJi in Deutschland^ i. 6.S-97.
136-151; Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland Wilhrend des
Mittelalters, pp. 112-131, Brunswick, 1866; Scherer, Die
Bechtsverhdltni.tse der Juden in den Dentsch-Oesterreich-
iVsc/ien LUndern, pp. 196-209. 211-216, Leipsie, 1901; Ceretti.
Stnria di Monti di Pieta, Padua, 17.52; Ciscato, GU Ehrei
in Pad(nm. pp. 48-67, 245-247, Padua, 1901 ; iVuora Enciclo-
pedia Itnliana, s.v. Monte di Pietd (where further literature
is quoted ) .

D.
PLEIADES : The word "Kimah," which occurs
in three passages in the Bible (Job ix. 9, xxxviii.
31, and Amos v. 8), each time in connection witii
Orion, is translated by the Septuagint once by
n?.Eta6n (Job xxxviii. 31); and Aquila, who repre-
sents the tradition of the scribes, gives the same
rendering in Amos v. 8, being followed therein by
Synnnachus and Theodotion. The word is retained
in the Targum, which indicates that it was then
used in the vernacular; so that the meaning given
the term in the Talmud and by Aquila may be ac-
cepted as correct. Although the etymology is not
altogether certain, it may be assumed that "Kimali"
is connected either with the Hebrew D13 = "to
heap up," or with the Assyrian "kaniu" = "he
bound" (Dclitzsch, in "Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch."
xii. 185).

According to the Talmud (Ber. 58b), this cluster
is called " Kimaii " liecause it consists of about 100
stars CnD'3 = HKOD). The constellation i^ in the
nortliern sky, with its tail to tiie west of the Milky
Way (ib. ; comp. Pes. 94b). For tlie most impor-
tant reference to the Pleiades, which have always

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pledges
Plessner

attracted attention on account of their brilliancy and
number, see OuioN (comp. also Jew. Encyc. ii. 249b,
8.V. Astuongmy).

Bini.iOGRAPiiY : Sfhiiiparelli, U Antronomia nelV Ajiticn Tex-
lamenti), p. 79, Milan, mr.i ; HastlnRs. Diet. Bible, til. 896;
Hainburfrer, R. D. T. ii. W).
K. L. B.

PLESSNER, ELIAS : German rabbi ; son of
Solomon Plessnek; born Feb. 19, 1841, at Berlin;
died at Ostrowo March 30, 1898. He studied at the
University of Berlin, and received his degree as
Ph.D. from the University of Tiibingen (1870). In
1871 he was appointed "Stiftsrabbiner " at Hanover,
and was called April 20, 1873, to the old community
of Rogasen as successor to Moses Feilchenfeld. In
Sept., 1885, he was called to Ostrowo as successor to
the late I. M. Freimann, remaining there until his
death.

Plessner rendered great services to homiletic liter-
ature by publishing the following works by his
father: "Sabbathpredigten," "Festreden," and
"Nachgelassene Schriften " (Frankfort, 1884). His
own works include: In German: "Stellung 'und
Bedeutungder Israel itischen Frau bei den Hebraern "
(Ostrowo) ; " Der Grabstcin in Seiner HOheren Bedeu-
tung"; "Ezechiel Landau und Moses Mendelssohn."
In Hebrew: "Matbea' shel Bcrakot " ; " 'Asa rah
Ma'amarot"; "Dibre Tanirurim we-Tauhumim,"
Posen, 1871 ; "She'elah u-Teshubah be-'Inyan Bel.ii-
rah," Berlin, 1889; "Hitmannut Kohen Gadol," Ber-
lin, 1895.

s. I. Bro.

PLESSNER, SOLOMON: German preacher
and Jiible commentator; born at Breslau April 23,
1797; (lied at Posen Aug. 28, 1883. Having lost his
father when very young, Plessner had to support
his mother and himself. He engaged in business,
but found time to study Hebrew, rabbinics, and
German, under Wessely's influence. At the age of
seventeen Plessner began to study Wesseiy's He-
brew translation of the Apocrypha, resolving to con-
tinue the translation himself. He indeed published
at Breslau in 1819 his Hebrew translation of the
Apocryphal additions to the Book of

Becomes Esther, under the title "Hosafah li-

Eminent Megillat/ Ester, " with a literary-histor-

as a ical introduction. At the same time

Preacher, he became known as an eloquent

preacher. Many of his sermons were

published, among them his funeral oration on the

death of Abraham Tiktin, bearing the Hebrew title

"Zeker Zaddik li-Berakah " (Breslau, 1821).

Plessner through his sermons was recognized as a
warm defender of Orthodox Judaism, and on this
account was congratulated by Akiba Eger, rabbi of
Posen. Soon the conflict arose between the Ortho-
do.x and Reform Jews concerning the introduction
of the organ into the synagogal services. Plessner
naturally fought against the Reform leaders; and as
they were the more powerful and began to perse-
cute him, forbidding him through the police to de-
liver any sermon, he in 1823 settled at Fcstenberg,
a small town in Silesia. In 1825, the government of
the province of Posen having issued a decree for-
bidding Talmudic instruction in schools, Plessner,
at Eger's request, summed up all tlie observations

and opinions of Christian scholars, beginning with
Jerome, on the Talmud. This document, pub-
lished the same year at Breslau un-
His Mem- iler the title "Ein Wort zu Seiner
oir on the Zeit oder die Autoritat df r Judischen
Talmud. Traditionslehre," with a part of ii in
H.ljrcw entitled "'Edut le-Yisruel,"
was in 1826 presented to the Poseu govi-rnmont.
Accompanied with a petition signed by the presi-
dents of several eonununities, it proved eflicacious;
and the anti-Taimudic decree was revoked.

In 1830 Plessner removed to Berlin, where for a
short time he was a teacher in the normal school.
Although possessing all the knowledge necessary
for an Orthodox rabbi, lie persistently declined
rabbinical oflice, preferring freedom of speech. He
earned a livelihood by preaching every other Satur-
day in the Berlin bet ha-midrash, continuing at the
same time his study of the Apocrypha. In 1h;j2 his
"Nozelim Min Lebanon " was published in Berlin.
This work consisted of a Hebrew translation of a
part of the Apocrypha, with an appendix, entitled
"Duda'im," containing exegetical notes, verses in
Hebrew and German, and sermons (see Geiger,
"Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol." i. 204 et xeq.). The fol-
lowing year he was invited to dedicate the new
S3'nagogue at Bromberg, for which occasion he com-
posed poems in Hebrew and in German, which were
published under the title "Shirim la-Hanukkat Bet
ha-Tefillah " (Berlin, 1834). In his sermons Ple-ssner
adopted the expressions of the most eminent Chris-
tian preachers, interspersing his sen-
Removes fences with verses of Schiller and
to Goethe, and rejecting the derashic or

Berlin. homiletic interpretation of the Bible.
In 1834 he began to publish his ser-
mons in yearly volumes under the general title ** Be-
lehrungen und Erbauungen " (2d ed. Berlin, 1840.
under the title "Religi5se VortrUge"). In 1838
Plessner published his "Dat Mosheh wi-Yehudit," a
catechism in twelve parts, preceded by an introduc-
tion, on the nature and history of Jewisli religious
instruction. His oratorical talent is particularly ex-
hibited in his "Mikra'e Kodesh "(Berlin, 1841). a col-
lection of holy-day sermons for the years 1835 to 1^39.
A powerful party of antagonists worrying Plessner
beyond endurance on account of his outspokenness,
he left Berlin and settled at Posen (1843). where he
was active as a preacher for forty years. In Posen
Plessner preached chiefly at the Neuschul. During
his residence in that city he publishfd the following
works: " Shay la-Mora " (Posen, ls4t'.j, poem in honor
of Moses Montefiore ; "Shire Zimrah " (Berlin. 1859),
poems composed on the occasion of
Settles in the completion of the publication of
Posen. the Talmud by the Talmud society
Hebrat Shas; "Shire Zimrah" (•*.
1865), Hebrew poems eompo.sed for the celebration
of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the
foundation of the society of niohelim.

After Plessner's death two collections of his ser-
mouswere published at Frank fort-ont he-Main: "Sab-
bathpredigten " (1884) and " Festpredigten " (1890).

Bibliography: Furst. nOtl. Jud. III. 107: H. Hlrnrhf«'Id. in
Elii'5 PlessntT, UihliKchis uiul Uohhiiiisrhfs nus Sn/omon
I'hssncrs yachlasac ; ZeitUn. VilA. I>o»l-Mftidrls ]>. 271.

g M. Skl.

Pletsch
Plymouth

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PLETSCH, SOLOMON : German physician of
the fuurieeuth aud tiftceuth centuries; a native of
Regensburg. Pletsch was in 1394 appointed city
surgeon of Frankfort-on-the-Main with a salary of
36 gulden per year. Besides, the city furnished him
with six ells of cloth for his uniform, which was of
the same color and quality as that of the Christian
officials. Thus the only difference between Pletsch
and his Christian predecessors and successors was
in the form of the oath, the former taking it More
Judaico. In the letter of commission, Pletsch
bound himself to treat gratuitously all the members
of the council with their servants and all the sick
Jews who might be received at the hospital, and to
take moderate fees from the citizens.

Bibliography: M. Horovltz. jadische Aerztein Frankfurt-
am-Main, P- 6, Frankfort-on-the-Maln, 1886; Landau,
Gesch. der JUdischen Aerzte, p. 10"_', Berlin, 1895.
D. M. Sel.

PLOCK (PLOTZK) : Government in Russian
Poland, with a Jewish population (1897) of 50,473
(in a total population of 553,094), which is the
smallest Jewish population of any government in
the Pale of Settlement.

The most important of the district towns in the
government of Plock are:

Mlawa, which has 5,123 Jews in a total pop-
ulation of 11,211 (1897). R. Jehiel Michael Sagalo-
vich (born 1862) became the rabbi of the community
in 1894.

Plock, the capital of the government, which had
only about 6,000 inhabitants in 1816 (when it came
under Russian domination, after having been held by
Prussia under the provisions of the second partition
of Poland in 1793), had a total population of 27,073
in 1897. Of this number more than 10,000 are Jews.
In the city there are several synagogues, a Talmud
Torah (founded 1868), a Gemilut Hasadim (founded
1873), and a well-equipped hospital. It has also a
Jewish boys' school attended by more than one hun-
dred pupils. Instruction in the Hebrew faith is im-
parted to Jewish students attending the local gym-
nasium by A. J. Papierno, a prominent Maskil Avho
has resided in Plock since 1870, and who established
a library there in 1900.

Owing to the influence of the Hasidim the Jewish
community of Plock frequently changed its rabbis
during the nineteenth century, and the term of sev-
enteen years during which R. Azriel Aryeh Rakovski
held that position, which he resigned in 1880, was con-
sidered an extremely long one. Aryeh L5b Zunz or
Zuenz also was rabbi of Plock and later of Praga, but
removed to Warsaw, where he died April 22, 1833.
Since 1897 R. Ezekicl Libshitz (l)orn in Rossienny,
in the province of Kovno, in 18G4), son of R. Hillcl
Libshitz of Lublin, and who, like his father, is a Tal-
mudi.stand able scholar, has been the rabbi of Plock.

Przasnysz, with 4,500 Jews among its 8,586 in-
habitants; it has two synagogues.

Sierpce, with about 600 Jewish families among
its 8,560 inhabitants. The Jews of Sierpce are bur-
dened with a tax of 68 rubles which they have to
pay annually to the owner of the town on account
of a debt said to have been contracted by a certain
David, of whose origin nothing is known (''Ha-
Meliz," 1883, No. 105).

Bibliography : Brockhaus-Efron, Entziklopedichcshi Slo-
var, S.V.; Ha-Melif, 1ST8. No. 9; 1888. No. 33; 1890, No. 200;
Ha-^cnrah, 1876, No. 4 ; 1900. No. 44 ; Yevnin. yahalat 'Ol-Ji-
mim, pp. 14-15. Warsaw. 1882; Walden, Shem h'a-OeduUm
he-Hadash, p. 80, Warsaw, 1883.
H. K. P. Wl.

PLOTKE, JULIUS : German lawyer and com-
munal worker; born at Borek, province of Posen,
Oct. 5, 1857; died at Frankfort-on-the-Main Sept.
27, 1903. Having finished his studies at the gymna-
sium at Krotoschin and the University of Berlin, he
practised law in Bockcnheim from 1885 to 1888,
when he entered into partnership with Councilor of
Justice S. Fuld in Frankfort-on-the-Main. Plotke
was elected to the board of trustees of the Frankfort
congregation, and participated in all movements for
the relief of his oppressed coreligionists, being a
trustee of the Jewish Colonization Association, of
the Alliance Israelite Uuiverselle, of the Ililfsverein
der Deutschen Juden, and similar organizations.
He wrote various pamphlets and articles on the con-
dition of the Jews of Russia and Rumania.

Bibliography: JlUUsche Presse, 1903, pp. 441-442; Oester-
reichische Troc/ie»isr7iriff, 1903, pp. 64*-649; Jew. Chron.
Oct. 2, 1903, p. 33 : AUg. Zeit. des Jud. 1903, pp. 484-485.

s. D.

PLOWING : No description of the plow (" maha-
reshet ") is found in the Bible ; but it may be assumed
with certainty that the implement resembled, on the
whole, the very simple plow which is still used by
the fellahs of Palestine. It consists of a long pole
with a wooden crosspiece at the lower end, and a
handle parallel to the latter at the upper end, by
means of which the plow is guided. The wooden
foot ends in an iron share, slightly convex above, be-
ing 34 cm. long and 18 cm. wide at the back. This
point has to be sharpened occasionally (com p. I Sam.
xiii. 20). Itisuncertain whether the "et" mentioned
in the passage just cited is a different kind of plow
from that described above; Fr. Delitzsch takes
" et " to be the plowshare, which cuts the furrows,
while the plow itself casts up the earth. As the
fellahs generally do not remove the stones from the
fiehls, thinking that the soil thereby retains the
moisture for a longer period, that kind of plow is
not wholly impractical, since it may readily be
drawn through the stony soil. Moreover, this plow
is easily used, being light enough to be lifted out of
the furrow with one hand and to be replaced in the
same way. Its disadvantage is that it does not plow
deeply enough — only about 8 to 10 cm. — the laud
being therefore neither sufficiently utilized nor prop-
erly freed from weeds. As a consequence the latter
grow rankly, and the grain requires additional han-
dling before it can be used or brought to market.

The plow was drawn, as it commonly still is to-
day, by a yoke of oxen, and on light soil by an ass
(Isa. XXX. 24, xxxii. 20); but the yoking together of
ox and ass, which is not seldom seen to-day, was
forbidden, at least at the time of the Deuterononiist
(comp. Deut. xxii. 10). The ox walks in front of
the plow, usually in the yoke which is attached to
the beam. To-day the yoke is fastened to the neck
of the animal in such a way that the two blocks of
wood which extend on each side of the neck from
the yoke downward may be fastened at the lower
end by a rope and the ox's neck be enclosed in a

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PletBch
Plymouth

frame. The plower liolds in liis riglit hand tlie
plow-handle and the guiding-rope, and in iiis left
the ox-goad ("malmad"; Judges iii. 31; I Sam.
xiii. 21). To one end of the latter is attached an iron
point, with whicli the o.xen are goaded to quicken
;heir pace, and to the other end is fastened a small
ron shovel which is used to remove the earth cling-
ng to the plowshare.

In ancient times, as to-day, it was doubtless hardly
uitlicient to plow the fallow land once only, but it
lad to be gone over three times. The first plowing
in the winter) was followed by a second (in the
spring), and a third (in tlie summer); the careful
lusbandman even plowed a fourth time (late in the
mmmer). After the plow had turned the soil over, the
atter was made smooth by a harrow, which perhaps
consisted merely of a strong board or a roller (Hos.
c. 11; Isa. xxviii. 4).

3iBi,ioGRAPHY : Z. D. p. V. ix. 24 et seq.

K. G. II.

PLUM. See Peach.

W. N.

PLUNGIAN : Old town in the government of
Kovno, district of Telshi, Russia. Among the ear-
ier rabbis of Plungian were Jacob b. Zebi, a resi-
lent of Grodno, who gave his approbation to his
,rounger brother's work, "Ohole Yehudah " (Jess-
litz, 1719), and Dob Bar, who in 1726 addressed a
lalakic question to R. Ezekiel Katzenellenbogen of
\ltona (responsa "Keueset Yehezkel," No. 7, Al-
;oua, 1732). Its most prominent rabbi in the nine-
;eenth century was Jehiel Heller, who died there
n 1861. Ilillel Libschitz (b. 1844), formerly of Su-
ivalki and now (1905) rabbi of Lublin, officiated at
Plungian from 1878 to 1880. Its rabbi at the be-
ginning of the present century was Zebulon Loeb
Barit (see "Ha-Zefirah," 1897, Nos. 40, 56), who died
n 1903.

Other prominent men who came from or were
ictive in Plungian were: Zechariah Plungian or
5imner (d. 1715), author of " Sefer Zekirah " (1st ed.
[^lamburg, 1709), on religious ethics and folk-medi-
cine, which passed through many editions; Moide-
;ai b. Joseph (great-grandson of Mordecai Jaffe
"" Lebush "]), and his son Joseph, " rosh mediuah " of
Plungian in the eighteenth century (see Jaffe
family). Mordecai Plungian (originally Plungian-
ski), also a descendant of the Jaffe family, and one
)f the most prominent Maskilim of the nineteenth
century, was born at Plungian in 1814.

A record of the proceedings before R. Dob Bar
Jaffe, dayyan of Plungian, and of the decisions ren-
lered by him, is preserved in the New York Pub-
lic Library. Its earliest entry is dated 1856, and the
latest 1881.

The population of Plungian, which is mostly Jew-
ish, numbered 3,593 in 1873, and 3,583 in 1897.

Bibliography : Brockhaus-Kfron. EntziklopedicheshiSlm^ar;
F.isenstadt-Wiener, Da'at Kedosliiw, pp. 34, 35, St. Peters-
burg, 1897-98.

H. K. P. Wl.

PLUNGIAN (PLUNGIANSKI), MORDE-
CAI (MARCUS): Russian Hebraist and autiior;
born at Plungian, in the government of Wilna,
1814; died at Wilna Nov. 28, 1883. He was a
descendant of Mordecai Jaffe, author of the "Lebu-

shim." Wliile still young Plungian became a Tai-
mudist of high repute. After a couple (if years
of an uniiapi)y married life he left his native 't(jwn
and settled at Troki. where lie devoted himself en-
tirely to rabbinical studies. Soon, however, ]ut was
compelled to leave tliat place, having disj)leu8ed
tile ultra-conservatives by liis more or less advanced
ideas. He then went to Wilna, where he earned a
scanty livelihood by delivering rabbinical lectures,
wiiich were greatly appreciated by tlie Talmiidists
of that place. In the meanwiiile Plungian devoted
himself to secular studies also, and accjuired, in
a relatively short time, a thorougli knowledge of
several European languages and literatures. This
acquisition procured for him first the position of
teacher in a higli school, and in 1HC7 that of instruc-
tor in Talmud and religious codes in the rabbinical
seminary at AVilna.

Plungian was very unhappy in his old age. The
rabbinical seminary was closed in 1873, and lie
had no other position than that of corrector in the
printing-office of Romm, which he had held since
1869. In his literary career he had the misfortune
to displease both the Orthodox, who accused him of
heresy, and the liberals, who regarded him as a
conservative; hence he was persecuted liy the
former and repudiated by the latter.

Plungian was the author of the following works:
"Talpiyyot" (Wilna, 1849), on the hermeneutic
rule "Gezerah Shawah " in the Babylonian Talmud,
explaining the logical principles upon which it is
based and criticizing the views expressed on the
subject by Rashi and the tosafists; "Kerem li-
Slielomoh" (ib. 1851), commentary on Ecclcsiastes,
published together with the text; "Ben Porat " {ib.
1858), biography of Manasseh ben Porat, with ex-
egetic and philological dissertations; "Shebet Elo-
ah" (ib. 1862), episode of the eighteenth century,
with arguments against the blood accusation ; "Or
Boker " {ib. 1868), three critical treatises on the
Masorali as interpreted in the Talmud ; " Kerem
li-Shelomoh" (ib. 1877), commentary on Canticles,
published together with the text.

Plungian left several works in manuscript,
among them a treatise on the Hebrew verbs of four
letters, partly published in "Kerem Hemed " (ix.);
and "Ma'amar Mordekai," a commcntar)- on all the
haggadot found in ""En Ya'akob." In addition
Plungian contributed to nearly all the Hebrew peri-
odicals.

BinLiOGRAPHY : Ha-S^hahar, xi. tilo; N. Nathanson, Sefat
Kmet. Warsaw, 1887: Zeitlln, Bibl. Paot-MftuMs. p. U'T-';
Kerem ffemed, ix. 136 ; Ha-Melvf, 1883, Nos. 89. 91.

n. K. I. Bit.

PLYMOUTH : Seaport in the county of Devon,
England; one of the principal ports of that country.
A few Jewish families were living there in 1740.
Among the synagogue deeds is a lease of a garden,
dated 1752, the signature to which is witnessed by
one Jac. Myer Sherrenbek; it evidently refers to the
old burial-ground nt-ar the Citadel. In 1762 the
mayor and commonalty leased to Samuel Chapman
a plot of ground for ninety-nine years; and one
Chapman executed a deed of trust reciting that the
lease had been acquired by him at the sole exjicnso
"of the said J. J. Sherrenbek and Gumpert Michael

Plymouth
Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

e»

Emdon, elders of the Synagogue of the Jews." In
the same year £300 was raised on mortgage "to
complete the buildings, editices, and erections now
building thereon, and which is designed for a Jew-
ish synagogue or place of worship for those profess-
ing the Jewish religion." In 1786 this lease was
surrendered, and a new one was entered into with
live leading Protestant citizens, who held the same
in trust for one A. Joseph. Eleven years later an-
other lease was granted to the following three
Jewish holders: Henry Hart, Joseph Joseph, and
Samuel Hart; and in 1834 the freehold of the syna-
gogue was transferred to other trustees. In 1868 a
new burial-ground, adjoining the Christian ceme-
tery, was acquired; and in 1873 the congregation
purchased the ground on which the synagogue
house now stands.

One of the most prominent of Plymouth Jews
was the late Jacob Nathan, who left a considerable
sum of money to Jewish and Christian local chari-
ties. Among his bequests was one of £13,000
(§65,000) to found and maintain a Jewish school
for the poor. This school was established in 1869,
and has an average attendance of fifteen scholars.
Solomon Alexander Hart, R.A., a native of Plym-
outh, bequeathed £1,000 to the congregation, and
one of his masterpieces, "The Execution of Lady
Jane Grey," to the corporation. It is one of the
chief adornments of the municipal chamber.

The synagogue in Catherine street retains its an-
cient features — a latticed women's gallery, a beauti-
fully carved wooden Ark, antique silver sets of
bells, and old brasswork. It has a membership of 70.
There are, besides the Jacob Nathan Day School,
two Jewish charities, the Ladies' Hebrew Benevo-
lent Society and the Sick Visiting Society. There are
also several Jewish social institutions. The Jews of
Plymouth number about 300 in a total population of
107,500. Except for two families, the present (1905)
Jewish community comprises recent settlers.

Bibliography: Jewish Year Book, 1904.
J.

POBYEDONOSTZEV. See Russia.

L H.

POCHOWITZER (PUCHOWITZER), JU-
DAH LOB ben JOSEPH : Kussiaii rabbi and
preacher ; flourished at Pinsk in the latter part of the
seventeenth century; died in Palestine, whither he
went before 1681. He was the author of : "Keneh
Hokmah" (Frankfort-on-theOder, 1681), a work
consisting of seventeen "derasliot" on penitence;
"Derek Hokmah" (ib. 1683), a treatise in thirty-two
sections on morals; "Dibre Hakamim " (Hamburg,
1692), a work in two parts: the first, entitled " Da'at
Hokmah," being a treatise in four .sections on morals
and asceticism; the second, "Mekor Hokmah," con-
taining notes to the Shullian 'Aruk, Orah Hayyini,
up to No, 240. At the end of this work is a pam-
phlet, entitled "Solet Belulah," containing novella;
on the Talmud. Thirty-two treatises taken from
the above-mentioned works were published in one
volume by Solomon Pinkerle under the title "Kebod
ijakamiiii " (Venice, 1700).

Bim.iOfjRAPHY: Furst, 73i7/J. J?(fMll.l08: Nepl-Ghlrondl, To/c-
clot (li'iUAe YUsrael, p. 189; Steluschnelder, Cat. Bodl. cols.
I*i6- 1.%7.

M. Ski,.

POCOCK, EDWARD: English Christian Ori-
entalist and theologian ; born at Oxford Nov. 8,
1604; died there Sept. 12, 1691. He studied Orien-
tal languages at Oxford and elsewhere; was chap-
lain of the English "Turkey Merchants" in Aleppo
from 1630 to 1636; and became professor of Arabic
at Oxford in 1636. He spent the period from 1637
to 1640 in Constantinople, and on returning to Eng-
land in 1647 resumed liis professorship of Arabic at
Oxford; he became professor of Hebrew, also, ia
1649, which position he held until his death, al-
though frequently attacked for political reasons.
During his stay in the East he collected many valu-
able manuscripts, among them one of the Samaritan
Pentateuch.

Among Pocock's works may be mentioned
"Porta Mosis" (Oxford, 1655), a translation of six
sections of Maimonides' commentary on the Mish-
nali (Arabic text in Hebrew characters, with Latin
translation). This was tlie tirst book printed in
Hebrew characters in Oxford. In 1657 was pub-
lished Walton's polyglot edition of the Bible, for
which Pocock collated manuscripts of the Arabic
Pentateuch and furnished notes explaining the dif-
ferent Arabic versions,

Pocock was the author of the following commen-
taries: on Micah and Malachi (Oxford, 1677); on
Hosea (ib. 1685); and on Joel (ib. 1691). These
commentaries evidence the wide extent of Pocock's
knowledge of Hebrew language and science, rab-
binical and sacred,

BiBMOfiUAPiiY : Twells, The Life of Dr. Edicartl Pocock,
London, 1"40; Allil)one, Diet, of British and Awerican
Aiithors; McClintock and Strong, Cyc.; Dictionary of
National Biography.
T. F. T. H.

PODIEBRAD, DAVID: Austrian writer; born
in 1816; died Aug. 2, 1882. He received his educa-
tion in the yeshibah of Prague and by private tui-
tion. He was especially interested in the history
of the Jews in Prague, where for thirty years he
occupied the position of secretar}' of the hebra
kaddisha. He collected many manuscripts and me-
morials concerning the Jews of Prague. He pub-
lished Benedict Foges' work, " Altertilmer der Prager
Josefstadt," Prague, 1870, which was based mainly
on documents collected by Podiebrad.

s. A. Ki.

PODIVIN. See Kostel.

PODOLIA : Government in southwestern Rus-
sia, on the Austrian frontier (Galicia). It is a center
of many important events in the history of the Rus-
sian Jews. Polish and Russian documents of 1550
mention Jewish communities in Podolia, but from
tombstones discovered in .some towns of the govern-
ment it is evident that Jews had lived there much
earlier. (For the earlier historj^ see Lithuania and
Russia; for the sufferings of the Jews in the middle
of the seventeenth century see Cossacks' Upkisino ;
for the revolt of the I'kruinians against the Jews of
Podolia in the eighteenth century see IlAiDAMArKS.)
Ruined by persecutions lasting for centuries, Podolia
became the breeding-place of superstition and re-
ligious intolerance, which flourished there more than
in any other place within the Pale. Owing to the
extremely impoverished condition of its Jews, Shab-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plymouth
Poetry

bethai Zebi, the Frankists, and the Hasidim found
in Podolia a most fertile soil for the spread of their
doctrines (see Ba'al Siiem-Tob; Frank, Jacou;
Hasidim). Podolia was annexed to Russia at the
end of the eighteenth century. Tlie Jewish popula-
tion of Podolia in 1887 was 325,907— about 13 per
cent of the general population ; the Jews still live
mostly in small towns and villages. The capital of
Podolia is Kamenetz-Podoi^sk.

Bibliography : Orshanskl, Yevrci v Rossii ; Bershadskl, Li-
tovi>kiye Yevrci; Litinski, Korot ha-Yehtuliin tie-I'odolia
(unreliable); Vonkhod, l»d7 ; Hannover, Yewen Me^itlah.

H. R. S. HU.

Podolia: Population (Census of 1897).

District.

Balta

Bratzlav (Braslavl)

Gaisiii

Kamenetz

Letlchev

Litin

MoRhilef

Ol'tropol

Prokiirov

Ushitza

Vinnltza

Yampol

Total In Government-

Total
Population.

390,()7(i
241,ill9

24S.:i,si)
2m.rm

2lo,:i.")0
2-„'T,<r)i
2H4,r)2:{

22.5,.590
223,478
24H,;it4
2W),34T

3,018,551

Jevsfish
Population.

5.3,075
28,r)47
22,048
37,486
24,3ft5
24,018
;«,119
32,a30
27,401
25,346
;i0,670
27,792

306,.597

Per-
centage.

13.57
11.80
8.88
14.(X!
13.20
11.47
14..55
11.47
12.15
11. :«
12M
10.44

10.12

n. R. V. R.

POETRY.— Biblical : The question whether
the literature of the ancient Hebrews includes por-
tions that may be called poetry is answered by the
ancient Hebrews themselves. A distinction be-
tween different classes of writings is evident in such
a fact as that the section II iSam. xxiii. 1-7 is
designated in the (later) heading as " the last words
of David," although other utterances of this king
are reported as late as I Kings ii. 9 ; it is not known,
however, whether the words of David cited in
II Sam. I.e. are called his "last words" on account
of their substance or of their form. Again, the au-
thor of Ps. xlv. has designated it as a "ma'aseh,"
i.e., "a product"; and this expression corresponds in
a remarkable degree with the Greek nuir/aig, although
he may have applied that term to the psalm only on
account of its contents. But that the ancient He-
brews perceived there were poetical portions in their
literature is shown by their entitling songs or chants
such passages as Ex. xv. 1 et seq. and Num. xxi. 17 et
seq. ; and a song or chant (" shir ") is, according to the
primary meaning of the term, poetry. In the first
place, therefore, these songs of the Old Testament
must be considered if the (jualities that distinguish
the poetical products of the ancient Hebrews from
their oniinary mode of literary presentation arc to be
determined.

Characteristics of Ancient Hebrew Poetry: (1) An-
cient Hebrew poetry contains no rime. Although
the tirst song mentioned above (Ex. xv. 1 et seq.)
contains assonance at the ends of the lines, as in
"anwehu" and "aromemenhu" {ib. verse 2), such
consonance of "hu" (= "him") can not well be
avoided in Hebrew, because many pronouns are
affixed to words. Furthermore, rime occurs only
as sporadically in Hebrew poems as in Shakespeare;
e.g. , in " thing " and " king " at the end of the second

act of " Hamlet." There is no poem in the OKI Tes-
tament with a final rime in every line; ultlioiigh
Hellermann (" Versiich hberdie Metrik derHebrfler,"
1813, p. 210) alludes to an exception, meaning prob-
al)ly l^s. cxxxvi., the rime throughout whielj poem
consists only in the frecjuent repetition of the word
"hasdo." h. Grimme has stJited in his arti<lc
" Durchgereimte Gedichte im A. T." (in Barden-
hewer's "Bibl. Studien," 1901, vi. 1, 2) tliat such
poems are represented by Ps. xlv., liv., and Siraeh
(Ecclus.) xliv. 1-14; but lie regards the consonance
of final consonants as rime, e.g., •'ozueA- " and "ubiA "
(Ps. xlv. 11), while rime proper demands at least tlie
assonance of the preceding vowel.

(2) The empioymenl of unusual forms of lan-
guage can not be considered as a sign of ancient
Hebrew poetry. In the sentences of Noah, f.g.. ((Jen.
ix. 2o-27) the form " lamo " occurs. But this form.

which represents partly "laliem" and

Unusual i^artly " lo," has many count(ri)arls in

Forms. Hebrew grammar, as, for example,

" kemo " instead of "ke" (Ex. xv. 5,
8) ; or " emo " = " them " (ib. verses 9, 15) ; or " cmo "
= "their" (Ps. ii. 3); or "elemo" = " to them"
{ib. verse 5) — forms fount! in pas.sages for which no
claim to poetical expressions is made. Then there
are found " liayeto " = "beast" (Gen. i. 24). "osri"
=: "tying" (ib. xlix. 11), and "yeshu'alah" =
"salvation" (Ps. iii. 3)— three forms that i)rf>bably
retain remnants of the old endings of the nomina-
tive, genitive, and accusj\tive: "u(n)," "i(n),"
"a(n)." Again, in Lamech's words, "Adah and
Zillah, hear my voice; ye wives of Lamecli,
barken unto my speech" (Gen. iv. 23), the two
words "he'ezin " and "imrali " attract atti'ntion, be-
cause they occur for the first time in this passage.
although there had been an earlier opportunity of
using them. " He'ezin " = " to barken " could have
been used just as well as its synonym "shama'"
= "to hear" in Gen. iii. 8, 10 et seq., but its earliest
employment is in the above-cited pas.<yige Gen.
iv. 23. It occurs also in Ex. xv. 26; Num. xxiii.
18 (a sentence of Balaam); Deut. i. 4.'), xxxii. 1;
Judges V. 3; Isa. i. 2, 10; viii. 9; xxviii. 2.1; xxxii.
9; xlii. 23; Ii. 4; Ixiv. 3; Jer. xiii. 15; IIos. v. 1;
Joel i. 2; Neh. ix. 30 (in a prayer); and in H Cliron.
xxiv. 19 (probably an imitation of Isa. Ixiv. 3).
Furthermore, " imrah " = " speech " might have been
used instead of the essentially identiail "dabar" in
Gen. xi. 1 et seq., but its earliest use is, as stated
above, in Gen. iv. 23. It is found also in Deut.
xxxii. 2, xxxiii. 9; II Sam. xxii. 31; Isa. v. 24,
xxviii. 23, xxix. 4, xxxii. 9; Ps. xii. 7, etc.; Prov.
XXX. 5; and Lam. ii. 17. In place of "ailam" =
"man" {Gen. i. 26 et seq.) "enosh" is employed in
Deut. xxxii. 26; Isa. viii. 1; xiii. 7, 12; xxiv. 6;
xxxiii. 8; Ii. 7. 12; Ivi. 2; Jer. xx. 10; Ps. viii. 5,
ix. 20, X. 18. Iv. 14, Ivi. 2, Ixvi. 12, Ixxiii. 5. xc.
3, ciii. 15, civ. 15, cxliv. 3; Job iv. 17; v. 17: vii.
1, 17; ix. 2; x. 4; xiii. 9; xiv. 19; xv. 14; xxv. 4.
6; xxviii. 4.. 13; xxxii. 8; xxxiii. 12, 26; xxxvi. 25;
II Chron. xiv. 10 (comp. the Aramaic "enash" in
Dan. ii. 10; Ezra iv. 11, vi. 11). For a systematic
review of similar unusual forms of Hebrew gram-
mar and Hebrew words occurring in certain por-
tions of the Old Testament see E. KOnig, "Stilis-

Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

tik, " etc. , pp. 277-283. Such forms have been called
"dialectus poetica" since the publication of Robert
Lowth's " Prtelectiones de Sacra Poesi Hebraeoruni,"
iii. (1753); but this designation is ambiguous and
can be accepted only in agreement with the rule " a
parte potiori lit denominatio " ; for some of these
unusual forms and words are found elsewhere than
in the "songs" of the Old Testament, as, e.g., the
"hayeto" of Gen. i. 24 mentioned above, which was
probably preferred as an archaic form in the solemn
\itterance of God, while in the following sentences
of the narrator (verse 25) the ordinarj' form " hayyat "
is used.

Again, these unusual forms and expressions do
not occur in all songs (comp. Num. xxi. 17 et seq.
and II Sam. iii. 33 et seq.), and there are several of
the Psalms that have none of these peculiarities, as,
for instance, Ps. cxlix., although the opportunity
to use them existed. The present writer is of opin-
ion that the use of these peculiar forms of expres-
sion is connected more with the tastes of a certain
(earlier) period, when unusual, archaic, and dialectic
forms were chosen to embellish the diction. The fact
that "he'ezin" occurs also in II Chron. xxiv.
19 is explainable likewise on the theory that
poetico-rhetorical expressions later became compo-
nent parts of common speech, as, for example,
"hammah" = "glowing one," a rare expression in
Biblical Hebrew for the sun (Isa. xxiv. 23, etc.), but
one which is frequently used in this sense in the
Mishnah (Ber. i. 2; iii. 5, etc.).

(3) Not even the "parallelismus membrorum" is
an absolutely certain indication of ancient Hebrew
poetry. This " parallelism " is a phenomenon no-
ticed in the portions of the Old Testament that
are at the same time marked fre-
Parallel- quently by the so-called "dialectus
ism. poetica"; it consists in a remarkable

correspondence in the ideas expressed
in two successive verses; for example, the above-
cited words of Lamech, "Adah and Zillah, hear my
voice ; ye wives of Lamech, barken unto my speech "
(Gen. iv. 23), in which are found "he'ezin" and
"imrah," show a remarkable repetition of the same
thought. See Parallelism in Hebrew Poetry.

But this ideal eurythmy is not always present in
the songs of the Old Testament or in the Psalter,
as the following passages will show : " The Lord is
my strength and song, and he is become my salva-
tion " (Ex. XV. 2). "Saul and Jonathan, the beloved
and the lovely, in life and in death they were not
divided" (H. P. Smith, in "International Commen-
tary," on II Sam. i. 23). "Ye daughters of Israel,
weep over Saul, who clothed you in scarlet, and tine
linen " {ib. 24). " And he shall be like a tree planted
by the rivers of water, that bringeth forth his fruit
in his .season" (Ps. i. 3; comp. ib. ii. 12); "I laid me
down and slept; I awaked ; for the Lord sustained
me. I will not be afraid of ton thousands of people,
that have set themselves against me round about"
{ib. iii. 6-7 [A. V. 5-6] ; see also ib. iv. 7 et seq., ix. 4
et seq.). Julius Ley ("Leitfaden der Hebraischen
Metrik," 1887, p. 10) says therefore correctly that
"the poets did not consider themselves bound by
parallelism to such an extent as not to set it aside
when the thought required it." This restriction

must be made to James Robertson's view ("The
Poetry of the Psalms," 1898, p. 160): "The distin-
guishing feature of the Hebrew poetry ... is the
rhythmical balancing of parts, or parallelism of
thought. "

(4) The poetry of the ancient Hebrews is not dis-
tinguished from the other parts of the Old Testa-
ment by rhytiun based on quantity,

Q,uantita- though in view of Greek and Roman
tive poetry it was natural to seek such a

Rhythm, rhythm in the songs and Psalms of the
Old Testament. William Jones, for
example ("Poeseos Asiaticae Commentarii," ch. ii.,
London, 1774), attempted to prove that there was a
definite sequence of long and short syllables in the
ancient Hebrew poems; but he could support this
thesis only by changing the punctuation in many
ways, and by allowing great license to the Hebrew
poets. However, on reading the portions of the
Old Testament marked by the so-called "dialectus
poetica" or by parallelism {e.g.. Gen. iv. 23 et seq.)
no such sequence of long and short syllables can
be discovered ; and Sievers (" Metrische Untersuch-
ungen," 1901, §53) says: "Hebrew prosody is not
based on quantity as classical prosodj'' is."

(5) Hebrew poetic form is based on accent. Al-
though Hubert Giimme recognizes this fact, he is in
danger of recurring to the view that quantitative
meter may bo found in ancient Hebrew poetry, hav-
ing recently formulated his rules in his "Metres et
Strophes" (1901, pp. 3 et seq.) and in "Psalmenpro-
bleme " (1902, pp. 4 et seq.). Nivard Schloegl ("Ec-
clesiasticus," 1901, p. xxi.) also adopts this view.
Although both admit that the Hebrew poet regarded
the accented syllables as the chief syllables of the
line, they hold that these syllables contained a
certain number of morte, only a certain number of
which could occur between two accented syllables.
This view is too mechanical, in the present writer's
opinion ; and Sievers also says {I.e. § 81) : " Grimme's
morae are more than questionable."

Gustav Bickell holds that the poetical rhythm of
the Hebrews consisted in the regular succession of
accented and unaccented syllables, saying distinctly :
"The metrical accent falls regularly upon every al-
ternate syllable" ("Z. D. M. G." 1881, pp. 415, 418

et seq.). This statement, however,

Bickell's does not agree with the nature of He-

Recon- brew poetry as it actually exists, as has

struction. nowhere else been more clearly proved

than in Jacob Ecker's "Professor
Bickell's ' Carmina Veteris Testamenti Metrice, ' das
Neueste Denkmal auf dom Kirchhof der Hebra-
ischen Metrik " (1883). Ecker shows in this pam-
phlet that Bickell removed or added about 2,600 syl-
lables in the Psalms in order to obtain the "regular
succession of accented and unaccented syllables."
As illustrating the shortcomings of Bickell's view it
may be pointed out that he holds that the poetic
pcjrtions of the Book of Job are composed in cata-
lectic iambic tetrameters; hence he transcribes Job
xxxii. 6 as follows: "Ca'ir ani lojamim, V'attem
sabim jeshi.shim; 'Al-ken zachalt vaira', Mechav-
vot de'i et'khem " — i.e., he adds the word " zabim,"
and suppresses the afTormative "i " of "zahalti," al-
though the "^ " distinguishes this form from that of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poetry

the second person singular feminine; hence it is not
surprising tliat Sievers says (Z.c . §55): "I can do
uotiiing further with Bicliell's system."

Mostscliolars now hold that the Hebrew poet con-
sidered only the syllables receiving the main accent,
and did not count the intervening ones. !^xamples
contrary to this are not found in passages where
forms of the so-called "dialectus poctica " are iised,
as Ley holds in his "GrundzUge des Hhythmus,
des Vers- und Strophenbaues in der Hebraischen
Poesie," pp. 99, 116; and the present writer has
proved (in his "Stilistik," etc., p. 833, for example)
that the choice of " lame " instead of " lahem " favors
jn only a few passages the opinion that the poet in-
tended to cause an accented syllable to be followed
by an unaccented one. Such passages are: Gen.
ix. 26 ; Ps. xliv. 4, Ixvi. 7 ; Job xxiv. 17,
Accentual xxxix. 4; and Lam. i. 19. Ley has not
Rhythm, noted that the choice of " lanio " dis-
turbs the mechanical succession of un-
accented and accented syllables in the following pas-
sages: Deut. xxxii. 33, 35; xxxiii. 2; Ps. ii. 4; xxviii.
8; xliv. 11; xlix.l4; Iv. 20; Ivi. 8; Iviii. 5,8; lix. 9;
Ixiv. 6; Ixxiii. 6, 10, 18; Ixxviii. 24, 66; Ixxx. 7;
Ixxxviii. 9; xcix. 7; cxix.165; Prov. xxiii. 20; Job
iii. 14; vi. 19; xiv. 31; xv. 28; xxii. 17, 19; xxiv.
16; XXX. 13; Lam. i. 22; iv. 10, 15 (for other exam-
ples see KOnig, I.e. pp. 333 et seq.). Hence most
scholars now hold that the rhythm of Hebrew poetry
is similar to that of the German "Nibelungenlied"
— a view that is strongly supported by the nature
of the songs sung to-day by the populace of modern
Palestine. These songs have been described by L.
Schneller in his"Kennst Du das Land?" (section
"Musik")in the following words: "The rhythms
are manifold; there may be eight accents in one
line, and three syllables are often inserted between
two accents, the .symmetry and variation being de-
termined by emotion and sentiment." Not less
interesting are G. Dalman's recent observations in
Palestine. He says: "Lines with two, three, four,
and five accented syllables maj' be distinguished,
between which one to three, and even four, unac-
cented syllables may be inserted, the poet being
bound by no definite number in his poem. Occa-
sionally two accented syllables are joined " ("Palas-
tinischer Diw^an," 1901, p. xxiii.).

Such free rhythms are, in the present writer's
opinion, found also in the poetry of the Old Testa-
ment. Under the stress of their thoughts and feel-
ings the poets of Israel sought to achieve merely the
material, not the formal symmetry of correspond-
ing lines. This may be observed, for example,
in the following lines of Ps. ii. : "Serve the Lord
with fear" (" 'Ibdu et-Ynwii be-yir'ah," verse 11),
" rejoice with trembling " (" we-gilu bi-re'adah," ib.).
Tills is shown more in detail by KOnig, I.e. p. 334;
and Cornill has confirmed this view (" Die Metrischen
StQcke des Ruches Jeremia," 1901, p. viii.) by say-
ing: "Equal length of the several stichoi was not
the ba.sic formal law of Jeremiah's metric construc-
tion. " Sievers is inclined to restrict Hebrew rhythm
by various rules, as he attacks (i.e. §§ 52, 88) Budde's
correct view, that "a foot which is lacking i-n one-
half of a verse may find a substitute in the more
ample thought of this shorter line " (" Haudkomnien-

tar zu Hiob." p, xlvii.). Furthermore, the verse of
the Old Testament poetry is naturally iambic or
anapeslic, as the words are accented on one of tlic
final syllables.

A special kind of rhytiim may be ol)Rerved in the
dirges, called by the Hebrews "kinot." A whole
book of these elegies is contained in the Old Testa-
ment, the first of them beginning thus: " IIow duth
the city sit solitary— that was full of people— Ijow
is she become as a widow — she that was great
among the nations — and princess among the prov-
inces—how is she become tributary!" (I^im. i. 1).

The rhythm of such lines lies in the

The fact that a longer line is always fol-

Dirges. lowed by a shorter one. As in the

hexameter and pentameter of Latin
poetry, this change was intended to symbolize the
idea that a strenuous advance in life is followed
by fatigue or reaction. This rhythm, which may
be designated "elegiac measure," occurs also in
Amos V. 2, expressly designated as a kinah. The
sad import of his prophecies induced Jeremiah also
to employ the rhythm of the dirges several times in
his utterances (Jer. ix. 20, xiii. 18 et seq.). He refers
here expressly to the "mekonenot" (the mourning
women) who in the East still chant the death-song
to the trembling tone of the pipe (ib. xlviii. 36 et
seq.). "Kinot" are found also in Ezek. xix. 1 ; xxvi.
17; xxvii. 2; xxxii. 3 et seq., 16, 19 et seq. This
elegiac measure, being naturally a well-known
one, was used also elsewhere, as, for example, in
Ps. xix. 8-10. The rhythm of the kinah has been
analyzed especially by Budde (in Stade's "Zeit-
schrift," 1883, pp. 399 etseq.). Similar funeral songs
of the modern Arabs are quoted by Wetzstein (in
"Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie," v. 298 et seq.), as, e.g. :
"O, if he only could be ransomed! truly, I would
pay the ransom! " (see Kftnig, I.e. pp. 315 et se^.).

A special kind of rhythm was produced by the
frequent employment of the so-called anadiplosis, a
mode of speech in which the phrase at the end of
one sentence is repeated at the beginning of the
next, as, for instance, in the passages " they came not

to the help of the Lord [i.e., to protect

Ana- Yhwh's people], to the help of the

diplosis. Lord against the mighty " (Judges

v. 23; comp. "zidkot" [il>. 11a] and
" nilhamu " \ib. 19a-20a, b]), and " From whence shall
my help come? ]SIy help cometh from the Lord"
(Ps. cxxi. lb-2a, K. V.). Many similar passages
occur in fifteen of the Psalms, cxx.-cxxxiv.. which
also contain an unusual number of epanalepses, or
catch-words, for whicii the present writer has pro-
posed the name " LeittOne." Thus there is the repe-
tition of"shakan"in Ps. cxx. 5.6: of "shalom"
in verses 6 and 7 of the same chapter; and the catch-
word "yishmor" in Ps. cxxi. 7. 8 (all the cases are
enumerated in KOnig. I.e. p. 302). As the employ-
ment of such repetitions is somewhat suggestive of
the mounting of stairs, the superscription "shir
ha-ma'alot," found at the beginning of these fifteen
psalms, may have a double meaning: it may indicate
not only the purpose of these songs, to be sung on the
pilgrimages to the festivals at Jerusalem, but also
the peculiar construction of the songs, by which
the reciter is led from one step of the inner life to

Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the next. Such graduated rhythm may be observed
elsewhere ; for the peasants in modern Syria accom-
pany their national dance by a song the verses of
which are connected like the links of a chain, each
verse beginning with the final words of the prece-
ding one (Wetzstein, I.e. v. 292).

Alphabetical acrostics are used as an external em-
bellisliment of a few poems. The letters of the
alphabet, generally in their ordinary sequence, stand
at the beginning of smaller or larger sections of Ps.
ix.-x. (probably), xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxi., cxii.,
cxix.,cxlv. ; Prov. xxxi. 10-31 ; Lam.
Acrostics, i.-iv. ; and also of Sirach (Ecclus.) li.
13-29, as the newly discovered He-
brew text of this book has shown (see Acrostics,
and, on Ps. xxv. and xxxiv. especially, Ilirsch in
"Am. Jour. Semit. Lang." 1902, pp. 167-173). Al-
phabetical and other acrostics occur frequently in
Neo-Hebraic poetry (Winter and Wiinsche, " Die
JiidischeLiteraturseit Abschlussdes Kauons," 1894-
1896, iii. 10). The existence of acrostics in Bab}'-
lonian literature has been definitely proved (II.
Zimmern, in "Zeitschrift fiir Keilschriftforschung,"
1895, p. 15); and alphabetical poems are found also
among the Samaritans, Syrians, and Arabs. Cicero
says ("De Divinatione," II., liv.) that the verse of
the sibyl was in acrostics; and the so-called "Orac-
ula Sibyllina" contain an acrostic in book 8, lines
217-250.

A merely secondarj' phenomenon, which distin-
guishes a part of the poems of the Old Testament
from the other parts, is the so-called "accentuatio
poetica"; yet it calls for some mention, because ii
has been much slighted recently (Sievers, I.e. ^ 248,
p. 375). Although not all the poetical portions of
the Okl Testament are marked by a special accentu-
ation, it is noteworthy that the Book of Job in iii.
3-xlii. 6 and the books of Psalms and Proverbs
througiiout have received unusual accents. This
point will be further discussed later on.

Correct in.sight into the rhythm of the poetry of
the Old Testament did not die out entirely in Jew-
ish tradition; for Judah ha-Levi says (in his "Cu-
zari,"ed, in Arabic and German by II.
Survivals Ilirschfeld, 1885-87, ii., §§ 69 ct seq.):
of '' ' Hodu le-Yawii ki-tob ' [Ps. cxxxvi.

Rhythm. 1] maybe recited 'empty and full'
in the modulation of ' le'oseh nifla-
'ot gedolot lebaddo ' " (verse 4), meaning that an
"empty " line of the poem maybe modulated in the
same way as a " full " line, the rhythm consequently
not being dependent on a mechanical correspondence
of the number of syllables. It is true that Josephus
says that Moses composed the song in Ex. xv. 2
et seq. kv e^afitrpu r(5vw("Ant." ii. 16, § 4), but he
probably found mere superficial resemblances to
hexameters in the rhythm of Hebrew poetry. The
same holds good of the statements of Jerome and
other Christian writers (Kcinig, I.e. pp. 341 ct nfq.).

Division of the Poetical Portions of the Old Testa-
ment According to Their Contents : («) First may Ik;
mentioned poems that deal principally with events,
being epic-lyric in character: the triumphal song
of Israel delivered from Egypt, or the Sea song
(Ex. XV. 1-18); the mocking song on the burning
of Heshbon (Num. xxi. 27-30) ; the so-called Swan

song of Moses (Deut. xxxii. 1-43); the song of Deb-
orah (Judges v.); the derisive song of victory of
the Israelitish women (" Saul hath slain," etc. ; I Sam.
xviii. 7); Hannah's song of praise {ib. ii. 1-10);
David's song of praise on being saved from his ene-
mies (II Sam. xxii.); Hezekiah's song of praise on
his recovery (Isa. xxxviil. 9-20); Jonah's song of
praise (Jonah ii. 3-10); and many of the Psalms,
e.g., those on the creation of the world (viii., civ.),
and on the election of Israel (xcix., c, cv.). A sub-
division is formed by poems that deal more with de-
scription and praise: the so-called Well song (Num.
xxi. 17 et seq.); the song of praise on the uniqueness
of the God of Israel (Ps. xcv., xcvii.); and those
on His eternity {ib. xc); His omnipresence and
omniscience {ib. cxxxix.); and His omnipotence
{ib. cxv.).

{b) Poems appealing more to reason, being essen-
tially didactic in character. These include: fables,
like that of Jotham (Judges ix. 7-15, although in
prose); parables, like those of Nathan and others (II
Sam. xii. 1-4, xiv. 4-9; I Kings xx. 39 et seq., all
three in prose), or in the form of a song (Isa. v.
1-6); riddles (Judges xiv. \'^etscq.; Prov. xxx. 11
et seq.); maxims, as, for instance, in I Sam. xv. 23,
xxiv. 14, and the greater part of Proverbs; the
monologues and dialogues in Job iii. 3 et seq. ; com-
pare also the reflections in monologue

Didactic in Ecclesiastes. A number of the

Poems. Psalms also are didactic in character.
A series of them impresses the fact
that Ynwii's law teaches one to abhor sin (Ps. v.,
Iviii.), and inculcates a true love for the Temple and
the feastsof Yhwh (Ps. xv., Ixxxi., xcii.). Another
series of Psalms shows that God is just, although it
may at times seem different to a short-sighted ob-
server of the world and of history (" theodicies":
Ps. xlix., Ixxiii. ; comp. ib. xvi., Ivi., Ix.).

(r) Poems that portray feelings based on individ-
ual experience. Manj' of these lyrics express joy,
as, e.g., Lamech's so-called song of the Sword (Gen.
iv. 23 et seq.); David's "last words" (II Sam. xxiii.
1-7) ; the words of praise of liberated Israel (Isa.
xii. 1-6); songs of praise like Ps. xviii., xxiv.,
cxxvi., etc. Other lyrics express mourning. First
among these are the dirges proper for the dead, as
the kinah on the death of Saul and

Lyrics. Jonathan (II Sam. i. 19-27); that on
Abner's death {ib. iii. 33 et seq.) ; and
all psalms of mourning, as, e.g., the expressions of
sorrow of sufferers (Ps. xvi., xxii., xxvii., xxxix.),
and the expressions of penitence of sinners (ii. vi.,
xxxii., xxxviii., Ii., cvi., cxxx., cxliii.).

{d) Finally, a large group of poems of the Old
Testament that urge action and are exhortatory.
These may be divided into two sections: (1) The poet
wishes something for himself, as in the so-called
"signal words " (Num. x. S'tetseq., "Arise, Ynwir,"
etc.); at the beginning of tiie Well song (ib. xxi. 17 e^
seq., "ali be'er "); in the daring request, "Sun, stand
thou still" (Josh. X. 12); in Habakkuk's prayer
(" tefillah " ; Hab. iii. 1-19) ; or in psalms of request for
help in time of war(xliv., Ix., etc.) or for liberation
from prison (cxxii., cxxxvii., etc.). (2) The poet pro-
nounces blessings upon others, endeavoring to move
God to grant these wishes. To this group belong

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poetry

the blessing of Noah (Gen. ix. 25-27), of Isaac (ib.
xxix. 28etseg.),and of Ja.coh{ib. xlix. 3-27); Jethro's
congratuhitiou of Israel (Ex. xviii. 10); the blessing
of Aaron (Num. vi. 24-26) and of Balaam (ib. xxiii.
7-10, 18-24; xxiv. 5-9, 17-24) ; Mo.ses' farewell (Dent.
xxxiii. Ictseq.); the psalms that begin with "Ashre "
= "Blesised is," elc, or contain this phrase, as Ps. i.,
xli., Ixxxiv. 5ciseq., 13, cxii., cxix., Cxxviii.

It was natural that in the drama, which is in-
tended to portray a whole series of external and in-
ternal events, several of the foregoing kinds of poems
should be combined. This combination occurs in
Canticles, which, in the present writer's opinion, is
most correctly characterized as a kind of drama.

The peculiar sublimity of the poems of the Old
Testament is due partly to the liigh development
of monotheism which finds expression therein and
partly to the beauty of the moral ideals which
they exalt. This subject has been discu.ssed in a
masterly way by J. D. Michaelis in the preface to his
Arabic grammar, 2d ed., pp. xxix. et seq., and by
Kautzsch in " Die Poesie und die Poetischen Biicher
des A. T."(1902).

The more recent comparative study of the history
of literature has brought out the interesting fact
that the poetic portions of the several literatures
date from an earlier time than the prose portions.
This fact was even recognized by the Romans, as is
shown by several sentences by Strabo and Varro
that have been collected by E. Norden in his work
** Antike Kunstprosa," 1898, p. 32. It therefore cor-
responds to the general analogy of the
Relative history of literature that the poetic
Age narrative of the battle of the Israelites
of Poetry, against the northern Cauaanites, which
is usually called the song of Deborah
(Judges V. 1 et seq.), is held by modern scholars to
be an earlier account of this historic event than the
prose narrative of the battle (found ib. iv. 14 et seq.).
Modern scholars generally agree on this point in ref-
erence to the relative antiquity of prose and poetry.
Wellhausen says expressly : " We know that songs
like Josh. x. 12 et seq., Judges v. , II Sam. i.lQet seq. ,
iii. 33 et seq., are the earliest historical monuments"
("Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels," viii. 2).

But now a new question has arisen as to the rela-
tion between prose and poetry in the Old Testament,
which calls for brief discussion in the final section
of this article.

How much of the Old Testament is to be included
under poetry? This is the most recent question re-
garding the Old Testament poetry ; and several schol-
ars are inclined to answer that the entire Hebrew
Bible is poetry. Hence the following points call for
examination : (a) Can the prophetic books be con-
sidered as poetry? Setting aside the many modern
exegetes of the Old Testament who have gone so far
as to discuss the meters and verse of the several
prophets, it may be noted here nierel}'
Extent of that Sievers says {I.e. p. 374) that
Poetry the prophecies, aside from a few ex-
in the Old ccptions to be mentioned, are eo ipso
Testament, poetic, i.e., in verse. But the fact
must be noted, which no one has so
far brought forward, namely, that every single ut-
terance of Balaam is called a sentence (" mashal " ;
X.— 7

Num. xxiii. 7, 18; xxiv. 8. 15, 20, 23). while in the
prophetic books tliis term is not applied to the
prophecies. There " masiial " is used only in the
Book of Ezekiel, and in an entirely different sense,
namely, that of figurative speecli or allegory (Ezek.
xvii. 2, xxi. 5, xxiv. 3). This fact seems to show
that in earlier times prophecies were uttered more
often in shorter sentences, while subsefiuently, in
keeping with the development of Hebrew literature,
they were uttered more in detail, and the sentence
was naturally amplified into the discourse. This
view is supiiorted by Lsa. i., the first pro|)hecy
being as follows: "Banim giddalti we-romamti,"
etc. There is here certainly such a symmetry in
the single sentences that the rhythm which lias been
designated above as the poetic rhythm must be
ascribed to them. But in the same chapter there
occur also sentences like the following: "Arzekem
shemamah 'arekem serufot-esh; admatekem le-neg-
dekem zarim okelim otah " (verse 7), or this, " When
ye come to appear before me, who hath reijuired
this at your hand, to tread my courts?" (verse 12).
In the last pair of lines even the translation suffi-
ciently shows that each line does not contain three
stresses merely, as does each line of the words of
God (verses 2b, 3a, b). Hence the present writer
concludes as follows: Although the prophets of
Israel inserted poems in their prophecies (lsa. v. 1
et seq.), or adopted occasionally the rhythm of the
dirge, which was well known to their readers (Amos
v. 2 et seq. ; see above), their utterances, aside
from the exceptions to be noted, were in the freer
rhythm of prose. This view is confirmed by a sen-
tence of Jerome that deserves attention. He says in
his preface to his translation of Isaiah : " Let no one
think that the prophets among the Hebrews were
bound by meter similar to that of the Psalms."
Finally, the present writer thinks that he has proved
in his pamphlet " Neueste Prinzipien der Alltesta-
mentlichen Kritik," 1902, pp. 31 et seq., that even
the latest attempts to find strophes in Amos i. 2 et
seq. are unsuccessful.

(b) Some scholars have endeavored to include in
poetry the historical books of the Old Testament
also. Sievers includes, besides, the prologue and
the epilogue of the Book of Job. The first line is as
follows: " There was a man in the land of Uz. whose
name was Job," the Hebrew text of which has, ac-
cording to Sievers, six stresses; the next line, which
may be translated "and that man was perfect and
upright, and one that feared God and eschewed evil."
contains, according to the same writer, eight stresses.
The next line has also six stresses, but then follow
lines with 4 -f 3, 3 + 3, 3, 4, 6, 4 + 3. 4 -f 3 stresses.
However, the form of these lines is not such as to
justify one in removing the barrier that exists by
virtue of the differences in the very contents of the
prologue, the epilogue, and the dialogues of the
book, between i. 1 et seq., xlii. 7 et seq. , and iii. 3-xlii. 6.
This view is furthermore confirmed by the remark-
able cireum.stance, alluded to above, that not the
entire Book of Job, but only the section iii. 3-xlii.
6, has the special accentuation tliat was given to the
entire Book of Psalms and the Proverbs. Further-
more, Jerome, who knew something of Jewish tra-
dition, says explicitly that the Book of Job is writ-

Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ten in prose from the beginning to iii. 2, and that
prose is again employed in xlii. 7-17.

Sievers, finally, has made the attempt (I.e. pp. 382
et seq.) to show that other narrative portions of the
Old Testament are in poetry. The lirst object of
his experiments is the section Gen. ii. 4b et seq., "In
the day that the Lord God made the earth and the
heavens," etc. He thinks that the
Sievers' Hebrew text has lines of four stresses
Views. each ; but, in order to prove this state-
ment, even at the beginning of verse
4b, he is forced to regard the expression "be-yom"
as an extra syllable pretixed to " 'asot." He is also
obliged to strike out the word " ba-arez " at the end of
verse 5a, although it has just as much meaning as has
the word " 'al lia-arez " at the end of verse 5c. Then
he must delete the words " but there went up a mist
from the earth, and watered the whole face of the
ground " (verse 6), which contains not four, but six
stresses. He adds in explanation : " They do not fit
into the context, as has long since been recognized."
This refers to the view (Holzinger, in "K. H. C."
1898, ad loc.) that "ed" in Gen. ii. 6 can not mean
"mist," because this "ed" is said to "water," while
mist merely dampens the ground. But the meta-
phorical expression "to water" is used instead of
" to dampen " just as " ed " is used in Job xxxvi. 27,
and there are no grounds for the assertion that the
statement made in verse 6 does "not fit into the
context." On the contrary, verses 5a and 6 corre-
spond in the same way as do 5b and 7. Sieveis
attempts similarly to construct other lines of four
stresses each in Gen. ii. 4b et seq. ; but perhaps
enough has been said to show that his experiments
do not seem natural, and can not extend the
boundaries of poetry be3'ond those recognized here-
tofore.

Bibliography : For the bibliography of the earlier works deal-
ing with the various questions in connection with Old Testa-
ment poetry, Ed. K6nig, Stilistik, Elietorik, Poetik, 1900, pp.
305 et seq.: E. Sievers, Metrische Untertnichinnjen : I. Stu-
dien zur HehjUifchen Metrik, 1901 ; Nlvard Schloegl, Eccie-
Kia.<<ticti.f (rrrix. 12-xliT. IG) Ope Ai'tis MetricfeinFormam
Oriuinalem Redactu.^, 1901 ; Canticum Canticnriim Hehra-
ice, 1902; Hubert Grimme, Psalmenprnbleme, 1902. pp, 1-19.

E. G. H. E. K.

Didactic : The oldest form of didactic poetry

is mnemonic verse, which was often used in post-
Biblical Hebrew even after the didactic poem was
fully developed. Among the oldest examples of
didactic poetry are mnemonic strophes on calendric
topics and Ma.soretic rules. Soon, however, the
circle widens and all poetry is absorbed in the
didactic poem. In a general view there are first to
be considered calendric calculation and everything,
connected with it.

On conjunction and the leap-year there are works
— sometimes mnemonic strophes, sometimes longer

poems — by the following authors:

Calendric Jose al-Naharwani (" Kerem Heined,"

Verses. ix. 41-42; comp. Harkavy, "Studien

und Mitteilungen," v. 116), Saadia
Gaon (see Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." cols. 2170
etseq.; Berliner, in supplenient to "Mafteah," p.
15), Simson of Sens and Elijah b. Nathan (Stein-
schneider, "Cat. Berlin," .section ii., p. 73), Abraham
ibn Ezra (Kobak's "Jeschurun," iv. 222), Profiat
Diiran ("Mu'aseh Efod," notes, p. 44), Moses b.

Shem-Tob b. Jeshuah, David Vital (Steinschneider,
"Jewish Literature," p. 244), and Eliab b. Matti-
thiah (Ben Jacob, "Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 578, No.
567). Two anonymous authors (Steinschneider,
"Cat. Berlin," section ii., p. 72; Profiat Duran, I.e.
notes, p. 45) wrote about the quarter-day; and Elia-
kim ha-Levi wrote verses on the determination of
the feast-days (Steinschneider, "Cat. Berlin," section
ii., p. 73).

Philology and the sciences related to it occupy a
large space in the history of didactic poetry. Gram-
mar was treated by Solomon ibn Gabirol in a didactic
poem of 400 metrical lines, but only a part of it,
ninety-eight lines, has been preserved (the latest,
critical edition is that of Egers in the "Zunz Jubel-
schrift"). Ibn Gabirol was followed by many
others, as Elijah Levita ("Pirke Eliyahu," first
printed in 1520), Moses Provencal ("Be-Shem Kail-
mon," Venice, 1597), A. M. Greiding ("Shinih Ha-
dasliah," first ed., Zolkiev, 1764), Abraham Gemilla
Atorgo (date uncertain; see Steinschneider, "Cat.

Munich," Nos. 241-242). The col-
Grammar : lection of words with the " left sin "
Mne- (" sin semolit "), which perhaps Joseph
monic b. Solomon was the first to make,
Verses. was worked over by Hayyim Caleb

(Bcnjacob, I.e. p. 578, No. 569), by
Aaron Hamon (in Isaac Tshelebi's "Semol Yisrael,"
Constantinople, 1723), and by Moses Pisa ("Sliirah
Hadashah " and " Hamza'ah Hadashah," first printed
in "Shir Emunim," Amsterdam, 1793). The enig-
matic poem of Abraham ibn Ezra on the letters-
' A ,n ,N is well known; around it has collected a
whole literature of commentaries in rime and in
prose. A didactic poem on prosody by an anony-
mous writer has been published by Goldbium ("]\Ii-
Ginze Yisrael," i. 51). Of Masoretic didactic poems,
the well-known one on the number of letters of the
alphabet in the Biblical books is by some attributed
to Saadia Gaon ; by others, to Saadia b. Joseph
Bekor Shor (see Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." col.
2225). A didactic poem on the accents was written
by Jacob b. Meir Tarn (Kobak's "Jeschurun," vol.
v.), and, later, one by Joseph b. Kalonymus. who
devoted a special poem to the accents in the books
n D Nt i.e.. Psalms, Proverbs, Job (see "Ta'ame
Emet," ed. Berliner, Berlin, 1886).

The halakic sciences, religious law, and Talmudic
jurisprudence have employed the poets even more
than has the linguistic sciences. Ilai Gaon treated
in metrical verse of property and oaths according
to Talmudic law ("Sha'are Dine Mainonot we-
Sha'are Shebu'ot," ed. Halberstam, in Kobak's
"Ginze Nistarot," iii. 30 et seq.). An anonymous
writer produced the whole of Hoshen Mislipat in
verse ("'En Mishpat," 1620); Mordecai b. Hillel
("Hilkot Shehitah u-Bedikah," commentated by

Jolianan Treves, Venice, c. 1545-52),
Halakic Israel Najara ("Shol.iate ha-Yeladin,"
Poems. Constantinople, 1718), David Vital

(supplement to " Seder Berakah," Am-
sterdam, 1687), and many others versified the regu-
lations concerning shehitah and bedikah ; an anony-
mous writer (perhaps Mordecai b. Hillel) versified
the whole complex system of dietary regulations
(Benjacob, I.e. p. 45, No. 877); another anonymous

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poetry

author worked over the treatise Hullin (Moses Ha-
bib, "Darke No'am," Venice, 154G; Steiiisehneider,
"Cat. Bodl." col. 3538. a.v. "Shem-Tob ibn Fala-
quera"); and Isaac b. Abraham Hayyot, the whole
"Yoreh De'ah " ("Penc Yizhak," Cracow, 1591).
Saul b. David elaborated the thirty-nine principal
kinds of work forbidden on the Sabbath ("Tal
Orot," Prague, 1615); Elijah b. Moses Loanz, the
Sabbath regulations in general (in "Zeniirot u-Tush-
bahot," Basel, 1599); and Abraham Samuel, the
whole Mishnah treatise on the Sabbatli ("Shirat
Dodi," Venice, 1719). The Shulhan 'Aruk in its
entirety found a reviser in Isaac b. Noah ha-Kohen
("Sefer ha Zikkaron," n.d., n.p.).

Here belong also a large portion of the halakic
piyyutim (see Dukes, "Zur Kennlniss der Neuhe-
brilischen KeligiOsen Poesie," pp. 42 et seq.) and the
general and special Azharot. In this connection,
too, should be mentioned the didactic poems on the
Mishnah treatises of the Talmud. Of these, per-
haps the first was composed by Sa'id al-Damrari
(Steinschneider, "Cat. Berlin," section ii., p. 8); the
same material was treated of by Isaac Samora;
while Saadia b. Danan in his didactic poem on this
subject brings in the separate sections of the trea-
tises (in Gavison, "'Omer ha-Shikhah," pp. 123 et
seq. ).

The philosophical didactic poem is also very well
represented. Levi b. Abraham b. Hayyim wrote
1,84() lines ("Batte ha-Nefesh weha-Lehashim " ; see
Benjacob, I.e. p. 90, No. 693) on the "seven kinds
of wisdom" ("sheba' hakamot"); Solomon b. Im-
manuel da Piera translated Musa b. Tubi's philo-
sophical didactic poem in metrical
Philosophic verse ("Batte ha-Nefesh," ed. Hirsch-
Poems. feld, Ramsgate, 1894); Abraham b.
Meshullam of Modeua wrote in rime
a commentary on philosophy (see Michael, "Or
ha-Hayyim," No. 187; "Bi'ur le-Hokmat ha-Pilo-
sofia ba-Haruzim "); Anatoli (Seraiah ha-Levi)
wrote on the ten categories; another poem on the
same subject is printed in "Kobez 'al Yad " (ii.,
"Haggahot," p. 10); Shabbethai b. Malkiel in-
cluded the four forms of syllogism in four lines
(Steinschneider, "Cat. Leyden," p. 218); and the
"thirteen articles of faith" exist in countless
adaptations. Mattithiah Kartin versified the "Mo-
reh Nebukim" (Steinschneider, " Ilebr. Uebers." p.
428); Mordecai LOwenstamm, the "Behinat 'Olam"
("Shire ha-Behinah," Breslau, 1832). The Cabala,
too, received attention, as witness the adaptations
of the ten Sefirot. Of other sciences only medicine
need be mentioned. A didactic poem on the con-
trolling power of the twelve months is attributed
to Maimonides (Steinschneider, "Cat. Berlin." sec-
tion i., p. 39); Solomon ibn Ayyub translated Avi-
cenna's didactic poem on medicine in metrical verse
(Steinschneider, " Hebr. Uebers." p. 700); Al-Harizi
was the author of a metrical dietetic
Poems on thesis ("Refu'ot ha-Gewiyah," first in
History "Likkute ha-Pardes," Venice, 1519).
and Dietetic-ethical mnemonic verses by

Medicine. Shem-Tob ibn Falaqucra likewise
are well known ("Iggeret Hanhagat
ha-Guf weha-Nefesh " ; see Steinschneider, "Cat.
Munich," No. 49).

History also was frequently the subject of didac-
tic poems. Tlie historical piyyiiUm should hardly
be mentioned here; at un early date, however,
a certain Saadia, about wliotn notiiing dctlnitc is
known, compost-d a learned history in rime (Zunz,
" Z. G. " p. 71) ; Falaquera was tiie author of a " Megil-
lat haZikkaron," of whicii only the title is known;
to Simon b. Zemah Duran is attributed the author-
ship of a didactic poem on tlie chain of tradition
(Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." col. 2602); and M<.s<-8
Rieti's masteri)iece "Mikdash Me'at"may also be
mentioned, although it is not strictly a didactic
poem. Poets wrote about games also, especially on
chess, e.g., Abraham ibn Ezra (.see Steinschneider,
"Schach bei den .Juden," Berlin. 1878); and there
have not been wanting those who vfrsified all the
books of the Bible. This was not done. Iiowever,
for didactic purposes; and such prodiictions do not
belong to the class of poetry of whicli this article
treats.

See, also, Fable; Polemics; Provehbs.

J. H B.
Lyric: Lyric poetry being essentially tlie ex-
pression of individual emotion, it is natural that in
Hebrew literature it should be, in the main, ilevo-
tional in character. Post-Biblical lyrics are confined
within a small scale of human feeling. Love for God
and devotion to Zion are the predominant notes. The
medieval Hebrew poet sang less frequently of wine,
woman, and the pleasures of life, not because the
Hebrew language does not lend itself to these topics,
but because such ideas were for many centuries in-
congruous with .lewish life. Yet there is no form
of lyric poetry which has been neglected by -the
Hebrew poet. Ode and sonnet, elegy and song are
fairly represented, and there is even an adequate
number of wine-songs.

Secular poetry in Hebrew literature may be said
to date from the middle of the tenth century. In
the time of Samuel ha-Nagid (d. 105.')) it had already
attained a degree of perfection. Still it is ditlicult
to find, in that early period, lyric poetry which is
not devotional, or non-devotional poetry which is
not didactic or gnomic in character. Perhaps the
earliest secular lyric poem is the wlne-
In Spain, song ascribed to Solomon ibn Gabirol
(1021-70). said to have been written
against a niggardly host who placed water instead
of wine before his guests. The first great [>oet to
give prominence to non-devotional lyric poetry was
Moses ibn Ezra (1070-1139). who devoted srvt-rak
chapters of his "Tarshish " to the praiseof wine and
music, friendship anil love. The secular lyrics of
his more famous contemjiorary Judah ha-Ix-vi
(1086-1142) are mostly occasional poems, such aa
wedding-songs, panegyrics, and the like. Abnihan*
ibn Ezra (1092-1167) wrote a number of beautiful
poems of a personal character, but they belong to the
epigrammatic rather than to the lyric class ot litera-
ture. Judah al-Hari/i ( 11 6r>- 12:^0), though the first
poet of note to devote himself entirely to secular
poetry, is more of a sjitirist than a lyrist. Of the
fifty chapters of which his "Tahkemoni" consists
the twenty-seventh is the only one which sings the
praise of "wine. The rest are satires, didactic or
gnomic in character.

Poetry
Folak

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

100

The true ring of non-devotional l\Tic poetry,
however, is not to be found in Hebrew literature
until the time of Immanuel of Home (1265-1330).
He united in himself the warm imagination of the
Orient and the erotic spirit of Italy.
Immanuel In a style more Uexible even than that
of Rome, of Harizi he gives utterance to pas-
sionate love with such freedom of
expression that the Rabbis thought it justifiable
to forbid the reading of his "Mahberot" on the
Sabbath.

From Immanuel there is a stretch of almost three
centuries before another great lyric poet is met with.
Israel b. Moses N.\jara is imiversally acknowledged
to be one of the sweetest singers in Israel. He is,
however, more of a devotional poet, and his right to
be included here comes from the fact that he sings
of God and Israel in terms of love and passion. In
fact, he is so anthropomorphic in his expressions
that Menahem di Lonzano condemned him for it.
Nevertheless the latter, though of a serious turn of
mind, indulged in lighter compositions when the
occasion presented itself. His poem for Purim
(" 'Abodat Mikdash," folio 74, Constantinople) is
one of the best wine-songs in Hebrew literature.

From Najara two centuries pass before true lyric
poetry is again met with. This is a period of transi-
tion in Hebrew poetrj*. The Hebrew bard had just
begun to come under the influence of European lit-
erature, and as yet had had no time to assimilate
what he had absorbed and strike out in a way of his
own. The drama is introduced into Hebrew litera-
ture in the works of Solomon Usque, Joseph Penso,
and Moses Zacuto. Yet, though the form in which
these poets threw their compositions is dramatic,
the temperament is lyric in all of them. For the
same reason Moses Hayyim Luzzatto must be re-
garded as one of the best lyric poets of the eighteenth
century.

The success which Wessely's "Songs of Glory"
("Shire Tif'eret") met gave rise to a great number
of imitators, and almost every one
Wessely . who could write verse essayed the epic.
But soon this German school was over-
shadowed by the Russian lyric school, of which
Abraham Dob Bar Lebensolm and his son Micah
were the acknowledged leaders. From that day
until now the palm has been held by the Russian
poets. With the exception of Joseph Almanzi and
Samuel David Luzzatto of Italy, and Meir Letteris
and Naphtali Herz Imber of Galicia, all the more
eminent modern Hebrew poets belong to Russia.

Judah Lob Gordon, though decidedly a greater
master of Hebrew than his preceptor Micah Leben-
sohn, can not be assigned to an exalted position as a
lyric poet. As a satirist he is supreme; as a lyrist
he is not much above the older and is far below the
younger Lebensolm. The most fiery of all modern
lyrists is undoubtedly Aba K. Schapira. Z. H.
Mane is sweeter, M. M. Dolitzky is more melodious,
D. Frischman is more brilliant, and N. H. Imber
sounds more elemental ; but Schapira has that power
which, in the language of Heine, makes his poetry
"a fiery pyramid of song, leading Israel's caravan
of affliction in the wilderness of exile." Of living
poets the nearest to approach him is 11. N. Bialik

and A. Libushitzky, though neither has yet arrived
at maturity. See Dr.\ma, Hebrew; Epic Poetry;
PiYYVT; Satire.

Bibliography : Pelltzsch, Zur Geach. dcr Jlldischen Poesie ;
Stelnschnelder, Jcwisli Literature.
J. I. D.

POGGETTI, JACOB (JOSEPH) B. MOR-
DECAI (^called also Pavieti) : Italian Talmudist
and writer on religious ethics; born at Asti, Pied-
mont; flourished in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. His only known work is " Kizzur Reshit
Hokmah " (Venice, 1600; Cracow, 1667; Amster-
dam, 1725; Zolkiev, 1806), an abridgment of the
" Reshit Hokmah " of Elijah de Vidas. It is in-
tended to teach an ascetic and ethical life.

Bibliography: Furst, Ditil. Jud. li. 32-23; Benjacob, Ozar
ha-Scfarim. p. 542, No. 42.
D. S. O.

POGORELSKY, MESSOLA : Russian physi-
cian and writer; born at Bobruisk March 7, 1862;
educated at the gj-mnasium of his native town ; stud-
ied medicine at the Universitj- of St. Vladimir in
Kiev, where he was graduated in 1890. In the same
3'ear he was appointed government rabbi at Kher-
son, a position which he held until 1893. Pogorel-
sky is a prolific writer on medical and on Jewish
subjects. Among his treatises of interest to Jewish
readers are: "Circumcisio Ritualis Hebra;orum"
(written in German and published at St. Petersburg,
1888); "Yevreiskiya Imena, Sobstvennyya," on
Jewish names in Bible and Talmud, published in
the "Voskhod" and in book-form {ib. 1893); "O
Sifilisye po Biblii " (Zara'ath), on syphilis according
to the Bible {ib. 19()0); "Ob Okkultismye," occult
science according to Bible and Talmud (ib. 1900).

His medical essays have appeared in " St. Peters-
burger Medicinische Wochenschrift," " Russkaya
Meditzina," and other Russian periodicals.

H. r. J. L. La.

POGROMT. See Russia.

POIMANNIKI. See Russia.

POITIERS : French city ; capital of the depart-
ment of Vienne. In 1236 the Jews of Poitiers and
the adjacent country were harried by the Crusaders,
although Pope Gregory IX., in a letter to the bishop,
strongly condemned their excesses. Four years
later (1240) Nathan ben Joseph engaged in a debate
with the Bishop of Poitiers. Alphonse de Poitiers,
yielding to the demands of the Christian inhabit-
ants, ordered the expulsion of the Jews from the
city (1249) and the cancelation of all debts due them
from the Christians. He was not disdainful of their
knowledge of medicine, however; for when he was
attacked, in 1252, with a serious affection of the
eyes he called in a celebrated Jewish physician of
Aragon, named Ibrahim. In 1269 he compelled all
Jews remaining in his dominions to wear the badge
of the wheel on tlieir garments. In 1273 the coun-
cil of Poitiers forbade landed proprietors to make
any contracts with the Jewish usurers, and ordered
Christians generally not to lend money to the Jews
or to borrow from them, except in cases of extreme
necessity. In 1296 all Jews were expelled from the
city by Philip the Fair.

101

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poetry
Poiak

Bibliography: Boutarlc. St.-Louis et Alptwnite de PnUicr»,
p. 87 ; Depplng, Les Juif» dniis le Mmien Ave, pp. 128-130 ;
Gross, Gallia Judaicn, p. ti3; Salffe, Lex Juifx (In Lnnoxie-
doc, pp. 22. 26 ; Ibn Verga, Shebet Ychudah, p. 114 ; R. E. J.
i. 230, Hi. 216, vi. 83.
G. S. K.

POITOU : Ancient province of France. Several
Jewish communities wore founded there in the
twelfth century, notably those of Niort, Bressuiie,
and Thenars (department of Deux-Sc^vres), Chatel-
lerault (Vienne), and Mortagne and Tyfauges(La
Vendee). About the year 1166 the scholars of the
province took part in the synod convened at Troyes
under the auspices of R. Tarn and KaSIIBaM. In
1236 Pope Gregorj- IX. interfered in behalf of the
Jews of Poitou, then persecuted by the Crusaders.
Alphonse de Poitiers displayed great severity in all
his dealings with the Jews. In 1249 he expelled
them from Poitiers, Niort, St. - Jean - d'Angely,
Saintes, St.-Maixent, and Rochelle, and five years
later lie released the Christians from all interest due
to Jews. In 1267 Jews were forbidden to take part
in public functions or to build new synagogues. A
poll-tax was imposed on them in 1268, and they were
obliged, under pain of imprisonment, to declare the
exact value of their possessions, whether personal
property or real estate. Alphonse exacted with the
utmost rigor the payment of the taxes he imposed
on them, and disregarded the measures taken in their
behalf by the Bishop of Toulouse. In 1269 he com-
pelled them to wear the badge; but in 1270 he ex-
empted the Jew Mosset of St.-Jean-d'Angely and
his two sons, on the payment of a sum of money,
from the obligation of wearing this badge before
All Saints' day. In the same year he appointed the
Dominican prior of Poitiers and a secular priest
chosen by the royal councilors to conduct an inves-
tigation of usury in the jurisdiction of Poitiers. He
ordered that every Christian should be believed upon
oath in regard to any sum less than six sols; the in-
quisitors were to pronounce upon cases not involving
more than one hundred sols, while cases involving
greater amounts were to be referred to the decision
of the sovereign. In 1296 the Jews were expelled
from Poitou, Philip the Fair exacting in return from
the Christians, who benefited by the expulsion, a
"fuage" (hearth-tax) of 3,300 pounds. In 1307 a
question was raised regarding the rent of a house
and lands situated at Chatillon-sur-Indre, which had
formerly belonged to the Jew Croissant Castellon,
called the "Poitovin," the son of Bonfil de Saint-
Savin.

The Jews of Poitou were persecuted in 1320 by
the Pastoureaux, and in 1321 were accused of having
poisoned the springs and wells. Only one scholar
of Poitou is known— R. Isaac, mentioned as a com-
mentator on the Bible (Zunz, "Z. G." p. 89).

Bibliography: Depping, LesJuifn dans le Mnyen Aae, PP-
88, 12^t ; Dom Valssete, Histnire Geiu-rale de Lauquednc, ill.
510, 513; (iiiillauine de Nanpis, Confun/aho, p. 78; Malvezin.
HM. des Jiiifs de. Bordeaux, pp. 4.5-46; R. K. J. il. 44 : ill.
216; vi. 8;?; ix. 138; xv. 237, 244 ; Saisre, Lcs Juifgdu Langxu-
dnc, pp. 20, 26 ; Gross. Gallia Judaica., pp. 451 et seq.
G. S. K.

POLA. See Istri.\.

POLACCO, VITTORIO: Italian jurist of Po-
lish descent; born at Padua May 10, 1859. Since
1884 he has been professor of civil law at the Univer-

sity of Padua. His cliicf works are: " Delia Divl-
sione Operata da Ascendenti Fra Di.sccndentj." Pad-
ua, 1884; "Delia Dazione in Paguininto,"- vol. i.,
ih. 18HH; "Contro il- Divorzio." ib. 1892; " L»i Ques-
tione del Divorzio c gli Israeliti in Ituliu," ih. 1894;
"Le Ohbligazioni nel DiritU) Civile Italiuno," ib.
1898. He has also contriliuted numerous articles on
legal topics to the "Archivio Giuridico," the "Atli
della R. Accademia di Scienzc, Lettere ed Arti" of
Padua, the " Atti del R. Istituto Veneto." and other
publications.

fe. H. II. K.

POLAK, GABRIEL JACOB : Talinudist and
bil)li()grai)iicr; born .June:!, IHo:^; died May 14, 1869.
at Amsterdam, where he was i)rincipal of a .scliool.
He was the author of the following works, all pub-
lished in Amsterdam : " Bikkure ha Sinuiiili " (1H44).
a Dutch and Hebrew almanac for t lie year .')604 ; " I)i-
bre Kodesh " (1845), a Dutch-Hebrew dictionary;
"Ilalikot Kedem" (1847). a collection of Hebrew
poems; "Ben Gorni" (1851), a collection of essiiyg;
"Sha'ar Ta'ame Sifre Emet" (1858), an introduction
to a treatise on the accents in the books of Job and
the Psalms; a valuable edition of Ik'dersi's work
on Hebrew synonyms, "Hotem Toknit" (1865); a
biography of the poet David Franco Mcndes and his
contemporaries, in "Ha-Maggid," xii. , and " .Meir
'Enayim," a descriptive catalogue of the libniries of
Jacobsohn and Melr Rubens, a work of great bib-
liographical value.

Polak's editions of the rituals are noted for their
accuracy.

Bibliography : Furst. Bihl. Jud. lil. 109; Roest, Cat. Roten-
thai. Dibl. pp. 940-943; Zeitlln, Kiryat Sefer, Jl. rr.i.
s. M. L. B.

POLAK, HENRI: Dutch labor-leader and poli-
tician; born at Amsterdam Feb. 22, 1868. Till his
thirteenth year he attended the school conducted by
Halberstadt, a well-known teacher of Jewish mid-
dle-class boys, and afterward learned from his uncle
the trade of'diamondcutting. In is87 and lHS8and
again in 1889 and 1890 he lived in London, wlicre
he became interested in socialism. Returning to
Holland, he became attached to the Socimil Demo-
cratische Bond, which he left in 1893 on accr>unt of
its anarchistic principles. With Troelstra and Van
der Goes he founded the periodical " De Nieuwe
Tijd." In 1894 he became one of the twelve found-
ers of the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiders Partij
(S. D. A. P.); in 1898 he became a member of its
committee; and since 1900 he has been its cliairman.

On Nov. 7, 1894, on the occasion of a strike in
the Dutch navy-yards, a confederation was formed
of different parties, with a central committee of
which Polak was chosen chairman. In Jan.. 1^'95.
he was appointed chairman of the Algemeene Neder-
landsche Diamantbewerkers Bond (A. N. D. B.).
which union had its origin in that strike. Since
then he has been editor-in-chief of the " Weckblad."
Polak gave up his trade of diamond-cuttinpand de-
voted himself to the organization of the A. N. D. B..
which is considered the greatest and best-organi.'.ed
union in the Netherlands. Besides many minor
strikes Polak has directed seven important ones, and
has succeeded in obtaining: (1) the abolition of the

Polak
Polemics

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

102

truck system ; (2) an advance of the rate of wages
from 50 to 200 per cent: ami (3) tlie shortening of
the working-day from twelve to nine hours. The
A. N. D. B. strives to raise the moral and intellectual
status of its members hy arranging lecture courses
and by maintaining a library. It includes nine sec-
tions of the diamond industry, with a membership of
7,rj00— 4,500 Jews and 3.000"ciiristians. It is with-
out any political tendency ; and since 1900 it has had
a building of its own, and its own printing-office
with twenty-five employees.

Polak is a member of tiie committee for statistics
(since 1900), chairman of the Kamer van Arbeid
(since 1900), member of the municipality (since
1902), and chairman of the Alliance Uuiverselle des
Ouvriers Diamautaires (since 1903). He has a great
predilection for history. Besides some brochures
for socialistic projjaganda Polak has translated S.
and B. Webb's "History of Trade Union" ("Ge-
schiedenis van het Britsche Vereenigingsleven,"
Amsterdam, 1900) and "Theorie en Praktijk van het
Britsche Vereenigingsleven," ih. 1902. He is corre-
spondent of the '• clarion," " Neue Zeit," "Mouve-
nient Socialiste," and other papers.

8. E. Sl.

POLAK, HERMAN JOSEF : Dutch philolo-
gist; born Sept. 1, lb>44, at Leaden; educated at the
university of that city (Ph.D. 1869). From 1866 to
1869 he tiiught classics at the gymnasium of Leyden ;
from 1873 he taught history at that of Rotterdam;
and from 1882 he was conrector and teacher of clas-
sics there. In 1894 lie was appointed professor of
Greek at GrOningen University.

Polak is a member of the Roj^al Academy of
Sciences and of the Maatscliappij voor Letterkunde
of Leyden. Besides his doctor's dissertation " Ob-
servationes ad Scholia in Homeri Odysseam " (1869),
Polak has pul)lished the following works: " Bloem-
lezing van Grieksche Dichters" (1875; 2d ed. 1892);
"Ad Ody.sseam Ejusque Scholiastas Curai Se-
cundfc" (Briel, 1881-82); and "Studit'n" (1888).
He has also contributed a great number of essays
to "Mnemosyne," "Hermes," "Museum," "Tyd-
spiegel," "Gids," "Elsevier," and other journals.

Bibliography: Jaarhnek Grnuingsrhe Universiteit ,'lS9^-Qr,•,
Ottze Hoogleernaren, p. 110 ; En Halve Ecuw, il. 27, 270, 375.

8. E. Sl.

POLAK, JAKOB EDXJARD : Austrian physi-
cian ; horn 1818 at Gross-Morzin, Bohemia; died
Oct. 7, 1891; studied at Prague and Vienna (M.D.).
About 1851, when an envoy of the Persian govern-
ment went to Vienna to engage teacliers for the mil-
itary scliool at Teheran, then about to be organized,
Polak presented himself as a candidate. He arrived
in the Persian capital in 1851, much impaired in
health by tlie long voyage; and, pending tlie organ-
ization of the school, studied the language of the
country.

In spite of the many obstacles which he encoun-
tered— particularly the defective state of medical
science, which was not then taught in class, and the
Islamic prohibition against the dissection of bodies
— Polak soon achieved a reputation in Persia, and
enjoyed the especial confidence of Shah Nasir-ed-
Din. At first he lectured in Frencli, with the aid of

an interpreter; but after a year he was able to
lecture in Persian, and later published in Persians
work on anatomy. He compiled also a medical
dictionary in Persian, Arabic, and Latin, in order
to provide a system of terminology. Finally he
founded a state surgical clinic containing sixty beds.
A serious illness in 1855 obliged him to give up his
professional work; but he continued his literary
activity.

As physician to the shah, Polak occupied a high
position. About 1861 he returned to Vienna, and
wlienever the shah visited Austria Polak greeted
him at the frontier. His "Persien, das Land und
Seine Bewohner; P^thnograpische Schilderungen,"
appeared at Leipsic in 1865.

Bibliography : Drasche, in Neue Freie Presae, Oct. 14, 1891.
8. E. J.

POLAND. See Rrssi.v.

POLEMICS AND POLEMICAL LITERA-
TURE : Altliough pagan nations as a rule were not
prone to intolerance in matters of religion, they
were so with regard to Judaism. Thej' were highly
incensed against the people which treated so con-
temptuously all pagan divinities and reviled all that
was sacred in pagan eyes. Especially embittered
against the Jews were tlie Egyptians when, through
the translation of the Bible, tliey were informed of
the pitiful role ascribed to their ancestors at the
birth of the Jewish nation. In Egypt, therefore,
originated the anti-Jewish writings, and the apolo-
getic and polemical works in defense
First Ap- of Judaism against paganism. As
pearance in early as the middle of the third pre-
Egypt. Christian century a Theban priest
named Manetho, in his history of the
Egyptian dynasties, written in Greek, violently at-
tacked the Jews, inventing all kinds of fables con-
cerning their sojourn in Egypt and their exodus
therefrom. The substance of his fables is that a
number of persons suffering from le]irosy had been
expelled from the country by the Egyptian king
Amenophis (or Bocchoris, as he is sometimes called),
and sent to the quarries or into tlie wilderness. It
happened that among them was a priest of Heliopo-
lis of the name of Os'arsiph (Moses). This priest
persuaded his companions to abandon the worship
of the gods of Egypt and adopt a new religion
which he had elaborated. Under h.is leadership the
lepers left Egypt, and after many vicissitudes and
the perpetration of numerous crimes the}' reached
the district of Jeru.salem, which they subdued.

These fables, togelher with those invented by
Antiochus Epiphanes in connection with his alleged
experiences in the Temple of Jerusalem, were re-
pcate<l and greatly amplified by Posidonius in his
liistory of Persia. The accusations thus brouglit
againstthe Jews were that they worshiped an ass in
their Temple, that they sacrificed annually on their
altar a specially fattened Greek, and that they were
filled with hatred toward every other nationality,
particularly the Greeks. All these malevolent fic-
tions found embodiment in the polemical treati-ses
against the Jews by Apollonius Molou, Chicrcmon,
Lysimachus, Apion, and others (see Eusebius,
" Pneparatio Evangelica," X. 19; Josephus, "Contra

103

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polak
Folemioa

Ap." ii. 7. § 15), and were taken up and retailed, with
sundry alterations and additions, by the Roman his-
torian Trogus Ponipeius, and especially by Tacitus,
who, in this respect, displayed such ingenuity as to
excite the envy of the greatest casuists among the
rabbis.

To the various incidents which, according to
Manotho, accompanied the Exodus, Tacitus traces
the 6rigiu of nearly all the religious customs of the
Jews. Abstinence from the use of swine's Hesh is
explained by the fact that the swine is peculiarly
liable to the itch and therefore to that very disease
on account of which the Jews were once so severely
maltreated. Frequent fasting is alleged by him to
have been instituted in commemoration of the star-
vation from which they had escaped in the wilder-
ness. Their observance of the seventh day of the
week is assumed to be due to their finding a resting-
place on the seventh day (Tacitus, "Hist." V. 2eiseq.).
It is not astonishing, therefore, that, thus represented,
the Jewish religion was looked upon by the major-
ity of educated people as a"barbara superstitio"
(Cicero, "Pro Flacco," xxviii.), and that the Jewish
nation was made the butt of the wit of the Roman
satirists Horace, Juvenal, and Martial.

To defend the Jewish religion and the Jewish race
against the slanderous attacks of the heathen there
appeared, at various intervals, from about the .sec-
ond pre-Christian century to the middle of the sec-
ond century c.e., apologetical and
The polemical works emphasizing the su-

Hellenists. periority of Judaism over paganism.
To works of this kind belong the ex-
planation of the Mosaic law by Aristobulus of
Paneas, the Oracula Sibyllina, the Wisdom of Solo-
mon, the apocalpyses, the Jewish-Hellenistic wri-
tings of Alexandria (see Hellenism), especially
those of Philo, and lastly Josephus' " Contra Apio-
nem." The aim of all these works was the same,
namely, severe criticism of idolatry and vigorous ar-
raignment of the demoralization of the pagan world.

A new polemical element was introduced by
Christianity — that of the interpretation of the Bib-
lical text. Having received from Judaism its ethical
principles, the new religion, in order to justify its dis-
tinctive existence, asserted that it had been founded
to fulfil the mission of Judaism, and endeavored
to prove the correctness of this allegation from
the Bible, the very book upon which Judaism is
founded. Aside from the Gospels and the Acts of
the Apostles, the first Christian polemical work
against the Jews was the account of the dialogue
between Justin Martyr and the Jew Tryphon, which
took place shortly after the Bar Kokba war against
the Romans. The Church father endeavored to
demonstrate that the prophecies concerning the Mes-
siah applied to Jesus, while the Jew met his argu-
ments with the traditional interpretation. Justin
displayed great bitterness against the Jews, whom
he charged with immorality and with having ex-
punged from their Bibles much that was favorable
to Christianity ("Dial, cum Tryph." ^i^ 72, 73, 114).
These charges were re])eated by the succeeding
Christian polcmists; while that of having falsified
the Scriptures in their own interests was later made
against both Christians and Jews by the Mohammed -

an.s. A remarkable feature In Justin's dialogue is
the politenes.s with which the disputants speak of
each oilier; at the close of the debate Jew and
Christian confess that they have learned much from
each other and part withexpresaiuusuf mutual good-
will.

More bitter in tone is the dialogue, belonging to the
same period, written by the converted Jt w Arislun
of Pella, and in which a Christian named Jason and
a Jew named Papiscusare alleged to have discuKsed
the nature of Jesus. Among other polemical works
directed against the Jew.<» tin- most noteworthy arc:
"The Canon of the Church." or " Against the Judu-
izers," by Clement of Alexandria (see EuM-bius,
"Hist. Eccl." vi. 13); "Contra Celsum." byOrigen;
ripof 'lovdaiovc, by Claudius Apol-

Church iinarius; " Adversus Juditos," by 'i'cr-
Attacks, tullian; " Adversus Juda'08"and "Tes-
timonia," by Cyprian; " Demonstrutio
Evangelica," by Eusebius; " De Incarnatione Dei
Verbi," by Athanasius of Alexandria; the "Homi-
lies" of John Chrysostom; the "Hynms" of Ephra-
em Syrus; "Adversus Haereses" and "Aucyrotus,"
by Epiphanius; " Dialogus Christiani et Juda-i de
St. Trinitate," by Jerome. The main points dis-
cussed in tliese works are the dogma of the Trin-
ity, the abrogation of the Mosaic law, and especially
the Messianic mission of Jesus, which Christians en-
deavored to demonstrate from the Old Testament.
Some of the Church Fathers emphasized their argu-
ments with curses and revilings. They reproached
the Jews for stiff-neckednessand hatred of Ch ri.stiau3 ;
they were especially bitter against them for persist-
ing in their Messianic hopes. The following pas-
sage from one of Ephraem Syrus' "hynms" against
the Jews may serve as an example of the polemical
attitude of the Church Fathers: "Jacob blessed
Judah, saying, ' The scepter shall not depart from
Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until
Shiloh come ' [Gen. xlix. 10]. In this passage the
Jews that perceive not search if tliere be a .scepter
or an interpreter between his [Judah s] feet, for the
things that are written have not been fulfilled,
neither have they so far met with accomplishment.
But if the scepter be banished and the proj)liet
silenced, let the people of the Jews be put to shame,
however hardened in impudence they be."

The Jews did not remain silent, but answered
their antagonists in the sjune tone. This at Iwust is
the asserti(m of Jerome in the preface to his com-
mentary on the Psalms, where he says that in his
time discussions between the Church and the Syna-
gogue were very frequent. He further asserts that
it was considered a great undertaking to enter into
polemics with the Jews— a proof that contests often
ended in favor of the latter. However, in spite of
the frecjuency of discussions, no particular Jewish
polemical work of that period has survived; the
only source of information concerning the nature of
these discussions is a ninnber of dialogues recorded
in the Talmud and Midrash. These dialogues, like
others between Jews and pagans found in the same
sources, were more in the nature of go<Kl-humoretI
raillery than of seiiou? debate. The rabbis who
excelled in these friendly passages of arms with
pagans. Christians, and Christian Gnostics were

FoleznicB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

104

Johanan ben Zakkai, Gamaliel II., Joshua ben Han-

aniab, and Akiba. Johanan ben Zakkai answered

several questions of an aggressive na-

Discus- ture put by a Roman commander as
sions in the to the contradictious existing between

Talmud. Num. iii. 22, 28, 3-4 and the 39th verse
of the same chapter (Bek. 5b) and
between Ex. xxxviii. 26, 27 and Gen. i. 20, ii. 19
(Hul. 27b); also as to the regulation in Ex. xxi. 29
(Yer. Sanh. 19b) and the law concerning the red
heifer (Pesik. 40a).

Interesting are the accounts of the debates which
Gamaliel, Eleazar, Joshua ben Hananiah, and Akiba
held with unbelievers at Rome (see Bacher, "Ag.
Tan." 1. 85). It is noteworthy that even in the
time of Gamaliel the Christiana used as an argu-
ment against Judaism the misfortunes that had be-
fallen Israel. In discussing with Gamaliel, a " min "
quoted Hosea v. 6 to demonstrate that God had
completely forsaken Israel (Yeb. 102b; Midr. Teh.
to Ps. x.). A similar argument was used, not in
words but in gesture, by another min against Joshua
ben Hananiah, who answered by a sign that God's
protecting hand was still stretched over Israel (Hag.
5b). This took place in the palace of Hadrian,
who questioned Joshua as to how God created
the world (Gen. R. x.); concerning the angels
(Gen. R. Ixxviii. ; Lam. R. iii. 21); as to the res-
urrection of the body (Gen. R. xxviii. ; Eccl.
R. xii. 5); and in regard to the Decalogue (Pesik.
R. 21).

But rabbinical polemics assumed a more violent
character when the Church, having acquired polit-
ical power, threw aside all reserve, and invective
and abuse became the favorite weapons of the assail-
ants of Judaism. A direct attack upon Christianity
was made by the Palestinian amora R. Sinilai. His
attacks were especially directed against the doctrine
of the Trinity (Gen. R. viii. ; Yer. Ber. ix. lid, 12a).
A later Palestinian amora, R. Abbahu, refuted all
the fundamental dogmas of Christianity (Yalk.,
Gen. 47; Gen. R. xxv. ; Shab. 152b). With re-
gard to the doctrine of the Trinity, Abbahu sajs:
" A thing of flesh and blood may have a father, a
brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sover-
eignty, but the Lord said, ' I am the Lord thy God !
I am the first ' — that is, I have no father — ' and be-
sides me there is no God '—that is, I have no son "
(see Isa. xliv. 6; Ex. R. xxix.). Commenting upon
Num. xxiii. 19, Abbahu says, "God is not a man,
that he should repent; if a man say, 'lam God,'
he lieth ; and if he say, ' I am the son of man ' [Mes-
siah], he shall repent; and if he say, ' I shall go up
to heaven ' — he may say it, but he can not perform
it " (Yer. Ta'an. i. 1).

The Church Fathers who lived after Jerome knew
less and less of Judaism, and merely repeated the
arguments that had been used by their predecessors,
supplemented by more or less slanderous attacks
borrowed from pagan anti-Jewish writings. Spain
became from the sixth century a hotl)C'd of Chris-
tian polemics against Judaism. Among the numer-
ous works written there, the oldest and the most
important was that of Isidorus Ilispalensis. In a
book entitled "Contra Judajos," the Archbishop of
Seville grouped all the Biblical passages that had

been employed by the Fathers to demonstrate the
truth of Christianity. Whether learned Spanish
Jews took up the controversy and re-
Polemics plied to Isidorus' arguments by coun-
with ter-treatisesin Latin, as GrStz believes
Christians. ("Gesch." v. 75 et seq.}, is doubtful.
In Spain, as everywhere else in that
period, the Jews paid little attention to attacks writ-
ten in Latin or Greek, which languages were not
understood by the masses. Moreover, the Christian
dogmas of the Trinity, the Incarnation, etc., seemed
to them to stand in such direct contradiction to both
the letter and the spirit of the Old Testament that
they deemed it superfluous to refute them.

The expansion of Karaism during the ninth and
tenth centuries awakened in the Jews the polemical
spirit. Alive to the dangers that threatened tradi-
tional Judaism through the new sect, which, owing
to the inertness of the Geonim of the Babylonian
academies, was rapidly growing, several rabbinical
scholars took up the study of both Biblical and sec-
ular sciences, which enabled them to advance against
the Christians as well as the Karaites a systematic
defense of Jewish beliefs. The first known polemist
of that period was David ibn Merwan al-Mukam-
mas, who devoted the eighth and tenth chapters of
his "'Ishrun al-Makalat " to the refutation of Chris-
tian dogmas. He was followed by Saadia Giion,
who, both in his commentaries on the Bible and in
the second chapter of his philosophical "Emunot
we-De'ot," assailed the arguments of the Church.
He maintained that the Jewish religious system,
which allowed man to approach as nearly as is pos-
sible to perfection, would always exist, and would
Hot be replaced by any other, least of all by the
Christian, which transmuted mere abstractions into
divine personalities.

More aggressive was Saadia's contemporary, the
Karaite Al-Kirkisani. In the third treatise of his
"Kitab al-Anwar wal-Marakib " (ch. xvi.) he says
that "the religion of the Christians, as practised at
present, has nothing in common with the teachings
of Jesus. It originated with Paul, who ascribed
divinity to Jesus and prophetic inspiration to him-
self. It was Paul that denied the necessity of obey-
ing the commandments and taught that religion
consisted in humility; and it was the Nicene Coun-
cil which adopted precepts that occur neither in the
Law nor in the Gospels nor in the Acts of Peter
and Paul." Equally violent in their attacks upon
Christianity were the Karaite writers Japheth ben
Ali and Hadassi— the former in iiis commentaries
on the Bible, and the latter in his "Eshkol ha-
Kofer," in which the fundamental dogmas of Chris-
tianity are harshly criticized. The assertion of the
Christians that God was born of a woman and as-
sumed a human form in the person of Jesus is con-
sidered by Hadassi to be blasphemous. ^Moreover,
the reason given by the Church that God willed the
incarnation of Jesus in order to free the world from
its tiiraldom to Satan, is declared by him to be
absurd ; for. he asks, has the world grown any bet-
ter as a result of this incarnation? are there fewer
murderers, adulterers, etc., among the Christians,
than there were among the pagans?

The first works wholly devoted to the refutation

105

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polemics

of Christianity appeared in the second half of the
twelfth century in Spain — the preeminently fertile
source of anti-Jewish writings between the sixth
and fifteenth centuries. They were the outgrowth
of the restless aggressiveness of the Christian clergy,
who, taking advantage of the irruption of fanati-
cism marking the period of the Crusades, planned
the wholesale conversion of the Jews through the
medium of polemical works written by converts
from Judaism. These converts, instead of confining
themselves to the usual arguments drawn from the
Old Testament, claimed to demonstrate from the
Haggadah that Jesus was the Messiah — from the
very part of rabbinical literature which they most
derided and abused! This new method of war-
fare was inaugurated in Spain by
Petrus Al- Petrus Alphonsi (whose name before
phonsi and baptism was Moses Sephardi) in his
Jacob ben series of dialogvies against the Jews,

Reuben, the disputants being himself before
and himself after conversion (Cologne,
1536; later in "BibliothecaPatrum,"ed. Migne.clvii.
535). To arm themselves against these attacks
learned Spanish Jews began to compose manuals
of polemics. About a quarter of a century after the
composition of Judah ha- Levi's famous apologetical
work, the "Cuzari," in which Judaism was defended
against the attacks of Christians, Karaites, and
philosophers, Jacob ben Reuben wrote the "Sefer
Milhamot Adonai." This is divided into twelve
chapters, and contains, besides refutations of the
Christian arguments drawn from the Old Testa-
ment, a thorough criticism of the Gospels and the
Acts of the Apostles, in which he points out many
contradictions.

About the same time Joseph Kimhi, also a native
of Spain, wrote the "Sefer ha-Berit," a dialogue be-
tween a believer and an apostate. The believer
maintains that the truth of the religion of the Jews
is attested by the morality of its adherents. The
Ten Commandments, at least, are observed with
the utmost conscientiousness. The Jews concede
no divine honors to any besides God ; they do not
perjure themselves, nor commit murder, nor rob.
Jewish girls remain modestly at home, while Chris-
tian girls are careless of their self-respect. Even their
Christian antagonists admit that the Jew practises
hospitality toward his brother Jew, ransoms the
prisoner, clothes the naked, and feeds the hungry.
The accusation that the Jews exact exorbitant inter-
est from Christians is balanced by Kimhi's state
ment that Christians also take usurious interest,
even from their fellow Christians, while wealthy
Jews lend money to their coreligionists without
charging anj^ interest whatever.

Great activity in the field of polemics was dis-
played by both Jews and Christians in Spain in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Among the
Christian works of the thirteenth century the most
noteworthy are the " Capistrum Judaorum " and
the "Pugio Fidei" (Paris, 1651; Leipsic, 1667). In
the latter work, Raymund Martin endeavored to
demonstrate from the Talmud, Midrasli, and other
sources that Jesus is announced in rabbinical litera-
ture as the Messiah and the son of God ; that the
Jewish laws, although revealed by God, were abro-

gated by the advent of the Messiali ; that the Tal-
mudists corrupted the text of the Hihk', us is indi-
cated in the " Tikl^iun Soferim." Some
Raymund of Martin's arguments were ufied hy
Martin and Pul)loChriHliuui inhisdisputution with
Nah- NahmanitlcH, who victoriously com-

manides. l)ate(i them before King James and
many ecclesiastical dignitaries. Hoth
theargumentsand I heir refutation were reproduceil in
a special work entitled " Wikkuah," written by Nuh-
manides himself. The subjects di.scu8sed were: (1)
Has the Messiali appeared? (2) Siiould the .Messiah
announced by the Prophets be considered as u god,
or as a man born of human parents? (3) Are the
Jews or the Christians the posse.s.sors of the true
faith? A direct refutation of Raymund Martin's
"Pugio Fidei" was written by Solomon Adrct, who,
in view of the misuse of the Haggadah by converts
to Christianity, wrote also a commentary on that
part of the Jewish literature.

The production of Jewish polemical works in
Spain increased with the frequency of the attacks
upon Judaism, in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, by baptized Jews. Of the latter tlie most
renowned were: Alfonso of Valladolid (Abner of
Burgos), author of the anti-Jewish works " Moreh Ze-
dek" (Spanish version, "El Mustador") and "Teshu-
bot 'al Milhamot Adonai " (Spanish, "Los Batallos
de Dios ") ; Astruc Raimuch (Christian name, Dios
Carne), who was the author of a letter, in Hebrew,
in which he endeavored to verify, from the Old
Testament, the doctrines of the Trinity, original
sin, redemption, and transubstantiation; Pablo de
Santa Maria (Solomon Levi of Burgos), author of a
satire on the festival of Purim, addressed to MeYr
ben Solomon Alguades; Geronimo de Santa Fe
(Joshua ben Joseph al-Lorqui), who wrote the anti-
Jewish "Tractatus Contra Perfidiam Judteorum"
and "De Juda'is Erroribus ex Talmuth " (the latter
was published, under the title " Hcbncomastic," at
Zurich, 1552; Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1602; Ham-
burg, n.d. ; and in Bibliotheca Magna Veterum Pa-
trum, Lyons [vol. xxvi.], and Cologne, 1618).

Against the writings of these converts, the two
last-named of whom organized the disputation of
Tortosa, held before Benedict XIII. (Pedro de Luna)
in 1413, there appeared a series of works which are
remarkable for the aggressiveness of their tone.
The first of this series was the "'Ezer lia-Dat"of
Ibn Pulgar. It is divided into eight chapters (" she-
'arim'M. the last of which is devoted wholly to the
work of Alfonso of Valladolid. To the letter of
Astruc Raimuch there appeared two answers, the
more interesting of which is that of Solomon ben
Reuben Bonfed, in rimed prose. Apologizing for
di.scussing the contents of a letter not addressed to
him, Bonfed minutely examines the Christian dot'-
mas and proceeds to show how irrational and unten-
able they are. " You twist and distort

Pablo de the Biblical text to establish the doc-
Santa Maria trine of the Trinity. Had you a qua-
and Joseph ternity to prove, you would demon-
ibn Vives. strateit (juite as strikingly and con-
vincingly from the Old Testament."
An answer to Pablo's satire was written by Joseph
ibn Vives al-Lorqui. The writer expresses his aston-

Polemics

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

106

ishment that Pablo should have changed his faith.
Satirically he canvasses the various motives which
might have led him to take such a step — desire for
wealth and power, the gratification of sensual long-
ings— and naively concludes that probably Pablo
had carefully studied Christianity and had come to
the conclusion that its dogmas were well founded.
He (Joseph), therefore, begged Pablo to enligliteu
him on eight specific points which seemed to war-
rant doubts as to the truth of Christianitj': (1) The
mission of tiie Messiah announced by the Prophets
was to deliver Israel. "Was this accomplished by
Jesus? (2) It is expressly stated by the Prophets
that the Messiah would assemble the Jews, the de-
scendants of Abraham, and lead them out from
exile. How, then, can tiiis be applied to Jesus, who
came when the Jews still possessed their laud? (3)
It is predicted that after the arrival of the Messiah,
Palestine, peopled by the descendants of Jacob, who
would have at their head David for king, would en-
joy unbroken prosperity. But is tliere any country
more desolate than that land is now? (4) After the
arrival of the Messiah, God, the Prophets foretold,
would be recognized by the %vhoIe universe. Has
this been fulfilled ? (5) Where is the universal peace
predicted for the Messianic time by the Prophets?

(6) Where is the Temple, with its divine service by
the priests and Levites, that the ^lessiah was to re-
store, according to the predictions of the Prophets?

(7) Great miracles are foretold — the worship in Jeru-
salem of God by all nations; the war between Gog
and Magog ; etc. Did these take place at the time of
Jesus? (8) Did any prophet predict that the Messiah
would abrogate the Mosaic law? "These," says
Joseph ibn Vives, "are only a few of the numerous
doubts that have been suggested to me by the words
of the Prophets. Much more difficult to allay are
my doubts concerning the birth, death, and resur-
rection of Jesus, his intercourse with his disciples
and others, his miracles; but these I would discuss
orally, and not in writing."

A general work against Christianity was written
in Spanish, under the title " Tratado " (" Bittul 'Ikkere
ha-Nozerim " in the Hebrew translation of Joseph
ibn Shem-Tob), by the philosopher Hasdai Crescas.
In a dispassionate, dignified manner he refutes on
philosophical grounds the doctrines of

Hasdai original sin, redemption, tlie Trinity,

Crescas. the incarnation, the Immaculate Con-
ception, transubstantiation, baptism,
and the Messianic mission of Jesus, and attacks
the Gospels. Another general anti-Christian work,
entitled "Eben Bohan," and modeled upon the
"Milhamot Adonai " of Jacob ben Reuben, was
written at the end of the fourteenth century by
Shem-Tob ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, who, in 1376, de-
bated in public at Pamplona with Cardinal Pedro
de Luna, afterward Benedict XIII., on the dogmas
of original sin and redemption. The book is di-
vided into fifteen chapters, the last being devoted
to the refutation of the work of Alfonso of Valladolid
against the " Milhamot Adonai" of Jacob ben Reuben.

Of the same character as the "Eben Bohan," and
of about the same date, are the works written by
Moses Cohen of Tordesillas and by Hayyim ibn
Musa, entitled respectively " 'Ezer ha-Emunah" and

" Magen wa-Romah." A masterpiece of satire upon
Christian dogma is the " Iggeret al-Tchi ka-Aboteka, "
written at the beginning of the fifteenth century by
Profiat Duran and addres.sed to the baptized Jew
David Bonet Bongoron. It was so skilfully com-
posed that until the appearance of Joseph ibn Sheni-
Tob'scommentary thereon Christian authors believed
it to be favorable to Christianity, and frequently
quoted it under the corrupted title " Alteca Boteca " ;
but when they perceived the real character of the
epistle they strove to destroy all the copies known.
Associated with this letter is Duran's polemic " Keli-
mat ha-Goyim," a criticism of Christian dogma,
written in 1397 at the request of Hasdai Crescas,
to whom it is dedicated. It was much used by his
kinsman Simon ben Zemah Duran in his attacks
upon Christianity, especially in those which concern
the abrogation of the ]\Iosaic law and are made in his
commentary on the sayings of the Fathers (•' Magen
Abot," published separately under the title " Keshet
u-Magen," Leghorn, 1785; reedited by M. Stein-
schneider, Berlin, 1881).

The earliest anti-Jewish writings in France date
from the first half of tlie ninth century. Between
825 and 840 Agobard, Bishop of Lyons, wrote three
anti-Jewish epistles, among which was one entitled
"De Insolentia Jud;eorum," and one "Concerning
the Superstitions of the Jews" (" Ago-
In bardi Opera," ed. j\Iigne, civ.). The

France. author endeavors, in the latter work,
to show from various Biblical pas-
sages that the society of Jews should be avoided
even more than association with pagans, since Jews
are the opponents of Christianity. He recounts the
jjudgments passed by the Church Fathers upon the
.Tews, the restrictive measures taken against tlicm
by different councils, their superstitions, and their
persistent refusal to believe in Jesus. Agobard 's
successor in the diocese of Lyons, Bishop Amolo,
also wrote against the Jews, denouncing their super-
stitions, calling attention to the invidious expres-
sions used by them to designate the Apostles and
the Gospels, and exposing the fictitious character of
their arguments in defense of their Messianic hopes
("Contra Jud.Tos," ed. Migne, cxvi.).

However, works like those of Agobard and Amolo
were very rare in France in the tenth and eleventh
centuries; they began to multiply only after the
Crusades, when every priest considered himself
charged with the duty of saving .Jewish souls. The
many anti-Jewish works of the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries include: " De Incarnatione, Adver-
sus Judaeos," by Guilbert; "Annulus seu Dialogus
Christiani et Judfci de Fidei Sacramentis," by Ru-
pert; "Tractatus Ad versus Judicoruin Inveteratam
Duritiem," by Pierre le Venerable; "Contra Juda;-
orum" (anon)'mous) ; "Liber Contra Perfidiam Ju-
dseorum," by Pierre of Blois; "Altercatio Judad
de Fide Christiana," by Gilbert Crcpin; " De Messia
Ejusque Adventu Pneterito," by Nicolas de Lyra.
From the thirteenth century polemical works in
French began to appear, as, for instance, " De la
Disputation de la Svnagogueet de la Sainte Eglise"
(Jubinal, "Mysteres du XV« Siiicle," ii. 404-408);
"La Disputation du Juyf et du Crestian " (" His-
toire Litteraire de France," xxiii. 217).

107

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polemloa

On the part of the Jews there appeared in north-
ern France a collection of replies made "to infidels
and Christians " by several members of the Ollieial
family, especially by Joseph the Zealot (who is
credited with the redaction of the IIel)rew version,
entitled "Wikkuah," of the disputation of 1240 be-
tween Nicholas Donin and four representatives of
the Jews), Jehiel of Paris, Judah ben David of
Melun, Samuel ben Solomon, and Moses de Coucy.
The characteristic features of these controversies are
the absence of fanaticism in the clerical disputants
and the freedom of speech of the Jews, who do not
content themselves with standing upon the defen-
sive, but often attack their opponents, not with dia-
lectics, but with clever repartee. The following
may serve as an example: Nathan ben Meshullam
was asked to give a reason for the duration of the
present exile, while that of Babylon, which was in-
flicted upon the Jews as a punishment for the worst
of crimes, idolatry, lasted only seventy years. He
answered: "Because in the time of the First Temple
the Jews made stone images of Astarte and otlier
statues which could not last for long; while in the
time of the Second Temple they deified one of them-
selves, Jesus, to whom they applied many prophecies,
thus creating a durable idol which attracted many
worshipers. Thegravity of the fault, therefore, called
for a corresponding severity in the punishment."

Regular treatises in defense of Judaism against
the attacks of Christianity began to appear in south-
ern France. The most important of these were: the
"Sefer ha-Berit" of Joseph Kinihi (see above);
the "Mahazik lia-Emunah " of Mor-
In decai ben Josiphiah; the "Milhemet

Provence. Mizwah " of Meir ben Simon of Nar-
bonne ; and three works by Isaac ben
Nathan — a refutation of the arguments contained
in the epistle of the fictitious Samuel of Moi'occo
(who endeavored to demonstrate from the Bible the
Messiahship of Jesus); "Tokahat Mat'eh," against
Geronimo de Santa Fe; and "Mibzar Yizhak," a
general attack upon Christianity. An interesting
polemical work was written in France at the end of
the eighteenth century by Isaac Lopez, under the
title "Kur Mazref ha-Emunot u-Mar'eli ha-Emet."
It is divided into twelve chapters or "gates," and
contains, besides a refutation of the Christian argu-
ments drawn from the Old Testament, a thorough
criticism of the Gospels and the Acts of the Apos-
tles, in which the author points out many contra-
dictions and false statements. He accuses Paul of
hypocrisy for prohibiting in one country what he
allowed in another. Thus, for instance, to the Chris-
tians of Rome, who clung to the Mosaic law, he did
not dare to recommend the abrogation of circumci-
sion and other commandments: "For circumcision
verily profiteth, if thou keep the law; but if thou
be a breaker of the law, thy circumcision is made
uncircumcision." "Do we then make void the law
through faith? God forbid: yea, we establish the
law " (Rom. ii. 25, iii. 31). But to the Galatians he
said: "Behold, I Paul say unto you, that if ye be
circumcised, Christ shall jirofit you nothing. P'or
I testify again to every man that is circumcised, he
is a debtor to do the whole law " (Gal. v. 2, 3). " If
this is the case," asks Lopez, "why did not Paul,

who was circumcised, observe the Mosaic lawT
Then, again, why did lie ciiiisi- jiis dis<-iple Timothy
to be circumci.sed?" To the lli-brews Paul Kaid,
"He that despised Mo8«!s' luw died without mercy
under two or three witnesses" (Heb. x. 28); but to
his disciple Titus he wrote, "Hut avoid foolish
questions, and genealogies, and contentions, and stri-
vings about the law ; for they are unprofltable and
vain" (Titus iii. U).

Although tiic " l)isi)Utatio Christianorum ct Judip-
orum Olim Honuu Habita Coram Imperatorr Con-
stantino" (Mayence, 1544) is founilcd on u lirtion.
there is no doubt that religious controversies be-
tween Christians and Jews in Italy were held as
early as the pontificate of Boniface IV. (WJH-eir)).

Alcuin (735-804) relates that while he
In Italy, was in Pavia a disputation took jdaco

between a Jew named Julius and
Peter of Pisa. Yet in spite of the frequency of re-
ligious controversies anti-Jewish writings were very
rare in Italy before the Crusades; the only work of
the kind known to belong to the eleventh century
was tliat of Damiani, entitled "Antilogus Contra
Judicos," in which he sought, by means of numer-
ous passages from tiie Old Testament, such as those
relating to the Creadon, the building of the tower
of Babel, the triple priestly benediction, the thrice-
repeated "Holy," and the Messianic passages, to es-
tablish the Christian doctrines of the Trinity and
the divinity of Jesus (Migne, "Patrologia,"2<l series,
1853; comp. Yogelstein and Rieger, "Gcsch. der
Juden in Rom," i. 26 et seg.).

But from the time of the pontificate of Innocent
III. anti-Jewish writings in Italy, as elsewhere, be-
gan to multiply. To the earlier calumny that the
Talmud contained blasphemies against Christianity,
there was added, after the twelfth century, the accu-
sation that the Jews used Christian blood for ritual
purposes. About the same time also there appeared
the charge that the Jews pierce the consecrated host
until blood flows. The first Jewish polemical wri-
ter in Italy seems to have been Moses of Salerno,
who, between 1225 and 1240, composed "Ma'amar
ha-Emunah" and "Ta'anot," in both of which he
attacked the fundamental dogmas of Christianity.
They were followed by other polemics, the most
important of which are the "Milhamot Adonai " (or
"She'elot u-Teshubot," or " 'Edut Adonai Ne"ema-
nah "), by Solomon ben Jekuthiel ; the " Magen Abra-
ham" (or "Wikkuah"), by Abraham Farissol: and
the "Hassagot 'al Sifre ha-Shilluhim." by Brieli.

The shamefully oppressive economic and polit-
ical conditions under which the Jews labored in
Germany and in Austria during the Middle Ages
rendered them regardless of the fiood of anti-Jewish
writings with which those countries became inun-
dated. It was-not until the fifteenth century that a
polemical work against Christianity api)eared in

Austria. This was written by Lip-
In mann Mnlhausen. under the title "Se-
Germany fcr ha-Nizzahon," and it consisted of
and 354 paragrapiis. the last eight of which
Austria, contained a dispute which took place

between the author and a convert
named Peter. Lipmann quotes in his work 346
passages from the Old Testament, upon which his

Polemics
Police LawB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

108

argument against Christianity is based. Very char-
acteristic is bis objection to the divinity of Jesus.
"If really God had willed to descend upon the earth
in the form of a man, He, in His omnipotence, would
have found means to do so without degrading Him-
self to be born of a woman." The Gospel itself, ac-
cording to Lipmann, speaks against the assumption
that Jesus was born of a virgin, since, with the pur-
pose of showing that he was a descendant of David,
it gives the genealogy of Joseph, the husband of
Mary.

Among the numerous objections raised by Lip-
mann to the doctrine of redemption, mention maybe
made of the following: "Why," asks he, "did God
cause Jesus to be born after thousands of generations
had lived and died, and tlius allow pious men to
suffer damnation for a fault which tliey had not
committed? Was it necessary that Christ should
be born of Mary only, and were not Sarah, Miriam,
Abigail, Ilulda, and others equally worthy of this fa-
vor? Then, again, if mankind be redeemed through
Christ, and the original sin be forgiven through his
crucifixion, why is the earth still laboring under the
Lord's curse: ' In sorrow thou shalt bring forth chil-
dren. ' ' Thorns also and tliistles shall it bring forth
to thee' [Gen. iii. 16, 18]? Were there invisible
curses which have been removed, while the visible
were allowed to remain? " As may be readily sur-
mised, the " Safer ha-Nizzahon" called forth a num-
ber of replies from Christians. Of these there were
published Wilhelm Schickard's "Triumphator Vap-
ulans, sive Refutatio Blasphemi Libri Hebraici" (Tu-
bingen, 1629), Stephen Gerlow's "Disputatio Con-
tra Lipmanni Nizzachon " (Konigsberg, 1647), and
Christian Schotan's " Anti-Lipmauniana" (Franeker,
1659). In 1615 there appeared also in Germany a
polemical work in Judaeo-German entitled "Der
Jildische Theriak"; it was composed by Solomon
Offenhausen, and was directed against the anti-Jew-
ish "Schlangenbalg" of the convert Samuel Brenz.
The Jewish work which more than any other
aroused the antagonism of Christian writers was the

" Hizzuk Emunah " of the Karaite

Isaac Isaac Troki, which was written in Po-

Troki's land and translated into Latin, Ger-

" Hizzuk man, Spanish, and English. It occu-

Emunah." pies two volumes and is subdivided

into ninety-nine chapters. The book
begins by demonstrating that Jesus was not the
Messiah predicted by tlie Prophets. "This," says
the author, "is evident (1) from his pedigree, (2)
from his acts, (3) from the period in which he lived,
and (4) from the fact that during his existence the
promises that related to tiie advent of the expected
Messiah were not fulfilled." His argument on
these points is as follows: (1) Jesus' pedigree: With-
out discussing the question of the relationship of
Joseph to David, which is ver}' doubtful, one may ask
what has Jesus to do with Joseph, who was not his
father? (2) Hisacts: According to Matt. x. 34, Jesus
said, " Think not that I come to make peace on earth ;
I come not to send peace but the sword, and to set a
man at variance against his father, and the daughter
against her mother, and the daughter-in-law against
her mother-in-law." On the other hand, Holy
Writ attributes to the true and expected Mes-

siah actions contrary to those of Jesus. (3) The
period of his existence: It is evident that Jesus did
not come at the time foretold by the Prophets, for
they predicted the advent of Messiah at the latter
day8(Isa. ii. 2). (4) The fulfilment of the Messianic
promises: All the Prophets predicted that at the ad-
vent of the Messiah peace and justice would reign in
the world, not only among men but even among the
animals; yet there is not one sincere Christian who
would claim that this has been fulfilled.

Among Isaac Troki's objections to the divinitj'of
Jesus the following may be mentioned: The Chris-
tian who opposes Judaism must believe that the Jews
tormented and crucified Jesus either with his will or
against his will. If with his will, then the Jews
had ample sanction for what they did. Besides, if
Jesus was really willing to meet such a fate, what
cause was there for complaint and affliction? And
why did he pray in tlie manner related in Matt.
xxvi. 39? On the other hand, if it be assumed that
the crucifixion was against his will, how then can
he be regarded as God — he, who was unable to re-
sist the power of those who brought him to the
cross? How could one who had not the power to
save his own life be held as the Savior of all man-
kind? (ch. xlvii.).

In the last chapter Isaac quotes Rev. xxii. 18, and
asks how Christians could consistently make changes
of such a glaring nature; for the change of the Sab-
bath from the seventh to the first day of the week
was not authorized by Jesus or any of his disciples;
and the partaking of the blood and tlesii of a stran-
gled beast is a palpable infringement of the dictates
of the Apostles.

A series of apologetic and polemical works, writ-
ten in Spanish and Portuguese by scholarly refugees
from Spain and Portugal, appeared in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, in Holland and in some
places in Italy. Of these the most important arc:
" Sobre el Capitulo 53 de Ezaya e au-
By tros Textos de Sagrada Escritura," by

STaranos. Montalto; "Livro Fayto . . . em Que
Mostra a Verdad de Diversos Textos e
Cazas, Que Alegao as Gentilidades para Confirmar
Suas Seictas," by the same author; "Tractado de la
Verdad de la Ley " (Hebrew trans!, by Isaac Gomez
de Gora, under the title "Torat Mosheh "), by Saul
Levi Morteira; "Tratado da Calumnia," by Nah-
mios de Castro ; " Fuenta Clara, las Excellencias y
Calumnias de los Hebreos," by Isaac Cardoso;
" Prevenciones Divinas Contra la Vance Idolatria de
las Gentes" and "Explicac^ao Paraphrastica Sobre o
Capitulo 53 de Prophcta Isahias," by Balthazar
Orobio de Castro; "Fortalazzo" (Hebrew transl. by
Marco Luzzatto), by Abraham Peregrino.

Though nuich less violent than the Christian anti-
Jewish writings, an extensive anti-Jewish polemical
literature has been produced by Mohammedan schol-
ars. The subject-matter of this literature is closely
connected with the earlier attacks upon Judaism
found in the Koran and the tradition ("hadith "),
the most debated charge being that of having falsi-
fied certain portions of the Holy Scriptures and
o;nitted others. Among the examples of falsifica-
tion is the Biblical account of the sacrifice of Abra-
ham, in which, according to the Mohammedans, the

109

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polemics
Police Laws

name of Isaac was substituted for tliat of Ishmael.
The passages omitted contained the predictions re-
garding the advent of Mohammed and liis mission
to all mankind. A common point for controversy
also was the question of the abrogation of the divine
laws— the Sabbath law, the dietary laws, and other
Biblical commandments.

On the Jewish part very little was written against

Islam, and besides occasional attacks scattered

through the Biblical commentaries of the Kabbin-

ites and Karaites, and the philosophical works of

Saadia, Abraham ibn Daud, Judah ha-

In Islam. Levi, Moses ben Maimon, and others,

Jewish literature contains but two

productions of any extent that are devoted to an

attack upon Islam: the "Ma'amar 'al Yishmael" of

Solomon ben Adret, refuting the attacks upon the

Bible by Abu Mohammed ibn Hazm, and the

" Keshet u-Magen " of Simon Duran.

The following is an alphabetical list of printed
polemical works in Hebrew and Judfeo-German :

n^maNj "^nn hn mJN, Proflat Duran. Published with the anti-
Christian satire of Solomon Bonfed
and the disputation of Shem-Tob ben
Joseph Falaquera. Constantinople,
1570-75; Breslau, 1844, in the col-
lection a^niDM y^^p, with a German
translation by Geiger.
'pllSn ysfin^ "\ nnJK, Joseph ibn Vives' answer to Pablo Chris-
tian!. Published In "Dibre Haka-
mlra," Metz, 1849.
^jiSbti n^riN (Dlsputatio Leoni Josephl Alfonsl cum
Rabbino Judah Mlzrahl), Isaac Baer
Levinsohn. Lelpslc, 18&4.
D>D3n nJlDN, Hayyim Viterbo. Printed in " Ta'an Ze-
kenim," Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855.
njDN 'D, disputations collected from the Talmud
and Midrashim. Isny, 1542.
Q^m DDK, Levinsohn. Against the accusation of
ritual murder. Odessa, 1864 ; Warsaw,
1879, 1881.
JJ1J3''S1J?D "i^T T13, Isaac Jacob ben Saul Ashkenazi. Am-
sterdam, 1696.
D^IXijn ^ipy Sitsa, pasdal Crescas. Published by Epbraim
' Deinard, Kearny, N. J., 1894.
^DV mis p, Isaac Onkeneira. Constantinople, 1577.
n^ian 'D, Joseph Kimhi. Partly published with
the " Milhemet Hobah," Constantino-
ple, 1710.
Ointani' OHi, M. Rosenschein. London.
nnn ^"lai, Isaac ha-Levi Satanow. Berlin, 1800?
|n Vya pniih, Don David Nasi. Frankfort-on-the-Maln,
1866, and by Ephraim Deinard, Kearny,
N. J., 1894.
'?K>n> '") niDM. In Wagenseil's " Tela Ignea Satanae,"
Freiburg, 1681.
J3Din niD''i. In Wagenseil's "Tela Ignea Satanae,"
Freiburg, 1681, and by Stelnschnelder,
Stettin, 1860.
njDNJ "Pny m3M, Solomon ben Jekuthiel (see Jelllnek,
Cn mcnSn) "B. H.'Mi. 43).

'?a2nt, Levinsohn. Odessa, 1864; Warsaw, 1878.
njiDN pirn, Isaac Troki. Published by Wagenseil,
and later in Amsterdam, 1705 ; Jerusa-
lem, 1845; Leipsic, 1857. In Judaeo-
German. Amsterdam, 1717 ; in English,
by Mocatta, London, 1856.
pK""ita nj?tS'nv, Solomon Zalman OfTenhausen. Amster-
dam, 1737 ; under the title " Sefer ha-
Nizzahon," Hanau, 1615; wlthaLatln
translation, Altdorf, 1680.
nuiCNH r^iXD 113, Isaac Lopez. Metz, 1847.
D''1CN '"OipV, Kozin. Smyrna, 18.5.5.
niXD ncnSc, Solomon ben Simon Duran. Published
with the " Keshet u-Magen," Leipsic,
m56.
DiSc'3 ncn'^c, Rosenberg. Wilna. 1871.
mSra ncnSc, Benjaminsohn. New York, 1898.

iDisn iiPDj. Published byAbrebam Berliner, A Itonv
1H75.
■•NIC' nxj, W. Shur. Chlcairo, 1897.
pnxjn '3, Lipmnnn MOIIiauHen. PublUbcd by Wa.
geuHcll, and al AiiisKTilatu. 170SI, 1711,
and KAnlgHiMTg, 1H47.
D'ni3'i f 3ip, various nllgiDUH di8put*tlonii. Pub-
llHhfd by Abraham Geiger, IlresUu,
1H44.
Pay-IDK'PJ ptpu'SFi. Gabriel Isaac I*nai8burger. I>rague, IKSi.

For later polemics sec Anti-8emitih.m: Convkr-

8I0N; DiSPUTATIONB.

Bini.ionRAPiiY: Heathen Polemics: Kmnkel, In Mnnats-
Kctirift, IK56, .^p. HI 91 ; (.riltz. i7.. 1K7L'. pp. ll« axi ; (,lle*,
Hrdlheii IlecoriLi to tUrJcxriMh Srriitturr JiMttrn. Umdon,
ia5<l; Idem, JVofitc of the Jrus nmi Thrir Coutitry l>u the
ClanKic Writern of A utUiuilu, I<'>ndon. 1H7:; ; L. (;.'ig.T. i^tUt
de JudUrorum MuriUuH Atiim liiKiilutiti Scriijlmtlnii- !{'>■
manUt Pcrsuaimm Purrit , Ht-rlln, IMTa : 'I hliinciurt, (> yiii
Tacitr, Dit den Juifn nu Comininnmrtit ilu Ltvrr V. lUi
nUftfriren.in li. K. J. xlx. IHU ; Th.'-<Mlon- Hfiria<ii, TitIk
d'Auteurs Greca ct linmniitH lOhitifH <iu Jiiila\j<m, Parlji.
1895; SchUrer, Oatch. ill. KC'ef seq.; JYlediander. OtJtch. der
Jlldischen A})oUi(ietih. VMi.

Christian Polemics : Wolf. BOiL Hehr. II. 998 et nrq.; De
Rossi, liil)li(>theca AntivhriKtiann, Parma, IWO; Kaywrllng.
Bihl. Kxp.-Port.-Jud. pp. 114 et Hfi/.; Sti'liisihrK-lili-r. Jf i/i^h
Iyiffr«(«rf, p. 314; Winter and WQnsche, J(i<lij«-/i< I.Urrn-
tnr, lii. 65.5-670; Hamburger, R. B. T. Supplement, l«i«i, ii.v.
Diii)ndntif>n ; Ziegler, ReliyiOite DunmtalUmen iin Mitttl-
alter, Frankfort-on-the-Maln, IHftt; Isidore Ix*eb, Ln r<ititr<>-
verne Eclinieiuse Entre leu Clirt'tUnK et lex Juifn du Mourn
Age, Paris. 1888; Israel I^vl, In U. E. J. v. 239 et (V(/.: (,el-
ger, Prohcn Jlldwcher VertheUliguud fJeaen ChrUtenthum,
in Breslauer's Jahrhuch, 1., II. (185i>-51).

Mohammedan Polemics: Stelnschnelder, PolemiKrhe und
Apnlogetische Literatur in ArabUtcher Sjyrache ZxfiKChen
Muslimen, ChrU<ten, und Judcn, In Ahhandlungen fUr die
Kunde dcs Morgeidandes, vl.. No. 3; (ioidzlher, Uclicr Mxi-
hammedanische Polemik (iegen Ahl al-KUah. in Z. I>.
M. G. xxxii. 341-387; Schreiner, Ziir Gcsch. der I'oUmik
Zwischeii Juden und Muhammedancn\,lb. xlll. 591 6T5.
J. I. Bk.

POLEMON II.: King, first of the Pontus and
the Bosporus, then of the Pontus and Cilicia, and
lastly of Cilicia alone; died in 74 c.e. Together
with other neighboring kings and princes. Polcmon
once visited King Agrippa I. in Tiberias (Jo.seplms,
"Ant." xix. 8, § 1). The Herodian princess Bere-
nice, of whom it was reported that she held f(jrbid-
den relations with her brother, chose Polemon for a
husband, in order to mend her reputation, she being
at the time the widow of Herod of Chalcis. Pole-
mon married her not so much for her beauty as for
her riches; and he adopted Judaism, undergoing the
rite of circumcision. His wife soon left him. how-
ever, and Polemon abandoned his Judaism {ib. xx.
7, § 3). According to the Christian Bartiiolomcus
legend, he accepted Christianity, but only to Im?-
come a pagan again. If there is any truiii in the
story, the numerous Jews living in tlie Bosporus
kingdom miist have taken an interest in his con-
version to Christianity and also in its being made
known in the mother country.

BIBUOGRAPHT : Grfttz. Gejich. 4th ed.. 111. MO. 428 : Gu'^hmld,
Kleinc Schrifteu.U.-iol/ioS; Pru«opoffraphia Im}xrn Il»-
mani. 111. 59, No. 406.

o. S. Kn.

POLICE LAWS : Laws regulating intercourse
among citizens, and embracing the care and pres-
ervation of the public peace, health, safety, moral-
ity, and welfare. The prevention of crime is the
main object of the police laws, althougli there arc
many other points not strictly involved in the pop-
ular (ktinition of crime, but materially afTertinp the
security and convenience of the public, which arc
recognized as lying witliin their province.

It is a moot question whether the cities of Judca

Police La-w^s

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

110

had a regulated police force during Biblical limes.
There are many terms in tlie Bible which have been
translated to denote magistrates or police officers;
but the correctness of the translation is questioned
in almost every instance by modern scholars (see
Government). The Deuteronomic
In Biblical code (Dent. xvi. 18) enjoins the ap-

Times. pointment of "shoterim" (A. V. "offi-
cers'"; LXX. ypafifiaTOEiaa-'jU)e'iq\ Tar-
gum, pjyiQ ; and almost all Jewish commentators,
"police officers" whose duty it was to execute the
decisions of the court; conip. Rashi and Ibn E/ra,
Midr. Tan. and Midr. Lekah Tob ad loc. ; Pesik. R.,
ed. Friedmann, p. 149b; Maimonides, " Yad," Sanhe-
driu, i. 1, and " Lehem ^Mishneh " ad loc. ; comp. Prov.
vi. 7) alongside the "shofctim" (judges) in every
town (comp. Ezra vii. 25, A. V. ; LXX. ypaufiareli).
As far as can be gleaned from the Biblical records, the
duties of the " shoterim " Avere to make proclamations
to the people, especially in time ot'war(Dcut. xx.
5, 8, 9; Josh. i. 10, iii. 2), to guard the king's person
(I Chron. xxvii. 1), to superintend public works (II
Chron. xxxiv. 13; comp. Ex. v. 6, 10,14,19, where
the same term is applied to Pharaoh's taskmasters),
and other similar services. The frequent mention
of the shoterim together with the judges (Deut-
xvi. 18; Josh. viii. 33, xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1; I Chron.
xxiii. 4, xxvi. 29), or with the elders of the commu-
nity (Xum. xi. 16; Deut. xxix. 9, xxxi. 28) who
acted as judges in earlier times (see Elder; Judge),
would seem to indicate that these officials were at-
tached to the courts of justice, and held themselves
in readiness to execute tlie orders of the officiating
judge. Josephus relates ("Ant." iv. 8, § 14) that
every judge had at his command two such officers,
from the tribe of Levi. That Levites were later
preferred for this office is evident also from various
passages in Chronicles (I Chron. xxiii. 4, xxvi. 29;
II Chron. xxxiv. 13). Besides officers of the town
there were also officers for every tribe, similar, prob-
ably, to the modern district police (Deut. i. 15; Sifre,
Deut. 144 ; Sanh. 16b). The chief of the judicial de-
partment established by Jehoshaphat seems to have
had also chief jurisdiction over the police (II Chron.
xix. 11; comp. ib. xxvi. 11). Mention is also made
of watchmen who patrolled the city at night and
attacked all suspicious persons (Cant. iii. 3, v. 7).

The Temple had a police force of its own, most of
its officers being Levites. These were the gatekeep-
ers ("sho'arim "; I Chron. ix. 17, 24-

Temple 27; xxvi. 12-18), the watchmen that

Police. guarded the entrance to the Temple
mount, and those that had charge of
the cleaning of its precincts (Philo, ed. Cohn, iii.
210). Levites were stationed at twenty- one points
in the Temple court; at three of them priests kept
watch during the night. A captain patrolled with
ft lantern, to see that tlie watchmen were at their
po.sts; and if one was found sleeping, the captain
had the right to beat him and to set lire to his gar-
ments (Mid. i. 1, 2). Tlie opening and the closing
of the gates, considered to be a very difficult task,
and requiring, according to Josephus ("B. J." vi. 5,
§ 3; "Contra Ap." ii. 10), the services of at least
twenty men. was also one of the watchmen's duties:
and a special officer was appointed to superintend

that work (Shek. v. 1; comp. Schurer, "Gesch."
Eug. ed., division ii., i. 264-268; see Temple).

The Mishnah (Ket. xiii. 1) mentions two judges
of "gezerot" (lit. "prohibitions," "decrees"; see
Gezerah), Admon REN G.\DDAi and TIanan ben
Abishalom (Han.w the Eoyptlxn), who were in
Jerusalem during the latter part of the second com-
monwealth, and the baraita quoted in the Gemara
(Ket. 105a) adds one more, named iSahum the Meile.
The meaning of- the term "gezerot" in this con-
nection, and the significance and functions of these
judges, have been variously explained by modern
scholars (see Frankel, "Darke ha-Mishnah," p. 61;
tdem, in "Monatsschrift." 1852, p. 247, note 5;
Weiss, "Dor," i. 193; Sidon, "Eine Magistratur in
Jerusalem," in Berliner's "Magazin," lb90, pp. 198
et seq. ; Grunwald, ib. 1891, p. 60); but it is safe to
assume that the functions of these judges were simi-
lar to those of modern police magistrates (comp.
Yer. Ket. xiii. 1), although they may have had also
some judicial authority in pctt\' cases. These, un-
like the judges of courts of justice, received a stipu-
lated salary from the Temple treasury ("Terumat
ha-Lishkah/' Shek. iv. 2). Each of them was al-
lowed ninety-nine manahs per annum, which sum,
if not sufficient for his support, might be increased
(Ket. 105a; comp. "Yad," Sliekalim, iv. 7, where
the annual salary is given as ninety manahs).

Mention is made in the Talmud of various police

officials that held office in tlie Jewish communities

of Palestine and Babylon. The Greek names by

which most of them were known indicate tliat they

were introduced during a later period, after Hellenic

influence had become strong among the Jews. Most

of these officials received their authority from the

local courts, and were appointed by

Local tliem as adjuncts to the communal

Police organization. Officers were appointed

OflB.cials. for the following duties: to supervise
the correctness of weights and meas-
ures (D"'DTI3X, a corruption of D^01J'n3J<=«>"P"»'"/^"f;
Sifra, Kedoshim, viii. 8; B. B. 89a); to regulate the
market price of articles (B. B. 89a; according to an-
other opinion, it was unnecessary to appoint offi-
cials for this purpose, since competition would reg-
ulate the price; in Yer. B. B. v. 11, Rab is mentioned
as having been appointed to this office by the exil-
arch); to allot land by measurement, and to see
that no one overstepped the limits of his field (B. B.
68a and RaSHBaM ad loc. ; in B. ]M. 107b, Adda, the
survej'or [nsniB'D]. is mentioned as holding the
office; comp. 'Er. 56a). Besides these, mention is
made of watchmen who guarded the city (B. B. 68a,
according to the interpretation of Maimonides in his
Commentary of tlie Mishnah, and of R. Hananeel,
quoted in RaSIIBaM ad loc. ; comp. Git. 801); SanJi.
98b; Yer. Hag. i. 7; Sheb. iv. 2, end) and of mounted
and armed watchmen who maintained order in the
suburbs (B. Ii. 8a; comp. Yeb. 121b). There were
also officers in charge of the dispensation of charity
(B. B. 8b). Permission was given to the authorities
of every town to supervise the correctness of weights
and measures, to regulate the market price of
articles and of labor, and to jmnish those who did
not abide by the regulations {ih.). The salaries of
all these oflicers were drawn from the town treas-

Ill

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PoUoe Laws

ury, to which all the inliabitants had to contribute
(see Domicil).

Tlie police laws of tlie Bible and of the Talmud
are very numerous. The Biblical commandment to
build a battlement around the roof of a house, " that
thou bring not blood upon thine house, if any man
fall from thence" (I)eut. xxii. 8), was regarded by
the Rabbis as a general principle, from which were
derived many regulations the object
Special of which was to insure public safety.
Police Thus, it was forbidden to harbor a
Laws. vicious dog or to keep a broken lad-
der on one's premises (B. K. 151)), or
lo keep a pit or a well uncovered or uufenced
(Sifre, Deut. 229; "Yad," Rozeah, xi. 4). Dogs
had to be kept chained ; they might be let loose
during the night only in places where a sudden at-
tack of an enemy was feared (B. K. 83a). Untamed
animals, espociiilly cats that might injure children,
might not be kept; and any one was permitted to
kill such an animal found on the premises of a Jew
{ih. 80b; comp. Hul. 7b). A ruined wall or a de-
cayed tree was not allowed to remain in a public
place. The owner was given thirty days' notice to
remove it ; but if the danger was imminent he was
compelled to remove it forthwith (B. M. 1171);
"Yad," Nizke Mamon, xiii. 19; Shulhan 'Aruk,
Hoshen Mishpat, 416, 1, and Isserles' gloss). No
one was permitted to throw stones into the street
(B. K. 50b) or to build a tunnel under the public
thoroughfare (B. B. 60a), except by special permis-
sion of the city authorities and under their super-
vision (Hoshen Mishpat, 417, 1, Isserles' gloss, and
" Pithe Teshubah " ad loc). Weapons might not be
sold to suspicious persons ('Ab. Zarah 15b; "Yad,"
Rozeah, xii. 12, 14; Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah,
151, 5)'.

Another set of police regulations was based on
the Biblical expression "Neither shalt thou stand
against the blood of thy neighbor" (Lev. xix. 16).
The Rabbis made it obligatory upon any man who
saw one drowning, or in danger of an attack by
robbers or by a wild beast, to endeavor to save him
(Sifra ad loc. ; Sanh. 73a). The court was obliged
to furnish safe passage to travelers in dangerous
places; so that, wl\,en a murdered man was found,
the elders of the nearest town could conscientiously
sav, " Our hands have not shed this blood " (Deut.
x.xi. 7; Sifre nd loc; Sotah 45b, 46a; "Yad," I.e.
ix. 3; ib. Ebel, xiv. 3). The court was obliged also
to provide wide avenues, furnished wMth posts and
directions, leading to the cities of refuge, so that one
who had committed'murder unwittingly might have
easy access to them in his escape from the liands of
the go 'el (B. B. 90a; Mak. 10a; see Asylum; Aven-
ger OF Blood).

Numerous laws were instituted by the Rabbis
with the view of preserving the health of the com-
munity (see Health Laws). The laws tending to
tlie preservation of the life of dumb
Sanitary creatures, and to the considerate care
Laws. of them, also formed a large portion
of rabbinic legislation (see Cfu'klty
TO Animals). The care of the poor and the proper
distribution of charity were also regulated by law
(see Charity). Many provisions are found in the

Talmud the purpose of which waa to guard free
commercial intercourse. Houds leading from one
town to another liad to be at Icusl eiglil cubit»
wide; so that two wagons, going in opposite direc-
tions, might pass without difllculty. RoadH leading
to commercial centers were to be at least sixleeu
cubits wide (B. B. 100a, b; RaSHBuM ati loe.).
Balconies or other extensions of houses projecting
to the public thoroughfare and trees in the public
streets wiiose branches might obstruct the passage
of a rider mounted on Ids camel were also prohibitetl
(B. B. 27b, 60a). Trees growing near the bunk of
a river, if they impeded freight-laborers in tlieir
work, might be cut down witii impunity (B. M.
107b). Building-materials might not be prepared in
the public street. Stones and bricks brouglil for
immediate use in a building might be deposited in
the street; but the owner was held responsible for
any injury caused tiiereby {ib. llHb). One wlio
broke a vessel left in tiie public street was not re-
quired to pay any damages; but the owner of the
vessel Avas held responsible for any injury caused
by it, or even by its sherds, if he intended to make
use of them (B. K. 28a; see Baha Kamma). Dur-
ing the summer months no water might be poured
into the street; and even in the rainy season, when
this was permitted, the one who poured the water
was held respon.sible for any injury resulting from
it (B. K. 6a, 30a). The pious used to bury tlieir
potsherds and broken glass three " tefahim " (dsts)
deep in the tield in order that tiicy might cause no
injury to any one nor impede the plowshare in its
course; others burned them; and others, again,
threw them into the river {ib. 80a). Among tiie ten
ordinances that applied especially to Jerusalem were
the prohibitions against any projections from pri-
vate houses to the street, against the establishment
of potteries, against the planting of gardens (except
rose-gardens that were suppo.sed to have existed
since the times of the early prophets), against keep-
ing chickens, and against dunghills within the city
limits (B. K. 82b).

Provisions were also made by the Rabbis with
the view of guarding the personal liberty and honor
of the members of the conununity. Stealing a per-
son and selling him into slavery was
Laws Re- punishable by death, according to the
lating to Mosaic law (E.\. x.xi. 16). "They are
Liberty. My [God's] servants, but not servants
to servants," was a principle often
enunciated by the Rabbis (B. M. 10a; Kid. 22b.
based on Lev. xxv. 42). Imprisonment as a punish-
ment is not mentioned in the Bible, although later
it was employed in the ca.se of certain transgressions
(see Imimusonment). The iiayment of damages for
the infliction of a personal injury included also a
fine for the shame which waa caused by such an
injury (see Damage). In inflicting the punishment
of flagellation no more tlian the prescrilK-d number of
stripes might be given, "lest, if he should exceed,
and beat iiim above tliese with many stripes, then
thy brother should seem vile unto thee " (Deut. xxv.
3; see CoKPoiiAL Pinishment). Posthumous in-
dignities at the public execution of a criminal were
prohibited; and when hanging after execution was
enjoined, the body was not allowed to remain on

Police Laws
PoU-Tax

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

112

the gallows overnight (Deut. xxi. 23; see Capital

PUNTSHMENT).

The laws of morality and chastity were elaborated
by the Rabbis iu greatest detail (see Chastity;
Ethics). The gambler was regarded as an outcast:
his testimony was not admitted in evi-
Public dence (see Evidence), nor was his
Morality, oath believed (see Gambling; Per-
jury). The Rabbis took especial care
in interpreting and elaborating the laws touching
upon the property rights of individuals. The bound-
aries of fields were accurately marked ; and a curse
was pronounced upon him who should remove his
neighbor's landmarks (Deut. xix. 14, xxvii. 17; see
Boundaries). Special officers were, therefore, ap-
pointed, as stated above, to measure the fields and
to determine the situation and limits of every one's
land. It was forbidden to keep animals that might
injure the crops of another (B. K. 79b). Dove-cots
were to be fifty cubits distant from a neighbor's
land, in order that the birds might cause no injury
to the seeds (B. B. 23a). Wells, pits, and caves
might not be dug in the vicinity of a neighbor's
property (ib. 17a). An oven might not be con-
structed in one's house, unless it was so built as to
guard against any danger from fire (ib. 20b). Win-
dows and doors might not be constructed so as to
face the windows and doors of a neighbor's house
{tb. 11a; see Easement; Hazakah).

It was not permissible to buj' stolen goods or such
as might be suspected of having been stolen. No
milk, wool, lambs, or calves might be bought from
a shepherd (B. K. 118b), nor wood or fruit from a
hired gardener (ib. 119a). Nothing might be bought
from women who had no personal property, nor
from minors or slaves, except such objects respect-
ing which there could be no suspicion (ib.), nor
might anything be taken from them for safe-keep-
ing (B. B. 51b).

Not only was cheating in business forbidden (Lev.
XXV. 14, 17), but even dissimulation in speech and
misleading statements were prohibited (B. M. 58b),
even when a non-Jew was concerned (Hul. 94a).
Objects might not be "doctored" or ornamented
with the intention of deceiving the buyer, nor might
the finer parts of an article be prominently displayed
in order to attract the eye (B. M. 60a, b). If water
was accidentally mixed with wine, the wine might
not be sold unless the buyer was notified of the ac-
cident (ib.). Special officers were appointed to test
the quality of wine in order to guard against adul-
teration (Tosef., Kelim, B. K. vi. 10; comp. 'Ab.
Zarah 58a, and Rashi, s.v. " Agardemin "). After an
animal had been slaughtered a butcher might not
arrest the free flow of the blood in order to make
the meat weigh more (Hul. 113a).

The prohibition against false weights and meas-
ures applied not only to their use (Lev. xix. 35, 36),
but also to the mere presence of them in one's
house (Deut. xxv. 13-16; B. B. 89b).

"Weights R. Levi declared that the sin of using

and false weights and measures was greater

Measures, than that of the breach of the laws of

chastity ; for the latter could be atoned

for by repentance, while the former could not, unless

the tran.sgressor returned to each one whom he liad

deceived the amount lost by the deception, which
was almost impossible (B. B. 88b). Weights might
not be made of lead, iron, or any other metal liable to
accumulate rust, but only of stone or glass (ib. 89b).
They might not be left in salt; for this might in-
crease their weight (ib.). Ample space was to be
allowed to admit of the scales swinging freely (ib.
89a). The measures were to be cleaned at least
twice every week ; the weights, at least once every
week; and the scales, after every time that they
were used (ib. 88a). The measures were to be
so graded that each one, whether dry or liquid,
should be one-half of that preceding it (ib. 89b, 90a).
The seller was required to add y^j^ in liquid and ^-J^
in dry measures to the actual amount required, iu
order that he might be certain that the measure was
correct (ib. 88b). In places where the custom was
to sell by level measures one was forbidden to sell
heaped measures and rai.se the price accordingly,
and vice versa (ib. ; see WEicnTs and Measures).

Rai.sing the market price by speculation was re-
garded with disfavor by the Rabbis; and he who
practised it was classed together with the usurer and
with him who used false weights and measures, to
all of whom they applied the words of Amos viii.
4-8 (B. B. 90b). It was forbidden to export from
Palestine, even to the neighboring land

Market of Syria, necessary articles of food
Laws. (ib.). In times of famine one was not
permitted to store up necessary arti-
cles of food, even the products of his own field, but
was required to put them on the market. At other
times the storage of foodstufis was permitted to
the farmer, but not to the speculator (ib.). Middle-
men w^ere not tolerated, unless they improved the
product either by grinding the grain into flour or
by baking the flour into bread (ib. 91a; comp.
RaSHBaM, s.v. -'En"). The retail storekeeper
might not derive for himself a gain larger than one-
sixth of the cost of the article (ib. 90a). The inhab-
itants of a town had the right to bar outsiders from
its market, although much freedom was exercised
by the town authorities when the question of allow-
ing a learned man to sell his goods was brought be-
fore them (ib. 21b, 22a). Pedlers might not be de-
barred from selling their goods; for there was an
ancient tradition that Ezra liad permitted pedlers
to sell cosmetics to women in all places (B. K.
82a, b) ; they might, however, be prevented from
settling in a town (B. B. 22a; .see Hawkers and
Pedlers).

The property of a person unable to defend himself
was protected in the following ways: (1) In the case
of minors, th? court appointed a guardian (Ket. 18b,
20a); (2) in the case of the insane, the government
took charge of their property (Hag. 3b; Yoreh
De'ah, i. 5) ; (3) in the case of an absent defendant,
the court appointed a curator, provided he had left
because his life was imperiled; otherwise, the court
intervened only if he had died during his absence
and his property was about to be divided among his
relations (B. M. 38b, 39a).

The only material permissible for legal documents
was material of a kind that would render erasures
or changes easily recognizable (Git. 23a; Hoshen
Mishpat, 42, 1).

113

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Police Laws
PoU-Tax

Bibliography: Blorh, Dan Mnmltrh-TalmudUtche Pnlizei-
recht, Hudapcst, 1879; Hamburper, Jl. li. T. il., s.v. I'olizci;
Hastings, Dkt. Bible, s.v. Mmjistratr. and Officer ; Saal-
schutz, Das Momische Itecht, ch. v., Berlin, lai-l.
E. c. J. H. G.

POLIDO, DAVID, See David Raphael ben
Abkaham Polido.

POLISHER jtrDEL. See Periodicals.

POLITZER, ADAM : Austrian aurist ; born at
Alberti-Insa, Hungary, Oct. 1, 1835; studied niediciue
at the University of Vienna, receiving his diploma
in 1859 and becoming assistant at the university
hospital. Politzer established himself as a physi-
cian in the Austrian capital ; was admitted to the
medical faculty of the university there as privat-
docent in aural surgery in 18G1 ; became assistant
professor in 1870; was chief of the aural surgical
clinic in 1873, and professor in 1895.

Politzer has arranged a well-known anatomical
and pathological museum for the aural-surgical
clinic. He has written many essays for the medical
journals, and is the author of: "Die Beleuch-
tungsbilderdesTrommelfells," Vienna, 1865; "Zehn
Wandtafcln zur Anatomic des Gehororgans," ib.
1873; "Atlas dcr Beleuchtungsbilder des Trommel-
fells " (containing 14 colored tables and 392 diagrams
and illustrations), ib. 1876; "Lchrbuch der Ohren-
heilkunde," Stuttgart, 1878 (4th ed. 1902); "Die
Anatomische Zergliederung des Menschlichen Gehor-
organs im Normalen und Kranken Zustande, " ib. 1889.

Bibliography: Pagel, Biog. Lex.

». F. T. H.

POLKAR, ISAAC B. JOSEPH. See Pulgak,

Isaac b. Joseph.

POLL-TAX : The custom of taxing a popula-
tion at a certain amount per head dates back to very
ancient times. The first time such a tax is men-
tioned is in Ex. xxx. 12-16, where it is stated that
svcry male " from twenty years old and above "
shall give, as "a ransom for his soul," half a shekel
for an offering unto the Lord. There were three
3ther annual contributions obligatory on males, the
imouuts being proportioned according to their
means (comp. Deut. xvi. 16-17). Although the con-
tribution of half a shekel was required only at the
iime of the numbering of the children of Israel, the
rabbinical law makes it an annual tax. There are,
lowever, in the Bible traces of a regular poll-tax.
Ezekiel, remonstrating against exactions, pointed
)ut that the shekel was twenty gerahs (Ezek. xlv.
)-12). This shows that in Ezekiel's time the princes
mposed a greater exchange value on the shekel than
;he prescribed twenty gerahs (comp. Ex. I.e.).

Nehemiah reduced the contribution from half a
shekel to one-third of a shekel, which was used for
;he maintenance of the Temple and for the purchase
)f the sacjifices (Neh. x. 33-34 [A. V. 32-33]). The
Rabbis also, probably on the basis of the passage

in Nehemiah, declared that the pre-

Shekel scribed half-shekel contribution should

Tax, be employed for the purchase of all

the sacrifices necessary in the service
)f the Temple and for the maintenance of the Tem-
ple and the fortifications of Jerusalem (see Shekel
N Rabbinical Litekature). Besides this con-
ribution for religious purposes, the Jews were re-
X,— 8

quired at various times to pay poll-taxes of unknown
amounts to their rulers. An inscription of S.n-
nacherib shows that he impo.sed a per cupilu tax on
all his subjects; the Jcw.s paid the same tux when
tliey were under Syrian control. In tlu; time of the
Second Temple the Greeks, particularly the Seleu-
cidan rulers, apparently exacted u capitation tax
from the Jews (Josephu.s, "Ant." xiii. 2. ^ 3; <<,mp
I Mace. X. 29); Wilcken ("Griechischc 6.struka," 1.
245 <>< »f7.). however, denies that the capitation tax
existed before Augustus. From the reign of tlie
latter the Romans exacted from tiie Jews among
other taxes one known as the "tril)utum capitis."
The Jews rose against this tax. which was both
ignominious and burdensome.

The historians do not agree as to the contribtition
per capita under Herod, against whose oppressive
taxations the Jews complained to the Roman em-
peror ("Ant." xvii. 11, t^ 2). Josephus does not
mention any census which the Romans took in con-
nection with a "tributum capitis" at the time of
Herod. Still. Wieseler ("Synopse." pp. 100 ct seq.)
and Zumpt ("Geburtsjahr Chrisli," pp. 106 f< seq.)
maintain that such a census was taken at that time,
and that it was the cause of the .'^editiejn stirred
up by the scribes Judas, son of Saripheus, and
Matthias, son of Margolothus ("Ant." xvii. 6, § 2).
According to these two historians, while the other
taxes were levied by Herod himself in order to meet
the expenses of internal administration of the prov-
ince the capitation tax was paid into the Roman
treasury.

In 70 c.e. Titus, being informed that the Jews
had paid half a shekel per capita to the Temple, de-
clared that it should thereafter be paid into the im-
perial treasury. This practise continued up to the
reign of Hadrian, when the Jews ob-
Under the tained permission to apply the half-
Romans, shekel to the maintenance of their
patriarch (comp. Basnage, "Histoire
des Juifs," iv., ch. iv.). Nevertheless, it appears
from Appian ("Syrian War." § 50) that Hadrian
imposed on all the Jews of his empire a heavy poll-
tax. It is further stated that the contribution of a
half-shekel continued to be paid to the Roman em-
peror, that it was remitted only under Julian the
Apostate, and that Theodosius reimposed it. This
poll-tax existed during the Middle Ages under tiie
name of "der goldene Opkeupkenmg." In the
Orient the Jews paid the half-shekel for the main-
tenance of the exilarch. and Pethahiah of Regciis-
burg relates that he found at Mosul six thousand
Jews, each of whom paid annually a gold piece, one-
half of which was used for the maintenance of the
two rabbis, while the other half was paid to the
emir (Depping, " Juden im Mittelalter," p. 138).

The age at which the Jews became liable to the
poll tax varied in dilTerent countries. In Germany
every Jew and Jewess over twelve years old i)aid
one gulden. In Spain and England, in 1273, tlie ace
was ten years. The amount varied in liitTerent
epochs. In Anjou the Jews paid ton "sols tour-
nois" as a poll-tax; on certain occasions tlie poor
Jews claimed to be unable to pay this poll tax : in
these cases its collection was left to the community,
which was responsible to the government for 1,000

•Pollak
Pollitzer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

114

individuals, even when the number of Jews in tlie
city was smaller. In England the tallage furciowu
revenue occasionally took the form of a poll-tax.
In Italy, according to Judah Minz (Respousa, No.
42), a poll-tax was imposed on the community by
its chiefs to the amount of half the communal ex-
penses, the other half being raised by assessment.
Ifl Turkey, in the fifteenth century, the Jews were
subject to a light poll-tax, payable only by males
over twelve years of age. To defray congrega-
tional expenses, the Jewish communities until re-
cently assessed equally every head of a household
("rosh bayit") in addition to collecting a tax on
property (Eracu). A similar tax was demanded
from every family by the Austrian government (see
Familianten Gesetz).

Bibliography : Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Age^,
pp. 40 et seq.; Depping, Lej< Juifs daiia le Mouen Age, Ger-
man transl., pp. 24, l8, 138, 189; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 9,
2bU: ix. 30; Nubling, Judengemeindcn dcs Mittelaltcrs, pp.
xxxvi. et seq., 261 ct seq., 435 et seq.; Reynier, Ecnruimie
Politique et Rurale des Arabes et do- Juifs, pp. 311 et seq.,
Geneva, 1820 ; Schurer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 329 et seq., 529 et
passim.
D. M. Sel.

POLLAK, A. M., RITTER VON RUDIN :

Austrian manufacturer and philanthropist; born at
Wescheraditz, Bohemia, in 1817 ; died at Vienna June
1, 1884. Pollak was trained for a technical career.
In 1836 he established at Prague a factory for the
manufacture of matches, and was so successful that
within ten years he was able to export his goods.
He established branch offices at London in 1846,
at New York in 1847, and at Sydney in 1850, and
extended his trade to South America during the
years that followed. In 1858 he began to trade with
Japan, established a branch at Yokohama in 1859,
and the next year received permission to import his
goods into Russia. Many of the inventions and
improvements used in the manufacture of matches
originated in his establishments, and as a conse-
quence he was awarded many prizes in international
expositions. His chief factories were at Prague,
Budweis, and Vienna, with branches at Christians-
berg, Maderhausen, and Wodnitza.

Pollak's philanthropy was directed principally to
popular education and the encouragement of scien-
tific studies. His name is most closely associated in
this connection with the Rudolphinum at Vienna,
founded in commemoration of the birth of the
Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria and dedicated
Dec. 19, 1868. In this establishment 75 students at-
tending the Polytechnic receive board, lodging, and
all aids to study free. It has an endowment of 160,-
000 Horins, while the interest of an additional 5,000
florins is devoted to prizes for proficiency in physics
and chemistry. Pollak also founded a large non-
sectarian kindergarten at Baden. In 1869 he was
ennobled by the emperor with the title " Von Rudin. "

8. E. J.

POLLAK, JACOB : Founder of the Polish
method of halakic and Talmudic study known as
the PiLPUL; born about 1460; died at Lublin 1541.
He was a pupil of Jacob Maugolioth of Nurem-
berg, with wliose sou Isaac he officiated in the rab-
binate of Prague about 1490; but he first became
known during the latter part of the activity of Judah

Minz (d. 1508), who opposed him in 1492 regarding
a question of divorce. Pollak's widowed mother-
in-law, a wealthy and prominent woman, who was
even received at the Bohemian court, hud married
her second daughter, who was still a minor, to the
Talmudist David Zehner. Regretting this step, she
wished to have the marriage annulled ; but the hus-
band refused to permit a divorce, and the mother,
on Pollak's advice, sought to have the union dis-
solved by means of the declaration of refusal
("mi'un")ou the part of the wife, permitted by
Talmudic law. Menahem of Mersebuhg, a recog-
nized authority, had decided half a ceuturj' previ-
ously, however, that a formal letter of divorce was
indispensable in such a case, although his opinion
was not sustained by the Oriental rabbis. When,
therefore, Pollak declared the marriage of his sister-
in-law null and void, all the rabbis of Germany
protested, and even excommunicated him until
he should submit to Menahem 's decision. Judah.
Minz of Padua also decided against Pollak, who
was sustained by one rabbi only, Meir Pfetl'erkorn,
whom circumstances compelled to approve this
course (Judah Minz, Responsa, No. 13; Gratz,
"Gesch." 2ded., ix. 518).

Pollak had a further bitter controversy, with
Minz's son Abraham, regarding a legal decision, in
which dispute more than 100 rabbis are said to have
taken part (Ibn Yahya, "Shalshelet ha-Kabbaluh,"
ed. Amsterdam, p. 51a).

After the accession of Sigismund I., in 1506, many
Jews left Bohemia and went to Poland, founding a
community of their own at Cracow. Pollak fol-
lowed them, officiating as rabbi and organizing a
school for the study of the Talmud, which, up to
that time, had been neglected in Po-
Becomes land. This institution trained young
Rabbi men to introduce the study of the
of Cracow. Talmud into other Polish commu-
nities. In 1530 Pollak went to the
Holy Land, and on his return took up his residence
at Lublin, where he died on the same day as his
opponent, Abraham Minz. His most famous pupils
were Shachnaof Lublin and Meir of Padua.

Pollak, in transferring the study of the Talmud
from Germany, where it had been almost entirely
neglected in the sixteenth century, to Poland, ini-
tiated a movement which in the course of time domi-
nated the Talmudic schools of the latter country.
The sophistic treatment of the Talmud, which Pollak
had found in its initial stage at Nuremberg, Augs-
burg, and Ratisbon, was concerned
Introduces chiefly with the mental gymnastics of
Pilpul into tracing relationships between things
Poland. widely divergent or even contradictory
and of propounding questions and
solving them in unexpected ways.

Pollak's contemporaries were unanimous in re-
garding him as one of the great men of his time,
although the exaggerations to which his method
eventually led were later criticized with severity
(comp. Gans, "Zemah Dawid," ed. Offenbach, p.
31a). Pollak himself, however, was not responsible
for these, since he modestly refrained from publish-
ing the decisions at which he arrived by his system,
not wishing to be regarded as a casuist whose deci-

115

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pollak
PolUtzer

sions were to be implicitl}' followed. Only a few
quotations from him are found iu the works of other
authors.

Bibliography : Jost. Gesch. dcs Jndcnthums itrirt Seiner
Sekttn, iii. 240 et acq.; Griitz, Gesch. 2d ed., Ix. 58 ct xcq.;
Zuiiz, G. S. Iii. 84 et .seo.; Briill's Jahrh. vli. 31 el seq.; Dein-
bltzer, K7-Uische Bricfe, etc., p. 19, Crtu-ow, 1891.
s. E. N.

POLLAK, JOACHIM (HAYYIM JOSEPH) :

Austrian rabbi; born iu Hungary in IT'Jb; died at
Trebitsch, Moravia, Dec. 16, 1879, where lie officiated
as rabbi from 1828 until his death. He wrote a
cominentary, entitled "Mekor Hayyim" (Presburg,
1849; 3d ed. Warsaw, 1885), on R. Isjiac Arama's
philosophical work " 'Akedat Yizhak," and a biog-
raphy of the same scholar. Pollak was also the
author of a number of Hebrew songs in the annual
"Bikkure ha-'Ittim," and of a scholarly essay on
the Talmudic rules of the KlpO^ DX K*^ in Stern's
"Kebuzat Hakamim," besides being a regular con-
tributor to many Hebrew periodicals.

Bibliography: Fucnn, Keneset Yisrael, P- 366; Fiirst. Bihl.
Jud. iii. \ll ;Neiizeit, 1879, pp. 400-412; Ha-Mawid, 1880, p.
21 ; Zeitlin, Kirmt Sefer, li. 277.
s. M. L. B.

POLLAK, KAIM: Hungarian writer; born at
Lipto-Szent-Miklos Oct. 6, 1835; educated iu the
Talmud at his native city, at Presburg, and at
Satoralja Ujhely. In 1858 he went to Prague, where
he attended Rapoport's lectures, and then taught
successively at the Jewish schools in Szegzard, Hod
Mezo Vasarhely, and Alt-Ofen. When, in 1870, the
Jewish school of the last-named community was
made a municipal common school, Pollak was re-
tained in his position, which he continued to hold
until he was pensioned in 1902.

Pollak has been a prolific writer. Besides several
text-books, one of which, a geometry for pulilic
schools, has passed through eight editions (1st ed.
1878), he has published the following works:
" Heber. -Magyar Teljes Szotar" (Budapest, 1880), a
complete Hebrew-Hungarian dictionary; "Valoga-
tott Gyongyok " (ib. 1886), a Hungarian translation
of Gabirol's "Mibhar ha-Peninim"; "Megillat An-
tiochus" (Drohobicz, 1886), a Hungarian translation
with Hebrew notes; Gabirol's "Tikkun Middot
ha-Ncfesh" (Budapest, 1895); "Izrael Nepenek
Multjabol" {ib. 1896); Gabriel Schlossberger's
"Petah Teshubah" (Presburg, 1898); "Josephini-
sclie Aktenstiicke liber Alt-Ofen" (Vienna, 1902);
and " Die Erinnerung an die Vorfahren " (ib. 1902),
a history of mourning customs. In 1882 and 1883
Pollak edited the religious journal "Jeschurun,"
directed mainly against Rohling.

s. L. V.

POLLAK, LEOPOLD : Genre- and portrait-
painter; born at Lodenitz, Bohemia, Nov. 8, 1806;
died at Rome Oct. 16, 1880. He studied under Berg-
ler at the Academy of Prague, and later in Munich
and (after 1833) in Rome. He became a naturalized
citizen of Italy.

Of Pollak 's paintings, several of which were en-
graved by Mandel and Straucher, the following may
be mentioned: "Shepherdess with Lamb" (Ham-
burger Kunsthalle); "The Shepherd Boy"(Redern
Gallery, Berlin); "Zuleika," from Byron's poem;

and "Maternal Love." He painted also a portrait
of Kiedel, which is owned by the Neue Piuakothek
in Munich.

bibliography: Bryan's IHrtOmaru of I'mutetn and En-
mwcrs. London. 1«(« ; Hum WolfjfimK siuK.r. Allurmriuu
KUmtler-Lcxicun, FrankforUon-the-Muln JtW
« F. C.

POLLAK, LUDWIG: Austrian archeologiKt;
born in i»iague Sept. 14, 1868 (Ph.D. Vienna. 1898).
In 1893 he was sent for a year by tlie Austrian urdv-
ernment to Italy and Greece; and since that time be
has lived in Rome. Besides shorter journeys in
1900 he made an extensive scientific tour through
Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. In 1898 he was
elected corresponding member of tlie German Ar-
cheological Institutes.

Pollak has published : " Zwei Va.sen ausder Wcrk-
stattIIierons,"Leipsir, 1900; and " Klassische Antike
Goldschmiedearbeiten im Besitze Seiner K.vcellenz
A. T- von Nclidow, Kaiserlich Russischen lioi.schaf-
ters in Rom," ib. 1903. s.

POLLAK, MORIZ, HITTER VON BOR-
KENAU : Austrian tinaiiiicr; born at Vitima Dec.
24, 1827; died there Aug. 20, 1904. After leaving
the gymnasium of his native city, at the age of
twenty-two, he took charge of liis father's whole-
sale leather business, and soon succeeded in extend-
ing his export trade to France and Germany. In
1857 he was elected to the municipal council of Vi-
enna, and took an active part in the relief and con-
struction works in the year of the great flnod (1862).
Soon afterward he took charge of the budget of the
city of Vienna, acting as auditor until his resigna-
tion iu 1885. In 1867 he was sent by the city of
Vienna as one of the delegates on the occasion of the
coronation of the King of Hungary at Budapest,
and in 1873 he was made chairman of the executive
committee of the Vienna Exposition. He entered
the Niederosterreichische Escomptebank as exam-
iner, and was director-general and vice-president
from 1885 to 1898, also officiating as deputy of the
Vienna chamber of commerce, director of the Wiener
Kaufmannshallc, and examiner of the Austro-Hun-
garian bank.

Pollak took a very active part in the affairs of
the Jewish community, filling various offices, in-
cluding finally that of president from May 4. lSS-1, to
Dec. 27, 1885. Besides many other decorations he
received the cross of the Legion of Honor, in recogni-
tion of his services at the Paris Exposition of 1H78;
five years before, for his services in connection with
the Exposition of Vienna, he had received from the
Austrian emperor the patent of nobility with the
title " Von Borkenau."

s. E. J.

POLLITZER, ADOLPH: Violinist; born at
Budapest July 23, 1832; died in London Nov. 14,
1900. In 184'2 he left Budapest for Vienna, where
he studied the violin under Bniim; and in his four-
teenth year he took the first prize at the Vienna
Conservatorium. After a concert tour in Germany,
he went to Paris and studied under Alard. In 1850
he crossed the Channel, and in Loudon his remark-
able talents as a violinist were speedily recognized.
He became leader at Her Majesty's Theatre under

PoUonais
Polotsk

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

116

Sir Michael Costa and also led the new Philharmonic
Orchestra and the Royal Choral Society.

PoUitzer stood preeminent in his day as an inter-
preter of classic chamber music, his playing attain-
ing to what may be called "the great style." As a
teacher of his instrument he was regarded as the
most eminent of his time in England, and many
pupils who attained distinction Jiad studied under
him. In 1861, on the establishment of the London
Academy of Music, he was appointed professor of
the violin. This post he held till 1870, in which
year he succeeded Dr. Wylde as principal of the
Academy, and retained this position until his death.

Bibliography: Jcic. Chron. Nov. 23, 1900.
J.

G. L.

POLLONAIS, AMilLIE : French philanthro-
pist; born at Marseilles in 1835; died at Cap Ferrat
July 24, 1898; daughter of Joseph Jonas Cohen, and
wife of Desire Pollonais. In 1868 she published
her "Reveries Maternelles," in which she cleveloped
an entire system of education for children, and the
next year she followed this with her " Philosophic
Enfautine," a method of self-instruction for chil-
dren. For her devotion to the wounded in the
Franco Prussian war she received the medal of the
Red Cross Society ; and her subsequent visits to the
huts of the peasantry in the canton of Villefranche
formed the basis of her most important work, "A
Travers les Mansardeset lesEcoles" (1886).

Amelie Pollonais was one of the founders of the
"Gazette des Enfants,"and after 1887 a contributor
to the "Foyer Domestique." In 1898 she founded
a society in the interest of prisoners and released con-
victs, reporting her progress in "La Femmc." She
was president of the Societe des Beaux-Arts of Nice.
Shortly after her death the name of the Place de la
Marine and the Boulevard de Saint-Jean, at Ville-
franche, was changed to Amelie Pollonais.

8. J. Ka.

POLLONAIS, GASTON: French journalist;
born at Paris May 31, 1865; son of Desire Pollonais,
mayor of Villefranche, and of Amelie Pollonais.
About 1890 he began journalistic work as the
local correspondent of the "Independance Beige,"
and contributed at the same time to "Le Voltaire,"
"Le Figaro," and "Le Gaulois." He then succeeded
Fernand Xau as editor of "Le Soir," but, leaving
that paper, returned to "Le Gaulois," to which he
has now (1905) been a contributor for five years.
During the Dreyfus affair Pollonais was an enthu-
siastic adherent of the nationalist party. In 1902
he became a convert to Catholicism, his godparents
being the Marquis de Dion and Frangois Coppee.
Pollonais is known also as a dramatist, having pro-
duced "Le Jour de Divorce," "Celle Qu'il Faut
Aimer," "Eve," and "Le Degel."

8. J. Ka.

POLNA AFFAIR: An accusation of ritual
murder in Polna resulting from the murder of
Agnes Hruza March 29, 1899. Polna, a city in the
district of Deutschbrod, Bohemia, with a population
of 5,000, including a small Jewish settlement, was
shocked by a cruel murder. Agnes Hruza, a girl
nineteen years old, living in Klein Veznic, a village
two miles from Polna, and going every day to the

city to work as a seamstress, left her place of
employment on the afternoon of March 29, 1899, and
did not return to her home. Three days later
(April 1) her body was found in a forest, her throat
having been cut and her garments torn. Near by
were a pool of blood, some blood-stained stones,
parts of her garments, and a rope with which she
had been either strangled to death or dragged, after
the murder, to the place where the body was found.
The suspicion of the sheriff was first turned
against four vagrants who had been seen in the
neighborhood of the forest on the afternoon of the
day when the murder was supposed to have been
committed. Among them was Leo-
Leopold pold Ililsner, a Jew, twenty-three
Hilsner years old, who had been a vagrant
Accused, all his life. Suspicion against him
was based on the fact that he had been
frequently seen strolling in the forest where the body
was found. A search in his house showed nothing
suspicious. lie claimed to have left the place on
the afternoon of the murder long before it could have
been committed: but he could not establish a per-
fect alibi. Hilsner was arrested and tried at Kut-
tenberg Sept. 12-16, 1899. He denied all knowledge
of the crime. The only object which could be used
as evidence against him was a pair of trousers on
which some stains were found that, according to
the testimony of chemical experts, might have been
blood, while the garment was wet as if an attempt
had been made to wash it. The most important
witness against him was Peter Peschak, who claimed
to have seen Ililsner, at a distance of 2,000 feet, in
company with two strange Jews, on the day on which
the murder was supposed to have been committed
and on the spot where the body was found. An-
other witness claimed to have seen him come from
that place on the afternoon of March 29 and to have
noticed that he was very much agitated. Both the
state's attorney and the attorney for the Hruza fam-
ily made clear suggestions of ritual murder. Testi-
mony had proved that Hilsner was too weak to have
committed the crime by himself. Still he was sen-
tenced to death for participation in the murder, while
his supposed accomplices were undiscovered and no
attempt was made to bring them to justice.

On the ground of technicalities an appeal was
made to the supreme court (Cassationshof), which
ordered a new trial, to be held at Pisek in order to
avoid intimidation of the jury by the mob, and that
it might not be influenced by political agitation.
On Sept. 20, 1899, a few days after the first trial,
Hilsner was frightened by his fellow prisoners, who
showed him some carpenters working in the court-
yard of the jail and told him that they were con-
structing a gallows for him. They persuaded him to
give the names of liis accomplices, as
The "Con- by doing so he would obtain a commu-
fession." tation of his sentence. Hilsner, a man
of little intelligence, fell into the trap,
and implicated Joshua Erbmanu and Solomon
Wassermann as those who had assisted him. Being
brought before the judge on Sept. 29, he declared
that this charge was false. On Oct. 7, however, he
reiterated the charge, but again recanted on Nov.
20. Fortunately for those he had accused, they were

117

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pollonala
Polotak

able to prove perfect alibis, one of thcin liiwing
been in jail on the day of the murder, while the
other proved, from certificates of poorhousea in
Moravia which he had visited as a beggar, that he
could not possibly have been in Polna on tliat day.

Meantime anti-Semitic agitators tried their best

to arouse a strong sentiment against the Jews in

general and against Hilsner in particular. The

"Deutsches Volksblatt" of Vienna sent a special

reporter to the place to make an investigation.

Hilsner's brother was made drunk at

Anti- a wine-shop and was induced to tell

Semitic what the anti-Semites wished him to

Agitation, say. The "Vaterland," the leading

organ of the clericals, leiterated the

blood accusation and produced evidence that the

Church had confirmed it. In various places where

political tension was very strong, as in Holleschau

and in Nachod, sanguinary excesses took place.

Neither a public indignation meeting which was

called by the Jewish congregation of Vienna (Oct. 7)

nor an appeal which was made to the prime minister

had any tangible effect.

The sentence of four months in jail imposed
upon August Schreiber, one of the editors of the
"Deutsches Volksblatt," for libeling the Jews (Dec.
11) only added fuel to the fire. Violent speeches
against the Jews were delivered in the Reichsrath
(Dec 12) ; and Dr. Baxa, the attorney for the Hruza
family, in a speech delivered in the Bohemian Diet
(Dec. 38), accused the government of partiality to
the Jews.

Meantime Hilsner was accused of another murder.
Maria Klima, a servant, had disappeared July 17,
1898, and a female body found Oct. 27 following
in the same forest where that of Agnes Hruza had
been discovered, had, with great probability, been
identified as that of the missing girl. Decomposition
was, however, so advanced that not even the fact
that the girl had been murdered could be estab-
lished. Hilsner, charged with this crime also, was
tried for both murders in Pisek (Oct. 25-Nov. 14,
1900). The witnesses at this trial became more defi-
nite in their statements. Those that at the first trial
had spoken of a knife which they had seen in Hils-
ner's possession, now asserted distinctly that it was
such a knife as was used in ritual slaughtering. The
strange Jews who were supposed to have been seen
in company with Hilsner were more and more par-
ticularly described. When witnesses were shown
that the testimony given by them at the second trial
differed from that given at the first trial, they said
either that they had been intimidated by the judge
or that their statements had not been correctly
recorded.

A special sensation was created by Dr. Baxa, who
claimed that the garments of Agnes Hruza had been
saturated with blood after the first trial in order to
refute the supposition that the blood had been used
for ritual purposes. The anti-Semites sent agitators
to the place of trial, "L'Antijuif " of Paris being
represented by a special reporter. A Bohemian jour-
nalist, Jaromir HuSek, editor of "fesky Zajmy,"
constantly interrupted the trial by making remarks
which were intended to prejudice the jury against
the defendant.

The verdict pronounced Hilsner guihy of having
murdered both Agnes Hruza ami Mariu Klinm and
of having libeled Jo.sliua Krbinanu and Soiomou
Was.sermann. He was sentenced to death (Nov. 14,
1900), but the sentence was commuted by tlie em'
peror to imprisonment for life. (Jwing i,/the agita-
tion of the anti-Semites, various attempts to prove
Hilsner's innocence were futile, espcriallv tliat nmde
by Profes.sor Masaryk of the Bolicmiuu" University
in Prague, a Chri.stian wlio proposed the theory lliat
Agnes Hruza was not killed at tlie jilaee where her
body was found and that siie was most likely the
victim of a family (juarrel, and that made bv Dr.
Bulowa, a Jewish physician. ']).

POLONNOYE : Town in the district of Novo-
grad, Volhynia, Russia. It was a fortified place in
the middle of the seventeenth century, when about
12,000 Jews found there a refuge from the neigh-
boring towns at the time of the Cossacks' Upkicino.

Polonnoye had two well known rabbis in the
seventeenth century, Solomon Harif and liis son
Moses, who later became rabbi of Lemberg (see
Buber, "Anshe Shem," p. 160, and I). Maggid.
"Zur Geschichte und Genealogie der Gllnzburge."
p. 221. St. Petersburg, 1899); but the best-known
occupant of the rabbinate was undoubtedly Jacob
Joseph ha-Kohen (d. 1769), whose principal work.
"Toledot Ya'akob Yosef " (Miedzyboz and Koretz.
1780, and numerous other editions), in which the
teachings of R. Israel Ba'al Shem were first set
forth in literary form, was burned in the syna-
gogue-yard of Wilna when the war against Hasidism
was commenced there.

Polonnoye had a Hebrew printing-oflace at the
end of the eighteenth century and at the beginning
of the nineteenth. The earliest work which is
known to bear the imprint of that town is the re-
sponsa collection "Me'ir Netibim" (1791), by R. MeTr
b. Zebi Margoliot; and the latest is Hayyim ibn
'Attar's " Rishon le-Ziyyon " (1809), on a part of the
Bible.

At present (1905) the population of Polonnoye ex-
ceeds 10,000, about 50 per cent of whom are Jews.

Bibliography: Brockhaus-Efron, KntziklopnUrhrski N/oror;
Graetz, Hist. v. 11; Hannover, Ynren Mtzulah. pp. 2K et
seq., Cracow, 1896; Walden, Shem ha-Oai<'>Um hc-Haflaah,
p. 103, Warsaw, 1882.
H. 1{. P. Wl.

POLOTSK (POLOTZK) : District town in the
government of Vitebsk, Russia. The first mention
of its Jewish community occurs in \5^)l. when, at the
Polish Diet held at Wilna, Polotsk is expressly named
in a list of towns whose Jews were to be exempt
from the special tax known as "Serebeshchizna "
(" Akty Yuzhnoi i Zapadnoi Rossii." i. 133). There
are indications, however, of the existence of Jcwb at
Polotsk as early as 1490 (" Sbornik Iinperatorskavo
Istoricheskavo Obshchestva," xxxv. 41-43). In 1509
the baptized Jew Abraham Ezefovich. a non-resi-
dent of Polotsk, is spoken of as farmer of it.*; rev-
enues and customs ("Aktovya Kiiigi Metriki Litov-
skoi Zapisei," No. 8), similar positions being held
about 1525 by his brother Michael {ib. No. 14. p.
285), and about the middle of the same century by
another Jew, Felix (ib. No. 87, p. 242).

In 1563, in the war between the Russians and the

Polotsk
Poltava

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

118

Poles over Smolensk, the Muscovite grand duke
Ivan the Terrible, having captured Polotsk, ordered,
according to the testimony of an eye-witness, that
all the Jews who refused to adopt Christianity —
about 300 in number — should be thrown into the
Diina (Sapunov, "Vitebskaj'a Starina," iv. 119, 189,
232). In 1580, however, a Jewish conmiunity is
again found in the town; but the letters patent of
the so-called "Magdeburg Rights" of that year
contain an edict against the Jews of Pi)lotsk, de-
pri ving them of the right to trade and to build or buy
houses (•' Akty Yuzhnoi i Zapaduoi Rossii," iii. 255).
About seveuty-tive years later (ICoo), tiie Russians,
with whom the Cossacks under Chmieluicki were
allied, again overran Lithuania, and the Jewish
communit}' at Polotsk met the fate of its fellow
communities in Poland in tlie bloody years of 1648
and 1649. The estates of the slaughtered Jews seem
to have been distributed among the army officers
and the nobiUty ("' Vitebskaya Starina," iv., part 2,
p. 77).

In the sixteenth centur}' Polotsk was more pros-
perous than Wilna. It had a total population of
100,000, and presumably its Jewish community was
well-to-do, although the fact that its taxes were
farmed to two Jews of Wilna (see R. Solomon Luria,
Responsa, No. 4) might be adduced as evidence to
the contrary.

Before Polotsk was finally annexed to Russia (1772)
it had lost its former importance, and a majoritj'^ of
its inhabitants were Jews. The town
Under the was at first incorporated in the gov-
Russians. ernment of Pskov. In 1777 it was
made a government citj', and is men-
tioned as such in the letter against Hasidism which
was sent out by Elijah Gaon of Wilna in 1796 (see
Yazkan, "Rabbenu Eliyahu mc-Wilna," p. 73,
Warsaw, 1900, where "Gubernia Plock " is a mis-
print for " Polotsk "). In 1780 the town had 360
wooden houses, of which 100 belonged to Jews; but
the number of Jewish fannlies amounted to 478, as
against 437 Christian families. In the same year
Russia, in the flush of exultation over the lion's
share in the division of Poland which liad fallen
to her, gave the Jewish merchants of the govern-
ment of Polotsk eejual rights with other merchants
("Poinoye Sobraniye Zakonov," xx.. No. 14,962).
Fourteen years later, however, this policy was
changed, and a double tax was imposed in Polotsk
and in several other governments upon the Jews
who wished to avail tiiemselves of the privilege to
become recognized burghers or merchants. In case
a Jew desired to leave Russia he could do .so only
after having paid in advance the doul)le tax for
three years {ih. xxiii.. No. 17,224). In 1796 Polotsk
became part of the government of White Russia;
since 1802 it has been a part of the government of
Viteb.sk. The policy of discriminating against the
Jews was manifested again in 18:^0, when all the mer-
chants of Polotsk except Jewish ones Avere granted
immunity from gild- and poll-taxes for ten years
("Poinoye Sobraniye Zakonov 1 1." xii.. No. 10,851).

Polotsk has been one of the strongest centers of
Hasidism in Lithuania, and has been also the seat
of a zaddik. On the whole, however, Polotsk has
never been distinguished as a center of Jewish

learning, and the names of but very few of its ear-
lier rabbis or scholars have been preserved in Jew-
ish literature. Among them were Zebi Ilirsch b.
Isaac Zack, rabbi of Polotsk and Shkud (1778),
who was probably succeeded by Judah Lob b.
Asher Margoliotii; Israel Polotsker, one of the
early Hasidic rabbis (at first their opponent), who
went to Palestine in 1777, returned, and died in Po-
land; and R. Phinehas b. Judah Polotsk, " maggid "
of Polotsk for eigliteen years in the latter part of the
eighteenth century and author of numerous works.
R. Phinehas b. Judaii afterward settled in Wilna;
he became a pupil of Elijali Gaon, and
Rabbis and died there Jan. 15, 1823. Among the

Scholars, later rabbis of Polotsk were Senior
Solomon Fradkiu, Jacob David Wi-
lowsky, Judah Meshel ha-Kohen Zirkel, and Solo-
mon Akselrod (b. Nov. 1, 1855; became rabbi of
Polotsk in 1901). Senior Solomon Fradkin was
known later as Reb Zalmen Lubliner (b. Liadi, gov-
ernment of Moghilef, 1830; d. Jerusalem April 11,
1902); he was rabbi of Polotsk from 1856 to 1868.
Jacob David Wilowskj', later rabbi of Slutsk and
chief rabbi of the Orthodox congregations of Chi-
cago (1903-4), was rabbi from 1883 to 1887. Judah
Me.shel ha-Kohen Zirkel (b. 1838) assumed the rab-
binate in 1895, and occupied it until his death. May
26, 1899.

The Hasidim of Polotsk usually maintain their
own rabbinate ; in the latter part of the nineteenth
century it was held by Eliezer Birkhan (see Efrati,
"Dor we-Dorshaw," p. 58, Wilna, 1889). The en-
graver and author Yom-Tob, who became well
known in England under the name of Solomon
Bennett, was born in Polotsk about 1757, and lived
there until about 1792 (see "Ha-Meliz," 1868, pp.
85, 161-162).

The population of Polotsk in 1897 was over 20,000,
of which more than half are Jews. It has most of
the institutions usually found in a Russian Jew-
ish community, including a government school for
boj's. It is an Orthodox community, and the sale, by
a Jew, of anything on a Sabbath is almost an im-
heard-of occurrence there (" Ha-Meliz, " 1897, No. 89).
Tlie district of Polotsk, exclusive of the city, has
only 3 Jewish landow ners in a total of 567.

Bibliography : Griitz, Ga^ch. Het)revv transl., vii. 3.58, viii. l.^O;
Kntziklopedichexki Slovar, xxiv. 36.S; liegcMy, ).. Nos. ~()8,
473, 528-.530, 6^1,969; BershadskM. Litoi:<kiye Ycvreyi. p. 340;
idem, Riu^^ko-Yevrciski Ai'khiv, i.. No. 97; ii.. No. KR); iii.,
Nos. 60, 71, 84 ; B. O. Lewanda, Shorn ik Zakonov. Nos. .');{, 43,
3.59: Fuenn, Kirjiah Ne'cmnnalu I>P- 14, 3;i5, Wilna, 1S60;
Guiiand, Le-Korot }ta-(icze.rnt bc-Visracl. iv. .34; Eisen-
stadt-Wiener. 7->aV(< Kedoshim, p. 16, St. Petersburg?, 1897-
1898; Eisenstadt, liablMnaw wa-Sofcraw. iii. 5-38, iv. 39;
Waldcn, Shcni ha-Ocdolim }ic-Hadaish, p. 75.
II. K. A. S. AV.-P. Wi.

POLOTSK, PHINEHAS B. JUDAH : Polish
coiHiiunlaior on the Bible; lived at Polot.sk, Poland,
in the eighteenth century. He wrote commentaries
on four books of the Old Testament, as follows:
"Shebet mi-Yehudah" (Wilna, 1803), on Proverbs;
"Derek ha-Melek " (Grodno, 1804), on Canticles; a
commentary on Ecclesiastes (rt. 1804); an(l"Gibe'at
Pinehas " ( Wilna, 1808), on the Book of Job. Other
works by him are: an extract, which he entitled
"Kizzur Eben Bohan " {if>. 1799), from the great
work of Kalonymus b. Kalonymus; " Rosh ha-
Gibe'ah" (ib. 1820), in two sections, the first treat-

119

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polotsk
Poltava

ing of morals and asceticism, and tlie second con-
taining sermons on the Four Parasliiyyot; and
"Maggid Zedek," on the 613 commandments, wliich
work is still unpublished.

BinuoGRAPHY : Fiirst, TiihJ. Jud. 111. Ill; Benjacob, (hfariia-
Sefarim, p. 3, No. 5, ct passim.
K. C. 8. O.

POLTAVA : Government of Little Russia, which
came under Russian domination in 1764, and whose
present organization was established in 1802. It has
a Jewish population of 111,417, the total population
being 2,780,427 (census of 1897). See table at end of
article.

Poltava : Capital of the above-named govern-
ment. It had a small Jewish community, almost
entirely Hasidic, before Jews from Lithuania, Po-
land, and other
parts of Russia
began to arrive
there in larger
numbers after
the great " Ilyin-
skaya" fair had
been transferred
to that city from
Romny in 1852.
A Sabbath- and
Sunday-school
for Jewish ap-
prentices was es-
tablished there
in 1861 ("Ha-
Karmel," Rus-
sian Supple-
ment, 1861, Nos.
46-47). Aaron
Zeitlin then held
the position of
" learned Jew "
under the gov-
ernor of Poltava.

Theanti-Hasi-
dim, or Mitnag-
gedim, soon in-
creased in num-
bers, and erected
a synagogue
for themselves
about 1870. In 1863 Aryeh LOb Seidener (b. 1838;
d. in Poltava Feb. 24, 1886) became the govern-
ment rabbi, and during the twenty-three years in
which he held the position he was instrumental in
establishing various educational and benevolent in-
stitutions and in infusing the modern spirit into the
community. He was assisted in his efforts by the
teachers Michael Zerikower, Eliczer Hayyim Rosen-
berg, Abraham Nathansohn, and other progressive
men. In 1890 Aaron Gleizer, son-in-law of Lazar
Zweifel, was chosen to succeed Seidener. Eliezer
AkibahRabinovich(b. Shilel, government of Kovno,
May 13, 1862), whose project of holding a rabbinical
conference in Grodno in 1903 aroused intense oppo-
sition, has been rabbi of Poltava since 1893. One of
the assistant rabbis, Jacob IMordecai Bezjialov,
founded a yeshibah there. Poltava has a Talmud
Torah for boys (250 pupils), with a trade-school con-

Synagogue at Poltava, Russia.

(From a photogrnph.)

nected witli it, and a corresponding institution for
girls. Ithasa Jewisii home for the aged (16inmiite8
in 1897), u Hebrew literary society, and soverul churi-
table and Zionist organizations. The most promi-
nent among tlie Maskilim or progressive HcIikw
scholars who have resided in Poltava was Ezckitl b.
Joseph Mandelstamm (born in Zhagory, government
of Kovno. in 1812; died in Poltava April 13, IM'JI).
author of the Rii)liealonomastieon"()/.ariia-.Slii-in<it"
(War.'^aw, 1889). with a "Sefer lm-Miilu'lm,"or sup-
plement, which was printed posllnim " ' , IR94.
He was the father of Dr. Ma.x Man. mm of

Kiev. Michel Gordon's well-known YiddiHli song
beginning "Ihr seit doch, Reb Yud. in Poltava
gewen " is a humorous allusion to the moral pitfalls
in the way of pious Jews of the older Polish com-

m u u i t i e K w h o
settled in the lib-
eral-minded Pol-
tava. The wri-
ter Alexander
SQsskind Rubi-
novich, A. M.
Borucljov (con-
tributor to "Ha-
Shilouh "), and
Benzion MirkiD
(journalist) are
residents of Pol-
tava. Among
the prominent
Jews of Poltava
in early times
were the fami-
lies of Zelcnski.
Portugalov, and
"Warshavski.
The city has a
total ))0|)ulation
of 53.060, of
whom 7,600 are
Jews.

K r e m e n -
tchug' : City in
the government
of Poltava, on
the left bank of
the Dnieper. It
now (1905)includes the suburb of Kryukov on the op-
posite bank, and has the largest Jewish community in
thegovernment,35,179—orabout 60 per cent of the to-
tal population of the city (1897). It was the first of
the important cities of southwestern Russia to which
Jews from Lithuania and Poland began to flock
about the middle of the nineteenth century. Even in
the calamitous years 1881-82, when anti-Jewish riots
occurred in the government of Poltava, numer-
ous Jews from other places went to Krcmentohug.
where the local Jewish community raised for them a
relief fund of about 40.000 rubles.

R. Isaac of Krementchug. who died there Dec..
1833, was among the earliest Hasidim of that city.
Ne.xt in importance was Abraham Fradkin ' m

Jacob Lapin addressed a letter which n; . in

his "Reset ha-Sofer." pp. 11-12, Berlin. 1857).
Other prominent men in tlic Jewish community

Poltava
Polygramy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

120

were: Lipavski, Zlatopolski. Michael Ladyzhenski.
Sergei (Sbmere) Roseuthal, David Sack (son of
Hayyitn Sack of Zliagory), and Solomon, Marcus,
and Vasili Rosenthal.

Among those who went to Krcmentcluig in 1864
was Herman Rosenthal, who established a printing-
office there in 1869, and organized a circle of Maski-
lim, among whom were Eliezer Schulmanx, J.
S. Olschwaxg, L. and M. Jakobovich, and M. Sil-
berberg (see Zedcrbaum, "Massa Erez,'" in "Ha-
Meliz," 1869, No. 1). Rosenthal published the first
work of M. Morgulis on the Jewish question, "So-
braniye Statci " (1869), the first almanac of Kremen-
tchug, and many other works. He was for eight
years a member of the city council (1870-78), and it
was owing to his efforts that the Realnoye Uchi-
lishche (Realgymnasium) was built in 1872. The
best-known rabbi of Krementchug was Joseph b.
Elijah Tumarkin, who died there in 1875. After his
death the Mitnaggedim elected Meir LOb Malbim as
rabbi, but he died while on his way to assiune the
position (Sept., 1879), and the candidate of the Hasi-
dim of Lubavich, Ilirsch Tumarkin, the brother and
son-in-law of Meir's predecessor, was elected to the
position. The government rabbis were Freidus
(1865), Mochan (1867-71), a son-in-law of Seidener
of Melitopol, Ch. Berliner, and Freidenberg(whowas
reelected in 1899). The present (1905) rabbi is Isaac
Joel Raphalovich.

Krementchug has numerous synagogues and the
usual educational and charitable institutions, in-
cluding a Talmud Torali, with a trade-school in
connection with it, founded by Mendel Seligman ;
a hospital, with a home for aged persons ("Ila-
Meliz," 1890, No. 139); the society Maskil el Dal
(founded 1898); and several Zionist organizations.
It is the most important business and industrial
center in the government.

About a dozen other cities and towns in the govern-
ment of Poltava contain Jewish communities, those
of Pereyaslavl and Romny being among the largest.

BiBLioGRAPnr : Keneset Tisrael, 1. 1124 ; Ha-Meliz, 1883, No.
96 ; 1890, No. 7 ; Ha-Shahar. vl. 215-218, ix. 183 ct ticq.; Eisen-
stadt-Wiener, Da'at Kedbshim, p. 26, St. Petersburg, 1897-98 ;
Ha^a^efirah, 1897, No. H.
H. R. P. Wl.

Population op Poltava Government in 1897.

District.

Gadyach

Khorol

Kot)elyaki

Konstantlnograd

Krementchug

Lokhvltza

Lubny

Mlrgorod

Perevaslavl

Plrvatln

Poltava

Prflukl

Romny

Zenkov

Zolotonosbi

Total in government,

Total
Population.

142.797
174,729
217,876
232,.565
242,482
1.51,218
136,606
1.57,727
185,389
164.127
227,814
192.507
186,482
140,4.53
227,a55

Jewish
Population.

3,233
3,780
3,448
1,938

35,179
4,566
4,527
3,046

10,079
4,987

11,895
8,055
7,145
1,839
7,700

2,780,427

111,417

Per-
centage.

2.26
2.16
1.58
0.84
14.51
3.02
3.31
1.93
5.44
3.00
5.22
4.18
3.83
1.31
3.38

4.02

H. R. V. R.

POLYGAMY : The fact or condition of having
more than one wife or husband at a time; usually,

the practise of having a plurality of wives. While
there is no evidence of a polyandrous state in prim-
itive Jewish society, polygamy seems to have been
a well established institution, dating from the most
ancient times and extending to comparatively mod-
ern days. The Law indeed regulated and limited
this usage; and the Prophets and the scribes looked
upon it with disfavor. Still all had to recognize
its existence, and not until late was it completely
abolished. At no time, however, was it practised so
much among the Israelites as among otlicr nations;
and the tendency in Jewish social life was always
toward ^Ionoga.my.

That the ideal state of human society, in the mind
of the primitive Israelite, was a monogamous one is
clearly evinced by the fact that the first man
(Adam) was given only one wife, and that the first
instance of bigamy occurred in the family of the
cursed Cain (Gen. iv. 19). Noah and his sons also
are recorded as having only one wife each {ib.
vi. 7, 13). Abraham had only one wife; and he
was persuaded to marry his slave Hagar {ib. .\vi. 2,
3; see Pii.egesh) only at the urgent request of his
wife, who deemed herself barren. Isaac had only
one wife. Jacob married two sisters, because he
was deceived by his father-in-law, Laban {ib. xxix.
23-30). He, too, married his wives' slaves at the re-
quest of his wives, who wished to have children {ib.
XXX. 4, 9). The sons of Jacob as well as Moses and
Aaron seem to have lived in monogamy. Among
the Judges, however, polygamy was practised, as
it Avas also among the rich and the nobility (Judges
viii. 30; comp. ib. xii. 9, 14; I Chron. ii. 26, iv. 5,
viii. 8). Elkanah, the father of Samuel, had two
wives, probably because the first (Hannah) was
childless (I Sam. i. 2). The tribe of Issachar was
noted for its practise of polygamy (I Chron. vii. 4).
Caleb had two concubines {ib. ii. 46, 48). David
and Solomon had many wives (II Sam. v. 13 ; I Kings
xi. 1-3), a custom which was probablj' followed
by all the later kings of Judah and of Israel (comp.
I Kings XX. 3; also the fact that the names of
the mothers of most of the kings are mentioned).
Jehoiada gave to Joash two wives only (II Chron.
xxiv. 3).

There is no Biblical evidence that any of the Proph-
ets lived in polygamy. Monogamous marriage was
used by them as a s^'mbol of the union
Prophetic of God with Israel, while polj'gamy

Attitude, was compared to polytheism or idola-
trous worship (Hos. ii. 18; Isa. 1. 1;
Jer. ii. 2; Ezek. xvi. 8). The last chapter of Prov-
erbs, which is a description of the purity of home
life, points to a state of monogamy. The marriage
with one wife thus became the ideal form with the
great majority of the people; and in post-exilic
times polygamy formed the rare exception (Tobit i.
10; Susanna 63; Matt. xvii. 25, xix. 9; Luke i. 5).
Herod, however, is recorded as having had nine
wives (Josephus, "Ant." xvii. 1, § 3).

The Mosaic law, while permitting polygamy, in-
troduced many provisions which tended to confine
it to narrower limits, and to lessen the abuse that
might arise in connection with it. The Israelitish
woman slave who was taken as a wife by the son of
her master was entitled to all the rights of matri-

121

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poltava
Polygraxny

mony (see Hcsbaxd and Wife), even after he had
taken another wife ; and if they were withheld from
her, she had to be set free (Ex. xxi. 9-11; see
Slaves). One who lived in bigamy might not show
his preference for the children of the more favored
wife by depriving the first-born son of the less
favored one of his rights of inheritance (Deut. xxi.
15-17; see Inheritance). The king should not
"multiply wives" (j'6. xvii. 17; comp. Sanh. 21a,
where the number is limited to IS, 24, or 48, accord-
ing to the various interpretations given to II Sam.
xii. 8); and the high priest is, according to the rab-
binic interpretation of Lev. xxi. 13, commanded to
take one wife only (Yeb. 59a; comp. Yoma 2a).

The same feeling against polygamy existed in
later Talmudic times. Of all the rabbis named in
the Talmud there is not one who is mentioned as

having lived in polygamy. The gen-
Rabbinic eral sentiment against polygamy is
Aversion illustrated in a story related of the
to son of R. Judah ha-Nasi (Ket. 62a).

Polygamy. A peculiar passage in the Targum

(Aramaic paraphrase) to Ituth iv. 6
points to the same state of popular feeling. The
kinsman of Elimelech, being requested by Boaz
to marry Ruth, said, "I can not redeem; for I
have a wife and have no right to take another in
addition to her, lest she be a disturbance in my
house and destroy my peace. Redeem thou ; for
thou hast no wife." This is corroborated by R.
Isaac, Avho says that the wife of Boaz died on the
day when Ruth entered Palestine (B. B. 91a). Po-
lygamy was, however, sanctioned by Jewish law and
gave rise to many rabbinical discussions. While
one rabbi says that a man may take as many wives
as he can support (Raba, in Y'eb. 65a), it was recom-
mended that no one should marry more than four
women (ib. 44a). R. Ami was of the opinion that a
woman had a right to claim a bill of divorce if her
husband took another wife (ib. 65a). The institu-
tion of the Ketubah, which was introduced by the
Rabbis, still further discouraged polygamy ; and
subsequent enactments of the Geonim (see Mviller's
"Mafteah," p. 282, Berlin, 1891) tended to restrict
this usage.

An express prohibition against polygamy was
pronounced by R. Gershom b. Judah, "the Light of

"the Exile " (960-1028), which was soon

Rabbi accepted in all the communities of

Gershom's northern France and of Germany. The

Decree. Jews of Spain and of Italy as well as

those of the Orient continued to prac-
tise polygamy for a long period after that time, al-
though the influence of the prohibition was felt even
in those countries. Some authorities suggested that
R. Gershom's decree was to be enforced for a time
only, namely, up to 5000 a.m. (1240 c.e. ; Joseph
Colon, Responsa, Xo. 101; see Shulhan 'Aruk, Eben
ha-'Ezer, i. 10, Isserles' gloss), probably believing
that the Messiah would appear before that time ; but
this opinion was overruled by that of the majority
of medieval Jewish rabbis. Even in the Orient mon-
ogamy soon became the rule and polygamy the ex-
ception ; for only the wealthy could afford the lux-
ury of many wives. In Africa, where Mohammedan
influence w^as strongest, the custom was to include

in the marriage contract the following paragraph:
"The said bridegroom . . . hereby proniiws that
he will not take a second wife during ;hc lifetime
of the said bride . . . except with her consent; and,
if he transgres.ses this oath and t / .1 wife

during the lifetime of the saiil bri. iit her

consent, he shall give her every tittle of what is
written in the marriage settlement, r ' r with
all the voluntary additions Jicrtin d- javiug

all to her up to the last farthing, and he shall free
her by regular divorce instantly and with fitting
solemnity." This condition was rigidly enforced
by the rabbinic authorities (see Abrahams, "Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages," p. 120).

The Jews of Spain practised polygamy as late

as the fourteenth century. The only requirement

there was a special permit, for which a certain sum

was probably paid into the king's

Later treasury each time a Jew took an

Instances, additional wife (Jacobs, "Sources." p.
XXV., No. 104, London, 1894;. Such
cases, however, were rare exceptions. The Span-
ish Jews, as well as their brethren in Italy and in
the Orient, soon gave up these practises; and to-
day, although the Jews of the East live under Mo-
hanmiedan rule, but few cases of polygamy are
found among them.

In some exceptional cases bigamy was -.-d

(see Bigamy) ; but this was in very rare < ly,

and the consent of 100 learned men of three dif-
ferent states was required (see Insanity). While
in the case of the 'Agunah one witness who tes-
tifies to the death of her husband is sufficient to
permit the woman to remarry, in the case of the
woman's disappearance some authorities ("Bet
Shemuel" on Eben ha-*Ezer, 158, 1; 15, 20) are of
the opinion that the testimony of one witness is not
sufficient to permit the husband to remarry (see
Fassel, "Mishpete El; Das Mosaisch-Rabbinische
Civilrecht," §§ 63, 112, Xagy-Kanizsa, 1852). Later
authorities, however, permit him to remarry even
when there is only one witness to testify to the
death of his wife, and even when that witness did
not know her personally, providing that after he had
described the deceased woman the husband recog-
nized the description as that of his wife (" Noda'
Bihudah," series ii., Eben ha-'Ezer, 7, 8; comp.
"Hatam Sofer" on Eben ha-'Ezer, responsum 2;
"Pithe Teshubah" on Eben ha-'Ezer. 1, 10).

In spite of the prohibition against polygamy and

of the general acceptance thereof, the Jewish law

still retains many provisions which apply only

to a state which permits polygamy.

Survivals The marriage of a married man is
of legally valid and needs the formality

Polygamy, of a bill of divorce for its dissolution,
while the marriage of a married woman
is void and has no binding force (El)en ha Ezir, 1.
10; comp. "Pithe Teshubah," § 20, where is quoted
the opinion of some authorities that after a man takes
a second wife he is not compelled to divorce hcrV
The Reform rabbis in conference assembled (Phila
delphia, 1869) decided that "then ' " ir-

ried man to a second woman can ; .> e

nor claim religious validity, just as little as the
marriage of a married woman to another man, but.

Polyglot Bible
Poniewicz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

122

like this, is null and void from the beginning." Still,
with the majority of Jews, this is not even an open
question, and the marriage of a married man is con-
sidered just as valid as that of an unmarried man;
it not only requires the formality of divorce in the
case of separation, but also makes him subject to the
laws of relationship; so that he can not afterward
marry the wife's sister while the wife is living, nor
can he or his near relatives, according to the laws
of consanguinity, enter into matrimonial relations
•with any of her near relatives (see Makuiage).

Bibliography: Hastings. Dic(. Bible, s.v. Marriage: Ham-
burger, R. B. T., s.v. Vielweiherei; Frankel, Grundlitiien
des Mosaixch-Talmudiselun Eherechts. Breslau. 18tiU; Lkh-
tenstein. Die Ehe nach Mo!<ai.'ich-Talmudi,'icher Atiffassuitu,
lb. 1879; Klugman, Stellung dcr Frau im TaUimd, Vienna,
1898; Rabbinowicz, Meho ha-Talmitd, Hebr. transl., p. 80,
Wilna,18iH; Buchholz, Z>i« Faun! if, Breslau, 1867; Mielziner,
Tlie Jeiciifh Law of Marriage iind Divorce, Cincinnati, 1884 ;
Duscbak, Das Mosaisch-Talinudische Eherecht, Vienna,
18W.
E. c. J. H. G.

POLYGLOT BIBLE. See Bible Editions.

POMEGRANATE (pDI : Punica Granatum):
A tree of the myrtle family. The pomegranate was
carried into Egypt in very early historic times
(comp. Num. xx. 5), and was also cultivated in Pal-
estine, Assyria, and most of the countries bordering
the Mediterranean. The spies brought pomegran-
ates, grapes, and figs as signs of the fertility of
Canaan (ib. xiii. 23). Several Biblical passages in-
dicate that the pomegranate was among the com-
mon fruit-trees of the country (Deut. viii. 8; Joel i.
12; Hag. ii. 19). A famous pomegranate-tree grew
at Gibeah in the time of Saul (I Sam. xiv. 2). Pome-
granate-groves, as well as the beautiful tlowerof the
tree, are mentioned in the Song of Solomon ; and the
fruit furnishes similes (Cant. iv. 3, 13; vi. 7, 11; vii.
13). The pomegranate was used in art. The two
pillars, Jachin and Boaz, were ornamented with a
representation of it (I Kings vii. 18); and pomegran-
ates were embroidered on the garment of the high
priest (Ex. xxviii. 33).

Throughout the East the pomegranate is the sym-
bol of luxuriant fertility and of life. Pomegranates
are eaten raw, their acid juice being most refreshing
(comp. Cant. iv. 3). They are also dried (comp.
Ma'as. i. 6). The juice mixed with water is to-day
a favorite drink in the East; in former times it was
also prepared as a kind of wine (Cant. viii. 2; Pliny,
"Hist. Naturalis," xiv. 19).

E. Q. H. I. Be.

POMIS, DE (D'nisnn p) : An old Italian Jew-
ish family which claimed descent from King David.
According to a legend, reproduced by De Pomis in
the introduction to his lexicon "Zemah Dawid," the
Pomeria family was one of the four families brought
from Jerusalem to Rome by Titus. The family is a'
most important one, being related to that of Anaw.
Members of the family are said to have lived in Rome
until about 1100, when they emigrated, scattering
through Italy. Most of them settled at Spoleto in
Umbria, where, according to the account of David
de Pomis, they and their descendants remained for
420 years; but when Central Italy was sacked by
the army of Charles V. of Spain in 1527, the family
fell into the hands of the enemy and lost its entire
property. In the introduction to his dictionary

David de Pomis incorporates his autobiography, and
traces his genealogy back to the martyr Elijah de
Pomis, as follows: David (b. 1525), Isaac, Eleazar,
Isaac, Abraham, Menahem, Isaac, Obadiah, Isaac,
and Elijah. This would set the date of Elijah at
approximately 1270, which is historically correct.
As the last-named lived at Rome, however, the
statement that the family left that city about 1100
can not be correct. Moreover, members of the
family did not live 420 years, but only 220 years,
at Spoleto.

Bibliography: David de Pomis, ?<'mo?iDawid,Introductlon;
Nepi-(ihirondi, Toledot Gedole I'isrocf, p. 84; Vogelstein
and Rieger, Gesch. dcr Juden in Rom, i. 257.

G. I. E.

David ben Isaac de Pomis : Italian physician
and philosopher; born at Spoleto, Umbria, in 1525;
died after 1593. When David was born his father
was rich ; but soon after, he lost his fortune in the
following manner: When the Imperialists plundered
Rome, Isaac, fearing that they would attack Spo-
leto, sent all his possessions to Camerino and Civita.
The troops of Colonna surprised the convoy on its
way, and confiscated all of Isaac's goods. He then
settled at Bevegna, where David received his early
education. In 1532 Isaac de Pomis settled at Todi
and confided the instruction of his son to his uncles
Jehiel Alatino and Moses Alatino, who taught
the boy the rudiments of medicine and philos-
ophy.

David was graduated, Nov. 27, 1551, as " Artium
et Medicinaj Doctor " at the University of Perugia.
Later he settled at Magliano, where he practised
medicine, holding at the same time the position of
rabbi. The anti-Jewish laws enacted by Paul IV.
deprived David of his possessions and likewise of
his rabbinate; and he entered the service of Count
Nicolo Orsini, and five years later that of the Sforza
family.

The condition of the Jews of the Pontifical States
having improved on the accession of Pius IV., David
went to Rome, and, as the result of a Latin dis-
course delivered before the pope and cardinals, ob-
tained permission to settle at Chiusi and to practise
his profession among Christians. Unfortunately,
Pius IV. died seven days later, and the permission
was annulled by Pius V. David then went to
Venice, where a new permission was granted to him
by Pope Sixtus V.

De Pomis was the author of the following works:
(1) "Zemah Dawid," a Hebrew and Aramaic dic-
tionary dedicated to Pope Sixtus V., the words
being explained in Latin and Italian. Venice, 1587.
This dictionary, variously estimated by the lexicolo-
gists (comp. Richard Simon in the appendix to
" De Ceremoniis Judteorum " ; David de Lara in the
introduction to " 'Ir Dawid "), was modeled after
Jehiel's lexicographical work, '"Aruk." (2) "Ko-
helet," the Book of Ecclesiastes translated into Ital-
ian, with explanatory notes, ib. 1571, dedicated to
Cardinal Griinani. (3) •'Discorsolntornoall' Umana
]\Iisena, c Sopra il Modo di Fuggirla," published as
an appendix to "Kohelet," ib. 1572, and dedicated
to Duchess Margarete of Savoy (David also trans-
lated the books of Job and Daniel ; but these were
never published). (4) "Brevi Discorsi et Eficacis-

123

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polyglot Bible
Poniewicz

simi liicordi per Liberaie O^^ui Citti Oppressa dal
Mai Contagioso," ib. 1577. (5) "Euarratio Brevis de
Senum Allectibus Pra*caveudis Atque Curaudis"
dedicated to tlie doge aud senate of Venice, ib. 1588.
(6) A work on the divine character of the Venetian
republic, which he cites in Ins "Enarratio Brevis,"
but which has not been preserved. (7) " De Medico
Hebra;o Enarratio Apoiogica," ib. 1588. Thisapolo-
getical work, which defends not only Jewi.sh phy-
sicians, but Jews in general (see some extracts trans-
lated in Winter and Wiinsche, "Die Jiidische
Litteratur," iii. 698 et seq.), earned much praise from
Roman patricians, such as Aldus Manutius the
Younger, whose letter of commendation is prefixed
to the book.

BiBLiocJRAPHY : Wolf, Bihl. Hehr. 1. 311-313; Jost, Annalen,
1839. p. ~£i ; Griitz. Gescli.ix. 504 ; II ViasilU) Israeliticii, 1875,
p. 175; 1876, p. 319; Berliner's Magazin, 187.5, p. 48; Steln-
schnelder, Jeivish Literature, p. 335; idem, in Monats-
schrift, xllli. 32; Dukes, in R.E.J. I. 14.5-152; Vo(?elstein
and Hieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, 11.259-260; Carmoly,
Histoire des Medecins Juifs, 1. 150-153.
Q. I. Br.

Elijah de Pomis : Rabbi and director of the
community of Rome; died as a martyr Tammuz 20,
5058 (= July 1, 1398). When the Roman commu-
nity was assailed under Boniface VIII., Elijah was
the first to be seized. To save his coreligionists he
pleaded guilty to all the charges brought against
him, and was sentenced to trial by fire and water,
perishing in the former, whereupon the confiscation
of his property, the principal object of the trial, was
carried out. Two anon^'mous elegies were com-
posed on his death.

BiBLiORRAPHY : Kobe^ 'al Yad, iv. 30 et seq.; Berliner, Qesch.
der Juden in Rom, 11. 57 ; Vogelsteln and Rieger, Gesch.
der Juden in Rom, i. 257.

Moses de Porais and Vitale de Pomis were

known under the name Alatino.

G. I. E.

POMPEY THE GREAT (Latin, Cneius
Pompeius Magnus) : Roman general who sub-
jected Judea to Rome. In the year 65 B.C., diiring
his victorious campaign through Asia Minor, he sent
to Syria his legate Scaurus, who was soon obliged
to interfere in the quarrels of the two brothers
Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus II. When Pompey
himself came to Syria, two years later, the rivals,
knowing that the Romans were as rapacious as they
were brave, hastened to send presents. Pompey
gradually approached Judea, however; and in the
spring of 63, at the Lebanon, he subdued the petty
rulers, including the Jew Silas (Josephus, "Ant.''
xiv. 3, ^ 2) and a certain Bacchius Judaeus, whose
subjugation is represented on a coin (Reinach, "Les
Monnaies Juives," p. 28). Pompey then came to
Damascus, where the claims of the three parties to
the strife were presented for his consideration — those
of Hyrcanus and Aristobulus in person, since the
haughty Roman thus exacted homage from the Ju-
dean princes, while a third claimant represented the
people, who desired not a ruler but a theocratic re-
public (Josephus, § 2; Diodorus, xl. 2). Pompey,
however, deferred his decision until he should have
subdued the Nabataeans.

The warlike Aristobulus, who suspected the de-
signs of the Romans, retired to the fortress of Alex-
ANDRiuM and resolved to offer armed resistance; but

at the demand of Pompey he surrendered the for-
tress and went to JerusaltMn. intending to continue
his opposition there (Josepims, "Ant." xiv. 3, ^4;
idem, " B. J." i. 0, $§ 4. 5). Pompey followed him
by way of Jericho, and as Aristobulus ajjuin deemed
it advisable to surrender to the Romans. Pompey
sent his legate Gabinius to take posHc-ssiou of the
city of Jerusalem.

This lieutenant found, however, lliut there were
other defenders there besides Aristobulus. where-
upon Pompey declared Ari-stobulus a prisoner aud
began to besiege the city. Although the parly
of Hyrcanus opened the gates to tlie Romans, tlie
Temple mount, which was garrisoned by the peo-
ple's party, liad to be taken i)y means of rams
brought from Tyre; and it was stormed only after a
siege of three months, anil then on a Sabbutli, .vhen
the Jews were not defending the walls. Josephus
calls the day of the fall of Jerusalem "the day of
the fast" {vriareiw: ij/tifja- "Ant." xiv. 4, ^ 8); but in
this he merely followed the phraseology of his Gen-
tile sources, which regarded the Sabbath as u fast-
day, according to the current Grero-Roman view.
Dio Cassius says(xxxvii. 16) correctly that it was
on a "Cronos day," this term likewi.se denoting the
Sabbath.

The capture of the Temple mount was accom-
panied by great slaughter. The priests wlio were
officiating despite the battle were massacred by the
Roman soldiers, and many committed suicide; while
12,000 people besides were killed. Pompey himself
entered the Temple, but he was so awed by its sanc-
tity that he left the treasure and the costly vessels
untouched ("Ant." xiv. 4, ^4; "B. J." i. 7. § 6;
Cicero, " Pro Flacco, " § 67). The leaders of the war
party were executed, and the city and country were
laid under tribute. A deadly blow was struck at
the Jews when Pompey separated from Judea the
coast cities from Rapiiia to Dora, as well as all the
Hellenic cities in the east-Jordan country, and the
so-called Decapolis, besides Scythopolis and Sa-
maria, all of which were incorporated in the new
province of Syria. These cities, without exception,
became autonomous, and dated their coins from the
era of their "liberation " by Pompey. The small
territory of Judea he assigned to Hyrcanus, with
the title of "ethnarch" ("Ant." i.e.; "B. J."/.«.:
comp. "Ant." xx. 10. §4). Aristobulus. together
with his two sons Alexander and Autigonus. and
his two daughters, was carried captive to Rome to
march in Pompey 's triumph, while many other Jew-
ish prisoners were taken to the same city, this cir-
cumstance probably having much to do with the
subsequent prosperity of the Roman community.
Pompey's conquest of Jerusalem is generally be-
lieved to form the historical background of the
Psalms of Solomon.

BiBLiooRAPHv: Moranisen. R/imiKChe Gefehirhf>: Mh r^.. UL
113-154: Griitz. Gesrh. 4tli ed.. 111. 157. 17:.' ■■■«.

3d ed.. 1. 294-;»l; Berliner. G>'<-h. rUr J\. a,

Frankfort-on-the-Main. I" '
niunlty of Rome was f-

fnll of Jerusalem merely nn i-ii.-M ii~ mi...'- .- . ■ .... •__- •
stein and Rieger, Gc«ch. der Juden in Rom, 1. a. Benin,
1896). „ „„

S. Kn.

PONIEWICZ (PONEVYEZH): P

in thegoverumculuf Kuvn.' lvi.--i:i. In

;ly
iUt

Poniewicz
Popes

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

124

Nikolai Tyszkiewicz by cuttiug down a forest tliat
lay between New and Old Poniewicz helped mate-
rially in enlarging the city to its present size and
in founding the suburb Xikolayev. Poniewicz came
under Russian dominion after the last partition of
Poland, and it became a part of the government of
Kovno in 1842. More than half the population of
the city consists of Jews, and there is also a small Ka-
raite community. In 1865 the number of inhabit-
ants was 8,071, of whom 3,648 were Jews including
70 Karaites. By 1884 the population had increased
to 15.030, including 7,899 Jews, but in 1897 the total
population is given as 13,044. Poniewicz has one
synagogue built of brick and seven built of wood.
The Karaite community also maintains a synagogue.
Of other institutions in the city there are a govern-
ment school for Jewish boys, one for girls, a hospi-
tal (opened 1886), and a Talmud Torah. There are
in addition numerous other communal institutions
and societies.

R. Isaac b. Joseph (d. before 1841), whose name
is signed to an approbation in the " 'Ateret Rosh "
(Wilna, 1841), is one of the earliest known rabbis of

Poniewicz. R. Moses Isaac, of Libau,

B-abbis and Plungian, and Taurogen, was prob-

Scholars. ably his successor, and was himself

succeeded by R. Hillel Mileikovski or
Salanter. R. Elijah David Rabinovich-Te'omim
succeeded R. Hillel. He was born in Pikeln, gov-
ernment of Kovno, June 11, 1845, and now (1904) is
rabbi at Jerusalem. Rabinovich occupied the posi-
tion of rabbi of Poniewicz from 1873 to 1893, when
he went to Mir as the successor of R. Yom-Tob Lip-
man B0SL.\XSKI.

The poet Leon Gordon commenced his career as
a teacher in the government school of Poniewicz,
where he remained until 1860 and married the grand-
daughter of one of its former prominent citizens,
Tanhum Ahronstam (died Nov. 10, 1858; see "Ha-
Maggid," ii., No. 50, and Gordon's letters, Nos. 1-36).
Isaac Lipkin, son of R. Israel Lipkin (Salanter), was
also a resident in the city until his death. The ear-
liest known " maggid " or preacher of Poniewicz
■was Menahem Mendel, author of " Tamim Yahdaw "
(Wilna, 1808).

The district of Poniewicz, which contains twenty-
three small towns and villages, liad in 1865 7,410
Jews (including 351 Karaites), of whom 59 were agri-
culturists. In 1884 it had 34,066 Jews in a total
population of 200,687, and in 1897 43,600 Jews in a
total population of 210,458.

Bibliography: AlenUzln. StatMtiche^ki Vremennik, etc.,
series UK, No. 2, St. Petersburg, 1884 ; Brockhaus-Efron. Ent-
ziklniiedicha<ki Slovar, s.v.; JUdisches Volkuhkitt, St. Te-
ter.sburg, 1886, No. 33; Semenov, Russian Geographical Dic-
tinnaru. s.v.; Elsenstadt, Dor Rabbanaw we-Soferaiv, 11.
29, 43, 52 ; iv. 21, 34.
It. K. P. Wl.

PONTE, LORENZO DA (JEREMIAH

CONEGLIANO): lUiliau-Aincrican man of letters,
composer, and teacher; born at Ceneda, Italy, 1749;
died 1837. He belonged to a well-known Jewish
family, which had produced the distinguished Ital-
ian-Turkish diplomatist Dr. Israel Conegliako.
With his parents and brothers. Da Ponte, for ma-
terial reasons, was baptized in his fourteenth year,
and the new name which he was destined to make

Lorenzo da Ponte.

famous was adopted in honor of a Catholic bishop
who was his protector.

At an early age he became professor of belles-
lettres at Treviso, later at Venice, and published va-
rious poems, including a political satire, which led to
his exile. Da Ponte went to Austria, where he soon
won the favor of the emperor Joseph II., was ap-
pointed "poet" to the imperial theaters in Vienna,
and in that capacity met Mozart. He composed for
the great musician the
libretti to his famous
operas " Mariage de
Figaro" and "Don
Juan," and became an
important figure in
court, literarj', and mu-
sical circles. On the
death of Joseph II. he
lost favor, and after
various vicissitudes, in-
cluding several years
of service as dramatist
and secretary to the
Italian Opera Company
in London, he emi-
grated to America
early in the nineteenth
century. Again un-
fortunate, he was compelled to earn a subsistence
by teaching Italian. He wrote various plays, son-
nets, and critical essays, made a translation of the
Psalms, and managed Italian operatic performances.
From 1826 until his death he was professor of the Ital-
ian language and literature at Columbia College. He
encouraged the study and developed the apprecia-
tion of Dante in America, and won consideiable
influence over many pupils. He became involved in
a controversy with Prescott, the historian, concern-
ing Italian literature, Prescott's rejoinder to him
being preserved in the historian's "Miscellaneous
and Critical Essaj's."

Da Ponte was instrumental in bringing the Garcia
Opera Company to the United States, the first to
play there. He himself became manager of a simi-
lar company in New York in 1833, by which an
opera composed by him at the age of eighty was
presented, his niece being introduced in it as the
prima donna. His best-known work is his ex-
tremely interesting "Memoirs," which Tuckerman
has compared to Franklin's autobiography, and
which appeared in various Italian editions, in a
French translation (1860), with an introduction by
Lamartine, and also in German form. A notice-
able revival of interest in Da Route's career, which
had been well-nigh forgotten, was called forth re-
cently by the publication in Italy, in 1900, of his
works, together with his biography, in an elaborate
edition of 500 pages, and of various popular essays
dealing with his career. His Jewish antecedents
were commented upon in various biographies, and
were emphasized by contemporaries for the purpose
of injuring his position. His "Memoirs" indicate
that even in his youth he was proficient in Hebrew,
and the impress of his ancestry and of his early
Jewish studies has been discerned by critics of his
works and views.

125

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poniewioz
Popes

Bibliooraphy: Marchesan, Delia Vita e dclle Opera di Lo-
renzo da Polite, Trevlso, 1900; H. E. Krehblel, Music and
Manners: Henry Tiickerinan, in I'utuam'x ManazirteA^^i,
xll. 527 (reprinted In Dublin UtiivcrKitji Maoazinc, Ixxx.
215); JewiKh Comment, Aug. 9, 1900; see also Krehblel's re-
view of Prof. Marcliesan's work In the THbune, New York,
Sept. 9, 1900.
A. M. J. K.

PONTOISE : French town ; capital of an arron-
dissenicnt in the department of Seine-et-Oise. It
contained a Jewish community as early as the elev-
enth century. In 1179 (according to some authori-
ties, in 1166 or 1171) the Jews of Pontoise were ac-
cused of the murder of a Christian chiUl named
Richard, whose body was taken to the Church of the
Holy Innocents at Paris and tliere venerated as that
of a martyr. A document of 1294 relates that the
abbe of Saint Denis bought a house at Pontoise be-
longing to a Clirislian heavily indebted to the Jews
there, who were paid the purchase-money through
the provost Robert de Buan. The Jewish names
which appear in this document are those of Magis-
ter Sanson, Meuns de Sezana, and Abraliam de Novo
Castello. In 1296 Philip the Fair made a gift to his
brother Charles, Count of Valois, of Joce or Joucet,
a Jew of Pontoise, and his children, David, Aroin,
Haginot, Beleuce, Hanee, and Sarin. In the same
year Joucet of Pontoise was appointed financial
agent between the crown and his coreligionists of
Amiens, Senlis, and Champagne, and in 1297 Philip
the Fair made him arbiter in a litigation which had
arisen between himself and his brother Charles re-
garding forty-three Jews whom the latter claimed as
natives either of his county of Alen^on or of his
lands in Bonmoulinsand Chateauneuf-en-Thymerais.

The principal Jewish scholars of Pontoise were:
Jacob de Pontoise {"Minhat Yehudah," pp. 4b,
24b), Moses ben Abraham (Tosef., Pes. 67b; Hag.
19b; Yoma 6b, 64a; Yeb. 61a), and Abraham de
Pontoise ("Kol Bo." No. 103).

Bibliography: Depping, LesJuifsdans le Jfoj/en^ae, pp.
93, 146 ; Dom Bouquet, Histnriens de France, xxv. 768; Du-
bois, Histnria Kcclesice Par^isiensi,<!,ii. 142; MoT^ri, Dictinn-
naii-e Historique, s.v. Richard ; R. E. J. li. 34, ix. 63, xv.
234, 250 ; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 443-445.
G. S. K.

PONTREMOLI, BENJAMIN : Turkish rab-
binical writer; lived at Smyrna at the end of the
eighteenth century. He was tlie author of a work
entitled "Shebet Binyamin " (Salonica, 1824), on
drawing up commercial papers. He had two sons,
Hayyim Isaiah and Hiyya.

Bibliography: Kazan, Ha-Ma'alot li-Shelomoh, pp. 31, 9.5;
Franco, Histoire des Israelites de VEmpire Ottoman, p. 266.
8. M. Fr.

PONTREMOLI, ESDR.A : Italian rabbi, poet,
and educationist; born at Ivrea 1818; died in 1888;
son of Eliseo Pontremoli, rabbi of Nizza, where
a street was named after him. In 1844 Esdra Pon-
tremoli became professor of Hebrew in the Coilegio
Foa at Vercelli. He was for fifteen years associate
editor of "Educatoie Israelita." He translated Luz-
zatto's " Derek Erez " into verse under tlie title " II
Falso Progresso " (Padua, 1879).

Bibliography : II Vessillo Israditico, 1888.

PONTREMOLI, HIYYA : Turkish rabbinical

author ; died at Smyrna in 1832 ; son of Benjamin

Pontremoli. Hiyya Pontremoli wrote, among other
works, the "Zappihil bi-Debash," a collccliou of
responsa on Orah Huy yim.

Bibliography: Hazan, Ha-Ma'alot U-ShtUmoh.nn. 31 M-
Franco. IHMoire de* larailiUg de I'KmiHre (Mtumati, p.

^■' M. Fn.

POOR, RELIEF OF. See Ciiauitv.
POOR LAWS. See Charity.

POPES, THE: The Roman Church docs not
claim any jurisdiction over persons who have not
been baptized ; llioreforc tiie relations of tlie pope*,
as the heads of the Churcli. to the Jews have been
limited to rules regarding the political, commercial,
and social conditions under which Jews mij,'ht rcKide
in Christian states. As sovereigns of the Pajml States
the popes further had the right to legislate on the
status of their Jewish subjects. Finally, voluntary
action was occasionally taken by the popes on be-
half of the Jews who invoked their aid in times of
persecution, seeking their mediation as the ]iiirii«-8t
ecclesiastical authorities. Tlie general principles
governing the popes in their treatment

General of the Jews arc practically identical
Principles, with those laid down in the Justinian
Code : (1 ) to separate them from social
intercourse with Christians as far as possible; (2) to
prevent them from exercising any authority over
Christians, either in a public (as officials) or a pri-
vate capacity (as masters or employers); (3) to ar-
range that the exercise of the Jewish religion should
not assume the character of a public function. On
the other hand, however, the popes have always
condemned, theoretically at least, (1) acts of violence
against the Jews, and (2) forcible baptism.

The history of the relations between the popes
and the Jews begins with Gregory I. (590-604), who
may be called the first pope, inasmuch as his author-
ity was recognized by the whole Western Church.
The fact that from the invasion of the Lombards
(568) and the withdrawal of the Byzantine troops
the Roman population was without a visible hea<l of
government made the Bishop of Rome, the highest
ecclesiastical dignitary who happened to be at the
same time a Roman noble, the natural protector of
the Roman population, to which the Jews also be-
longed. Still, even before this time. Pope Gelasiua
is mentioned as having recommended a Jew, Tele-
sinus, to one of his relatives as a very reliable man,
and as having given a decision in the case of a
Jew against a slave who claimed to have been a
Christian and to have been circumcised by his mas-
ter against his will (Mansi, "Concilia," viii. 131;
Migne, "Patrologia Gra'co Latina," lix. 146; Vogel-
stein and Rieger, "Gesch. dcr Juden in Rom," I.
127-128). In the former instance the pope acted
merely as a private citizen: in the latter he was
most likely called upon as an ecclesiastiad expert to
give a decision in a local affair. The legend may
also be quoted which makes of the apostle Peter
an enthusiastic Jew who merely pretendetl zeal
for Christianitv in order to assist his persecuted
coreligionists (JelHnek, " B. II." v. 60-62, vi. 9-10;
Vogelstein and Rieger, I.e. i. 165-168; "Allg. Zeit.
des Jud." 1903).

Popes

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

126

Nevertheless, the liistory proper of the popes in

their relation to the Jews begins, as stiid above, with

Gresrorv I. He often protected the Jews against

violence and unjust treatment on the

Gregory part of officials, and condemned forced
the Great, baptism, but he advised at the same
time the winning of the Jews over to
Christianity by offering material advantages. Very
often he condemned the holding of Christian slaves
by Jews(Gratz, "Gesch." v. 43; Vogelsteiu and Ric-
ger, I.e. i. 132-135). A very obscure order is contained
in a letter of Pope Nicholas I. to Bishop Arsenius of
Orta, to whom he prohibits the use of Jewish gar-
ments. Leo VII. answered the Archbishop of Ma-
yence, who asked whether it was right to force the
Jews to accept baptism, that he might give them
the alternative of accepting Christianity or of emi-
grating (Aronius, "Regesten"; comp. Vogelsteiu
and Rieger, I.e. i. 139). An.\cletus II. (antipope),
whose claim to the papal throne was always con-
tested, was of Jewish descent, and this fact was used
by liis opponents in their attacks upon him. Bene-
dict VIll. had a number of Jews put to death on
the ground of an alleged blasphemy against Jesus
which was supposed to have been the cause of a de-
structive cyclone and earthquake (c. 1020; Vogel-
steiu and Rieger, I.e. i. 213).

In the bitter tight between Gregory VII. and the
German emperor Henry lY. the pope charged the
emperor with favoritism to the Jews, and at a synod
held at Rome in 1078 he renewed the canonical laws
Avhich prohibited giving Jews power over Chris-
tians; tins necessarily meant that Jews might not be
employed as ta.x-farmers or mint-masters. Calixtus
II. (1119-24) issued a bull in which he strongly con-
demned forced baptism, acts of violence against the
lives and the property of the Jews, and the desecra-
tion of their sj^nagogues and cemeteries {c. 1120).
In spite of the strict canonical prohibition against
the employment of Jews in public capacities, some
popes engaged their services as financiers and phy-
sicians. Thus Pope Alexander III. employed Jehiel,
a descendant of Nathan ben Jehiel, as his secretary
of treasury (Vogelstein and Rieger, I.e. i. 225).

The extreme in the hostile enactments of the
popes against the Jews was reached under Inno-
cent III. (1198-1216), w'ho was the most powerful
of the medieval popes, and who convened the
Fourth Lateran Council (1215); this

Innocent council renewed the old canonical pro-
Ill, hibitions against trusting the Jews
with public offices and introduced the
law demanding that Jews should wear a distinctive
sign on their garments (see Badge). The theolog-
ical principle of the pope was that the Jews should, as
though so many Cains, be held up as warning exam-
ples to Christians. Nevertheless he protected them
against the fury of the French Crusaders (Gratz,
I.e. vii. 5; Vogelstein and Rieger, I.e. i. 228-230).
Gregory IX., who in various official documents in-
sisted on the strict execution of the canonical laws
against the .lews, was humane enougii to issue the
bull "Etsi Juda^orum" (1233; repeated in 1235), in
which he demanded that the Jews in Christian coun-
tries should be treated with the same humanity as that
with which Christians desire to be treated in heathen

lands. His successor. Innocent IV. , ordered the burn-
ing of the Talmud in Paris (1244); but Jewish his-
tory preserves a grateful memory of him on account
of his bull declaring the Jews innocent of the charge
of using Christian blood for ritual purposes (see
Blood Accus.vtion). This bull was evidently the
result of the affair of Fulda (1238), concerning which
Emperor Frederick II. also issued a warning. The
defense of the Jews against the same charge was
undertaken by Gregory X., in his bull "Sicut Ju-
d!ieis" (Oct. 7,"l272; Stern, "Urkundliche Beitrftge,"
i.5).

The relations of the popes to the Jews in the sub-
sequent two centuries present a rather monotonous
aspect. They issued occasional warnings against vio-
lence, threatened the princes who allowed the Jews
to disregard the canonical laws concerning badges or
concerning the employment of Christian servants,
but conferred minor favors on certain Jews. As a
typical instance, it may be noted that Boniface VIII.,
when the Jews did him homage, insulted them by
returning behind his back the copy of the Torah
presented to him, after making tiie oft-repeated
remark about reverence for the Law but condemna-
tion of its misrepresentation.

The excitement of the Church during the Hussite
movement rendered the Jews apprehensive, and
through Emperor Sigismund, who was heavily in-
debted to them, thej' obtained from Pope Martin V.
(1417-31 ; elected by the Council of Constance after
the Great Schism) various bulls (1418 and 1422) in
which their former privileges were contirmed and in
which he exhorted the friars to use moderate lan-
guage. In the last years of his pon-
Martin V. tificate, however, he repealed several
of his ordinances, charging that they
had been obtained under false pretenses (Stern, I.e.
i. 21-43). Eugene IV. and Nicholas V. returned to
the policy of moderation, especially in advising the
friars against inciting mobs to acts of violence.
Sixtus IV., while sanctioning the Spanish Inquisi-
tion, repeatedly endeavored (1482 and 1483) to check
its fanatic zeal and prohibited the worship of the
child Simon of Trent, whom the Jew's of Trent were
falsely accused of having murdered (1474). He also
employed several Jews as his physicians.

Alexander VI. (Borgia), known in history as the
most profligate of all the popes, was rather favor-
ably inclined toward the Jews. It is especially note-
worthy that he allowed the exiles from Spain to set-
tle in his states, and that he fined the Jewish com-
munity of Rome for its objection to the settlement in
its midst of these unfortunates. Occasionally, how-
ever, he ordered the imprisonment of Maranos; and
on the whole it seems that the pope's leniency was
prompted by his greed. Leo X. also, the humanist
on the throne of St. Peter, was in general favorably
inclined toward the Jews, whom he employed not
only as physicians, but also as artists and in other
positions at his court. The beginning of the Ref-
ormation influenced his action in the controversy
between Reuchlin and Pfefferkorn, which he
settled in such a way as not to give any encourage-
ment to those who demanded reforms in the Church.

Clement VII. (1523-34) is known in Jewish history
for the interest which he took in the case of the Mes-

127

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Popes

sianic pretender David Keubeni, and for the protec-
tion which he granted to Solomon Molko, who, as
an apostate, had forfeited his life to the Inquisi-
tion. He also issued an order to protect the Maranos
in Portugal against the Inquisition (1533 and 1534).

Tlie Reformation and the consequent strictness in
enforcing the censorship of books reacted on tiie
condition of the Jews in so far as con-
The Ref- verts from Judaism eagerly displayed
ormation. their zeal for tlieir new faith by de-
nouncing rabbinical literature, and es-
pecially the Talmud, as hostile to Christianity. Con-
sequently Pope Julius III. issued an edict which
demanded the burning of the Talmud (1553) and
prohibited the printing of it by Christians. In
Kome a great many copies were publicly burned
(Sept. 9, 1553). The worst was yet to come. Paul
IV. (1555-59), in his bull "Cum nimis absurdum "
(July 12, 1555), not only renewed all canonical re-
strictions against the Jews— as those prohibiting
their practising medicine among Christians, em-
ploying Christian servants, and the like — but he
also restricted them in their commercial activity,
forbade them to have more than one synagogue in
any city, enforced the wearing of the yellow hat,
refused to permit a Jew to be addressed as "signor,"
and finally decreed that they should live in a ghetto.
The last measure was carried out in Rome witli un-
relenting cruelty.

After a short period of respite under Paul IV. 's
successor, Pius IV. (1559-66), who introduced some
alleviations in his predecessor's legal enactments,
Pius V. (1566-72) repealed all the concessions of his
predecessor, and not only renewed the laws of Paul
IV., but added some new restrictions, as the pro-
hibition to serve Jews by kindling their fires on the
Sabbath; he excluded them from a

Pius V. great number of commercial pursuits,
and went so far in his display of
hatred that he would not permit them to do homage,
although that ceremony was rather a humiliation
than a distinction (1566). Three years later (Feb.
26, 1569) the pope decreed the expulsion of the Jews
from his territory within three months from the date
of the promulgation of the edict, and while the
Jews of Rome and Ancona were permitted to re-
main, those of the other cities wpre expelled. They
were permitted to return by the next pope, Gregory
XIII. (1572-85), who, while he showed an occasional
leniency, introduced a large number of severe re-
strictions. Thus, the Jews were prohibited from
driving through the streets of the city, and they
were obliged to send every week at least 150 of their
number to listen to the sermons of a conversion-
ist preacher (1584). The terrible custom of keep-
ing Jews in prison for a certain time each year, and
of fattening them and forcing them, for the amuse-
ment of the mob, to race during the carnival, when
mud was thrown at them, is mentioned (1574) as
"an old custom " for the first time during Gregory's
pontificate.

Sixtus V. (1585-90), again, was more favorable to
the Jews. Aside from some measures of relief in
individual instances, he allowed the printing of the
Talmud after it had been subjected to censorship
(1586). The policy of succeeding popes continued

to vary. Clement Vlll. (15*.ni-l604) again issued an
edict of expul.sion (1593), whicJi was subsequently
repealed, and in the same year prohiljiicd tlie print-
ing of the Talmud. Under Clement X. (1670-76)
a papal order suspended the Inquisition in Portu-
gal (1674); but an attempt to interest the pope in
the lot of the Jews of Vienna, who were expelled
in 1670, failed. The worst feature of llie numer-
ous disabilities of the Jews under pupal domin-
ion was the closing of the gates of the Roman
ghetto during the night. Severe penalties awaited
a Jew leaving the ghetto after dark, or a Christian
entering it.

Pius VI. (1775-1800) issued an edict which re-
newed all the restrictions enacted from the thirteenth
century. The ci'nsorshipof b<>.
Pius VI. strictly enforced ; Jews were i ,

uiitted any tombstones in their grave-
yards; they were forbidden to remodel or eidarge
their synagogues; Jews might not have any inter-
course with converts to Christianity ; they were re-
quired to wear the yellow badge on their liat.s both
within and without the ghetto; they were not per-
mitted to have shops outside the ghetto, or engage
Christian nurses for their infants; thej' might not
drive through the city of Rome; and their attend-
ance at conversionist sermons was enforced. When
under Pius VI. 's successors the pressure of other
matters caused the authorities to become negligent
in the fulfilment of their duties, these rules were
often reenforced with extreme rigor; such was the
case under Leo XII. (1826).

Pius IX. (1846-78), during the first two years of
his pontificate, was evidently inclined to adopt a
liberal attitude, but after his return from exile he
adopted with regard to the Jews the same policy
as he pursued in general. * He condemned as abom-
inable laws all measures which gave political free-
dom to them, and in the case of the abduction of
the child Moutara (1858), whom a servant-girl
pretended to have baptized, as well as in the sim-
ilar case of the boy Fortunato Col>n (1864). showed
his approval of the medieval laws as enacted by
Innocent III. He maintained the ghetto in Rome
until it was abolished by the Italian occupation of
Rome (1870).

His successor, Leo XIII. (1878-1908). was the first
pope who exercised no territorial jurisdiction over
the Jews. His influence, ueverthele.<;s, was preju-
dicial to them. He encouraged anti-Semitism by
bestowing distinctions on leading anti-Semitic poli-
ticians and autliors, as Lueger and Drumont; lie re-
fused to interfere in behalf of Captain Drkyfcs or
to issue a statement against the blood accusation.
In an official document he denoiiuccd Jews, free-
masons, and anarchists as the enemies of the Church.

Pius X. (elected 1908) is not sufficiently known to
permit a judgment in regard to his attitude toward
the Jews. He received Hkuzl and some other Jews
in audience, but in his diocese of Mantua, before he
became pope, he had prohibited the celebration of a
solemn mass on the king's birthday because •
council which asked for it had attended n
tion in the synagogue.

BiBLiOGRAPnY: Berliner, Gcsch. dcr Jtideu in Rom. Frank-
forUm-the-Maln. 1893; Vogelstein and n r .u^h. dcr

Popes
Popper

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

128

Judcn in Rom, Berlin, 1895: Stern. Urkundliche Beitriliie
ilber die Stelhing tier Pii^)ft(^ zu dtn Juden. Kiel, 1893-95 ;
Pastor, Ocsch.derPdpste ; Mansl, Concilia, Bidlarium Mag-
num.

The following is a partial account of the more im-
portant bulls issued by popes with reference to the
Jews up to the middle of the eighteenth century :

1120. Calixtus II. Issues bull beginning "Slcut Judaels non " and
enumerating privileges of the Jews (Vogelsteln and
Rieger, "Gesch. der Judea in Rom," 1.219 [hereafter
cited as V. R.]).

1145. Eugenius III., ordering Jews to remit Interest on debts of
Crusaders while absent (Baronius, " Annates ").

1191. Clement III. conllrms the bull "Sicut Judaeis non " (Rlos,
" Hist." ii. 469 [hereafter cited as Rios]).

1199 (Sept. 15). Innocent III. confirms "Sicut Judaeis non."

1207 (Jan.). Innocent III., ordering Jews of Spain to pay tithes
on possessions obtained from Christians (Rios, i. 36C).

1216 (Nov. 6). Honorius III. in favor of German Jews, conflrm-
ing the "Sicut Judaeis non" of Clement 111. (V. R.
1.9).

1219. Honorius III., permitting the King of Castile to suspend
the wearing of the badge (Aronlus, "Regesten," i.362).

1228 (Oct. 21). Gregory IX., remitting interest on Crusaders'
debts to Jews and granting a " moratorium " for repay-
ment (V. R. i. 233).

1233 (April 6). Gregory IX. issues the bull " Etsl Judaeorum,"

demanding same treatment for Jews in Christian lands
as Christians receive in heathen lands (V. U. i. 234).
1333. Gregory IX., in bull " Sufflcere debuerat," forbids Chris-
tians to dispute on matters of faith with Jews (" Bulla-
rium Romanum," iii. 479).

1234 (June 5). Gregory IX. to Thibaut of Navarre, enforcing

the badge (Jacobs. "Sources," Nos. 1227, 1388).
1235. Gregory IX. conflrms " Sicut Judaeis non."
1239 (June 20). Gregory IX., confiscating all copies of Talmud

(V. R. 1.237).
1240. Gregory IX., ordering all Jewish books in Castile to be

seized on first Saturday in Lent while Jews were in

synagogue (Rios, i. 363).
1244 (Man-h 9). Bull " Impia pens" of Innocent IV., ordering

Talmud to be burned (Zunz, " S. P." p. 30).

1246 (Oct. 21). Innocent IV. confirms "Sicut Judaeis non."

1247 (May 28). Innocent IV. issues the " Divina justitia nequa-

quam," against blood accusation.

1247 (July 5). Innocent IV. issues the " Lacrymabilem Judaeo-
rum Alemania;." against blood accusation (Baronius,
"Annates," 1247, No. 84 ; Stobbe, "Die Juden in
Deutschland," p. 185; Aronius, " Regesten," No. 243).

1250 (April 15). Innocent IV., refusing permission to Jews of
Cordova to build a new synagogue (Aronius, "Regesten,"
p. 369) .

1253 (July 23) . Innocent IV., expelling Jews from Vlenne (Ray-
naldus, "Annales"; V. R. i. 239).

1253 (Sept. 25). Innocent IV. conflrms " Sicut Judaeis non."

1267 (July 28) . Clement IV. issues the " Turbato corde " calling
upon Inquisition to deal not only with renegades, but
also with the Jews who seduce them from the faith
("Bullarium Romanum," Iii. 786; V. R. i. 243;.

1272. Gregory X. conflrms the " Sicut Judaeis nou " (V. R. 1. 24.5,
with edition of a denial of blood accusation; Stem,
" Urkundliche Beitrage Qber die Stellung der Papste zu
den Juden," p. 5).

1272 (July 7). Gregory X., against blood accusation (Scherer,
" Rechtsverhaitnisse der Juden." p. 431).

1274. Gregory X. conflrms "Sicut Judaeis non."

1278 (Aug. 4). Nicholas III. issues the " Vlneam .sorce," order-
ing conversion sermons to Jews ("Bullarium Roma-
num," Iv. 45).

1386 (Nov. 30). Bull of Honorius IV. to Archbishop of York
and of Canterbury, against Talmud (Raynaldus, "An-
nales"; Scherer, " Rechtaverhaitnlsse," p. 48).

1291 (Jan. 30). Nicholas IV. Lssues the "Drat mater ecclesla"
to protect the IU>man Jews from oppression (Theiner,
" Codex Dlplomaticus," 1. 315; V. R. i. 252).

1299 (June 13). Boniface VIII. issues bull "Exhlblta nobis,"
declaring Jews to be Included among powerful persons
who might be denounced to the Inquisition without the
name of the accuser being revealed (V. II. I. 251).

1317. John XXII. orders Jews to wear badge on breast, and issues
bull against ex-Jews (Zunz, "S. P." p. 37).

1330 (June 28). John XXII., ordering that converts shall retain
their property ("Bullarium Romanum," III., ii. 181;
Ersch and Gruber, " Encyc." section ii., part 27, p. 149;
V. R. 1.305).

1320 (Sept. 4). JohnXXII. Issues to French bishops bull against
Talmud.

1337 (Aug. 29). Benedict XII. issues the bull " E.x zelo fldel."
promising inquiry into hosi-tragedy of Pulka (Raynal-
dus, "Annales" ; Scherer, "Rechtsverh!iltni.sse,"p. 368).

1345 (July 5). Clement VI., against forcible baptism.

1348 (July 4). Clement VI. confirms "Sicut Juda'is non."

1348 (Sept. 26). Clement VI., ordering that Jews be not forced
into baptism; that their Sabbaths, festivals, synagogues,
and cemeteries be respected ; that no new exactions be Im-
posed (Aronius, "Regesten," ii.200; V. R. i.313; Raynal-
dus, " Annales," 1348. No. ^3 ; Gratz, " Gesch." viii. 351).

1365 (July 7). Urban V. conflrms "Sicut Juda;is non."

1*<9 (July 2). Boniface IX. confirms "Sicut Judteis non."

1390 (July 17). John of Portugal orders bull of Boniface IX. of
July 2, l']S9, to be published in all Portuguese towns
(Kayserling, " Gesch. der Juden in Portugal," p. 39).

1397 (April 6). Boniface IX. confirms by bull grant of Roman
citizenship to the Jewish physician Manuele and his son
Angelo (V. R. i. 317).

1402 (April 15). Boniface IX., granting special privileges to
Roman Jews— reducing their taxes, ordering their
Sabbath to be protected, placing them under the juris-
diction of the Curia, protecting them from oppression
by olllcials ; all Jews and Jewesses dwelling in the city
to be regarded and treated as Roman citizens (V. R. 1.
318-319).

1415 (May 11). Benedict XIII., "Etsi doctoribus gentium,"
against Talmud or any other Jewish book attacking
Christianity (Rios, 11.626-653; see years 1434 and 1442,
below).

1417. Bull against Talmud (Jost. "Gesch. der Israeliten,"vii. 60).

1418 (Jan. 3i). Martin V., forbidding the forcible baptism of
Jews or the disturbance of their synagogues (Ray-
naldus, " Annales" ; V. R. i. 4).

1420 (Nov. 25). Martin V. issues to German Jews bull "Con-
cessum Judaeis," confirming their privileges (V. R. i. 5).
No .lew under twelve to be baptized without his own and
his parents' consent (Scherer, " Rechtsverhaitnisse," p.
414).

1420 (Dec. 23). Martin V. issues "Licet Judaeorum omnium,"

in favor of Austrian Jews.

1421 (Feb. 23). Martin V., in favor of Jews and against anti-

Jewish sermons ; permits Jewish physicians to practise
(V. R. 1. 5).

1422 (Feb. 20), Martin V. conflrms "Sicut Judaeis non."

1423 (June 3). Martin V. issues bull "Sedes apostolica," re-

newing the law regarding badge (V. R. i. 8).

1426 (Feb. 14). Martin V. issues bull against Jews (Zunz, "S.
P." p. 48).

1429 (Feb. 15). Martin V. issues the" QuamquamJudael," which
places Roman Jews under the general civic law, protects
them from forcible baptism, and permits them to teach
in the school (Rodocachl, " II Ghetto Romano," p.
147; V. R. 1.8).

1432 (Feb. 8). Eugenius IV. Issues a bull of protection for Jews,
renewing ordinances against forcible baptism and dis-
turbance of synagogues and graveyards (V. R. i. 10).

1434 (Feb. 20). Eugenius IV., prohibiting anti-Jewish sermons
(V. R. i. 11).

1442. Bull of Benedict XIII. published at Toledo (Rlos, ill. 44).

1442 (Aug. 8). Eugenius IV. issues a bull against Talmud (shortly
after withdrawn; Zunz, "S. P." p. 49). The Jews
were ordered to confine their reading of Scripture to the
Pentateuch ; handwork was forbidden to them ; no
Jews were permitted to be judges (Rieger, 11).

1447 (Nov. 2). Nicholas V. confirms "Sicut Judajis non."

1451 (Feb. 25). Bull of Nicholas V. prohibiting social inter-
course with Jews and Saracens (" Vita Nlcolai," v. 91 ;
V. R. i. 496).

1451 (May 28). Bull of Nicholas V., similar to that of Aug. 8,
1442, to extend to Spain and Italy ; the proceeds to be
devoted to the Turkish war (V. R. i. 16).

14.51 (Sept. ai). Nichola,s V. issues the "Romanus pontifex," re-
lieving the dukes of Austria from ecclesiastical censure
for permitting Jews to dwell there (Scherer, " Rechts-
verhaitnisse," pp. 423-425).

1472 (Feb. 21). SIxtus IV., ordering taxation of Roman Jews at
a tithe during the Turkish war, a twentieth otherwise
(compounded for 1,000 gulden in 1488) , and a carnival
tax of 1,100 gulden (V. R. 1. 126),

129

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Popes
Popper

1481 (April 3). Slxtua IV., ordering all Christian princes to

restore all fuRltlves to Inquisition of Spain (Rlos, 111.

379; V. R. 1.21).
1481 (Oct. 17). Bull of Slxtus IV. appointing Tomasde Torque-

mada Inquisitor -general of Avignon, Valencia, and

Catalonia (Rlos, ill. 256).
15{X) (June 1). Alexander VI., demanding for three years for

the Turkish war one-twentieth (see 1472) of Jewish

property throughout the world (V. R. 1. 28, 126).
1524 (April 7). Clement VII. Issues bull in favor of Maranos

(V. R. 1.59).
IJVJl (Dec. 17). Bull Introducing Inquisition Into Portugal at

Evora, Coimbra, and Lisbon (Gratz, "Gesch." 11. 366).
1540. Paul III., granting Neo-Christlans family property except

that gained by usury, also municipal rights, but must

not marry among themselves or be buried among Jews

(V.R.I. 63).
1540 (May 12). Paul III. Issues "Licet Judaei," against blood

accusation.

1554 (Aug. 31). Julius III., In bull " Pastoris aeternl vices,"

Imposes tax of ten gold ducats on two out of the 115
synagogues In the Papal States (Rodocachi, " II Ghetto
Romano," p. 228 ; V. R. i. 145).

1555 (March 23). Paul IV., claiming ten ducats for each syna-

gogue destroyed under bull of July 12, 1555 (V. R. 1. 155).

1555 (July 12). Paul IV. Issues the " Cum nlmts absurdum " for
Jews of Rome, which renews most of the Church laws,
Including the order to wear the yellow hat and veil, not
to hold any real property (to be sold within six months),
not to trade except in second-hand clothing, not to count
fragment* of month in reckoning interest; to sell
pledges only eighteen months after loan and to repay
surplus, to keep business books in Italian in Latin script,
to live only in specified quarters with only two gates,
not to be called " Signer," to maintain only one syna-
gogue (V.R.I. 152^-153).

1555 (Aug. 8) . Bull of Paul IV.: Jews may dispense with yellow
hat on journeys; dwell outside ghettos when the latter
are crowded ; acquire property outside ghettos to extent
of 1,500 gold ducats ; Jews of Rome are released from
unpaid taxes on payment of 1,500 scuti; Jews may have
shops outside ghetto ; rents in ghettos may not be raised
(V.R.i. 161-162).

1567 (Jan. 19). Bull of PlusV.. "Cum nos nuper," orders Jews
to sell all property in Papal States (V. R. 1. 164).

1569 (Feb. 26). Bull of Pius V., " Hebraornm gens," expels
Jews from the Papal States, except Rome and Ancona, In
punishment for their crimes and "magic" vV. R. i. 168).

1581 (March 30). Bull " Multos adhuc ex Christianis " renews
Church law against Jewish physicians (V. R. i. 174).

1581 (Junel). Gregory XIII. issues the "Antiqua Judseorum
improbitas," giving jurisdiction over Jews of Rome to
Inquisition in cases of blasphemy, protection of heretics,
possession of forbidden works, employment of Christian
servants (V. R. 1. 1T4).

1584 (Sept. 1). Bull "Sancta mater ecclesia" orders 150 Jews
(100 Jews, 50 Jewesses) to attend weekly eonversionist
sermons (Zunz, "S. P." p. 339; Jost, "Gesch. der Is-
raeliten," iii. 210; V. R. 1. 173).

1586 (Oct. 22). Bull of Slxtus V., favorable to Jews (Gratz,

"Gesch." Ix. 482).

1587 (June 4). Slxtus V., granting Maglno di Gabriel of Venice

the monopoly of silk-manufacture in Papal States for
sixty years, and ordering Ave mulberry-trees to be
planted in^very rubbio of land (V. R. i. 181).

1.592 (Feb. 28). Bull of Clement VIII., "Cum saepe accldere."
forbidding Jews to deal In new commodities (V. R. i.
184).

1593 (March 8). Bull of Clement VIII., in favor of Turkish
Jews (Gratz, "Gesch." ix. 486).

1004 (Aug. 23). Bull of Clement VIII., in favor of Portuguese
Maranos (Gratz, "Gesch." ix. .500).

IfllO (Aug. 7). Paul v., " Exponi nobis nuper fecistis," regu-
lates dowries of Roman Jews {V. R. i. 196).

1658 (Nov. 15). Alexander Vll., in bull "Ad ea per quae," orders
Roman Jews to pay rent even for unoccupied houses
in ghetto, because Jews would not hire houses from
which Jews had been evicted (V. R. i. 21.5).

1674 (Oct. 3) . Clement X., suspending operations of Portuguese
Inquisition against Maranos (Gratz, "Gesch." x. 276;
V. R. 1. 223).

1679 (May 27). Innocent XI. suspends grand inquisitor of Por-
tugal on account of his treatment of Maranos (Gratz.
"Gesch." X. 279).
X.— 9

1747

(Feb. 28). Bull " Postremo mense superlorte anni " of
Benedict XIV. confirms decision of Roman Curia of Oct.
22, 1.597, that a Jewish child, once baptized, even against
canonical law, must be brought up under Christian In-
fluences (V. R. 1. 242-245; Jost, "Gesch." xl. 2.56 n.).

POPPiEA SABINA: ^yiistress and, after 62
C.E.,8econd wife of the emperor Nero; died 65. She
had a certain predilection for Judaism, and is diar-
acterized by Jo.sephiis (" Ant." xx. 8, § 11; "Vila,"
§ 3) &s 6eoae0^i ("religious"). Some Jews, such as
tiie actor Amtvros, were well received at court,
and Poppfea was always ready to second Jewish pe-
titions before the emperor. In 64 Josephus went to
Rome to obtain the liberation of some priests related
to him who liad been taken captive to that city for
some minor offense. With the help of Alityros, Jo-
sephus succeeded in gaining the intercession of the
empress, and returned home with his friends, Ijcar-
ing rich gifts with him.

When King Agrippa added a tower to the ancient
palace of the Ilasmoneans, at Jerusalem, that he
might overlook the city and the Temple and watch
the ceremonial in the sanctuary, the priests cut nfT
his view by a high wall. He then appealed to the
procurator Festus, but a Jewish delegation sent to
Rome succeeded through Poppsea's intercession in
having the case decided in favor of the priests. The
last procurator, Gessius Florus (64-66), owed his ap-
pointment to the empress, who was a friend of his
wife Cleopatra.

BiBLTOGRAPHY : GrStz, Gesch. 2d ed.. 111. 331 et seq.; Fried-
lander, DarstellunoenausderSittenge^chichte Rom«, 1.348;
Hertzberg, Gesch. des Rdmischen Kai!<err€ichei<, pp. 237 et
seq.; Schiller, Gesch. des Ef>mii(chen KaUenxichrs Vnter
iVero, p. 528; Vogelstein and Rleger, Gesc/i. der Juden in
Rnm, i. 21, 74, 101 ; Schurer, Gesch. i. 57. 489, 494 et seq.; II.
510.
K. E. N.

POPPER, DAVID: Austrian violoncellist;
born at Prague June 18, 1845; a pupil of Golter-
mann at the Conservatorium in that city. At the age
of eighteen he made a tour through Germany, and
was at once acknowledged to be one of the leading
celli.sts of his time. On his return Popper, on the
recommendation of Hans von Billow, was appointed
a member of Prince von Hechingen's orchestra at
LOwenburg. He made frequent tours through Ger-
many, Holland, Switzerland, and England, everv-
where winning enthusiastic applause; and in Vienna
he received an appointment as solo violoncellist in
the court orchestra. lie later became prominently
known as one of the principal members of the Hell-
mesberger Quartet. In 1872 he married Sophie
Menter, the pianist, from whom he was divorced in
1886.

Since 1873 Popper has traveled considerably, re-
siding in London, Paris. St. Petersburg. Vienna, and
Berlin. He is now (1905) professor at the Landes-
musikakademie in Budapest. Among his composi-
tions for the cello, most of which enjoy great poj)-
ularity, the following may be mentioned as the
most noteworthv: "Romance," op. 5; "Serenade
Orientiile," op. 18; "Nocturne," op. 22; "Gavotte,"
op. 23 (arranged for violin by L. Auer); "Second
Nocturne," op. 32 (arranged for violin byE. Sauroi);
"Tarantelle." op. 33: "Elfentanz." op. 39 (arranged
for violin by C. Halir); "Spaniscbe Tanze," op. 54;

Popper .

Porges von Portheina

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

130

•'Spinnlied," op. 55; "Requiem," op. CC; "Unga-

rische Khapsodie," op. 68.

Bini.if'fiR.^PiiY : MuxikalUches Wochcnblatt, Leipsic, vi. 335:

Uk-iiiaiin. Musili-LcxihoH.

^ J. bo.

POPPER, JOSEF : Austrian engineer and au-
thor ; boru Fi b. •2-2. 183S, at Koiiu, Bohemia. Besides
essays on machinery publislied in the "Sit/ungs-
berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wisseu-
sehaften,'' and in several technical joiirnals. he has
written: "DasKecht zu Leben und die Ptiicht zu
Sterben" (1878); "Die Physikalischen Grundsatze
der Elektrischeu KraftQbertraguug " (1884); "Fiirst
Bismarck und der Autisemitismus" (1886); "Die
Technischen Fortschritte nach Ihrer Aesthetischen
und Kulturelleu Bedeutung " (1889); " Flugtechuik "
(1889); "Phantasieen eines Kealisten " (1899).

Popper was the first to conceive the idea of the
transmission of electrical power; and he explained
it in 1862 in a communication to the Imperial Acad-
emy of Sciences, Vienna, which published the same
in i88'3. S_

POPPER, SIEGFRIED : Austrian naval con-
structor; born at Prague 1848. Educated at the
polytechnic high schools of Prague and Carlsruhe,
he worked for two years in maciiiue-shops and then
entered (1869) the Austrian navy as assistant con-
structor. In 1902 he was appointed director of
naval construction. In 1904 he was made naval
constructor-general with the rank of rear-admiral.

Popper has supervised the building of several
Austrian men-of-war, among them the cruisers
"Panther," "Leopard." "Tiger," the armored cruis-
ers "Maria Theresia," "Kaiser Karl VI.," "St.
Georg," and the armored battleships "Vienna,"
"Monarch," "Budapest," "Habsburg," "Arpad,"
"Babenberg," "Erzherzog Karl," and "Erzherzog
Friedrich." The nine last named were built after

his designs.

p. F. T. II.

POPPER, WILLIAM: American Orientalist;
born at St. Louis, Mo.. Oct. 29, 1874; educated at
the public schools of Brooklyn, N. Y., the College
of the City of New York, Cohimbia College (A. B.
1896), and Columbia University (A.M. 1897; Ph.D.
1899). In 1899 he went abroad and took postgrad-
uate courses at the universities of Berlin, Strasburg,
and Paris. The year 1901-2 he spent in traveling
through Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Hauran, the north
Syrian desert, and Mesopotamia.

Returning in 1902 to New York city, Popper be-
came connected with The Jewish Encyci-opedia
as associate revising editor and chief of the bureau
of translation. In 1903, and again in 1904. he was
appointed Gustav Gottheil lecturer in Semitic lan-
guages at Columbia Universitj'.

Popper is the author of "The Censorship of He-
brew Bocjks" (New York. 1899).

A. F. T. II.

POPPER, WILMA: Hungarian authoress; born
at Kaab. Hungary, May 11, 1857; educated in her
native town. She commenced to write at an early
age. Besides contributing numerous essays to the
German periodicals, siie has published the following
volumes of stories and .sketches: " MUrchen >uid Ge-

schichten," Leipsic, 1891; "Alimodische Leute."
Dresden and Leipsic, 1894; "Miniaturen," li. 1897;
"Neue Milrchen und Geschichten." ib. 1898; "Son-
derlinge," «7>. 1899; "Nieten,"//^ 1900; " Gegeu den
Strom." ib. 1902 ; " Die Fahne Hoch," tb. 1902 ; " Fra-
trt-s Sumus." ib. 1903; "Fiinfe aus Einer lliilse."

Vii-una. 1905.

s. F- T. II.

POPPERS, JACOB BEN BENJAMIN
COHEN: German rabl)i; born at Prague in the
middle of the seventeenth century ; died at Frank-
fort-on-the-Main in 1740. His father, who was a
distinguished Talmudist, instructed him in rabbin-
ical literature, in which he acquired great pro-
liciency. He was successively rabbi at Coblenz,
Treves, Ilalberstadt, and in 1718 he was called to
the rabbinate of Frankfort-on-the-Main.

Poppers was the author of two works: "Shab
Ya'akob," containing responsa divided into two vol-
umes (.Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1742), and "Hiddu-
shim," Talmudical uovoIUb inserted by Shabbethai
ben Moses in his "Minhat Koheu " (Fiirth, 1741).
BiBLior.RAPHV: Azulai. f^hcm ha-Ge<Uilim. i. 92; Carmoly. in

lievue Orientale, il. 247 ; Steinscbneider, Cat. BodL col. 1193.

E. c. L Bk.

POPPERS, MEIR BEN JTJDAH LOB HA-
KOHEN ASHKENAZI : Bohemian rabbi and
cabalist ; born at Prague; died at Jerusalem in Feb.
or March, 1662. He studied the Cabala under Israel
Ashkenazi and Jacob Zemah. and he wrote a great
number of works, all in the spirit of Isaac Luria;
thirty-nine of them have "Or" as the beginning of
their titles, in reference to his name "Meir." His
works which have been published are: "Or Zad-
dikim" (Hamburg, 1690), a mystical methodology,
or exhortation to a.sceticism, based upon Isaac
Lurias writings, the Zohar, and other moral works
(an enlarged edition of this work was published
later under the title "Or ha- Yashar" [Flirth, 1754]);
" Or Pene Melek," a treatise on the mysteries of the
prayers and commandments, condensed and pub-
lished under the title "Sefer Kawwanot Tetillot u-
Mizwot" (Hamburg, 1690); "Me'ore Or." an alpha-
betical arrangement of the cabalistic sacred names
found in Isaac Luria's "Sefer ha-Kawwanot," pub-
lished by Elijah b. Azricl, with the commentsiry
" Ya'irNalib" of Nathan Mannheimer and Jacob b.
Benjamin Wolf, under the title "Me'orot Natan "
(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1709); "Mesillot Hokmah "
(Shklov, 1785), regulations and rules for the study
of the Cabala.

Among his unpublished works the following may
be mentioned: "Or Rab," a commentary on the
Zohar; "Or ha-Abukah," a treatise on the Cabala;
"Or Zarua'," a commentary on Hayyim Vital's
"Derek 'Ez ha-Hay.vii" " : "OrNer,"on the trans-
migration of souis; "Or Zah,"on the order in wiiich
souls are linked together; " Derushim 'al ha-Torah."
homiliesontlie Pentateuch; "Matok ha-Or," a caba-
listic commentary on the haggadah of the Talmud
and Mid rash Rabbah.

BiBLiOfiRAPMY: Azulal, Shrm ha-GcdoUm.i.lHn; TursUBihl.
Jud. iil. li:j-114; Steinsclineider, Cat. liodl. col. 1709.
K. M. Set..

POPULAR -WISSENSCHAFTLICHE MO-
NATSBLATTER. See Pehiodicai.s.

131

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Popper

Porges von Portbeim

PORCUPINE : Rendering adopted by many
coininentaturs fer the Hebrew "kii)i)0(I," for wliieh
the English versions have correctly Bittekn. The
porcupine {Ilystrix cristata) is, however, very com-
mon in Palestine. It is considered by the natives as
a larger species of hedgehog. Thus the Arabic
" kunfod " (hedgehog) is often applied to the porcu-
pine also.

In the Talmud the porcupine is assumed to be
referred to by the terms T\p^^ (Hul. 122a), "kippod "
or "kippor" (Kil. viii. 5), and >^>> (B. B. 4a). In
the last-cited passage it is related that Ileroii put
out the eyes of Baba b. Zuta by binding porcupine
skin around them. The skin of the porcupine was
also wrapped around the udders of the cow to pre-
vent them from being sucked by animals (Shab. 54b).

Buii.ioORAriiv : Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 125; Lewysohn, Z. T.

p. 1(H).
E. G. II. I. M. C.

PORGES (PORJES), AARON B. BENJA-
MIN: Kabbi in Prague in the seventeenth century.
Under the title "Zikron Aharon" he wrote an intro-
duction to the "Kizzur Ma'abar Yabbok," concern-
ing the ancient Jewish customs relating to death
and the dead, and containing also counsel for per-
sons suffering from venereal disease. This work,
published first at Prague in 1682, has been often
reprinted.

Bibliography : Fiirst. I?i7)?. Jud. i. 22 ; Benjacob, Ozar ha-
Sefnrim, p. 157 ; Stems<'hneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 718.
E. r. S. O.

PORGES, MOSES BEN ISRAEL NAPH-
TALI HIRSCH: ]?abbiiiical author; lived at
Jerusalem at the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury. He was the author of " Darke Ziyyon " (Am-
sterdam, 1650), written, in Judfeo-German, after he
had removed to Prague. The work is in four parts
and is illustrated. Part 1 deals with the return to
Palestine; part 2 with praj'er; part SJwitli teaching;
and part 4 with the commemoration of the dead.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1827; Fiirst,
Fiihl. Jud. ii. 398 ; Wolf, BUil. Hehr. iii. 764 ; Benjacob, O^ar
ha-Scfarirn, p. 121, No. 518 ; Lunez, JcrusaUm, ill.. No. 44.

E. c. S. J. L.

PORGES, NATHAN: German rabbi; born at
Prossnitz, Moravia, Dec. 31, 1848. He was edu-
cated in his native town, at the gymnasium at
Olmiitz, and at the University (Ph.D. 1869) and the
Jewish Theological Seminary (rabbi 1869) of Breslau.
He became successively rabbi at Nakel (1875),
Mannheim (1879), Piisen (1880), Carlsbad (1882), and
Leipsic ; he has officiated in the last-mentioned city
since 1888.

Porges has written many articles, essays, and
crititjues for the periodicals, especially for the
"Revue des Etudes Juives," the "Monatsschrift fUr
Gescli. und Wissenschaft des Judenthums," "Zeit-
schrift fur Hebi iiische Bibliographic," and the " Cen-
tral blatt fiir Bibliothekswesen," and is the author of
" Ueber die Verbalstainmbildung in den Semitischen
Sprachen," Vienna, 1875; " Bibelkunde und Babel-
funde," Leipsic, 1903.

s. F. T. H.

PORGES VON PORTHEIM: Prorai
nent Bohemian family of which the following mem-
bers won particular distinction:

Joseph Porges, Edler von Portheim : Aus-
trian iiiaiiufaeturer and art jiatron; l;t)rn at Prague
1817; die<l tiieieSept. -i, 1904; sou of Mo.ses PuuciES
VON PouTHEiM. On completing his studies at the
gymnasium lie entered his father's cottoumills;
there he occupied variou.s positions until 1H7:J,
when the business was converted into a stock com-
pany, of whose board of directors he was president
for several years. His leisure time was devoii d to
literature and music, and he was well known as a
violoncello virtuoso. Porges founded the Prague
Kammermusikvereins, and was al.so interested in the
Deutschcs Theater of that city. His i)hilanlhropy
was extensive, the Josefstiidter Kiuderbewahran-
stalt, founded by his father, being an especial ob-
ject of his benevolence.

Leopold Judah Porges von Portheim : Bo-
hemian manufacturer, alderman, and director of the
Jewish community of Prague; born April 4, 1784;
died at Prague Jan. 10, lHfj9.

Moses Porges, Edler von Portheim : Manu-
facturer and vice-burgomaster of Prague-Smichow ;
knight of the Order of Francis Josei)h ; born Dec.
13, 1781 ; died at Prague May 21, 1870. He was one
of the earliest and most prominent of the large
manufacturers of Austria, and was very closely
associated with his younger brother, Leopold Judah.
Moses and Leopold, the sons of the highly respected
but poor Gabriel Porges of the Spiia family, ex-
perienced adventures in the camp of the sectarian
Joseph Frank at Offenburg which have been de-
scribed by GrUtz in his "Frank und die Fraiikislen "
(Breslau, 1868) and his "Gesch." x. (last note), and
in greater detail by Dr. S. Back in " Monatsschrift"
(1877, pp. 190 et seq.). Disillusioned, they returned
to Prague, and began a small linen business, and in
1808 commenced, with a single cotton-printing press
and in a dark shop on the Moldau, an industrial
activity which was destined later to reach great
dimensions.

In 1830 the rapidly growing business was trans-
ferred to the suburb of Smichow, where it devel-
oped into one of the largest establishments of the
Austrian monarchy, and in 1841 the emperor Ferdi-
nand conferred upon the brothers the patent of hered-
itary nobility with the title "von Portheim," in
recognition of the fact that the}' were the first cotton-
manufacturers to employ steam in their works.
When this patent had been offered Moses in the pre-
vious year, he asked theOberstburggraf G. v.Chotck
for a decree of emancipation of the Jews instead, but
this request was not granted. Mosos later purchased
and operated the porcelain -factory at Cliodau to-
gether with the mines belonging to it, and after the
passage of the laws of 1861 he and his brother en-
tered politics, the latter being elected to the diet,
while the former otticiated for several years as vice-
burgomaster of Prague-Smichow. The most note-
worthy among the numerous benefactions of Mosc-s
Porges is the still existing crC-che. which, witlmut
distinction of creed or nationality, for eight months
of the year, receives and cares for 150 children daily
while their parents are at work
Bibliography: H. I. Landau, Praotr A'r/fro/oor, Pragvie,

1883: Uuhcmia, May 23, 1870; Grfltz, in Monat»»chrift . 1877,

pp. 190 ft scq. ..,

8. •^- '^'-

Forging
Porto

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

132

FORGING (Hebrew, nip^J. lit. "iucision";
Judseo-German, " treibern "): The cutting away of
forbidden fat and veins from kaslier meat. The
Mosaic law craphatically forbids the eating of the
fat and blood of cattle or poultry, the fat and
blood of peace-offerings being appropriated as sac-
rifices to God. The prohibition is "a perpetual
statute " in all generations everywhere (Lev. iii. 17,
vii. 25-27). "What constitutes " heleb " (= " forbid-
den fat ") is deduced from the description of the heleb
appropriated for sacrifice, namely, the "fat that
covcreth the inwards" (intestines) and "the fat on
the kidneys by the flanks and the caul [lobe] above
the liver" {ib. iii. 3, 4). All other fat is regarded
by the strict Mosaic law as "shuman" (= "permit-
ted fat "), though the Rabbis 'have made the pro-
hibition more extensive (see Fat). The Mosaically
forbidden blood-vessels in animals comprise the
main arteries and the nervus ischiadicus (" gid ha-
nasheh " ; Gen. xxxii. 32). The Rabbis, however,
have extended the prohibition to the principal veins
that connect with the arteries and tendons.

To guard against an infringement of the prohibi-
tion of eating blood, the kasher meat is salted to
extract the blood from the surface of the meat. The
salted meat is then placed in a perforated vessel or
on a plank in a slanting position to allow the ex-
tracted blood to drain off for half an hour, after
which the meat is thoroughly cleansed with water ;
but inasmuch as the salt can not extract the blood
from the closed veins, the latter must first be ex-
cised or severed by porging.

The responsibility of the porger (" menakker ") is as
great as that of the slxohet. In former times the pro-
fessional porger was not allowed to be a butcher, as
it was apprehended that self-interest might interfere
with the proper performance of his duty; but to
save the expense of hiring a special porger a butcher
who has a reputation for honesty and ability is now
permitted to perform the porging.

Preparatory to the porging, twelve ribs of the ani-
mal are cut open from the chest downward. The
following order of the various operations in porging
is arranged according to the opinion of the best
authorities:

(1) Cuttinpr the- head of the animal Into two parts and remov-
ing the eyes therefrom; cleaving the skull and removing from
the brain the upper membrane, as well as the lower membrane
adhering to the bone ; extracting the red veins from the brain ;
(2) extracting veins from the back of the ears ; (3) incising the
lower jaws and extracting a vein on each side close to the
tongue ; (4) cutting away the root of the tongue and extracting
a blood-vessel ; (5) extracting two veins, one red and one white,
on each side of the neck opposite the "shehitah" Incision;
(6) cutting around each side of the breast close to the flesh and
extracting two veins, one red and one white, running along
each side ; (7) severing each shoulder with Its fore leg from the
body ; cutting Into the shoulder in the center and extracting a
thick white vein ; cutting the upper part of the fore leg length-
wise and extracting a vein running from the spine to the hoof
(to eradicate this vein requires a deep incision) ; (8) cutting the
leg and extracting one red vein at the lower end and another
vein on the side near the bone (the porger then turns to the
portion from which he extracted the breast^veln) ; (9) removing
the membrane of the kidneys, and the fat un-
Succeesive demeath them (the heads of the forbidden fat-
Operations, veins then become visible ; there are to the
right [as the porger faces the front of the
carcass, which Js suspended with the head up] three veins
that split in two, and to the left two veins that split in three:
when the body Is warm these veins may be extracted easily) ;

(10) separating the membrane from the lobe of the liver;

(11) separating and removing the fat from the loins (there
are on the end of the thigh near the flank two streaks of fat
which are exposed within the animal when it is alive, but
which after death are covered by the shrunken flesh ; this flesh
niust be cut open and the fat removed); (12) drawing the in-
testines from their position and removing the upper entrail : ex-
tracting the veins from the ileum (nij^) and stripping the fat
from the mesentery (N,-lJ^^^("^.■^) ; the fat from the stomach,
belly, reticulum (piDon ,-"■3), and anus (DDcn); also that ad-
hering underneath the diaphragm (la'^^D) and that on the
small intestines (pp"") ; removing the fat of the intestines along
one arm's length (24 inches) from the root (the intestines
through which the food passes do not contain forbidden blood-
veins); (13) separating the membrane and fat from the spleen
and extracting the main vein, together with three fat-veins ; (14)
extracting the veins of the lungs and bursting the bronchi
(.niji£3CD) and removing the appendix (xini); (15) removing
the lobes of the heart because they contain too many blood-vessels
for removal ; cutting the heart crosswise to extract the blood ;
removing the membrane and four veins ; (16) removing the gall
and the fat attached to the liver ; cutting the liver to allow the
blood to run from it; (17) removing the fat from the flanks with
their upper and lower membranes, scraping off the fat under-
neath, and extracting a vein from each; (18) removing the
membrane and extracting the large vein of the testicles, which
must be cut apart before salting; (19) removing the lower en-
trail at the end of the rectum (n.-^c'3->3) ; taking the fat from the
rectum; (20) severing the tail and extracting a vein which divides
Into two and which is connected with the flanks; cutting away the
extra fatty portion of the tail ; (21) disjoining the thigh and re-
moving the sex genitals ; extracting six veins from the hips and
scraping off the fat around them ; cutting open the udder and
squeezing out the milk (the first vein of the thigh is the nervus
ischiadicus, which lies deep near the bone and runs through the
whole thigh ; the second vein is near the flesh); extracting the
sinews In the shape of tubes (rupup), which connect .with the
ner\i ischladici of the two thighs (see Hul. 92b-93b).and scra-
ping off the adjacent fat; (22) making incisions above the
hoofs; extracting the cluster of sinews (pT'jn ncix) from the
lower middle joint of the hind leg.

Some authorities modify this order and omit sev-
eral items; for instance, they leave the fat under-
neath the diaphragm, or, on extracting a red vein,
leave the white vein which is alongside it.

The porger generally uses a special knife for the
fat and a smaller one for the veins. If he uses the
same knife for both he must wipe it, before opera-
ting on the veins, with a cloth which is suspended for
this purpose fiom the lower part of the animal.

The principal operations of the porger are per-
formed in the lower extremities of the animal, and
in consequence of the scarcity of competent porgers
many Jewish communities in Europe have since the
seventeenth century not used the lower part or sir-
loin of the animal, the butcher selling that part
to non-Jewish customers. But in the Orient and in
several cities in Russia, such as Wilna and Kovno,
where non-Jewish consumers of meat are few in
comparison Avith the Jewish population, the sirloin
is porged and sold to Jews.

The porging of small cattle is performed with a
smaller knife or with the hand. Fowl need no ex-
tensive porging, beyond the severing of the head
and the extracting of one vein opposite the shehi-
tah incision, the cutting into the wings and the
legs, also the lungs and heart, and the removal of
two guts, known as " terefah wurst," and the gall.
See Bedikaii ; Blood ; Fat ; Siieiiitah ; Terefah.
Bibliocraphv : Maimonides. Yod. Ma'ahnlol Aitrtrnt. vl.-
vlii.: Tur and Shulhan 'Aruk. Yorch De'nh, «S &5, 60; Le-
bush. 'Atrret Zahdl). order Nihknr, S 6.'), end: I.-iaac ha-
Kohen. ZHirhe. Knheu, pp. .")9-64', Leghorn. 18:32; Wiener,
Jlldigche SpeiseacKetze, 8« 1.3, 4. Rreslau, 189.5: .Jacob Sor-
zena. Fteder hn-Nikkvr. and abridgment of same by Zebi ben
Isaac Jacob, Venic*.' 1.59.5; Joshua Segre, Nikrnt Ittmi- (see
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 403).
E. c. ■ J. D. E.

133

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Porging:
Porto

POBK. See Swine.

PORTALEONE (nns lyK') : Jewish family of
northern Italy, whicli prohnbiy derived its name
from tlie (juarter of Portaleoue, situated in the viein-
ity of the ghetto of Rome. In 1399 Elhanan Por-
taleone was dayyan in Lombardy. Tlie family in-
chuied man}' physicians also among its members,
Guglielmo (Benjamin) Portaleoneactingin this
capacity for Ferdinand I. of Naples, and subse-
quently for Galeazzo Sforza of Milan, after whose
death he settled in his native city Mantua, where
he practised until 1500. He, as well as his sons,
grandsons, and great-grandsons, enjoyed the favor
of the Gonzagas in Mantua, many of them being
physicians to the members of that house. The
following members of the Portaleone family deserve
special notice :

Abraham Portaleone: Physician in Mantua;
died July 29, 1612; great-grandson of Gugliehno
Portaleone (son of David, son of Lazzaro, son of
Guglielmo) ; pupil of Jacob Fano. Dukes Gugli-
elmoand Vincenzo, in whose service he was, granted
him privileges in 1577 and 1587 respectively; and
Pope Gregory XIV. gave him a dispensation which
enabled him to attend Christians. At the request
of Duke Guglielmo he wrote two medical treatises
in Latin, which he dedicated to his patron, under
the titles " Consilia Medica " and " Dialogi Tres de
Auro " respectively ; the latter treatise was published
in 1584.

David Portaleone: Physician in Mantua; died
in 1655; son of Abraham Portaleone. He succeeded
his father in his position as physician to the dukes
of Gonzaga.

Guglielmo (Benjamin) Portaleone : Physi-
cian; son of David Portaleone; took his degree at
Sienna in 1639, and was licensed in Mantua. After
the death of David Portaleone, Duke Charles II. re-
quested Pope Innocent X. to grant Guglielmo the
same privilege as had been bestowed upon his father
and grandfather.

To a different branch of the family belongs Leone
Ebreo, or Leone Sommo (di Sommi, ^OIDD), who
was otherwise known under the name Judah b.
Isaac Portaleone. See Judah Leone ben Isaac
Sommo.

Bibliography : On the family in general : Wolf, in AUa. Zeit.
dcs Jud. 1862, p. 635 ; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bihl. vi. 48 et
seq., XX. 47 ; Mortara, in R. E. J. xii. 112 et seq.; idem, In-
dice, p. 51. On Abraham Portaleone : Wolf, in Hebr. Bibl. 1.
18; Mortara, in R. E. J. lii. 96, xii. 115; Reifmann, Ha-Sha-
har, iii.; Steinschneider, in MnnatsschrifU xlii. 26!}. On
Leone Ebreo : D'Ancona, OriQini del Teatrn in Italia, ii. 401
et seq.; Dejob, in R. E. J. xxiil. 378 et seq.; Neubauer, in
Isr. Letterbode, x. 113 et seq.: Perreau, in Vesmllo Isi-aeli-
tico, 1883, pp. 373 <■( seq.: Peyron, in Atti delta R. Accademia,
xix.; Steinschneider, in Is7\ Letterhnde, xii. 73etseq.: idem,
in Monatssclirift, xlii. 467 et seq.: Vogelstein and Rieger,
Gtsch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 103; Zunz, in Ktrem Ife.med,
V. 154 ; Creizenach, Gesch. des Neueren Dramas, 1901, ii.
290, 489.

D. H. V.

PORTALIS, COMTE JOSEPH MARIE.

See Sanheduin.

PORTLAND. See Oregon.

PORTO (OPORTO) : Capital of the Portuguese
province of Entre-Douro-e-Miuho. After Lisbon it
possessed in former times tiic largest Jewish congre-
gation of the country, and it was the seat of the pro-
vincial rabbi or chief judge. As everywhere else, the

Jews of Porto lived in their "Juderia." By com-
mand of King John I., Victoria and S. .Sliguel
streets, near the present location of the Ik-nedictine
convent, were assigned to them for residence in 1386.
In the latter street was the synagogue, wiiicii Im-
manuel Aboab records that he saw; and the stairs
which lead from Hciinonte to the old Juderia are
still known as the "Escadasde Esnoga"(= ".syna-
gogue steps ").

Although the Porto city council opposed the ad-
mission of Jewish refugees from Spain, apparently
on hygienic grounds(1487). Porto was allotted as tlie
place and S. Miguel as the street of residence to thirty
Spanish Jewish families which, through the aged
liabbi Isaac Aboab, negotiated witii King John II.
for permission to settle in Portugal in 1491. The
house of each of these immigrants was marked with
the letter "P," the initial of the name of the city.

The Porto Jews paid to the city a yearly tax of
200 old maravedis, or 5,400 sueldos, for the square
in which the synagogue stood; and even shortly
before the expulsion they had to pay an annual tax
of 10,000 reis. Many of them left the city after the
edict of expulsion; but some remained behind as
secret Jews. The tribunal of the Inquisition was in-
troduced into Porto in 1543 (see Jew. Encyc. vi. 599,
8.V. Inquisition).

Isaac Aboab died at Porto in 1493; and here were
born Immanuel Aboab, author of "Nomologia";
Uriel or Gabriel da Costa, the physician Diego Jo-
seph, Abraham Ferrar, etc. At present (1905) Jews
are again living in Porto.

Bibliography: Aboab, Nomologia o Discursns Lrgalt». p.
299; Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal, pp. 13, 49,
108 et seq.: J. Mendes dos Remedlos, 0« Judeoa em Portugal,
pp. 261, 360 et seq.
s. M. K.

PORTO. See Rome.

PORTO : Italian family of which the following
members are noteworthy :

Abraham b. Jehiel ha-Eohen Porto : Italian
scholar; flourished about 1600. After living in Cre-
mona and Mantua, he resided in Verona, where in
1594 he edited and printed the "Minhah Belulah "
of his kinsman Abraham Menahem Porto. He him-
self wrote: "Hawwot Ya'ir" (Venice, 1628), an
alphabetical collection of Hebrew words, with their
cabalistic explanations; "Gat Rimmon," a collection
of poems; and commentaries on the Pentateuch
(" Shimmush Abraham ") and on the Psalms ('* Hasde
Dawid "), none of which has been published.

Bibltooraphy: Furst, Tiibl. Jud. ill. 115 ct seq.: Nepl-Ghi-
rondi, Toledot Gcdolc Yiitrael. p. 35.

Abraham Menahem Porto. See Rapa (Por-
to), Menahem Ahuaiiam hen Jacob iia-Kohen.

JEmanuel Porto or Menahem Zion Porto
Cohen: Italian rabbi; born at Triest toward the
end of the sixteenth century ; died at Padua about
1660. He was an excellent mathematician and as-
tronomer, and his works were highly praiseti by
Andrea Argoli and extolled in Italian sonnets by
Tomaso Ercaloni and Benedetto Luzzatto. In 1641
Gaspard Scttppius, editor of the " Mercurius Quadra-
linguis," recommended Porto, in terras which were
very complimentary to the rabbi, to Johannes Bux-
torf, with whom Porto later carried on an active cor-
respondence.

Porto
Portsmouth

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

134

Porto was the author of the following works: (1)

"Breve Istituzione della Geographia," Padua, 1640.

(2) " Diplomologia, Qua Duo Scriptunv Miracula dc

Regrcssu Solis Tempore Hiski* et Ejus Imuiobili-

tate Tempore Josuoe Declarantur," tb. 1643. This

work, dedicated to the emjienir Ferdinand III. and

written originally in Italian, was translated by the

author himself into Hebrew, and by Lorenzo Dal-

naki of Transylvania into Latin. (3) " Porto Astrono-

mico" {ib. 1636), divided into four parts, dedicated

to Count Benvenuto Petazzo, Padua. (4) ""Obar

Ic-Soher" (Venice, 1627), a treatise on arithmetic in

twelve chapters, published by Porto's disciple Ger-

shon Hefez.

Bibliography: De Rossi, Dizwnario, ii. 93 : Turst.Bihl.Jud.
ill. 116; St<»inscbneidt*r. Cat. BdcH. sol. 72:j; Nepi-ciliiroiidi.
TnUdnt Gcihih: yi.<frflf !, p. 2.J8 ; 0?ar ^'i/imad. iii. 13:.'; Kay-
serlinp, lu R. E. J. xiii. 268 et seq.

G. L Br.

Moses b. Abraham Porto: Rabbi in Venice;
died in lC-^4.

Moses b. Jehiel Porto : Rabbi in Rovigo about
1600; born in Venice; brother of the Veronese
printer Abraham Porto. He was the protagonist in
the controversy regarding the mikweh in Rovigo,
in which no less than sevent\- rabbis participated.
On this subject he wrote a Avork entitled "Paige
!Mayiin," in which he first states the case and then
quotes twenty-eight opinions in favor of his deci-
sion. This portion is followed by another entitled
" Mish'an Mayim," which is a criticism of the rejoin-
der of the opposition, the "^lashbit Milhamot," and
by an examination of the respousa contained in it.
Porto's work was published in Venice in 1608, and
is very rare.

Bibliography: Furst, DibJ. Jud. iii. 110; Mortara, Inrfioc,
p. 51.

Zechariah ben Ephraim Porto : Italian scholar
of the seventeenth century, noted for his learning
and still more for his virtues. He was a native of
L'rbino, and lived at Florence and Rome, where he
officiated as rabbi, although he modestly refused to
assume that title. He wrote a work entitled "Asaf
ha-Mazkir, " containing a list of all the explanations
and comments found in the " 'En Ya'akob " and
treating of the haggadic passages of the Talmud.
He himself would not publish this bonk; it was
printed after his death by the Roman community
(Venice, 1688; according to Zedner, 167o). In his
will Porto made many communal bequests for Tal-
mud Torahs and for dowries.

BliiLlOGRAPHY : Nepl-Ghirondi, Tolednt Gedolc Yiitracl,p. 99;
Furst, liihl.Jud. iii. 117; Zedner. Cat. Hehr. BnoUx Brit.
Mm. p. Tf^y.
n. I. E.

PORTO-RICHE, GEORGE DE : French poet
and dramatist; born of Italian ))aieiits at Bordeaux
in 1849. lie entered a banking-house at an early
age, but was discharged on account of his poetic
tendencies. He then studied law, but soon turned
to his true vocation.

Porto-Hiche has published the following volumes
of poetry: "Prima Verba." 1872: "Tout N'est pas
Rose." 1877; " Vaiiina," 1879; and "Bonhcur ?.Ian-
que," 1889, a little book of melancholy verses in
which the author relates the memories of his lonely
childhood. His dramatic works are as follows:

"Le Vertige," 1873, a play in one act, represented
at the Qd^on, and marking the commencement of
his dramatic success; and " Un Drame sous Philippe
II.," 1875.

Estranged from his relatives and without money,
Porto-Riche now saw several of his works rejected.
Tiie Conu'die Franraise refused " Les Deux Fautcs"
(which, however, was later presented at the Odeon in
1878), " Le Calice," " Le Comte Marcelli," and " L'ln-
fidele," 1891 ; but in 1888 " La Chance de Francoise,"
a one-act piece in prose, jneseuted at tiie Theatre
Libre, marked an epoch in the contemporary his-
tory of the theater, and through it he now ranks
as the leader of a school. He has written also
"Amoureuse," 1891; "Le Passe," 1897, a remark-
able comedy which was revived at the Cnmedie
Frangai.se in 1902; and "Theatre d'Amour," 1898.
Porto-Riche has likewise been the dramatic critic
of the "Estafette," succeeding Armand Silvestre,
and of " La France " and '• La Presse."

Bibliography: Nom-eau Larousse lUu.Mn'-; Lanson, His-
toire dc Ja Litti'rature Frauraixc, I'aris, 19fti; Galtier, Id
Le Temps, May IS, 19()t.
s. J. K\.

PORTSEA. See Portsmoitii.

PORTSMOUTH : English fortified seaport on
the coast of Hampshire. The Portsmouth (Port-
sea) congregation is one of the oldest in the English
provinces, having been founded in 1747 with a rab-
binate of its own. During the Napoleonic wars the
commercial activity of Portsmouth as a garrison and
naval town attracted a large number of Jews; and
at that time there were two synagogues. After the
peace of 1815, the Jewish inhabitants having dimin-
ished in numbers, the newly built edifice ceased to
be used, and was finally transferred to a dry-goods
dealer. The present synagogue is the earlier building,
which was constructed in the styleof the Great Syna-
gogue, in Duke's place, London. At one time the
entrance to the place of worship was gained through
the slums of the town. More than fifty years ago
this entrance fell into disuse, and a handsome new
approach on the opposite side of the synagogue, in
Queen street, was constructed. Following a medi-
eval Jewish custom, tiie Portsmouth synagogue
had at one time its hall and cooking-utensils for the
celebration of Jewish weddings.

The social position of the Portsmouth Jews at the
commencement of the nineteenth century ma}^ be
inferred from tlie unfavorable estimate given in
Marryat's novels; and there was formerly an in-
scription on one of the local jilaces of amusement
which read: "Jews and dogs not admitted."

The Portsmouth congregation was one of the first
in connection with which religious classes were held
for the instruction of the young. The Hebrew
Benevolent In.stitution is one of the oldest Jewish
charities, having been founded 100 years ago.
Portsmouth has other Hebrew charities, but its most
important institution is an educational one. In
1855 the late Lewis Aria, a native of Hampshire,
bequeathed a large portion of his property to be ap-
plied, in the case of certiiin eventualities, to the
establishment of a college for the support and edu-
cation of young men desirous of being trained as
Jewish ministers. The college was to be established

INTKRIOR OF SYNAGOGUE AT PORTSMOrTH. ENGLAND.
(From a paintiog la the poawssion of Dr. H. Pereir* Mendet, New York.)

Portugal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

136

at Portsea, and its advantages were to be restricted
to natives of Hampshire. Nearly twenty years
elapsed before this bequest became available. In
1874 the Aria College was established at Portsea
in accordance with the testator's wishes; but the
clause restricting its benefits to natives of Hampshire
not being found practicable, the institution was
thrown open to students for the Jewish ministry
irrespective of birthplace. Several occupants of
ministerial posts in England and America have
graduated at this institution. The college has had
two principals, the late A. F. Orustcin and 1. S. Mei-
sels. Isaac Phillips has ministered to the Ports-
mouth community for upward of thirty years.

At one time Portsmouth possessed a large convict
prison which contained a number of Jewish prison-
ers: and Alderman A. L. Emanuel acted as honorary
Jewish prison-visitor. Alderman Emanuel has been
twice elected mayor of Portsmouth. The Jewish
inhabitants of the town are estimated at 500, in a
total population of 189,160.

Bibliography: Jew. TTorid. Dec. 2, 1887; Jei/;. CTron.Marcb
22. 29, 1872; JewUh Year Book, 1903.
J. I. H.

PORTUGAL (ancient Lusitania) : Kingdom in
the southwest of Europe. The condition of its Jews,
whose residence in the country is contemporaneous
with that of the Jews in Spain, while in general
like that of their coreligionists in the neighboring
kingdom of Castile, was in some respects different.
The influence of the canonical law was felt much
later here than in Spain and not so violently. Until
the expulsion there were no active hostilities against
the Jews in Portugal. Affonso Henriques (1139-85),
the conqueror and first king of Portugal, found
Jews already settled in Santarem, Lisbon, and Beja;
and, according to Herculano, he is said to have found
villages and localities which were wholly or to a
great extent inhabited by Jews. He pursued the
tolerant policy of his grandfather Alfonso VI. of
Castile, and issued letters of protection to the Jews,
as also to the Moors of Faro. He, moreover, em-
ployed Jews in his service, as, for instance, Dom
Yahya ibn Ya'ish (ancestor of the widely branching
Yahya family), who was his receiver of customs
("almoxarife "), and to whom he gave two estates
(Aldeas dos Negros) which had belonged to the
Moors {c. 1150). Affonso Henriques' son Sancho I.
(1185-1211) also was tolerant ; likewise Sancho's son
Affonso II. (121 1-23), who employed Jews as farmers
of the taxes and as tax-collectors, although under him
the hostile attitude of the Church began to be felt.
Affonso confirmed the resolutions passed by the Cor-
tes at Coimbra in 1211, to the effect that a Jew who

had been baptized might not return to

In the Judaism, and that no Jew might pre-

Tliirteenth vent his children from embracing

Century. Christianity or disinherit them for so

doing. On the other hand, he opposed
the promulgation of the canons of the Lateran Coun-
cil (1215) with regard to the Jews. Affonso II. died
under a ban, and his son Sancho II. (1223-46) con-
tinued the struggle with the Church. In spite of
tiie canonical prohibition, he appointed Jews as tax-
farmers. Probably it was he who appointed I). Jo-
seph ibn Yahya as almoxarife; he also permitted

him to build a magnificent synagogue in Lisbon
(Carmoly, "Biographie der Jachiaden," p. 2, where
-)K*y [5010 = 1250] should probablj' be read instead
of DnL"y [5020]).

In consequence of this favor shown to the Jews,
Pope Gregory IX. sent an order to the bishops of
Astorga and Lugo to protest against these infringe-
ments of ecclesiastical ordinances. The papal threats
had little effect upon Affonso III. (1246-79), son of
Sancho II., who had been deposed by the pope.
The clergy complained to the latter in 1258 that the
king gave to the Jews public offices in which they
assumed authority over Christians, and that he did
not compel them to wear the Jews' badge or to pay
the tithe to the Church. This petition seems not to
have had the desired effect on Affonso III. He
commanded that Moorish slaves when bought by
Jews should not obtain freedom, and that Christians
should not evade payment of their debts by selling
goods which they had mortgaged to the Jews
(J. Mendes dos Remedios, " Os Judeus em Portugal,"
p. 427). Further, Alfonso III. organized the inter-
nal affairs of the Jews of his kingdom, to whom
Affonso I. had already granted autonomy in civil as
well as in criminal cases. Above all he issued a
decree regulating the rights and duties of the rabbis,
which was revised in 1402 under John I. The
" rabbi mor " (chief rabbi) stood at the head of the

Portuguese Jews, and, like the "rab

The Rabbi de la corte " (court rabbi) in Castile,

Mdr. was an officer of the crown and the

most prominent person in the entire
Jewry. He had his own seal, which bore the Por-
tuguese coat of arms and the legend " Sello do
Arrabbi Mor de Portugal. " All his official documents
began with the following words: "N. N. , Arrabbi
Mor, por meu Senhor El-Rey, das Communas dos Ju-
deus de Portugal e do Algarve" {i.e., "N. N., chief
rabbi, through my lord the king, of the communi-
ties of the Jews in Portugal and Algarves "). On the
rabbi mor devolved the duty of visiting all the com-
munities of Portugal every year. He supervised
the administration of legacies and funds for orphans,
examined all accounts rendered to him by the direct-
ors and treasurers concerning the income and ex-
penditure of the communities, and, through his " por-
teiro " (messenger), compelled tardy tax payers to paj'.
He had authority to compel the communities to ap-
point local rabbis and teachers and to enforce the
latter to accept the positions to which they had been
elected. The local rabbi might not issue writs of
protection except in cases where the royal provin-
cial authorities were permitted to grant them. He
might not, moreover, institute a general contribution,
nor could he alienate real estate of the community
without its assent. The rabbi mor was accompanied
on his official tours by an "ouvidor" (chief justice),
who was anexpcrt in Jewish law ; by a "chanceller"
(chancellor), under whose supervision was the office

of the seal ; by an "escrivjio" (.secre-

His tary), who received and drew up the

Duties and protocols; and by a "porteiro" (mes-

StaflF. sengei), who was under oath and took

charge of the occasional seizures, exe-
cuted sentences of punishments, etc. The rabbi mor
chose the chief justices for the seven provinces of

137

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Portugal

the country, who were stationed at the respective
capitals— at Oporto (Porto) for the province Entre-
Douro-e Minho; at Moncorvo for Tras-os-Montes; at
Coviihjl for Beira-Alta; at Viseu for Beira-Baixa;
at Santarem for Estremadura; at Evora for Alem-
tejo; and at Faro for Algarve. Eacii provincial
judge carried an official seal bearing the Portuguese
coat of arms and the legend "Sello do Ouvidor das
Communas de . . . ," and liad a chancellor and
secretary who might be either a Jew or a Christian.
The judge decided cases which were brought before
him on appeal or on complaint of the local rabbi.
Each place in w-hich a certain number of Jews re-
sided had a local rabbi, who was chosen by the com-
munity and confirmed in office, in the name of the
king, by the rabbi mor, to whom he was subordinate.
The local rabbi had civil and capital jurisdiction
over the Jews of his district, and to him was respon-
sible the butcher ("degoUador") appointed for the
community. The butcher had to make a consci-
entious report to the tax-collector of the number
of cattle and fowl killed by him.

The internal affairs of the Jewish communities
were regulated by directors (" procuradores "), who
were assisted on special occasions by confidential

men (" homgs boOs das communas " or
Reg'ulation "tobe ha-'ir"). In each community
of Jewish was a notary to draw up written con-
Internal tracts. After the edict of John I. all
Affairs. documents had to be written in the

language of the country, and not in
Hebrew. The oaths of Jews in lawsuits among them-
selves or against Christians were very simple as com-
pared "with those of Jews in Castile, Aragon, and
Navarre. The Jew swore in the synagogue with a
Torah in his arm and in the presence of a rabbi and
of a royal officer of the law. On Sabbath and feast-
days Jews might not be summoned to court, nor
could any legal proceedings be taken against them.
It was strictly forbidden to cite a Jew before a
Christian judge. Whoever acted contrary to this
law was liable to a fine of 1,000 gold doubloons, and
the rabbi mor was required to keep him in custody
until the sum should be paid.

In Portugal, as in Spain, the Jews lived in sepa-
rate " Juderias," or Jew lanes. The capital possessed
the largest community, and Jews resided also in
Alcazar, Alcoitim, Aliezur, Alter-do-Chilo, Alvito,
Alvor, Barcellos, Beja, Braganga, Cacilla, Castro-
Marim, Chaves, Coimbra, Couto, Covilhfi, Elvas,
Estremos, Alanquer, Evora, Faro, Gravao, Guarda,
Guimaraes, Lamego, Leiria, Louie (which had its
own Jew valle)', Val de Judeo), Mejaufrio, Miranda,
Moncorvo, Montemor, Oporto, Periaina^or, Porches,
Santarem (where the oldest synagogue was located),
Silves, Tavira, Trancoso, Villa- Marim, Villa-Viciosa,
and Viseu. The Jews of Portugal had to pay the
following taxes: the "Juderega" or " Judenga," a

poll-tax of 30 dinheiros, fixed here, as
Taxation, in Castile, in remembrance of the thirty

pieces of silver paid to Judas Iscariot ;
a personal tax of 5 maravedis for every boy from
seven to fourteen years of age, and 2^ maravedis for
each girl from seven to twelve, 1 maravedi for every
unmarried male over fourteen living in the home
of his parents, and i maravedi for every unmarried

female over twelve. Married people paid ^0 solidi.
The rabbinate tax, known as " Arubiado," fell to the
crown. P^om the reign of King Sancho II., who
was interested in the development of the navy, the
Jews were obliged to pay a navy tax. Fur each
ship fitted out by the king they had to provide an
anchor and a new anchor-tow sixty ells long, or in-
stead to make a money payment of 00 livres. A
poll-tax of 1 maravedi was levied on them in sev-
eral places, also a customs and a road tax. from
which Christians were exemjtt. The Jews paid
King Affonso IV. (1325-57) 50.000 livres annually in
direct taxes. All that a Jew bougiit or sold was
subject to a special tax— each head of cattle or
fowl which he killed, every fi.sh and every measure
of wine that he bought. The special taxes, as in
other states, were basetl on the principles then gener-
ally recognized with regard to the position of tlie
Jews, but restrictions were first enacted upon recog-
nition of the canonical law and its incorporation into
the law of the land.

Under Diniz (1279-1325), the son and successor of
Affonso III., the Jews remained in the favorable situ-
ation they had enjoyed up to that
Favorable time. This was due in no small meas-
Attitude of ure to the influence which D. Judah,
Diniz. chief rabbi at that time, and D. Geda-
liah, his son and successor, who were
also the king's treasurers, had with the king. Geda-
liah's representations as to the partiality of the
judges was not without effect. The favor and pro-
tection, hovvever, granted the Jews by the king in-
creased the hatred of the clergy against them. They
complained that Diniz permitted the presence of
Jews at his court and entrusted them with official
positions, that he did not compel them to wear
badges, and that he allowed them the free exercise
of their religion. "The Jews are becoming proud
and conceited," they rep.orted to Rome ; " they adorn
their horses with tassels, and indulge in a luxury
that has an injurious effect on the inhabitants of the
country." But not until the reign of Affonso IV.
(1325-57), who wasunfavorabl}' disposed to the Jews,
did the clergy accomplish anything with their com-
plaints. Immediately after his accession the law
was enforced by which Jews were prohibited from
appearing in public without a badge — the six-
pointed yellow star in the hat or on the upper gar-
ment— and were forbidden to wear gold chains. He
limited their freedom of emigration, declaring that
no one who owned property of the value of 500 livres
might leave the country without royal permission,
under penalty of forfeiting his property, which, to-
gether with that of those who went with him, would
fall to the king. They had also to suffer from the
growing hatred of the populace, incited by the
clergy, who made the Jews responsible for the
plague which raged in the year 1350. King Pedro
I. (1357-67), however, who was a model of justice,
protected them against the violence of the clergy anil
nobles (see Peduo I.), and under his benevolent rule
their prosperity increased. His body-physician was
Rabbi Mor D. Moses Navarro, who together with
his wife established a large entail near Lisbon.

Under Ferdinand L (1367-83). who wasaspendthrift
and who employed his Jewish treasurer D. Judah

Portugral

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

138

iu his tinancial operations, and still more under the
regency of his wife, the frivolous and highly unpop-
ular Leonora, the Jews were prominent
Under in Portugal. After the death of the
Ferdinand king, Leonora deposed D. Judah and
I. the Jewish collector of customs at Lis-

bon on the representations of the city
deputies ; but when she wislied to have her daughter
Beatrix and the hitter's husband, John I. of Castile,
recognized as regents of the country, and the people
rebelled, killed Leonora's favorites, and proclaimed
John vice-regent of the kingdom (1385), Leonora fled,
accompanied by her confidants, the above-mentioned
D. Judah and the wealthy D. David Negro- Yahya.
Disputes between her and John I. of Castile, wlio
waged war against Portugal, ended in an open breach
on the occasion of the nomination to the head rab-
binate of Castile. Leonora demanded the place for
her favorite D. Judah. but the king, at the desire of
bis wife, appointed D. David Negro- Yahya. Em-
bittered by this, Leonora plotted against the life of
her son-in-law ; but her plan was frustrated by D.
David Negro, and Leonora was banished to a convent
in Tordesillas; the life of D. Judah was spared on
the plea of D. David Negro. The possessions of D.
Judah, D. David, and other Jews who had sided
with the banished queen and had fled from Portu-
gal, were confiscated and given to the bravest knights
by D. John, who became king after the withdrawal
of the King of Castile (1411).

John I., in spite of the fact that he favored con-
version and granted special privileges to the con-
verted, was a friend and protector of the Jews.
Through the efforts of Rabbi Mor D.

John I. Moses Navarro, they were shielded
a Friend to from the severe persecutions which
the Jews, their coreligionists in Spain expe-
rienced in 1391, and also from the zeal
and .sermons of conversion of Vicente Ferrer. John
protected the Jews who had fled from the persecu-
tions in Spain. On the other hand, he enforced the
laws compelling the Jews to wear the badge and
prohibiting them from entering Christian taverns or
holding official jiositions; but these were often dis-
regarded. Only a short time before his death (1433)
he was accused of having Jewish physicians at the
court and of permitting Jewish tax-collectors to ex-
ercise executive authority. Ilis son Duarte (1433-
1438) tried completeh' to separate the Jews from the
Ciiristian population, in spite of the influence ex-
erted over him by his body-physician and astrologer
Mestre Guedelha(Gedaliah) ibn Solomon ibn Yahya-
Negro. When the latter, as is said, advised the
king to postpone the ceremonies of coronation and
the king refused to do so, lie announced to him that
liis reign would be short and unfortunate. Duarte
was indeed unfortunate in his undertakings. His
brother I). Fernando, whol)orrowed large sums from
D. Judah Abravanel and sent the king a Jewish
surgeon, Mestre Joseph, from Fez, in 1437, died in
a Moorish prison; and Duarte himself, while still in
the full vigor of manhood, was carried off by the
plague after a short reign. Under Duarte's son, the
mild and gentle Affonso V. (1438-81), " who exercised
justice and kindness toward his people," the Jews
again enjoyed freedom and prosperity. It was

their last tranquil period upon the Pyrenean penin-
sula. They resided outside the J uderias; they were
distinguished from the Christians by no external
tokens; and they held public offices. Affonso V.
ajjpointed D. Isaac Abravanel to be his treasurer
and minister of finance, and several members of the
Yahya famil}' were received at court. Joseph iJcu
David ibn Yahya stood in especial favor with the
king, who called him his "wise Jew." and who, be-
ing himself fond of learning, liked to discuss scien-
tific and religious questions with him (Ibn Verga,
"Shebet Yehudah," pp. 61 et seq.. 108 et seg.).

The favors shown to the Jews and the luxury
displayed by them, which even the king with all
his gentleness reproved, increased the hatred of the
people more and more. In 1449 for the first time
in Portugal this feeling broke out in
Revolt of a revolt against the Jews of Lisbon;
1449. the Juderia was stormed, and several
Jews were killed. The king inter-
vened, and imposed strict penalties on the ring-
leaders, but the complaints against the Jews contin-
ued. At the assemblies of the Cortes in Santarem
(1451), Lisbon (1455), Coimbra (1473), and Evora
(1481) restrictions were demanded. "When D. Af-
fonso died," says Isaac Abravanel, "all Israel was
filled with grief and mourning; the people fasted
and wept."

Affonso was succeeded by his son John II. (1481-
1495), a morose, distrustful person, who did away
with the powerful lords and the house of Biagan^a
in order to create an absolute kingdom, and seized
their pos.sessions for the crown. He showed favor
to the Jews, and as often as it was for his advantage
employed them in his service. His body-physicians
were D. Leao and D. Joseph Vecinho, the latter of
whom, together with D. Moses, the king's mathema-
tician, had also made himself useful in the art of
navigating; his surgeon was a D. Antonio, whom he
induced to accept Christianity, and who then wrote
a slanderous book against his former coreligionists.
The king employed the Jews Joseph Capateiro of
Lamego and Abraham of Beja to tran.sact business
for him. He was also friendly toward those Jews
who, exiled from Spain, had sought
Under refuge in Portugal; he promised to
John II. receive them for eight months in re-
turn for a poll-tax of 8 crusados to
be paid in four instalments, and to provide enough
ships for them to continue their journey. His only
purpose in granting them protection was to replenish
the state treasury. He appointed Oporto and other
cities for their temporary residence, although the in-
habitants protested. The number of immigrants
amounted to nearly 100,000. From Castile alone
more than 3,000 persons embarked at Benevento for
Bragan^a ; at Zamora, more than 30,000 for Miranda ;
from Ciudad-Rodrigo for Villar, more than 35,000;
from Alcantara for Marvao, more than 15,000; and
from Badajoz for Elvas, more than 10,000 — in all
more than 93,000 persons (Bernaldez, in A. de Castro,
"Historiade los Judios en Espana," p. 143). John
II. did not keep his promise. Not until aftera long
delay did he provide ships for them. The suffering
which tiie emigrants were obliged to endure was
terrible. Women and girls were outraged by the

139

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Portug^al

sliip captains and sailors in the presence of tlieir
liiisljands and parents, and were then tlirown into
tlie water. The Portuguese chroniclers agree with
Jewish historians in the description of these fiendish
acts. Tho.se who tarried in the country after the
prescribed period were made siavesand given away.
John went even further in his cruelty. He tore tlie
little children away from the parents who remained
behind, and sent tliein to the newly discovered island
of St. Thomas; most of them died on the ships or were
<levoured on their arrival by wild beasts; those who
remained alive jiopulated the island. Often brotliers
married their own sisters (Usque, "Consola(;am,"
etc., p. 197a; Abraham b. Solomon, " Sefer ha-Kab-
balah," in Neubauer, "M. J. C." i. 112). John 11. is
called "the Wicked " by Jewish historians and once
also "the Pious."

After John's death his cousin and brotlier-in-law
D. Manuel, called "the Great," ascended the tlirone
of Portugal (1495-1521). At first lie was favorably
inclined toward the Jews, perhaps through the
influence of Abraham Zacuto, his much-esteemed
astronomer; he restored to them the freedom which
John had taken from them and generously declined
a present of money which the Jews offered him in
token of their gratitude. Political interests, how-
ever, brought about only too soon a change in his atti-
tude. Manuel thought to unite the whole peninsula
under his scepter by marrying a Spanish princess,
Isabella, tlie young widow of the Infante of Portu-
gal and daughter of Ferdinand of Aragonand Isabel-
la of Castile. The latter couple, who had driven the
Jews out of their own land (1492), made their con-
sent dependent on the condition that
Under Manuel should expel all the Jews from
Manuel the his country. He brought the matter
Great. before his state council, some mem-
bers of which warned him against the
expulsion of such a useful and diligent people,
who would settle in Africa, where they would add
strength to the Mohammedans and become danger-
ous to Portugal. On the other hand, the party hos-
tile to the Jews referred to Spain and other states
in which Jews were not tolerated. The king's
course was decided by Isabella herself, who wrote to
him to the effect that she would not enter Portugal
until the land was cleaned of Jews (G. Heine, in
Schmidt's "Zeitschrift flir Geschichte," ix. 147).
On Nov. 30, 1496, the marriage contract between
Manuel and Isabella was signed, and on Dec. 4 of
the same year the king issued an order at Muja
(Muga), near Sautarem, directing that all Jews and
Jewesses, irrespective of age, should leave Portugal
before the end of Oct., 1497, under penalty of death
and confiscation of their property ; that any Christian
found concealing a Jew after the expiration of the
prescribed period should be deprived of all his prop-
erty; and that no future ruler on any pretext what-
ever should permit Jews to reside in the kingdom.
The king granted the Jews free departure with
all their propert}^ and promised to assist them
as far as possible (the decree of banishment, which,
according to Zacuto, "Yuhasin," p. 227 [wbere
*l3D"Tn^T"3 should be read instead of V'3], was
issued Dec. 4, is found in the "Ordena(;oos d' el
Key D. Manuel" [Evora, 1556]. ii. 41, and in Rios,

"Hist." iii. 014 et serj.; see also "R. E. J." iii. 285
et xeq.).

In order to retain the Jews in the country as con-
verts Manuel issued the inhuman decree that on u
certain day all Jewish children, irrespective of sex,
who should liave reached their fourth year and
should not have passed their twentieth should be
torn from their parents and brought up in the
Christian lailh at the expense of the king. He did
tiiis "for reasons which compelled him to it," ac-
cording to the assertion of Abraham b. Solomon of
Torrutiel, on the advice of the converted Levi ben
Shem-Tob ("Sefer ha-Kabbalah," ed. Neubaner, I.e.
i. 114) and in opposition to the will of Ids stale
council assembled at Estremoz, which, witii Hie
noble bishop D. Fernando Coiitinho at its head, em-
phatically declared against this enfc^rced baptism.
The Jews in Evora, as in the country generally, re-
ceived the news of the intended deed on Fri<lay,
Marcli.l7, 1497; and in order that parents miglit not
have time to get the children out of tlie way, the
king had the crime committed on Sun-
Forcible day, the first day of the Passover.
Baptism of March 19 (not early in April, as is
Children, usually stated ; see Zacuto, I.e. p. 227).
According to Usque (I.e. p. 198), Jews
up to the age of twenty-five years (" vintecinco
annos"; not fifteen, asGratz, "Gesch." viii. 392, de-
clares) were taken; according to Herculano (I.e. i.
125), the age limit was twenty years (.see al.so Goes,
"Chron." xx. 19). Pathetic scenes occurred on this
occasion. Out of sympathy and compassion many
Christians concealed Jewish children that they might
not be separated from their parents. Many parents
smothered their children in the last farewell em-
brace or threw them into wells and rivers and then
killed themselves. "I have seen with my own
eyes," writes the noble Coutinho, "how a father,
his head covered, with pain and grief accompanied
his son to the baptismal font and called on the All-
knowing as witness that they, father and son,
wished to die together as confessors of the Mosaic
faith. I have seen many more terrible things that
were done to them." Isaac ibu Zacliin, the son of
an Abraham ibn Zachin, killed himself and his chil-
dren because he wished to see them
Compul- die as Jews. As the last date for
3ory Con- the departure of the Jews drew near
version the king announced after long hesita-
of 20,000 tion that they must all go to Lisbon
Jews. and embark there. About 20, (KX) per-
sons flocked together to the capital
and were driven like sheep into a palace with a sev-
enteen-window front, destined for the temporary re-
ception of foreign ambassadors. On its site to-day
stands the Donna Maria Theater. Here they were
told that the time allotted for their departure had
elapsed, that they were now the king's slaves, and
that he would deal with them according to his will.
Instead of food and drink they received the visits of
the converted Mestre Nicolao (body-physician to
the young queen) and Pedro de Castro, who was a
churchman and brother of Nicolao. All sorts of
promises were made in the attempt to induce the Jews
to accept Christianity. When all attempts to shake
their faith had failed the king ordered his bailiffs to

Portug-al
Posen

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

140

•Qse force. The strongest and handsomest Jewish
young men were dragged into church by the hair
and beard to be baptized.

Only seven or eiglit heroic characters, " somente
sete ou vito cafres contumasses," as Herculano re-
ports from a manuscript, offered an obstinate oppo-
sition; and these the king caused to be transported
across the sea. Among them were probably the
physician Abraham Saba, whose two sons were
forcibly baptized and thrown into prison; Abraham
Zacuto, the mathematician and astrologer of D.
Manuel; and the scholar Isaac b. Joseph Caro, who
had fled to Portugal from Toledo and had here lost
all his sons.

Even the Portuguese dignitaries, and especially
Bishop Osorius, were deeply moved by this cruel
compulsory conversion; and perhaps it was due to
the latter that Pope Ale.vander VI. took the Jews
under his protection. Manuel, perhaps advised by
the pope to do so, adopted a milder polic\'. On
May 30, 1497, he issued a law for the
Protection protectionof the con verted Jews, called
for "Christfios novos" (Neo-Christians),

Maranos. according to which they were to re-
main undisturbed for twenty years,
the authorities to have during that time no right to
impeach them for heresy. At the expiration of this
period, if a complaint should arise as to adherence
to the old faith only a civil suit was to be brought
against them, and in case of conviction the prop-
erty of the condemned was to pass to his Christian
heirs and not into the fiscal treasury. The posses-
sion and use of Hebrew books were forbidden except
to converted Jewish physicians and surgeons, who
were allowed to use Hebrew medical works. Fi-
nally, a general amnesty was promised to all Neo-
Christians (documents in Kayserling, "Geschichte
der Juden in Portugal," pp. 347 et seq.).

Those Jews who were living as pretended Chris-
tians took the first opportunity to leave the country.
Whoever could sold his property and emigrated.
Large numbers of secret Jews set sail for Italy,
Africa, and Turkey. Thereupon, on April 20 and
21, 1499, Manuel prohibited the transaction of busi-
ness with Neo-Christians and forbade the latter to
leave Portugal without the royal permission. They
were thus obliged to remain in a country in which
a fanatical clergy was constantly inciting against
them a populace that already hated and despised
them. In April, 1506, a savage massacre occurred
in Lisbon. On April 19 and the following days
over 2,000 (according to some over 4,000) secret
Jews were killed in a most terrible fashion and
burtu;d on pyres. Manuel inflicted a severe pen-
alty on the Dominican friars who were the leaders
in the riot; they were garroted and then burned,
while the friars who had taken part in the revolt
were expelled from the monastery. The king
granted new privileges to the secret Jews and per-
mitted them, by an edict of March 1, 1507, to leave
the country with their property. To show them his
good-will he renewed the law of May 30, 1497, and
on April 21, 1512, prolonged it for a further period
of twenty years. In 1521, however, he again issued
a law forbidding emigration under penalty of con-
fiscation of property and loss of personal freedom.

So long as Manuel lived the Neo-Christians or

Maranos. were not disturbed, but under his son and.

successor, John III. (1521-57), the enmity against

them broke out anew. On Dec. 17,

Introduc- 1531, Pope Clement VII. authorized

tion of the the introduction of the Inquisition into

Inquisition Portugal, after the Maranos of that

(1531). country had prevented it for fifty

years. The number of Maranos who

left the country now increased steadily, especially

under the reign of King Sebastian (1557-78), who

permitted them free departure, in return for the

enormous payment of 250.000 ducats, with which

sum he carried on his unfortunate war against

Africa.

BiBLiOfiRAPHT: F. Brandao, Mnnarchia Lufitana, passim;
Ruv de Pina, Chronica do Reu D. Ditartc ; idem, Chroniccu
iV el Re}) D. Jodo I.; idem, Chrotiica do Scnhor Reu D. Af-
foruio; Idem, Chrnitica d' el Reu D. Jodo [I. in ColUccao
dns Ineditos de Historia Portuffueza ; F. Lopez. Chronica
d' el Reu D. Pedro, in CoUeccdo, iv. 17, 20; Sousa, Proi'cw,
11. 20, 255; iii. 581, 628; Iv. 38; Damiao de Goes, Chronica do^
Serenissimo Senhor Rci D. Maniuh x. 13 et seq., 20; Oso-
rius, De Rebus Emauuelis. etc., "a, 12b et seq.; Garcia de
Rezende. Chronica dos Valernsos e hmgnns Feitos del Re\f
Dom Jodo II. pp. 68 et seq.. 96 et seq., 132 et seq.; Usque,
Consola^m as Trihnlacoens de Ysrael, pp. 188, 195 ct seq.i
Joaquim Jos. Ferreira Gordo, Memoria Sobre os Judcos em
Portinjal, in Mcmorias da Academia Real das Sciencicu>,
iv. 2 (reprinted, without naming author or source, in Rcvinta
Penin^mlar, ii. .520 ft seq.. Lisbon, 18-56) ; A. Herculano, Histn-
ria de Portugal, ii. 322 et seq.; iii. 107, 128. 138. 215; iv. 210;
idem. Da Origcm e Estabelecimento da Inqui.iicdo em Por-
tutw^. i. 85, 95 et seq., 100 et seq., 120 et seq., 138 et seq., Lis-
bon. 1854 ; S. Cassel. in Ersch and Gruber, Encuc. section ii.,
part 27, pp. 226 et seq.; Rios. Hi«t. i. 266 ; ii. 185. 28.5. 455; iii.
179. 334; Kayserlinjr. Ga<ch. der Juden in Portugal, Berlin,
1867 ; J. Mehdes dos Remedios. Os Judeus em Portugal, 1.,
Colmbra, 1895; Griitz. Gesch. vli. 169; vlll. 49. 374 et seq.; J.
Q. R. 19a), XV. 251-274, 529-530.

D. M. K.

The anticlerical movement instituted by Marquis.
Pombal, the all-powerful minister of King Joseph
I. (1750-77), lessened the rigor of the Inquisition.
As early as May 2, 1768, the lists containing the
names of the Neo-Christians were ordered to be sup-
pressed; a law of May 25, 1773 (the year when the

Jesuit order was abolished), decreed

Reset- that all disabilities based on descent,

tlement. chiefly directed against the Maranos,

should cease ; and finally the Inquisi-
tion, whose powers had been considerably restricted
bv a law of Sept. 1, 1774, was altogether abolished
on March 31, 1821.

The first Jew to settle in Portugal after the ex-
pulsion of 1497 was Moses Levy, an English subject
from Gibraltar ("Jew. Chron.""Oct. 21, 1904, p. 10),
although the treaty of Utrecht (1713), by which Gib-
raltar had been ceded to England, had expressly
stipulated (article x.) that the Jewish subjects of
England should not have the right of residence la
Portugal. The statement of Thiers ("' Histoire du
Consulat et de I'Empire," xi. 71, Paris, 1851) that the
French troops upon their invasion of Portugal in
1807 were hailed by 20,000 Jews, is certainly a gross
exaggeration, as is also the statement (" Revue Ori-
entale," 1841, vi. ; reprinted in " Allg. Zeit. des Jud."
1841, p. 6!^1) that there were 2,000 to 2,500 Jews in
Portugal in 1825. It has been proved, however,
that as early as 1801 the Jews of Lisbon bought a
plot in the English cemetery of that city, where the
oldest tombstone still extant bears the date of 1804.
A formal motion, proposed by Joseph Ferrao in the
Cortes, Feb. 26. 1821, to admit the Jews into the

141

THE JEWISH ENCYCT,OPKDIA

Portugal
Posen

country, was defeated; and the constitution of 1826,
while dechiring Roman Catholicism to be the state
religion, allowed foreigners freedom of worship,
provided they conducted it in places not bearing the
signs of a public house of worship.

Outside of Lisbon there is only one congregation
in Portugal possessing a house of worship (erected
1850), namely, that of Faro; it numbers about fif-
teen families and dates from 1820. A fe%v Jews are
living in Evora, Lagos, and Porto; but they arc
not organized into congregations. A settlement,
Avhich has of late been steadily decreasing, exists in
S. Miguel on the Azores; but it is so small tliat its
memi)ers have to send to Gibraltar every year
for some coreligionists in order to secure the re-
quired MiNYAN for the services of the great holy
days.

The JeAvish inhabitants of Portugal numbered in
1903 about 500 souls in a total population of 5,428,591.
Most of them are merchants and shipowners, while
a few are professors, among them being Jacob
Bensaudo, who liolds the chair of English at Porto
and has published various text-books. James Ana-
hory Athias is an officer in the navy ("Jew. Chron."
Jan. 31, 1902). Lisbon has a rabbi, and Faro a
hazzan. The rabbinical office in Lisbon was occu-
pied for a long time by Jacob Toledano of Tangier,
who died in 1899; the present (1905) incumbent is
Isaac J. Wolfinsohn. Guido Chayes, Portuguese
consul in Leghorn, was made a count by King Carlos
in 1904 ("Vessillo Israelitico," 1904, p. 196). Sir
Isaac Lyon Goldsmid was created Baron of Pal-
meira in 1845, and Sydney James Stern, now Lord
Wandsworth, was created a viscount in 1895.

PORTUGALOV, BENJAMIN OSIPOVICH :

Russian physician and author ; born at Poltava 1835 ;
died at Samara 1896. After studying medicine at
the universities of Kharkov and Kiev, he served for
a time as army surgeon. He then settled in the
government of Perm, where, however, he was not
permitted to practise medicine. Portugalov there-
fore souglit occupation in the field of literature.
His first article ("Shadrinsk i Cherdyn ") was pub-
lished in the " Arkhiv Sudebnoi Meditziny " ; his next
contributions were to the " Dyelo " and " Nedyelya, "
mainly on hygienic subjects. At last an opportu-
nity came to him to takeup the practise of medicine;
he was appointed city physician at Krasnoufimsk, in
the government of Perm, thereafter becoming suc-
cessively sanitary supervisor of two mining districts
in the Ural Mountains and district physician (1870--
1880) of Kamyshlova, Samara, etc. Portugalov
devoted much of his time to philanthropic work,
maintaining an especially active campaign against
drunkenness. In his last j'cars he expressed his
sympathy with the New Israel movement then de-
veloping in Russia.

Portugalov's works include : " Voprosy Obshchest-
vennoi Gigiyeny " (1874); " Yevrei Reformatory "
(St. Petersbiirg, 1882); "Znamenatelnyya Dwizhen-
niya v Yevreistvye " {ib. 1884).

Bibliography: Entziklopedicheski Slovar, xxlv. 634.
H. R. A. S. W.

POSEKIM. See Pesak.

POSEN : Province of Prussia ; formerly a part
of the kingdom of Poland, it was annexed by the
former country after the partition of the latter in
1773 and 1793. In the first half of the thirteenth
century, when the Germans crossed the frontier and
began to settle in the territory of Poscn, a large
number of Jews seem to have come with them.
Even before that time, however, Jews were living
in Great Poland, which covered a somewhat larger
area than the modern province of Posen. Tlius
they are mentioned as residents of Deutscii Krone
in the eleventh century, of Gnesen in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries, and of Meseritz in tlic four-
teenth century. Tlie dales of the first allusions to
Jews in the principal cities of Great Pfiland are as
follows: Kalisz, 1354; Posen. 1379; Peisern. 1386;
Schmiegel, 1415; Inowrazlaw (Ilohensalza). 1447;
Schneidemilhl, sixteenth century; Lenczyce, 1517;
Schwerin - on - the - Warta, 1520; Bromberg, 1525;
Fraustadt. 1526; Lowicz, about 1537; Prime, 1553;
Brzeaz, 1555; Petrikau, 1555; Exin, 1559; Schrimm.
1573; Lissa, 1580 or shortly afterward; Schwer-
senz, 1590; Neustadt, 1595; Gratz, 1597; Kempen.
seventeenth century, shortly after tlie founding of
the city ; Wronke, 1607; Warsaw, 1608; Krotoschin,
1617; Wreschen, 1621; Pakosch, 1624; Samter.
1626; Kolo, 1629; Fordon, 1633; Jarotschin. 1637;
Nakel, 1641; Filehne, 1655; Kobylin, 1656; Roga-
sen. 1656; Lask, 1685; Wollstein, 1690; Rawitsch,
1692; Obornik, 1696; and Goslin, 1698. See Po-
liAND, under Russia.

In a document which was issued by Sigismund I.,
dated Aug. 6, 1527, R. Samuel Margolioth of Posen
was confirmed as chief rabbi of Great Poland, and
was vested with important powers over all the Jews
of that district. The synod of Great Poland, which
had at its disposal a stated clerk (".sofer medinah "),
tax-assessors and tax-collectors, is first mentioned in
1597; it sat in that year and in 1609 at Posen, several
times between 1635 and 1649 at Gnesen, in 1668 at
Kalisz, in 1681 at Neustadt-on-the-Warta, in 1691 at
Jarotschin, and in 1733 at Kobylin. Its functions
included the election of tlie chief rabbi of Great
Poland, the adoption of measures of protection
against common dangers (especially the frequent
charge of ritual murder), the collection of the i>oll-
tax and of sums needed for the general welfare, the
negotiation of loans for communal purposes, the
subvention of works of Jewish literature, and ap
probations for printing (see Approbation).

The Jews of Great Poland were not exempt from

persecution, which, however, generally occurred in

times of war or economic depression. An outbreak

against them took place on the German frontier in

1349, the year of the Black Death.

During when 10,000 Jews were killed, the
the Black commercial retrogression of Great Po-

Death. land in the fourteenth century being
ascribed to this persecution. Many
Jews were martyred during the war between Swe-
den and Poland in 1656; and a smaller number died
in the Northern war in 1707 and 1716. Social op-
pressions were frequently caused by the Catholic
clergy and by the German merchants for religious
and commercial reasons. The clergy first legislated
the Jews of Great Poland in 1267 at the

Posen

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

142

Council of Breslaii. in accordance with tia- canons of
the Lateran Council. The right to give permission
for the building of new synagogues was reserved to
the Archbishop of Guesen and the Bishop of Posen.
In the twelftii century Jews were employed at Gnc-
sen as farmers of the mint and as coiners, a few under
Boleslaw IV. (lUe-TS), and a larger number under
Mieczyslav III. (1173-77, 119o-l'ib2). The inscrip-
tions on these coins arc partly in pure Hebrew, and
partly in Polish in Hebrew letters, as n31t3 nD"l3.
n312 n"l3-l3. "pofjia hip N^L•r)(^<'., "Mieszko krol
Polski " [Mieszko, Poli.sh king]), e)DV XpC'D (" [May
God] increase Mieszko''), and pnV' "13 DmiX-
Similar coins are found in the cabinets of the PolLsh
aristocrac}', the Radziwills, Sapiehas, and others, in
the Thomson collection at Copenhagen, and in the
Pretorius collection at Brcslau.

It is noteworthy that in the fourteenth century
the " grod " or county courts took up the cases of
Jewish creditors against their aristocratic debtors;
that Jews were permitted to acquire land, a privi-
lege which was subsequently repealed ; that women
as well as men engage^ in money-lending ; and that a
case set for a Sabbath was postponed to another day
on the Jews' account. It appears that all the Jews of
Great Poland carried their cases against the aristoc-
racy to the " grod " of Posen, not to the courts of the
other cities. Although their condition was more
favorable than in later centuries, as is evidenced by
the fact that the epithet "unbelieving Jews," subse-
quently current, was not applied to them at that
time, the general statutes of the archdiocese of
Gnesen decreed that they should wear a piece of
blood-red cloth on the breast. In general they were
not permitted in the cities under the jurisdiction of
prelates, and in some instances they were expelled
from some of the other towns also.

In the following centuries the Jews were subjected
to varying treatment, according as the cities or ter-
ritories were under royal, ecclesiastical, or aristo-
cratic dominion. The words of K.
Privileges Moses Isserlcs, uttered with regard to
and Little Poland, are applicable to his

Jurisdic- coreligionists of Great Poland as well:
tion. "Every city has its special tax and
its special governor; and even the
king [of Poland] does not rule over them, but only
their own lord of the manor." These lords granted
privileges to their Jews, acted as their judges, and
even sentenced them to death, while from tliem the
numerous Jewish gilds received their statutes. The
Jews followed many callings at this time, being tai-
lors, furriers, bakers, braiders, butchers, glaziers,
tanners, barbers, goldsmiths, gold-embroiderers,
gold -refiners, jewelers, button-makers, capmakers,
seal-engravers, silk-dyers, horn-workers, cooks, por-
ters, musicians, etc.

In the course of centuries numbers of German
Jews fled to Poland from the hardships which they
suffered at home; in 1474, emigrants went from
Bamberg to Posen; in 1510, from the electorate of
Brandenburg to Meseritz ; after 1670, from Vienna
to Sell wersenz ; and in 1700, from Fulda to Schwerin-
on-the-Warta.

Theritual of Great Poland differed in various points
from that observed elsewhere, containing, for exam-

ple, its own D'2N "IIS hn for morning worship on
Mondays antl Thursdays. Hebrew printing-presses
existed at Lissa and Posen in the sixteenth century,
although no extant work can with certainty be as-
signed to those establishments. Between 1773 and
1775 Frederick the Great held the northern part of
the country, the so-called district of the Netze, which
contained more than 0,000 Jews. It was contrary to
the policy of Prussia to tolerate such a large number of
Jews within its borders; and since they were not all
engaged in profitable employments, Frederick de-
cided to send at least two-thirds of them across the
Polish boundary-line, a course from which his odicials
were unable for some years to dissuade him. Jewish
affairs were regulated by the "General-Juden-Begle-
ment " of Aug. 9, 1773, which deprived the Jews of
their old privileges, their treatment being dictated by
fiscal considerations. When the southern part of the
country also came under Prussian rule, in 1793, one-
twentieth of the population consisted of Jews. On
the day on which homage was paid to the new
ruler they recited a prayer in Hebrew and one in
German, the latter composed by Hartwig Wes-
SELY. The status of the Jews was now determined
by the "General-Juden-Reglement"
"General- of April 17, 1797, which aimed to
Juden- make them, as mechanics and trades-
Re- men, useful members of the state,
glement." Again they lost their old privileges;
nor was there any improvement in
their condition when, ten years later, the country was
made part of the duchy of Warsaw. The monstrous
kasher-meat tax was especially burdensome to the
Jews. They rejoiced in their reunion with Prussia
in 1815; but they did not obtain their iiromised polit-
ical equality until the enactment of the "Jews'
Law" of June 1, 1833, which conferred citizenship
upon the wealthy and educated cla.sses, and tiiat of
July 23, 1847, which put the Jews on a par with their
brethren of the older Prussian provinces. The
censuses of the Jews in the province are as follows:
43,315 in 1797 and 1804; 9,690 families in 1809; 65,131
Jews in 1835; 77,103 in 1840; 76,757 in 1849; 63.438
in 1875; 44,346 in 1890; and 40,019 in 1900. The
decrease is due to emigration to the west of Europe
and to foreign countries.

The ghettos of Posen have produced many promi-
nent men, such as the historians Ileinrich Graetz of
Xions and Julius Fiirst of Zerkowo, the philosopher
Moritz Lazarus of Filehne, the politician Eduard
Lasker of Jarotschin, and the composer Louis Le-
wandowski of Wreschen.

The City of Posen : Posen, the capital of the
province, containing (1903), among 117,014 inhabit-
ants, 5,810 Jews, was always the principal commu-
nity of Great Poland, except in the last two-thirds of
the eighteenth century, when it temporarily gave
place to Lissa; and it took precedence at the Cocn-
crr. OF Fouu L.\nds whenever that body assembled in
Great Poland. The earliest Jewish settlement (prob-
ably on the right bank of the River Warta) in the
city of Posen, was under the jurisdiction of the king,
not of the municipality. Subsequently it included
the Judenstrasse, the Schumacherstrasse. and a por-
tion of the Wrackerstrasse. Most of the hou.ses were
built of wood, so that there were frequent con-

143

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Posen

rtiigrations, with attendant robbery and murder;
and the .catastroplies of 1590 are comnieniorated
ill tlie elegies of two liturgieal i)oets. The stu-
dents of the Jesuit college became troublesome
neiglibors in 1573; and tliey were restrained from
attaeliing the Jews only in consideration of a
money payment. In the sixteenth century com-
merce was restricted, although at that time the
Jews, who numbered 3,0(J0, formed nearly one-half
of the entire population. There were 49 stone houses
in tiie Jews' street in the early part of the sixteenth
century; 80 in 1549; 75 in i590 before the lire of
tliat year; 137 altogether in 1641; 98 in 1710; and
109 in 1714. At the beginning of the seventeenth
century the community, in spite of its many suffer-
ings, niuubered 2,300 persons; but this number was
subsequently reduced to tiie extent of one-half.

The following is a description of the comnuinal
constitution in the .seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies. At the head of the community were five
"parnasim" (directors), assisted by three "tubim"
and five councilmen, tliis board of thirteen being
called a K.\ii.\L. iSeveu "memunnim" acted as a
kind of police, and five municipal representatives
("tube ha-'ir") decided cases involving real estate,
while seven men supervised the morals, etc., of
the members, and the " parnase medinaii " watched
over Jews from other places who merely sojourned
in Posen. Each synagogue had its directors; and
artisans, working men, and even Jewish servant-
girls, were organized in unions presided over by
elected oflicers. There were several civil courts,
in which the associate rabbis as well as the chief
rabbi sat; and there was, furthermore, a mixed
court in which Jewish and Christian judges decided
cases between those of the two creeds. All these
officials were under oath and, with the exception of
the chief rabbi, were elected annually during the
intermediate days of Passover by the "kesherim"
(trusty men) of the congregation.

In consequence of the Swedish war, political dis-
orders, and accusations of ritual murder, which were
especially virulent in 1736, the population dimin-
islied, while the debts to the nobil-
Increased. ity, churches, convents, and Catholic
Taxation, clergy increased rapidly, amounting
in 1774 to the enormous sum of 947,-
546 gulden 19 groschen. which was reduced by a
state commission to 086,081 gulden 20 groschen.
These debts had not been entirely paid even as
late as 1864. The community began to flourish
under Prussian rule; and up to about 1850 was the
largest in Prussia.

Posen has produced a large number of men prom-
inent in many fields of activity. The first Talmud-
ists of the city are mentioned about the middle of
the fifteenth century; and the following rabbis have
officiated there :

Pechno 'mentioned 13S9-93): Moses Mariel (r. 14.55^
Moses b. Isaac Minz (1474-]r)iisi: Menahem Mendel
Frank ; Moses (lolfl); Samuel Margrolioth (c. 1527 .">!);
Schachno (1544); Solomon b. Judah Lbbisch Lieber-
mann <<■. 1551-.')7); Aaron (1557): Eliezer Ashkenazi
(list)): Solomon b. Judah Lobisch II. (r. 1581); Judah
Lowb. Bezaleel (15X5-88, 1.590t: Mordecai Jaffa (c. 1599-
161*.>); Aaron Benjamin b. Hayyim Morawczyk (c.
163:KM); Simou Wolf b. David Tebele Auerbach (r.
1625-29); Hayyim b. Isaac ha-Kohen 11630-^5); Moses

b. Isaiah Menahem, lalli-il Moses Rabbi Mendels
(ItKJ.') 41); Sheftelb. Isaiah Horowitz HV41 >i: Isaac
b. Abraham (l(>ti;-K5): Isaiah b. Sheltel Horowitz
(1(JH8-H9); Naphtali Kohen (Huhkitih,; Jacob b. Isaac
(1714-29); Jacob Mordecai b. Naphtali Kohen ii:;t'-
17.%); Raphael Kohen il774 7<ii: Joseph Zebi Hirsch
Janow b. Abraham (1770-77); Joseph ha-Zaddlki b.
Phinehas il7N» \mi,; Moses Samuel b. Phinehas
(1802 li); Akiba Eger (lH1.5-:t7i: Solomon Eiror iiKr.' .'i2i;
Moritz Goldstein (iireadicr, imn ;>ii; Joseph Perles <ut
the BriJderKeirieinile. \m> lit; Wolf Feilchenfeld 'iifter
1872); ami Philipp Bloch (ul tbe UrOderKerneinde from li<71
to the present time, 1905).

Gnesen : According to a legendary account n syn-
agogue existed at Gnesen as early as 905. At tlie
end of the fifteenth and tiie beginning of the six-
teenth century tiie Jews of Gnesen paid large taxes
to the king. In 1499 Cardinal-Archbisliop Frederick
protected tliem against the exorbitant demands of
the Jewish tax-collector; in 1567 they were given
two royal letters of protection, one relating to tlie
woolen trade, and the other regarding taxes unjust-
ly collected from them ; and four years later a Jew
was placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the
king.

In 1582 the Jews made a contract for the (onst ruc-
tion of a synagogue, and in 1660, on the oath of one
of the elders of the community, the king granted
them a copy of their earlier privileges, which had
been destroyed in a tire in 1637, as well as a gen-
eral confirmation of their privileges. In 1654 Jesuit
students plundered the Jews' street; and two years
later some Jews were slain. The statute concerning
tailors dates from 1779, Christian merchants being
exempted by their statutes from receiving Jews into
their gilds. The community of Posen raised a relief
fund for its Gnesen brethren after the fire of 1710.
In 1819 the archives were burned. In 1744 there
were only 60 Jews in the city; but in 1793. when
the Prussians took possession, there were 685, in-
cluding 53 tailors, 10 butchers, and 6 furriers. By
1800 the Jewish population of Gnesen had increased
to 761, and by 1857 to 1,750; but in 1900 it num-
bered only 1,179. The synagogue was built in 1(546.

The following rabbis have officiated at Gnesen:

Benjamin, director of a Talmiidic whool (I.5«ii; TJri Lip-
mann ^lefez b. Israel Seligrmann (1588); Abraham
b. Judah ha-Levi (1«I5); Samuel (f. It)(i8i; Enoch b.
Abraham (1647, lt>56); Mordecai (c. I7K)); Joel Heilprin
(C.1820); Gebhardt (1847-52): M.S. Zuckermandl (l.'^>7':
M. Horovitz (1875-78); N. Ehrenfeld and M. Jacobson
(since 1890).

The community has numbered among its mem-
bers liturgical poets, halakic coditiers, and authors
of responsa.

Kempen : The Jews of Kcmpcn received their
privileges in 1674 and 1780 from the lords of the
manor; and in 1689 a further privilege protecting
them in tlie exercise of their worship was granted
by the provost under orders from the assistant
bishop of Breslau. The musicians had their own
gild (this still numbered 26 members in 1864). ^In
1690 the hebra kaddislia was founded; and in 1797
the synagogue was built, after a conflagration had
destroyed the greater part of the Jews' street. At
that time there were 1.500 Jews in tiie city, constitu-
ting one-half of the population. In 1840 there were
3 559 Jews in a total population of 6.181 ; 3.282 in
1857; and 1,059 in 1900. In 1846 the community
was ravaged by cholera.

PoBen
PoBquieres

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

144

The following rabbis have officiated at Kempeu:

Moses b. Hillel "ba-Darshan," 1691); Moses
Manes 'c. 1770); Meshullam Zalman Kohen u. 1784);
Joseph M. M. U-. lSi«ii; Israel Jonah Landau (1830,
1833): his son Joseph Samuel Landau id. ls3ri; Israel's
son-in-law Mordecai Zeeb Ashkenazl ; Meir Lobush
ben Jehiel Michael Malbim U841-o(5); Jacob Simhah
Sehfisch ; aiul L. Mtinz, the present (1905) incumbent.

Among the Jews of Kempen have been transla-
tors of prayers, authors of Talmudic novelloe, poets,
"writers, authors of responsa, and preachers.

Krotoschin : The community of Krotoschin suf-
fered so severely by sword and famine during the
Swedish war in 1656 that only tifty families re-
mained out of 400. It quickly revived, however,
and after the second half of the seventeenth century
the Jews were in close industrial relations with
Silesia, and had their own synagogue at Breslau,
while their Talmud Torah was one of the foremost
of the country. Krotoschin, like Posen, Lissa, and
Kalisz, was one of the leading communities of Great
Poland, sending representatives to the general synod
of Great Poland and to the Council of Four Lands.
In a document dated 1773 it is called an " important
community, with many sages and men learned in
the Law." In 1710 it suffered from a conflagration,
receiving aid from Posen. The mutual rights of
Jews and Christians as regards liquor licenses were
defined in 1726 and 1728, and the statutes of the lord
of the manor were promulgated in the latter year
and in 1730. In 1738 a fee for every corpse taken
to Krotoschin had to be paid to the pastor of each
place through which the cortege passed; and in
1828 the recruits' tax was levied in consequence of
a conflagration. The synagogue, which was dedi-
cated in 1845, was at that time the finest in the
province. In 1800 there were 1,701 Jews in the city,
forming the third largest community of Posen. In
1837 there were 2,213 Jews at Krotoschin; 2,098 in
1857: and 670 in 1900.

The following is the list of rabbis:

Hirsch b. Samson (c. 1617); Menahem Man Ashke-
nazi (c. 1048); Israel Heilprin ; Menahem Mendel b.
Meshullam Auerbach (l(i73; U. It>s9i; Ezekiel b. Meir
ha-Levi (UH)1, 17()i)); Mordecai H>efoi¥l71.j); LobMunk;
Menahem Mendel Jankau (Jenikau?) (1726); Mena-
hem Mendel Auerbach b. Moses (1733, 175.5); Meshul-
lam Zalman Kohen (c. 1760-70); Aryeh Lbb Caro (c.
]779i; Benjamin b. Saul Katzenelnbogen (17a5, 1792);
Zebi Hirsch b. Raphael ha-Kohen il835): Raphael
Zebi ; Israel b. Judah Lbb (1844); Samuel Mendel-
sohn, acting chief rabbi (1853.1858); David Joel (1871, 1880);
Eduard Baneth (1882-95); and H. Berg-er, the present
(1905) Incumbent (since 1895).

In 1833 a Hebrew printing-press was founded,
which has issued a large number of work.s. This
community has numbered among its members manj'
prominent scholars and writers, authors of sermons
and of halakic and haggadic novellae, commentators
on the Bible, i)atrons of Jewish science, grammari-
ans, bibliographers, and printers.

Bibliography: Lewln, Gcwh. dcr Jwlen in Llixa, pp. 1 ct
Heq.. 3, .5, etjjojmm, Plnne. 1904 ; Idem. Die Jiulenverfol-
gungeniin Zweiten SchwefiiHch-Piiliim-heii Krifge, pp. 6 et
seq.. Posen. 1901 ; idem, in Heppner-Herzbersr. Aui^ Vergan-
genheit viiddegenwart derJiulcn nnd dir JUiliKcfien Gc-
mcindrn in den Paxener Lnndrn. pp. 42, 69. 77. 106. 108 et
»eq.. Kf>schmln. 1904; iV/eni. In Zeituchrift der HiMiti-ixchen
GMeUxcUaft fUr die Proviiiz Poxen. xv. .57 et seq.: Posener
Stantunrrliiv Inscriiitimirs W'xrhar, 1.597. p. 4llb; Zunz. Ir
ha^Zcdek, p. 43, Leinberg,1874 ; Zcituchrift der Histurinchen

Gesellschaft fUr die Provinz Pnseii, 1. 391 et seq., 395; Iv.
196, ;i«. 334 et xeq.; V. 298 ; vl.. p. x.xvl. ; xi. 3?1; Warschauer,
tb. xix. -12, 14 et seq.\ Idem, Die Stddti^chen Arcttive in der
Provim Posen, pp. 63 et seq.. 86. 116, Leipsic. 1901; the
manuscript " kesherim " book of the community of Posen. pp.
7b, 14b, 21a. 23b. 37a, 39b. 219b; Brann. Gesclt.deg liahlnnats
'in Schueidemllhl. p. 8, Breslau, 1894; idem, in GrdtzJuhel-
xvhrift. pp. 230, 229, 231, 265, ib. 1887 ; idem, Gesch. der
Juden in Schlesien, Appendix ii.. p. xix.; Friedberg. Of-sc/i.
der Jlidischen T^/^Dgniplne in Krakan, pp. 16 (note 22),
21. Cracow. 1900; Bloch. in Zeitxchrift der Hixtorischen
Gegellschaft /(ir die Pruvinz Poxen, vi. 143, 163; idem. Der
Streit um de)i Moreh des Maimonidex in . . . Poxen umdie
Mitte dex 16. Jahrh., in Monatsxchrift. 190;{, pp. 15;} et xeq.;
Polkowski. Decouverte d GWtoki, pp. 3 ff xeq., 14, 31. 41.
46. 49, 77 et seq., Gnesen, '1876: Reinbold. Chronik des
Kreixex und der Stadt Birtihaum, p. 133, Birnbaum,
1843; (iratz. Gexc)i. 186.3. vii. 402 et seq.: Codex DiiAomadcug
Mdjoris Pi)li»ii(T, No. 423. Posen. 1877; Lekczycki, Die Ael-
testen Grosx-Polnischen Grndlillcher, 1.. Preface, pp. xli., 15,
24. 170; ii.. Preface, p. xii.. Leipsic. 1887; Perles. in Mnnats-
schriit, xiii. 28;} ef paiixim, xiv. 89 et pax.sim ; Historixehc
JMnnatxbldtter flir die Provinz Posen, 1. 117. iii. 166; Kauf-
mann. Die Letzte Vertreibung der Jiiden aus ITieu nnd
yieder6xterreie)i, pp. 121, 221, BudapesU 1889 ; Zunz, Iiitn», p.
75; Berpmann. Zur Gexeh. der Entwickelung Deidxcher,
Polnisclier, und JUdischer BevOlkerujtg in der Provinz
Pnxen, pp. 44, 291, TiibinRen, 1883; Uonne and Simon, Die . ..
Verlulltnixsc der Juden . . . des Preiuf.'tischen Staatex, p. 25,
Breslau. 1843; Wegener. Der Wirtschaftliche Kampf der
Deidscheu mitden Polen um die Provinz Posen, p. 236. Po-
sen. 1903; Feilchenfeld. Die Innere Verfa.'>i<ung der Jlidi-
schen Gemcindc zu Posen im 17. und IS. Juhrhundert, in
Zeitxchrift der Hi^tori.^clien Ge-seU.-<chaft fllr die Provim
Poxen, xi. 122 et seq.: BruU's Jahrh. vii.33e( seq., 188; Stern-
berg. Gesch. der Juden in Polen, p. 8, Leipsic. 1876; Sirisa,
Beschreihung von Sild-und Neu-Ostpreussen, p. 508. ib.
1797; Heilprin, .Seder ha-Dorot, i. 24«, iii. 4. Warsaw. 1881 ;
Wiener. Da'at Kedoshim. pp. 10. 58, 77. 115. 117. 125, 133. 199,
St. Petersburg, 1897; Herzberg. Gesch. der Juden in Brom-
berg, p. 70, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1903; Dembitzer. Kelilat
Tofl,ii.o6betseq., Cracow, 1893; Zeitsc)irift flir Gesch. und
Landexkunde der Provinz Posen, iii. ;}6 ; Der Israelit, 1902,
p. 188; Lowenstein. BUltter flir JUdii<che Ge^ichichte und
Litteratur, iii. 44et seq., 56; iv. 116 et seq.; ProvinzicU-Bldt-
ter flir dax Groxxherzogtltiim Poxen, i. 61; Jeschurun, p.
107. Pleschen. 1902; Meyer, Ge^ch. dex Landej< Pnxen, p. 376.
Posen. 1881; Tsraetitlsches FamiJienblatt, No. 40, Hamburg,
1903; Roest. Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. pp. 2.5, 319, 378, 502, .581,
632, 643. 685 ; Kohen Zedek, Shem u-She'erit, pp. 15, 57,
Cracow, 1895.

D. L. Lew.

POSING or BOSING (Hungarian, Bazin) :
Small town in the county of Presburg, where on
May 27, 1529 (Friday, Siwan 13), thirty Jews were
l)urned to death on the accusation of having mur-
dered a Christian child for ritual purposes. The
charge was invented by the lord of the place, Franz,
Count of St. Georgen and Posing, who wished to
rid himself of the debts which he owed to the Jews
of Marchegg and POsing. Isaac Mandel, prefect
of the Hungarian Jews, demanded protection and
justice at the hand of King Ferdinand I. for the
Jews of both these places; but the feudal lord did
not heed the king's warning. The memor-book of
the Cracow hebra kaddisha records the names of
those who suffered death at this time. In order to
witness the martyrdom the inhabitants of Neisse,
Olmlitz, and Vienna, as well as those of the neigh-
boring cities, poured into Pftsing. Among those
who suffered was Moses b. Jacob Kohen, wjio with
his children voluntarily cast himself into the flames.
The Jews of Marchegg were saved, as in the mean-
time the missing child was found alive.

For centuries after this event Jews were not per-
mitted to live in Posing, nor even to spend a night
there. "When a P5sing senator gave slielter to the
Jew Lazar Hirsch, the excited populace besought
King Leopold I. (1657-1705) to confirm their old
right of prohibiting Jews from sojourning there.
Tiie king decided in favor of the town, and Lazar
Hirsch was compelled to remove to the estate of the
counts of Palffy.

146

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Posen ^
PosQuieres

Bibliography : G. Wolf, in Leopold Rosenbers:, Jahrbxtch flit-
die Ixraelitixchen Cultusgemeitideu in Uiiyarn, i. :i63-
273, Arad, 1H6(); BQchler, A Zxiduk TOrtenete BudaucMen,
p. 9fi, Hudapest, 1901 ; Kaufinann, la Monatsxchrift. 1894.
pp. 4a&429; Sokolow, In Ho-^xi/. vl. 133; ^ui Erschrock-
enlich Ge«ehicht, etc., ed. Buchler, In Magyar Zsido
Szemle, xi. 90.

D. A. Bu.

POSNANSKI, ADOLF : Austrian rabbi ; born
at Lubianicc, near Warsaw, June 3, 1854; educated
at the gymnasium, the university, and the rabbin-
ical seminary at Brcslau, where he worlied under
Ht'inrich Graetz and Manuel JolM, and at the Sor-
bonue in Paris, where he was reader to tlie Orien-
talist Joseph Derenbourg. While a student at Hres-
lau he gave religious instruction in the secondary
schools of that city, and officiated as rabbi at Rei-
chenberg, Bohemia, from 1888 to 1891, when he was
called to Pilsen. Posnanski is a member of the board
of directors of the Gesellschaft zur Forderung der
Wissenschaft des Judenthums at Berlin.

His publications are as follows: " Ueber die Reli-
gionsphilosophischen Anschauuugen des Flavius Jo-
sephus," Breslau, 1887; "Shiloh: Ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte der Messiaslehre ; i. Theil, Die Auslegung
von Genesis c. 49, v. 10 im Altertum bis zu Ende
des Mitlelalters," Leipsic, 1904, containing also quo-
tations from Hebrew and Arabic manuscripts to-
gether Avith rare prints.

P. A. Kr.

POSNEB, CABL: GeVman physician and med-
ical writer; born at Berlin Dec. 16, 1854; son of
Louis Posner; educated at the universities of Berlin,
Bonn, Strasburg, Leipsic (Ph.D. 1875), and Giessen
<M.D. 1880). From 1878 to 1880 he was assistant
in the pathological institute at Giessen; and till
1886 assistant of Furstenheim in Berlin, where he
settled as a physician. He became privat-docent in
1890, and received the title of professor in 1895.

Since 1889 Posner has been editor of the "Berliner
Kliuische Wochenschrift," and since 1894 of Vir-
chow's" Jahresbericht liber die Leistungen und Fort-
schritte in der Gesammten Medizin." Among his
works maybe mentioned: "Diagnostik der Harn-
krankheiten," 1893 (2d ed. 1896); and "Therapieder
Harnkrankheiten," 1895 (2d ed. 1898).

BiDLiOGRAPHY : Pagel, Bioa. Lex.

s. F. T. H.

POSNER, DAVID BEN NAPHTALI
HERZ : Polish Talmudic compiler; lived about
the middle of the seventeenth century in Posen, and
later in Krotoschin. He was the author of " Yalkut
Davvid " (Dyhernfurth, 1691), homilelic collectanea
on the Pentateuch from the Talmud, the Midrashim,
and the post-Talmudic authors. The work was
edited by his father, Naphtali Herz Spitz. Fuenn's
opinion ("Keneset Yisrael," p. 248) that David is
identical with David Tebele Posner, author of
"Sha'are Ziyyon," seems to be erroneous.

BiBLiOfiRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha^Gedolim,n.66; Stelnschnel-
der. Cat. Bodl. col. 863; Brann, In Monatsschrift, 1896. p.
524.
E. C. I. BeK.

POSNER, EARL LUDWIG VON : Hunga-
rian manufacturer; born 1822; died 1887 at Buda-
pest. In 1852 he founded the largest printing,
lithographing, and bookbinding establishment in
Hungary ; and he was sent by his government as a
X.— 10

commissioner to the expositions of London (1871)
Vienna (1873), and Triest (1882). In 1884 he was
empowered by Trofort, the minister of education,
to introduce the reproduction of maps into Hun-
gary ; and that country is greatly indebted U) him
in connection with the grupliic arts and the paper
industry. King Francis Joseph I. ennobled him in
1873, and bestov/ed upon him the title of royal coun-
cilor in 1885. His work is successfully carried on
by his son Alfred.
Bibliography : I'alltui Lex. xlv.

L. V.

POSNER, MEIR (called also Munk or Meir
Pinner) : Prussian rabbi; born 1735; died at Dan-
zig Feb. 3, 1807. He was rabbi of the Schotlland
congregation in Danzig from 1782 till his death.

Posner was the author of "Bet Melr" (Frankfort-
on-the-Odcr, 1787; Lemberg, 1836), a commentary
on the Shulhan 'Aruk, Eben ha-'Ezer, and novelise
thereon, entitled "Zal'ot ha-Bayit," publi.shed to-
gether with the former work.

Bibliography : Farst, BiU. Jud. lU. 117-118; Benlacob. Otar
hci-Sefarim, p. 74, No. a55.

^- S. O.

POSNER, SOLOMON ZALMAN : Polish rab-
bi; born at Landsberg about 1778 (?); died in Los-
lau in 1863 ; son of Joseph Landsberg, rabbi of Po-
sen. At Solomon's wish his sons erected a wooden
monument over his grave at Loslau.

Posner was the author of several as yet unpub-
lished works, among which are: "Zemir 'Arizim,"
an apologetic work written against young pci-sons
who consider the study of the Talmud unnecessary ;
"Gal 'Ed," moral and instructive letters for sons
Avhen leaving the paternal house to attend theyesiii-
bah; "Nir Rash," commentary on the whole Penta-
teuch, with various notes on Rashi ; " Dodo Yegalle-
nu," novellae on the Talmud; "Bet ha-Nizoz," in-
troduction to the Talmud; "Noter ha-Keramim,"
advice to fathers concerning the support of their
families and the education of their children.

In 1870 there appeared in Krotoschin a book enti-
tled "To 'ar Pene Shelomoh," which contained, be-
sides Posner's biography after his marriage, biog-
raphies of his ancestors as far back as the beginning
of the seventeenth century, together with much
that refers to the history of civilization at that time
and in the eighteenth century. Scholars, however,
disagree as to whether the "To'ar" is Posner's own
work or a rovisal of a manuscript of his, by his
eldest son, Moses, who was once rabbi of Posen.

Bibliography: To'ar Pene S/ieiomoh, Krotoschin. 1870; Ha-
Meliz, April 17. 1887, p. 906.
E. c. S. O.

posaui£:RES ({jn'^p^'nis or m'pinB) or vatt-

VERT : Town in the department of the Gard,
France, where Jews are known to have lived since
the twelfth century. When Benjamin of Tudela
visited the city, about 1165, the community was
composed of forty members, among whom he men-
tions Joseph ben Menahem, Benveniste, Benjamin,
and Abraham and Isaac ben Moses ("Itinerary," i.
5). At its head was Abraham ben David (RABaD
III.); his school was attended by many students
from distant countries, whom he welcomed with
much hospitality. In 1 172 Abraham suffered a short

Posrednik
Potsdam

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

146

imprisoument, at the close of which liis persecutor,
Elzear, the seignior of Posquieres, was summoned
to Carcassonne by his suzerain, Count Roger II., to
explain his conduct toward the famous opponent of
Maimonides. It was doubtless after this event that
Abraham quit Posquieres, to reside sometimes at
Lunel and sometimes at Montpellier, but chiefly at
Nlmes, where he lived for many years, thus gaining
the surname of "Nemsi" (scholar of Nimes), or
"Muster of tlie City of tiie Woods" ("Rabbi nii-Kir-
yat Ye'arim "). Some Jewish natives of Posquieres
are mentioned as living at Carpeutras in 1400 and at
Perpignau in 1413 and 1414. Among the scholars
of the city were: Isaac the Blind or Isaac of Pos-
quieres, " Father of the Cabala " : his nephew Asher
ben David ben Abraham ben David; and the Bib-
lical commentator Menahem ben Simeon.

Bibliography : Cannolv. Bii^jraphie des I^raelitcit de France,
p. 120; ciratz, CrCvXc/i. vi.243, 399: idem, LcsJuif sen Espanne,
transl. by Georges Stenne, p. Ikw; Gross. Gallia Judaica. pp.
446-450; i(/e»). in .Vonaf.ssf^iri/f, 1873-74 ; Joseph Simon, Wi's-
toire det> Juifs dc yimes, p. 13; Renan-.Neubauer, Lcs Rab-
tiinx Ftanqais, pp. .518-520: Shebit IV/mda/i, pp. 76a, 78a;
Temim De'im, pp. 227-248; Zunz, G. S. iii. 147-15U.
«. S. K.

POSREDNIK. See Periodicals.

POSSART, ERNST VON : German actor and
author; born at Berlin May 11, 1841. When seven-
teen years old he was apprenticed to the Schroeder-
'sche Buch- und Kunst-Handlung, a well-known
publishing-house in Berlin, where he became ac-
quainted with the actor Kaiser, who offered to teach
him elocution without compensation. After study-
ing for three years,
Possarl, in 'l861,
made his debut at
tlie Urauia amateur
theater, Berlin, as
liiccaut in "Minna
von Barnhelm " and
lago in "Othello,"
and with such suc-
cess that he was en-
gaged to play sec-
ond character roles
at the city theater
of Breslau. There
he stayed till 1862,
when he accepted
an engagement at
a Berlin theater, to
l)lay leading parts.
The following year
he was in Haml)urg, impersonating the charac-
ters formerly undertaken by Gorner. From 1864
to 1887 he was connected with the Munich Royal
Theater, plaving the leading roles, and becom-
ing in 1873 chief stage-manager (" Oberregisseur ").
In 1878 he received the titles of professor and
director of the Royal Theater. During his vaca-
tions he accepted engagements at the principal Ger-
man tliealers in Europe. From 1880 he produced
plays in Munich, with all-star casts. During the
five years following his resignation (1887-92) he
Btarred at the leading theaters, visiting America in
1888 and 1890. In 1892 he returned to the Royal
Theater as "Generaldirektor," becoming "Intend-

Ernst von Possurt.

ant" in 1895 and being knighted by the crown of
Bavaria.. He still (1905) resides in Munich.

His talent as actor and manager is equally great;
his judgment of the capability of dillerent actors
is" remarkable, always recognizing and assigning
to each individual the part most suited to him; and
he has the faculty of giving life and importance to
minor parts. He is also very successful as an in-
structor, having been the teacher of many actors
now prominent.

Possart is at present the foremost of German
actors. His repertoire is manifold. He has ap-
peared in Schillers dramas as Franz Moor, Bur-
leigh, Talbot, Lfindtogt Gessler, Kdnig Philipp, and
Octnvio I'iccolomini; in Le.ssing's, i\s Is'athan der^^'cise
and Mnrinelli; in Goethe's, as Carlos, Mephiato,
Antonio, Alba, and I'anseii; in Shakespeare's, as
King John, Richard II.. Richard III., Hamlet, Lear,
Shylock, and lago ; in Byron's "Manfred" as Man-
fred ; in Bjonison's "Fallissement " as Berent; in
TOpfer's " Des Konigs Befehl " as Friedrich der
Grouse; and in Ileigel's "Josephine Bonaparte " as
Napoleon. One of his greatest characters is that of
the Jew in "L'Ami Fritz."

Under Possart's directions was built the Prinz-
regenten Theater at Munich, where under his man-
agement the great works of Wagner and Mozart
have been ably reproduced.

Possart is the author of: "Konigliche Theater-
schule Munchcn," 1877; " Ueber die Gesammtauf-
fiihrung des Goethe'schen Faust," 1895; "Die Neu-
einstudierunguud Neuaufflihrungdes Mozart'schen
Don Giovanni, der Zauberflote, des Wallenstein " ;
"Das Recht des Herzens," drama, 1898; "ImAus-
sichtsvvagen," comedy, 1898; "Aus Meinen Erin-
nerungen," Munich, 1901 (first appeared in the
" Mimchner Allgemeine Zeitung ") ; " Festvortrag in
der Deutschen Shakespeare Gesollschaft zu Wei-
mar," Weimar, 1901. He has also edited Shake-
speare's "King Lear" (1875), "The Merchant of
Venice" (1880), "Coriolanus" (1882), and "Peri-
cles" (1884).

BiBLiooRAPHY : Meuers Konversations-Lexilson ; Drockhaiis
Kimveriiationii-Lexikon .

s. F. T. H.

POSSART, FELIX: German landscape and
genre painter; born in Berlin March 7, 1837. Heat
first intended to pursue a juridical career,* arid held
for some years an office as " Amtsrichter " in his
native town; but at length his love for painting
became so strong that he decided to devote his entire
time to this art. He studied assiduously under
Eschke and Gude, and devoted himself especially to
painting scenes and landscapes of southern Spain,
which country he visited several times, first in 1882.
He traveled extensively also in the Black Forest,
the Bavarian highlands, Switzerland, and Italy.

Of his paintings the following maybe mentioned:
"Interior of Alcazar, Seville"; "Moorish House in
Granada"; "The Lion Court in the Alhambra";
"View of the Alhambra from Darrothal"; "The
Interior of the Cautiva Tower of the Alhambra";
" Frigidarium of the Moorish Bath in the Alhambra " ;
"The Escorial"; " Land.scape of Southern Spain";
"Fort Alicante"; "In the Alhambra's Myrtle-

147

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Posrednik
Potsdam

Grove"; "View of Tangier"; "Christ's Entry into

Jerusalem"; and "The Lord's Supper."

Bibliography: Sinser, AUmmcincs Kllmtler - Lexicon,
Fnuikfort-on-thc-Muin, 1896 ; Meyerx Koiiveraations-Lexi-
kiin, Berlin, 1«97. „ ^

8. F. C.

POSVEL.LER, ABRAHAM ABELE. See

AliKAIIA.M AUKI.K BK.N AUKAUA.M Soi.UMUN.

POTCHI, MOSES: Karaite scholar; lived at

Constantinople in the second half of the sixteenth

century. He belonged to the Muruli family, the

name of which was adopted by his son Joseph.

Simhah Luzki attributes to Potclii the unpublished

work "Shelemut ha-Nefesh," which deals with the

creation of the world, the existence of God, and

similar subjects. A poem by Potchi, eulogizing

the "Sha'ar Yehudah " (Constantinople, 1561) of

Judah Poki, is prefixed to that work.

Bibliography: Simliah Luzki, Orah Zaddikiw,p.2Gn; Furst,
Oifich. (lea Kariiir't. in. ~';i ; Neubaiicr, A^is der Peterslmr-
yn- Iiil>Ui>thek,p.&i; Gottlober, Bihkurct le-Tolcdot ha-Ifa-
ra'im, p. ~04. , ^^

K. I- Bh.

POTIPHAR (-|D"'L:'1D) or POTI-PHERAH

(yiD "aiS) : Name of an Egyptian officer. The form
'•Poliphar " is probably an abbreviation of "Poti-
phcra"; the two are treated as identical in the
Septuagint, and are rendered UeTp£(p^g or U.ETe<ppfi(:.
"Poti-phera" is the Hebrew rendering of the Egyp-
tian "P'-di-p'-K' " = "He whom Ra [d'.c, the sun-
god] gave." This name has not been found in
Egyptian inscriptions; but names of similar form
occur as early as the twenty-second dynasty.

Potiphar was the Egyptian officer to whom Jo-
seph was sold (Gen. xxxvii. 36, xxxix. 1). He is
described as a "saris" of Pharaoh, and as "captain
of the guard" (Hebr. D''n2nn IL'')- The term
" saris " is commonly used in the Old Testament of
eunuchs; but occasionally it seems to stand in a
more general sense for "court official," and some-
times it designates a military officer (II Kings xxv.
19; comp. ib. xviii. 17; Jer. xxxix. 3, 13). The
second title, "captain of the guard," is literally
"chief of the slaughterers," and is interpreted by
some to mean "chief of the cooks" (comp. I Sam.
ix. 23, 24, where n3D = "cook"). The former
is much the more probable meaning here, and is
supported by the closely corresponding title (31
DTinon) of one of the high military officers of
Nebuchadnezzar (II Kings xxv. 8, 10; comp. Dan.
ii. 14). Nothing, however, of this office is definitely
known from Egyptian sources.

Poti-pherah was a priest of On (Heliopolis), whose
daughter Asenath became the wife of Joseph (Gen.
xli. 45, 50; xlvi. 20). See also Josefii.

E. G. H. J. F. McL.

POTOCKI (POTOTZKI), COUNT VALEN-
TINE (ABRAHAM B. ABRAHAM) : Polish
nobleman and convert to Judaism; burned at the
stake at Wilua May 24, 1749. There are several
versions of the remarkable story of this martyr,
whose memory is still revered among the Jews of
Russia as that of the Ger Zedek (righteous prose-
lyte). A Russian translation, from the Polish of
Kraszewski's " Wilna od Poczatkow Jego do Roku
1750," in which he claims to have followed a
Hebrew original, relates that young Potocki and

his friend Zaremba, who went from Poland to study
in Paris, became interested in an old Jew whom
they found poring over a large volume when they
entered his wine-shop. His teachings and explana-
tions of the Old Testament, to whicii they, us Roman
Catholics, were total strangers, so impreswd them
that Ihey prevailed upon him to instruct them in
Hebrew. In si.\ months they accjuired i)nilieien<-y in
the Biblical languagetind a strong inclination toward
Judaism. They resolved to go to Amsterdam, whicli
was one of the few places in Europe at that time
where a Christian could openly embrace Judaism.
But Potocki first went to Rome, whence, after con-
vincing himself that he cfnild no longer remain a
Catholic, he went to AiiLStcrdam and took u\um him-
self the covenant of Abraham, assuming the name
of Abraham ben Abraham.

After residing a short time in Germany, which
country he disliked, he returned to Poland, anrl f(jr
a time lived among the Jews of the town of llye
(government of Wilna), some of whom seemed to be
aware of his identity. While in the synagogue of
llye one daj' he was irritated into commenting se-
verely upon the conduct of a boy wlio was disturb-
ing those occupied in prayer and study. The boy's
father was so enraged that he informed the authori-
ties that the long-sought "Ger Zedek " was in llye.
Potocki was arrested ; the entreaties of his motlier
and friends failed to induce him to return to Chris-
tianity; and after a long imprisonment he was
burned alive in AVilna, on the second day of Sha-
bu'ot. It was unsafe for a Jew to witness the burn-
ing ; nevertheless one Jew, Leiser Zhiskes, who had
no beard, went among the crowd and succeeded by
bribery in securing some of the ashes of the martyr,
which were later buried in the Jewish cemetery.
A letter of pardon from the king arrived too late
to save the victim.

Potocki's comrade Zaremba returned to Poland
several years before him, married the daughter of a
great nobleman, and had a son. He remained true
to the promise to embrace Judaism and took his
wife and child to Amsterdam, where, after he and
his sou had been circumcised, his wife also became
a Jewess; then they went to Palestine.

There is reason to believe that the actual teacher
of Potocki, perhaps the one who induced the two
young noblemen to embrace Judaism, was their
own countryman Menahem Man ben Aryeh Lob of
Visuu, who was tortured and executed in Wilna at
the age of seventy (July 3. 1749). Tradition has
brought this Jewish martyr into close connection
with the "Ger Zedek," but fear of the censor has pre-
vented writers in Russia from saying anything ex-
plicit on the subject.

bibliography: Fiienn, Kmiah .VeVmaiia/i, p. 120. Wllna,
1W30; Gersoni, The Converted -V'^^"'.''"- !" .^^I'lV'*^;^,;/
Jewish Life and Hixtoni. I'P- li<.---i-». ^''«" V"""',-^::;*'!" I'
witz. 'Aminude bet Yehudah. p. 4tia, Amsterilain, l.«J : Kra*-
zewskl. Yevreiiskava lUhlioteka. ill. f>;:»5: B. ManUel-
stamm, Hazmi la-Mo'cd, p. l.'», Vienna, lb. ..
n. K. ■ ^- ^^ '•

POTSDAM : City in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg. It was the residence of the electors
of Brandenburg; and here the Great Elector. Fred-
erick William, ratified May 20. 1671. tlic agreement
by which he permitted fifty families of the Vienna

Potsdam
Pottery

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

148

exiles (comp. Jew. Encyc. ii. 329, iii. 70) to settle in
bis dominions. David Michel is the first Potsdam
Jew of whom there is record. His name occurs in a
document of 1690. lu the catalogue of the visitors to
the Leipsic fair, Jews of Potsdam are mentioned in
1693 and 1694. The foundation of the congregation,
however, dates from the lirst half of the eighteenth
century, when David Hirsch(Pr:lger) received (1730)
special" letters of protection to enable him to estab-
lish silk- and velvet-factories in Potsdam. Other
Jewish manufacturers, similarly privileged, soon
followed ; and in 1743 the congregation, numbering
ten families, acquired a cemetery. In 1754 it en-
gaged a hazzan, who acted as se.xton also, and in
1760 a rabbi, Jehiel Michel, from Poland, who offi-
ciated until 1777. In 1767 the first synagogue was
dedicated in the presence of the Prince and Princess
of Prussia. The report, however, that King Fred-
erick the Great erected this synagogue at his own
e.xpense is a legend, based on the fact that he granted
the congregation a loan.

The various Jew taxes, to which in 1769 the com-
pulsory purchase of china from the royal porcelain-
factory (comp. Jew. Encvc. v. 502b) was added,
and the heavy burden of the mortgage on the syna-
gogue, brought the congregation to the verge of
financial ruin ; but the new constitution, passed in
1776, and the repeal of the law compelling the Jews
to buy the royal china restored order. Both Fred-
erick William II. and Frederick William III. showed
their interest in congregational affairs by granting
subsidies for the remodeling of the synagogue.
The congregation showed its patriotism by giving
up the silver ornaments of the synagogue for the
war fund in 1813. One of its members, Marcus
Liebevmann, was killed in the war of 1813, and thir-
teen members of the congregation fought in the
Franco-Prussian war (1870-71), one of whom was
decorated with the Iron Cross for bravery displayed
on the battlefield of Spichern.

A new constitution was adopted in 1888; and the
new synagogue, built at a cost of 120,000 marks,
was dedicated June 17, 1903. In Jan., 1905, the city
council passed an ordinance prohibiting the Shehi-
TAH (" AUg. Zeit. des Jud." Jan. 13, 1905).

Of the rabbis of Potsdam after the above-men-
tioned Jehiel Michel the following are known:
David Koppel Reich, who was bookkeeper in one of
the manufactories and officiated temporarily after
Jehiel Michel's death; Samuel Apolant (1851-57);
Tobias Cohn (1857-96); Paul Rieger (1896-1902);
and Robert Kaelter (since 1902). Of the prominent
men who were born at Potsdam may be mentioned :
the engraver Abraham ABn.\n.\MsoN ; the inventor
of galvanoplasty, Moritz Hermann von Jacobi; his
brother, the mathematician Karl Gustav Jakob
Jacobi; the poet, physician, and privy councilor
B. Zelenziger; and the medical professors Julius
Hirsciiberg, Martin Bernhardt, and Max Wolff.

In 1900 the Jews of Potsdam numbered 442 in a
total population of about 60,000.

BiRi.iofjRAPHY: K&pMer, Gesch. der JUdischen Gemeinde zu
Potsdam, Potsdam, 1903.
D. R. Ka.

POTTERY.— Biblical Data : There can be no
doubt Uiat the Israelites first learned the art of ma-

king pottery on Palestinian soil. The nomad in his
continual wanderings can not use the breakable
wares of the potter; and the proper vessels for the
latter's use are tlie leathern bag and hollowed fruits
or wooden bowls. Even after their settlement the
Israelites seem to have maintained for some time a
disinclination to the use of earthen vessels; and
mention of earthenware occurs in only one passage
in early literature (II Sam. xvii. 28). Naturally the
Canaanites were the teachers of the Israelites; but
no doubt the Canaanites in their turn learned the
potter's art from the Phenicians, who supplied for-
eign countries with pottery, and who, perhaps, even
went through Palestine peddling their wares. The
handicraft docs not appear to have developed until
the time of the later kings.

The process by which pottery is made was famil-
iar to the Prophets and to the people. They under-
stood the kneading of the potter's clay ("homer"),
which was trodden by the feet (Isa. xli. 25); and
Jeremiah mentions the potter's disks ("obnayim"),
which, as the name indicates, were two in niunber,
revolving one above the other. The lower and
larger disk was set spinning by the feet, while the
clay, placed on the upper disk, which followed the
motion of the lower one, but could be turned in the
opposite direction also, was molded with the hands
into the desired shape. The process of burning and
glazing vessels is not mentioned until considerably

Royal Stamp on Jar-Handle.

(In the poas«ffiion of the Palestine Exploration Fund.)

later (comp. Prov. xxvi. 23; Sirach [Ecclus.] xxviii.
34); but there can be little doubt that the Canaan-
ites, and through them the Israelites, learned this
part of the craft from the Phenicians at a rather
early period. In Jeremiah's time a potter's work-
shop was probably located in one of the valleys in
the neighborhood of the Potters' Gate (comp. Jer.
xviii. 1 et aeq., xix. 1).

The custom of making colored drawings on the
vessels was probably also of Phenician origin, and
was known at an early period, certainly in pre-exilic
times. Some finds at Jerusalem, showing careful
execution, must, from their location in the lowest
strata, be assigned to the time of the Kings. Com-
pared with these the finds at Tell al-Hasi seem very
primitive. Perhaps the former are of Phenician
workmanship and the latter are domestic imitations.
The ornaments in both cases are purely geometric.

It is known that earthenware was frequently used
as a symbol of fragility and of that which may be

I'dTTKRY UISCOVKKKI) IX PaLESTI.SK.

1. Pre-Israelitic Period. 2. Jewisili Period. 3. Si-leiicldun Period.

(From Bliss and Macalister, ** Excaviittuns iii-PAlrttiiie.")

Pottery
Poverty

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

150

quickly and completely destroyed (couip. Ps. ii. 9;
Isa. xxii. 34; Jer. xix. 11). God, as the Creator,
especially as the Creator of man and as the Lord
■who decides the fate of individuals and nations ac-
cording to His judgment, is often likened to a potter
(Isa. xxix. 16, xlv. 9, Ixiv. 8; Jer. xviii. 6, xix. 11;
Sirach [Ecclus.] xxxiii. 13). It is probable that the
reference in Zech. xi. 13 is to the Temple treasure
(" ha-ozar ") and not to the potter (" yozer ").

E. G. H. W. N.

Early Pre-Israelitic Period : This period be-
gins with the earliest known pottery (probably be-
fore 1700 B.C.), and ceases with the appearance of
Phenician and Mycenoean influence (al)out 15<X) B.C.).
In deteriorated forms some of the types continued
later. The chief characteristics are as
Various follows: (1) the absence of wheel-
Strata, turned ware, except possibly late in
the period ; (2) the peculiar ledge-
handles fixed on the sides of jars, found also in the
early Egyptian ware which connects with the first-
dynasty pottery; (3) methods of heating the sur-
face, such as scraping with a comb, and the use of
burnished lines on a colored face; and (4) potters'
marks, comparable with early Egyptian specimens.
Late Pre-Israelitic Period: The beginning of
this period is marked by the appearance of the
above-mentioned foreign influence on the pottery of
Palestine, about 1500 b.c. How far this influence
extended into the Jewish monaichy is yet to be de-
termined ; the choice of the name therefore was sug-
gested by the origin of the types. Among the
characteristics of the period may be noted the fol-
lowing: (1) almost universal use of the wheel; (2)
direct Cypriote (or Phenician) and Mycenaean im-
jiortations ; (3) local imitations of these ; (4) introduc-
tion of the lamp in its earliest known form (an open
bowl with pinched spout and rounded bottom); (5)
small teraphim or idols; and (6) painted ornamenta-
tion, consisting of lines, zigzags, spirals, birds and
other animals, etc. This is perhaps the most unique
characteristic. "While certain resemblances to Pheni-
cian, Mycena'an, and esi)ecially Cappadocian mo-
tives may be traced, the differences are so great as
to permit one to regard this foin\ of decoration as
a native production.

Jewish Period : It has been intimated that the
line of demarcation between this period and the
preceding one is not distinct. By Jewish pottery
are meant those types in which the foreign influence
is almost lost, or at best appears in deteriorated
forms, and which certainlv prevailed during the
later years of the Jewish kingdom, though some of
them also survived its overthrow. The forms are,
as a rule, rude and ungainly, and decoration, except
in the style of burnished lines, is rare. Some of tiie
minute flasks are hand-made; but the pottery is
generally wheel-turned. Greek importations occur.
Tlie most interesting features of this period are
the stamped jar-handles, falling into the following
two groups: (1) Handles stamped with the II<brew
seal of the ])otter or owner. On some of these the
Phenician characters arc exquisite. Though the
Divine Name (in' or n^) often occurs in compounds,
yet in the .same stratum with these liandles are often
associated heathen teraphim and other symbols.

(2) Royal stamps. The oval stamped on the handles
contains one of two symbols, both of which are Egyp-
tian in origin. The first represents a
Character- scarabteus with four extended wings;
istics the second, a winged disk. In all
of Jewish cases are found two lines of writing;

Pottery, above the symbol occurs the word "[^D^
("to the king''); below, the name of
a town. Although these handles have been found
at seven sites, only four ]ilace-uames occur: p2n
(Hebron), e)'T (Ziph), n^)^ (Shocho), and D'ki^D
(Memshath ?). The first three are Scriptural names ;
the last appears nowhere in the Bible. Bli.ss regards
the place-names as indicating the sites of royal pot-
teries (see the obscure reference in I Chron. iv. 23).
Macalister would consider them to be the centers of
districts in which taxes in kind destined for the cap-
ital were collected (comp. I Kings iv. 7-19 with II
Chron. xxxii. 28). According to the first sujiposi-
tion, the inscription would represent a dedication of
the jars to the king by the roj-al potters; according
to the second, a dedication of their contents by the
taxed districts. The jars to which the handles were
affixed are dated tentatively between 650 and 500
B.C., though they may be earlier. Thus " the king "
ma}' be relegated either to the later Jewish mon-
archj' or to the period of Persian sovereignty. The
representation of the scarabtcus and winged disk
might be used as an argument in favor of a period
of heathen domination.

Seleucidan Period : While some of the Jewish
types come down to this period, it is chiefly char-
acterized by Greek importations and imitations.
Among the former are the well-known Rhodian am-
phorte with inscribed handles.

The post-Seleucidan pottery has not been sys-
tematically studied ; but it may be roughly divided
into Roman, Byzantine, and Arab. Stamps of the
tenth legion (Fretensis) are common near Jerusa-
lem. Byzantine times show lamps with Christian
inscriptions. The geometrical decoration of the
Arab period should be carefully distinguished from
the pre-Israelitic ornamentation, to which it bears a
superficial resemblance.

The pottery of southern Palestine from early pre-
Israelitic times to the close of the Seleucidan period
has been systematically studied in a series of ex-
cavations undertaken by the Palestine Exploration
Fund. Petrie led the way in 1890, in a reconnais-
sance of Tell al-Hasi (Lachish), where he was fortu-
nate in finding the steep eastern slope so encroached
upon by the stream that the various strata of the
mound (60 feet in height) were practically laid bare.
Both Phenician and Greek types were found, serv-
ing to date approximately the local types with
which the}' were associated or which they overlaid.
Bliss, sj'stematically cutting down (1891-93) one-
third of the mound, was able not only to verify Pe-
trie's general chronological scale, but also to add to
the material available for stud)'. Owing to the dis-
turbed nature of the soil, tlie excavations at Jeru.sa-
lem (conducted by Bliss and Dickie, 1894-97) were
of little help in the systematization; but the latter
was greatlv forwarded bv the finds in the four strat-
ilied moimVls of Tell Zakariya. Tell al-Safi, Teil al-
Judaidah, and Tell Sandahaunah, excavated by Bliss

151

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pottery
Poverty

and Macalister in 1898 and 1900. In 1902 :Macalistor
began the excavation of Gezer, where mucli earl}-
))oltciy has also been found. On the basis of tliese
<liscoveries (prior to tlie campaign still [1905] in
progress) Bliss and Macalister luive classified the
pre Roman pottery of southern Palestine under the
four chronological groups mentioned above: (1)
early pre-Israelitic; (2) late pre-Israelitic ; (3) Jew-
ish ; and (4) Seleucidau.

BMii.iocRAPiiY : W. M. Flinders Petrio. TcU-cl-Hei^y (Lachish),
l.iiiidiiii. IMtl : F. .(. Bliss, .1 Mound of Many Ci/iV.s, or TeU-
(l-llctii K.rvavatal, lb. 189-t; Ulein and U. A. S. Macalister,
K.rvavations in Palestine, 1898-1900, ib. 1903; F. B. WeU'li,
Tlie Influence of the^^qean CiviUzation on Soutlicrn Pal-
estine, in Pal. K.rplor. Fund. Qxinrterlu ^t<^te>nent.\'.)('\0.p.
3-12. A collection of Palestinian pottery, arranged and classi-
fied by Bliss, may be seen In the government museum In Jeru-
salem.

K. G. H. F. J. B.

POULTRY.— Biblical Data: The rearing of
<lonu'stic fowl for various uses became a part of
Palestinian husbandry only after the return from
Babylon (see Cock; Hen); but from Isa. Ix. 8 it
appears that at the time when that passage was
written the dove was to a certain degree domesti-
cated (see Dove). The " fowls " (" zipporim ") served
■on tlie table of Nehemiah (Neh. v. 18) probably in-
cluded pigeons and other small birds. Besides there
are mentioned as having been used for food the quail
(Ex. xvi. 13 and parallels) and " fatted fowl " (" bar-
buiim abusim"; I Kings v. 3 [A. V. iv. 23J).

As all birds not named in the catalogues of Lev.
xi. and Deut. xiv. were clean, they and their eggs
no doubt largely entered into the diet of the He-
brews from early times, and the requisite supply
must have been obtained by fowling. The numer-
ous terms for the instruments of fowling and hunt-
ing, and the various metaphors derived

Fowling' from them, testify, in fact, to the vogue
and of these practises in ancient Israel.

Hunting. There were the net (" reshet " ; Prov.
i. 17; Hos. vii. 12, etc.), and the trap
and snare (" pah " and " mokesh " ; Amos iii. 5, etc.).
Besides there are mentioned "hebel" (Ps. cxl. 6;
liroperly "rope" or "cord"; A. V. "snare"; R. V.
'■ noose ") ; " zammim " (Job xviii. 8-10 ; A. V. " rob-
bers"; R. V. "snare"); and "sebakah" {ib.; A. V.
"snare"; R. V. "toils"). The bow and sling
(" kela' '") were possibly also emploj'ed to bring down
birds. The use of a clecoy is perliaps alluded to in
Jer. v. 26 (comp. Ecclus. [Siracli] xi. 30; see Pak-
thidge). For modern methods of fowling in Pal-
estine see Tristram, "Nat. Hist." p. 168.

The use of eggs is perhaps indicated in Isa. x. 14
and Job vi. 6 (comp. Jer. xvii. 11). The law of
Deut. xxii. 0, in order to forestall blunting of the
tender feelings as well as the extermination of cer-
tain species of birds, prohibits the taking of the
molher and young from the nest at one and the
same time (known in later rabbinical literature as
the ordinance of "sliilluuh ha-kan ").
In the Talmud: Tiie Talmud gives the num-
ber of unclean birds after the Pentateuch lists as
twenty-four, and then adds: "the clean birds are
without number " (Hul. 63b). The characteristics of
the clean birds are given {ib. 65a) as follows: (1) they
do not kill or eat other birds; (2) they have a super-
numerary toe ("ezba' yeterah "), which is inter-

preted to mean either an additional toe behind the
others, or an elongation of tlic middle toe; (3) tliey
are supplied with a crop; (4) liieir stomachs have
two skins, which can be easily .separated; (5) they
catch food thrown to tiiem in the air. but bring it
to the ground, when they divide it witlj their bills
before eating it, while the unclean birds devour it
in the air, or press it witii one foot to the ground
and tear it with their bills. Many birds are de-
clared to be doubtful (//;. 62a, b). A distinction is
made (ib. 42a) between large fowl ("'of ha-gas,"
geese, hens) and small ("'of ha-dalj," doves, spar-
rows). "Zippor," denoting in the Old Testament
the sparrow and other small birds, occurs in the
Talnuid as a general name for any clean bird (ib.
139b).

The fowl mentioned as domesticated are the dove,
the goose, the hen (see the special articles thereon),
and the duck ("bar aweza"; Bezaii 32b; B. K. 92b;
Hul. 62b). The flesb of fowl was es-
Do- jiecially the fond of the aged and feeble

masticated (Yer. Peah viii. 21a); otlierwisc it was
Fowl. considered inferior to the meat of cat-
tle, so that after blood-letting the lat-
ter was preferred (Me'i. 201)). City residents, being
wealthy, consumed much poultry (Bek. 10a). The
art of fattening fowl is described in Shab. 155b.
The rearing of poultry in Jerusalem, and by priests
throughout Palestine, was forbidden on account of
the possible pollution of holy things (B. K. 79b)

Fowling is often referred to in the Talmud (comp.
Pes. 23a; Bezah 24a). metaphorically in Ab. iii.
20. In addition to the weapons of the fowler (and
hunter) mentioned in the Old Testament there are
enumerated, in Kelim xxiii. 4, the " maddaf " (sloping
board), "palzur," "agon," "ratub," and "kelub"
(basket). The "nesheb" was especially used for
catching pigeons (B. K. 89b). Birdlime C'debek")
and the rod ("shafshef ") on which it was smeared
are mentioned (Shab. 78b), and the art of falconry is
referred to (ib. 94a). The ordinance of "shiiluah
ha-kan " is confined by the Talmud to clean birds
(Hul. 138b). See, also, Eggs.

BiBLiOGR.vPUT : Tristram, iVat. Hist. p. 162; Lewysobn. Z. T.

pp. 4. 7, 11, 15, 45, 160.

E. c. I. M C.

POVERTY : Condition or proportion of poor in
a population. Although the riches of the Jews
have passed into a proverb, all social observers are
agreed that the Jews have a larger proportion of
poor than any of tlie European nations among whom
they dwell. In 1861 the number of poor, i.e.. to-
tally dependent, among the adult workers of the
Jewish population of Prussia was 6 46 per cent, as
against 4. 19 per cent in the general population. On
the other hand, there were among the Jews of Italy
in 1871 only .09 per cent who were technically
paupers, as compared with 2.2 per cent in the gen-
eral population. In 1871 in Budapest 24 2 per cent
of the 21,071 adult Jewish workers were classified as
among the poor, while in 1883 there were in London
no less than 11,099 in 47,000. or 23 per cent, who
accepted some form of charity (Jacobs. "Studies in
Jewish Statistics," p. 12). In 1869 Jeittclesestimated
that 43 iier cent of the Jewish population of Vienna
lived iu two rooms or less. In Holland the propor

Poverty-
Prague

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

152

tion of poor among the Jews is statistically deter-
mined by the census. In that of 1900 there were
found to be no fewer than 12,500 poor in Amster-
dam; 846 in The Hague; l.ToO in Rotterdam; 663
in GrOningen ; and 349 in Aruhem (" Joodsche Cou-
rant," 1903, p. 44), or 16,108 {i.e., 22 per cent) in
72,378, the total Jewish population of these cities.

In 1898 inquiry was made by the Jewish Coloni-
zation Association into the social condition of the
Jews in Russia, extending over territory which in-
cluded 709,i48 Jewish families, of which 132,855
applied for gratuitous mazzot at Passover. The
percentage varied throughout the country: in the
government of Poltava it was 24.5; in Lithuania 22;
while in the whole Pale of Settlement it was 19.4,
and in Poland 16.9. The percentage of Jews ac-
cepting this form of charity in small towns was
18.2; in middle-sized towns, 19.4; and in large
towns 30.3, the poor tending to crowd into the larger
centers. The number of Russo-Jewish poor has in-
creased in recent years. Whereas in 1894 there were
85,183 families which could be clas.scd

I^ussian under this head, the number had in-
Statistics. creased to 108,922 in 1898, forming 27.9
per cent of the Jewish population.
The same tendency is shown by the evidence of free
burials. Thus in 1901, of the 5*, 523 funerals in War-
saw, 2,401, that Is, 43.5 per cent, were free, whereas
in 1873 the percentage was only 33.6. (In London
in 1903 the free funerals numbered 1,008 in a total
of 2.049, or almost 50 per cent.) In 1899 in Odessa
1,880 funerals in 2,980 were free. In the same town
during the winter of the year 1902 no less than
32.31 percent of the Jewish population, or 48,500
in 150,000, had to appeal for coal and mazzot to
the benevolence of their coreligionists ("Judische
Statistik," p. 287). This is not to be wondered at,
since the best-paid workers among them received
on an average $2.75 a week; while in the cork
industries girls received from §3.25 to $4 a month.
Tchubinsky found the average income for a Jewish
family in the Ukraine to be about 290 rubles (E.
Reclus, "Nouvelle Geographie," v. 518), and hence
was not surprised to find 20,000 mendicants in the
eastern part of that territory {ib.). Altogether the
evidence is overwhelming as to the very large pro-
portion of poor among Jews throughout Europe.
The Jewish Colonization Association estimates that
7 per cent of Russian Jews are absolutely supported
by the rest, whereas in the general population of
England only 2.4 per cent, and in Germany only 3.4
per cent, are in that dependent condition.

In the Polish provinces the maximum of tailors'
earnings is under 6 rubles a week; that of shoe-
makers is even less. In the southwestern provinces
of Russia tailors' earnings range from 150 to 300
rubles a year; shoemakers' from 100 to 300. In the
southern provinces over 80 per cent of the artisan
Jewish population earn less than 400 rubles per an-
num. Seamstresses rarely earn more than 100 rubles
a year; and instances are recorded where they have
been paid as little as 4 copecks (2 cents) for making
a shirt ("Jew. Chron." Nov. 4, 1904).

It is, however, in Galicia that the greatest
amount of evidence of pauperism among Jews is
found. .The " Juden-Elend " there has passed into

a proverb. This accounts for the fact that of 60,763
Jews and Jewesses who migrated from Galicia in
1899 and 1900, no less than 29,980 were without oc-
cupation, though this number, it should be added,
included wives and children.

BiBLiOGRAPHT : Jacobs, Studies in Jewifih Statistics, p. 31 ;
Jlldixche Statistik. pp. 287-292; Collection of Materials on
the Economic Pnxition of the Jews in Russia, St. Peters-
burg, 1904.

A. J.

POWER OF ATTORNEY. See Attorney,

PoWKli t)F.

POZNANSKI, SAMUEL: Arabist, Hebrew
bibliographer, and authority on modern Karaism;
rabbi and preacher at the Polish synagogue iu
Warsaw ; born at Lubranice, near Warsaw, Sept. 3,
1864. After graduating from the gymnasium of
Warsaw, he continued his studies at the university
and the Hochschule fQr die Wissenschaft des Juden-
thums in Berlin, forming an intimate friendship with
his teacliw Moritz Steinsehneider, for whose eighti-
eth birthday in 1896 he edited the "Festschrift."

Poznanski is the author of the following w^orks:
"Eine Hebraische Grammatik desDreizehnten Jahr-
hunderts" (Berlin, 1894); "Mose b. Samuel ha-Ko-
hen ibn Chiquitilla Nebst den Fragmenlen Seiner
Schriften" (Leipsic, 1895); "Isak b. Elasar ha-
Levis Einleitimg zu Seinem Sephath Jether" (Bres-
lau, 1895); " Aboul Farad j Haroun ben al-Faradj le
Grammairien de Jerusalem et Son Mouschtaniil "
(Paris, 1896); " Die Girgisfini-IIandschriften im Brit-
ish Museum" (Berlin, 1896); "Karaite Miscellanies"
(Loudon, 1896); "Mesroial Okbari, Chef d'une Secte
Juive du Neuvii^me Siecle" (Paris, 1896); "The
Anti-Karaite Writings of Saadjah Gaon " (London,
1897); "Jacob ben Ephraim, ein Auti-Kaiaischer
Polemiker des Zehnten Jahrhunderts" (Breslau,
1900, in "Kaufmann Gedenkbuch "); " Perush R.
Sa'adj-aGaon le-Dani'el" (Berdychev, 1900); "Tan-
houm Yeruschalmi et Son Commentaire sur Ic Livre
de Jonas" (Paris, 1900); "Miscellen tiber Saadja
III. : Die Beschreibung des ErlOsungs-Jahres in
Emunoth we-Deoth ch. 8" (Breslau, 1901): "Tehil-
lah le-Dawid" (Kaufmann) in Hebrew (Warsaw,
1902); "Le Commentaire sur le Livre d'Osee par
Eliezer (ou Eleazar) de Beaugency " (Berdychev,
1902); "Anan et Ses Ecrits" (Paris, 1902); "Der
Arabische Kommentar zum Buche Josua von Abfl
Zakarja Jahja Ibn Bal'am " (Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1903); "Ephrajim ben Schemarja de Fostat et
1 'Academic Palestinienne " (Paris, 1904); "Schcch-
ters Saadyana" (Frankfort - on -th6- Main, 1904);
"Fragments de I'Exegese Biblique de M«naheiu bar
Chelbo" (Warsaw, 1904); "Ibn Hazm iibcr JU-
dische Sekten " (London, 1904). He has contributed
also numerous articles to the "Monatsschrift,"
Stade's "Zeitschrift," "Ha-Goren" (Berdychev).
" Ha-Zefirah " (Warsaw), " Revuedes Etudes Juives,"
and the "Jewish Quarterlj' Review."

n. H. A. Kr.

PRADO, MOSES : Christian convert to Juda-
ism; lived in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies, first at Marburg, Germany, and later at Sa-
lonica, Turkey. His Christian name was Conrad
Victor, and he filled the position of professor of the
classic languages at the University of Marburg.

163

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poverty
Praffue

Finding it impossible to accept the dogma of tlic
Trinity and of the divinity of Jesus, lie went, in
1607, to Salonica, where Ik; embraced Judaism, as-
suming the name of Moses Piado. After a residence
of seven years in that city he began to solicit per-
mission from the Duke of Ilesse to return to Mar-
burg, where he had left his wife. In a series of
letters addressed by him to an old friend at ^larburg
named Ilartmauu, Moses justifies himself for em-
bracing Judaism. The trutli of Ju(hiism, he declares,
is beyond tiucstion, since botii tiie Mohammedans
and the Christians are compelled to acknowledge it.
He only asks the Duke of Hesse to show liimself as
tolerant as the sultan, who grants freedom of con-

himself more entirely to his increasing clerical
duties. Professor Prag numlered many Christian
divines among his jmpils. lie was a member of the
Liverpool Literary and Piiilosoiiliical Society and
served upon its council; he translated some Pheni-
cian inscriptions said to have been found in Bra/.il.
and the inscription on tiie Moabite Stone.

Buu.iooKAiMiY : Jew. Chron. Dec. 31. 1881 ; Jew. ir<.rW. Jan.

tJ, IStCi.

J. (;. L.

PRAG, JOSEPH: English communal and
Zionist worker; liornal Liverjjool inlH.W; educated
at the Liverpool Institute and at Queen's College,
Liverpool. Prag has long been a lea<ier in Zionist

Plan of the City of Prague in 1649. Star Shows position of the Jewish Quarter.

(From a contemporary print.)

science to every man. The desired permission was
refused, and Moses remained at Salonica until his
death.

Bibliography: Schudt, Compendium HiMnrice Juf1nic(r. p.
494 ; idem, Deliriw Philol(>(!ic(r, pp. 2:^9 et seq.; Basnage,
Histinte lies Juifx. xiv. 844 ; Diefenbach, Judre^iK Oniverms.
p. 141 ; H. L. Benthfm, Be Statu Beluil Ecrlesinstien et
SrJiiila.*ticii,ii. 2ti(); Carenius. AnimadvcrsiDiies HMorico-
Philiddiiiccc, vlli. 218 ct scfj.
D. I. Bu.

PRiEFECTUS JUD^ORUM, See Mendel.

PRAG, JACOB: Professor of Hebrew and rabbi
at Liverpool; born at Danzig 1816; died at Liver-
pool Dec, 1881. He studied at the rabbinicjd school
at Libau and occupied his first position at the age
of eighteen. He was afterward appointed rabbi
at Shoenek, Prussian Poland. He later was called
to tlic Old Hebrew Congregation at Liverpool to
fill there the post of rabbi, which he held till his
death. Shortly after he had settled in Liverpool he
was elected Hebrew master of the Congregational
School; he filled also the chair in Hebrew at Queen's
College, Liverpool. After twelve years' service he
resigned the latter appointment in order to devote

circles, but does not follow the Herzl movement,
retaining allegiance to the Chovevei Zion, the Eng-
lish section of which he founded. He has con-
tributed to the reviews articles on the question of
the colonization of Palestine. Prag is a member of
the council of the Anglo-Jewish Association and
acted as its delegate in 1901, at Berlin, to the Inter-
national Conference on the Jews of Rumania. He
took an active part in arranging matters after the
anti-Jewish disturbances in Limerick.
Bini.iOGRAPHV : Jcwixh I'cnr Boo/f, 3U&4 (1903-4).
.1. V. E.

PRAGER, MOSES. See Mosks iikn Mena-

HEM.

PRAGUE : Cniiital of Bohemia: the first Bohe-
mian city in which Jews settled. Reference to them
is found as early as 906, when the Jew
Reg-ula- Il)rahiin ibn Jacob mentioned them as
tions freipienting the slave - market. Pe-

of Ottocar. thahiah of Rcgenslmrg started from
Prague on his journey to the East
(1187). In 1254 Ottocar issued certain regidations in
regard to the Jews of Prague (Celakowsky, "Codex

PragTie

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

154

Juris Municipioruin." i. 5), which were summed up,
in 1269, as follows:

( 1 ) The Jews may take Interest at the rate of 5 pfennig in the
mark, 0 pfennig in tlie pound, and 1 pfennig in 3i). C.') When
a Jew is plaintiff against a Christian, lie must produce Christian
as well as Jewish witnesses, and vice versa. (3; A Jew found
with an unmarried Christian woman shall be sentenced to death.
4) A Jew found with a married Christian woman shall be Im-
paled at the cross-roads. (5) Blood-stained garments may not
be taken in pledge. (6) A Christian killing a Jew shall be sen-
tenced to death, u) A Jew taking an ecclesiastical vessel in
pledge shall surrender it on demand without reimbursement.
(8) A Jew called upon to take an <^th in a lawsuit concerning
a Christian shall swear by the Pentateuch.

John "ohnc Land, "in 1336, sentenced severalJews
to be burned at Prague on the accusation of having
partaken of Christian blood; after tiiis he had their
synagogue torn down, where he is said to liave found
much money. Charles IV. coulirmed (1356) the
regulations of Oltocar. In 1361 he personally ex-

In 13'J3 King Wenceslaus IV. renewed the regula-
tions issued by Ottocar; in 1419 the Bohemian Diet
decreed that a Jew could take in pledge only ob-
jects that had been officially inspected. During the
Hussite wars the Jews of Prague sided with the fol-
lowers of Huss and aided them in digging the moat
at the Vyschrad. When this was captured in 1421
the citizens jiUmdered the ghetto. It was again
despoiled in 1448, after Podiebrad captured Prague,
and in 1483. At Podiebrad's request King Ladislaus
(1440-57) issued several decrees relative to the Jews
of Prague, which were based upon the so-called law
of Sdbeslai, dating from the timeoftlie Hussite wars.
During the king's sojourn at Prague, in 1497, he
granted the Jews the privilege of lending money on
lauded property, and on notes of the burgraves of
the city, at 20 per cent interest, "so as to enable
them to support their wives and children." But two

rnoctssiox OF Jews of Prague i.\ Honor of the Birthday of Archduke Leopold, May 17, 1716.

(From Schudt, " Jiidische MerckwurdigkeiteD," 1717.)

amined the notes held by the Jews against citizens
of the Altstadt and canceled those which had not
been paid; five j'ears later he transferred the house
of the Jew Lazarus, in the vicinity of the Church
of St. Nicholas, to the university. Under Wen-
ceslaus IV. an attack upon tlie ghetto occurred.
Some children had thrown stones at the host which
the clergy were carrying in procession on the day
after Good Friday, whereupon the clergy, and espe-
cially Jesek Ctyriiranny, e.\liorted from the pulpit

the people to take vengeance. The pop-
Massacre ulace thcieupon attacked the ghetto
of 1389. (April 18, 1389) and kilKd about 3,000

Jews. On Easter Monday following,
Huler, one of the royal chamberlains, ordered that
the Jews should be legally punished; accordingly
live tons of silver were taken from them, and part
of the glietto was burned. Abigedor Kaha's elegy
nN?nn Sd nx. which is recited on the Day of Atone-
ment. is;i memorial of this persecution.

years afterward he forbade them to lend money
on anv notes whatever.

The council of the Neustadt determined, in 1503,
not to admit any more Jews. The Jews therefore
sent a messenger to King Ladislausll. (1471-1516)
at Budapest; but though they obtained permission to

enter the city, their commercial activity

Persecu- was curtailed in that they were permlt-

tions. ted only to take small arliclesin pledge,

and as interest only three pfennig in the
"schock"; further, they weie permitted to barter
only in the market, and were forbidden to peddle sec-
ond-hand clothes. In 1507 the council of the Altstadt
commanded the Jews to close their .synagogue at
once and leave the ghetto, because they had failed to
pay punctually the yearly dues to the citizens of the
Altstadt. The Jews again sent a messenger to King
Ladislausll., who jiermitted them to ren;ain oneyear
longer in the ghetto. In the meantime two Jews
paiil the interest to the bailies for Mikulasz Hofic.

155

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prague

On St. Philip's day, in 1514, a demented Jew killed
a Christian child with a stone; in punisiinient lie
was broken on the wheel at the foot of tin; .^allows;
only a heavy storm prevented the i)opulace from
falling upon the Jews.

The question as to whether the Jews of the Alt-
stadt were subjects of the king or of the town coun-
cil, which had been in dispute for a long time, was
finally decided in 1515: the Jews were to recognize
the suzerainty of the king, while paying, at the
same time, taxes into the municipal treasury. It
was further decreed, in the same year, that if a Jew
had made a loan on a mortgage, and the debtor
brought the matter before the burgrave, if the Jew

whip ; after which they offered him 100 ducats. On
tins occasion tlie king assigned all the tuxes of the
Jews to the citizen Lew of Prague, who in return
agreed to protect them; and the king repealed the
decree of expulsion which the" KQrschnerCurdinul"
hail obtainc.l the year before from the Uoh.-miun
Diet. On Feb. 5, 1527, the Jews, by command <.f the
authorities, went to the gates of the ghetto to meet
King Ferdinand, the "Jews' flag" being curried at
the head of the procession, before the ral)bi ; llii- king
promised to protect them in tJieir religion and iheir
rights. In 1539 1 lie Jewi.sh merchants were forbidden
to dis])Iay their wares in Ladislaus Hall, which was
used as a conference-room by the Bohemian delegates

^mrch)«fftauf? ^crSiabi^raq irvSont^cicip^pi^ -}^^

EXOms OF JKW.S KROM PKA(UE, VAo.
(From a contemporary print.)

still insisted on being satisfied he should be com-
pelled to leave the city immediately. The Jews were
not allowed to take interest of more than two pfen-
nig in the schock ; they were not permitted to mix
Silesian coin with Kuttenberg money ; and they
were compelled to wear the prescribed mantle and
cap, on pain of a fine of two gro.schen. On March
11, 1518, the Jews of Prague agiecd to pay fifty
schock, Bohemian coin, to the burgrave in return for
having their cemetery and bath protected.

AVhen Louis II., the last Polish king of Bohemia,
entered the city (1522) the Jews met him in solemn
procession, singing psalms, while the rabbi carried
the scrolls of the Law under a silken canopy.
When the Jews requested tiie king to t(Mich the
Torah, he complied, not with his hand, but with his

to the Diet. In 1540 a Jew was caught smelling silver,
and in consequence a second edict of expulsion was

proposed and jiassed by the Diet in

Edict of 1541. Fifteen Jewish families only

Expulsion were jiermitted to remain, down to

1541. 1548, in which year Ferdinand renewed

their letters of convoy and issued
fifteen others. In 1545 all J<'ws leaving tiie city re-
ceived letters of convoy, at the reciuest of the queen
and of Sigismund of Poland. In 1557 seventy houses
were burned in the ghetto of Prague, and in the sjimc
year Ferdinand swore that he wovdd no longer suffer
any Jews in Prague. Mordecai ben Zenml.i Soncixo
thereupon went with a jielition from the Jews to
]^)pe I'ius IV., who released the king from his
oath.

Pra«:ue

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

156

Jewish Butcher of Prague,
Eighteenth Century.

In 1561 the king decreed that the Jews of Prague
should once a week attend a Jesuit sermon in the Sal-
vator-Kirche, and should send their children thither.

In 1566 Maximilian de-
creed that the Jews
should never again be
expelled from Prague.
When the emperor and
empress went to the
cit}', in 1571, they vis-
ited the ghetto, going
on foot through many
of its narrow streets,
the Jews meeting them
in solemn procession.
In 1585 the Jews of
Prague complained of
the burgrave and the
estates to Emperor Ru-
dolph II., who shortly
after ordered the bur-
grave to cease annoy-
ing the Jews. The
intermediaries between
the king and the Jews
in the sixteenth cen-
tury were Jacob Bas-

SEVI VON TREUEXBERG

and Mordecai Marcus
Meisel. In 1621 Wallenstein commanded that no
soldier should sell anything without the consent
of his captain. Shortly after (1623) a soldier stole
some valuable curtains from the palace of Prince
Lichtenstein, selling them to the Jew Jacob ben Jeku-
thiel Thein. When the theft was announced in the
synagogue Tbein offered to restore the goods; but
Wallen.stein insisted on having the Jew punished, and
the elders of the com-
munity had great trouble
in obtaining his release.
They were commanded
to carry ten open bags
of silver (11,000 florins)
from the house of the
citizen Smiricky to the
town hall of the Altstadt
in order that all persons
might take cognizance
of this punishment.
During this time Thein,
guarded by two dogs,
sat under the gallows on
the banks of the Moldau,
before the house of the
executioner. The money
was to be deposited in
the town hall in perpet-
ual memory of the family
of Wallenstein, the in-
terest to be applied to
the aid of Jewish and
Christian young men

studying Catholic theology (see Fcrim Fi^rhang).

The condition of the Jews of Prague became worse

under Ferdinand III. New poll- and war-taxes were

intro<luced in 1638, and in 1639 a tax for the main-

Glld-Cup of the Jewish Shoe-
makers of Prajfue, Eighteenth
Century.

tenance of the army. In 1645 the Jews of the ghetto
were ordered to furnish several hundred uniforms

for the soldiers, but the latter were

Under never quartered in the ghetto. In

Ferdinand 1648 the Jews contributed 1,500 gul-

III. den to the defense of the city. There

were in all 2,000 Jews in the ghetto in
1652, but their ranks were considerably thinned by
the great plague of 1680. The ghetto was destroyed
by tire on June 21, 1689; French incendiaries had
started the fire near the Vaientinkirche, and the
flames spread over the entire ghetto within two
hours; the ten massive synagogues were either
burned to shells or reduced to ashes. One hundred
Jews who had sought refuge in the synagogue near
the cemetery were caught under the roof as it fell
in. Some escaped with a part of their possessions
to the banks of the Moldau, only to be plundered
by Christians. The Jews found shelter among the
Christians for the next three months.; but the arch-

d:-

-^/j, . U% W-'

^^ml

The Altneuschule, Prague, from the West.

(From a photograph.)

bishop finally forbade them to accept such hospital-
ity, on the ground that they derided tlie Christian re-
ligion ; the Jews then removed to a place behind the
Spitalthor. By order of the emperor the houses of
the Jews were rebuilt of stone, this work being com-
pleted in 1702; the ghetto was then separated from
the Altstadt by a wall which was carried down to the
Moldau.

In 1703 the Jewry received a new constitution
and a new Jewisli magistracy. The year 1735 was
marked by the refusal of the Jews to pay their per-
sonal tax (" mekes "). During the wars between the
empress Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great,
1740-44 and 1757, Prague was besieged by the
French. After its capture those Jews who had
been among the defenders were obliged to pay large
sums as a war indemnity, and in spite of their
friendly attitude toward the invaders they were
cruelly treated. A Jewess in whose shop a French

157

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Praerue

lady had left 10 gulden was lianged in tlie Neu-
stadt in 1742 ("Kobe? 'al Yad," viii. 13). After
the departure of the French the Jews made their
peace with Maria Tiieresa, through the intercession
of tlie primator Frankel ; for the Jews were re-
proached with having assisted officially at the coro-
nation of the Bavarian elector as King of Bohemia.
When Fredericli forced the city to capitulate, the
populace turned again.st the Jews, and a massacre
was averted only by the appearance of General Ilar-
rach with a detachment of soldiers. But the Jews did
not escape the
danger entirely.
For when Fred-
erick granted
freedom to the
nobility, the
magistrates, and
the university,
he took a similar
attitude toward
the Jews, even
ordering the
soldiers to re-
store to the Jews
everything they
had taken from
them; and on ac-
count of this fa-
vorable attitude
the citizens of
Prague suspect-
ed the Jews of
treachery, and
after the depar-
ture of the Prus-
sians the ghetto
was plundered.
The turmoil
lasted for thirty
hours, and the
Jews who had
saved them-
selves were
seized and
branded under
the arm, in or-
der to make
them reveal
their hidden

treasures.

On Dec. 18,
1744, Maria Theresa issued a decree to the effect
that all Jews in Prague and the rest of Bohemia
should leave the country within five weeks. This
decree was promulgated in the ghetto
Edict of and the synagogues. After the ex-
Expulsion pulsion the Jews were permitted to
by Maria return to Prague by dav for the pur-
Theresa, pose of collecting their debts. The
primator Frankel was held to be chiefly
responsible for this decree, because at the time of
the wars he had won the good-will of the Prussians
and Bavarians by gifts of money. The inhabitants
of the ghetto, who numbered at that time 10,000
persons, presented a petition to defer the date of the

The AlUieuscliule, PraRue

(From a photograph.)

expulsion on account of the severity of the winter
weather. As the stadthalter Kolovrut expressed
himself iu favor of lliis jxlition, the date was set
for the end of the February following, and was sub-
sequently postpcjued anotlier month. The Jews left
the ghetto on March 31. and tln-y were not i)erniitt<'d
to return, in spite of the intercession of foreign
princes. Even the petition submitted by the stadt-
halter to permit 800 Jewish families to return was
refused.

But after the ghetto had become deserted, and

tbe pcojjle be-
gan to tear down
and carry away
portions of the
houses, 301 fam-
ilies received
[lermission to
live there, in-
stead of the 50
wliohad been al-
lowed to return
as a result of a
new petition
(Sept.. 1748). A
new community
was founded;
and a tax of
204,000 gulden
was imposed, to
be increased at
the rate of 1,000
gulden a year
after five years.
In 17.54 a large
part of the ghet-
to was destroyed
by fire; but it
did not materi-
ally affect the
Jews, and sev-
eral stone houses
were built im-
mediately after.
The ghetto re-
ceived a special
magistrate in
1784. In 1788
two Jews grad-
uated as physi-
cians from the
Univcrsit}' of
Prague— the first to receive this distinction. In
1790 another Jew received the degree of dt>ctor
of law. The old cemetery in the ghetto was
closed in 1787. Two years later the number of
Jewish families living in Prague was again re-
stricted, and only the eldest son in each family was
permitted to marry. No foreign Jew was permitted
to move into the city until a vacancy had been
created by death, and unless he pos-
The Jo- sessed at' least 20.000 gulden. The
eefstadt. ghetto was called Josefstadt, in honor
of Emperor Joseph II Hut in 1848-
1849, when the equality of all citizens, irrespi-ctive of
creed, was proclaimed, the Jewish community , which

Prag-ue

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

158

then numbered 8,543 persons, was mjule a part
of tliccity; in 1850 the Josefstadt ceased to be a
towusliip, and since then the Jewish town hall has
been used for congregational offices.

The age of the Prague cemetery can not now be
definitely determined, as the oldest tombstones were
destroyed in the massacre of 1389. The first decree
referring to the cemetery dates from the year 1254,
and was promulgated by Przemysl II., who decreed
tliat the Jewish cemetery should not be damaged
or desecrated. Similar decrees referring to Prague
were issued by Charles IV., AVenceshius IV., and
Ladislaus. Ac-
cording to the
historian To-
mekofPragvie,
the greater
part of the
ground c o v -
ered by this
cemetery was
in the begin-
ning of the fif-
teenth century
laid out in gar-
dens belonging
to Christians.
Down to the
time of the
Hussite wars
the Jews are
said to have
had another
cemetery,
called the Ju-
dengarten, be-
hind the walls
of the Alt-
stadt, between
Brenntengassc
and Breiten-
gasse ; it was
destroyed by
Ladislaus in
1478. Jews
from abroad
seem to have
been buried
in the latter
cemetery,
and Jews of

Prague in the former, according to a decree issued
by Przemysl Ottocar II. (1254). The Prague ceme-
tery was desecrated in 1389, and again in 1744 after
the departure of the Croatians.

Tiie most noteworthy tombs in this cemetery are
those of the following: Abigdor b. Isaac Kara (d.
1439); tiie physician Gedaliah 1). Solomon (d. 1486);
Mordccai b. Zeinah ha Kolicn (d. 1591); .Monlecai
Mcisel (d. 1601); Judah LOw ben Bezaleel (d. 1609);
Hendel, daughter of Eberl Groniin and wife of Jacob
B.xssKvi (d. 1628; this tomb is of white marble,
witli an escutcheon — the lion of Bohemia and tlirec
stars); Joseph Solomon Dclmedigo (d. 1655); Simon
Wolf Frankel Spira (d. 1679). Special parts of the
cemetery, were reserved for the several gilds, as

Interior of the Altneuschiile, Prague.

(From a photograph.)

those of the butchers, tailors, shoemakers, and
musicians.

On most of the tombstones there are symbolical
signs: two hands with spread fingers forakohen;
a ewer, with or without basin, for a Levite; a grape
for an ordinary Israelite. A female figure is the
symbol for a virgin, and a similar figure, with arose
in the raised left hand, for a virgin bride. There
are also figures emblematic of the name of the fam-
ily to which the tomb belongs, as a lion, wolf, or
some flower. Czech names also are found there, as
^eeh, ^erna, Mara, Vlk, and Sladka. While the

cemetery was
in use, passing
visitors laid
pebbles upon
the graves of
famous per-
sons, so that
gradually
mounds were
formed ; visit-
ors also left
money on the
graves of their
relatives, as
alms for the
poor who were
too proud to
beg. In the
eighteenth cen-
tury bvnidings
surroundeil the
cemetery on all
sides so that it
could not be en-
larged ; in the
Josefstrasse it
has reached the
level of the
second stories
of the houses.
In 1787 it was
closeil by order
of Joseph II.
Tlic oldest
constitution of
the hebra kad-
dislia is of the
year 1562. One
of the abuses it
was designed to remedy was the blackmail extorted
by the hospital watchmen, who kept the corpses un-
buried till their claims were satisfied. A fund was
established to wliieh the relatives of the deceased
contributed according to their means. Any balance
was to be devoted to the extension of the cemetery,
to the assistance of other communities, or to ]irovi-
ding fuel for the poor at Passover and Tabernacles.
The oldest synagogue is the Altneuschule, near the
entrance to the cemetery. It is ditfi-
The Syna- cult to determine tlie date of the build-
gogues. ing, since its builders did not follow
any certain style. Nine steps lead
from tlie street into a dark vestibule, from wliich
doors open into a square nave, with black walls

159

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prag^ue

and small Gothic wiudows. In the center of
the S3'nagogue there are two rows of pillars run-
ning from east to west, hindering the view of the
Ark. Within the synagogue proper tlierc is no
space reserved for women; Ihey have access, how-
ever, to an outer room. The framework of the roof,
the gable, and the party wall date from the ^liddle
Ages. On thealmennir there is a scarlet flag bearing
a" mageu Dawid " and a Swedish hat, the latter given
as an escutcheon 1)}^ Ferdinand II. in recognition of
the services of the Jews in the defense of Prague
against the Swedes. The flag was presented to the
Jews by Charles IV. This synagogue was the only
building spared wlien the ghetto and the "Tandei-
markt " were plundered (Nov. 27-29, 1744). During
tiie conflagration of 1754 the flames reached the
northern side, but were extingtiished by the Jews at
the peril of their lives. The name " Altneusehule "
seems to have been given to it after an alteration ef-
fected between 1143 and 1171 by Samuel ]Mizrahi(see
"Ben Chananja," 1861, No. 11). There was in this
synagogue an organ which was used on Friday eve-
nings (Scluidt, "Jiidische ISIerckwHirdigkeiten," iv.,
ch. xiv., § 3; vi., ch. x.x.xiv., § 22).

The Altschule is situated in the district of the
Altstadt, and is separated from the former ghetto
by a row of Iiouses inhabited by Christians. It
seems to have belonged to an Oriental congregation,
and dates at least as far back as the mitldle of the
fourteenth century, since it is mentioned in the elegy
of Abigdor Kara. In 1889 it was burned by the popu-
lace. Part of it was again burned in 1516, but it
was completely rebuilt bj^ 1536 and again in 1604.
It was closed by command of the emperor in 1693
because the Jews had built windows in the western
wall, which faced the Geistkirche. Permi-ssion to re-
open it was given only in 1708, at the instance of the
cardinal-bishop and the director Samuel Tau.ssig,
after the windows had been bricked up. It was de-
molished by the Croatiansin Nov., 1744, and was re-
built by the primator Frankel in 1750. It was again
destroyed by tire in 1754. Down to 1689 there was
kept in tliis synagogue a curtain which had been
presented to it by R. ]\Iordecai Speyer of Worms in
1227; it was so beautiful as to excite the admiration
of King Ladislaus.

The Pinkas synagogue was built probably toward
the end of the thirteenth or the beginning of the
fourteentii century by Phinehas Horowitz, and en-
larged and rebuilt by his descendant Aaron ]\Ieshul-
1am in 1535. It escaped the conflagration of 1754,
and was not rebuilt until 1862. Down to the middle
of the eighteenth century a portable organ was kept
in this synagogue; it was carried at the head of pro-
cessions and played on festive occasions — for in-
stance, at the birth of Joseph II. (1741). The syn-
agogue contained also relics of the martyr Solomon
Molko — a caftan of white linen with an embroidered
border of white silk, and a small red damask flag.

The Kiauss synagogue, the finest and largest in
the ghetto, was built in tlie sixteenth century, in
memory of the favor shown to the Jews by Maxi-
milian II. and his wife Maria in going tlirough tlie
ghetto on foot in 1571. It was partially rebuilt in
1694. In 1741 the Bavarians and Saxons demanded
that it should be turned into a granary, and the di-

rectors had to pay 1.000 gulden to avert the desecra-
tion. Otlier synagogues tliat may be mentioned are
the Grosserhof synagogue (.so called after the large
court of the Treuenberg house), the Zigeuner syn-
agogue (named after its builder. Salkind Zigeuner).
the Meisel synagogue and the Hnf r,„. (i„,ti|

built by the jtrimator Meisel; llie . . ued syna-

gogue was useil by the board of ciders, as U con-
nected with the "Balhhaus"). the Popper syna-
gogue, and the Neuschul synagoiruc Ht w.-is'th.-

Wechsler Ciusse Svimgunue, Trague.

(From "Das Pri\i;«r Uftrtlo," 190.1.)

latest to be built and was the private propertv of
Gumprecht Duschenes, or Halfan, down to 1754; it
was burned down, and was rebuilt [date not known]
by David b. Low Segal Kuh).

The Jewish *' Rathliaus" was built in the sixteenth
century by Mordecai Meisel. At first it served chief-
ly for the meetings of the directors of
the community ; subseijuenlly the nib-
binieal court sjit there, after Ferdi-
nand II. had granted to tlie ghetto, in
1627. a special Jewish magistrate and
its own jurisdiction ; before this time court was held
in the synagogue. The dial of the large clock in the

The
"Rath-
haus."

PragTie

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

160

tower is marked iu both Hebrew and Arabic figures.
The bell was recast iu 1745. The " Rathhaus " now
serves as a general communal building.

The following is a list of the most noteworthy rab-
bis of Prague: Abigdorb. Isaac Kara (-1439); Phine-
has b. Jonathan (-1495); Isaac Eisig Margolioth
<-1525) ; Jacob Polak (1525-30) ; Abraham b. Abigdor
(-1542) ; Judah b. Natlian Sekelu (-1550) ; Isaac Eisig
b. Isaiah of Melnik (1553-83); Low ben Bezaleel (d.

In the fifteenth century there were in the ghetto

Jews who knew no other language than Bohemian;

and there were also Jews, coming from

Social Life Spain, who did not know Bohemian;

and Law. thus there was a community within

the community. Difficulties arose in

spite of the religious freedom which the Jews of

the ghetto enjoyed. In 1537 a Jewish couple is

said to have poisoned at the Hradschin a Jewish

Interior of the Synagogue at Konigliche Weinberge, Near Prague.

(From a photograph.)

1609) : Solomon Ephraim Lencyz (1604-19) ; Isaiah ha-
Levi Horowitz (1619-21); Moses b. Isaiah Menahem
Mendel of Poland (1621-27); Lipmann Yom-Tob b.
Nathan Heller (1627-29) ; Simon Wolf Aucrbacii (first
Bohemian " Landesrabbiner" ; 1630-31); Jo.seph b.
Abraham Kalmankes (1631-37); Aaron Simon Spira
<1640-79); 'b. Gabriel Eschkeles (1679-94) ; David
Oppenheim (rabbi and "Landesrabbiner," 1702-36);
Moses Isaac b. Jehiel Michel Spira (" Landesrabbiner,"
1736-49): Ezekiel b. Judali Lob Landau (1754-93);
iSolomon L(iw Hapoport (1840-67); Dr. Marcus
nirsch(1880-H9) ; Dr. Nathaniel Ehrenfeld(since 1890).

youth by the name of Jucliym because he intended
to accept baptism. A Jew is said to have ttese-
craled the stone cross on the bridge, in 1690; there-
fore a Jew was compelled to inscribe the Tetra-
grammaton upon it in golden letters, to prevent
further desecration. On Feb. 21, 1694, a Jew, with
the aid of a certain Kurzhandel, killed his son,
Simon Ahkles, because the youth desired to accept
Christianity. When the deed became known the
father hanged himself; his body was thereupon
dragged tlirougii the city, and his heart was torn
out. The son was solemnly buried, while the bells

161

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prag-ue

of seventy churches were rung. In order to make
it easier for Jews to accept baptism, a hiw was
passed to tlie effect that converts could not be dis-
inherited by their families.

The Jews of Prague were under their own civil
jurisdiction, and tliey enjoyed religious liberty; the
"judex Judueorum" was not always a Christian.
Civil cases were decided by the "Judenmoisterge-
richt " ; the president of this court generally ofliciated
as primator at the same time. Tlie " Judenmeister"
and the communal councilors were elected 1)}' the
Jews. The court generally sat on Sundays, with

The " JudenmeisU-r " and the elders had cliarge of tlie
internal affairs of the ghetto and the culjectiou of
ta.\es (on account of which a riot ocr urnd bifc.rc tlie
council-house in 1508). A "shamnm.sh." a "whul-
klopf.r," a secretary, and a cantor were assigned to
the " Meisterschaftsgerieht." Ritual questions wt-re
decided by the rabbi, who.se eUclion wus conlirnied
by the king and the clmmber, and who supervised
the yesliibali, tlie Talmud Torah, and printing; tlie
last-named was introduced into Prague as early a»
the sixteenth teiitury, the first press being estab-
lished by Gershon ha Kojien Soncino.

1. ilT OF IIIK H.\SbK\ I lloL'tK, l'l;At.,l_h.
(From " Das Prager Ghetto," 1903.)

open doors. In cases relating to money-lending and
pledges a certain day of appearance was set, on
which the bell of the council-house was rung. If
the Christians did not appear on time they forfeited
their pledges. In difficult cases the Christians were
permitted to interrupt the proceedings and appeal
to another court.

The court before which cases between Jews were
brought was called the "Meisterschaftsgerieht."
This court had power to impose the following sen-
tences : the minor excommunication (for 8 days) ; the
intermediate excommunication (for 4 months); the
major excommunication (for a longer period); im-
prisonment in the "katzel " (Bohemian, "koce^ka").
X.— 11

In pursuance of a decree of Ferdinand II. the court
of the ghetto was divided into two sections — the
lower and the higher court. The lower court, sit-
ting every evening, was presided over by the rabbi;
only minor cases were brought before it ; the bigber
court, over which the "Landesrabbiner " and an ab
bet din presided, sat only for imi)ortant cases. The
highest court was that of appeals. The magistracy
was composed of the primator, five justices, six
elders, and twelve associates. Since the time of
Joseph II. the rabbinate has been composed of the
chief rabbi and four associate nibbis. The Jews'
oath, which was required only in the Christian court,
was taken with special ceremonies: the person to

Prague

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

162

whom it was administered stood with bare feet,
clothed only in a shirt, on a swine-skin, with his right
hand on the Bible and his left on his breast, while
a second Jew called down upon him all the curses

of the Bible if

he should swear (
falsely. '

The Jews were I
almost entirely I
excluded from 1
all trades of the
town except
that of butciier-
ing, and they
were not pcr-
initted to belong
to any regular
gild, althougli
the butchers of
the ghetto had
a gild of their
own, their coat
of arms being
the lion of Bo-
hemia with the
superscription
■)K'D("kasher").
However, tiic
Jews soon began
to follow other

trades in secret, and in the beginning of the seven-
teenth century there were Jewish wheelwrights, fur-
riers, hatters, shoemakers, tailors, goldsmiths, and

Tliu Ivubbmcr

(From a photograph

diamond-cutters. Tlie shoemakers of the ghetto also'
had a gild of their own, and a gild-cup. Retail trade
and dealing in spices, velvet, damask, silk, or ribbons-
were forbidden. The chief source of income of the

Jews, therefore,
I wasmouey-lend-
! ing. The great-
est disliouesty
prevailed in thi&
occupation; the
Jews often re-
fused to return
the pledges, and
the Christians,
after sending
servants to pawn
articles, often
dismissed them
and endeavored
to recover the de-
posited objects
without pay-
ment on the plea
that I he servants
had stolen them.
The handling
of coin was a
special source of
income, and the
Jews were often
accused of taking good coin to Poland and returning
with inferior coin to Bohemia. They were free to en-
gage in the profession of music, and Jewish musician*

Gussc, TragLie.

by Dr. \V. Popper.)

Jewish Cemkterv o.\ Josefstrasse, rKA(.i k.

(From " Dm Frsger Ghetto," 1903.)

Shames-Gasse, PRAone.

(From ■' D«8 Pr«(cer Ghetto." 1903.)

Pragne
Prayer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

164

often played at banquets in the palaces of the no-
bility.

There were some liquor-saloons kept by Jews in
the ghetto. In 1650 a decree was issued in which
the judges were enjoined to see that working men
did not spend Sunday mornings in the sjiloons. The
Jews were forbidden, on pain of death, to call them-
selves citizens of Prague. Within the ghetto Jews,
and especially Jewesses, wore the most costly gar-
ments, but outside the ghetto they

Costume, were required to wear their badges.
They had to wear peaked yellow hats;
and if they wished to wear round hats, a peak had
to be fastened upon the crown. The women were
obliged to wear veils fastened above the forehead,
and were not permitted to wear collars. In 1748
and 1760 it was decreed that the men should allow
the beard to grow, and that strips of yellow cloth
should be worn by men upon the left shoulder and
by women in the hair. The first proclamation
against throwing stones at the Jews i.s dated 1077.

The Jews of the ghetto of Prague were known
far and wide as excellent firemen. At every siege
the so-called " R5hrkasten " was put in charge of
400 Jews, to be ready in case of fire ; so at all festiv-
ities, as, for instance, at the coronation of Frederick
v., of the Palatinate, as King of ]5ohemia in 1619.
Much attention was paid to the education of children.

The names of the most prominent Jewish families
of Prague are : Eger, Bondi, Gans, Horwitz, Cliajes,
Tausk, Jaffe, Landau, Meisel, Epsti'in, Posner,
Kurauda, and Karpeles; Hock, Wolfv, Wessely
(first Jewish professor in Austria], and M. L
Landau deserve particular mention. The popula-
tion of Prague is 201,589, of whom about 19,000
are Jews. The present (1905) chief rabbi is Dr.
N. Ehrenfeld. The Neusynagoge, the Meiselsyna-
goge, and the Tempelgemeinde have their OM'n
preachers.

Bibliography : S. Hock, Die Familien Prags, Presbiirpr, 1893;
B. Fo(?es, AUerthUmer der Prater J(i»efntailt, Prague, 1883 ;
Ilapoport. Gal 'Ed, ib. 18.")6; M. Friedlander, Ltiicn und
Wirken der Hervorragenditten Ral>l>iiiischen AutoritiUcn
Frags, Vienna, 1902; Teiger, Das Prnger Ghetto, Prague,
1903; Aronlus, Regcsten, pp. 125a, 137, 218 ; i^chuAt, JUdische
MercKwVrdigkeiteu, vol.iv.; Zunz, S. P.; Honiger and Stern.
DasJudcnschreinshuchderLaurenzpfarre, ii.2.'), 4(i, Berlin,
1888 ; Salfeld, Martjjrologium, pp. 1.51, 286, 306. Berlin, 1898;
A. Brull. PnpidUr-WisKOmchattlWte MonatshU'itter, xiv.
30. Frankfort-on-the-Main; A. Kohn, Die Prager Juden-
gemeinde. In Kaleuder iniri Jnlirb. fUr liiraeliten 5G15,
Vienna; Schobly, Der Feicrliclie Judenaufzng zu Prag
im Jahre 1716, in nohmUche Monatsschrift der Gei<eUt<chan
des VaterlUndv<chen Museumit, 1820; G. Wolf, Aidn da Je
JUUliitcher BUclier in Prag 171U, in Steinschneider, Hebr.
Bibl. vi. 35; Idem, Tumult Gegen die Judcn in Prag, In
Zeit. fllr GeKch. der Judcn in Deut!ichlnnd,\. 140; idem,
Ein Feierlicher Judcnaufziig in Prng 1710, in Die Gegen-
wart, Berliner ^yochenHcrift flir JUdixche Angclegenhei-
/eii. 1867, 1., No. 49; idem, Ihstilutinnen diir Altcn Prafjer
Gemeinde, In jadisches Ceutralhlatt, v. 120; J. I'erles, Die
Judenverjagung aus Prag 17UU. in Manatsschrift, xv. 231 ;
A. Klsch. Gramleur et Decadence du Ghetto de Prague, in
Arch. Inr. xxix. H2; Furst, Ein Klagelied ilher die Pent in
Prag nil,, in Geiger's Wins. Zeit. JUd. Thcol. v. 347; G.
Klempner, Das Wdihinat zu Prag IGOO-lHl'j, in lUustrirter
IsrofAHiseher Volhs-Kntcnder, xxx11.8.t; M. (inmwald, ylr/-
teste Statuten der Prager Israel it i.srlien Beerdigtiiigslirl)-
derschaft, in JHdische.i Ceutralhlatt, vlii. 39; (;. Freitap,
Bilder ans der DeutJ<chen Vcrgnngenheit, iii. 393 et seq.,
Leipsic. 1H79; M. Popper. Les Juifs de Pranue, in Ti. K. ./.
xxIx. 127-141. XXX. 79-9:^; //rt-3/a(/(/i<i, xii. 6 ; xv. 4, 11; Bir-
kenthal. In Kokcl>e Vizhak, xxiv. 83.
D. ■ ■ S. O.

PRAT MAIMON. See Fkat Maimon.

PRAYER.- Biblical Data: From the earliest

epochs recorded in the Bible profound distress or
joyous exaltation found expression in prayer. How-
ever primitive the mode of worship, the individual
is commonly depicted as petitioning or thanking the
Divinity through prayer. Apart from the P.salter,
which is a book of prayer within the Bible, the
Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Ilagiograjiha are
interspersed with prayers. At least one jjvayer is
attributed to every great Biblical character from
Hannah (I Sam. i. 10, ii. 1-10) to llezekiah (II
Kings xix. 15-19).

These individual prayers are independent of ritual
injunction or priestly regulation. They are volun-
tary and sjiontaueous. Abraham prays for the sal-
vation of Sodom and for the healing
Individual of Abimelech (Geu. xviii. 2:3-33, xx.

Prayers. 17); Jacob, for deliverance when Esau
is approaching (Gen. xxxii. 9-12);
Eliczer, that God may prosper his master's mis-
sion (Gen. xxiv. 12-14); Moses, on behalf of err-
ing Israel (Ex. xxxii. 31, 32); Joshua, in the de-
spair that follows the defeat at Ai (Josh. vii. 6-9);
Samuel, when Israel imjiortunes him for a king (I
Sam. xii. 23); David, when tiie duty of building the
Temple is transmitted to his son (II Sam. vii. 18-
29) ; Jonah, when in the belly of the great fish
(Jonah ii. 1-9); Daniel, for Israel's restoration from
exile (Dan. ix. 3-19); Ezra, on learning of his peo-
ple's backsliding (Ezra ix. 6-15); Nehemiah, on
hearing of their communal hardships (Neh. i. 4-11).

The building of the Temple naturally invited
public prayer. Indeed, the prayer ascribed to Sol-
omon at its dedication (I Kings viii. 12-53) includes
every form of prayer-adoration, thanksgiving, peti-
tion, and confessicm. But communal praj'cr — that is,
lituigy — is hardly found prior to the separation of
Israel and Judah. The first ritual pra}'ers are found
in Deuteronomy (xxvi. 5-10 and 13-15, the former
to be recited on bringing the first-
Communal fruits to the Temple, the latter after

Prayer. giving tithes). In connection with
the Atonement-sacrifice, Aaron the
priest lays his hands upon the head of the goat and
confesses over it "all the iniquities of the children
of Israel" (Lev. xvi. 21). Some words of piayer
probably accompanied most offerings and sacrifices,
and, perhaps, the building of altars (Gen. xii. 8,
xiii. 4). Again, the injunction imposed upon Aaron
and his sons to bless the children of Israel occurs in
a specified prayer-formula — the threefold priestly
blessing (Num. vi. 22-27).

Many portions of the Bible have been incorporated
into the liturgy, though in their original places they
are merely portions of narratives or collections of
precepts. The most notable example is the Shema'
(Deut. vi. 4-9). "Liturgy," then, is a term wider
than " prayer."

It maybe inferred that organized service was suf-
ficiently well established in thedaj-s of the prophets
of the eighth and seventh centuries to have drifted
into conventionalit}- (comji. Isa. i. 15, xxix. 13, Iviii.
5). That Daniel "kneeled upon his knees three
times a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before
his God" (vi. 10), and that Ps. Iv. 17 speaks of
prayer "evening and morning, and at noon," would
indicate the institution of triple daily services,

Row OF TOMBSTO.N} S I\ THE OLD CEMETERY AT PRAGUE.
(From Jerabek, '* Der Alle Pra-rer Juden Fritdhof.'*)

■fk

.-\V-'.~:'

iM^^ ...

# *-

' i.

b ;•

•'.

• • • ■ .

i^P

A Corner of the Old Jkwish Ckmetert at Pragto.

(From Jerabek. - Der Alle Prager Juden Friedhof.")

Prayer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

166

though I Chron. xxiii. 30 specides only moruiug aiul
evening. So, too, the meniiou of grace before and
after meat in the New Testament (.Matt. xv. 3G;
Acts xxvii. 37) leads to the inference that such a
prayer became customary before the close of the
Old Testament canon.

As to the manner of worship, the chant is prob-
ably older than the spoken prayer (Ex. xv.), even
as verse is older than prose. Liiter, the musical
embellishments of the service became

Mode of very elaborate. The significance of
Worship, many of the musical terms in the
Psalms is uncertain. The singers
were a gild ditTerentialed by gradations of impor-
tance (see I Chron. xvi., and note the reference to
psaltery, harp, cymbal, and trumpet). Among
those tiiat returned to Jerusalem the "two hundred
singing men and singing women" are separately
specified (Ezra ii. C"j). It was customary in prayer
to turn toward the Temple at Jerusalem (I Kings
viii. 38; II Chron. vi. 34; Dan. vi. 11); this atti-
tude may even have been considered necessary to
give validity to the prayer. The Israelites prayed
both standing and kneeling. Fasting and weeping
were not unusual accompaniments of petition and
confession, and occasionally, in times of great dis-
tress, sackclotli and ashes were added, and even
rending of the mantle and shaving of the head (Job
1. 20).

The belief in the objective efBcac}' of prayer is
never questioned in the Bible. The prayer of Moses
removes the plague from Egypt (Ex. viii. 29, 31)
and heals the leprosy of Miriam (Num. xii. 13, 14).
Both Elijah and Elislia restore by prayer appar-
ently lifeless chiUlren (I Kings xvii. 20; II Kings iv.
33) ; and prayer with fasting and repentance averts
the decree of doom against Nineveh (Jonah iii.).
Similar incidents abound throughout the Scriptures.

A. M. H. H.

In Rabbinical Literature: The word "tefil-

luli " is (Iclined as "thought" and "hope" (comp.
*n^^3; Gen. xlviii. 11), as representing the means of
reasoning and discriminating (comp. npsni; Ex. ix.
4) between good and evil. Atetillah consists of two
parts: (1) Benedictions, or praises of God's great-
ness and goodness, and expressions of gratitude for
benefits received; (2) petitions, of cither a public or
private character. A tetillau is called a "service of
the heart." "Ye shall seiTe the Lord j'oiir God"
(E\. xxiii. 25) is understood as "Ye shall worship
God in prayer." The Patriarchs were the first au-
thors of prayers, and are credited with instituting
those for the morning, afternoon, and evening (see
Abudarham, "Hii)bur Perush ha-Berakot weha-
Tefillot," p. 8a, Venice, 15G6). Moses wasthc author
of the phra.se, "a great God, a mighty, and a ter-
rible" (Deut, X. 17), wiiich was incorporated into the
opening of the 'Amidah( Ver. Ber. vii. 3; Yoma(;9h).
David and Daniel praved thrice daily (Ps. Iv. 17;
Dan. vi. 10).

Praying was, however, of a devotional character
and entirely voluntary during the lime of the First
Temple. The Davidic hymns sung by the Levites
and the vows of repentance accompanying the sin-
offerings were the only obligatory exercises, though,
according to Maimonides, at least one prayer a day

was obligatory from the time of Moses to Ezra
(" Yad," Tefillah, i. 3). The regular daily prayers
commenced after the destruction of the First Tem-
ple, when they replaced the sacrifices (Hos. xiv.
2: "render as bullocks the offering of our lips"
[R. V.]). It appears, however, that in Talmudic
limes tlie prayers were not recited generally, ex-
cept among tlie middle classes. R. Gamaliel ex-
empted from prayer husbandmen and working men,
who were represented by the readers of the congre-
gation (R. II. 3.Ki). The higher class,

Prayer that is, the scholars, would not be dis-

Substi- turbed in their studies, which they
tuted for considered of superior importance to
Sacrifice, prayers. R. Judah recited his prayers
only once in thirty days(/6.). R. Jere-
miah, studying under R. Ze'era, was anxious to
leave his study when the time for prayer arrived ; and
Ze'era quoted, "He that turneth away his ear from
hearing the law, even his prayer shall be abomina-
tion " (Prov. xxviii. 9; Shab. lOa).

The Talmudists were so occupied with their stud-
ies that they could not concentrate their minds
on the prayers, which they accordingly often read
unconsciously. R. Hiyyab. Ashi said, "Whosoever
is not in a settled state of mind shall not pray."
R. Eliezer exempted travelers from praying for three
days after returning from a journey. R. Eleazar b.
Azariah Avould exempt almost anybody, on the novel
plea that the prophet Isaiah had called exiled Israel
the " afflicted " and " drunken, " and a drunkard must
not pray (Isa. li. 21 ; 'Er. 6oa). Raba, who observed
R. Hamnuna lingering over his prayers, remarked,
"They put aside everlasting life [the Law] and con-
cern themselves with the tem])oral life [praying for
maintenance] " (Shab. 10a). Prayers should not be
considered as a set task, but as petitions to Onmipo-
tence for mercy (Abot ii. 18).

The Jewish monotheistic theory would not per-
mit of any intermediary between God and the
prayers of devotees. R. Judah said,." An apjieal to
a mortal patron for relief depends on his servant's
willingness to permit the applicant to
Inter- enter; but appeals to the Almighty

mediary in time of trouble do not depend on

Angels: the angel Michael or Gabriel; one

Cabalistic need only call upon God. " " Whoso-

View. ever shall call on the name of the Lord

shall be delivered " (Joel iii. 5 [A. V.

ii. 32] ; Yer. Ber. ix. 1). The cabalists, however,

accepted the symbolic Met.vtkon as the intermediary

who records in the upper heaven man's prayers in

order that they may be reviewed by the Almighty.

In another version Sandelf(m (= lin'd(hA(poc) forms

of the pravers a crown for the Almighty (Zohar,

Wayakhel,"l67b).

The cabalists of a later period made direct appeals
to the "mal'ake rahamim " (angels of mercy), which
practise was criticized as contrary to the Jewish
faith. Traces of mediation are found in the Tal-
mud: "Mountains and hills ask mercy for me!
Heavens and earth . . . sun and moon . . . stars
antl constellations, pray for me" ('Ab. Zarah 171));
but these expressions arc merely figures of speech.

Preparations, based on " Prepare to meet thy God,
O Israel," were made before prayers (Amos iv. 12).

" tin

I'AliK KKOM THK FlKST iLLl s IKA 1 hi) i'lU.Nihli ii .m.u A ivM i , I'nAfir. -■-
(From the Sulzberger collection In the Jewish Thuological Semluiry of Amerlcm, N«w York.)

Prayer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

168

The pious of ancient times occupied one hour in
preparation for prayer (Ber. v. 1). Ezra's ordinance
required scrupulous washing of the body immedi-
ately before prayer (Yer. Ber. iii. 4). One must be
properly attired. Raba b. Iluna put on red gaiters,
another rabbi placed a mantle over his shoulders and
reverently crossed his hands, "like a servant in the
presence of his master" (Shab. 10a). The "Amidah
is recited standing (whence the term) and facing
the Holy Land (" pray unto thee toward their land " ;
I Kings viii. 48). Those that live in Palestine
"shall pray unto the Lord toward the
Prepara- city which thou hast chosen"; at Je-
tion and rusalem the worshiper shall " spread
Posture, forth his hands toward this house " ;
at the Temple, "before thine altar,"
the Holy of Holies (comp. I Kings viii. 31, 38, 44).
Thus all Israel, at prayer, turn the face in the same
direction (Yer. Ber. iv. 5).

One shall not mount a platform, but shall pray
from a lowly position, for "Out of the depths have
I cried unto thee, O Lord " (Ps. cxxx. 1). R. Elie-
zer b. Jacob said the worshiper (at/Amidah) should
keep his feet together, "straight," as do the angels
(comp. Ezek. i. 7; Ber. 10b). He shall spread out
and raise his hands toward the Holy King (Zohar,
Balak, 195b); he shall direct his eyes downward and
his heart upward (Yeb. 105b). During a benedic-
tion he shall bow down, and then arise at the mention
of God's name (Ber. 13a). The higher one's rank the
more lowly should one's conduct be. Thus, the
ordinary worshiper bows at the beginning and end
of the 'Amidah and of Modim; the high priest bows
at every benediction; but the king remains kneeling
until the end of the prayer, as did Solomon (I Kings
viii. 54; Yer. Ber. i. 5). At the end of the 'Amidah
the worshiper steps back three paces and bows to
the right and to the left. Abaye and Raba stepped
back in a bowing position (Yomao3b). This resem-
bles the custom followed in taking leave of royalty
in ancient times.

R. Judah limited the time during which the morn-
ing prayer may be recited to the first four hours of
the day (Ber. iv. 1). R. Johanan says it is meritori-
ous to worship at dawn, citing, " They
Time and shall fearwiththe sunshine" (Ps. Ixxii.
Place. 5, Hebr.). The Wetikin (ppTll =
"the ancient pious," perhaps identical
■with the EssENES) watched for the first rays of the
sun to begin the 'Amidah (Ber. 9b, 29b). There are
now several societies of Wetikin in Jerusalem who
worship at that hour. They have prepared tables
of the sunri.se for the year round from special ob-
servations taken from Mount Olivet. Raba would
not order prayer for a fast-day in cloudy weather:
"Thou ha.st covered thyself with a cloud that our
prayer should not pass through " (Lam. iii. 44; Ber.
32b).

R. Huna said that the worshiper should have a
regular place for his prayers, like Abraham, who
had a "place where he stood before the Lord " (Gen.
xix. 27; Ber. 6b). In the synagogue the elders sit
in the front row, at the baok of the Ark, and facintz;
the people ; the people sit in rows facing tJie Ark
and the elders (" Yad," Tefillah, xi. 4). The front
row, known as " the mizrah " (the east), thus became

distinguished as the place of prayer for the honored
members of the congregation. The rabbi occupies
the first seat to the right of the Ark, the dayyanim
and learned men sitting next to him, while tlie " par-
nas" (president) occupies the seat to the left of the
Ark, the leaders of the congregation coming next.
The prayers, especially the 'Amidah, should be of-
fered partly in solemn silence and partly in a
plaintive voice (Yer. Ber. iv. 4). One
Solemnity who raises his voice has too little
and faith in the erticacy of prayer (Ber.

Decorum. 34b). R. Jonah prayed in silence at
the s)'nagogue and aloud at home
(Yer. Ber. iv. 1). The hazzan, who is the congre-
gational representative ("sheliah zibbur"), repeats
aloud the 'Amidah for the benefit of those who can
not read ; and they respond " Amen " (see Amen).

The duration of prayer is discussed in the Talmud ;
some quote Hannah, who "continued praying" (I
Sam. i. 12). R. Levi deprecutt-s the " talk of lips " ;
other rabbis censure one who prolongs his prayers
and praise him who shortens them. R. Akiba short-
ened his prayers in public and prolonged them in
private (Yer. Ber. iv. 1 ; Ber. 8a, 31a, 32b). The
regular prayers are generally conducted in a con-
gregation of no less than ten adults; and it is highly
commendable to pray in public (Ta'an. 8a), but
where it is inconvenient to join the congregation
the prayers are recited in private. Women as well
as men are under obligation to pray (Ber. iii. 3).
Girls are discouraged from praying. The Talmud
classes among useless creatures "a praying girl, a
gossiping widow, and a truant boj' " (Sotah 22a).

One who prays for others will be answered first,
and will be relieved himself if in the same need,
for "the Lord turned the captivity of Job, when
he prayed for his friends" (Job xlii. 10; B. K. 92a).
Moses is credited with praying for sinners, that they
might repent, referring to he "made intercession
for the transgressors " (Isa. liii. 12; Sotah 14a). In
times of trouble, when a fast-day is ordered, the
people go out to the cemetery to seek the interces-
sion of the dead (Ta'an. 16a; see Death in Rab-
binical Literature).

The efficacy of prayer is emphasized in many

ways. When Isaiah went to Hezekiah with the

message, "Set thy house in order: for

Efficacy thou shalt die " (Isa. xxxviii. 1), lleze-
of kiah answered, "Ben Amoz, finish thy

Prayer. prophecy and go! I have a tradition
of my forefather [David] that even
when the edge of the sword touches the neck one
shall not stop praying for mercy " (Ber. 10a). R.
Hanina b. Dosa was celebrated for effecting cures
by his prayer; he could tell whether hisefforts would
prove successful, and would say, "This patient will
live," or "This patient will die." He judged by
"the fruit of his lijis": when the prayer flowed
freely from his mouth, it augured success; when
otherwise, it meant failure. It is related that R.
.Johanan b. Zakkai relied more on R. Hanina than
on himself when prayers were needed for his sick
fliiid, assuring his wife, "Although I am greater
in learning than Hanina, he is more efficacious in
prayer; I am, indeed, the prince, but he is the stew-
I ard who has constant access to the king " (Ber. 34b).

169

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prayer

Another story concerns R. Gamaliel, who scut
messengers to Hanina requesting him to pray for
his son. Hanina ascended to the garret, prayed,
and came down, telling the messengers that the
crisis had passed. They noted the time, and found
that at that hour the patient had recovered and
demanded food (Yer. Ber. v. 5).

Tlie prayer of one who is the righteous son of
one who is righteous is more efficacious than the
prayer of the righteous son of a wicked man. R.
Isjiac said, "The prayer of the righteous is compa-
rable to a pitchfork [inj?; comp. ■(ny^ ;= "en-
treated " ; Gen. xxv. 21] ; as the pitchfork changes the
position of the wheat so the prayer changes the dis-
position of God from wrath to mercy" (Yeb. 64a).
R. Isaac was of the opinion that prayer could even
reverse thehigh judgment, though R. Eleazardidnot
think it could reverse a judgment already decreed (R.
H. 18a). The same R. Isaac says that the reading of
theShema' before retiring is likea two-edged sword
against demons (Ber. 5a; Rashi ad loc). R. Judah
says that prayer can change the sex of the embryo
as if it were "clay in the potter's hands." Rab says
Dinah was originally a male, whose sex was changed
by the prayer of Rachel. This, however, is contra-
dicted in the Mishnah, which characterizes any ex
post facto prayer as "a vain effort" (Ber. ix. 3; 60a).

Prayer is valued liigher than sacritice (Ber. 32b).
The prayer of the poor is as worthy as that of Moses
and even more efficacious (based on Ex. xxii. 27 and
Ps. xxii. 24; Zohar, Wayishlah, 168b). Prayer,
when offered with intensity, is as flame to coal in
uniting the higher and lower worlds (Zohar, Wa-
yakhel, 213b). Prayer is a part of Providence ; it is a
panacea for all ills; it must, however,
Sig- be harmonious in word and spirit, like

nificance of poetry with music (" 'Ikkarim," iv. 16,

Prayer. 20, 23). " God is not less omniscient
because we are taught to pray to Him,
nor is He less good because He awaits our humilia-
tion before He grants us relief; but we must assure
in general terms that the expression of our wants in
prayer is one of the duties incumbent on us, in com-
mon with all others; a test whether we are obedient
and thereby deserving the divine favors, or whether
we are obdurate and therefore deserving the con-
tinuance of the evil which afflicts us, as a just rec-
ompense for our transgres.sing in not recognizing
the divine Power, in whose hand alone our enlarge-
ment is placed " (Leeser, " Discourses," x. 30).

The authorship and compilation of the prayers, at
least of the Shenia' and its benedictions, the Shemo-
neh 'Esreh, and the Birkat Sheba', are credited to 120
elders, among them more than 80 prophets (Yer. Ber.
ii. 4; comp. Meg. 13b). Simeon ha-Pakoli arranged
the Shemoneh 'Esreh in tlic presence of R. Gamaliel
atJabneh; Samuel ha-Katan added thereto the bene-
diction, known as " \Ve-la-]\Ialshinim," against the
Sadducees (Ber. 28b) and for the extinction of what
were con.sidered anti-Jewish sects, whom the Phari-
sees feared as dangerous to Judaism. The ' Amidah
nevertheless retained the original name of Shemoneh
'Esreh. Various explanations are advanced for
the number "eighteen" (Yer. Ber. iv. 3). It is not
known whether the prayers were originally taught
orally or were committed formally to writing;

evidently they were recited by the people from mem-
ory for a long time, perhaps as late as the geonic
period.

The first benediction in the Shemoneh 'Esreh is
called "Birkat Abot"; the second relates to resur-
rection; the third is the ^Ledushshah.
Shemoneh The three concluding ijcnedictioiis

'Esreh. are: Rezeh (on the restoration of
Zion); Modim (on gratitude to GckI);
and Sim Slialom (a prayer for peace). The inter-
mediate thirteen benedirtions are 8f)licitation8 for
public and personal welfare. Tlie abridgment of
the thirteen benedictions is known as "Habinenu."
and roads as follows: (1) "Grant us, O Lord our God.
wisdom to learn Thy ways; (2) subject our hearts
to Thy fear; (3) forgive our sins; (4) redeem us; (5)
keep us from suffering; (6) satisfy us with the jinnl-
ucts of Thy earth ; (7) gather our dispersed from all
quarters; (8) judge us in Thy faith; (9) punish the
wicked; (10) reward the righteous; (11) rebuild
Thy city and reconstruct Thy Temple; (12) let the
royalty of David Thy servant flourish, and continue
the generations of Jesse's son, Thy anointed ; (13)
anticipate our call by Thy answer. Blessed be the
Lord who barkens to prayer" (Ber. 29a). This is
the epitome of the nineteen benedictions. Accord-
ing to R. Akiba, if one is pressed for time, or if for
other reasons one is unable to fully recite the bene-
dictions, one may use this abridgment (Ber. iv. 8, 4).

Every 'Amidah is preceded by the first three, and
concluded by the last three benedictions. On Sab-
baths and holy days the intermediary thirteen bene-
dictions of Shemoneh 'Esreh areomitted and replaced
by one benediction bearing on the special occasion.

R. Johanan says one may pray all day. Others
are of the opinion that the permissible number of
prayers is limited to three, and on a fast-day to four,
including NE'iL.\n (Ber. 21a, 31a). R. Samuel b.
Nahamani says the three prayers are for the three
changes in the day: sunrise, noon, sunset (Yer.
Ber. iv. 1). It is advised that Shaharit, Minhah,
and Ma'arib should be recited ; never-
Number of theless, the 3Ia'arib prayer is not ob-

Prayers. ligatory. The Zohar distinctly says
that the evening is not opportune for
prayer (Zohar, Wayehi, 229b). This, however, re-
fers to the 'Amidah and not to the Shema' and its
benedictions (see M.\'.\hib). The Shema' of the
morning is preceded by two benedictions and con-
cluded by one; the Shema' of the evening is pre-
ceded by two and concluded by two, making al-
together seven benedictions, fulfilling the verse.
"Seven times a day do I praise thee " (Ps. cxi.\. 164:
Ber. lib). The Shema', with its benedictions l)e-
ginning with Baraku, was subsequently joinetl to
the 'Amidah. These in turn were prece«led by
hymns based on the verse, "Serve the Lord with
gladness: come before his presence with singing"
(Ps. c. 2). These hynms are called " Pesuke de-
Zimra" (verses from the Psalms), and con.sist of
excerpts from the Scriptures, principally from the
Psalms. On Sabbaths and holy days mr>re hymns
were added. The hymns begin with Baruk she-
Amar and close with Yishubbah. This conclu-
sion conUiins thirteen categ<^ries of prayers: song,
praise, hymn, psalm, majesty, dominion, victory.

Prayer
Prayer-Books

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

170

grandeur, might, renown, glory, holiness, and sov-
ereignty, corresponding to the thirteen attributes of
God (Zohar, Terumah, 132a).

The preliminary benedictions were later added to
the bhaharit service. Then were interpolated read-
ings from the Pentateuch, Jlishnah, and Gemara,
based on the Talmudic saying: "One should divide
his time into three periods: Scripture, Mishnah, and
Talmud" (?:id. 30a), Still later many other ad-
ilitions, extensions, and embellishments were in-
cluded, among them being the Adon '01am and the
'Alenu (in the 16th cent.).

The Shemoueh 'Esreh was followed by Wehu
Rahum, a kind of selihah (for Mondays and Thurs-
days), and by Wa-Yomer Dawid (daily, except on
semi-holy days). The verse " Wa-Yomer Dawid "
<II Sam. xxiv. 14) is the preface to the "tahnun"
beginning with Rahum we-Hannun, and contain-
ing Psalm vi. and other Scriptural passages. This
tahnun is a ''silent " prayer, and is said in a muffled
voice, with the face turned downward and resting on
the arm, to resemble the posture of Moses and of
Joshua (Deut. ix. 18, 25: Josh. vii. 6; see Meg. 22b;
B. M. 59b). This is followed by Ashre (Ps. cxlv.)
and U-ba le Ziyyoo, 'Alenu, and the psalm of the
day, as they were recited by the Levites in the Tem-
ple (Tamid vii. 4). The Ani Ma'amin, or the thir-
teen articles of faith according to Maimonides, is
part of the additions at the close of the Shaharit
prayer. See, further, Minhah Prayer and Ma-
'arib.

The Sabbath prayers begin on Friday evening
with Kabbalat Shabbat, composed of six psalms —
xcv. toxcix., and xxix. — representing the six week-
days. Next comes the pi)'yut Lekah Dodi. This
poem, composed by Solomon ha-Levi Alkabiz (1529),
is based on the words of Hanina, "Come, let us
go out to meet the Queen Sabbath" (Shab. 119a); it
is concluded by Ps. xcii. and xciii., followed by
Ma'arib. We-Shameru (Ex. xxx. 16,

Sabbath 17) is recited before the 'Amidah. The

Prayers, main benediction of the 'Amidah is
the Atta Kiddashta, etc. The haz-
zan's repetition of the 'Amidah is Magen Abot, a
digest of the seven benedictions (Shab. 24b ; Rashi
ad loc. ; " Yad," Tefillali, ix. 10). The second chap-
ter of Shabbat, Ba-Meh Madlikin, is read, followed
by the 'Alenu. Kiddush is recited in the synagogue
by the hazzan for the benefit of strangers.

Sabbath morning prayers commence as on week-
days. Of the hymns, Ps. c. is omitted, its place
being taken by Ps. xix., xxxiv., xc, xci., cxxxv.,
cxxxvi., xxxiii., xcii., xciii. Nishmat is a rem-
nant of the mishnaic period (Ber. 59b; Ta'an. 6b);
also El Adon, with the alphabet as the initial letters
of the verses (.sec Zohar, Wayakhel, 105b).

The seventh intermediary benediction of the
Shaharit 'Amidah begins with Yismah Mosheli.
Berik Shemeh (before taking out the Scroll from
the Ark) is from the Zohar, and contains the sen-
tence: "We depend not on a man nor do we trust
in a Son-God, but in the God of heaven, who is the
true God." The Yekum Purkan, composed in Baby-
lon in Aramaic, is similar to the Mi she-Berak, a
blessing for the leaders and patrons of the syna-
gogue. The Sephardim omit much of the Yekum

Purkan. Ha-Noten Teshu'ah is a blessing for gov-
ernment officials.

The main benediction of Musaf, Tikkanta Shab-
bat, is composed of words in reversed alphabetical
order. When the New Moon falls on Sabbath, Atta
Ya?arta is substituted. En ke-Eloheuu follows,
which the Sephardim recite every day. The Shir ha-
Yihud and An'im Zemirot are credited to K. Judah
ha-Hasid of Ratisbon. The main benediction of the
Minhah 'Amidah is the Atta Ehad, of which there
were two versions (see Seder of Amram Gaon, p. 30a);
the three verses at the conclusion, Ps. cxix. 1, Ixxi,
19, xxxvi. 7, are references to the deaths of Moses,
Joseph, and David, each of whom died on a Sabbath
afternoon (Zohar, Terumah, 278; comp. Seder
Amram Gaon, I.e.). Ibn Yarhi says they refer to
the wicked who are released from Gehinnom on
Sabbath and return thereto in the evening (" Ha-
Manhig," 33b). Since, therefore, these verses refer
to mourning they are omitted when tahnun is
omitted on week-days.

After Minhah, during the winter Sabbaths (from
Sukkot to Passover), Bareki Nafshi (Ps. civ., cxx.-
cxxxiv.) is recited. During the summer Sabbaths
(from Passover to Rosh ha-Shanah) chapters from
the Abot, one every Sabbatli in consecutive order,
are recited instead of Bareki Nafshi. The week-
day Ma'arib isrecited on Sabbath evening, concluding
with Willi No'am, AVe-Yitten Leka, and Habdalah.

The New Moon is announced with a blessing on
the Sabbath preceding it. Yom Kippur Katan is
recited on the day before New Moon. Ya'aleh we-
Yabo is inserted in the Shemoneh 'Esreh of New
Moon. Hallel, is given after the 'Amidah. The
•Musaf service contains the main benediction of Mi-
Pene Hata'enu and refers to the New Moon sacri-
fices in the Temple.

The services for the three festivals of Passover,
Pentecost, and Sukkot are alike, except the special
interpolated references and readings for each indi-
vidual festival. The preliminaries and conclusions
of the prayers are the same as on Sab-
The Three bath. The 'Amidah contains seven
Festivals, benedictions, with Attah Bchartanu
as the main one. Musaf includes Mi-
Pene Hata'enu, with reference to the special festi-
val and Temple sacrifices on the occasion. The sac-
erdotal blessing on the pulpit or platform of tlie Ark
(" Dukan ") is pronounced by the " kohanim " after
Rezeh in the 'Amidah. On week-days and Sabbath
the priestly blessing is recited by the hazzan after
Modim. In Palestine the Dukan is pronounced by
the kohanim every day; in Egypt it is pronounced
every Saturday.

The New-Year service begins with the prelimi-
nary prayers for Sabbath and holy days. There
are interpolations in the 'Amidah referring to the
New-Year's blessings. The main benediction be-
gins with Ube-ken, praying for the recognition of
God's power, the restoration of the Jewish state, re-
ward of the righteous and punishment of tlie wicked,
and universal theocracy. The prayers for the Day
of Atonement are similar to those for New-Year's
Day, but with special references to the significance
of the day. The Widdui (confession of sins), begin-
ning with 'Ashamnu and Al-Het, is repeated in

171

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prayer
Prayer-Books

every 'Amidahand, in an abridged form, at Ne'ilah.
Tlie jMahzor contains many extra piyyutim for these
holy days, the best known being Koi. Nidhe (for
the eve of Yom Kippur) and the 'Abodah (for Mu-
saf). The Tahnud declares that individual wor-
siiijiers may siiorten tlie long 'Ainidah of Hosh ha-
Shauahandof Yom Kippur (Ver. Ber. i. 5; R. II. 35a).

There are no special prayers for either II.\NrKKAH
or PuRiM, except those connected with the lighting
of the Hanukkah lamp and the singing of Ma'oz Zur
and Haliel after Shahariton the Maccabean festival,
and the reading of the Scroll of Esther, with some
special yozerot in Shaharit, on Purim. There are
special references in the 'Amidali at Modim to both
Hanukkah and Purim. Examples of private devo-
tions are to be found in Baer's " ' Abodat Yisrael,"
p. 162. See Devotional Litekatuhe.

In regard to the language of the prayers, R.

Judah preferred the vernacular Aramaic for all

petitions concerning personal needs.

Praying: R. Johanan, however, preferred He-
in the Ver- brew, because " the attending angels

nacular. pay no attention to Aramaic " (Shab.
12b). Maimonides asserts that the use
of foreign languages by Jews exiled in Persia,
Greece, and other countries from the time of Nebu-
chadnezzar caused Ezra and his S3'nod to formulate
the prayers in pure Hebrew, so that all Israelites
might pray in unison (" Yad," Tefillah, i. 4). How-
-ever, private prayers in Aramaic were later in.serted
in the prayer-book ; and SaadiaGaon included some in
Arabic. Since the sixteenth century the prayer-book
has been translated into most European languages.

The terminology of the prayers is the key to the
investigation of their antiquity. In a number of in-
stances the phrases are almost identical with those
found in the New Testament; e.g., "Abinu she-ba-
shamayim " = " Our Father in heaven"; "May His
^reat name be extolled and hallowed," "may He es-
tablish His Kingdom " (in the Kaddish) = " Hallowed
be Thy name. Thy Kingdom come " ; " We will sanc-
tify Thy name in the world as they sanctify it in the
highest heaven "(in the Kedushshah) = " Thy will
be done on earth as it is in heaven." " Give us this
day our daily bread " was a common prayer among
the Talmudists. See Benedictions; Liturgy;
;\Iahz()U; Piyyut; Seijhah; Yozeu; Zemtrah.

Bibliooraphy: MalmonldPS.Taff. TeHlJah; S!hiT>hnle ha-Le-
ket, 89 1-54, ed. Buber. Wilna, 1886; Ibn Yarhi, Ha-Mniihia,
ed.' (ioldberg, Berlin, 1855; Shulhan 'Aruk, Ornh Hn^nii'iu
89-l:J4; Albo, "Ikkm-im; 'Arama, 'Akedai Yizhdk,gate aS;
Zunz, G. V. pp.'l}H6 ct neq.; Steinschrieider, Jciii.sh Litera-
ture, S§ 0, 19, London, 18.57 (Hebr. ed., Sifrut i'lsraef, pp.82-
flO, Warsaw, 1897); Isaac Leeser, Dii^ciniri^es, pp. 29-82, Phila-
delphia, 1868; D. Oppenheini, in Alio- Zeit. lies Jiid. 1845,
Nos. 2-4; H. Guedallah, Ohsc.rtmtvnis itn the Jewish Ritual
of the Present Time. London, 1885; Kotiler, The Psalms and
Their Place in the Litvrtiu. Plilladclphia, 1897; Elbopen,
Gesch.des Achtzehngebels, BresUm, 1903; F. Perles, Das
Gebet, 1904.

E. c. J. D. E.

PRAYER-BOOKS : The collection, in one book,
of the year's prayers for week-days. Sabbaths, holy
days, and fast-days is generally known as the
" Seder Tefillot," or simply the " Siddur." The first
compilation known of the Jewish book of common
prayer is that of Amram Gaon, principal of the
yeshibah of Matah iAIehasya in Babylon (846-864).
This prayer-book was extensively used and referred
to by the early authorities, as Rashi, the tosafists.

Asheri, and Caro. The "Seder Rab Amram," as It
was called, was the basis of all subsequent prayer-
books. Azulai thinks that the disci-
First pies of Amram wrote thiM biddur

Prayer- ("Shem ha Gedolim," ii. 48a). inter-
Book, polations were made, however, not
only by Ainrain's di.sciples but also
by others in later periods. Amrani is quoted (ib. ii.
26a); so are Saadia Gaon and other gconim who
lived after Ainram's deatli. The language of home
of the later interpolations is not in the geonic style.
Nevertheless, the siddur as a whole still retains the
original system of Amram Gaon.

Amram's siddur is interspersed with decisions
from the Talmud and with notes of customs pre-
vailing in the yeshibot of Babylon. The U-xt, with
the exception of the benedictions, is somewhat
abridged. But between the divisions or eliapters
there are many midrashic excerpts, accompanied by
individual kaddishim, that are omitted in the subse-
quent prayer-books. " Seder Rab Amrim " is nearer
the Sephardic than the A.shkenazic minhag. The
contents of the siddur are: Shaharit (morning
prayer), Ma'amadot, Miuhah, Maaiib (omitting tiie
'Amidah), the Shema' before sleep, selihot for Mon-
days and Thursdays, prayers for Sabbath and close
of Sabbath, New Moon, Blessing of New Moon,
fast-days, Hanukkah, Purim, Pa.s.sover, Haggadab,
Pentecost, Ninth of Ab, New-Year, Yom Kijtpur,
Sukkot, order of the 'erub, circumcisions, and wed-
dings, and also prayers for travelers, occasional
prayers, and mourners' benedictions.

The second part consists of a collection of seli-
hot by later authors, divided into fifteen ma'ama-
dot" for the fifteen nights preceding Rosh ha-
Shanah, and hymns and yozerot (piyyutim) for
Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur. Amram's sid-
dur, which remained in manuscriptover 1,000 years,
was first published at AVarsiiw in 1865 from a He-
bron manuscript purchased by N. N. Coronel.

Saadia Gaon, principal of the yeshibah of Sura
(928-942), was the compiler of another prayer-book,
))reserved in a manuscript found at his birthplace,
Al-Fayyum, in Egypt. The manuscript includes
two prayers composed by Saadia, and translat«'d into
Arabic — one by Saadia himself and one by Zeniah
b. Joseph (Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. .MSS "
cols. 1096, 2197, 2250).

Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) gives the order of
prayers for the whole year in the "Seder Tefillot
Kol ha-Shanah," at the end of the second book of
the "Yad." It is identical with the Sephardic min-
hag. This text, with a German translation, was
published by Leon J. Mandelstamm, at St. Peters-
burg, in 1851.

The most important early compilation of the

prayers is the " Mahzor Vitry," which was the basis

of the Ashkenazic minhag introduced by the French

rabbis in 1208; it was first pul)lished

"Mahzor by the Melti?e Nirdamim, ami was

Vitry." edited by Simeon Hurwitz (Berlin,
189:}). The ".Mahzor Vitry" is ten
times as voluminous as the "Seder Rab Amram."
which is frequently referred to. Saadia ami other
geonim are also quoted. As in the earlier compila-
tions, the decisions of the Talnmd and codes are em-

Prayer-Books

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

172

bodied before the subject-divisions of the text. Here
occur, probably for the first time, the compilation
of " bosh'anot " (p. 447) and of " zemirot " (songs,
hymns) for various occasions (pp. 146, 177, 184), a
parody for Purim (p. 583), and a valuable collection
of " shetarot." The piyyutim are listed in a separate
"kontres" edited by H.'Brody (Berlin. 1894).

Rabbi Elhanan (13th cent.) is credited with the
compilation of "Seder Tikkun Tetillah " (Tos. Her.
60b). Jacob Asheri (14th cent.), in Tur Orah Hay-
yim, compares Amram's, the Sephardic, and the
Ashkenazic siddurim (§ 46). Jacob Landau, in his
" Agur " (ioth cent.), speaks of the Italian, Castilian.
and Spanish siddurim. There were also the Roma-
gna siddur and the Minhag France, the latter, very
similar to the Ashkenazic ritual, being used in Car-
pentras, Avignon, Lisle, and Cologne. The prin-
cipal differences are between the Ashkenazic ritual
and the Sephardic ritual. The Minhag Ashkenaz,
in the seventeenth and eighteentli centuries, was
used throughout Bohemia, Poland, Moravia, White
Russia, and Lithuania ; the Minhag Sefarad was used

in Spain, Portugal, and the Orient;

Various tlie Italian rite is identical with the

Minhagim. Minhag Romi, to which the Minhag

Romagna likewise is very similar.
The divergence among these rituals was mainly in
the piyyutimand appended prayers. The traditional
prayers and benedictions were not changed, except
that the Sephardim used a few more adjectives and
a profusion of cabalistic synonyms. From the time
of tlie Ashkenazic cabalist Luria, the Hasidim used
the Minhag Sefarad in many sections of Russia, Po-
land, Galicia, and Rumania, and the Karaite siddur
forms a special division in the Jewish liturgy.

The first printed prayer-book appears to be the
Minhag Romo of Soncino (1486), called "Sidurel-
lo." In the colophon the printer says: "Here is
completed the sacred work for the special minhag
of the Holy Congregation of Rome, according to the

order arranged by an expert " ; the date

First given is the 2d of lyyar, 6246 (= April

Printed 7, 1486). There is a unique copy of

Copy. this siddur in the Sulzberger collection

at the Jewish Theological Seminary of
America, with the addition of the Haggadah.

The first prayer-book of the Minhag Sefarad is
curiously entitled "Temunot, Tehinnot, Tefillot"
(Reflections, Devotions, and Prayers) ; it was pub-
lished at Venice in 1524. As early as the sixteenth
century the prayer-book had become too bulky to
handle. In a siddur of that time the publisher apol-
ogizes: "(Observing tliat the material in this work
is constantly increasing, that it is attaining the size
of tlie Shulhan 'Aruk . . . and has Ix-come too
cumbersome to be carried into the synagogi;e, the
present pul)lisher, with a pure heart, decided to
print the siddur in two volumes, the first to contain
the daily prayers, and the second tlie prayers for
the holy days. This arrangement will enable one
to purchase either part, as he may desire " (Roest,
"Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl." i. 734).

Tlif Karaite siddur was first published in Venice
in the sixteenth century, in four volumes, for the
use of the congregations in Crimea, Poland, and
Lithuania. Two centuries later it appeared at Chu-

fut-Kale, with additional piyyutim, one for every
Sabbath, suited to the parashah (by Judah Gibbor,
in 8 vols.).

At the end of the seventeenth century the pub-
lishers became careless in printing the prayer-books.
Many printer's errors crept in, as well as mistakes,
in grammar, more especially in the Ashkenazic sid-
durim. An effort was made to remedy the evil, and
the first corrected text was edited by Nahman Lie-
baller and published at Dyhernfurth in 1690. He
was followed by Azriel and his son Elijah Wilna,
in tlie 1704 edition of Frankfort-on-the-Main. Solo-
mon Hanau, a well-known Hebrew grammarian,
made some radical corrections in the 1725 edition of
Jessnitz. Mordecai Dilsseldorf made more moderate
correctionsin his edition, Prague, 1774, and criticized
the extreme views of Hanau. Perhaps the best-
corrected text was in the edition of Isaac Satanow,
Berlin, 1798. Thus the eighteenth century maj' be
credited with the effort to correct the text of the
prayer-book ; this, however, was not fully accom-
plished until the nineteenth century, with the editions
of Wolf Heidenheim and S. Baer. From a literary
point of view, Jacob Emden's siddur was the best
produced in the eighteenth century.

The first translation of the prayer-book, the Min-
hag Romi, in Italian with Hebrew characters, was
published at Bologna in 1538 (Spanish, Ferrara,
1552; Judseo-German, by Elijah Levita, Mantua,
1562). The author explains that the translation is
intended for the women, that they too may under-
stand the prayers. The first JCnglish translation
was by Gamaliel ben Pedahzuk (a pseudonym ;
London, 1738). The real name of the author was
concealed from the leaders of the Jewish community
of London, who would not sanction

Transla- the English translation. The print-
tions. ing in England of the second English
translation, by Isaac Pinto, w-as simi-
larly opposed, and the translator had it printed by
John Holt in New York, in 1766. The first French
translation was printed by M. Ventura, at Nice, in
1772-73, and the first Dutch translation at The
Hague, in 1791-93. To facilitate tiie handling of
the prayer-book it was issued in various sizes and
forms, from folio to 32mo, and in varying numbers
of volumes. The "Siddur Magna," used by the
hazzan, is known as "Kol Bo." Occasional prayers
were published separately. They form a very inter-
esting collection, from both the religious and tiie
historical point of view. One prayer is entitled:
" A form of Prayer ... on the day appointed for
a General Fast . . . for obtaining Pardon of our
Sins and for imploring . . . God's Blessing and
Assistance on the Arms of His Majesty . . . To-
gether with a Sermon preached on the same day by
Moses Cohen d'Azevedo" (Hebrew and English,
London, 1776). This appears to refer to George III.
and the American Revolution.

Below is a partial list of the principal prayer-books,
first editions, in chronological order. The initial
following the year of i)ublication identifies the min-
hag : A = Ashkenazic ; S = Sephardic , I = Italian ;
R = Romagna ; F = French ; K = Karaite. For
the terms denoting the various forms of prayers
see PiYYUT : Liturgy.

PV'

l^.

{(^'/^j(^^^j9jS9A)uAii()pj'^^x:vj^ :fih^/djipo tJt^o n^j /<^^

J^-^///>/^V/»^ 'pJjJji^'^J^^ j^vV/r^i^ -fjj^/fp^/^f yJ/y*

r%^j>} pJj/ <yt/» i^ WA/i^ odpjJOJ if^j^Z-^pf-f^f^^^
'-[Jrjn^SPP'tjrpM'Pjyfm'f^f^^J^U'j/-?^'^ '^i^/oJxi'n-
i r'^JfJ^^J^J^J'M^A/P ^J'^ 0j'h>P3 '^^^^ ^^^''*

/n>^/^/;?/yi/ Jk> v'// ya :/v/' TjFo/y

cjlpl)
Mof ' '9'Vy 'iJ>iftx?P'f>Yfr* ^^jyJ^j o ^J^r^J jfi^/j^ ^*^ '^^-^ '

yyj(* Sfyi jyfiff ^^ps^ "iyj m^J tP^pjvP> ntfrrOml^/J {<^

Colophon Pagk ok tiik siddik Uab amkam, Writtkn :n I'lOe at Tram.

(From Ihe Sulzberger collection iu the Jewi&h Theoloiciol S«inln»ry of Amrrica, Neo Vofk.)

EVCT

174:

dr.~CaB.»ti^''»fc. IZ

KjiiL-

IZi

_±r 'v^'^ttk'. %a>-C«n.

31 Ji

TTi* '*x^i^5stSc

jt 'Ir'iijiii.

'TE Iwto'u. I^TL. <{£

• r 1 f iaaiaB. \f L 5>je-

:KT.i'r 'T »

:3EL (5

■i3

-,1103 cm

J9M1. ^

:iT XI. tT-

11.e

CIS. e

EH. J.

•tf irr 1«l:

tcicik Tjp all Lis time. Tbe

■ ' - L LaDd-fimtli, aud H-

IfciorBerakaii " (Kaoigs-

• first atljemptfi at ataentiSc iave*-

i.l

f pyy^pyry^^^'JOSirfyh'-sn^ y^rv:} ypon^ ?rrm^T

T ^n?:^? ;^t^DJ3 '703 ^Sn ^ppu* %nnH

^ nt^^S pe** n;:?3 ,*jr.j •r»7i;35 4^»^ 13S

"^ m ■t^Vi''^^

?^U-

llJ.r.MI.NArKI) I'IKST I'AliK OF A hIKUUlt. WkiITKN IIV AllKAllAM KaKIKSOI.. KKKRAIU, ViM.
(I'rorn the SulilicrKtr collection In tbo Jewlili TlmvlogkBl U>ii>liiiry of AinrfU*, Nrw Yofk.)

Prayer-Books

THE JEWISH ENX^YCLOPEDIA

176

tigation into the origin of the prayers in the siddur.
Seligman Baer, who had access to Heidenheim's
additional notes, some old manuscripts, and the old

editions of the various siddurim, by

Baer's editing the " " Abodat Yisrael " (Kodel-

" ' Abodat heim, 1868) gave to the world the

Yisrael." siddur par excellence. The author in

his preface acknowledged the assist-
ance rendered by Leopold Zunz and R. Solomon
Klein through various suggestions and explanations.
A few examples of Baer's emendations will give
an idea of his method: In the benediction "Shelo
'AsaniGoi" he changes "goi"to "nokri"(= "non-
Jew "), because in Biblical Hebrew "goi " means "u
people " (p. 40). In the benediction " We-la-Malshi-
nim " of the 'Amidah, in place of " Kol 'ose rish'ah "
(all evil-doers) he inserts the old rendering "ha-
minim," which he thinks is derived from " ha-me'an-
nim " (refusers; Jer. xiii. 10)— Jews who refuse to
recognize their religion. He argues against the ren-
dering "'ose rish'ah," because nearl}' all men do
evil sometimes. The author does not dare to make
any change in the 'Amidah, so he gives both ver-
sions, leaving the choice between them to the read-
er's discretion (p. 93). In the 'Abodah, from the
passiigc, "They bowed, prostrated, thanked, and
fell on their faces," he omits the word "u-modim "
as an error, and shows the origin of this error in the
1580 Salonica edition of the Mahzor, whose editor
followed unconsciously the 'Alenu. The commen-
tary is entitled "Yakim Lashon," and gives ref-
erences for the verses and quotations, compares the
variations, and adds grammatical corrections as to
form, vowels, and accents, concise explanations of
the text, and a digest of the customs and regulations
regarding the order of the prayers. The siddur
contains the prayers for the whole year, the para-
shiyyot-readings for week-days and semiholy days,
ma'amadot, Abot, Perek Shirah, yozerot, selihot;
and the Psalms (special pari), prefaced by an explana-
tion of their accents. In the yozer to Shabu'ot, Baer
shows that "keren afelah " (point of darkness) is a
euphemism for Clermont, in France, and refers to
the Crusade of 1095 (p. 758). The siddur contains
804 quarto pages, besides the Psalms.

Next in importance is the siddur " 'lyyun Tefil-
lab," by Jacob Zebi Mecklenburg, rabbi of K5nigs-
berg (1855). He followed the method of his own
commentary, "Ha-Ketab weha-Kabbalah," on the
Pentateuch (Leipsic, 1839), in which he endeavored
to show that the whole of tradition was contained in
the text of the Torah. The author's lucid style and
the free use of German paraphrases helped to make
clear the meaning of the conventional terms of the
Hebrew prayers. He aimed at the highest devotional
expression, but in several cases the result is too far-
fetched, as in the instance in which he endeavored
to define each of the sixteen synonyms of "Emet
we-ya??ib." The author's "opening words" be-
fore prayer and the pouring out of the sinful soul
before Yom Kippur (end of siddur) are tine speci-
mens of his Hebrew.

Tlie siddurim "Nahora ha-Siialem" (Wilna and
Grodno, 1827), "Seder Tefillat Yisrael" (with "De-
rek ha-Hayyim," voluminous notes on the customs
and regulations pertaining to the various seasons of

the year in connection with the prayers; compiled
and edited by Jacob Lissa, Zolkiev, 1828), and the
"Korban Minhah " and the "Bet Rahel" were in
common use during the nineteenth century, and
were extcnsivelj' reprinted.

All these were of tiie Minhag Ashkenaz. The
Sephardim, save for the English translations of the
old text, were inactive. A new Sephardic minhag,
in a sense a mixture of both the Ashkenazic and
Sephardic, was edited by Jacob Kopel Lipschlitzof
Mescritz, in two parts (Slobuta, 1804). This edition
was used by the Hasidim in Volhynia and Ukraine.
There were no less than six versions of the so-called
" Siddur Nusah ha-Ari " (Luna) when Israel BeShT
adopted the original Sephardic minhag (see Rodkin-
son, "Tcledot 'Ammude Habad," p. 31, Konigsberg,
1876). The siddur of the Jews of Southern Arabia
(Jerusalem, 1894, 1898) also forms part of the
Sephardic "minhag" (Baclier, in "J. Q. R." xiv.
581-621).

The translations of the prayer-book into various
languages multiplied. In addition to Italian, Span-
ish, Judaeo-German, German, English, French, and
Dutch translations that were earlier than the nine-
teenth century, there appeared "Tefillot Yisrael," a
Hebrew text with Hungarian translation edited by
M. Rosenthal and M. Bloch (Presburg, 1841); a
Hebrew aud Dauish edition was prepared by A. A.
Wolff (Copenhagen, 1845); Hebrew and Polish, by
Hirsch Liebkind (Warsaw, 1846); He-

Transla- brew aud Bohemian (Vienna, 1847).
tions. The Form of Daily Prayers (Minhag
Sefarad) was translated into Malirati
by Solomon Samuel and Hayyim Samuel, with a
♦praj'er, in Hebrew verse and Mahrati, for Queen
Victoria (Bombay, 1859). A Rumanian edition,
" Rugaciunile Israelitor," was edited by N. C. Pop-
per (Bucharest and Vienna, 1868). A Russian trans-
lation was made by Joseph Hurwitz, rabbi of Grodno
(Wilna, 1870; a better edition, with introduction,
by Asher Wahl, Wilna, 1886). " Izraeliticki Molit-
venik " is a Croatian translation bj- Caro Schwartz
(Agram, 1902; see Bloch's " Wochenschrift," 1902,
p. 167). All these translations, with the exception
of the Mahrati, are of the Ashkenazic minhag.

The Karaites published various editions of their
prayer-book (3 vols., Chufut-Kale, 1806; 4 vols.,
Eupatoria, 1836; 4 vols., Vienna, 1854). Their latest
siddur is much abridged (in one volume); it was
edited by Joshua b. Moses Razon Sirgani, for the Con-
gregation of Karaite Israelites in Egypt, by authority
of the Karaite bet-din at Eupatoria in 1898 (ed.
Budapest, 1903). A very interesting discovery was
the "Seder Tefillot ha-Falashim," prayers of the
Falasha Jews of Abyssinia (Ethiopic text with He-
brew translation by Joseph Halevy, Paris, 1877).
Tiie text was procured by Zerubbabel b. Jacob; the
praj'ers were composed or compiled by Abba Sakwin
(pipD) in the thirteenth century. The book contains
a prayer by the angels and a prayer at sacrifices.
Another old liturgy is that of the Samaritans, trans-
literated into Hebrew by M. Heidenheim (Leipsic,
1885; comp. "La Liturgic Samaritaine, Office du
Soir des Fetes," by S. Rappoport, Paris, 1900).

In America the " Seder ha-Tefillot" of theSeiihar-
dira appeared with an English translation by S. H.

W'byih nSonn -iid

348

n'c'M mjy ':v:t:b

PlUOC^

pcrb

PI • rn]n

PI •*•— iirn

♦u^p1D^? insnqjnpDnjjn^ njn -ipD^] yD:j^^] ,— ip;.i
T]; a:^^n] ji-ipn ^tj-j^;; -nn-R "nvp in?!]

CDrp ai?p)^) CD^^nb-i a^ori"?^^ "^PP^^ inSi ri^^i:ib)

nccb

pir'3:;

niy^DH :n

pcri

ni2:^n :n

u"''-?y Dniv oi)m'Din nvm) nyi^'^ id-idi ♦D^'^n^ n

T : • - : ■ ) iv^": " : v i" v: ''J >" ~ ■

^:5''n^^? "'^ ♦''-^DiDb ^1?^] rp^p. 1•^^?3 ps^^tj^^i nnptj^i^

1 1" : V 1 •• : I IV : • : I" :]- ' •

':if»:3 pw bipcj orr ,i"3u ?>? pf)n du ruo b"i (bhu»i p'^;:i) oi^j 'b "556 |sd?i ,nr? p3c?

b'T ppiDi^D Dipij.ba f->? f;ip«o. bsj 5^^? P3n nf)")i? '3 ,b''( Vp"?? »"537- d':3 M25 |t:b?

.n"3 "irrj r7puo b^D P'^o: d:^M do bici ,n3CD bu j3 -^Jjib p3» ^bv I'bi? cpj •)C^ Dips
. ,m!fj;n jn 'rotcn .(i"u ,t"i: on:?) p':c -j^ n"DV ns: d-jipd ?m3 pi3C3 '3 ,'jnnoir joi

P^p'i o"cr jK^np N-ipo .n'?i:j >5'!:: d'")!)':: "^nnnb ni6:> b"i n'm "jot rbu o'P")? 10^
.?i\: Di'i ns: fiwrs dji -jCnJa nfi'i' imib iiuij D»7Di»n b3 ,DnyD nx'S-^ lat .': ,j'3

cnitt P"? 7DU '3 p^sti nfi5': pjcd dj: 'jr?J jn'cfi")^ r:rrjb ^si cnrjift p/!i ri33 C'7•Jl^

.(rr /? cnr)

!j'^ ,p"") ^'^ D'ljwfi j'tii 'i3i jp C3T ,P"'7 01' nb'bj Dj Dnvv^: w 'oi n>at5n an 010
.01' on 3"j t'7'?^) DT bb33 f)i? sb'bo »3 ,•5l^ '?' D♦nb^ vjft'i bi> i:n»D3 "Pj jnn cTr ,jp
f5C' n'cy UN'itrni .'t nsbn «"' 'c cnrip 'd»i '13 p'js po'jj '»btiTD "5315 '01 jjk'etii
f5"bD (I'u ,3"3 t)^pi) cpl^ if)»:oi )i:b b'rBob pcb? dcioc p"? ('n ,7'3 cbrn) '? rf!3 ?3T3
D'D'Pio D'7*5rc?i .1"' .rt cnJ73 jij^is"? mcxi .JJirt iu3'r> vA:»t3 ,i}irt V'l wu' ,'-"^ yijio'ya
nf)( 53 ,unmjD3 ni;i wn'ik .pibrp? -)7P3 c'D'.on d-5Si: d") ihd r's; f»ni 'rbr •::-'3p p,. ib
n«i pboo '5'c f)b^ njpj fib f'su* b: incD obif) .n3:3 pi ?■5':^b f^bc onncr 303 -jjd)
'rpD7oc on .PH-'M "jjpj D»'5nD3i obiyb wfb -j^S u^nos* 'nbui ij'n';>{< o I'ba prji .unnuoa

X.— 13

Page from the Baer Siddur, Rodelheim, 1868.

Prayer-Books

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

178

Jackson (New York, 1826). A much improved Sc-
phardic siddur, "Sifte Zaddiljiim," was edited by
Isaac Leeser in Philadelphia in 1837 (2d ed. 1846).
The Ashkenazim satisfied themselves with the Euro-
pean editions, some of which they republished iu
New York, althotjgh Leeser published also, with an
English translation, the daily prayers of the Ashke-
nazic ritual.

In England the English translation of the prayer-
book received various improvements during the
nineteenth century. The best edition of the Sephar-
dic ritual is that of D. A. de Sola, revised by the
haham Moses Gaster (cd. London, 1901), and the
best edition of the daily prayers of the Ashkenazim
■was published for the United Hebrew Congregations
of the British Empire, authorized by Chief Rabbi
N. M. Adler (2d ed., London, 1891). The cost of
production was defrayed by Mrs. Nathaniel Monte-
fiore, and the book sold at one shilling. The text
was corrected from the Baer edition; the translation
is by S. Singer. The low price of the siddur in-
duced a large exportation to America. More re-
cently A. Davis and H. N. Adler have begun a
Service-Book for the Festivals, with an English ver-
sion and Avith metrical translations of the piyyutim
by Israel Zangwill and others (London, 1904).

Reform Ritual: The lirst Reform praj-er-

book for public divine service was the "Seder ha-
'Abodah, Minhag Kehal Bayit Hadash"("Orduuiig
derOeffentlichen Andachtfiir die Sabbath und Fest-
tage des Ganzen Jahres, nach dem Gebrauche des
Neuen Tempel-Vereins"), in Hebrew and German,
for Sabbath and holy-day services. The reading
began from the left side of the siddur, and the He-
brew was pronounced in the Sephardic style. The
siddur was edited by S. I. Frilnkeland I. M. Bresse-
lau and dedicated to Israel Jacobson (Hamburg,
1818). Previous to this edition there were several
prayer-books in more or less abridged form, in the
vernacular, but, being intended for pri-
The Ham- vate devotion, these aroused no opposi-
burg New tion on the part of the Orthodox Jews,
Temple as did the " Hamburg-Tempel-Gebet-
"Ge- buch." On Oct. 26, 1818, immedi-
betbuch." atoly after the holy days, the Ham-
burg rabbinate, consisting of Baruch
b. MeYrOzers(ab bet din), and Moses Jaffe and Jehiel
Michel Speier (dayyanini), protested against and
denounced it in all the synagogues of Hamburg.
Their objections were mainly to: (1) the abridg-
ment of the Hebrew text; (2) changes in the text;
(3) substitution of translations for parts of the
prayers; (4) abolition of the silent prayer; (5) elim-
ination of various references to the restoration of
Palestine and to the Temple sacrifice of the future.
There was no change in the references to the res-
urrection of the dead ; the changes in the text were
mainl}' directed against the belief in the Messiah and
in the restoration of the Jewish state and the Tem-
ple sacrifice. Thus, in the benediction before
Shema', in place of "O bring us in peace from
the four corners of the earth and make us go up-
right to our land," was substituted, "Have mercy
on us, O Lord our God, and bring us blessing and
peace from the four corners of the earth." In the
Musaf prayer, in place of "and Thou hast com-

manded us to bring the additional ofifering of the
Sabbath. May it be Thy will, O Lord our God, to-
lead us up in joy into our lan^, where we will
prepare unto Thee the offerings that are obligatory
for us," etc., the following occurs: "Thou hast
commanded Moses on Mount Sinai to prepare the
additional offering of the Sabbath. Therefore, may
it be Thy will, O Lord, to accept in mercy the ut-
terings of our lips instead of our obligatory sacri-
fices." These changes, however, were inconsistent
with portions of the text left intact, such as: in the
'Amidah, "Let our eyes behold the return in mercy
to Zion"; in "Ya'a'leh we-Yabo," "The remem-
brance of the Messiah the son of David " ; and in
the Musaf of the holy days, "On account of our sins
were exiled from our land . . . Thou mayest again
iu mercy upon us and upon Thy Sanctuary speedily
rebuild it and magnify its glory." The 'Abodali,
reciting the mode of sacrifice in the Temple by the
high priest, was included in the Musaf of Yom
Kippur. These contradiction'^, perhaps, can be ex-
plained by the desire of the leaders of the new move-
ment to avoid too strong an opposition to apparent
flaws in the Jewish ritual.

The interdiction of the Hamburg rabbinate con-
fined the use of the new prayer-book to a very nar-
row circle, even among the members of the Reform
party; and this led to conservative modifications in
the second edition, entitled " Gebetbuch fur die Oef-
fentliche und Hausliche Andacht der Israeliten ""
(Hamburg, 1841), by the restoration of some of the
Hebrew sections and the week-day prayers, and omis-
sion of the benediction " We-la-Malshinim " of the
"Amidah. But these modifications were iusuflicient
to satisfy the Orthodox party, and Isaac Bernays, the
hakam-rabbi of Hamburg, on Oct. 11, 1841, promul-
gated an anathema against the use of the Reform
prayer-book and stigmatized it as "frivolous" and
as designed to deny " the religious future promi-sed
to Israel " (religiSs-verheisseue Zukunft "). On the
other hand, Samuel Holdheim and Abraham Geiger
expressed their approval. Geiger even wished that
the Hamburg Temple prayer-book contained less-
Hebrew, since it is not understood by tlie wor-
shipers. He desired more radical changes in the
text, but disapproved the Sephardic pronunciation.
Zacharias Frankel approved the changes in the piy-
yutim and would have allowed the omission of sac-
rifice references, but he criticized the other changes.
Frankel opposed the omission of "O cause a new
light to shine upon Zion " from the benediction be-
fore Sliema', notwithstanding that it is omitted from
the siddur of Saadia Gaon. Frankel argued that
it is not a (jucstion of legality but of sentiment, and
pointed out the danger of affecting the national and
historical spirit of Judaism by changing the form of
a prayer which is recited by the Jews all over the
world. He also criticized the inconsistency created
by eliminating "Restore the i)riests to their service,
the Levites to their song and psalmody," while leav-
ing the references to the prayer for the rebuilding
of the Temple.

Evidently Frankel's criticism took effect. Atany
rate Geiger's view regarding the Reform prayer-
book occasioned a pronounced reaction. Geiger's
own "Seder Tefillah Debar Yom be-Yomo" ("Israe-

B 6

5 >■

f a

— M

f- »

£l

r»-

t«

tA'

•Jt a

Prayer-Books
Predestination

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

180

litisches Gebetbuch fiir den Oeffentlichen Gottes-
dienst in Ganzcn Jahre." Breslau, 1854) is certainly
less radical than either edition of the Hamburg
Temple prayer-book. Geiger's siddur reads from

right to left and contains almost the

Geiger's whole Hebrew text of the prayers.

Siddur. Indeed, the changes are so few and

insignificant that it could easily pass
for an Orthodo.x prayer-book. There are even the
benedictions for zizit and phylacteries in the week-
day service, including Minhah and Ma'arib. In
the benediction " We-la-Malshinim " "slanderers,"
"evil-doers," and "the arrogant" are changed to
"slander," "evil," and "arrogance." Nearly all
the references to the Messiah and the restoration
remain untouched. The Musaf for Sabbath con-
tains the words "and the additional offering of the
Sabbath-day we will prepare [omitting "and offer
up "] unto Thee in love," etc. TJie siddur has also
the prayers for the clo.se of Sabbath, including " We-
Yitten Leka." In the New-Year's prayer is in-
cluded the Shofar service, and the Musaf Yom Kip-
pur has nearly the complete list of the " Al-Het."

The Reform ritual of the Hamburg Temple was
carried over to England, where D. W. Marks edited
a "Seder ha-Tefillot,"on Reform lines, for the West
London Synagogue of British Jews (London, 1841).
The Orthodox Jews, more especially of the Sephar-

dic branch, condemned the innovation.

In England and Haham Raphael Meldola and

and Chief Rabbi Herschel published an in-

America. terdict against the new praj'er-book

on May 10, 1841, characterizing it "a
great evil," "an abomination" which should not be
brought into a Jewish home. Bi'* while checked in
England. Reform developed in Germany, the second
edition of the "Gebetbuch fiir Jiulische Reformge-
meinden" appearing at Berlin in 1852.

Reform prayer-books in AmtM'ica were published
soon after 1850: L. Merzbacher's "Seder Tefillah "
(New York, 1855; 2d ed., S. Adler, 1863); Wise's
"Minhag America" (Hebrew^ and English, and He-
brew and German; Cincinnati, 1857); Einhorn's
" 'Olat Tamid " (Hebrew and German ; Baltimore,
1858); Benjamin Szold's "Kodesh Hillulim " (He-
brew and German; ib. 1862). The authors of the
American prayer-books were extremely radical in
the abridgment of the Hebrew text and in elim-
inating all references to a personal Messiah, the
restoration, and the resurrection of the dead, and in
place of "resurrection," "immortality" was some-
times substituted. For example, in liie 'Amidali,
instead of "Go'el " (Redeemer) was substituted "ge-
'ulah " (redemption) ; and for " mohayyeh ha-metim "
(who quickenest tlie dead) was substituted "me-
hayyeh ha-kol" (wiio vivifiest all things [Adler'.^
ed.]), or "mehayyeh nishtnat ha-metim " (whokeep-
etii alive the souls of dying mortals [" Minhag Ameri-
ca"]), or "notea' hayye 'olam be-tokenu " (who hast
implanted within us immortal life [Einhorn ver-
sion, adopted in "The Union Prayer-Book "]). A
curious error occurs in the English translation in the
"Minhag America": the words "zorea' zedakot "
(He sowcth righteousness) are rendered " the arm
of justice" — "zorea' " being mistaken for "zeroa' "
(see Cincinnati Conference revision, 1872).

Marcus Jastrow collaborated with Benjamin Szold
in the revision of the latter's prayer-book, and edited
" 'Abodat Yisrael " for the synagogue and " Hegyon
Leb " for the home (1870, with English translation).

David Levy's " 'Abodat ha-Kodesh," for the Con-
gregation Beth Elohim, Charleston. S. C. (1879),
retains the phrase "mehayyeh ha-metim," which
he renders " who granted eternal life to the dead."
Isaac S. Moses" "Tefillah le-Mosheh" (Milwaukee,
1884) is largely devoted to a revision of the trans-
lation. Joseph Krauskopf 's " Service Ritual " (Phil-
adelphia, 1888; 2d ed. 1892) claims to preserve only
the "spirit" of the prayers; he omits even the
Patriarchal benediction. The book consists chieHy
of readings and choral chants.

Perhaps the most radical prayer-book is Joseph
Leonard Levy's "Book of Prayer" (Pittsburg, 1903;
see D. W. Amram in "Reform Advocate," 1903, p.
544). Einhorn's "Olat ha-Tamid," with emenda-
tions and English translation by E. G. Hirsch (Chi-
cago, 1896), has become a recognized authority in
tiie Reform liturgy of America.

The standard Reform prayer-book is the " Seder
Tefillat Yisrael " (" The Union Praj'er-Book for Jew-
ish Worship " ; edited and publi-shed by the Central
Conference of American Rabbis; 2 vols., Cincin-
nati, 1895). Part i. contains prayers for the Sab-
l)ath, the three festivals, and the week-days; part
ii. contains prayers for New-Year's Day and the Day
of Atonement. This prayer-book has more Hebrew
than other American Reform prayer-books. The
prayer for mourners occupies a prominent place, as
do the silent devotions. It contains also "The
Blessing of the Light" for Hanukkah
"The (on Sabbath eve), readings from the
Union Torah and Haftarah (translations),

Prayer- selections from the Scriptures, and
Book." recitations. It has no Musaf praj'er.
"Abinu Malkenii" is recited on Rosh
ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur. "Our Father, our
King ! inscribe us in the book of life," is paraphrased
"... help us to lead a good and pure hfe." "In-
scribe us in the book of redemption and salvation"
does not occur, though the Hebrew appears there
unchanged. The Yom Kippur service is divided
into five parts: Evening, Morning, Afternoon, Me-
morial, and Concluding Prayers.

By 1905, ten years after its publication, "The
Union Prayer-Book " had been adopted by 183 Re-
form congregations, and 62,224 copies had been
issued.

Bibliography : Fiirst, in Orient, 1842, pp. 231-232 (eniimprates
fourteen distinct works on the subject of the Hainbiirn Reform
Prayer-Book); Zritumj drs JwlcntlniiUK 1S.J2, No. 8; Holz-
maii, 'Knirtc Rc/a'(»i, New Vork. 186.5; Emanuel Schreiber,
Reformed Juddiitm, pp. 131-156, Spokane, 1892.
A. J. D. E.

PRAYER-MOTIVES. See Music, Svna-

GOCAI..

PREACHING. See Homii-etics.

PRECEDENCE : Priority and preference given
to individuals as a matter of established rule or eti-
quette. The superiority of the husband over his
wife was recognized when God said to Eve, "He
[Adam] shall rule over thee." The male was pre-
ferred to the female, and the first-born son received

181

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prayer-Booka
Preaeatination

a double sliare of the iiilieritauce. Tho issue of
a bondwoman was considered of a lower class
(Gen. xxi. 10). Class distinction was established in
Egypt, where all of the tribe of Levi were set fice
from bondage (Ex. K. v. 20), and where its members
preserved records of their jjcdigrees (Num. H. xiii.
10). The Levites were given charge of the Sanctuary
(Num. xviii. 1). Aaron headed tlie family of jiriests.
Thus three classes were formed — the Kohanim, the
Levites, and the Israelites. Ti)ese divisions re-
mained, nominally, after the Temple

Classes was destroyed. Precedence was still
and Ranks, given to the Kohen, after whom came
the Levite, and then the Israelite; this
order was observed in choosing those who Avere to
read in the synagogue the weekly portion of the
Pentateuch (Git. v. 8 ; see L.\w, Hkading fho.m tiik).
The Kohen is entitled to precedence in the reading
of the Torah and in sa}'1ng grace, and he receives
the best portion at the meal (Git. /jOb). The Israel-
ites are ranked as follows: the learned men avIio
are the officers of the community; after these,
learned men who deserve to hold such positions
(candidates); next, the leading men of the congrega-
tions; then the common people (Git. 60a; Shulhan
'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 136). Men of authority wlu)
render decisions precede those who are learned in pil-
pulistic argumentation ("Be'er Heteb," ad loc).

Order of precedence according to the baraita runs
as follows: (1) one anointed with the sacred oil
(king); (2) the high priest; (3) one anointed for bat-
tle (field-commander); (4) the substitute high priest;
(5) the chief of the guard (of the Temple "ma'a-
mad ") ; (6) the chief of the bet din ; (7) the trus-
tee of the Temple; (8) the ti-easurer of the Temple;
(9) the ordinary priest; (10) the Levite; (11) the
Israelite; (12) the bastard; (13) the Nethiuite (see
Josh. ix. 27); (14) the "ger" or proselyte ; (15) the re-
leased slave (who has embraced Judaism). This
order holds good only where there is equality in
learning ; otherwise the learned bastard precedes the
ignorant high priest (Tosef., Hor. ii. [ed. Zucker-
mandl, p. 476]; comp. Yer. Hor. iii. 5). "The ha-
kam precedes the unlearned king because when a
hakam dies he leaves a vacancy ; but when a king
dies any Israelite is fit to succeed him. . . . The
king precedes the high priest ; the high priest pre-
cedes the prophet " (Hor. 13a).

It was the custom that the younger girl should
not marry before her elder sister (Gen. xxix. 26).
A public marriage ceremony has precedence over
a public funeral, and a reception to the king pre-
cedes both. King Agrippa, however, gave way to
the bridal procession at the crossing of the highway
(Ket. 17a). In the synagogue, if there
Marriage be present both a bridegroom and a
Pre- mourner, the bridegroom and the

cedence. wedding-party leave first, and the
mourner with the consolers afterward
(Tos. Ket. ad loc). The bridegroom sits at the head
of the table (M. K. 28b), and has priority over others
in the honor of reading the Torah. The bridegroom
who marries a virgin precedes one who marries a
widow; but one who marries a divorcee ranks after
both ("Be'er Heteb" lo Orah Hayyim, 136, 1).

The ancient custom at meals was to recline on

couches. The highest in rank sits at the liead of
the table; the next in rank, at the upper end; next,
at the lower end. R. Johanan said. "The host
breaks tiie bread and the guest tuiys grace." The
washing of the hands before meals begins with the
highest in rank and ends with the Inwest. The
washing of the lingers after meals begins with the
highest, provided there are no more than five persons
present; if there are more, the washing brgins with
the lowest and proceeds u|»war(l, until the lifth
jierson from the head is reached ; then the highcKt
in rank washes, followed i)y tin- second, tliird.
fourth, and lUth (Her. 40a, b). Hrotlurs sit accord-
ing to age ((len. xliii. 3, l{aslii).

On dangerous mads the lowest in rank goes first.
Thus Jacob, fearing the vengeance of Esau, ar-
ranged that the handmaids with their childn-n
should precede Leah and herciiildren, who went be-
fore Rachel and Joseph, though Jacoli liimself cou-
rageously headed all (Gen. xx.xiii. 1-3). The man
must not follow the woman. "Rather follow a
lion than a woman." R. Nahman called Manouh an
"am ha-arez " because he "went after his wife"
(Judges xiii. 11; Ber. 61a). Aaron was always to

the right of Moses. Wlien three iwr-

When sf)ns are walking together, the superior

Traveling, walks in the middle; the next in rank

on his right, and the other on liis left
(Er. 54b). AYomen ride behind men, as is evident
from the case of Rebekah, who followed Eliezer
(Gen. xxiv. 61). While Rabbah b. Huna and Levi
b. Huna b. Hiyya were on a journey the latt<'r"s
donkey moved in front of the former's. Rabbah,
being higher in rank, was offended by the apparent
slight until R. Levi apologized and spoke of a new
subject "in order to brighten him tip" (Sliab. 511i).
When two camels meet, the one more heavily laden
has the right of way (J. Briskin, "Taw Yehoshua","
p. 72, Warsaw, 1895). According to another au-
thoritj", no order of precedence should be observed
on the road or on a bridge, or in the washing of un-
clean hands (Ber. 4Ta). At the lavatory the one who
enters has precedence over the one who comes out ;
at the bath-house the order is reversed (J. Briskin,
I.e. pp. 31, 82). In ascending stairs or a ladder the
highest in rank ascends first; in descending, he goes
down last. On entering a prison the lowest in rank
enters last. The host enters the house first and leaves
last (Derek Erez, iii.). In the case of ransom the
order runs: the mother, oneself, the son. the father,
the religious teacher (Tosef. ii.). See ETK^iKTrE;
Gkeeting, Fohms of.

K. c. J. n. E.

PRECENTOR. See H.\zzan.

PRECIOUS STONES. See Gems.

PREDESTINATION : The belief that the des-
tiny of num is determined beforehand by God. " Pre-
destination " in this sense is not to be confounded
with the term "preordination." applied to the moral
asrents as predetermining either election to eternal
life or reprobation. This latter view of pre<lestina-
tion, held by Christian and .Mohammedan theologians,
is foreign to Judaism, which, professing the prin-
ciple of FiiKK Wii.i,. teaelies that eternal life and
reprobation are dependent solely upon man's good

Predestination
Pieexistence

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

182

or evil actions. It is in regard to the material life,
as to whetlier man will experience good fortune or
meet adversity, that Judaism recognizes a divine
decision. According to Josephus, who desired to
present the Jewish parties as so many philosophical
schools, the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes were
divided on this question. The Pharisees held that
notallthiugsaredivinely predestined, but that some
are dependent on the will of man ; the Sadducees
denied any interference of God in human affairs:
while the Essenes ascribed everything to divine pre-
destination ("B. J." 11. 8, § 14; '"Ant." xiii. 5, § 9).

In this controversy the real point at issue was
the question of divine providence. As followers of
Epicurus, the Sadducees, according to Josephus,
held that all the phenomena of this world are due
to chance and they denied the existence of a divine
providence. The Essenes attributed everything to
the will of God, and, exaggerating the conception
of divine providence, denied to man any initiative.
The Pharisees, fully aware that predestination pre-
cludes free-will, adopted a middle view, declaring
that man is subject to predestination in his material
life, but is completely free in his spiritual life. This
view is expressed in the teaching of R. Akiba (Abot
iii. 15): "'All is foreseen, yet freedom is granted";
and in the similar saying of R. Hanina, "All is in
the power of God, except the fear of God " (Ber.
33b; Niddah 16b). Another saying of Hauina's is,
"A man does not hurt his finger in this world unless
It has been decreed above " (Hul. 7b). Similarly it
is said, " The plague may rage for seven years, and
yet no man will die before the appointed hour"
(Sanh. 29a; Yeb. 114b).

The most striking example of predestinarian be-
lief found in the Talmud is the legend concerning
Eleazar ben Pedat. This amora, being in straitened
circumstances, asked God how long he would suffer
from his poverty. The answer, received in a dream,
was, "My son, wouldst thou have Me overthrow
the world?" (Ta'an. 25a); the meaning being that
Eleazar's poverty' could not be helped, he having
been predestined to be poor.

Some later doctors of the Talmud admitted an-
other kind of predestination, which widely differs
from the old doctrine ; this is the belief that every
person has a particular star with which his destiny
is indissolubly bound. Rabba said.
Connection "Progeny, duration of life, and sub-
with sistence are dependent upon the con-
Astrology, stellations" (M. K. 28a). Tliis astro-
logical predestination seems to have
been admitted because It solved the ever-recurring
<|nestion, " Why does a just God sooften permit the
wicked to lead happy lives, while many righteous
are miserable?" However, whether man's destiny "
be regulated by a providential or by an astrological
predestination, it can sometimes, according to the
Rabbis, be changed through prayer and devotion.

The discu.ssions that arose between the Ash'.mjiya,
the Islamic partizans of predestination, and their
opponents, the Motazilites, found an echo in Jewish
literature. In an essay entitled " Iggeret lia-Geze-
raii," Abner of Burgos propounds the Ash'ariya
doctrine of predestination, according to which every
human act, both in the material and the spiritual

life, is predestined. This doctrine, however, was
combateil by all Jewisli thinkers, and especially by
Maimonides, who pointed out all the absurdities to
which the Ash'ariya were compelled to have re-
course in order to sustain their views ("Moreh Ne-
bukim," ill., ch. xvli.).

K. I. Br.

PREEXISTENCE: Existence previous to
earthly life or to Creation, attributed in apocryphal
and rabbinical writings to persons and things form-
ing part of the divine plan of human salvation or
the w'orld's government.

Preexistence of the Souls of the Righteous :
"Before God created the world He held a consulta-
tion with the souls of the righteous." This view,
apparently, has been adopted from the Zend-Avesta,
in which the holy " fravashis" (souls) of the heroes of
]Mazdaism have a cosmic character. With these Ahu-
ramazda holds council before creating the world
("Bundahis," ii. 9; "S. B. E." v. 14; comp. xxiii.
179-230; Spiegel, "Eranische Altertluimskunde,"
ii. 91-98). Enoch speaks of an assembly of the holy
and righteous ones in heaven under the wings of the
Lord of the spirits, with the Elect (the Messiah) in
their midst (xxxlx. 4-7, xl. 5, Ixi. 12); he mentions
especially the "first fathers and the righteous who
have dwelt in that place [paradise] from the begin-
ning " (Ixx. 4). In fact, it is a "congregation of
the righteous " in heaven that will appear in the
Messianic time (xxxviii. 3, liii. 6, Ixii. 8), and "the
Elect, who had been hidden, will be revealed with
them " (xlviii. 6, Ixii. 7). Likewise, it is said in
IV Esd. vii. 28, xiii. 52, xiv. 9 that "the hidden
Messiah will be revealed together with all those that
are with him." Parsism casts light on the origin
and significance of this belief also. In "Bundahis"
(xxix. 5-6, XXX. 17) the immortals that come to the
assistance of Soshians (" the Savior ") are mentioned
by name, and the number of the righteous men and
damsels that live forever is specified as fifteen each
(Windischman, " Zoroastrische Studien," 1863, pp.
244-249; comp. "the thirty righteous ones that stand
before God all day preserving the world " : Gen. R.
xxxvi. ; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah ii. 40; Midr. Teh. Ps. v.;
Suk. 45bhas" the thirty -six righteous"). The Syriac
Apoc. Baruch (xxx. 12) speaks of "a certain number
of righteous souls that will come forth from their
retreats at the advent of the Messiah" (comp. Yeb.
62a: "The son of David will not come until all the
souls have left the cage " [" guf," " columbarium "]).

Of the preexistence of Moses mention is made in
Assumptio Mosis (i. 14) : " He designed me and pre-
pared me before the foundation of the world that I
should be the mediator of the Covenant"; similarly
in an apocryphon entitled "Joseph's Prayer," quoted
by Origen.ln Johannem xxv., opp. iv. 84, where
Jacob says, " I am an angel of God and a primeval
spirit, the first-born of all creatures, and like me were
Abraham and Isaac created before any other work of
God. I am invested with the higliest
Moses and office in the face of God and invoke
the llim by His ineffable name." The Pa-

Patriarchs, triarchs are, indeed, declared to have
been part of the Merkabah (Gen. R.
Ixxii. 7; comp. the bridal gown of AsEN.\Tir, "pre-
pared from the beginnings of the world ").

183

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Predestination
Preexistence

An ancient baraita handed down in different ver-
sions ('numerates six or seven persona or tilings cre-
ated before the world came into existence: (1) the
Torah, which is called "the firstling of His way "
(Prov. viii. 22, Ilebr.) ; (2) the throne of glorj', which
is "established of old " (Ps. xciii. 2); (3) the sanc-
tuary— "From the beginning is the place of our
sauctuary " (Jer. xvii. 12); (4) the Patriarchs — "Isiiw
your fatliers as the first ripe in the fig-tree at her
first time" (Hos. ix. 10); (5) Israel— "Thy congrega-
tion, which Thou hast created from the beginning"
(Ps. Iwiv. 2, Hebr.); (6) the Messiah— " Before the
sun his name sprouts forth as Yiunon, ' the Awa-
keuer ' " (Ps. Ixxii. 17, rabbinical interpretation);
also, " His issue is from the beginning " (Micah v.
1; Pirke R. El. iii.); (7) repentance — "Before the
mountains were brought forth, or even thou hadst
formed theearth and the world," Thou saidst, "Re-
turn [to God] ye children of men " (Ps. xc. 2-3).

To these seven some added: (8) Gan 'Eden —
"The Lord God planted a garden in Eden from the
beginning" (Gen. ii. 8, rabbinical interpretation of
" mi-Kedem ") ; and (9) Gehenna — " Tofet is ordained
of old " (Isa. xxx. 33). There is also a tenth men-
tioned in some sources: the Holy Land — "The first
of the dust of the world" (Prov. viii. 26, Hebr. ; Pes.
54a; Ned. 39b; Pirke R. El. iii. ; Tanna debe Eli-
yahu R. xxxi. ; Tan., Naso, ed. Buber, p. 19; Midr.
Teh. Ps. Ixxiv. ; Ps. cxiii. ; Gen. R. i. 3; Sifre,
Dent. 37).

>[any parallels are found in the various Apocry-
phal books. "The throne of glory was the first
tiling created by God " (Slavonic Enoch, xxv. 4).
Paradise with all the treasures of reward for the
righteous (Midr. Teh. Ps. xxxi. 20 [19]) is prepared
from the beginning (Apoc. Baruch, iv. 6, Iii. 7,
Ixxxi. 4, Ixxxiv. 6; Slavonic Enoch, ix. 1, xlix. 2;
Ethiopic Enoch, ciii. 3; comp. xxxviii. 3; IV Esd.
viii. 52). Leviathan and Behemoth also are pre-
pared from the beginning (Apoc. Baruch, xxix. 4;
IV Esd. vi. 49 ; comp. B. B. 44b) ; and the glory or the
light of the first day is prepared for the righteous
(Apoc. Baruch, xlviii. 49, lix. 11, Ixvi. 7; IV Esd.
vii. 9, viii. 52; comp. Hag. 12a; Gen. R. iii. 6). So
•with Gehenna and its tortures, prepared for the
wicked (Apoc. Baruch, lix. 2; IV Esd. vii. 84, 93;
viii. 59; xiii. 36; Slavonic Enoch, x. 4). Jerusalem
also has existed from eternity (Apoc. Baruch, iv. 3,
6 ; IV Esd. vii. 26, viii. 52). The Messiah shall
bring all the hidden treasures to light (Enoch, xlvi.
3, xlix. 4, Ixi. 13; IV Esd. xii. 32, xiii. 35, xiv. 9).

In the New Testament the same view is expressed
regarding the preexistence of persons and things
forming ]iart of the divine salvation. When Jesus,
in John viii. 58, says, "Before Abraham was, I am,"
allusion is made to the preexistence of the Messiah.
So is the Kingdom— that is, the reward of paradise
— " prepared for you [the righteous]
In from the foundation of the world "

the New (Matt. xxv. 34; comp. Abot iii. 16).
Testament. From Matt. xiii. 35 it appears that the
"dark sayings of old " of Ps. Ixxviii. 2
was understood to refer to Messianic secrets pre-
pared from the foundation of the world. Similarly
the names of the righteous are " written in the book of
life from the foundation of the world " (Rev. xvii. 8).

But the blood of tiie martyr prophets was also be-
lieved to have been "shed from the foundation of
the world" (Luke xi. 50); hence, also, that of the
"Lamb" (Rev. xiii. 8; Heb. ix. 26). The Apo.stles
claimed to have been, witii tlieir ma.ster, "chosen
from the foundation of the world " (Epii. i. 4 ; comp.
John xvii. 24; I Peter i. 20; Heb. iv. 8). K.

Preexistence of the Messiah : Tliis includes
his existence before Creation; llie existence of Ids
name; his existence after the creation of the world.
Two Biblical p ■. favor the view of the pre-

existence of th' ,ih- Micah v. 1 (A. V. 2).

speaking of the Bethlehemitc ruler, says that his
"goings forth have been from of old, from •
ing"; Dan. vii. 13 sjieaks of "one like th> :

man," who "came with tl>e clouds of heaven, and
came to the Ancient of days." In the >!•
similitudes of Enoch (xxxvii.-lxxi.) the th:
existences are spoken of: "Tlie Messiah was chosen
of God before the creation of the world, and he
shall be before Him to eternity " (xlviii. 6). Before
the sun and the signs of the zodiac were created, or
ever the stars of heaven were formed, his name was
uttered in the presence of the Lord of Spirits (::=
God; xlviii. 3). Apart from these passages, there
are only general statements that the Messiali was
hidden and preserved by God (Ixii. <5-7, xlvi. 1-3),
without any declaration as to when he began to
be. His preexistence is affirmed also in II Esflras
(about 90 C.E.), according to which he has been pre-
served and hidden by God " a great season " ; nor
shall mankind see him save at the hour of his ap-
pointed day (xii. 32; xiii. 26, 52; xiv. 9). although
no mention is made of the antemundane existence
either of his person or of his name (comp. Syriac
Apoc. Baruch, xxix. 3).

Thus also the Rabbis. Of the seven things fash-
ioned before the creation of the world, the last was
the name of the Messiah (comp. Ps. Ixxii. 17; Pes.
54a; Tan., Naso, ed. Buber, No. 19; and parallels);
and the Targum regards the preexi.stence of the
Messiah's name as implied in Micah v. 1 (A. V. 2).
Zech. iv. 7, and Ps. Ixxii. 17.

The "Spirit of God" which "moved upon the
face of the waters" (Gen. i. 2) is the spirit of the
Messiah (Gen. R. viii. 1; comp. Pesil>. R. 1""
which reads as follows, alluding to Isa. xi. 2: ' .
Messiah was born [created] wiien the world was
made, although nis existence had been coutemplatcni
before the Creation "). Referring to Ps. xxxvi. 10
and Gen. i. 4, Pesikta Rabba declares (t61b):
"God beheld the Messiah and his deeds before the
Creation, but He hid him and his genenition under
His throne of glory." Seeing him. Satan sjiid.
"That is the Messiah who will dethrone me." tiod
said to the Messiah, "Ephraim, anointed of My
righteousness, thou hast taken upon thee the suf-
ferings of the six daysof Creation" (162a; comp.
Yalk°, Isa. 499). The preexistence of the Mes>-i:iii
in heaven and his high st^Uion there are often men-
tioned. Akiba interprets Dan. vii. 9 as referring to
two lieaveulv thrones— the one occupied by God
and the other by the ^^lessiah (Hag. 14a: comp.
Enoch. Iv. 4, Ixix. 29), with whom r.,.,1 . ..nvrr^fs
(Pes. 118b; Suk. 52a).

The "four carpenters" mentioned in Zcch. u. 3

Preexistence

Prefaces

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

184

(A. V. i. 20) arc the Messiah ben David, the Messiah
beu Joseph, Elijah, and Melchizedek (Suk. 52a).
The 3Iessiah will not come on the Sabbath-day,
which is observed in heaven as well as on earth ("Er.
43a) ; and because of the transgressions of Zion he

is hidden (Targ. Micah iv. 8), remain-
Abode ing so in liea ven until the end ( "' B. H. "
in Heaven, ii. 55), where he sits in the fifth of the

seven chambers {ib. ii. 49, top). With
him are some who have not tasted death— Enoch,
Moses, and Elijah (II Esd. vi. 26, xiii. 52), and it is
he who comes with the clouds of heaven (ib. xii. 3,
based on Dan. vii. 3). Like heaven itself, he is
made of fire (ib. xiii. 27-28; comp. Pesik. R. 162a,
based on Isa. 1. 11), and he is accordingly regarded
as a star (Targ. Num. xxiv. 17). The frequent ex-
pression, "The son of David shallonly come " (Sanh.
38a et passim), presupposes his abode in heaven,
and the statement that the world exists only to de-
light him (and David and Moses) implies his pre-
existence (Sanh. 96b); but he will not appear until
all the souls have left the treasury ("guf" ; 'Ab.
Zarah 5a; comp. Weber, p. 350). His names, Son
of the Stars (Taan. iv. 7-8 and parallels). Son of
the Clouds (Sanh. 96b; comp. " B. 11." iv. 20, 4, vi.
70, 5, following Tan., Toledot, 14, and I Chron. iii.
24), "He who dwelleth in the clouds" (Targ. T
Chron. I.e.), "the Eternal" (following Jer. xxiii. 6
and Lam. R. i. [ntJ'yo]), "Light" (Dan. ii. 22, Lam.
R. i.,and Gon. R. i. 6), and "Tinnon"(Ps. Ixxii. 17:
"before the sun was created his name was"; Sanh.
98c and parallels), imply his origin and preexistence
in heaven. He therefore stands higher than the min-
istering angels ( Yalk. ii. 476), and he lives through-
out eternity (Midr. Teh. ii. ; Talk. I.e.).

Bibliography. Buxtorf. Lexicon Hehrnico-Chaldaicum, ed.
Fischer, ii. 642-&44 (containing passages from the Targum);
Castelli, 11 Afes-vio Secondo gli Ehrei, pp. 207 et seq.. Flor-
ence, 1874 ; Dalman, Die Woi-te Jenu, i. 10.5 et seq., 107, 245-
248, Leipsic, 1899; Drummond, The Jeunsh yie^'<iah. etc.,
London, 1877; Frank, Kahhala; Hamburger, ii. B. T. il.790-
792; Huhn, Die Mr.s.<inni.ichen iVei.'«^agungen de» Israeli-
ti.tch-JUxU.schen Vollie.s hi.^ zu den Targumim Historisch-
K7-Ui.-<ch Unt€r.mcht, pp. 89, 108, 111 et .^eq., 129 et .seq., Frei-
burg. 1899; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyc. xii. 731-73.5 ; Schiirpr;
Ge«ch. ii. 496-498, 528-530; Weber, Jildisdie Tfieologie, Leip-
sic 1897.
K. L. B.

OF THE SOUL.

See

PREEXISTENCE
Soul.

PREFACES AND DEDICATIONS: The

general Hebrew naino for a preface is "liakdamah."
The saying "A book without a preface is like a
body without a soul" is often quoted by authors
as a reason for the preface. The origin of the
preface may be traced to the " petihah " (opening),
the text which the Rabbis cited before their lectures
(Cant. R. i. 2). This petihah precedes many mid-
rashic discourses. The first distinct preface is the
letter introducing the "Siddur Rab Amram Gaon "
(9th cent.), and beginning, "Ainiain bar Sheshna,
principal of the yeshibah of Matah Mehasya, to
Rabbi Isaac b. Rabbi Simeon " (see Pu.\yeii-Books).
This style of prefatory letter is used by Maimonides
(12th cent.) in the "Moreh"; in this case the letter is
addressed to his disciple .Joseph b. Judah, and is
styled in the heading a "petihah." Aaron ha-Levi
of Barcelona (13th cent.) prefaces his "Sefer ha-
Hinnuk " with a " letter by the author." The word

" mabo " (entrance) often takes the place of " hakda-
mah." The introduction of Maimonides to Zera'im
(translated into German by Dukes, Prague, 1833;
original Arabic MS. and Hebrew translation edited
by Hamburger, Frankfort-onthe-Main, 1902), the
introduction to the chapter " Helek " in Sanliedrin,
and the introductions to the " Yad " and the " Moreh "
(besides the petihah), are called "hakdamot," though
the appellation was given probably by later tran-
scribers of the manuscripts.

The prefaces and introductions referred to are the
longest and most important prior to the introduc-
tion of printing; moreover, thej' aroused much dis-
cussion and criticism — the preface to "Helek,"
becau.se of the author's views on the principles of
faith and on paradi.se. The preface to the " Yad " is
severely criticized by RABaD because Maimonides
therein expresseshis wish to have his code supersede
the teaching of the Talmud. Tlie pref-
Early ace to the " Moreh " is remarkable for
Examples, the statement that the author was de-
termined to write it, even if he should
benefit only one reader to 10,000 fools who would
criticize him. Maimonides' preface to the " Yad "
begins with Ps. cxix. 6. Rashi wrote a short pref-
ace to the Song of Solomon.

Next in importance to Maimonides' prefaces is
that of Ibn Ezra to his commentary on the Pen-
tateuch. Isaac b. Abba Mari of Marseilles (12th
cent.) prefixes a short preface to his "Sefer ha-
'Ittur"; incidentally he relates that at the age of
seventeen he completed the chapters relating to
"shehitah" and "terefah." Zedekiah b. Abraham
ha-Rofe (13th cent.), author of the "Shibboie ha-
Leket " (edited by Buber, Wilna, 1886), begins with
Ps. cxviii. 25, and explains his object in gathering
the "gleanings of the ears of corn " from the deci-
sions of the Geonim; he had found that "the troub-
les of worldly business vanities" left little time for
the pursuit of learning. David Abudarham of Se-
ville (1340), in his liturgical code, has a short preface
on the title-page and a long preface preceding the
body of the work.

The early prefaces generally commence with the
name of the author — "Said Abraham the Sephardi "
(Ibn Ezra), for example, but are preceded by the
name of God, whose aid is implored. The Mahzor
Vitry (1208) begins with "I'K'V ^ OJ?, the initials of
the wording of Ps. cxxi. 2. Azariahdei Rossi (1511-
1578), before his preface to the "Me'or 'Enayim,"
explains the need of mentioning God's name before
commencing any ini{)()rtant work, as taught in Yer.
Ber. V. 1 and Zohar, 'Tazria', 50a, 56b. Dei Rossi be-
gins, "The Lord of Hosts is with us" (Ps. xlvi. 12).

Prefaces were supposed to have been composed
before the book. This may be true regarding the
early writers, but in modern times they are invariably
written after the book is finished. Many of the
prefaces to the early works were wholly or partly
omitted by the transcribers or the publishers. In-
deed, some of the prefaces in the first editions were
omitted in the subsequent editions, the publishers
either desiring to save expense or regarding the
preface as superfiuous. For example, the preface
of Menahem b. Zarah (1368) to his "Zedah la-De-
rek," which preface is of great historical value

185

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Preexiatence
Prefaces

and was published with the first edition, J'cr-
ram, 1554, is omitted from all other editions. Tlie
same fate befell the preface of Israel ha-Ijevi Landau
to his "Hok Ic-Yisrael," on the 613 precepts (1st ed.,
Prague, 1798; see Jellinek, " Kontres Taryag," No.
56). The publishers, perhaps, recognized the gen-
eral disinclination of readers to read the preface.
Shabbethai Bass of Prague, in his " Sifte Yeshenim "
(Amsterdam, 16H0), the tirst Hebrew work on l)ib]i-
ography, says, on the title-page, "All I ask of the
reader is to peruse my preface and learn what will
be the benefit derived from reading the l)ook." On
the next jvige he greets his readers: " Blessed be he
that comet li in the name of the Lord Sabaoth." The
atifhor enumerates ten benefits to be derived from
reading his book (see Flirst, "Bibl. Jud." iii., p.
Ixxvii.).

The preface is generally apologetic for the au-
thor's shortcomings and e.xjtlanatory of the contents
and object of the book. Sometimes the author ex-
tols his subject, and enlarges on the necessity of
gratifying the public demand for en-
Contents, lightenment in that direction. The
Com- title of the book also is explained (see
position, Titles op Books). The early pref-
Style. aces are often elaborated with verses
and with acrostics giving the name of
the author and of the book. Sometimes a part of the
preface is in rimed prose. In many cases the style
is mosaic — a mixture of Biblical, Talmudic, mid-
rasliie, and Zoharic phraseology requiring an expert
to comjueheud the meaning and to appreciate the
ingenuity of the author. Prefaces to cabalistic and
theological works usually begin with words the ini-
tials of which form the name of God. Thus Joseph
Albo (1380-1444), in his '"Ikkarim." begins the

preface with DH^^yLv ni^nnnri nJ3ni Dnpyri nri^
niD< "3-1-1.

Some prefaces have catchwords either at the be-
ginnings or at the ends of their paragraphs. The
preface of David Gans to " Zemah Dawid " (Prague,
1592) has the catchword "David"; Emanuel Kec-
ci's "Mishnat Hasidim " (Amsterdam, 1740), the
word "Emet"; Malachi ha-Kohen, in his "Yad
Mal'aki " (Leghorn, 1767), the word " Anna " ; and in
the approbation written in tiie form of a preface, the
word "Kohen." Some prefaces are undated; in
others the date is given by the numerical values of
the letters in some appropriate sentence; sometimes
the dates are given according to the era of the de-
struction of Jerusalem. Arnold Ehrlich, in his
"Mikraki-Peshuto" (Berlin, 1899), dates the preface
from the year of the Ameiican Declaration of Inde-
pendence (see CoLOPiioN).

Isaac Aboab, in his "Menorat ha-Ma'or " (Constan-
tinople, 1514), has a general i)reface and a separate
preface and epilogue for each of the seven parts of
the work. The " Pi Shenayim," composed of ex-
cerpts from Midrash Rabbah, given in alphabet-
ical order (Sulzbach, 1712), was compiled by two
authors — Akiba Biir and Seligmau Levi, each
writing a preface. In some cases the prefaces were
written by friends of the authors: for example,
Zunz wrote a preface to Krochmal's "Moreh Ne-
bvdie ha-Zeman" (Lemberg, 1863), though this
was after the death of the author. P. Smolenskin

wrote many prefaces to books published under )iis
supervision in Vienna. Some prefaces are in a
different language from that of the work itself;
for instance, E. S. Kirschbaum's "Shirim u-.Me-
lizot " (Berlin, 1820) has a German preface. Mux
Lelteris, in his "Tofes Kiuuor we-'Ugab" (Vienna.
1860), lieads his preface with a quotation fmni
Goetlie. in German. As a rule, tl)e poefs are jioor
ill tlicir prose and esiiecially poor in Ihiir prefaces.
J. L. Gordon's preface to his " Koi Shire Yeinnlah "
is in the form f)f a poem. The prefaces to N H.
Imber's "Barkai" were wrilt.ii by Jeliiel Micliel
Pines (vol. i., Jeru.saiem, 1886) and'bv tiie aiillior's
brother (vol. ii., ZIoczow. 1900). Mordecai b. Jiuhih
Ashkenazi'a "Ilakdamat Sefer" (Kl^rth. 1701) con-
tains a special preface for his cabalistic work
"Eshel Abraham." The author exi)lains th.- pre.s-
ence of tlu; isolated preface; he had found .s<-verul
copies of the "E.shel Abraham " with only a part
of its preface; and, furtiier, he desired to give p(M)r
readers an opportunity to jjossess at least the pri'f-
ace, if unable to purchase the complete work. Tlie
preface to Mordecai Aaron Ginzburg's "Toh-dnt
Bene Adam " (Wilna, 1832) was published separately
(Benjacob, "Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 287).

A preface by the editor or publisher is gtnendl}'

an apology (" hitnazzelut "). The son of the autlior

of "Eliyahu Mizrahi," on Rashi (Venice. L^-lfl),

apologizes for some of the ambiguous

Apologies passages, which he explains as due to

by Pub- his father's dying before he had been

lishers and al)le to revise the manuscript. The

Proof- son appeals to the reader to apply to

Readers, him for the solution of any ditlicult
passage, requesting him to excuse the
shortcomings of his father in any case.

The press-corrector generally wrote a separate
])reface of apology. Benjamin b. Mattathiah. the
author of "Binyamin Ze'eb," responsa. read his own
proofs; and he apologizes for the typographical
errors due to the employment of non-Jewish printers
(ed. Venice, 1539). Similar apologies occur in the
"Cuzari" (ed. Venice, 1594) and in "Pi Shenayim"
(Venice). The press-corrector sjiys: "There is not a
just man upon earth that docth good and sinneth
not in the matter of type-errors, particidarly at
Sulzbach, where the pressmen are non-Jews who
allow the type in the forms to be displaced." A
noted press-corrector, Leon of ]\Iodena. wrote pref-
aces in verse — for example, in "Arze Lebanon"
(Venice, 1601). In the publication of the "Mik-
ra'ot Gedolot" ("Bibiia Magna"; Amsterdam, 1727)
two press-correctors, one for the text and one for
the commentaries, were employed, each of whom
wrote a preface (before the Psalms).

Of special interest are the prefaces of Christians
to Hebrew books; for example: the Hebrew prefaw.
in the form of a letter to Pope Leo X., in "Psjiltori-
tnn Giiistinianum." dated 1516; fiie Hebrew pn-fare
to the "Jlikdash Adonai," Basel, 1534: thai to the
missionary " IIa-Wikk»iah " (Discussion) had as a
heading the Latin term " Pra'fatio" over tiie Hebrew
preface dated Ba.sel, 1539.

Jewish .scholars in search of historical data util-
ized the data given in the prefaces of early works.
In particular. Senior Sachs (b. 1816) became a famous

Prefaces
Prerau

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

188

investigator of Jewish antiquity by means of pref-
aces ("Keneset Yisrael," i. 833).

Following are the headings of some prefaces, the
titles of the works in which they occur being given
in parentheses:

-\3n2n r-\iH (" letter by the author " ; " Sefer ha-Hlnnuk."
Venice. 1600).
Kii|in *?« ("a word to the reader"; editor's preface;
ProHat Duran, "Ma'aseh Ephod," Vienna,
18<>5\
H^yiprt yy '^h ("to the reader's eye"; publisher's preface;
Bar Sheshet, Responsa, Riva ili Trento. 15.59).
Knpn Sn nan (" a word to the reader " ; Bloch, " Shebile
'01am," Warsaw. 18.55).
ntT""! ("prefix" ; the form generally used).
"^ann .-i^x:,".! ("apology by the author"; Moses Ashkenazl,
"Thesaurus of Synonyms," Padua, 1880).
K132 ("entrance": a common form).
P'PNID TJD ("declaration at the beeinninj;"; Benjacob,
" Ozar ha-Sefarim ").
•'PBV n."iD3 ("the opening of my mouth"; "Kol Shire
Gordon," vol. il., St. Petersburg. 1884).
."in.iC2 (" keys " ; Yeruham of Provence, " Toledot
Adam wa-Hawah," Constantinople. 1516).
nn\i9 ("opening"; Judah Moscato, " Kol Yehudah,"
to the " Cuzari," Venice. 1594).
13T n.'^fl ("opening word"; the Mekilta. ed. Weiss,
Vienna. 1865).
D'3?J N"))p ("sweet reader"; " Pahad Yizhak." Venice.
1750).
Bn33j a'Nilp (" honored readers " ; J. H. Hirschensohn.
"Sheba' Hokmot," Lemberg, 1883).

A dedication, preceding or included in the pref-
ace, and addressed to a patron or to one who is
beloved and honored, was frequently added by Jew-
ish authors. Amram Gaon (9th cent.) dedicated his
siddur to R. Isjiac b. Simeon, who sent ten gold
pieces for the maintenance of the yeshibah of Ma-
tah Mehasya in Babylon, with a request for a copy
of the work. Maimonides (12th cent.) dedicated his
"Moreh" to his disciple Joseph b.
Dedications Judah. Al-Harizi translated the " Mo-
to reh" for certain great men in Pro-

Patrons, vence. Ibn Ezra (13th cent.) dedicated
his "Keli Nchoshet" (ed. Edelmann,
K5nigsberg, 1845) to his disciple Hananiah, and his
"Yesod Morah" to Joseph ben Jacob, in London
(1158).

Isaac b. Joseph Israeli (1310) dedicated his" Yesod
'01am," on astronomy, algebra, and the calendar
(ed. Goldberg, Berlin, 1848), to his teacher Asher b.
Jehiel. The dedication is perhaps the longest in
Hebrew literatilre, and is distinguished for extrav-
agantly eulogistic and complimentary phrases:
" Peace, as wide as from the East to the West, and
from the Ursa to tiie Scorpion, to the honored mas-
ter, favorite and beloved of men, a mountain in wis-
dom and a river in knowledge," etc.

Menahem b. Zarah (1362) dedicated his"Zedali la-
Derek" (Ferrara, 1554) to Don Samuel Abravaucl.
Searching Spain and France for "a friend dearer
than a brother," he finally found "the might)'
prince " Samuel, to whom he devotes twenty-two
verses.

The dedication of Jewish works to kings and
princes may be traced back to the Septuagint — the
Greek translation of the Bible made at the time of
Ptolemy Philadelphus (285 B.C.). Joseph ibn Sa-
tanas (K'NJDK'), it is asserted, translated the Tal-
mud into Arabic, for the sultan Al-Hakim, in 997
(Abraham Ibn Daud. in "Sefer ha-Kabbalah," ed.

Xeubauer, p. 69). Obadiah Sforno dedicated his " Or
Olam," on philosophical research (Bologna, 1537),
to the French king Henry II. David de Pomis dedi-
cated his"Zemah Dawid," a Hebrew-Latin-Italian
dictionary (Venice, 1587), to Pope Si.xtusV. Manas-
seh ben Israel dedicated his " Mikweh Yisrael " (Lon-
don, 1652) "To the Parliament, the Supreme Court
of England, and the Right Honorable the Councilor
oftheStateOliverCromwell." Manasseh's"Nishniat
Hayyim " was dedicated to King Ferdinand III., in a
Latin letter prefacing the first edition (Amsterdam,
1651). Mordecai Giimpel ha-Levi dedicated his
"Tokahat Megillah," a commentary on Ecclesiastes,
to the president of the Swiss republic (Hamburg,
1784). Ephraim E. Pinner dedicated his German
translation, with text, of the tractate Berakot of the
Babylonian Talmud to Nicholas I. of Russia (Berlin,
1842).

A singular dedication is that of Moses b. Gideon
Abudiente in his Hebrew grammar in the Spanish
language (Hamburg, 1833; Steinschneider, "Cat.
Bodl." No. 6418): it is addressed to God— "To the
King, the King of kings, the Holy One, praised be
He ! " and is signed, " Thy servant Moses " (" Orient,
Lit." 1850, No. 24). Among Christians also, Span-
ish, Italian, and English authors occasionally dedi-
cated their works to God. John Leycester, for in-
stance, dedicated his work on the "Civil Wars of
England" (1649) "to the honor and glory of the
Infinite, Immense, and Incomprehensible Majesty
of Jehovah, the Fountain of all E.xcellencies, the
Lord of Hosts, the Giver of all Victories, and the
God of Peace." The second among Jewish authors
to dedicate his work to God was Abraham Mendel
Muhr, in his "Magen ha-Hokmah," in defense of
science (Lemberg, 1834). He boldly described it as
a "letter to God," whom he refers to a passage in
Maimonides' "Moreh" for confirma-
Curiosities tion of his statements. This style of
of Dedica- dedication, and particularly the im-
tions. pious reference, were severely criti-
cized by Reggio (" Iggerot Yashar," ii.
12, Vienna, 1836; Rubin, "Tehillat ha-Kesilim," p.
169, Vienna, 1880), who condemned it as blasphemy.

Another interesting dedication is that of Gedaliah
ibn Yahya, in his " Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah " (on chro-
nology and history; Venice, 1587), to his first- born
son, Joseph, when he became a bar mizwah. Other
books written by Gedaliah between 1549 and 1588
were dedicated to his father, grandfather, children,
and grandchildren respectively. Moses Botarel dedi-
cated his commentary on the "Sefer Yezirah "
(Mantua, 1562) to a Christian scholar named Juan,
quoting tlie saying of the Rabbis that "a non-Jew
who is learned in the Torah is better than an igno-
rant higli priest."

Eliezer Lisser's "Hornat Esli," a commentary on
a poem by Ibn Ezra (Berlin, 1799), bears a dedica-
tion on the title-page, addressed to David Hannover
and his brothers in recognition of their patronage.
Adolf Jellinek dedicated his "Bet ha-Midrash," a
collection of minor midrashim, to Leopold Zunz
(Leipsic, 1853). A. B. Lebensohn dedicated his
"Shire Sefat Kodesh " (Wilna, 1861) "to the Holy
Language, preserved within the House of the Lord ;
chosen by the God of Israel and endeared by the

187

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prefaces
Prerau

Prophets; the Queen of all tongues; her holy name
is ' Sefat 'Eber ' ; may God establish her forever!
Selah."

Solomon Mandelkern's "Thamar" (2(1 ed., Leip-
sic, 1897) is really a German translation of Mapu's
Hebrew novel " Ahabat Ziyyon " ; this fact is ignored
on the title-page, but the dedication is addressed "to
the master of all Hebrew novel-writers, Abruhani
Mupu," with the significant text: "For all things
come of thee, and of thine own have we given thee"
(I Chron. xxix. 14). For an example of dedications
to honored subscribers see Lebensohn's to Sir Moses
and Lady Montefiore (in "Shire Sefat Kodesh," ed.
Wilna, 1863). Memorial volumes, consisting of col-
laborated articles edited by admirers and friends or
pupils of a distinguished author who has reached
an advanced age after a long period of literary
activity, or in honor of the memory of such an au-
thor, form a class by themselves. The first of this
kind was the "Mannheimer Album," dedicated to
Isaac Noah Mannheimer, the Jewish preacher of
Vienna, by Mayer Kohn Bislritz; its Hebrew title
is"Ziyyun le-Zikron 'Olam" (Vienna, 1864). Un-
der the title of "' Jubelschrift" a similar volume was
dedicated to Leopold Zunzon his ninetieth birthday
(Berlin, 1884); others were dedicated to Ileinriclj
Graetz (Breslau, 1887) and Israel Ilil-

Jubilee desheimer (Breslau, 1890) on their sev-
Dedi- eutieth birthdays. This title gave

cations, place to " Festschrift " in volumes pre-
pared in honor of Moritz Steinschnei-
der (eightieth birthday; Leipsic, 1896), Daniel
Chwolson (in recognition of fifty years' literary
activity— 1846-96; Berlin, 1899), Nahum Sokolow
{twenty-five years of literary activity ; "Sefer ha-
Yobel," Warsaw, 1904), Adolf Berliner (seventieth
Ijirthday; Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1903). There re-
mains to be mentioned the "Gedenkbuch zur Erin-
nerung an David Kaufmann," by M. Brann and F.
Rosenthal (Berlin, 1900). See Colophon ; Titles of
Books.

BiBUOGRAPHT: Reifmann, Tolerlot Rabhenu Zerahmh ha-
Levi, Prague, 1853 ; Henry B. Wheatley, Dedication of Boohs,
London, 1887.

J. J. D. E.

PREGNANCY. See Childbirth.

PREMEDITATION. See Intention.

PREMSLA, SHABBETHAI : Galician gram-
marian and scribe of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries; lived at Przeuiysl. He was the author of
a commentary (Lublin, 1622) on Moses Kimhi's gram-
matical work, " Sefer Mahalak " ; in it he defends the
author against the criticism of Elijah Levita, a
former commentator on the same work. His anno-
tations to the prayers, which first appeared in Dy-
herufurth (1690), were republished many times. He
was a Talmudical scholar also, and one of bis re-
spousa, on the Avriting of the Tetragrammaton, is
found in the "Teshubot ha-Geouim " (Amsterdam,
1707 [not 1717, as in FUrst]). Four of his works,
which were left in manuscript, are known, including
one on the necessity of grammatical studies. Hay-
yim Bochner (d. 1684, at Furth, Bavaria) was his
pupil.

BiBi,io(;iui'iiY: De Ro88l-HttiiiburviT, HiM. WCrterh. i, 272-

Si. Wllnu. 1881 ; Ha-AKif, v. I5tt e( »«;. ^

B- P. \Vl.

PRERAU: T<t\vii in Moravia. The Judengusuc
of Prcruu i.smeiilioned us early us Charles IV. (1339-
1349), but the settlement of Jews in Preruu was of
little significance until 14/i4, when the expulsious,
due to Caimstuano, from Olmlitz and Bresluu aug-
mented the Prerau comnuiuily. The newconuTB
settled in the suburb Sirsjiva, where they liud their
own synagogue; and cemetery; excuvnlions there
still result in occasional discoveries of old .lewisb
tombstones.

In loll George Lashinsky donated to the city hos-
pital 44 Bohemian groschen, tiie amount of a yearly
tax paid by the Jews from the produce nf their
fields. The Jews there were also required to pay
yearly to the Chancellor of Bohemia 10^ pchock
and 15 groschen; for the right of importing the
wine needed on their holy days they |)aid 4 pounds
of pepper, or 30 groschen in lieu of every pcuind of
pepper. They further paid IT) groschen for every
foreign Jew residing among them, a severe |)cnalty
being attached to any concealment. In 1000 the
right of retailing wine was withdrawn by Charles
the Elder of Zierotin, upon the complaint of the
citizens. But a successor, Balthazar of Zierotin
(1638-59), was very friendly to the Jews, and gmnted
them (May 14, 1638) a new charter, in whicii he
sanctioned the building of schools, a hospital, an
aqueduct for a mikweh, and the establishment of
a cemetery. In order to check the incendiarism of
which the Jews were the victims, he ordered that
Christian houses adjoining those owned by Jews
should continue in the possession of Christians.
Therefore a ghetto proper did not exist in Preruu.
The Jewish houses were, and still are, marked with
Roman numerals.

After the repeal of the edict of exjiulsiou issued
by Maria Theresa against the Jews of Moravia
(1745), forty-five families were permitted to settle
in Prerau. The census of the town in 1791 showed
230 Jews occupying 60 houses, and 2,658 Christians
occupying 600 houses. Enterprising Jews who de-
sired to establish breweries in Prerau were pre-
vented from doing so by the jealousy of their Chris-
tian fellow citizens, who refused, through the town
council, to permit the necessary buildings: the
breweries were therefore established in olinHtz.
Sternberg, and other places in the vicinity, and some
of these establishments have gained world- wide repu-
tation.

In 1902 the brothers Kulka erected an iron-foundry
in Prerau; David von Gutmann owns a large estate
in Troubek, near Prerau, but most of the Jews there
are merchants. As elsewhere in Moravia, the .Jew-
ish community is autonomous; it has a chief execu-
tive and. a school (German) supported by the stale.
There are a number of charitable societies and
foundations in Prerau; its hebra Haddisha, with
which the Ncr-Taniid society is afliliat<«l. possesses
some very old memor-books.

The best-known writer of Prerau was Marcus
Boss (b. 1820); he contribiited to "BikkuK- ha-
'Ittini" and " Kokebe Yi?hal>," and edited " Yalde
Shaashu'im," a collection of two hundred Hebrew

Prerau
Presburg

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

188

epigrams. Solomon Klein, rabbi at Zcnta. was
born in Prerau (d. 1902); he wrote " Dibre Shelo-
moh " (1896), Talmudic novellae, in the introduction
to -which lie gives interesting descriptions of life in
theyeshibah of heipnik under l\. Solomon Quetscii.
Among the rabbis of Prerau were the following:
Abraham Schick (1790-93); Solomon Fried (1793-
18-201; Moses Mandl (1S20-25); David Sehrmter
(1825-29); Abraham Placzek (1829-34; acting
"Landesrabbiner " of Moravia, 1850-84); Samuel
Schallinger (1834-36); Aaron Jacob Griin (1837-57);
"Wolf Fried (1857-83); Solomon Singer (1883-85);
Dr. Jacob Tauber(from 1886). Among the number

troduction in which each word, as in the work
itself, begins with the letUT "mem" (Briinn, 1799).
He was the author of "Ben Yemini," a supercom-
mentary on Ihn Ezra's commentary on the Penta-
teuch (Vienna, 1823).

Bibliography: Furst. TiiliL Jinl. iii. l~'l ; Zeitlin, Bihl. Hcbr.
I'ust-Memlds. pp. :>78-:.'T'J.
K. C. P. Wi.

PRESBURG (Hungarian. Pozsony) : City of
Hungary, .siiuated on the River Danube. Its loca-
tion on a commercial highroad makes it probable
that its Jewish community is one of the oldest in
Hungarv. Tlie lirst documentarv mention of its

HUST Dkskckatio.n at Pkkshlkg, 1')!U.

(From a cODtemporary jtrint.)

of Jews born in Prerau who achieved prominence in
public life were Jacob Brand (chief inspector of the
Nordbahn), District Judges Briess and Tschiassny,
and Ministerial Councilor Theodor Pollak.

The old synagogue was rebuilt in 1898; the silver
ornamentsonthe Toruli roll date from 5467 (= 1707).
There are two cemeteries; the older one, situated in
the Wurmgasse, contains tombstones over two hun-
dred years old.

In 1834 the population of Prerau was 4,533, of
whom 341 were Jews; in 1901 the total population
was about 17,000, including 717 Jews.

n. J. Ta.

PRERAU, BENJAMIN WOLF : Moravian

Hebraist; lived at Preiau in llie eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. He pul)lished Bedersi's
"Bakkashat ha-Memin," to which he added a Ger-
man translation, a Hebrew commentary, and an iii-

Jews dates from 1251. In 1291 they received a
charter from King Andrew III. In 1360 they were
expelled; and they then settled in the neighboring
town of Heimburg, whence they returned in 1368.
The first synagogue was built in 1399. In 1517
their capitation tax amounted to 120 florins annu-
ally. After the disastrous battle of Mohacs, Queen
Maria ordered their expulsion (Oct. 9, 1526); but
King Ferdinand, founder of the Hapsburg dynasty,
repealed this edict in the same year. IIissonJ\Iax-
imilian II. ordered another expulsion (Nov. 26,
1572), but this edict also remained unenforced.
Presburg, as the seat of the Diet, often saw assem-
blies of Jews; e.g., in 1749, when Jewish delegates
compromised with (Jueen ]\Iaria Tlieresa with re-
gard to tiie annual i)ayment of 30,000 llorins; and
in 1840, w hen the Diet deliberated on the question of
Jewish emancipation.

189

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prerau
Presburff

Presburg was always noted for the anti-Jewish
tendencies of its citizens. Tlie city, wiiose council
liiul opposed all ini])rovement of the political con-
dition of the Jews in 1840, was the scene of a fierce
riot in 1848 (April 23-24), caused by the ])rovocu-
tion of the citizens at the grunting of (mjuuI rights
to the Jews. One of the latter was killed; sev-
eral were wounded ; and a great deal of property,
including the Jewish school-building, was destroyed.

The municipal council, which had
History, refused Jews jiermission to enter

the national guard (March 20), again
showed its i)reju(iice by ordering those Jews who
had rented houses outside of the ghetto to return to

over tlie claim of the JewH to a share in ilie institu-
tions for the support of ilie poor. This dilliculty
was linully settled by a com promise, the city agree-
ing to pay annually to tlie Jewish congregation the
sum of 1,703.88 (loriiis and to leave to it the care of
its poor (185(5). The awakening of the anli Semitic
movement in Hungary found a Hymputhetic echo in
Presburg, where the first Hungarian anti .Semitic
society was founded, which from 1880 had for
its organ the " Westungarischer Grenzhote." The
TiszA-Eszi.AH alTair caimed riots on Sept. 28, 1883,
and Aug. 4, 1883, which resulted in tiie de.si ruction
of property for which the city had to pay 5.000
florins damages. Blood accusjitious led to outbreaka

Visit op King Ferdinand to a Jemish school at Pkesburg, ISIO.

(From a contemporary print.)

their former habitations. The memory of these
events is still celebrated by special .services on the
seventh day of Passover, on which day the riot
reached its height.

A similar riot occurred two years later (April 22-
24, 1850), owing to the insistence of the populace
that Jews should not open stores outside the ghetto.
The military restored order temporarily; but the
city council refused to be responsible for its main-
tenance, unless the government would order all
Jews to cloi^e their places of business who had not
possessed previous to 1840 the privilege of main-
taining stores outside the ghetto. Finally the council
had to yield. The Jews received permission in 1851
to open stores without the ghetto; and in Septem-
ber of the same year the separate administration of
the ghetto was abolished, the latter being made part
of the municipal territory. Further difficulties arose

of a milder character on May 20-27, 1887, and April
12, 1889. In 1892 the cathedral clergy opi>osed the
building of a new synagogue, beaiuse of its prox>
imity to their church.

In regard to internal Jewish affairs Presburg has
become distinguislied for its yeshibali and as being
in con.sequence the stronghohl of Hun.irarian Ortho-
do.\y. When Jo.scph II. ordereil the compulsory
military service and secular education of the Jews,
Hirsch Theben was prominent among tlie spokes-
men of the latter, demanding the repeal of these
laws. While the emperor wcmld not yiclil on these
points, he conceded them the right to wear beards,
a practise which had been prohibited (1783).

The yeshibah became particularly prominent
through the influence of Moses Sofer; and tlimugh
him also Presburg was made the center of the oppo-
sition to the modernization of education and of re-

Pres'bur?
Price

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

IGO

ligious service. Still, in spite of all opposition, a
modern Jewish school was founded (c. lt<22) ; and
about the same time a society for the
Spiritual promotion of handicrafts was estab-
Life. lislied. In 1844 this scliool received a
new home through the munificence of
Hermann Todesko of Vienna, a kindergarten being
added to it. A Jewish students' society, which had
been formed in 1838 for the promotion of culture
and likewise, among other objects, for the modern-
ization of religious services, was suppressed ; but
the Orthodox leaders of the congregation yielded to
the extent of reorganizing the Talmud Torah, into
whose curriculum secular branches were introduced,
and which was placed under the management of a
trained pedagogue. Yeshibah and synagogue, liow-
ever, remained untouched by modern influences, al-
though in 1862 the congregation extended a call to
the"maggid" Feisch Fischmann, previously rabbi
of Kecskemet, in order to satisfy the demand for a
service which should appeal more directly to the
younger generation. The first deviation from the
traditional services occurred when the progressive
element of the congregation, dissatisfied with the
election of Bernhard Schreiber as rabbi, separa-
ted and formed the Israelitische Religionsgemeinde
(March 17, 1872). This congregation lias a service
similar to that introduced by I. N. Mannheimcr in
Vienna. The yeshibah was recognized in 1859 as a
rabbinical institution ; and its students are therefore
exempt from military service. Minister Trefort de-
cided that no student should be admitted who had not
received a secular training equal to that provided by
the curriculum of the lower grade of the high school
(May 30, 1883); but this decision has never been en-
forced.

As a peculiar survival should be mentioned the
privilege retained by the congregation of present-
ing the king annually with two Martinmas geese,
on which occasion its representatives are received in
personal audience by the monarch.

The earliest known rabbi of Presburg is Yom-

Tob Lipman, one of the Vienna exiles; he officiated

about 1695. Subsequent rabbis include: Moses ben

Meir Harif (1736-58); Akiba Eger,

Rabbis. originally assistant to Mosesand upon
his death his successor (died 1758, hav-
ing held office for twelve days only); Isaac of Dukla
(1759-62); Meir Barby (1768-89); MeshuUam Eger
of Tysmenieca (1794-1801); Moses Schreiber (1806-
1839); Samuel Wolf Schreiber, son of the preceding
(1839-71); Bernhard (Sinihah Bonem) Schreiber,
grandson of Moses Schreiber (from 1872). In 1899
Mo.ses' son Akiba was made his assistjint as principal
of the yeshibah. The Israelitische Religionsgemeinde
elected in 1876 as its rabbi Julius David, upon whose
death (1898) the present (1905) incumbent, Dr. II.
Funk, was appointed. Of other .scholars and noted
men who were natives of Presburg or who lived
there may be mentioned : Mordccai ]\Iokiah (d. 1729) ;
his son L&b Mokiah or Berlin (d. 1742); Daniel
Prostiz Steinschneider (1759-1846); L5b Letsch
Kosenbaum (d. 1846); Michael Kittseer (d. 1845);
Bilr Frank (d. 1845); Leopold Dukes; and Albert
Cohn.

In 1900 the Jews of Presburg numbered 7,110 in

a total population of 65.870. The community has
several synagogues and chapels, two schools, various
charitable societies, a Jewish hospital, and a train-
ing-school for nurses.

Bibliography: Weiss, Abne Bet ha-Yo?er, Paks, 1900.

PRESBYTER: From the time of Moses down
to the Talmudic period the "zekenim " (elders) are
mentioned as constituting a regular conmiunal or-
ganization, occasionally under the Greek name Ge-
Rrsi.\. But the term " presbyter " (-peafiinpn^) is
found nowhere before the beginnings of Christian-
ity, though it must have been current before that
time, for the Christian institution of the presby-
ters was undoubtedly taken directly from Judaism
(Gratz, "Gesch."3d ed., iv. 80). In a list of officials
of a Jewish community in Cilicia, archisyua-
gogues, priests (ttpci'f = "kohen"), presbyters ("ze-
kenim"), and "azanites" ("hazzanim") are men-
tioned, and if the source (Epiphanius, "Ila-res."
XXX. 4) gives the sequence correctly, the presbyters
were actually officials, like the azanites, and did not
hold merely honorary offices in the community.

Their status, therefore, would correspond ap-
proximately to the position which presbyters occupy
in the Christian Church. It may be assumed, how-
ever, that they stood in rank next to the archi-
synagogues, with whom elsewhere thej'are actually
identified ("Codex Theodosianus," xvi. 8, 14—
"archisynagogi sive presbyteri Judaeorum "). In
another passage (ib. xvi. 8, 2) they are identified
with the patriarchs; in another (ib. xvi. 8, 13) the
following sequence occurs: archisynagogue, patri-
arch, presbyter; finally ("Justiniani Novellie,"
cxlvi., § 1), they are ranked with the "archiphere-
cites " and teachers. " Presbyter " corresponds to the
Latin "seniores" ("Codex Justiniani," i. 9, 15).
Thus it appears that there is no uniformity even in
the official designations.

The title of "presbyter" occurs frequently on
Jewish tombstones of the Hellenistic diaspora— for
instance, at Smyrna ("C. I. G." No. 9897). Corycus
("R. E. J." X. 76), Bithynia (ib. xxvi. 167), and in
the catacombs of Venosa (Ascoli, p. 60); three times
it was given to women (Ascoli, p. 49). The word
lias become in many European languages a general
designation for " priest " ; and in this sense it is also
found in Jewish works of the Middle Ages {e.g.,
'JKV ^DIQ = "Prester John ").
BrBi.iOGRAPHY : Fabrioius, Biblingraphia Antiquaria, pp.

447-457, Hamburg, 1713; Scliurer, Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 177.

G. S. Ku.

PRESBYTER JVDJEOBJJIHL : Chief official
of the Jews of England in pre-ex pulsion times. The
office appears to have been for life, though in two
or three instances the incumbent either resigned or
was dismissed. Prynne, in his " Demurrer " (ii. 62),
argues that the presbyter Judaeorum was merely a
secular officer in the Exchequer of the Jews to keep
the rolls of control, whereas Tovey (" Anglia-Juda-
ica," pp. 53-63) argues that the use of "sacerdos"
and " pontifex " as synonymous of the office shows
its ecclesiastical cliaracter. There were only six of
them between 1199 and 1290, the first known being
Jacob of London, appointed in 1199; the next were
Josce of London (1307 ?), Aaron of York (1237).

191

THE JEWISH ENCYf'T-OPEDIA

Presburg-

Price

Elias le Evesque (1237), Hagin fil Mosse (1257), and
Hagin lil Deulacres (1281 ; appoiutcd by tlie favor
of Quecu Eleanor; "Rymer Toedera," i. 591). In
the grant of Elias le Evesque the justices of the
Jews were ordered not to issue any summons witli-
out the confirmation of the said Elias, from wiiich
it appears that the presbyter acted somewhat as a
baron of the Jewish Exchequer ; and it was distinctly
stated that Hagin fil Mosse had been sworn into the
Jewish Exchequer to look after the administration
of justice on behalf of the king and to explain the
king's laws. It is thus probable that the presby-
ter was a successor of the Jewish justices, of whom
two are mentioned toward the end of the twelfth
century.

Bibliography : Papers of the Anglo- Jewish Association, pp.
178-179, 193, 263-271.

J .

PRESS, MOSES ALEXANDROVICH : Rus

sian engineer and technologist; born 1861 ; died at
Sankt Blasien 1901. After passing through the St.
Petersburg Institute of Technology, Press became
a contributor to the "Moskovski Jourual Putei
Soobshchenii " and the journals of the Society of St.
Petersburg Technologists. At the time of his death
he was engaged in a work on the share of the Jews
in the industries of western Russia ("Voskhod,"
1901, No. 17).

11. n. ^ A. S. W.

PRESSE ISRAELITE, LA. See Pekiod-

ICAI.S.

PRESTER JOHN. See TE>r Tribes, The
Lost.

PREY, BIRDS OF : While few clean birds are
named in the Old Testament (see Poultry), there
are given in Lev. xi. (13-19) and Deut. xiv. (12-21)
two parallel lists of birds of prey, the former pas-
sage mentioning twenty, and the latter twenty-one.
The generic name forraptorial birds is "'ayit"(Gen.
XV. 11; Isa. xviii. 6; Jer. xii. 9; Ezek. xxxix. 4;
Job xxviii. 7; Isa. xlvi. 11 [a metaphor]). This
large number of names, as also the frequent allu-
sions in metaphors and proverbial expressions to the
habits of birds, shows that, though forbidden as
food, they were nevertheless objects of close obser-
vation and contemplation. They were also cher-
ished, it seems, for the beauty of their plumage (I
Kings X. 22) and as pets for children (Job xl. 29;
comp. Baruch iii. 17). Appreciation of their cry is
indicated in Ps. civ. 12 and Eccl. xii. 4.

The Talmud, noting that "le-mino" (after its
kind) follows the names of four of the unclean
birds in the Pentateuchal lists, and identifying
"ayyah" with "dayyah," assumes twenty-four un-
clean birds are intended; and adds: "There are in
the East a hundred unclean birds, all of the hawk
species" ("min ayyah"; Hul. 63b). Some of the
birds of prey were trained to the .service of man, the
hawk, e.g., to pursue other birds (Shab. 94a). The
claws of the griffin, the wings of the osprey, and
the eggs of the ostrich were made into vessels
(Hul. 25b; Rashi ad loc; Kelim xvii. 14). Egg-
shells were used as receptacles for lamp-oil (Shab.
29b).
Bibliography : Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 168; Lewysohn, Z. T.

Pl59- T AT r

E. G. H. i- ^- ^•

PRIBRAM (PRZIBRAM), ALFRED: Aus-
trian physician; born at Prague May 11, lb41 ; edu-
cated at the university of his native fity(M. I). IKOl).
He established a practise in Prague, ufti-r having
i)een for some time assistant at the general hospital
there. He became privat do<'ent at the '' - i
University of Prague in 18«iii, a.ssistanl prof. ;

chief physician of the dispensary iu 1878, and pro-
fessor of pathology and therapeutics and chief of
the first medical clinic in 1881.

Pribram is tiie autlior of many essays and works,
among wiiich may be mentioned: "Studien hittr
Febris Recurrens." 1868 (with Robitsehek) ; "8tu-
dien nher Cholera," 1869; "Studien hberdie Zucker-
lose llarnruhr," 1870; " Ueber die Si. tl,n, 1,K. if in
Prag," 1873; "Ueber die Verbreitui \'

dominal- und Fleektyphus," 1880; "IClMrdin In-
tenicht in der Innern Medizin an der rniverBilit in
Prag in der Letzten HUlfte des Jahrhuudcrts," etc.,
Prague, 1899.

He has written essays upon cotein, antipyrin. and
quebracho also, and was a collaborator on Eulcn-
hurg's "Realencyclopadie der Gesammten I! '
kunde," his subjects being syphilis of tlie brain
gout.
Bibliography : Pa<?el, Biog. Lex.; HIrsoh, Bi"u- l-^J'-

8. F. T. H.

p6,IBRAM, RICHARD: Austrian chemist;
born at Prague April 21, 1847; educated at the
Polytechnic and the University of Prague, and at
the University of Munich (Ph.D. 1869). After a
postgraduate course at the University of Leipsic he
returned to Prague and became assistant in the
chemical department of the physiological institute
of the university. He was privat-docent from 1872
to 1874, when he was appointed profes.sor of
chemistry at the newly founded Gewerbeschule at
Czernowitz. In 1875 the university there was
opened, and Pribram became privat-docent. In
1876 he was appointed assistant professor and in
1879 professor of general and analytical chemistry,
which position he still (1905) holds. From 1891 to
1892 he was "rector magnificus" of the university.
He holds also a number of public positions, inclu-
ding those of member of the commission appointed
to examine in chemistry teachers and pharmacol-
ogists, and official chemist of the courts of Hu-
kowina. He is the author of many essays in the
professional journals and of " Jahresbericht l^bcr die
Fortschritte der Thier Chemie oder der Physiolo-
gischen und Pathologischen Chemie " (Wiesbaden)
and "Einleitung zur PrUfung und Gehaltsbestim-
mung der Arzneistoffe" (Vienna).
Bibliography : Prngrammc nf the SMh Annivcnary "f tht

Univcrsitu of CzeniouHU, IWO. P T II

PRICE, JULIUS MENDES: Eiii:lish trav-
eler, artist, and journiilisl; born in l»udon al»out
1858; educated at University College (London), at
Brussels, and at the School of Fine Arts in P.- -
He was war correspondent to the "Illustrated 1. :
don News" during the Beehuanaland expedition
(1884). Subsequently he joined an ex 1

dition for the opening up of the Norde:

to the interior of Siberia, and afterward traversed
I Siberia, Mongolia, and the Godi desert unaccom-

Prideau3
Priest

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

192

panied. making his way through to Peking iu 1890-
1891. He -was with theGreek army during the Greco-
Turkish war. and has traversed western Australia,
the Klondike, and other remote regions. He is the
author of several books of travel, including " From
the Arctic Ocean to the Yellow Sea " (London, 1892)
and "The Land of Gold" (ib. 1895). all illustrated
by himself. He has exhibited at the Paris Salon
and the London Royal Academy.
Bibliography: TT/io's ir/io, 1904. J.

PRIDEAUX. HUMPHREY: English Orien-
talist; born at Pailstow, Cornwall, May 3, 1648;
died at Norwich Nov. 1, 1724; educated at Christ-
church, O.xford. where he became Hebrew lecturer
in 1679. He wrote a life of Mohammed (London,
1697). which was mainly a polemical tract against the
Deists, and *' the Old and New Testament Connected
and a History of the Jews and Neighboring Na-
tions in the Time of Christ " (London, 1718, 3 vols.),
which for a long time was the standard history of
the Jews between the canons; it was frequentlj-
reprinted, and was translated into French (,1*22),
and into German (1726).
BIBLIOGR.VPHY: Dict.yat.Biog. J.

PRIEST.— Biblical Data : One consecrated to
the service of the sanctuary and, more particularly,
of the altar. This detinition, however, holds true
rather for the later than for the earlier stages of
Hebrew priesthood. In ancient Israel one was not
refjuired to be specially consecrated in order to per-
form the sacriticial functions; any one might ap-
proach the altar and offer sacrifices. Thus Gideon,
of the tribe of Manasseh (Judges vi. 26 et seq.), and
the Danite Manoah {ib. xiii. 16, 19) sacrificed in per-
son at the express command of God and the angel
of God respectivel}' ; similarly, David sacrificed on
the altar he had built at God's com-

Laymen mand on the thrashing-floor of Arau-
as nail (II Sam. xxiv. 25); and Solomon,

Priests. before the ark in Jeru.salem (I Kings
iii. 15). David, on the occasion of the
transference of the Ark to Zion, and Solomon, at the
dedication of the Temple of Jerusalem, ministered
as priests (II Sam. vi. 14, 17, 18; I Kings viii. 22,
54etsef/.); the latter continued to personally offer
sacrifices on the altar of Yuwii at regular intervals
(I Kings ix. 25). Similar instances, in later times,
are presented b}- Elijah, sacrificing on Mount Car-
mel (I Kings xviii. 32 et nefj.), and by Ahaz, in tiie
Temple at Jerusalem (II Kings xvi. 12 et seq.).

In accordance with this usage in ancient Israel,
the ordinances contained in the Bookof the Covenant,
the oldest code, concerning the building of altars
and the offering of sacrifices are addressed not to
tlie priest, but to the people at large (Ex. xx. 24-
26). Even where there was a sanctuary with a
priesthood, as at Shiloh, any layman might slaugh-
ter and offer his sacrifices without priestly aid
(comp. I Sam. ii. 13-16). As access to the altar was
not yet guarded in accordance with later Levitical
ordinances, so the priesthood was not yet confined
to one family, or even to one tribe. The Ephraimite
Samuel became priest of the sanctuary at Shiloh,
wearing the priestly linen coat ("efod bad") and
the pallium (I Sam. ii, 18 et seq., iii. 1). The kings

of Israel ordained as priest whomever they chose (I
Kings xii. 31); David, too, invested his own sons, as
well as the Jairite Ira, of the tribe of Manasseh,
with the priestly oflice (II Sam. viii. 18, xx. 26).

If a distinct established i)riesthood is nevertheless
found at the sanctuary of Shiloh and at that of Dan
as early as the time of the Judges, it is obvious
that its real office can not have been connected with
the altar or the sacrifices, and that, consequently, its
origin can not be looked for in the sacrificial func-
tions. Wherein the origin of the Israelitish priest-
hood really lies is sulficiently apparent from the
older Biblical records of the time of the Judges and
the following period. According to these, the func-
tions of the priest were twofold: to care for and
guard the sanctuary and its sacred
Functions images and palladia, and (of still
of greater importiince) to consult the

the Priest, oracle. Thus the Ephraimite Micah,
after having provided an ephod and
teraphim (see Epiiod) for his shrine, installed one
of his sons as priest to take care of them, but only
until he could secure a professional priest, a Levite,
for the purpose, one wlio was qualified to consult
the oracle (Judges xvii. 5-13).

It is evident that not the shrine, but the images
it sheltered, were the essential thing. These it was
that the migrating Danites coveted and carried off
to their new home, together with the priest, who
had consulted the oracle in behalf of their exploring
party with auspicious results (ib. xviii.). The
sacred palladium of the sanctuary at Shiloh was the
Ark, over which the sons of Eli and Samuel kept
guard. The former carried it when it was taken to
the battle-field, while the latter, having special
charge of the doors, slept nightly near it (I Sam.
iii. 3, 15; iv. 4 et seq.). When, later, the ark was
returned from the field of the Philistines and brought
to the house of Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim, Abina-
dab's son Eleazar was at once consecrated guard-
ian over it {ib. vii. 1). The bearing of the ark,
with which, at Shiloh, the sons of Eli were en-
trusted, remained, us the frequent statements to this
effect in later Bil)lical literature show, a specific
priestly function throughout pre-exilic times (comp.
Deut. X. 8, xxxi. 9; .Tosh. iii. 6 et seq., iv. 9 et seq.,
vi. 12, viii. 33; I Kings viii. 3). After the capture
of its ark by the Philistines the sanctuary of Shiloh
disappeared from iiistory (its destruction is referred
to in .Jer. vii. 12, 14; xxvi. 6); its priesthood, how-
ever, appeared in the following period at the sanc-
tuary of Nob, which also had an ephod (I Sam. xiv.
3; xxi. 1, 10; xxii. 9, 11).

After the massacre of the priesthood of Nob,
Abiathar. who was the sole survivor, fled with the
ephod to David {ib. xxiii. 6), whom thenceforward
he accompanied on all his military expeditions,
beai'ing the ephod in order to consult the oracle for
him whenever occasion demanded {ib. xxiii. 9, xxx.
7). Similarly, in the campaign against the Philis-
tines, Ahiah accompanied Saul and the Israelites,
"bearing the ephod " and ascertaining for them the
decisions of the oracle {ib. xiv. 3, 18, the latter verse
being so read by the LXX.). The priests' duty of
guarding the sanctuary and its sacred contents ac-
counts for the use, in pre-exilic times, of "shomer ha-

193

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prideau:
Priest

Baf," "doorkeeper" (corresponding to the Arabic-
"sudin"), as synonymous with "kohen" (II Kings
xii. 10), and explains also how "sliamar'" and "slie-
ret" became the technical terms of priestly service
and were retained as such even after the nature of
the service liad materially changed.

To till the office of doorkeeper no special qualifi-
cation was necessary, but, as hinted above, to con-
sult the oracle required special training, such as, no
doubt, could be found only among professional
priests. So, though tiie doorkeepers were in numy
cases not of priestly lineage (comp.,
Door- besides the case of Samuel and of Elea-

keepers, zar of Kirjath-jearim, that of Obed-
edom ; II Sam. vi. 10 et seq.), tho.se
■who consulted the oracle were invariably of priestly
descent, a fact which makes it seem highlj probable
that the art of using and interpreting the oracle was
handed down from father to son. In this way, no
doubt, hereditary priesthood developed, as indicated
by the cases of the sons of Eli at Shiloh and Nob,
and of Jonathan and his descendants at Dan, both
these priestly houses extending back to the very be-
ginning of Israelitish history. The descendants of
Jonathan made express claim to lineal descent from
Moses (comp. I Sam. ii. 27; Judges xviii. 30; the
reading " Meuashsheh " in Judges xviii. 30 is, as the
suspended J shows, due to a later change of the
original "Mosheh,"a change which is frankly ac-
knowledged in B. B. 109b; comp. also Rashi and
Kimhi ad loc... and to ib. xvii. 7); in fact, theirclaim
is supported by Ex. xxxiii. 7-11, according to which
not Aaron, but Moses, was the priest of the " tent of
meeting" (R. V.) in the wilderness, while Joshua
kept constant guard over it. " Whosoever had to
consult God went out to the tent of meeting," where
Moses ascertained the will of God ; and just as Moses,
in his capacity of priest, was the intermediary
through whom Yhwh revealed the Torah to the Is-
raelites in the wilderness, and through whom His
judgment was invoked in all diflicult
Interpret- cases, such as could not be adjusted
ers without reference to this highest

of the Law. tribunal (Ex. xviii. 16 et seq.), so the
priests, down to the close of pre-exilic
times, were the authoritative interpreters of the Law,
while the sanctuaries were the seats of judgment.

Thus the Book of the Covenant prescribes that all
dubious criminal cases "be brought before God,"
that is, be referred to Him by the priest for decision
(Ex. xxii. 7, 8). That " Elohim " here means " God "
(not, as the A, V. translates, "the judges") is clear
from I Sam. xiv. 36, where the same phrase, "nik-
rab el Elohim," is applied to consulting the oracle
by means of the Uhim and Thu.m.mi.m (comp. the
following verses, 37-42, the last two verses as read
by the LXX.). The urim and thummim were em-
ploved together with the ephod in consulting the
oracle, the former, as may be inferred from the de-
scription in I Sam. xiv. 41, 42, being a kind of
sacred lots: in all probability they were cast before
the ephod. Josh. vii. 14 and I Sam. ii. 25 may
be cited in further proof of the fact that direct
appeal to divine judgment was made in ancient
Israel. This primitive custom is refiected even in
as late a passage as Prov. xviii. 18. The Blessing
X.— 13

of Mo.ses proves that the sacred lots cuiitiuued lo
be cast by tlie priests during the lime of the niou
archy, inasmuch as it s|)eaks of the uriin uud thum-
mim as insignia of the prieslhoo<i (Dt-ui. xxxiii.
8). This duiument shows, us does also the Deute-
ronomic code, that tliroughout pre-exilic times tlic
expounding of the Turali and the udM)inistruliuu of
justice remained the specific funetionsof the priests.
It declares that the priests are the guurdiuns of
God's teachingsand Law, and that it is theirmission
to teach God's judgmentsand Torah to Israel (I)cut.
xxxiii. 9, 10). while the Deuteronomie ctxie decrees
that all diflicult criminal as well as civil coses Ijc
referred to the [)ricsts (//». xvii. H-11. xxi. 5) Fur-
ther i)roof t(j the same elTecl lies in llie frecjuent
references of the Prophets to the j\idicial and t(u< h-
iiig funetionsof the priesthood (comp. Amos ii. 8;
Hos. iv. 6; Lsa. xxviii. 7: Micaii iii 11 .T, r ii fl,
xviii. 18; Ezek. vii. 26).

In addition to the duties tlius lar ■ ;, the

offering of sacrifices, in the time of ii irchy,

must have become the oflice of the
Ofifering of prie.st, since the Blessing of Moses
the mentions it with the other prit-hlly

Sacrifices, functions. No direct inforniution is
obtainable from the Biblical recurds as
to the conditions and intluences which brnught tiiis
about, but it may be safely a.ssumed that one of tlie
factors leading thereto was the rise of the royal
sanctuaries. In these, daily public .sacrilices were
maintained by the king (comp. II Kings xvi. 15),
and it must certainly have been the bu.siness of the
l)riests to attend to them. There is evidence also
that among the priests of Jerustilem there were, at
least in later pre-exilic times, gradations of rank.
Besides the "chief priest" ("kohen ha-rosh") men-
tion is made of the "kohen mishneh," the one hold-
ing the second place (II Kings xxv. 18 et al.).

As yet, however, it seems apparent that the priest-
hood was not contined to one particular branch
of the family of Levi, but, as both the Blessing of
Moses and the Deuteronomie code state, wai the
heritage of the whole tribe (comp. Deut. x. 8. 9;
xviii. \etseq.,b\ xxxiii. 8-10; Josh, xviii. 7). This
explains why, in the Deuteronomie code, the whole
tribe of Levi has a claim to the altar-gifts, the llrst-
fruits, and the like, and to the dues in kind from pri-
vate sacrifices (Deut. xviii. 1-5). while in Ezekiel and
the Priestly Code the Levites have no share therein.
It explains also how it comes that, not only in Judges
xvii. (see above), but throughout pre-exilic litera-
ture, the terms " Levite " and " priest" are use<l syn-
onymously (comp. Deut. xvii. 9. 18; xviii. 1; .xxi.
8; xxiv. 8; xxvii. 9; Josh. iii. 8; Jer. xxxiii. 18. 21:
the only exception is I Kings viii. 4. wlure. how-
ever, as the parallel text, H C'hron. v. 5. shows, tlie
1 of D'lfjni is a later insertion).

Since, in pre-exilic times, the wIidIo trilu- of Ix-vi
was chosen "to stand before Yiiwii in onhr to min-
ister unto Him," it is but consistent

Levites that theollice "of blessing in Yiiwii's
and name " (which in the Priestly C«xle is

Priests. assigned to Aaron and his sons —
Num. vi. 23) should, in the Deute-
ronomie code, pertain to all the I.,evitcs(comp. Deut.
x. 8, xxi. 8). A very strong proof that all members

Priest

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

194

of the Levitical tribe were entitled to priesthood is
furnished in the provision which was made by the
Deuterouomic code for those Levites who were
scattered throusrh tlie country as priests of the local
sanctuaries, and who, in consequence of the Deu-
teronomic reformation, had been left without any
means of support. It stipulated that those Levites
who desired to entet the ranks of the priesthood of
Jerusiilem should be admitted to equal privileges
with tiieir brethren tiic Levites who ministered there
unto God, and should share equally with them the
priestly revenues (I)eut. xviii. 6-8). As a matter of
fact, however, this provision was not carried out.
The priests of Jerusalem were not willing to accord
to their brethren of the local sanctuaries the privi-
leges prescribed by Deuteronomy, and although
they granted them support from the priestly dues,
they did not allow them to minister at the altar
(comp. II Kings x.xiii. 8, 9). In this way the Deu-
teronomic reformation marks, after all, the tJrst step
toward the new development in the priesthood in
exilic and post-exilic times.

The attitude of the priests of Jerusalem toward
those of the local sanctuaries was sanctioned by
Ezekiel. In his book (and later in II Chron. xxxi.
10) the priesthood of Jerusalem is called " bene Za-
dok," or "the house of Zadok," after Zadok, who
replaced Abiathar, Eli's descendant, when Abiathar,
because of his partizanship for Adonijah, was de-
posed by Solomon (comp. I Kings ii. 27, 35). Eze-
kiel ordained that of all the Levite priests only the
Zadokites, who had ministered to God in His legiti-
mate sanctuary at Jerusalem, should be admitted
to the service of the altar; the rest, who had de-
filed themselves by officiating at the local sanctua-
ries, should be degraded to the position of mere serv-
ants in the sanctuary, replacing the foreign Temple
attendants who had heretofore performed all menial
services (Ezek. xl. 46, xliii. 19, xliv. 6-16). Nat-
urally, the altar-gifts, the tribute of the first-fruits,
and the like, were to be awarded thenceforward to
the Zadokites alone (xliv. 29, 30). Though Ezekiel
assigns to the priests the duty of sitting in judg-
ment in legal disputes, as before (xliv. 24), he maizes
their ritual functions, not their judicial functions,
the essential point in his regulations governing the
priests. Administering the Law, according to him,
extends only to matters of ritual, to the distinctions
between holy and profane, clean and unclean, and
to the statutory observance of Sabbaths and festivals
(xliv. 23, 24).

Ezekiel's new regulations formed, in all essentials,
the basis of the post-exilic priestly sj-stem which is
formulated in detail in the Priestly Code. A stri-
king difference between Ezekiel and
The the Priestly Code, however, is at once

Priestly evident in that the latter betrays no
Code. idea of the historical development
of things?. Whereas Ezekiel records
the old usage and, by virtue of his authority as a
prophet, declares it abolished, the Priestly Code rec-
ognizes only the new order of things introduced by
Ezekiel, which order it dates back to the time of
Moses, alleging that from the very first the priest-
hood had been confined to Aaron and his sons, while
the mass of the Levites had been set apart as their

ministers to fill the subordinate offices of the sanc-
tuary (comp. Ex. xxviii. 1; Num. i. 48 et seq.; iii.
3-10; viii. 14. 19, 24-26; xviii. 1-7; I Chron. vi. 33
et seq.). The priestly genealogy of I Chron. v. 29-
41 and vi. 35-38 was but the logical result of this
transference of post-exilic conditions back to the
period of the wandering in the wilderness. This
genealogy, the purpose of which was to establish
the legitimacy of the Zadokite priesthood, repre-
sents the Zadokites as the lineal descendants of
Phinehas(the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron), who,
for his meritorious action in the case of Zimri, ac-
cording to Num. XXV. 10-13, had been promised the
priesthood as a lasting heritage. That this gene-
alogy and that of I Chron. xxiv. 1-6, in which the
descent of the Elite Abiathar is traced from Aaron's
son Ithaniar, are fictitious is evident from the fact that
they conflict with the authentic recordsof the books
of Samuel and Kings: (1) they know nothing of the
priesthood of Eli; (2) Ahitub, the son of Pliinehas,
the son of Eli, and father of Ahimelech- of Nob
(comp. I Sam. xiv. 3; xxii. 9, 11), appears in them
as the son of an unknown Amariah and the father
of Zadok; (3) contrary to I Kings ii. 27, 35 (see
above), Abiathar and his descendants remain priests
at the Temple of Jerusalem.

Regarding the characteristic attribution of post-
exilic conditions to pre-exilic times, a notable exam-
ple may be pointed out in Chron. xxiii.-xx vi. Both
priests and Levites were, in post -exilic
The times, divided into twenty-four fam-

Priestly ilies or classes, with a chief (called

Orders. "rosh" or "sar"; comp. especially I
Chron. xv. 4-12; xxiii. 8 et seq.;
xxiv. 5, 6, 31 ; Ezra viii. 29) at the head of each.
The institution of this system, as well as of other
arrangements, is, in the passage cited, ascribed to
David.

The prominence which the ritual receives in Eze-
kiel reaches its culmination in the Priestly Code,
where the judicial functions of the priest, formerly
much emphasized, have given way altogether to the
ritualistic. To minister at the altar and to guard
the sanctity of Israel, v.hich means practically the
sanctity of the sanctuary, constitute from this time
on the priest's exclusive office. For this purpose,
it is pointed out, God chose Aaron and his sons,
distinguishing them from the rest of the Levites,
and bid them consecrate themselves to their office
(comp. Ex. xxviii. 1, 41-43; xxix. 1, 30, 33, 37, 43-
46; XXX. 20, 29 etseq. ; Lev. i.-vii., xiii. et seq., xvii.
5 et seq.; Num. vi. 16 etseq., xvi. 5-11, xviii. 3-7;
I Chron. xxiii. 13; II Chron. xxvi. 18). Any one
not of priestly descent was forbidden, imder penalty
of death, to offer sacrifice, or even to approach the
altar (Num. xvii. 1-5, xviii. 7). As the guardians
of Israel's sanctity the priests formed a holy order
(comp. Lev. xxi. 6-8), and for the purpose of pro-
tecting them against all profanation and Levitical
defilement they were hedged about with rules and
prohibitions. They were forbidden to come in con-
tact with dead bodies, except in the case of their
nearest kin, nor were they permitted to perform the
customary mourning rites (Lev. x. 6, xxi. 1-5; Ezek.
xliv. 20, 25). They were not allowed to marry har-
lots, nor dishonored or divorced women (Lev. xxi. 7).

195

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prieat

Tlicy were required to abstain from wine and all
strong drink while performing sacerdotal duties
(Lev. X. 9; Ezek. xiiv. 21). Any priest having in-
curred Levitical defilement was excluded, under
penalty of death, from priestly service and from
partaking of holy food during the time of his un-
eleanness (Lev. xxii. 2-7, 9; Ezek. xliv. 2fi et seq.).
If atllieted with any bodily blemish the priest was
held permanently unfit for service; such a one was,
however, permitted to eat of the holy food (Lev.
xxi. 17-23).

A noteworthy feature of the post-exilic priestly
system is the place which the high priest occupies
in it, for which see High Priest.

Biiu-iooRAPHY: Baiuiissin, Gexch. dcfi AUtcMamentUchen
Prieiftertumg. 1889; Henzinfrer, Hehrilixche ArclUloUmie,
1894, pp. 405-428; Nowafk, Lchrhuch dtr HcbrUischen Ar-
(•/i(7o;o(7if. 1894, ii. 87-i;5<): WeWhaus^u, Prolegomena zur
GV.sc/i. hrail.% 1899, pp. 118-165.

In Rabbinical Literature : The status of the

priesthood in later Judaism and the views that pre-
vailed concerning it were in full accordance with
the Priestly Code. Like the latter (comp. Ex. xxix.
42-46; Lev. ix. e( seg.; xv. 15, 30-33; xvi. ; Num.
vi. 27; Zech. iii. 7; Mai. ii. 7), later Judaism saw
in the sanctuary the manifestation of God's presence
among His people, and in the priest the vehicle of
divine grace, the mediator through whose ministry
the sins of the community, as of the individual,
could be atoned for. In Yoma 39b and Lev. I{. i.
(where Zech. xi. 1 is taken as referring to the Tem-
ple) the name " Lebanon " (= *' white one ") for the
Temple is explained by the fact that through the
Temple Israel is cleansed from its sins. That the
chief purpose of altar and priesthood is to make
atonement for, and effect the forgiveness of, sin is

stated again and again in Talmud and

To Make Midrash (comp. Ber. 55a; Suk. 55b;

Atone- Ket. 10b; Zeb. 85b; Lev. R. xvi. 2;

ment. Tan. to Ex. xxvii. 2; Talk. ii. 565).

Even the priestly garments were sup-
posed to possess efficacy in atoning for sin (Zeb.
85b; Talk. i. 108). According to the rabbinical de-
cision, "the priests were the emissaries, not of the
people, but of God " ; hence, a person who had
sworn that he would not accept a service from a
priest might nevertheless employ him to offer sacri-
fices and might make atonement for sin through
him (Yoma 19a; Ned. iv. 3; 35b; Kid. 23b).

Later Judaism enforced rigidly the laws relating
to the pedigrees of priests, and even established
similar requirements for the women they married.
Proof of a spotless pedigree was absolutely neces-
sary for admission to priestly service, ana any one
imable beyond all doubt to establish it wasexcluded
from the priesthood (comp. Ket. 13a, b, 14a, 23a, b,
27a, b; Kid. 73a, b; Maimonides, "Yad," Issure
Biah, XX. 2, 16; Shulhan 'Aruk, Eben ha-'Ezer, 3,
6, 7). Unless a woman's pedigree was known to be
unimpeachable, a priest, before marrying her, was
required to examine it for four, generations on both
sides, in case she was of priestly lineage; for five
generations if she was not of priestlj'^ descent (Kid.
iv. 4, 5; 77a, b; "Y'ad," I.e. xix. 18; Eben ha-'Ezer.
2, 3). How scrupulously such examinations were
made may be seen from the observations of Josephus
regarding this custom ("Contra Ap." i., § 7). In |

addition to the persons enumerut«(l io Lev. xxl. 7,

the Talmudic law enjoined the priest even from

marrying a halii;fiih (see Hai.i^.aii).

Importance In a dul)ir)ua ease of t>alu/.ah, Ijow-

of ever, the priest was not obliged to an-

Pedig^-ee. nul his marriage, us he was in the ctise
of a woman excludeil by the Ix-vjl-
ical law ; nor were the sons born of such a marriage
debarred from the priesthood (comp. Ycb. vi. 2;
54a; So^ah iv. 1; Ki,l. iv. 6; Hifra, Kmor. j. 2;
"Yad,"/.c. xvii. 1,7; Eben ha-Ezer. 6. 1). Neither
nnght a priest marry a pros<lyte or a frcedwoman.
Regarding a daughter of hucIi persons, npiuion in
the Mishnah is divided as to whether or not It was
necessary that one of the parents should be of Jew-
ish descent. The decision of later authorities was
that, in case both of the woman's parents were
proselytes or freed persons, a priest should nf)t marry
her, but if he had done so, then the marriage siiould
be considered legitimate (IJik. i. 5; Yeb. vi. 5; 60a,
61a; Kid. iv. 7; 78b; "Yad," I.e. xviii. 3, xix. 12;
Eben ha-'Ezer. 6, 8; 7, 21).

The Levitical law which forbids the priest to de-
file him.self by coming in contact with a dead bo<!y
is minutely defined in the Talmud on the basis of
Nimi. xix. 11, 14-16. Not only is direct contact
with the dead prohibited, but the priest is forbidden
to enter any hou.se or enclosure, orap-

Contact proach any spot, where is lying or is

with Dead buried a dead body, or any part of a

Pro- dead body — even a piece of the size

hibited, of an olive — or blood to the amoimt
of half a " log " (about a quarter of a
liter) ; he is forbidden also to touch any one or any-
thing that is unclean through contact with the dt-ad
(comp. Sifra, Emor, i. 1, ii. 1; Naz. vii. 2, 4; 42b,
43a, 47b, 48b, 56a, b; Yer. Naz. 56c, d: "Yad,"
Bi'at ha-Mikdash, iii. 13-15; I'b. Ebel, iii.; Shulhan
'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 369, 371). In contradistinction
to Lev. xxi. 2-4, the Talmudic law includes the wife
among the persons of immediate relationship. It
specifies, moreover, that it is the duty of the priest
to defile himself for the sake of his deceased wife or,
in fact, for any of his immediate kin, and that com-
pulsion must be used in the case of any priest who
refuses to do so, as in the case of the priest Joseph
on the occasion of his wife's death (Sifra, I.e. ; M.
K. 20b; Yeb. 22b, 90b; Naz. 47b, 48a. b; Zeb. 100a;
"Yad," Ebel, ii. ; Yoreh De'ah. 373).

But even while occupied in burying a relative,
the priest may not come in contact with other dead
bodies ("Yad," I.e. ii. 15; Yoreh Deah. 378. 7).
The Talmud prescribes, further, that if any priest,
even the high priest, finds a corpse by the wayside,
and there be noone in the vicinity who can be calleti
upon to inter it. he himself must perform the burial :
the technical term referring to such a case is " met
mizwah" (comp. Sifra. Emor. ii. 1: Naz. vii. 1;
43b, 47b. 48b; "Yad." I.e. iii. 8; Yoreh Deah. 374.
1, 2). Finally, the Talmud permits and indeed
orders the priest to defile liiniseif in the chr*- of the
death of a nasi; it relates that when Jiniali iia Naj^i
died the priestly laws concerning defilement through
contact with the dead were suspended for the day
of his death (Yer. Ber. iii. 6h : Yer. Naz. vii 50a,
Ket. 103b; " Yad," I.e. iii. 10; Yoreh De'ah. 374. 11).

Priest
Priestly Code

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

196

The Talmudic law also specifies miuutily what
constitutes a bodily defect sutticieut to render the

subject unfit for priestly service. Bek.

Bodily vii. and Sifra, Emor, iii. enumerate

Defects In- Ureases; whether the defect is per-

capacitate. manent or only temporary is not taken

into account (comp. Zeb. xii. 1 ; 102a,
b: "Yad," Bi'at ha-Mikdash, vi.-viii. ; Philo. "De
Monarchia." ii. 5; Josephus, "Ant." iii. 13, § 2).

The division of the priests into twenty-four classes,
racuiioned in Chronicles, continued down to the de-
struction of the Second Temple, as statements to this
effect by Josephus ("Ant." vii. 14, § 7; "Vita," § 1)
and the Tahnudic sources show. These divisions
took turns in weekly service, changing every Sab-
bath, but on the festivals all tweuty-four were pres-
ent iu the Temple and took part in the service.
These twenty-four divisions or classes were sub-
divided, according to their numbers, into from five
to nine smaller groups, each of which was assigned
to service in turn. The main divisions were called
"mishmarot," the subdivisions "batte abot" (terms
which in Chronicles are used interchangeably).
There was a chief at the head of each main division,
and also one at the head of each subdivision (Ta'an.
ii. 6, 7: iv. 2: 27a, b; Yer. Ta'an. 68a; Tosef.,
Ta'an. ii. ; Suk. v. 6-8; 25a. h, et al.\ 'Ar. 12b;
Yoma iii. 9, iv. 1 ; Yer. Hor. iii. ; 48b).

Besides the various chiefs, the Talmudic sources
frequently mention also the "segan" as an official
of high rank. As early as Tosef., Yoma, i. 6 ; Yoma

39a, Naz. 47b, and Sotah 42a the view
The Segan. is found that the segan was appointed

for the purpose of serving as substi-
tute for the high priest on the Day of Atonement in
case the high priest should incur Levitical defile-
ment. Schiirer ("Gesch." 3d ed., ii. 265) rightly
points out, however, that this view is erroneous,
since, according to the statement in Yoma i. 1, it was
customary every year, seven days before the Day
of Atonement, to appoint a priest to perform the
service on that day in case the high priest should
become Levitically unclean; and there would have
been no need for such an appointment if, in the per-
son of the segan, a permanent provision existed for
such an emergency. (Further reference to this cus-
tom is found in Yoma r2b; Tosef., Yoma, i.) Con-
clusive proof of Schiirer's argument may be found
iu the fact that in Sanh. 19a the priest appointed as
the high priest's potential substitute for the Day of
Atonement is called "mashuah she-'abar" (anointed
one that has been retired), and is clearly distin-
guished from the segan. The passage reads: "If
the high priest offers consolation the segan and the
mashuah she-'abar stand at his right hand, and the
chief of the ' bet ab,' with the mourners and the rest
of the people, at his left hand. . . . And if he re-
ceives consolation the segan stands at his right
hand, and the chief of the bet ab, with all the peo-
ple, at his left; the mashuah she-'abar, however, is
not admitted for fear the high priest, in the excite-
ment of his grief, might think that he looked with
complacency on his bereavement."

The name " mashuah she-'al)ar" is to be accounted
for by the fact (stated in Tosef.. Yoma, i. ; Yer.
Yoma i., 38a, and Yoma 12b, and illustrated by the

case of Jose ben lllem) that a substitute who has
actually taken the place of the high priest on the
Day of Atonement may not thereafter perform the
services of an ordinary priest ; neither may he aspire
to the high-priesthood. In the light of this state-
ment it can readily be understood why Meg. i. 9
calls the temporary substitute of the high priest
" koheu she-'abar." The names " mashuah she-'abar"
and "kohen she-'abar" are in themselves proof of
Schiirer's assertion, iuasuiuch as the oftice of the
segan was a permanent one. But apart from this
negative evidence, which merely shows that the
segan was not identical with the mashuah she-
'abar, there is (contrary to Schiirer, I.e. ii. 204) posi-
tive evidence in the Talmudic sources to show that
his real oflice was identical with that of the latter.
Thus, in the baraita Sanh. 19a, quoted above, the
title "segan " is used to designate the "memunneh "
spoken of in the preceding mishnah (ii. 1), a circum-
stance which would point to the conclusion drawn
by the Gemara {ib.) that the segan and the memun-
neh were identical. This conclusion is, in fact, cor-
roborated by Mishnah Tamid, where the titles "se-
gan " and "memunneh" are used interchangeably.
There can be no doubt that in Mishnah Tamid iii.
1-3, V. 1-2, vi. 3, vii. 3 these titles refer to one and
the same official, whose office is described in great
detail — the office, namely, of superintendent of the
whole Temple service. Note especially vi. 3 and
vii. 3, which define the duty of the superintending
priest when the high priest offers incense or sacrifice ;
in vi. 3 this official is called " memunneh " ; in vii. 3,
"segan."

It niaj' logically be inferred from these passages
that the duties ascribed to the segan on the Day
of Atonement in Yoma iii. 9, iv. 1, vii. 1 were a
regular part of his office as superintendent of the
service. Indeed, this is borne out by Yer. Yoma
iii., 41a, where, together with the Day of Atone-
ment duties of the segan that are specified in the
Mishnah, is mentioned that of waving a flag as a
signal to the Levites to join in with their singing,
the giving of which signal, according to Mishnah
Tamid vii. 3, was a regular feature of the segan 's daily
official routine. The fact that the segan had to act
as superintendent of the service even on the Day of
Atonement fully precludes the idea that he could
ever have been appointed substitute for the high
priest for that day.

Considering the importance of such a position of
superintendence, some weight must be attached to
the statement in Yer. Yoma (I.e.) that "no one was
appointed high priest unless he had previously oc-
cupied the office of segan." It substantiates, at
least, the conclusion drawn by Schiirer {ib.) from
the fact that the segan invariably appears at the
right hand of the high ]iriest (comp. the baraita
Sanh. 19a, quoted above)— the conclusion, namely,
that the segan was the next in rank to the high
priest. Scliurer is prol)ably correct, too, in pointing
out {ib.) that the segan is identical with the arparrjydr
Tov iepnii, frequently mentioned by Josephus and in
the New Testament.

Other important officials were the "gizbarim"
(treasurers), who had charge of the Temple prop-
erty, and the "amarkelin " (a word of Persian origin.

197

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Priest
Priestly Code

meaning "cashier"), who probably shared the duties
of the gizbarim (comp. Josephus, "Ant." xiv. 7,

§ 1; XV. 11, §4; xviii. 4, §3; Peah i.

Other 6, ii. 8, iv. 8 ; Siiek. ii. 1 ; v. 2, 6 ; Me'i.

Officials, iii. 8; Men. viii. 2, 7; et al.). Yer.

Shek. V. , 49c, mentions also the " Ijiato-
likin " {Ka6o?uKoi), placing them in rank before the
amarkelin.

According to Talmudic law, the regulations de-
manding an unimpeachable jjcdigreeand relating to
Levitical defilement continued to be binding on the
priest, even after the Temple had been destroyed,
in order that he might be fit for priestly service
when, on the advent of the Messiah, the Temple
would be rebuilt and the service of the altar re-
newed. Any one not complying with these require-
ments is not allowed to give the priestly blessing,
the pronouncing of which remained the duty of the
priest, according to Talmudic law, even after the
destruction of the Temple (see Blessing, Priestly).
Talmudic law prescribes further that the honor of
being first called upon for the reading of the Torah
should belong to the priest (comp. "Yad," Issure
Biah, XX. 13; ib. Tefillah, xiv., xv. ; Eben ha-'Ezer, 3,
1; Orah Hayyim, 128; 13-5, 3,4: Sotah 38b; Git. v.
8; see, however, Hor. iii. 8).

Bibliography: Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 225-279; Carpzow,
Apparatus Historio-CriticitsAntiquitatum Sacri Codicis;
Haneberg. I>it' ReligiOseyi AltirtUmer der Bilid ; Lightfoot,
Miniiiterium Templi Quale Erat Tempore Nostri >\alva-
tnris; Lundius, Die Altcn JildUchen HeiliatUmer, Gottes-
dienste utnl Gexcnhnheilen, etc.; Selden, De Succexsione
Ui Pontiftcatum Ebro&^nim ; Ugolinl, Sacerdolium He-
braicum.
E. c. M. Bu.

PRIESTLY CODE: Name given by modern

scholars to that stratum of the Pentateuch which
deals with ceremonial regulations, especially those
which relate to sacrifice and purification. These
laws once formed part of an independent narrative,
which contained just sufficient liistorical matter to
form a setting for the laws. In consequence of tills,
some of the priestly laws, such as those concerning
circumcision and the Passover, are still given in
narrative form.

The subject-matter of the Priestly Code is as fol-
lows: circumcision (Gen, xvii.); the Passover and
Feast of Unleavened Bread (Ex, xii. 1-20); qualifi-
cations for eating the Passover (Ex. xii. 43-49) ; the

dress of priests (Ex. xxviii.); ritual
Contents, for their consecration (Ex. xxix. 1-37) ;

the morning and evening offerings
(Ex. xxix. 38-42); composition of anointing-oil and
incense (Ex. xxx. 22-38); law of the Sabbath (Ex.
xxxi. 14b-17, XXXV. 1-3); the laws of burnt, meal-,
peace-, sin-, and guilt-offerings, including specifica-
tions of the priests' portions, and, in some cases, of the
dress of the ofiiciatiiig priest (Lev. i.-vii., x. 12-20);
laws of purification and atonement (Lev. xi.-xvi.
[ch. xi., which treats of clean and unclean animals,
is an expansion of an older law of tlie Holiness
Code; comp. Lea'iticus, Ckitic.\.l View]); many
additions to the Holiness Code in Lev. xvii.-xxvi. ;
the commutation of vows (Lev. xxvii.); miscellane-
ous laws concerning lepers, dedicated things, and
women suspected of unfaithfulness (Num. v.); laws
of vows (Num. vi. 1-21); the priestly benediction
(Num. vi. 22-27); how to fix lamps on the golden

candlestick, and how to consecrate priests (Num.
viii.); law of the supplementary Passover for those
not able to keep the regular Passover (Num. ix. B-
14); laws of me^l- and peace-offerings (Num. xv.
1-31); the law of tassels (Num. xv. 87-41); on the
duties and revenues of priests and Levites (Num.
xviii.); the "red heifer" rile of purification after
defilement tlirough a corpse (Num. xix.); inlierit-
iijuc of daughters in families without soi)H(Niim.
xxvii. 1-11); the priestly calendar of feii.siH luid sac-
rifices (Num. xxviii., xxix.); the distribution by
the priest of booty taken in war (Num. xxxi 21-
30); the cession of forty-eight cities to ihi- l,<vites
(Num. xxxv. 1-8); laws of murder and manslaugh-
ter and cities of refuge (Num. xxxv. 9-34); law
concerning the marriage of heiresses to lauded prop-
erty (Num. xxxvi.).

It is evident that rides of priestly procedure nuist

have acconipanied the institution of the priesthixKl.

In the earliest times these rules prob-

Growth. ably were transmitteii ondly. When
writing was first employed in connec-
tion Avith them, it is likely that only some general
directions, or some details deemed most important,
were committed to writing. As time passed on
the importance given to written law would lead the
priesthood to commit more and more of the details
to writing. In time, too, variations of detail would
develop, authority for Avhich must be committed to
writing, so that actual practise miglit be justified
by existing law. One would, therefore, suppose
beforehand that such a code would exhibit evidence
of gradual growth.

Proof that this actually occurred in the case f>f
the Priestly Code is not wanting. As already
pointed out. Lev. xvii.-xxvi. is, in the main, an
older code, which has been worked over by a
" priestly " editor. A careful study of the list of
priestly laws exhibits further evidences of their
gradual growth. The law of the " little " Passover.
in Num. ix. 9-14, is a later addition to Ex. xii. 1-20.
The laws of the sin-offering in Num. xv. 22-;n are
sujjplementary to those in Lev. iv. 13-21, 27-31.
The calendar of feasts in Num. xxviii. -xxix. is
paralleled in Lev. xxiii. The former is much fuller
and more specific than the latter, even after the cal-
endar of feasts of the Holiness Code in Lev. xxiii. ha.<»
been expanded by the priestly editor (P). The law of
heiresses in Num. xxxvi. is suj>plementary to that
in Num. xxvii. 1-11. Since the gradual develop-
ment of this code is so evident, scholars have nat-
urally sought to detect the strata of which it is
composed, though they have not yet come to com-
plete agreement. All recognize the author of the
Holiness Code (P''), which begins priestly codifica
tion.and the author of the "Grunds<hrift " (P or 1*'.
which gives to the priestly institutions their histor-
ical setting. Kuenen recognized a supplementary
luiestly writer, whom he designates P*.

It is now conceded that these supplementary
sections are the work of no one hand or age. and t" •
some of them date from a time considerably li' :
than Ezm and Nehemiah. The symbol P* is now
u.«ed to designate all these expamlers. Carp«'nter
and Harford Bat tersby think that prior to P« there
existed, besides P^ a' writer of the priestly school

Priluk
Prinersbeim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

198

whose work consisted of priestly teaching; they
therefore designate him P'. They believe that be-
fore the time of Neliemiah. P^' had embodied iu his
work that of P*" and P', and that most of the sup-
plementary portions were added later. This accords
with the view expressed above (comp. Leviticus,
Critical View).

BiBLior.RAPHY : Kuenen, Hexatettch. pp. 65-107, London, 18S»i :
Wellhausen, History of Israil, London, IfWo ; Idem, Pro-
legomena zur Ge!<ch. Israelx, ch. i.-iii., ix., Berlin, 1899 ; Car-
penter and Harlord-Battersbv. Hexateuch, i., ch. xiit., Lon-
don, 1900.

E. G. u. G. A. B.

PRILUK (PRZYLUK; PITRLIK ; FRI-

LOCK), ARYEH LOB : Polish author of the

seventeenth century. He wrote a commentary on

the Zohar from the pericope " Sliemot " to " Hukkat,''

which was published, with the "Sefer Yirah," in

Berlin iu 1724. The latter book also is credited to

him.

Bibliography: Furst. nUil. Jud. i. 304, ii. 2G4; Benjacob,
(>z<ir ha-Sefarim, p. 229; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col.
74.1 ; Zunz. Z. G. p. 238, note b.
E. C. S. O.

PRIMO, SAMUEL : Shabbethaian sectary of
the .'Seventeenth CLUtury; born in Jerusalem; died
probably at Constantinople. He was one of the
earliest followers of Shabbethai Zebi, whose private
secretary he became. He first acted in this capac-
ity on Zebi's journey from Jerusalem to Smyrna
in 1665, clcverl}' managing to give to the advent
of the pseudo-Messiah an air of dignity. From
Smyrna he spread the news among all foreign Jews
that the Messiah had actually appeared. With cer-
tain of his contidants he was the first to plan the
abolition of rabbinic Judaism. In the name of
Shabbethai Zebi he also sent a circular to the Jews
(Dec, 1665) advising the abolition of the fast-day of
the tenth of Tebet.

In Feb., 1666, Primo accompanied Zebi to Con-
stantinople; and after the latter had embraced Islam
Primo even tried to explain this apostasy as having
been foreordained in the Messianic role. Concerning
the rest of his life nothing is known.

Bibliography: Hottinger, Thenaurus, xxx. 287-361, Zurich,
]t>49: Weiss, in Bet ha-Midrcush, 1868, pp. 64, 100; Gratz,
Gench. 3d ed., x. 199 et neq. and note 3.
I). S. O.

PRIMOGENITURE (miDa; the first-born,
11D2) : In the Old Testament as well as in the rab-
binical legislation a distinction is made between the
first-bom of inheritance (n^nj^ "T)33) and tlie first-
born of redemption (jns^ '2 ; eomp. Bek. viii. 1, 46a).
The primogeniture of inheritance refers to the
first-born son on the side of the father by any of his
wives (if he lived in polygamy). The law of such
primogeniture is found in Dent. xxi. l^etseq., ac-
cording to which the first-born is to receive a double
portion of the inheritance. The passage referred to,
however, did not introduce this right, for the pref-
erence of the firstborn, as the issue of the "first
strength " (px n'5J'N"l) of the father, ex-
Primogeni- isted in patriarchal times (comp. Gen.

ture of In- xxv. 31, xxvii. 29, xlviii. 13, xlix. 3).

heritance. It is generally assumed that the pre-
rogatives of the first-born consisted in a
kind of potestas over the family; in a double sluire
of inheritance (comp. I Chron. v. 1); and in the riglit

to the priesthood (comp. Targ. Onk. and Yer. to
Gen. xlix. 3). From Gen. xxv. 31 (comp. xxvii. 36)
it appears also that God's promises to the Patriarchs
were considered as attached to the line of the first-
born. But, as the cases of Esau and Reuben (and
Ishmael, Gen. xxi.) show, it was possible for the
father to deprive the first-born of his right ; and the
lawgiver in Deut'cronomy prohibits the misuse of pa-
rental power in favor of a younger son bj' a favorite
wife. In the succession to the throne primogeni-
ture was generally taken into consideration (comp.
II Chron. xxi. 3), though it was not always deci-
sive, as appears in the case of Solomon (I Kings i.
30, ii. 22) and of Abijah (II Chron. xi. 22; and comp.
Junior Right).

Rabbinical law further specities and qualifies the
right of primogeniture. Only the first-born — not the
eldest surviving son who has been pre-
In the ceded by another child that has died —
Rabbinical and onl}' such a one as, by a normal
Writings, birth and not by a surgical opera-
tion, came into the world in the life-
time of his father is entitled to the double share
(Bek. 46a, 47b; B. B. 142b). Furthermore, the first-
born of a first-born does not receive a double por-
tion of the inheritance of the grandfather who dies
before the father (Bek. 51b; B. B. 124a). On the
other hand, if the first-born dies before his father his
right passes over to his children, even to daughters
(B. B. 122b). Neither the inheritance left by the
mother nor posthumous improvements (nSt') of and
accessions (*1K"l) to the inheritance left by the father
are subject to the right of primogeniture (Bek. 51a;
B. B. 1221), 124a). The double share of the first-born
is not one-half of the property, but double the share
of each of the other brothers. If there are, for in-
stance, four brothers, the property is divided into
five parts, the first-born receiving two-fifths and the
others each one-fifth. But the portion of the first-
born is affected by either the death or the birth of
another brother after the demise of the father (B.
B. 123a, 142b). As the double share of the inherit-
ance entails a double share in the obligations on the
l)art of the first-born, both may be waived by him
(B. B. 124a).

It is apparent from the preceding regulations that
both in the Old Testament and iu the rabbinical law
the prerogative of primogeniture was not conceived
as an inalienable right inherent in the first-born, but
rather as a gift by the Law, prompted by economic
considerations. The eldest son, Avho was to take the
father's position, was to be placed economically in a
condition to be able to preside with dignity over the
family — something like the right of majorat. It
is, moreover, probable that the first-born had the
obligation of maintaining the female members of
the family who remained in the hou.sehold. For the
Talmudic regulation of the status and maintenance
of the unmarried daughters after the
Primogeni- father's death see Ket. 68a, b.
ture of Re- The primogeniture of redemption
demption. refers to the male first-born on the
mother's side and applies to both
man and beast: "Sanctify unto nin all the first-born,
wliateoever openeth the womb among the children
of Israel, both of man and beast: it is mine"

199

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prlluk
Prin^Bheim

(Ex. xiii. 2). In the manner of the sanciitication
of these first-born the following distinctions are
drawn :

1. Tlie first-born of a clean animal liad to bo
brought to the sanctuary within a year from the
eiglitli day of its birth (Ex. xxii. 30). If without a
blemish it was treated as a sacrifice; i.e., the blood
was spriidvled and the fat burned on the altar. As
regards the disposal of the flesh there is a differ-
ence between the laws in Deuteronomy and those in
Numbers. According to the former (Deut. xv. 19
e( seq.\ conip. xii. Q et seq., \"etfieq.\ xiv. 23) the
llcsh is eaten by the OAvner in a sacrificial meal, like
that of the '•shelamim," while according to the lat-
ter (Num. xviii. 17 et seq. ; comp. Ex. xxii. 29) it
fell to the priest. The latter practise prevailed in
the time of Neheniiah (Neh. x. 37) and Josephus
(Josephus, "Ant." iv. 4, § 4). Had the animal a
blemi h, it was treated like any other common food
(Deut. XV. 21-23).

2. The first-born of an unclean animal had to be
redeemed, when a month old, according to the esti-
mation of the priest, with the addition of one-fifth
(Lev. xxvii. 27; Num. xviii. \~i et seq.). The first-
l)orn of an ass was either ransomed by a sheep or
killed, its neck being broken (Ex. xiii. 13, xxxiv.
20). In Josephus' time {I.e.) all unclean animals were
redeemed with one and a lialf shekels.

3. The first-born of man was, at the age of one
month, redeemed with five shekels (Ex. xiii. 13, xxii.
28, xxxiv. 20; Num. xviii. \hetseq.; comp. iii. 44
et seq. ; Neh. x. 87).

In the Talmud the fact that the first-born in this
case must be a Dm "ItDD is emphasized. Thus a
first-born son whose birth has been preceded b}^ a
miscarriage, or by a still-birth, or by the birth of a
monstrosity, or one who was himself brought forth
by a surgical operation, is not due to the priesthood.
On tlie other hand, if two wives of the same man
both bear sons as first-born children, each must be
redeemed (Bek. viii. 1, 2, 46a, 47b).

In Ex. xiii. 11-15 and Num. iii. 12 et seq. (comp.

ib. 40 ct seq. and viii. 15-18) tlie dedication of the

first-born to Yiiwii is connected with

Origin and. the slaying of the first-born of Egypt

Signifi- and the consecration of the Levites to
cance. the service of the sanctuary. By des-
troying the first-born of Egypt and
sparing those of Israel, Yiiwn acquired an especial
ownership over the latter. But as it was not feasi-
ble to select the first-born of the entire nation
and thus disturb the family organization, the Levites
were substituted for them; and, indeed, rabbin-
ical tradition assigns the priesthood to the first-born
until the completion of the Tabernacle (Zcb. 112b,
115b; comp. Targ. to Ex. xxiv. 5 and Kashi and
Ibn Ezra to Ex. xix. 22, 24). The view implied in
the passages quoted seems to be that the Levites
took the place of only tliose first-born which Ynwii
actually spared in Egypt, and that Avliilc the Levites
continued to serve at the sanctuary, all the first-
born after the Exodus were nevertheless the property
of Yiiwn, and therefore had to be redeemed, just as
the 273 first-born who surpassed the number of the
Levites at Sinai had to be redeemed each with five
shekels (Num. iii. 45-51). Doubtless there is here

also tiie adapUition of an ancient custom (comp.
Gen. iv. 4). Tiie dedication of tlie firstborn of
man is the extension and ai>plicution by unalo;,'y of
tlie custom of consecrating to God the first-Iruil*
of the soil and the firstlings of animals (c()m|». Ex.
x.\ii. 28 et srq.), a custom found also among other
peoples. In Israel tliis dedication had the signif-
icance of an acknowledgment that it was YinvH'H
"heritage," that it owed to Him ;i!l which it had
and was.

The interpretation of tin- iM>i(Mii III i>>. [w

first-born as a inoditicaliou of an older , «if

sacrificing tiie first l)orn sons in connection wiili Che
Passover feast (Baudissin, in Herzog-IMitt. " Heal-
PZncyc." 2d ed., x. 170; comp. also FVazer, "The
Golden Bough," 2d ed., ii. 48). has no foundation in
liistory. There are instances in later times aitesling
not only the custom of sacrificing children, bijt al.w
the fact that at times the first-born was preferred as
a victim (II Kings iii. 27; Micah vi. 7; Ezek. xx.26);
but there is nowhere a trace of the demand of such a
"blood-tax" on the part of the Deity or Lawgiver
from the people, and its existence is unknown even
among the Canaanites (comp. Wellhausen, " Prolego-
mena," 2ded., p. 91; Robertson Smith, "Religion
of the Semites," 2d ed., p. 404; and Tov on Ezt k.
XX. 26in"S. B. O. T.").

Since the destruction of the Temple and ce.s.s;ition

of sacrifices the dedication of the first-born of clean

animals is limited to their being kept

In Modern inviolate and exempt from any use

Times. (comp. Deut. xv. 19), uidcss they have
or receive some blemish, in which case
they may be slaughtered for food. The redemption
of the first-born of an ass and of man is still car-
ried out according to the Biblical ordinances, and the
redemption of the first-born son (pn p'HS) is a fes-
tive occasion. From such reilemption are exempt
not only priests and Levites. but also their children
(Bek. 4a, 47a). Adult first-born on either side are
also obliged to fast on the eve of Passover, unless
they are released from the obligation by some festive
celebration, such as the completion of the study of
a tract of the Talmud ("sivvum"; comp. " Yad,"
Bekorot, xi. 17; Yoreh De'aii, g§ 300. 305. 321).

BinMOGn.\PHV: Pliilo, Dc Prccmiig Sarmhitum. i 1 'ed.
Mangey, ii. 2:0): idem, Dc Caritatc. i 10 (U. ;»•!): J. H. H.
Hottinger, De I'/iwoi/CNifiV, Marlnire. 1711: 1). (.■ - ' ' •
Vnriis S. S. ioci'-s. in Quihus l'riin<ni,iii(<irjn
Occunif. Duisburg, 1T:«; J. J. SoliPKliT. !>■ rw,
lircroruin I'riminicnili)< ct Koruin I'rtii
1741 : Lundius, Die Altcu Jlhli.-<c}u» lf> i
U : Saalschiit:!, Das M'K^niiiche Hccht, -'d »-tl., pp. '->: 1-4. -fi-N
8-M; Haneberg, Die licUuii'txcn Altcrthnmcr dfr liihrl,
pp. .T«)9-.571. Munich. I!^j9; Hirscli B. Kii.«i.s<M, /M.i M
J{abbiin.<chc Civilrccht, i.. 2, p. 37il; l..xipold 1
L(l)cn.'<aUcr in <lcr Jll(li.-<chin JMcratur. •■•
Uafaei Kirsoti, Dcr Kr.-.7<;'/>>>r» mc uach ^
inudi-fchcm liccht: i.. Die S(.Uuini. 7:.chtf<
((f.f Er,>tf(;t'')<"c>i«»i. Fnuikfort-' " . laJi ; .M. Biucl*.

Das Mnyaim-U-Talinuiluicht Ki ••.

E. G. n. J " ^

PRINCEPS JUDiEORUM. See ^Ikxuel.

PRINCES OF THE CAPTIVITY. See Ex-

II, Aiti n.
PRINCIPAL AND AGENT. Sec AoENCT.

L.\W UK.

PRINGSHEIM. NATHANIEL : German l>ot-

auist: born at W ziesUo. uIktm lilcsieu, Nov. 80,

Printers

Procedure in Civil Causes

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

200

1823 ; died at Berlin Oct. 6. 1894. He was educated
at the Friedricbs-Gyiimasium at Breslau, and at
Leipsic, Berlin (Ph.D. 1848), and Paris, in which
latter two cities he devoted himself especially to the
study of botany. He established himself as privat-
docent in botany at the University of Berlin in 1851.
His "Entwickelungsgeschichte der Achlya Pro-
lifera" was publislied in the " Abhandlungen der
Leopoldinisch-Karolinische Akademie derNaturfor-
cher," 1851. The ne.xt product of his researches was
"Grundlinien einer Theorie der Ptiauzenzclle," Ber-
lin, 1854, followed by "Befruchtung und Keimung
der Algen, und das Wesen des Zeugenaktes," pub-
lished serially in the '•Mouatsberichten der Berliner
Akademie," 1855-57. These two works secured his
admission in 1856 as a membeF of the Berlin Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften.

Two years later he began the publication of the
"Jahrbftcher fiir Wissenschaftliche Bolanik." In
1862 his "Beitriige zur Morphologic der Meeres-
algen" was published at Berlin, and in the follow-
ing j-ear "Ueber die EmbryobiUhmg der GefUss-
Kryptogamen." In 1864 he was called to a profess-
orship in Jena, where he founded an institute for
the study of the physiology of plants. In 1868
he returned to Berlin. His " Ueber Paaning von
SchwJlrmsporen " appeared in 1869, and his " Weitere
Nachtrage zur Morphologic und Systematik der
Saprolegniaceen" in 1873. His great contribution to
the advance of botanical science, however, was his
" Untersuchungen i'lber das Chlorophyll " (1874), in
which he elucidated his discovery of sexuality
among the lowest forms of plant life, and ad-
vanced an entirely new theory as to the part played
by the leaf-green in the life of the plant.

In 1882 he succeeded in establishing the German
Botanical Society, which in twelve years included
over 400 German botanists, and of which he was
annually elected president until his death. His
"Gesammelte Abhandlungen" were published in
three volumes, Jena, 1895-96.

BiBi.ionRAPnv: E. Roth, In Anton Bettelheim, Biog. BlUtter,
pp. 227-233, Berlin, 1895 (gives full blbUography).

8. M. Co.

PRINTERS ; PRINTING. See Typography.

PRINTERS' MARKS: Signets, coats of arms,
or pictures printed, from engravings, at the end of a
book or, later, on the title-page. Their use dates from
soon after the invention of printing. The seals of the
printers or the coats of arms of the city were fre-
quently employed. The book-mark often sug-
gests the meaning of the name of the printer; e.r/.,
the deer of "Zebi." The first well-known book-
marks are found in the works printed in the Py-
renean peninsula: the Tur Orah Hayyim of 1485
has a lion erect on a black shield ; the Tur Yoreh
De'ah of 1487, a lion erect on a red shield ; and the
Pentateucli completed in 1490 lias a lion battling
with a horse. The Tur Orah Hayyim of Leiria,
1495, has a ram with a superscription.

Italian incunabula have no book-marks. Among
the editions brought out at Constantinople in the
sixteentJi century mention should be made of the
" Toledot Adam we-Hawwah" (Constantinople, 1516)
and Jacol) bon Aslier's Pentateuch commentary

Printer's Mark of Isaac ben Aaroa
of Prossnitz, Cracow.

(Constantinople, 1514), the first having a small white
lion on u black square at the end of the book, the lat-
ter the same device on the title-page. The Soncino
editions that appeared at Rimini from 1521 to 1526
have the coat of arms of Piinini— a castle, to which
a Hebrew inscription was added. The editions of
Gersouides at Prague
show the priestly "^ - -. ^/•

hands with the sig-
nature of the printer,
a similar device be-
ing used later in
Proops' editions at
Amsterdam. In the
1540, and earlier,
Prague editions of

the Tur Orah Hayyim
there is a crown over
a city gate (the coat
of arms of Prague).
The peacock is found
in the editions of Foa
issued at Sabbionetta
and Mantua, and in
those of Di Gara at
Venice; a lion with
two tails and two im-
perial globes was used
at Safed, 1587, and
for a long time in
the Prague editions.
A beast, half lion
and half eagle, with crowns, is found in the
Batsheba editions, Salonica, 1592-1605; a grifiin,
in those of Grypho, Venice, 1564-67; an elephant
with the legend "Tarde sed Tuto,"
in those of Cavalli, Venice, 1565-
1568; a deer, in editions of Cracow,
Lublin, and, later, Offenbach ; fishes,
in the editions of Isaac Prossnitz,
Cracow ; fishes with ewers, in those of
Uri Phoebus, Amsterdam. Di Gara of Venice used
several book-marks — the peacock, three crowns
(used also by Bragadini and in Cremona), and a
woman crushing a hydra. The last was used also
by Bomberg in the Venice, 1545, Sifre.

The seven- branched candlestick, with signature,
was used by Mc'ir Firenze, Venice, 1545-75. Foa, in
Sabbionetta, sometimes used a blossoming palm with
two lions depending from it and with an inscription ;
a similar device was adopted later in Wilhermsdorf.
Small or large representations of the Temj)le were
often used — at first by Giustiniani at Venice, 1545,
ne.xt in Safed and Lublin, and then in Prague, as late
as 1627, by Abraiiani Lemberger. The larger ones
bear an inscription taken from Haggai (ii. 9), dis-
played on an extended scroll. St. George and the
dragon appear in Dyhernfurth editions as late as
the nineteenth century. The castle, star, and lion
found in Benveniste's editions, Amsterdam, were
imitated in Dessau, Coethen, Altona, etc. The rep-
resentation of Cain as Hercules, with an inscrip-
tion, is found after the preface in two of Back's edi-
tif)ns (Prague). In tiiose of Offenbach, Flirth, and
Wilhermsdorf the date of printing can often be de-
termined by the book-marks. In the nineteenth cen-

Specimens

Printers'

Marks.

201

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

tury tlie signature of the printer took tlie place of
the engravings, Wolf Ileideuheim at liodelheini.
Sciinii(lt at Vienna, and many others marking tlieir
editions in that way.

BiDi.ior.RAPiiY : Pteinsdinplder and Cnssel, in Ersch nnd Oni-
ber, Kuciic. section ii., part 28, pp. •^!'i ct seq.: Stclnscliiicldcr.
I'dt. liixlt. section iii.; Freimanu, HchrUischc Iiuuiuibcln,
Leipsic, litOi.

,T. A. F.

PRIORITY: Tlie rules as to priority among
deeds convoying tlie lands of a grantor, or among
bonds operating as liens upon all the obligor's lands,
have been indicated under Alienation. It remains
to speak as to priorities in the case of a widow or di-
vorced wife making claims under her " ketubah " and
the ordinary creditors of the husband. The Tal-
mudic sources for the rules of priority in either
class of cases are the Mishnah and the Gemara
thereto (Ket. 73b-74a, b).

The covenant which the husband enters into in
the ketubah, to restore upon death or divorce the
dowry brought to liim and which he receives at a
money valuation, as an "iron Hock "of unchange-
able value, creates a simple debt like one arising by
loan or by purchase of goods. This is the opinion
of Maimonides, wlio is followed therein by the later
codes. As against lauded estate, owned before the
contract, it ranks according to time of deliver}';
against after-acquired lands or personal property
(the latter being made liable by the institution of
the Geonim), diligence in collection will generally
give priority ; and here the widow naturally holds
the advantage.

But as to the jointure, or ketubah proper, whether
the legal minimum of 200 or 100 zuzim or any "ad-
dition " is concerned, the position of the widow is not
so favorable. True, where the marriage contract has
land to operate on, since it is a "shetar" attested by
two witnesses, its lien will take rank above all bonds
delivered at a later time, and above all debts not
assured by bond ; but where only one piece of land is
acquired after the date of the ketubah, or where, as is
much more frequently the case, the husband has no
land at all, and the contest is between the widow
and an ordinary creditor, the former loses on the
ground that the ketubah (if not secured by lien) is
to be paid only from the husband's net estate.

But if, either unaided or with the aid of the court,
the widow succeeds in collecting the amount of the
jointure before the husband's creditors (whether by
bond or parole) have intervened, she stands according
to some authorities (and these are followed by R.
.Joseph Caro in the text of Eben ha-'Ezer, § 102)
in a l)cttcr position : " they do not take it away from
her"; but Isserles, in his gloss, inclines to the
opposite opinion on the strength of his usual "yesh
omcrim " ( = " there are those who say ").

Wheie a man marries several women, which is
the case supposed l)y the Mishnah in the passage
quoted, the ketubah of the first wife takes prece-
dence, as a bond or shetar in the lien on lands, over
the ketubah of the second; and so on; but if there
is no land on which to operate, the several wives
have equal rights in so far as the collection of juiy-
ment is concerned.

E. c. L. N. D.

Printers

Procedure in Civil Cauaes

PRISON. See lMI'UI8t)NMENT.

PRIVACY, RIGHT OF. See Joint Ownkhs;

M I.IOHlloltlNi; I, \MH)\\ .SKU.s.

PRIVATE WAY. See Hioiit ok Way.

PROCEDURE IN CIVIL CAUSES : Jewish
jurisprudence, both in Biblical und in Talmudic
times, attached tiie greatest importance to the lawg
of property and to their faithful administration by
the judges. In regard tollio manner of conducting
civil suits the Pentateuch contains very few hints.
But in Deut. i. 16 the judges are told, "Hear . . .
between your brethren"; and Deut. xi.\. 17 de-
clares, "Both the men, between wlmm the contro-
versy is, shall stand before tlie Lord." Those and
other passages su pport tiie Talmudic rule tiiat judg-
ment can be pronounced only against a defendant
who has appeared; there is no such thing as "judg-
ment by default"— condemnation of tiie accused be-
cause he lias not appeared before the
No court to make defense. This seems

Judgment in modern times a great defect in pro-
by cedure, leading to much neetllcss fric-

Default. lion; but less than a liundred years
ago the English court of chancery hud
the same disadvantage to contend with: it acfjuired
jurisdiction over the defendant only by his answer,
and the latter was compelled to answer the com-
plainant's bill, even though he had nothing to say
in defense. But an exception to this rule has been
shown under the head of Foukion Attachment —
proceedings by a bond creditor against tlie property
of an absent defendant, an innovation arising from
the necessities of a later age. In fact, the Talmud
suggests (B. K. 112b) that at least upon bonds and
in action for the recovery of deposits there should
be judgment and execution without appeanince.
However, there could not well be a judgment by
default, as there was no written complaint.

Job's wish (XX xi. 35), "Oh that . . . mine ad-
versary had written a book" — meaning a "libellus"
or formal complaint — indicates that in his day tliere
were written pleadings. But in the procedure
known to the Talmud the allegations of plaintifT
and defendant are made by word of mouth in the
presence of the judges, and arc recordetl by tho
clerk, much as were the pleadings in the Anglo-
Norman courts in the days of the Plantagenets.
The codes deduce from the Mishnah thcnilc that no
written pleadings can be reciuired: "All judicial
writings may be written <nily in the pre.s<'nce of
both parties, both to pay the fees of the writers; U.
Simeon ben Gamaliel declared that two copies should
be made, one for each " (B. B. x. 4V For the choice
of the court which shall try a civil case see Jihis-

DICTION.

As to the time of holding court, the ordinance of

Ezra, which appoints Monday and Tliurs<iiiy for

that purpose, was recognized by the

Sittings of Mishnah (Ket. i. 1) and by the Gemara

Court. (H. K. 11211, 113a); but tlie custom

has long since fallen into disuse. The

courts should notsit on Sabbaths orduring festivals

(Ik'zali iv. 1): for, as the Talmud explains, there

would be temptation to write; but if the court docs

sit an<l pronounce a judgment, it is binding (Shul-

Brafradlnl, Venice.

"^"^"^^^

ft " " V-'

f^^W

7^ — f

Sl;

Autouio GiustluianI, Venice.

uj t*:'. iM ».> JJ'. t ! •" fla'. •

(Unknown.)

•

'^^S

ife^^^^^^^^^

ZTO-HDNCTS 31&l'j"t<':3

Paul Fagius, Isny.

Jacob Mercaria, Riva di Trento.

>^':''^-i- fij ■

yv^'-iiv

.'/■-.it * r* >^ (1

Mantua and Sabblonetta.

Isaac b. Aaron of Prossnitz,
Cracow.

^^^

Abraljaiii Lwiuc, Kerrara. Souclno, lluiiini.

Printers' Marks.

(From the Sulzbcrgfer collectloD In tht Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.)

302

Gersonldes, Prague.

Moses and Mordecal Kohen. Preifue.

PPITTD

Si 111:"*" ■'5 p»>y ?»iip ':f

Judab Lob ben Moses, Prague.

ZalmuQ, Amstenlttiu (?),

Tobiah Foa, Sabblonetta.

I TKT anal nus'-tpa ]tz » -■^ki

Toblab Foa, SabblooeUa.

Gad beu Isaac Foa, Venice.

Cavalli, Venice. Solomon Proops, Amsterdam.

Prixtkks' Marks.

(From the Sulzberger coIlcctioD In the Je" Uh Theological Sem.n«rv ..f Am..rK-«, Sew V.-rk.^

Meir ben Jacob Pirpiize. Venice.

2U3

Procedure in Civil Causes

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

204

ban Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 5. 1). The rule not to
begin a session iu the afternoon is made in order that
the afternoon prayer should not be neglected by
judges and others concerned (Shab. 9b); but if the
cause is taken up in the forenoon it may proceed not
only during the afternoon, but after nightfall, the
judgment then rendered being valid. No one can
be compelled to attend a civil trial in the month of
Nisan. on account of the (barley) harvest, nor in
Tishri, on account of the vintage; and a summons
may not be served on Friday or on the eve of a fes-
tival (B. K. 113a). The vacations in Nisan and
Tishri were continued in later times, when farming
was no longer tiie occupation of tiie Jewish people,
in order to give litigants leisure to prepare for the
festivals.

When the proper time comes for hearing causes,
the general rule is that the cause first begun should
be first heard ; but certain classes of plaintiffs are
privileged. Thus, according to Iloshen 3Iishpat,
15, 1, seemingly based on a remark of
Cause List, the Talmud (Shebu. 30). the suit of a
scholar, though begun later than that
of another, should have priority. This is denied
by some authorities; but the suit of an orphan must
always be heard first ; next, that of a widow (follow-
ing Isa. i. 17 — "judge the fatherless, plead for the
widow "); and a woman's cause must be heard be-
fore that of a man (Hoshen Mishpat, 15, 2).

The place always mentioned by the Bible in con-
nection with the hearing of civil causes is the city
gate — the wide space left in the broad city wall at
the entrance to the town. The gate as a place of
trial is not mentioned in the Mishnah, but the Pales-
tinian Talmud mentions the sittings of a court at
the gate of Csesarea. Not much space was needed
for civil trials, and they generally came to be held
in the house of the rabbi sitting as principal judge.
However, there have been Jewish "town halls,"
such as the " Jildisches Rathhaus " in Prague, in very
recent times.

The first written document issued in a civil suit
is the summons ("hazmanah " = "time-fi.xing "),
which is obtained, upon the verbal application
of the plaintiff, from the ordinary judges and is
signed by them or by one of them. It is served on
the defendant by the "messenger of

Days of the court" (see B. K. 112b, where it

Court. is said that, issued on Tuesday and

served on Wednesday, the court may

fix the time of trial for Thursday of the same Aveek).

The messenger reports the fact of service, or that the

defendant lias avoided the service.

According to B. K. 112b, the messenger is accred-
ited for the purpose of pronouncing the ban, but
not for the purpose of delivering the " petihah," that
is, the formal document of excommunication, wiiich
can be made out only upon further proceedings
showing the defendant's contumacy (see Conte.mpt
OF CoriiT).

If the defendant, when first brouglit into court,
desires time to gain a better understanding of his
case, or to await an absent witness, or if he asks for
time in which to raise by private sale the means of
paying the debt, the Talmud (^.c.) permits him a delay
of as much as ninety days. In the Talmudic age the

Jews were farmers. The modern rule, adapted to-
a trading people, is less liberal; the Hoshen Mish-
pat (16, 1) will not allow more than thirty days,
even when a material witness is absent ; it arguea
that if defendant's witness should appear after judg-
ment it is open to the defendant to bring suit tO'
vacate the judgment and to recover w-hat he haa
been vmjustly compelled to pay.

In general, both parties should appear in person
to carry on their pleadings. The reason is that
each may thus be restrained bj-a sense
In Person of shame from denying the true alle-
or by gations of his opponent, or from as-
Attorney. scrting what both parties know to bo
unt rue. Yet where a demand belongs
to several persons jointly {ej/., to the several heirs
of a creditor), in the nature of things one must speak
for all (see Agency, Law of, where an attorney-
ship ["harslia'ali"] for the plaintiff was worked out
from this consideration). Upon this theory the
plaintiff could appoint an attorney only where his-
demand was assignable, as in an action for the re-
covery of land, or upon a bonded debt, or on an un-
disputed deposit. Such, it seems, was the Talmudic
rule ; but the Gconim extended to almost all cases the-
right of the plaintiff to plead by attorney (Hoshen
Mishpat, 123). The defendant, however, could not
divide his liability; moreover, with him the tempta-
tion to deny his adversary's assertions is stronger;
hence he could not plead by attorney. The onl}''
concession made to "honored women" and to
"scholars" was that the clerks of the court might
call on them at their houses, and there take down,
in writing, their statements of fact (ib. 124).

In the nature of things some parties can not plead
for themselves. Infants, boys under thirteen or
girls under twelve, the deaf and dumb, and lunatics-
can plead only through a guardian ;
Status and it is the duty of the court to ap-
of Parties, point a guardian for such, if they have
none, whenever they become parties to
a suit. Again, the husband is the natural attorney
for his wife as to "property of the iron flock," which
he has taken possession of and for which he is liable,
but not as to "fluid property" ("nikse melug");
yet where land of this kind bears fruit, the hus-
band, being entitled to the latter, can sue for both
land and fruit {ib. 122, 8). A part-owner, such as
one of several heirs, can sue for himself and his fel-
lows without letter of attorney, and his fellows are
bound by a judgment for the defendant, luilesstluw
live in another place, in which case the defendant
can tell the acting plaintiff, "Either bring a letter
of attorney or sue only for thy own share."

The plaintiff whose attorney has lost a ca.se can
not avoid the result by showing that 1:j had before
tiie hearing revoked the power of attorney, unless
notice of the revocation had been brought home to
the court {ib. 3). Both parties being before the
judges, they plead in person ; the plaintiff .sets fortJi
the facts on which his claim is based.
Oral and the defendant answers; when the
Pleadings, latter introduces new aflirmative mat-
ter the plaintiff may reply; and there
may be a rejoinder. AVhere either party admits
a fact stated by his opponent, the admission, in

205

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Procedtire in Civil Causes

the words of the Talmud, is "better thuii a lum-
dred witnesses." It will be seen that in eertain
cases a denial can be made, or attirmative matter
pleadeil, only under oath. Scriptural or rabbinical.

When an issue is raised by mere <lenial, the jiroof
is made by the evidence of witnesses in tiie manner
described in the article Evidence. The produc-
tion of deed or bond ("shetar"), unless it has been
"established " before a court or judge, must be made
by the attesting witnesses, though it is said (Git. 3a
(t til.) that under the Mo.saic law an attested deed
proves itself (i.f., is presumably genuine), and that
the obligation of bringing the witnesses into court
is only rabbinical. A " note of hand " (" ketab yad ")
may be set up by witnesses proving the maker's
handwriting.

The verj' narrow limits within which weight is
given to circumstantial evidence has been shown
under Evidence, and some of the presumptions
which may guide the judges are given under Bur-
den OF PuooF and in the article Maxims, Legal.
To these may be added the maxim "no one pays
a debt before it is due" (B. B. 5b; see, for its
application, Debts of Decedents). Hence, such
a payment can be proved only by the direct testi-
mony of two witnesses. There is a slight presump-
tion that a man does not go to law without having
some ground for it; and there are some cases, known
as MiGGO, in which the defense is favored, because if
the defendant had not been a truthful man lie could
liave introduced more plausible arguments. TIk;
discretion which the judges enjoy in certain cases,
to decide according to the weight of evidence and the
probabilities, is known as " the throw of the judges "
("shuda de-dayyane").

A solemn oath is imposed on the defendant as an

alternative to payment in four cases, the first being

provided in the Mosaic law itself (Ex. xxii. 8, 9) : (I)

a proceeding by the owner of chattels against the

gratuitous depositary ; (2) where the

Oath as defendant admits the as.sertion of the
Alter- plaintiff in part (" modeh be-mikzat
native to hayyab bi-shebu'ah " ; the most corn-
Payment, mon case); (3) where the plaintiff es-
tablishes by the testimony of two wit-
nesses his assertion as to part of his demand ; (4)
where the plaintiff has the testimony of one witness
for his assertion. In these cases the court declares
to the defendant, " You must either pay or clear
yourself by the solenm oath."

The rules as to the oath of the depositary are
given in the article Bailments. Here the Mislinah is
very explicit: (1) In order to justify a sworn denial
of a part of a claim, where the other portion thereof
is admitted, the amount demanded must be at least
equal to two small silver coins each equal to one-
sixth of the "denar," and the amount admitted
must be at least one "perutah." Next, the admis-
sion must be of the same kind as the demand ; thus,
to admit a claim to a perutah, which is of copper, is
not a partial admission of having two of the plain-
tiff's silver pieces; but this rule holds good only
when the demand is specific, e.g., if a claim is made
for the silver coins, not for the sum of money. Where
the demand is for two silver pieces and a perutah,
the perutah being admitted, or for a miua, tifty

denars being admitted, an oath is due. The claim
being "My father has u mina in tliy hand," and the
answer, "I owe thee fifty denurs," no oulh is neces-
sary, "for the defendant is like a man wlio returns
lost goods." So where demand is made for u "litra"
(in weight) of gold, defendant admitting a litru of
silver; for grain, beans or lentils being udniittcd;
for wheat, barley being admitted. In these cases.
and in other similar ones, no oath is required.

(2) The oath isnot required in an action for slaves,
bonds or deeds, or lands, nor for things consecnited ;
and land in this connecliou includes evcryiiiing Ix.--
longing to it, even ripe grapes. But when movable
property and land are included in the same demand,
and the defendant makes denial in regard to jiarl of
the movable property, he must swear b.s to the laud
also. (3) One who confes.ses a debt in the pres<'nce
of two witnesses and thereafter denies it in opi-n
court is not admitted to swear, being disqualified as
a "denier" (pDD). (4) The defendant can avoid
denying the rest of the demand if he at once pays
over or delivers to the plaintiff the part confessed:
for then the suit for that jtart is at an enfi, and he
stands on the same footing as if he denied the whole
cause of action.

By some sort of analogy a widow, or divorced
Avife who has "lessened " her jointure by admitting
the receipt of a part thereof, must, to recover the rest,
take an oath (Sheb. vii. 7). This position, taken by
B. Hiyya, is mentioned only in a late baraita (B. M.
3a). An opinion is expressed by some that jiroving
part of the demand by witnesses calls only for the
lesser or rabbinical oath in denial of the rest; but
later authorities demand here also the "solemn " or
Biblical oath (Maimonides, "Yad." Toen, iii. 10).
Proof by one witness, as the Talmud points out
(Sheb. 40a), is by the Law declared only insufficient
to convict of crime, but not to require an oatii for
its contradiction in money matters. The third and
fourth (see above) occasions for the oath occupy but
little space in Talmud and codes, while the "admis-
sion of part" covers a large field. In general, the
oath is never required in denying the demand of a
deaf-mute, of a person of unsound mind, of an in-
fant, or of the Sanctuary; nor where the plaintiff
states his grounds of action as being only probal)ly
true (^<Dt^'). instead of asserting them to be certainly
true (n2).

AVhile generally the judicial oath is taken by the
defendant to clear him from liability, in a few cases
the plaintiff may recover upon his oath (Sheb. v.-
vii.): (1) A hired man: Where the amount earned is
established by witnesses, and the employer says he
has paid it, and the workman denies

Oath by it, the latter may swear and recover.

Plaintiff. (2) One who has been robbed : Where
witnesses have established th.'it the de-
fendant entered the plaintiffs house to make an un-
authorized distraint, and the plaintiff says. "Thou
hast taken such an object," but tliedofendunt denies
it, the former swears and recovers. (3) One who has
been injured: Where witnesses provelhat the plain-
tiff went to the defen<lant uninjured and left liim
wounded, the iilainliff swears and recovers. (4) One
who is unworthy of belief: A professional dicer (see
Evidence) or a flier of pigeons, for instance, can

Procedure in Civil Causes
Procurators

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

206

not, to discbarge himself from a liability, take the
usual oath. The plaintiff swears and recovers also
in other cases in which the defendant may be dis-
charged by oath ; but where both are disqualified
the defendant takes the oath which the law imposes
on him. (5) The shopkeeper as to his tablet: This
does not mean that by his mere oath he can make
the charges written thereon stand good against his
customer; but where the latter has given an order
("Give my son two bushels of wheat"; "Give my
laborer change for a ' sola' ' "), and the shopkeeper,
who has the charge on his tablet, says, " I have given
it," though the customer denies it — in that case the
shopkeeper may, on his oath, recover from the party
giving the order. The Mishnah says that both the
shopkeeper and the son or laborer should swear;
but to this Ben Nannos objects that if they swear
against each other there must needs be perjury, and
the outcome of the discussion will be obscure (Sheb.
47b). The later authorities, as Maimonides, hold
that both the shopkeeper, swearing that he has de-
livered, and the laborer, swearing that he has not
received, can recover from the employing customer.

The Torah knows nothing of an oath to be taken
by the plaintiff; yet in most of the cases in which
the Mishnah imposes the oath upon him, the solemn
or Biblical oath is to be taken. For the necessity
of an oath by him who sues the heirs of his debtor,
see Debts of Decedents.

The principal occasion for the rabbinical oath
("shebu'at heset") is the assertion, not founded
upon an attested bond, of payment of a debt.
Where a loan is made or credit is given otherwise
than upon the security of such a bond, and there is
no stipulation that payment can be made only before
witnesses, the debtor may plead payment (TiyiQ)-
and make his assertion good by the lesser oath. The
weight of authority (" Yad,"Malweh, xi. 3; Hoshen
Mishpat, 69, 2) puts the holder of a note of hand in
the same position as a creditor by word of mouth
only ; but some of the late authorities gainsay this
opinion.

Where the defendant denies the facts on which
his obligation is based {i.e., denies the loan), and
these are proved against him by witnesses, he can
not thereafter plead an affirmative defense {i.e., that
he has paid) and sustain that defense by the rabbin-
ical oath ; for not only has he, as a "denier," lost his
credibility, but he can not be admitted to prove
such a defense by witnesses ; for to say, " I have not
borrowed," is an admission that he has not paid (B.
M. 17a). Where the defendant admits that the
plaintiff counted out and handed to him a sum of
money, he can clear himself by alleging that it was
in payment of a debt due to him (the defendant),
taking the rabbinical oath to support the allegation ;
but if he denies the delivery of the money he will not
be permitted to make such a defense, for if none w as
delivered, there could be neither gift nor payment.

Where either party was admitted to take the oath,
and took it, this ordinarily led, as a matter of course,
to a decision in favor of that party. But in those
civil suits which were decided upon testimony of
witnesses or upon written proof, or upon the plead-
ings and admissions of fact, the true course (San h. 30a)
is based on the custom of the " pure-minded " at

Jerusalem — to remove the parties, their witnesses,
and everybody else from the court-room, so that the
judges might discuss the case among themselves
(p^OIJI |'XL"13) and "finish" the matter (re. give
tlieir judgment). Careful and slow deliberation was
recommended by the men of the Great Sanhedrin
(Abot i. 1). When judgment is rendered by a ma-
jority the judges are forbidden to disclose how the
vote was divided. If one of three judges will not
give an opinion for either side there is no court, and
new judges, two at a time, should be cooptated
until a majority declares for one of the parties. If
a majority can not be obtained judgment is rendered
in favor of the defendant. (For the corresponding
rule in criminal cases see Acquittal.) The judg-
ment need not be made out in writing, unless the
successful party demands a transcript.

The Gemara quotes approvingly the saying, " Let
the judgment pierce the mount" (Sanh. 6a, b) — a
saying paralleling the familiar " Fiat justitia, ruat
coelum"; that is, the judges can not "split" the
matter in controversy, but must act upon the law
that fits the case, no matter how much hardship will
be entailed, for to decide correctly is a duty laid
upon them by the Torah : " They shall judge the peo-
ple Avith just judgment," and "The judgment is
God's" (Deut. xvi. 18, i. 17). Yet a "splitting" is
highly recommended when it occurs as a compromise
("pesharah") between the parties, and the judges
should advise such a course, for thus only will they
fulfil the words of Zechariah the prophet (viii. 16):
"Execute the judgment of truth and peace in your
gates." But in later times, when in the countries
of the Dispersion it became increasingly difficult
for the Rabbis to enforce their decrees against un-
willing litigants, their efforts were directed more
and more toward inducing the disputants to agree
among themselves, and skill in bringing about a
compromise before giving a decision on the law of
the case was deemed the highest qualification ox the
rabbi or dayyan (Hoshen Mishpat, 12, 2). The
compromise made before the judges is like any other
contract, and becomes binding only when the for-
malities are complied with which change the title
to property. See Alienation and Acquisition;
Execution; Judge; Set-Off.

Bibliography : Bloch, Die Civilprozess-Ordnung nach Mo-
sai.'ich-Rnbhini^chem Rechte, pp. 34-27; the* codes cited In
the text of the article.
e. c. L. K D.

PROCESS. See Proceduke.

PROCURATOR AD CAPITTJLARIA JT7-

D^ORUM. See Fiscrs Judaicus.

PROCURATORS : Title of the governors who
were appointed by Rome over Judea after the
banishment of Auchelaus in the year 6 c.e.,
and over the whole of Palestine after the defeat of
Agrippa in the year 44. Though joined politically
to Syria, Palestine had its own governor (Josephus,
"Ant." xviii. 1, § 1 ; idem, "B. J." ii. 8, § 1). His
official title was procurator, in Greek knirpoKoc; but
Jo.sephus sometimes designates him as enapxo^
("Ant." xviii. 2, §2;xix. 9, § 2; xx. 9, § 1 ; "B.J."
vi. 5, § 3) and vycfL^tv ("Ant." xviii. 3, § 1). In
the Greek text of the New Testament the term

207

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Procedure in Civil Causes
Proouratora

T/yefKJv is used (Matt, xxvii. 2, 11, 14, 15, 21, 27;
xxviii. 14; Luke iii. 1, xx. 20; Acts xxiii. 24, xxiv.
1, xxvi. 30) ; the Talmud and the Midrasli likewise
use pDJn(= ''b'^/^'^"). l'"t i" reference to the legate
of Syria only, and never the term "procurator."

Onlj' those provinces which possessed a civiliza-
tion of their own received tlieir own procurators, as,
for example, Egypt; or those having
Conditions a semibarbarous population, such as
of Admin- Thrace. Procurators, in tlie proper
istration. sense of the term, could l)e selected
only from the ranks of the knights.
Only once was a freedman, Felix, appointed procu-
rator of Judea.

The procurators of Judea had a military imperium
with five fasces as symbols, and thus possessed the
"jus gladii." They were, accordingly, as inde-
pendent within their own provinces as was the
legate of Syria. The latter, however, was invested
with the right as well as the duty to interfere in
Judean affairs in case of necessity, as did especially
Caius Cestius Gallus. The legate had power even
over the procurator's person. Thus, Vitellius de-
posed Pilate; and Quadratus sent Cumanusto Rome
to render account to the emperor. Furthermore,
the Jews could liave preferred against Florus
charges before the legate had not fear prevented
them from taking this step ("B. J." ii. 14, § 3).

The procurator resided in C;csarea, where he had
his pretorium, a building which formerly was the
palace of Herod (Acts xxiii. 35). Only on special
occasions, particularlj'^ during the
Residence. Jewish high festivals, did the proc-
urator go to Jeru.salcm, where also he
had a pretorium — again tlie palace of Herod — whicli
at the same time was used as barracks ("Ant." xvii.
10, §2; "B.J." ii. 3, §§ 1-4). In one instance a proc-
urator, Cumanus, put an armed body of Samari-
tans into the field against the Jews {ib. xx. 6, § 1);
not that he had the right to do so, but because the
measure was dictated by the disturbed peace of the
land. An exceptional measure was Pilate's order to
carry the emperor's image with the flag of the
troops, which out of regard for the religious senti-
ment of the Jews was not generally done in Palestine.
As a rule, the procurators respected the peculiarities
of the people placed in their charge. Troubles,
however, were inevitable. At the very outset a
revolt was threatened through the census of Quiri-
nius. As the procurator came into the country as
a stranger, he w^as not moved by the distress of a
population foreign to him ; and to this must be added
the circumstance that the procurator's tenure of
office was a brief one — only under Tiberius was the
term extended. Nothing whatever bound the proc-
urators to the native population; and even Tiberius
Alexander, a born Jew, and Felix, who was married
to the Jewish princess Drusilla, assumed an inimical
attitude toward the people. A sti^dy of the Jewish
law and the Jewish spirit, in a manner such as the
Talmud reports of the legate Tineius Rufus, was not
attempted by the procurators; only Marcus Anto-
nius Julianiis, who was procurator about the year
70, seems to have had a fair understanding of the
Jews (see Schlatter, "Zur Topographic und Ge-
schichte Palastinas," pp. 97-119). It was a dictate

of prudence on the part of the procurators to have
as little contact as possible with the Jews, unless
their own personal iiiKTcst, especially th<- desire for
rapid enrichment, demanded a dilTerenl ultiliide.
The routine of busines-s was left in tlie liunds of the
local municipalities. This was the case even in re-
gard to judicial functions, over which, however,
they retained the power of siipi-rviHion, particularly
in cases of capital punishment, in which their aswnt
was necessary before the sentence could be carried
into effect.

The procurators may be divided into iwoBeries:
those preceding and those following the n-ign of
Agrippa I. Those of the first series (0-41 c.K.)
ruled over Judea alone, possessing, togellier with
the legate, the power of supervision over the Tem-
ple, and the right to appoint and depose Jie high
priest. Tliose of the second series (44-70) adminis-
tered Samaria and Galilee, besides Judea. Tacitus'
statement ("Annales," xii. 54) that Cumanus was
procurator of Galilee only, is not confirmed by Jose-
phus, who w-as better informed. In this period the
supervision over the Temple and the higli priest.s
was exercised by Jewish princes of the Henxiiau
dynasty. While the reader is referred to the special
articles in The Jewish Encyclopedia on the 8<'veral
procurators, a condensed account of them, as well as
of the legates who followed them, is here presented
in the order of their succession. The first series of
procurators includes the following:

Coponlus (6 or 7-9 c.E.). During his administration the re-
volt of Judas the Galilean occurred (Josephus, " Anl." xvill. 1.
§1; idem, "B.J." 11.8,8 1).

Marcus Amblbulus (9-12). 'AnpipovKot is the correct reading
in "Ant." xvili. 2, § 2, according toed. Mese: the older edi-
tions have 'Aji^i^ouxot, which was usually read " Ambivlus."

Annius Rufus (c. 12-15). During his term of office Auguatus
died (Aug. 19, 14); and this Is the only l)asls on which to com-
pute the tenure of office of the Bret three procurators, of wh(«e
administration Josephus ("Ant." Lc.) reports almost nothing.

Valerius Gratus (15-28). He was the flrst procurator who ar-
bitrarily appointed and deposed the high priesta (ib.).

Pontius Pilate (26-36). As Josephus expressly states (ift. 4.
§2), he was deposed before the flrst appearance of Vitellius In Je-
rusalem, namely, in the spring of 36 (comp. it). 4, S3 with 5. t 3i.

Marcellus (36-37). A friend of Vitellius (ib. 4. { 2), who ap-
pointed him after sending Pilate to Rome to render account.
It may be assumed, however, that Marcellus was not really a
procurator of Judea, but only a subordinate official of Vitellius.
Indeed, this is the only instance where Josephus. In designating
the office of Marcellus. uses the expression €iriM«AiriK = "over-
seer." No official act of Marcellus Is reported.

MaruUus (37^1).

The procurators of the second series are :

Cusplus Fadus (44 to f. 46). Claudius appoint*^! him ta pre-
vent the Syrian legate Viblus Marsun, who was lll-dlspo»ed
toward the Jews, from mistreating them (" Ant." ilx. 9. I 2).
This goes to show that In time of peace the procuraUir was
independent of the Syrian legate.

Tiberius Alexander (46-18). He was sent by the emperor, in
the belief that a born Jew would be welcome to the Jew*.

Ventldlus Cumanus (4*^52). His ap|>oln«ment Is mentioned
in " Ant." XX. 5. S 2. During hLs admlnLsiratlon popular upri-
sings occurred, and the legate of Syria, fmmldlus gua^l^^tu^
removed him on the urgent peUtlon of the Jews.

Felix (.'i2-60). He was appolnU'd by the emperor at the desire
of the high priest Jonathan (" B. J." II. 12. i (iK which dL-«tlnctlv
proves that the central government In Rome was conrlllalory
toward the Jews, and that the procurators were n-sponslble for
"the prevailing nnlmosltlt>s. Felix was called upon to Ml In
Judgment on the apostle Paul.

Porclus Festus (60-62). A falriy Just man (" Anl. xx ". t ■•:
" B. J." II. 14. R 1). who could noU however, remedy •
of his predecessors. He was prominent In the pr*
against Paul. Festus died while In office. CnlU the amval of

Procurators
Professions

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

208

the new procurator, the high priest Ananus, son of Annas, exer-
cised a certain power.

Albinus (62-(U). Notorious through his extortions.

Gesslus Flonis (fr4-ti6). A contemptible ruler, under whom a
revolt of the Jews tooli place. In consequence of the war, the
procurator's oflBce could be Qlled either not at all or only de jure,
as by Vespasian. The important distinction now arose that the
governor held the rank of senator, and was selected, for a time,
from among the pretors, and afterward (probably from Hadrian's
time) from the consular ranks. He had under him a procurator ;
such, e.g., was L. Laberius Maximus, under Bassus. After the
Bar Kokl)a war there remained in Judea, besides the Tenth legion
i" Freiensis"), the Sixth legion ("Ferrata"), and of course,
as previously, several auxiliary troops. Only " lepati Augusti
pro praetore " were qualified to be commanders of this army.
The dependence on Syria now ceased in the natural course of
events.

(Owing to the lack of sources the succession of the govern-
ors at this period can not be stated with precision. In Schiirer's
list, for example, the above-mentioned ^ntonius Julianus is not
included, while Cerialis, who certainly t<K>k part in the cam-
paign against the Jews, is nowhere referred to as procurator.)

L. Laberius Maximus (c. 71). Lucilius Bassus, who is men-
tioned together with him in Josephus ("B. J." vii. 6, § 6), was
one of the generals of Titus, and conqueror of the fortresses
Herodium and Machterus, but not then governor. About a year
later, however, he became governor. He died during his term
of office Uh. vii. 8. § 1).

Flavins Silva. Successor to Bassus iib.).

M. Salvidenus (c. 80). His date is proved by a Palestinian
coin of Titus (Madden, " Coins of the Jews," p. 218).

Cn. Pompeius Longinus. Mentioned in a military brevet issued
by Domltian, dated 86 ("C. I. L." iii. 857, "Diploma," xiv.;
comp. Darmesteter in " R. E. J." i. 37-41).

Atticus (107). Referred to as inraTucd^ = " consularis," in
two fragments of the church historian Hegesippus, contained
in Euseblus, " Hist. Eccl." iii. 32, §§ 3, 6 (comp. Preuschen,
'■ Antilegomena," pp. 76, 77, Giessen, 1901 ; Euseblus, " Chroni-
cles," ed. Schone, ii. 162).

Q. Pompeius Falco (c. 107-110). Known through the letters
of Pliny the Younger. One inscription (" C. I. L." x.. No. 6321)
calls him legate of the province (Judea), and of the Tenth legion
("Fretensis''), while another ("Journal of Hellenic Studies,"
1890, p. 253) designates him even more distinctly "leg . . . pro-
vincise Judaeee consularis" ; that is, vnanxo^, as in the case of
Atticus. The title urraTi«6s is, however, frequently used in rab-
binical writings also (.see Krauss," Lehnworter," s.v.).

Tlberianus. The Byzantine chronicler Johannes Malalas (ed.
Dindorf, p. 273) speaks of him as governor of the flrst province
of Palestine (r)ytii.iov toO npuirov yia^aiaTivuiv cS^ou?), in Con-
nection with the sojourn of Hadrian in Antioch (114). A simi-
lar notice may be found in Johannes Antiochenus (in Miiller,
" Ftagmenta Historlcorum Greecorum," iv. .580, No. HI) and in
Suidas, s.v. Tpaiavo^. The designation " Palestina prima,"
which came Into use in the middle of the fourth century, gives
a historical character to this notice. These authors use a later
designation for the earlier period.

Lusius Quietus (c. 117). After suppressing the uprising of the
Jews in Mesopotamia, he was appointed governor of Judea
(Eusebius. " Hist. Eccl." iv. 2, § 5). Dio Cassius states that he
administered Palestine subsequently to the consulate (Ixviii. 32,
vTrartiiaai) . Here again there was a legate with a consular rank.
Aside from references to the " Warof Quietus," he is mentioned
In rabbinical sources under the name of " Hegeraon Kyntos"
(see Krauss in " R. E. J." xxx. 40, xxxii. 46; Jastrow, " Diet."
p. 13a; Schurer, "Gesch." 3d ed., i. 649; Schlatter, in his "Zur
Topographic und Geschichte Palastinas," p. 402). No governor
of thLs name, nor indeed of a similar name, is mentioned in
other sources.

TInelus Rufus. Many sources, including rabbinical ones,
have made him familiar as governor during the Bar Kokba up-
rising.

Julius Severus. Celebrated general, who suppressed the Bar
Kokba uprising (135). He is designated in an inscription ("C.
I. L." Hi., No. 28.30) as " legatus pro pnetore provindaj Judaeae."

Cl[audius] Paler[nus], Clement[ianus]. According to an in-
scription (i7>. lil.. No. 5776), "proc[urator] Aug[usti] provln-
cla[e] Jud[aeaB] v[ices] aCgens] iregati] " ; that is, a procurator
replacing the legate who either was recalled or had died. The
date of Claudius' term of office is not known, so that he can not be
properly placed In the order of succession. It appears, however,
from the terms of the Inscription that the office of procurator
could altt^rnate with that of legate.

(After the Bar Kokba war the Jews ceased to be a political
power, and the sources yield scarcely any information whatever.

The Jews revolted also under Antoninus Pius, who subdued
them through his governors L"pra?sides "] and legate's [Capito-
linus, "Antoninus Pius," § 5], namely, the legates of Syria.
Beginning with the reign of Marcus Aurelius, Judea was again
closely attached to Syria. In this period may perhaps be placed
M. Cornelius " M. 111. Gal. Nigriuus" ["C. I. L." No. 378!}]).

Attidius Cornelianus. According to a Gerasa inscription
("C. I. G." .No. 4661 ; comp. Add. iii. 1183), and one of Damas-
cus iih. iii. 129), he was a legate of Syria (160-162). A son of
his, or perhaps he himself, was a member of a Syrian priestly
caste (see " Prosopographia Imperii Romani," 1. 178, Nos. 1116,
1117; "C. I. L." Supplement. No. 14.387d).

Avidius Cassius. A Syrian by birth, he was, according to the
testimony of several inscriptions, legate of Syria from about 164
to about 171 (Volcatius (Jallicanus, "Vita Avidil," §8 5, 6). In
175 he caused himself to be proclaimed emperor by the army
under his command, and was recognized as such, especially in
Egypt (Wilcken, "Oslnika,"' No. 939). He was attacked by
Marcus Aurelius, and, after a reign of three years, was killed
in Syria (Dio Cassius, Ixxi. 27; "Prosopographia Imperii Ro-
mani," i. 1S6, No. 1165). It is unlikely that Jews took part in
his revolt (Gratz, "(iesch." iv.^ 207).

Martins Verus. (Dio Cassius, Ixxi. 29.)

Flavins Boethus (after 171). Governor of Syria under Marcus
Aurelius ; died in office.

C. Erucius Clarus. Successor of the preceding. (Inscription
in Waddington, " Inscriptions Grecques et Latines de la Syrie,"
No. 1842^ Paris, 1870.)

Ulpius Arabianus (c. 196). Governor under Severus ("C.I.
G." No. 41.51).

Bassianus Caracalla. Afterward emperor; he was probably
legate of Syria under his father, Septimius Severus (c 200), and
most likely had to wage war against the Jews ; for, according
to an obscure notice (Spartian, " Vita Severi," 8 16), he won a
battle in Syria, and the Senate granted him a "Jewish triumph."

Timesitheus (Misitheus). " Proconsul prov.Syriae Palestina?."
He is perhaps identical with the " praefectus praeiorio " of the
same name under Gordian (Marquardt, "Romische Staatsver-
waltung," i. 261, No. 3; perhaps also in Jewish sources; see
Krauss in" J. Q. R."xiv. 366; "Rhein. Museum," 1903, p. 627).

D. Velius Fidus. " Legatus pro praetore Syriae," according to
an inscription ("C. I. L." No. 14,387c; comp. ib., supplemen-
tary vol. iii., Berlin, 1902). His time and character are en-
tirely unknown. A certain D. Velius Fidus was in 155 a ponti-
fex (" Prosopographia Imperii Romani," iii. 392, No. 225). Ifthe
legate was his grandson, then he may be placed after 200.

M.Junius Maximus. Legate of the Tenth legion ("Freten-
sis"), according to a fragmentary inscription found on the road
near Jericho (see Germcr-Durand in " Revue Bibllque," 189.5, p.
69 : " C. I. L." No. 13,597, in supplementary vol. iii. 2222). The
reading is uncertain ; and his position and term of office are not
known.

Achipus. Governor under Gallienus (Eusebius, I.e. vii. 15).

Flavianus (c. 303). Referred to in Eusebius (" De Martyribus
Pala?stinae Proeraium," p. 260, in the reign of Valens).

Urbanus (304). Governor under Diocletian (ib. 8 3).

Firmilianus (c. 308). {Ib. 88 8, 9, 11.)

Calpumius Atilianus. " Legatus provinc. Syriae Palaestinae,"
according to a military brevet in "C. I. L." ill.. No. clx.; see
supplement. His character and term of office are doubtful.
The Calpurnius Atilianus who was consul in 135 was hardly
identical with him (" Prosopographia," etc., i. 275, No. 198).

Ursicinus (351-354). Legate of Gallus ; he is frequently men-
tioned in rabbinical sources.

Alypius of Antioch (363). He was appointed by Emperor Ju-
lian as overseer of the buildings in Jerusalem, th« governors
of Syria and Palestine being instructed to support him (Ammi-
anus Marcellinus, xxxiil. 1 ; comp. Griitz, " Gesch." 3d ed., iv.
Mi).

Hesychlus. A consul ; he was on unfriendly terms with the pa-
triarch Gamaliel V., whose documents he stole. On this account
lie was sentenced to death by Emperor TuEODOSirs the Great
(Jerome, " Epistola ad Pammachium " ; comp. Gratz, I.e. iv.
356, 4.50 ; " R. E. J." xlvl. 230).

According to the "Notitia Dignitatum," an offi-
cial register which was drawn up c. 400 (ed. Bocck-
ing, Bonn, 1839-53), Palestine was, so far as mili-
tary matters were concerned, under a "dux." At
this time, however, the country was so dismembered
that one part was under the "dux Syria>," another
under the "dux Phoenices," and another under the
"dux Arabia?," whose names, however, are not

209

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Procuratora
ProfeasioQa

known (see Krauss in Berliner's "Magazin," xix.
227, XX. 105). In 513 there were Byzantine iniixriul
troopsin Jenisaleni uncier the"dux Oiynipius" (Clin-
ton, "Fasti Komaui," ii. 557b). Tlie adniinistrative
conditions of this period form an object of contio-
versy among scholars. The synoi)sis given above
follows the chronology of IVIonimsen, who jilaces
the division of Syria, Plienicia, and Palestine at
about 395-399 (Marcjuardt, I.e. l.st cd., i. 2(58).
According to Marquardt, Hadrian liad already
contemplated the division of Syria; and it was
<"irried out by Seiitimius Severus before 198 (//>.
265). In 535, as appears from the contemporaneous
work of Hierocles, there are mentioned: "Paloes-
tina Prima," under a consul ; "Pala'stina Secunda,"
under a"prieses," and "Pala?stina Salutaris" (.Je-
rome, "QuiestionesinGenesiD,"xxi. 30; seeNoldeke
in "Hermes," 1876, x. 164). With so many '"pra-
sides" it is no wonder that this new term found
entrance into rabbinical writings also (Krauss,
"Lehnworter," ii. 483) ; but even more fretpieutly
is the term "dux" mentioned. With the conquest
of Palestine by the Arabs that country enters upon
a new era.

Biruography: Gerlach. Bie R6ml'<chcn Statthalter in Si/ri-
cii ^iiid Judcea, in Zeitschi-ift fllr LuHierUfche Theolofiie,
1869; Kellner, in Zcitschrift fUr Katholi.'^che Tlicoloyic,
1888; Gratz. in Monat>ischrift, 1877, p. 401 (comp. hisGcich.
4th ed., iii. 7'M); Rohden, De Palavtina et Arabia Provin-
tiis Rnmauis, Berlin, 1885; Marquardt, Riimische Staats-
verwaltiDip, 1st ed. (from which the quotations have been
taken), pp. 361-266: 3d ed., pp. 411, 419c(.sc(/.; Schurer, Gesc/f.
3d and 4th ed., i. 454-507. 564-5a5, 642-649, and the extensive
literature there given: Edersheim, Tlie Life and TimcK of
Jcsiis the Messiah, 1. 183, London, 1884 ; BorKhesl, CEurres.
iv. 160.

D. S. Kr.

PRODUCTION OF DOCUMENTS. See Evi-

DKNCE.

PROFANATION AND PROFANITY. See

Cursing; Desecration.

PROFESSIONS (Statistics): Until quite re-
cent times the Jews were debarred from all profes-
sional occupations except that of medicine. Till
entrance to the imiversity was fully granted them,
only a comparatively small number of Jews could
enter the professions, which were mainly recruited
from the universities. But since academic careers
have been opened to them, Jews have crowded into
the professions to so great an extent that the anti-
Semites have vociferously protested that the Jews
were monopolizing them. The proportion of Jews
in the professions is often larger than that of the
general population, but it must be remembered that
professional careers are chiefly adopted by town-
dwellers. Jews being almost invariably of this
class, their proportion in the professions should be
compared only with that of dwellers in cities.

Of the professions generally there are few statis-
tical details. In Prussia, in 1861, 3.55 per cent of
adult Jews were professional men, as against 2.15
among the rest of the population; in Italy, in the
same year, the proportions were 8.7 among Jews as
against 3.7 among non-Jews. W^hat modifications
these figures would receive if the fact that Jews
mostly live in towns was taken into consideration it
is difllcult to say. In Berlin, in 1895, there were 2,763
Jews engaged in professional occupations out of a
total number of 72,848— that is, 3.8 per cent ("Sta-
X.— 14

tistik des Deutschen Beichs "). In 1861 8,7 i)er
cent of Berlin Jews followed tlie professions as
against 8.1 in the general population, while for
Vienna, in 1871, the proportions were 5 08 and 5.32
respectively; this seems to imply that in the sev-
enties the Jews in Vienna did not apply themselves to
the learned professions more than their neighbors.
During the winter semester of 1899-1900 the Jewish
students at the Prussian universities numbered 8.11
of the whole— 8.07 in the law faculties, 14.6 in the
medical, and 7.16 in the jthilo.sojiliicul. These pro-
portions show a slight decrease from tliose of 189],

when the Jewish medical students numbered as muiiy
as 8.98 percent of the whole number. Similarly, ai
the Hungarian universities the proportions of Jewisk
students in the different faculties were as follows:

Faculty.

1886-90.

1890-1900.

.Jurisprudence

Philosophy

17.08
10.89
52.55
7.42
26.04
37.89

22 '.'l
12.W
45.43
17.95
24.11

Medicine

I'harmacy

'I'otul .students

Technical high schools

In 1869 there were 33 Jewish advocates in Vienna,
and the proportion of Jewish lawyers was 0.59 as
against 0.33 among Gentiles. At the Austrian uni-
versities 11 per cent of the law students in 1»70
were Jews, but in 1878 the proportion had ri.sen
to 16 per cent. In 1882 Jacobs calculated that
there were 27 barristers and 47 solic-
Law and itors among the Jews of London —
Medicine, about the natural proportion.

In Berlin, in 1871, the proportion of
Jews in the medical profession (2.9) was about four
times as great as among the rest of the population
(0.8). It is stated that half of the 22 professors
at the medical faculty were at that time Jews(" Der
Talmud," p. 47); and in Vienna, in 1869, the pro-
portion was 1.31 as against 0.73. About the same
time Servi calculated that in Italy there was one
physician among every 385 Jews, as against 1 in
1,150 among Italians in general ("Gli Israeliti." p.
300). In 1880 there were said to be in Vienna 374 Jew-
ish physicians out of a total number of 1,097 (" Der
Talmud," p. 29). In 1869 Jeiteles enumerated 287.
The specialists were almost entirely Jews — 38 out
of 40 in Vienna in 1880 being of that race. While
in 1851 Jews constituted 16.1 per cent of tlie medical
students in the Austrian universities, in 1880 their
number had risen to 28 per cent; and in. 1877 of
3,207 physicians in Hungary 1,031 were Jews.

The following table is given by Jacobs ("Jewish
Statistics," p. 44) as to the proportion of clergy in
each denomination for various countries and years,
cantors not being included :

Country.

Year.

lNt9

is6!t
1871
1S«)
1883

Number of Laymen to
Each Clergyman Among

Jews.

Catho-
lics.

rrotes-
iant4.

Austria

2,150

1..578

1.420

900

1.884

1.14.3

L4ai

812

287

1.330

1.734

Hungary

(ieniianv

Italy

England

1,600
908

Profiat
Pronunciation

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

210

In Vienna, in 1869, 124 Jews followed literature
as a profession, forming 0.45 percent of the adult
workers in that tield as against 0.13 following liter-
ature in the general population. These
Press figures in reality refer to the number
and Art. engaged in the press, for of these 124
no less than 119 were editors or jour-
nalists (see Jeiteles, " Die Cultusgemeinde der Isme-
litenin Wien," p. 74).

At the same date the percentage of the Jews of
Vienna who gained their living through art was
slightly less than the percentage of the general pop-
ulation engaged in the same field, being 0.64 against
0.73. Their numbers were as follows:

Jews.

Jew-
esses.

Jews.

Jew-
esses.

Musicians

Singers

Dancers

31
U

15
4

Actors

Painters

30
13

34
6

See also AuMY; Occupations; Pictorial Art ;
etc.

Bibliography: Jacobs, Studies in Jewish Statistics, pp.
41-4S ; G. Ruppln, Die Juden der Oegenwarty pp. 3W-212.

PROFIAT : Name used by Jews in Provence
and northern Spain. In Hebrew it is written in
various forms: t3"D1"l2. n"D1"lQ; tSCnS, t31Q''"lD,
nenS, ItiienS; or J^DI-iD, J^NSIIE, with the
substitution of g for t, not uncommon in Romance
languages ("Shebet Yehudah," ed. Wiener, p. 112);
in Provencal, " Prophegue " or " Profag " (" Monats-
schrift," xxxi. 499). In Latin documents it takes
the form "Profatius" {e.g., Jacob ben Makir, men-
tioned by Copernicus in"R. E. J." xiii. 108; "Pro-
facius Etiam Judaus," in "Monatsschrift," xliii.
254); in French, "Profait" ("Isaquetus Profait Ju-
dseus," 1409; see "Monatsschrift," xxxi. 499). In
modem times the name has been transcribed as Peri-
poth, Peripetus, Periphot, Prifoth, Pievot, Parfait,
Pourpeth, Peripedes, and Prophiat. The form
IJ^'DTD in Benjamin of Tudcla's travels, and which
Gratz ("'Gesch." vi. 399) explained as "from Perpi-
gnan," is a mistake for j^'QIID. According to Buxtorf,
Saenger, and iS'eubauer, "Profiat" is derived from
the Latin "Profeta," and is a translation of the He-
brew "nabi," an epithet occasionally used in connec-
tion with learned rabbis. The word "nabi," how-
ever, never occurs as a proper name in Hebrew docu-
ments, and the explanation is, therefore, doubtful.

Isaac Bloch and Gross hold that the proper pro-
nunciation of the name is"profet." The name is
the same as Barfat, both originating in the Pro-
venc^al "Perfetto."

In combination with "En" (=" Sen " = " Senior ")
the name occurs as n"D1"lDJX, etc.

Bibliography : Saenger, Ueher die Aussprache uiid Bedeu-
tu)m des Nnmens r^Diifi. in Mnnatsscnrift, Iv. 197 et xetj.;
Gros-s. In Monatsschrift . xxix. 407, xxxi. 499 ; Bloch, In li.
E. J. X. 2.>5: Gros.s. Onllin Jiulaica, p. 371 ; Stelnschneider,
Cat. lindl. No. 6783; idem, Hehr. Ueher». p. 221. note flS;
Renan - Neubauer. Let* Rabbins Frangais, p. 600 ; Idem,
Erriiain-t Juifx, p. 741.

G.
PROGNOSTICATION. See Omen.

PROMETHEUS. See Adam ; Fire.

PROMISSORY NOTES. See Exchange,

BlI.lS t-iF.

PRONUNCIATION, MODERN, OF HE-
BREW : Like Syriac, and probably under its iufiu-
tuce, Hebrew has been handed down with a twofold
pronunciation, the Ashkenazic and the Sepliardic.
The former is usually traced to Babylonia, the latter
to Palestine. There are at present no sufiicient data
for a decision as to the tenability of this theory. On
the one hand it is known that the Sephardim (i.e.,
the Spanish-Portuguese Jews) came to Europe from
Palestine, while the Ashkenazim (z.e., the German-
Slavonic Jews) came, at least in part, through south-
ern Russia from Babylonia and Mesopotamia. It is
known also that the vowel " kamez " was pronounced
in Palestine from the time of the Septuagint down
to Jerome as the a in the English word " father."

This would tend to support the theory of a Pales-
tinian origin for the Sepliardic pronunciation. But
against it are the following considerations: The
analogy of the Syriac would indicate that the "ka-
mez" was pronounced a in B.'iby Ionia and o in Pales-
tine. There is no proof that the Babylonians in early
times pronounced the "kamez " likew.
Pronunci- The o sound of that vowel was known
ation even to Philo of Alexandria (Siegfried,
of Kamez. in "Merx's Archiv," vol. i.), and, ac-
cording to Abraham ibn Ezra ("Za-
hot," p. 3b), was the prevalent one in Tiberias and
North Africa in later times. Two of the systems of
vocalization which have been handed down had, ac-
cording tb tradition, their origin in Palestine, and
agree with the traditional Babylonian system of
vocalization in representing "kamez" as o. The
first Russian Jews might have adopted the pro-
nunciation of their German brethren, just as they
have adopted their language. The nasal sound of
the letter y. common among the Sephardim, might
be traced to Babj^lonia, but is not known to have
existed in Palestine. As has been stated above, the
modern pronunciation is usually separated into
that of the Ashkenazim and that of the Sephardim,
including among the latter the Oriental Jews. But
a better knowledge of the Orient shows the advisa-
bility of classifying the Oriental Jews as a distinct
group.

The data utilized in the following exposition have
in part been gathered from the reports of travelers;
in most cases, however, they are based on personal
observation and oral communications. Under such
circumstances neither completeness nor scientific
accuracy can be vouched for. To the Ashkenazim
belong the mass of the Jews inhabiting
Ashkenaz- Europe and America — in Europe those
ic Pro- of Russia, Rumania, Austria-Hun-
nunciation. gary, Germany, Denmark, Sweden,
France, and England. In European
Turkey and the Balkan states, in Italy and Holland,
the Sephardim form, perhaps, the bulk of the Jew-
ish population.

The Jewish population of France, England, Swe-
den, Denmark, and the United States consists of
more recent immigrants, German and Russian; that
of Rumania is largely of Russian origin. These
communities have therefore no pronunciation of
their own, and consequently are not considered here.

211

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Protiat
Pronunciation

For the same reason the Jews in the German terri-
tory of Austria, and in Hungary, are left out of con-
sideration. The chief countries having characteris-
tic pronunciation are Russia, Germany, and Slavonic
Austria.
Throughout the Ashkenazic group the following

sounds are identical: 3 (b); a, j (g); "i, "1 (</) : n (/*);
T (2) ; n (German ch in " ach ") ; ^ (y); 3 {k) ; f) (/) ; D

(TO) ; J (n) ; D (•>••) ; B (7^) ; Q (/) ; ^f (tx) ; p (k) ■ f\ {s).
The letters N and y are not pronounced except when
standing between two vowels, in which case they
form a hiatus. The quantity of the vowels is not
observed ; a, i, and 'i have the Italian sounds of a
and i. Post-vocalic K and y, when in the tone-
syllable, are frequently pronounced like > (comp.
Levias, "Aramaic Grammar," p. 9, note 6). Ail
words, except >jnN and D\"I^X (" Lord " and " God "),
are accented on the penult. All post-tonic vowels
are reduced to the indefinite sound e. The vocal
"shewa," at the beginning as well as in the middle
of a word, is usually disregarded. The " hatefs " are
frequently treated as full vowels. All such charac-
teristics are common in private reading of Hebrew
and in pronouncing the Hebrew vocables wliich have
entered the vernacular. In the public reading of the
Bible in the synagogues, however, every vowel is
given a distinct sound, and the Masoretic accent is
observed ; all this with a degree of correctness de-
pendent upon the knowledge of the individual reader.
Notice the pronunciation of D''"1^Tn, D^ri'?t3, D'^ri'jypl.

The Jews of the Russian empire may be broadly

divided into two groups — those of Lithuania and

those of the former kingdom of Po-

Russia. land. The difference in the pronun-
ciation of the two groups is mostly in
the vowel-sounds. Both pronounce 3 and 1 like v;
t3 and F\ like t; 5 like n; but the Lithuanians, espe-
cially those of the old province of Samogitia, fre-
quently interchange K> and t^, pronouncing the
former s and the latter sh, a pronunciation attested
also for Italy by the grammarian S. Hanau (" Yesod
ha-Nikkud," p. 2a) and occurring sporadically in
Poland and elsewhere. It is to this pronunciation
that some attribute the origin of the name of the
sect of the Hasidim, D''T'Dn being the Polish pro-
nunciation of DniKTI (■' suspected of heresy " ;
comp. "Ha-Boker Or," v. 165). The pronuncia-
tion of "1 in the South is more rolled than in the
North ; the sound of the French r (" grasseye ") is
heard in Volhynia. In the same province one fre-
quently hears the misplacement of the n, which is
omitted where it should be pronounced and pro-
nounced where it has no place.

In Lithuania the vowels are pronounced as fol-
lows: "kamez " = 6, the sound heard in the English
word "nor"; "zere" = e, the sound heard in the
English " they " ; " segol " = e, as in the English
"bed"; "holem"=e, at times = the e sound in
"err"; "shurek" and "kibbuz " =oo in "good,"
"fool." No distinction is made among the Ashke-
nazim as to the quantity of vowels. Vocal " shewa "
in monosyllabic words ending in a vowel is usually
pronounced like "zere." "Hatef " sounds are fre-
quently pronounced like full vowels; and "shewa"

and " hatef," when so pronounced, usually have also
the accent.

In Poland, Volhynia, and Podolia the "l^unie?."
when in an open syllable, has the Bound of mt in
" good " or " fool," when in a closeil ny liable that of o
in "dog " ; " ?ere " = ei in " height " ; " negol " - ry in
" they " in an open sy liable, at tinicfl = " ^ere" ; in a
closed syllable it is <; as in "bed." "yolen»"=t»t
in "noise"; "shared " and "kibbu?" = t in "pin."
The intlux of Jewish inimigrants from Spain and
Portugal in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
has left its imprint on the Jews of Russia in the
pronunciation of individual words, where " Ijiame^ "
is pronounced n, "/.ere," i\ and "l^olem,"« (cornp.
Lebensohn, " Yitron la-Adam," pp. 24, 25). In Po-
land, Volliynia, Pfxlolia, ami Galicia the nawil sound
of y is heard in the name •y^'^'' (" Yaiikeb") and, in
public reading, a similar sound is

Austria heard in the relative particle IB'K-
and The same nasjil sound of y is heard

Germany, here and there in England and Hol-
land also. The pronunciation in Gali-
cia or Austrian Poland is identical with that in Rus-
sian Poland.

In Moravia, "kamez" = the b in "note" when in
an open syllable ; o as in " dog " when in a closed syl-
lable ; " holem " = oi in " noise " ; " zere," and " segol "
in an open syllable = e in "they"; "shurek" and
" kibbuz " = German u or French «. The " kame? "
is pronounced b in an open syllable, b in a closed
syllable, throughout Germany. In rare cases it
has also the sound of the German au (—on in
"out") (comp. " R. E. J." xvi. 148. 278). "Zere"
in Silesia = the German a* (= i in "isle") as in Po-
land ; in the rest of Germany e as in " they " ; in
Bavaria "zere" = e. "Segol" = e, in an open syl-
lable. "Holem," in Prussia, Baden, and Saxony =
b ; in Hanover, Westphalia, Silesia, Hamburg, and
Bavaria = au. " Shurek " and " kibbuz " everywhere
= u (as in " full ").

In Bavaria, Hanover, and Westphalia a and 3.
and T\ and "n, are interchangeable. In .some cases
the sound of 5 is that of ch in the German " ich. " 5
and 1 at the end of a syllable have in the German
southern states the sound of/. In the city of Fried-
richstadt and in Upper Silesia n is pronounced A.
In Hamburg D is sometimes pronounced like V-

The Sephardim form larger commvuiities in Tur-
key proper and its former dependencies, and in Italy
and Holland. In Spain and Portugal.
Sephardim their former homes, there are at pres-
and ent only a few, these being recent im-

Orientals. migrants from various countries.

The pronunciation of the consonants
in Italy differs from the Ashkenazic in the follow-
ing : n is silent ; y is a guttural nasid ; V is » ; n is d

(Spanish). In Turkey, n is ^ ; V is «; h is ^ Other
letters are pronounced as among the Ashkenazim.
The vowels are pronounced in both countries as they
are given in the ordinary grammars: "kamez" and
"patah" =a, "holem" and "kame? ha<uf''=o.
"zere" = 6', " segol " = <' or <', "shurek" «>«' "1^'b-
bu? " = u. Under the division of Orientals belong
the Jews in Syria, Morocco. Yemen. Cochin, and
China, and the Samaritans. The pronunciation in

Pronunciation
Prophets and Prophecy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

212

Syria shows the following differences: 3, j are both
pronounced like^' in " jel," or g in "strange"; ^ is
the English if ; n is /< ; t3 is f ; 3 is the English ch in
" check, '■ " rich " ; y has the sound of the Arabic letter
" *ain ■' ; V = the English s in " hiss " ; pis pronounced
like y: ri as th in "thin." All the vowels are pro-
nounced as in Italy. In Morocco the letters n. J. T.

V n, t3. 5. y. V. p are pronounced as their equiva-
lent Arabic sounds, ', gh, dh, v, h, t, Ih, ', s, k. Ac-
cording to some, V is the English ch in "check,"

"rich " ; T\ = t«. According to other reports, n has
also the sound of ch in "check." The vowels "ho-
leni " and "shurek " = "kibbuz" are almost indis-
tinguishable; so with "zere" and "hirek." "Pa-
tah " and "segol" are frequently interchanged.
The a vowel of the article is omitted. Vocal
"shewa" before the gutturals is sounded like the
following vowel; "shewa" with "ga'ya" = «.

In Yemen, t{, J. n, V H. t3. 5, y, V, p. n have the
sounds of the corresponding Arabic letters, as given

above. i=g,j, as in English "strange," "jet"; 3
is, according to Maltzan ("Reisenach Sud-Arabien,"
i. 177), always b ; according to Satir (" Eben Sappir,"
i. 54) it is r. pis in San 'a pronounced i^, as in "good."
The vowels are pronounced : " kamez " and " pa-
tah," as in Germany; "holem," as in Poland;
"zere," as in Italy; "segol," like the German a, or
the Engliali a in "span"; "shewa" before a gut-
tural has the sound of the following vowel; before
"<, like i; otherwise like a very short a. "Patali"
and "segol" are frequently interchanged. Ac-
cording to Maltzan- (I.e.) "holem " is pronounced e,
as in Lithuania. The Jews in Cochin pronounce i
and T as in Yemen, p is pronounced like n, and n
like K- The Jews in China pronounce " kamez " as
0 ; " zere " as ie (French) ; 3=^^; 1 = t; ') = l.
For ancient pronunciation see Vocalization.

Bibliography: Schwab, Repertoire, Index, s.v. Prnnuncia-
tUm; Ilomanelli, 3/arS.«a lia-'Arah, p. 9; Derenbourg, 3/((-
ituel (lu Lecttur. pp. 196-210; Lel)ensolin, Yitron la-Adam
(printed with Bensew Hebrew gramnuur, pp. 19 c( seq.); M.
GrQnwald. Sitten uud lirUucfie cler Jmien im Orient, pp. 46
et seq.; S. I). Luzzatto, Bet ha-Ozar, lii. 55 et seq.; It. E. J.
xvi. 278, xxviii. 1.58 et seq.; LOwentbal, Allg. Zeit. des Jud.
1895, No. 51, pp. 609-611 ; Reichersohn, HHkot ha-Xilskiul, p.
lot}; Lettrot EdiHantcs et Curiewcs Ecritesdes Mi^nons
Ei r anger ci< par Quelques Mvixinnaires de la Compagnie de
Jeiux.xxxl.'.i&irt »€(].; A. Ember, Amer. Jour. Semit. Lang.
xix. ZH-'iU; ^fitteilungen der Ge.teU.'^chaft flir JUdi.'<che
Volknkunde, i. 18 ; Schur and Rimmon, Ma.'i^ot Shelomoh ; J.
Rirsenberg, HrlnUUche Converxations-Grammatik, pp. 6, 7.

Retrardinp the claims of priority as t)etween Ashkenazin and
Sephardic pronunciation, comp. Leinaas, Imrah ^erufah ;
DUire Menliarim (anonymou.s); Friedrich.sfeld. Ma'aneh
Rnk; Mcslnh Hemah (anonymous); Somerhausen, Rndef
Mej>liarim.

On the >-sound : I. M. Cohn, Der ^-Lant, Frankfort-on-
the-Main. 1871 ; Rappoport, -^'^y pnjN, pp. iU, 22.5, 231, 2:^6;
Rahmer. JlXd. Lit.-lilall. xxli. 132; Hirschfeld, J. Q. R. Iv.
499: Krauss, in SteinKchneider Juhclxchrift, p. 148, No. 5 ;
Ous.sani. JnlniM Hnijkins Unir. Circu1ar:t. No. 163, p. 84b.

On the pronunciation of Hebrew among the .Samaritans,
coirip. Peterriiann, Vei:-<ucli eini:r HittrdiKrUen Formenhhrc,
published in the Altliaiiilltunjt'ii fllrdie Kundedc^ Morgen-
landc.'i, vol. v.
T. C. L.

PROOF. Sec Evidence.

PROPAGANDA LITERATURE. See Po-

I.KMKS AM) I'oLIiMlCAl. LiTKlCATLUi:.

PROPERTY. See Chattels; Real Estate.

PROPHET, FALSE: Deuteronomy is the only
book containing laws concerning the false prophet

(.\iii. 2-6 [A. V. 1-5], xviii. 20-22). He is designated
there as "prophet, or a dreamer of dreams," and
it is in accordance with the former designation that
the Talmudic jurisprudence provides that the sub-
ject of the charge of false prophecj' must be one
who is a consecrated prophet of God. The com-
moner (" hedyot ") who presumes to tempt people to
idolatiy is either a " mesit " or a " maddiah," accord-
ing as his followers are individuals or communities
(Sanh. vii. 10; 67a; see Abucction). And in the
same Scriptural dicta the Talmud discovers provi-
sions against the following clas.ses of false prophets:
(a) one wlio presumes to speak in God's name what
He has not commanded (.xviii. 20): such a one was
Zedekiali (the son of Chenaanah), who predicted in
the name of God that Ahab Avould vancjuish the
Syrians at Ramoth-gilead (I Kings xxii. 11); (i) one
who pretends to have been charged
Classes of with a message which, in realit}-, God
False has entrusted to another (as an exam-
Prophets, pie of this class Hananiah, the son of
Azur the prophet, is cited: see Cap-
tivity); (r) one who speaks in the name of other
gods (Deut. xiii. 3 [A. V. 2], xviii. 20), whether
ordering the observance of strictly Mosaic precepts on
pretense of a revelation to that effect from a strange
deity, or declaring that God ordains the worship
of a strange deity, or that a strange deity ordains
its own worship of itself (Sanh. xi. [x.] 5, 6; 89a).

The criteria by which a prophet is distinguished
as false are, in the view of rabbinical jurisprudence,
parti}' expressed and partly implied in the Deirte-
ronomic dicta: (1) One who lias "spoken to turn you
away fi-om the Lord " (xiii. 6 [A. V. 5]). This may
be designated as the religio-moral test, and implies
that when the prophet wilfully ceases to enforce
the doctrines embodied in the law of God he ceases
to be a prophet of God. God 's law is perpetual and
immutable. Moses was its promulgator, and there
can never be another Moses with a different law
(Deut. R. viii. 6; comp. Shab. 104a). Hence, whoso
professes to have received revelations changing the
Law is a fal.se prophet. Moreover, the passjige im-
plies that the prophet who refrains from correcting
the sinner or from arousing the indifferent is a false
prophet. Thus Jeremiah argues (xxiii. 22): "If
they had stood in my counsel, then
Criteria, they would have caused my people to
hear my words, and to turn from their
evil way, and from the evil of their doings " (comp.
xxiii. 17).

(2) When the tilings predicted " follow not, nor
come to pass" (Deut. xviii. 22). This test is ap-
plicable only when the alleged revelation has refer-
ence to tiie near future, as in the case of Zedekiali,
who in God's name prophesied success to Aiiab's
arms, and in that of Micaiali, wlio predicted disaster
from the impending war (I Kings xxii. 11 et seq.).
Where his prediction concerns a distant period the
skeptic will say (Ezek. xii. 27): "Tiie vision that he
seeth is for many days to come, and he proi)iiesieth
of the times that are far off." But even wiiere the
prophecy concerns the immediate future this test is
not always applicable. It is conclusive only when
a prediction of prosperity fails, because then it is
seen that the alleged revelation did not emanate

213

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pronunciation
Prophets and Prophecy

from the All-Merciful (comp. Jer. xxviii. 9); but
the failure of a prediction of disaster is not conclu-
sive, the fultilnu-nt of such predictions being always
conditioned by the conduct of the people (Jer. xviii.
7, 8; xxvi. 19; Ezek. xviii. 21, xxxiii. 11; conip.
Yer. Sanh. xi. 30b).

(3) The test of miracles (Deut. xiii. 2 [A. V. IJ;
comp. Yer. I.e. top) is the weakest of all tests, since
the prophet whose teachings are in strict accord
with the law of God needs no corroboration, while
one who suggests the worship of a strange god, even
temporarily, or the permanent suppression of any
precept embodied in that law, is ip.so facto a false
prophet, and the performance of miracles can not
prove him to be a true one (Deut. xiii. 3 [A. V. 2] et
seq.). His suggestion when supported by a miracle
is to be respected only if, in order to accomplish
some salutary purpose, he orders a temporary sus-
pension of a ritualistic law, as was the case with
Elijaii, who, to convince the misguided masses of the
folly of Ba'al-worship, invoked a miracle on the sac-
rifice he offered outside of the central sanctuary (I
Kings xviii. 22-39). This test is of positive value
only at the first appearance of the prophet (Sifre,
Deiit. 175-178; comp. Albo, " 'Ikkarim," i. 18; iii.
19, 20).

When a prophet is, by means of these tests,
proved to have become a renegade, and it is duly
ascertained that his attempt to mislead is the out-
growth of presumption (Deut. xviii. 20, 22), he must
be tried by the Great Sauhedrin (Sanh. i. 5). If he is
found guilty of false prophecy, he is punished with
death by strangulation (Sifre, I.e. ; see Capital Pun-
ishment). Other prophets who are denounced as
false, but who are not subject to human punish-
ment, are those who suppress the divine message,
as did the prophet Jonah (i. 3), or who disobey
a revelation received by themselves (I Kings xiii.
9-24; Sanh. xi. [x.] 5).

Bibliography : Sanh. 89a et seq.; Yer. Sanh. xl. 30b et seq.;
Fassel, Das Mnsaisch-Rabhinische Strafaesctz, 8 23; Has-
tings, Ditt. Bible, Iv. Ilia, ll(>b ; Maimonides, in the introduc-
tion to his commentary on Zera'im; idem, Yad, Yesnde ha-
Torah, vlil.-x.; ib. "Akkiim, v. 6; Maybaum, Kntwichelung
des Israelitvictien Prophetentliums, pp. 12.5 et scq.; Mayer,
Rechte der Israeliten, etc., Iii. 412; Michaelis, Das Mo-
saisclie Revht, §§ 36, 252, 253; Saalschiitz, Das Mosaische
Recht, pp. 131, 521 et seq.; Salvador, Histoire des Institu-
tions de Moiise, ii. 3; Sefer Mizivut Gadol, Prohibitions,
§§ 32-35.
8. R. S. M.

PROPHETS AND PROPHECY.— Biblical
Data and Critical View : Though many ancient
peoples had their prophets, the term has received
its popular acceptation from Israel alone, because,
taken as a class, the Hebrew prophets have been
without parallel in human history in their work and
influence. This brief article will consider, first, the
historical development of prophecy, and, second,
the extant utterances of tlie Prophets.

I, Historical Development of Prophecy : The name
"prophet," from the Greek meaning " forespeaker "
{-pb being used in the original local sense), is an
equivalent of the Hebrew ^-laj, which signifies
properly a delegate or mouthpiece of another (see
Ex. vii. 1), from the general Semitic sense of the
root, "to declare," "announce." Synonymous to a
certain degree was the word "seer" (riN^I, ntin),
which, as I Sam. ix. 9 indicates, was an earlier desig-

nation than "prophet," at least iu popular speech.
The usage of these words gives the liistorleal KUirl-
ing-i)oint for inijuiring ua to the de-
Terms velopment of true propiietism in Is-

Used for rael. Hut there is an earlier stage HtiU
the than that of "seeing," for it may be ub-

Prophetic served tliatwiiile Samuel wascurrently
Function, called "the seer," a prominent part
of his manifold work was divining.
There are several Hebrew terms fordivinationof one
kind or another; but none of these is used as a syn-
onym for " prophesying." Moreover, the words for
"seer" are used (juile rarely, the prolmiile explana-
tion being that the bulk of the canonical writings
proceed from a time when it was considered that
the special function of declaring or announejng
characterized prophecy in Israel hetter than the
elementary offices of divining or seeing. At tiie
same time it must be rememlK-red that "seeing " is
always an es,sential condition of true prophecy;
hence the continued use of the term " vision " to tlie
last days of prophetic history, long after the time
when seeing had ceased to be the most distinctive
function of the prophet.

The historic order of Hebrew prophecy begins
with Moses (c. 1200 B.C.). He was not a mere pro-
totype of the canonical prophets, but a sort of com-
prehensive type in himself, being the typical com-
bination of civil and religious director in one. His
claim to be considered the first and
Moses and greatest of the Prophets is founded

Samuel. upon the fact that he introduced the
worship of Yiiwii among his people,
and gave them the rudiments of law and a new sense
of justice wider and deeper than that of the tribal
system. By him "direction" (Torah) was given lo
Israel; all later true prophets kept Israel in the same
right course along the line of religious and moral
development.

Samuel {c. 1050 b.c.) was the first legitimate suc-
cessor of Moses. He was, it is true, characteristic-
ally a "seer" (I Sam. ix.), but the revelation which
he gave referred to all j)ossible matters, from those
of personal or local interest to the announcement of
the kingdom. Like Moses, he was a political leader
or "judge." That he was also a priest completes
his fully representative character.

But there was a new development of the iiighest
significance in the time of Samuel. There were
bands, or, more properly, gilds of "propliets"
(doubtless in large part promoted by
Prophetic him), and these must be considered as
Gilds. the proto.types of the professional
prophets found all through the later
history. They seem to have been most active at
times of great national or religious peril. Tims,
after the critical age of the Philistine oppression,
they are must prominent in the days of the Plieni-
cian Ba'al-worship, the era of Elijah and Elislia.
They are not merely seers and diviners, but minis-
ters and companions of leading reformers and na-
tional deliverers. That they degenerated in time
into mere professionals was inevitable, because it is
of the very nature of true propiietism to be sponta-
neous and, so to speak, non-institutional : but their
great service in their day is undeniable. The view

Prophets and Prophecy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

214

is probably right ■which traces their origin to the
necessity felt for some orgauizetl cooperation in be-
half of the exclusive worship of Yhwh and the tri-
umph of His cause.

After the establishment of the kingdom under
David no prophet was officially a political leader,
and yet all the existing prophets were active states-
men, first of all interested in securing the weal of the
people of Yhwu. Naturally, they watclied the king
most closely of all. Nathan and Gad to David and
Solomon, and Aliijah of Siiiloh to Jeroboam, were
kingly counselors or mentors, to whom these mon-
archs felt that they had to listen, willingly or un-
willingly.

The next new type of prophec}' was realized in
its first and greatest representative, Elijali, who is
found maintaining not merely a private, but a pub-
lic attitude of opposition to a king displeasing to
Y'hwh, ready even to promote a revo-

Elijah, lution in order to purify morals and

Reformer worship. In Elijah is seen also the
and first example of the preaching proph-

Preacher. et, the prophet par excellence, and it
was not merely because of religious
degeneracy, but mainly because of the genuinely
and potentially ethical character of prophecy, that
a firmer and more rigorous demand for righteous-
ness was made by the Prophets as the changing
times demanded new champions of reform.

But the final and most decisive stage was reached
•when the spoken became also the written word,
when the matter of prophecy took the form of liter-
ature. It was no mere coincidence, but the result
of a necessary process that this step was taken when
Israel first came into relation with the wider polit-
ical world, with the oncoming of the Assyrians upon
Syria and Palestine. Many things then conspired
to encourage literary prophecj' : the example and
stimulus of poetical and historical collections al-
ready made under prophetic inspiration ; the need
of handbooks and statements of prin-

Written ciples for the use of disciples; the de-
Prophecy, sire to influence those beyond the
reach of the preacher's voice ; the ne-
cessity for a lasting record of and witness to the
revelations of the past; and, chief of all, the inner
compulsion to the adequate publication of new and
all-important truths.

Foremo.st among such truths were the facts, now
first practicallj' realized, that God's government
and interests were not merely national, but imiver-
sal, that righteousness was not merely tribal or per-
sonal or racial, but international and world-wide.
Neither before nor since have tlie ideas of God's
immediate rule and tiic urgency of His claims been
so deeply felt by anv body or class of men as in the
centuries which witnessed the struggle waged by
the prophets of Israel for the supremacy of Yiiwn
and the rule of justice and righteousness which
was His will. The truths then uttered are con-
tained in tlie writings of the Later Prophets. They
were not abstractions, but principles of tiie divine
government and of the right, human, national life.
They had their external occasions in the incidents of
history, and were thus strictly of providential ori-
gin; and they were actual revelations, seen as con

Crete realities by the seers and preachers whose
words both attest and commemorate their visions.

II. Utterances of the Prophets: The first of the lit-
erary prophets of the canon Avas Amos. His brief
work, which maj' have been recast at a later date,
is one of the marvels of literature for compre-
hensiveness, variety, compactness, methodical ar-
rangement, force of expression, and compelling elo-
quence. He wrote about 765 n.c, just
Amos. after northern Israel had attained its
greatest power and prosperity under
Jeroboam II., and Israel had at last triumphed over
the Syrians. In the midst of a feast at the central
siiriue of Beth-el, Amos, a shepherd of Tekoah in
Judah, and not a member of any prophetic gild, sud-
denly appeared with words of denunciation and
threatening from Yuwii. He disturbed the national
self-complacency by citing and denouncing the sins
of the people and of their civil and religious rulers,
declaring that precisely l)ecause God had chosen them
to be His own would He punish them for tlicir iniq-
uity. He rebuked their oppression of the poor, their
greed, their dishonesty, as sins against Ynwii Him-
self; assured them that their excessive religiousness
would not save them in the day of their deserved
punishment; that, as far as judgment was concerned,
they stood no better with Him tiian did the Etiiiopians,
or the Arameans, or the Philistines. The most es-
sential thing in his message was that the object of wor-
ship and the worshipers must be alike in character:
Ynwii is a righteous God ; they must be righteous
as being His people. The historical background of
the prophecy of Amos is the dreadful Syrian wars.
His outlook is wider still ; it is a greater world-
power that is to inflict upon Israel the condign
punishment of its sins (v. 27).

Hosea, the next and last prophet of the Northern

Kingdom, came upon the scene about fifteen years

after Amos, and the principal part of his prophecy

(ch. iv.-xiv.) was written about 735

Hosea. B.C. Amos had alluded to the Ass^'r-
ians without naming tliem. Hosea is
face to face with the terrible problem of the fate of
Israel at the hands of Assyria. To him it was be-
yond the possibility of doubt that Israel must be not
only crushed, but annihilated (ch. v. 11, x. 15, etc.).
It was a question of the moral order of Ynwu's
world, not merely a question of the relative political
or military strength of the two nationalities. To the
masses in Israel such a fate was unthinkable, for
Ynwii was Israel's God. To Hosea, as well as to
Amos, any other fate was imthinkable, and tjiat also
because Yiiwii was Israel's God. Everything de-
pended upon the view taken of the character of
Yhwh; and yet Hosea knew that God cared for
His people far more than they in tlieir superstitious
credulity thought He did. Indeed, the love of Yhwh
for Israel is the burden of his discourse. His own
tragic historj'' helped him to understand this rela-
tion. He had espou.sed a wife who became unfaith-
ful to him, and j-et he would not let her go forever;
he sought to bring her back to her duty and her true
home. There was imaged forth the ineradicable
loveof Yhwh for His people; and between the cries
and lamenlations of the almost broken-hearted
prophet can be heard ever and anon strains of hope

215

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prophets and Prophecy

and assurance, and the divine promise of pardon
and reconciliation. Tlius while prophecy in Nortli-
ern Israel came to an end with this new and strange
lyrical tragedy, tlie world lias learned from the
prophet-poet that God's love and care are as sure
and lasting as His justice and righteousness.

The career of the next great prophet, Isaiah, is
connected with the kingdom of Judah. Here the
historical conditions are more complex, and the
prophetic message is therefore more profound and
many-sided. Isaiah deals much with tl*e same
themes as did Amos and Hosea: the sins of luxury,
fashion, and frivolit}' in men and women; land-
grabbing; defiance of Yiiwn (ch. ii., iii., v.). To
his revelation he adds the great announcement and
argument that Yiiwn is supreme, as well as uni-
versal, in His control and providence. Ahaz makes
a dexterous alliance with Assyria, against the pro-
phetic counsel, for the sake of check-
Isaiah, mating Samaria and Damascus. Let
him beware; Yhwh is supreme; He
■will dissolve the hostile combination; but Judah
itself will ultimately fall before those very Ass3'r-
ians (ch. vii.). The Ethiopian overlord of Egypt
sends an embassy to the Asiatic states to incite them
against Assyria. Isaiah gives the answer: God
from His throne watches all nations alike, and in
His good time Assyria shall meet its fate (ch. xviii.).
The great revolt against Assyria has begun. The
Assyrians have come upon the land. Again the
question is taken out of the province of politics into
that of providence. Assyria is God's instrument in
the punishment of His people, and when it has done
its work it shall meet its predestined doom (ch. x.).
So the trumpet-tone of providence and judgment is
heard all through the prophetic message till Jerusa-
lem is saved by the heaven-sent plague among the
host of Sennacherib.

While in the next century written prophecy w^as
not entirely absent, another sort of literarj' activity
— whose highest product is seen in Deuteronomy —
was demanded by the times and occasions. Assyria
had played its role and had vanislied. The Chal-
dean empire had just taken its place. The little
nations, including Israel, become the
Habakkuk prey of the new spoiler. The Avon-
and drous seer Habakkuk {c. 600 n.c.) pon-

Jeremiah. ders over the situation. He recognizes
in the Chaldeans also God's instru-
ment. But the Chaldeans are even greater trans-
gressors than Yhwii's own people. Shall thej^ es-
cape punisliment? Are militarism and aggressive
warfare to be approved and rewarded by the right-
eous God? (ch. i.). Climbing his watch-tower, the
prophet gains a clear vision of the conditions and a
prevision of the issue. The career and fate of Chal-
dea are brought under the same law as the career
and fate of Israel, and this law is working surely
tliough unseen (ch. ii.). Habakkuk thus proclaims
the universalit}' of God's justice as well as of His
power and providence.

In Jeremiah (626-581) prophecy is at its highest
and fullest. His long and perfectly transparent
official life full of vicissitudes, his protracted con-
ferences and pleadings with Yhavii Himself, his
eagerness to learn and do the riglit, his more than

priestly or military devotion to his arduous calliue,
his practical enterprise and courage in spite of
diffidence, make liis word and work a ma
subject for study, inspiration, mid imitation. The
greatest religious genius of his race, lie was also the
confes.sor and martyr of the ancient Covenant, and
he still wields a moral iiilluen<e uniejue and unfail-
ing. What then did his life and word stand for and
proclaim? Among other things, these: (I) the na-
ture and duty of true patriotism : oppose your coun-
try's policy when it is wrong; at the peril of liberty
and life, set loyalty to God and justice above loy-
alty to king and country; (2) the spirituality of God
and of true religion (ix. 23 et grq., xxxi. 31); (3) tlio
perpetuity and continuity of Yiiwn's rule and prov-
idence (xvi. 14, IT); xxiii. 7, 8); (4) the principle of
individual as opposed to tribal or inherited responai-
bility (xxxi. 29, 30).

These are a selection of the leading tniths and
principles announced by the Prophets. It will be
observed: (1) that they are the cardinal truths of
Old Testament revelation; (2). that they were given
in the natural order of development . tiiat is, accord-
ing to the needs and capacities of the learners; (8)
that they were evoked by certain definite, historical
occasions. From the foregoing summary it may
also be learned how the function as well as the scope
of the prophet was diversified and expanded. In
the most rudimentary stage are found traces of the
primitiveartsand practises of soothsay ingand divina-
tion ; and yet in the very beginnings of the [irophetic
Avork in Lsrael there can be discerned the essential
elements of true prophecy, the "seeing" of things
veiled from the common eye and the "declaring"
of the things thus seen. If Israel presents the only
continuous and saving revelation ever vouchsafed
to men, the decisive factor in the unique revelation
is the character of the Kevealer. It was the privi-
lege of the Prophets, the elect of humanity, to under-
stand and know Yhwh (Jer. ix. 24), and it still re-
mains profoundly true that "Adonai Yiiwu doeth
nothing unless He has revealed His secret to His
servants the Prophets" (Amos iii. 7, Ilebr.).

Bini.iOGRAPnY: Besides the standard Introdurtfons and rom-
inentaries to the Old Tostaineiit nnd the prophciic Ittfmture:
Knobel, Prnphetuimus der Hihn'kr. IKJT: Tl. .In. k. IHe
Prop7)e(c« w(irf J/iJC ir<'i.<.s(7(/i()i(/r)i. l,S<«n; IJai; (<t

Altteat. TVVi>s(7Cf?t;i(7, 186n : Oeliler, Dox Virhili' I It-

test. Pri)p)tetic zitr }irUliiif:clnu Mmilik. 1»<J1 ; Kui-nrn.
Proptictx ami Piupluni iu laracl. 18i. : Diihni. ThtiAn^U
dcrProtihrt(n,]»:^; F. E. K<"^nlir. Dir off. ' ' riff

des A. T. 1SH2; W. It. Smith, The Pmuh, ■ -2:

C. G. MonteMore, The JiilUiioii <>/ /yrntf Uli. :..ivs

forl.'*l>2): harmesMer, Lex Prophi'trs d' I :; Mrk-

patrlck. The iKictrinc i>f (he Prophrttt, 1^ i. Lfhr-

huch der AllteM. lieUtiiinixoexih. ISiiiJ: (..ri.iii. h> r Urae-
Utischc Prophet ismiLi. IStM : Mcriinlv. Hixtfni. Pr>,)ihfcu,
and the 3/r)»iumcHt*, 184H-1901 ; Klttel. i'n./rfie iiiul Wei*-
saauna, 18tt9.
E. G. II. J Y. McC.

In Post-Biblical Literature : The first to re-

flect upon the phenomena ot pioplipcy and to sug-
gest that certain states, eitlier mental or moral, are
prerequisite to the reception or exercise of the pro-
phetic gift was Phil«> of Alexandria. As in many
others of his conceptions and constructions, so in
his explanation of prophecy. lie follows the lead of
Plato, accepting his theory concerning mantic en-
thusiasm C^Phffidrus," p. 534. ed. Steplmnus). In
order that the divine light niiglit rise iu man the hu-

Prophets and Prophecy

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

216

man must first set altogether. Under the complete
emigration of the mortal or human spirit and the in-
pouring of the inunortal ur divine

Views of spirit the Prophets become passive
Philo. instruments of a higher power, tlie vol-
untary action of their own faculties
being entirely suspended (Philo, " Quis Rerum Divi-
uarum Ha?res Sit," § 53). The prophet " utters noth-
ing of his own " : lie speaks only what is suggesteil
to him by God, by whom, for the time, he is pos-
sessed. Prophecy includes the power of predicting
the future; still the prophet's main function is to be
the interpreter of God, and to lind out, while in the
state of ecstasy, enthusiasm, or inspired frenzy in
whicii ho falls, things that the reflective faculties
are incompetent to discover (Philo, I.e. §55 52-53;
"De Vita Mosis," ii. 1; "Duo de Monarchia," i. 9;
"De Justitia," t^ 8; " Praniiis et Pa?uis," § 9; Drum-
mond, "Philo Judfcus," ii. 282; Hamburger, " K. B.
T." ii. 1003, s.r. " Keligionsphilosophie '").

Yet this inspiration is held not to be the effect of
a special and arbitrary miracle. Communion be-
tween God and man is permanently possible for man.
Every truly good and wise man has the gift of
prophecy: the wicked alone forfeit the distinction
of being God's interpreters. The Biblical writers
were tilled with this divine enthusiasm, Mo.ses pos-
sessing it in a fuller measure than any others, who
are not so much original channels of inspired reve-
lation as companions and disciples of Moses (Druni-
mond. I.e. i. 14-16).

As might be expected from the method of the
Tannaim and the Amoraim, no systematic exposi-
tion of the nature of prophecy is given by any of
the Talmudic authorities. Still, mixed
Talmudic with the horailetic applications and

Views. interpretations of Biblical texts, there
are a goodly number of observations
concerning the Prophets and prophecy in general.
Of these the following seem to be the more note-
worthy.

The prophetic gift is vouchsafed only to such as
are physicall}' strong, mentally wise and rich (Shab.
92a ; Ned. 38a). In fact, all the Prophets were " rich"
(Xed. 38a). Prophets are distinguished by individ-
ual traits. In their language, for instance, tliey dis-
play the influence of environment. Ezekiel is like
a rural provincial admitted to the roj'al presence,
while Isaiah resembles the cultured inhabitant of
the large city (Hag. 13b). Mo.ses, of course, occu-
pies an exceptional position. He beheld truth as if
it were reflected by a clear mirror; all oliiers, as by
a dull glass (Yeb. 49b). This thought is present in
the observation that all other prophets had to look
into nine mirrors, while Moses glanced at one only
(Lev. R. i.). "With the exception of Moses and
Isaiah none of the Prophets knew the content of
their prophecies (Midr. Shoher Tob to Ps. xc. 1).
The words of all otlicr prophets are virtually
mere repetitions of those of Moses (Ex. R. xlii. ; see
also Baclier, "Ag. Pal. Amor." i. 164, 500); in fact,
but one content was in all prophecies. Yet no two
prophets reproduced tiiat content in the same man-
ner (Sanh. 89a). Unanimity and concordance of
verbal expression betray tlie false propliet (rt.).
The Pro.pliets, however, are worthy of praise be

cause they employ phraseology that is intelligible,
not even shrinking from using anthropomorphic
similes and comparisons drawn from nature (Midr.
Shoher Tob to Ps. i. 1; Pesik. 36a; J. Levy. "Ein
Wort liber die Mekilta von R. Simon," pp. 21-36;
Bacher, I.e. iii. 191, note 4).

All prophecies were included in the revelation at
Sinai (Ex. R. xxviii. : Tan.. Yitro). Still, the "holy
spirit " that descended upon individual prophets was
not the same in degree in each case ; some prophets
received sutticient for one book, others enougli for
two books, anil others only so much as two verses
(Lev. R. XV.; comp. Bacher, I.e. ii. 447, note 1).
Prophecy was sometimes contingent upon the char-
acter of the generation among whom the potential
prophet lived (Sanh. 11a; Ber.57a; Suk. 28a; B. B.
134a). All written prophecies begin with words of
censure, but conclude with phrases of consolation
(Yer. Ber. 8d ; Midr. Shoher Tob to

Mingled Ps. iv. 8; Pesik. 116a; Jeremiah is in

Censure reality no exception to the rule).
and Conso- Only those prophecies were published
lation. that were valid for future days; but
God will at some time jiroimilgate the
many prophecies which, because dealing only with
the affairs of their day, remained unpublished (Cant.
R. iv. 11; Meg. 14a; Eccl. R. i. 9). In connection
with this the statement is made that in Elijah's time
there lived in Israel myriads of prophets and as
many prophetesses (Cant. R. I.e.). The prediction
of peace must come true if made by a true prophet ;
not so that of evil, for God can resolve to witiiliold
punishment (Tan., Wayera, on xxi. 1).

Judah ben Simeon attributes to Isaiah tlie distinc-
tion of having received immediate inspiration, while
other prophets received theirs through their prede-
cessors (Pesik. 125b et seq.; Lev. R. xiii.);and, re-
ferring to such repetitions as "Comfort ye, comfort
ye," he ascribes to iiim a double portion of prophetic
power. A very late midrashic collection (Agadat
Bereshit xiv.) designates Isaiah as the greatest,
and Obadiah as the least, of the Prophets, and im-
putes to both the knowledge of ail spoken lan-
guages. The pro])hetic predictions of future bless-
ings were intended to incite Israel to piety; in
reality, however, only a part of future glory was
shown to the Prophets (Yalk. ii. 368; Eccl. R. i. 8).
AVhere the proi)liet's father is i«entioned by name,
the father also was a i)rf)phet ; where no place of
birth is given, the prophet was a Jerusalemite (Meg.
15a). A chaste bride is i)romised that propiiets
shall be among her sons (ih. 10b). It is reckoned
that forty-eight prophets and seven prophetesses
have arisen in Israel. On the other hand, the state-
ment is made that the number of ]irophets was
double the number of those that left Egj'pt (//;. 14a).
Eight prophets are said to have sprung from Rahab
(ib.). Pifty is the nunilier given of the ])ropliets
among the exiles returning from Babylon (Zeb. ()2a).
Every tribe produced prophets. With the death of
the Former Pro])liets the urim and thummim
ceased in Israel (Suk. 27a; Sotah 48a).

Since the destruction of tiie Temple prophecy has
passed over to the wise, the semidemented (fools),
and the children, but the wise man is superior to
the prophet (B. B. 12a). Eight prophets are men-

217

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prophets and Prophecy

tioned as having filled their oflice after the destruc-
tion of the P'irst Temple, Amos beinc: among
them. In the same jiassage Joel is assigned u jiost-
exilic. date (Pesik. 1281)). The elders arc. like the
hakamim (see B. IJ. 13a), credited with superioril y
over the Projihets (Yer. Ber. 3b; Yer. Sanh. ;301)).

Propliecy was not regarded as confined to Israel.
The "nations of the world" had seven prophets (li.
B. 15b; comp. Ecel. K. iii. 19). Before the build-
ing of the Tabernacle, the nations
"Prophets shared the gift with Israel (Lev. K. i. ;
of the Cant. R. ii. 3). The restriction of
Nations." prophecy to Israel was due to Moses'
player (Ex. x.xxi. IG; Ex. B. xxxii. ;
Ber. 7a). To " the nations " the propliets come only
at niglit (Gen. R. Iii.; Lev. R. i.) and speak only
with a "half" address (Lev. R. ix.); but to Israel
they speak in open daylight. The distinction be-
tween the manner in which God speaks to the
prophets of Israel and those of the " nations " is
explained in a parable about a king who spoke
directly to his friend (Israel), but to strangers only
from behind a curtain (Gen. R. Iii.). Again, to
the " prophets of the nations " God discloses His will
only as one stationed afar off; to those of Israel
as one standing most close (Lev. R. i.). Balaam is
regarded as the most eminent of the non-Jewish
prophets (see Geiger's "Jiid. Zeit." vol. i.).

Under the stress of controversy Saadia was com-
pelled to take lip the problem of prophecy more
systematically than had the Rabbis of the Talmudic
period. As tlie contention had been raised that
prophecy in reality was unnecessary, since if the
message was rational reason unaided could evolve
its content, while if it was irrational it was incom-
prehensible and useless, Saadia argued that the
Torah contained rational and revealed command-
ments. The latter certainly required the interven-
tion of prophecy, otlierwise they could not be known
to men. But the former? For them prophecy was
needed first because most men are slow to employ
their rea.son, and secondly because through prophecy
knowledge is imparted more rapidly ("Emunot we-
De'ot," p. 12, ed. Berlin). The third argument is that
reason can not evolve more than general principles,
leaving man dependent upon prophecy for details.
Men can, for instance, reason out the dut)' of thank-
fulness, but can not know, through mere reason,
how to express their gratitude in a way that would
be acceptable in God's sight. Hence

Views of the Prophets supplied what luiman

Saadia. reason could not supply when they

established the order of prayers and

determined the proper seasons for prayer. The

same applies to questions of property, marriage,

and the like.

But what is the criterion of true projihecy? The
miracles which the prophet works and by which he
attests the truth of his message {ib. iii. 4), though
the degree of probability in the prophet's announce-
ment is also a test of its genuineness, without which
even the miracle loses its Aveight as evidence. The
Prophets, indeed, were men, not angels. But this
fact renders all the more obvious the divine wisdom.
Because ordinary men and not angels are chosen to
be the instruments of God's revelation, what of ex-

traordinary power they exliil)it must of necessity
arouse their auditors and tlic witnesses of the niini-
cles wrought to a realization that (i<n\ is sjicaking
through tliem. For the game reason the ability to
work miracles is temporary ami conditioned, which
again demonstrates that the Prophets do not derive
their power from them.selves, but are subject ton
will other and higher than their own.

To meet the (liHi<idties involved in the assumption
that God speaks and appears, so as to be heard and
seen, Saadia resorts to the theory that a voice spe-
cially created a<l hoc is the medium of inKjiiration,
as a " light creation " is that of appearance (//;. Ii. 8).
This "light creation," in fact, is for the prophet the
evidence of the reality of his vision, containing the
assurance that he has received a divine revelation.
It is thus ap])areut that Saadia denies the coopera-
tion of the mental and moral (pialitications of the
jirophet in the process of prophecy.

Bahya repeats, to a certain extent, the argumenla
of Saadia in proof of the ins\ifViciency of reason and
the necessity of ]iropl)ecy. Hiunan nature is two-
fold, and the material elements might not be held in
due control were prophecy not to come to the res-
cue. Thus reason alone could n<tt have arrived at
complete truth. That miracles arc
Bahya and the evidence of prophecy Bahya urges
Ibn with even greater emphasis than did

Gabirol. his predecessor (" Hobot ha-Lebabot,"
iii. 1, 4). Nevertheless, he contends
that piirityof soul and perfection of rational knowl-
edge constitute the highest condition attainaitle by
man, and that these make one " the beloved of Ciod "
and confer a strange, superior power " to .see the sub-
limest things and grasp the deepest secrets" (I'li. x. ;
Kaufmann, "Die Theologie des Bacliya," p. 228,
Vienna, 1875).

Solomon ibn Gabirol regards prophecy as identi-
cal with the highest possible degree of rational
knowledge, wherein the soul finds itself in unity
with the All-Spirit. Man rises toward this perfect
communion from degree to degree, until at last he
attains luito and is united with the fovuit of life
(see Sandler, "Das Problem dcr Prophetic," p. 29,
Breslau, 1891).

Judah ha-Levi confines prophecy to Palestine.
It is the nK13jn nonxand the n^JD^Dn ]->Hn ("Cu-
zari," i. 95). Prophecy is the product of the Holy
Land {ib. ii. 10), and Israel as the people of that lanti
is the one people of prophecy. Israel is the heart
of the human race, and its great men. again, are tlie
hearts of this heart (ib. ii. 12). Abraham had to
migrate to Palestine in order to become fit for the
receiving of divine messages {ib. ii. 1-1). To meet
the objection that Moses, among others, received
prophetic revelations on non-Palestinian soil, Judah
gives the name of Palestine a wider interpretation:
"Greater Palestine" is the hf>me of prophecy. But
this prophecy, again, is a divine gift, and no spec-
ulation by philosopher can ever replace it. It alone
inspires men to make .sjiciiliees antl to met-t death,
certain that they have "seen " God ami that Go«l lin.s
•'siwken'' to them and communicated His truth to
them. This is the dilTerenee between "the Go<l of
Abraham and the God of Aristotle " (//;. iv. 16). Tlie
prophet is endowed by (Jod with a new inner sense.

Prophets and Prophecy
Prosbul

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

218

the mriDJ py(= "bidden [inner] eye"), and this
"inner eye" enables the propbet to see miglity
visions {ib. iv. 3). The test of the
Judah^ha- tnitb is the unanimity of the Prophets,
Levi. who alone can judge of prophetic
truth. The agreement of the " seers "
as against the " blind " is the finally decisive factor.
Judah ba-Levi demands of the propbet, lest be mis-
take mere imagination for genuine vision, purity of
conduct, freedom from passion, an equable tenijier-
araent "of identical mixture," a contemplative life,
an ardent yearning toward the liigber things, and a
lasting, almost complete, absorption in God. Upon
sucli as fulfil these conditions in their entirety the
divine spirit of prophecy is poured out (ih. v. 12).
This "outpouring" or "irradiation" is meant by the
Propbetswhen they speakof "God's glory," "God's
form," the "Shekinah," " the fire-cloud," etc. (ib. iii.
2). It is called also the "divine" or "effulgent"
Light (/A. ii. 14). So inspired, the propbet is "the
counselor, admonisher, and censor of the people " ;
he is its "bead " ; like Moses, be is a lawgiver (tb. ii.
28). Joseph ben Jacob ibn Zaddik ( " ' 01am Katon ")
regards prophecy as an emanation of the divine
spirit, of which all, without distinction, may become
recipients.

The philosophers so far presented consider proph-
ecy a gift from without. Abraham ibn Daud was
the first among Jewish schoolmen to insist that
prophecy is the outgrowth of natural predispositions
and acquired knowledge. He links prophecy to
dreams (see Ber. 57b). An Aristotelian, lie invokes
the "active intellect" to connect the natural with
the supernatural. He also attributes to "imagina-
tion " a share in the phenomena of propbec}'. He
assumes two degrees of prophetic insight, each with
sulxlivisions: the visions given in dreams, and those
imparted to the prophet while he is awake. In
dreams imagination predominates; when tlie prophet
is awake the "active intellect "is dominant ("Emu-
nah Kamah," ed. Weil, pp. 70-73). Soothsaying
as distinct from prophecy results in accordance with
the extent to which the "intellect" is under the con-
trol of imagination. Imagination produces the sen-
suous similes and allegories under which the prophet
conceives the content of his message. As the intel-
lect succeeds in minimizing imagination, revelation
is imparted in clearer words, free from simile and
allegory. Inner reflection is potent in prophecy
grasped by the waking mind. Palestine is for
Abraham the land of prophecy, Israel its predestined
people. In Israel thej' attain this power who lead a
morally pure life and associate with men of pro-
phetic experience. Otherwise prophecy is within
the reach of all, provided God consents to bestow it.

Abraham ibn Daud's theories are, with character-
istic modifications, restated by Maimonides. He enu-
merates three opinions: (1) that of the
The Mai- masses, according to which God se-
monidean lected whom He would, though never

View of so ignorant; (2) that of the philoso-
Prophecy. phers, whicii rates prophecy as inci-
dental to a degree of perfection inher-
ent in iiuman nature; (3) that "wjiicb is taught in
Scripture and forms one of the principles of our re-
ligion.". The last agrees with the second in all

points except one. For " we believe that, even if
one has the capacity for prophecy and has duly pre-
pared himself, he may yet not actually prophesy.
The will of God " is the decisive factor. This fact
is, according to ^faimonides, a miracle.

The indispensable prerequisites are three: innate
superiority of the imaginative faculty; moral per-
fection; mental perfection, acquired by training.
These qualities are possessed in different degrees
by wise men, and the degrees of the prophetic faculty
var}' accordingly. In the Prophets the influence of
the active intellect penetrates into both their logical
and their imaginative faculties. Prophecy is an
emanation from the Divine Being, and is transmitted
through tiie medium of the active intellect, first to
man's rational faculty and then to bis imaginative
faculty. Prophecy can not be acquired by a man,
however earnest the culture of his mental and moral
faculties may be. In the course of his exposition, in
which he discusses the effect of the absence, or un-
due preponderance, of one of the component facul-
ties, Maimonides anal^'zes the linguistic peculiari-
ties of the Biblical prophecies and examines the
conditions (e.fj., anger or grief) under which the pro-
phetic gift ma}' be lost. He explains that there are
eleven ascending degrees in prophecy or prophetic
inspiration, though Moses occupies a place by him-
self; his inspiration is different in kind as well as in
degree from that of all others ("Moreb," ii., xxxii.-
xlviii. ; "Yad," Yesode ha-Torah, vii. 6). For the
controversies that were aroused by Maimonides'
views the articles Alfak.\k, Moses ben Maimon,
and MosEs bex Xahm.\n should be consulted (see
also Nahmanides on Gen. xviii. 1).

Isaac ben Moses Arama ("Akedat Yizhak,"
XXXV.) declares Maimonides' view that the pro-
phetic gift is essentially inherent in human faculties,
and that its absence when all pre-
Later requisite conditions are present is a

Views. miracle, to be thoroughly un-Jewish.
Precisely the contrary is the case, as
prophecy is always miraculous.

Joseph Albo(" 'Ikkarim," iii. 8), though arguing
against Maimonides, accepts (ib. iii. 17) Maimonides'
explanation that Moses' prophecy is distinct and
unique because of the absence therefrom of imagina-
tion.

Isaac Abravanel (on Gen. xxi. 27) maintains the
reality of the visions of the Prophets which Mai-
monides ascribed to the intervention of the imagina-
tive faculties. Among the writers on prophecy
Gersonides (Levi ben Gekshon) must be mentioned.
Dreams, for this writer, are not vain plays of fancy ;
neither are the powers of soothsayers fictitious; the
latter merely lack one element essential to prophecy,
and that is wisdom. Moreover, prophecy is alwaj'S
infallible. It is an emanation from the all-survey-
ing, all-controlling, universal active intellect, while
the soothsayer's knowledge is caused by the action
of a " particular " spheric influence or spirit on the
imagination of the fortune-teller ("Milhamot ha-
Shem," ii.).

Hasdai Crescas regards prophecy as an emana-
tion from the Divine Spirit, which influences the ra-
tional faculty witli as well as without the imagina-
tive faculty ("Or Adouai," ii. 4, 1).

219

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prophets and Prophecy
Prosbul

Modern Jewish theologians liave contributed but
little to the elucidation of the phenomenon of proph-
ecy. Most of the catechisms are content to repeat
Maimonides' analysis (so with Einhorn's " Ner Ta-
niid ") ; others evade the question altogether. May-
baum (" Prophet und Prophetismus im Alten Israel ")
lias not entered into a full discussion of the jisycho-
logical factors involved. Tlie views of the critical
school, however, have come to be adopted by many
modern Jewish authors.

Bini.iofiRAPHY : A. Schmldl, Studien Uhcr Jlldixche lieli-
lli(}iiKt>)iit(isi>)ihii\ Vietinu, 1809; Neumann Sandler, Das
I'rolilnn drr I'loplutic in der JlldiMhe Reliiii(>n)iiJhU4>si)-
phie, Breslau, 1K91; Kmll G. Hirsch, Myth, Miracle, and
Midraali, t'hicaKo, 1899.
J. E. G. H.

PROSBUL (^nniD or ^12D"nS) : An abbrevi-
ated form of the Greek phrase Trpog (iovhj Pov7.evTuv
("before the assembly of counselors"; comp. SchQrer,
"Hist, of the Jewish People," etc., Eng. ed., divi-
sion ii., vol. i., p. 362, who favors the derivation
from npoafh?.?/ = "delivery ") ; a declaration made in
court, before the execution of a loan, to the effect that
the law requiring the release of debts upon the
entrance of the Sabbatical year shall not apply to
the loan to be transacted (Jastrow, " Diet." s.v.). The
form u hi of the prosbul was as follows: "I deliver
['J1D10, answering to the Greek word wpoafidXXeiv;
comp. SchUrer, I.e. p. 363, note 162] unto you . . .
judgos of . . . [place], that I may at any time I
choose collect my debts." This declaration was at-
tested bj^ witnesses or by the judges of the court
before whom the declaration was made(Sheb. x. 4).

The institution of the prosbul is ascribed to Hillel ;
and the manner of its introduction is described in
the Mishnah as follows: "Seeing that the law which
prescribed the release of all debts every seventh
year [Deut. xv. 1-3; see Sabbatical
Ascribed to Year] brought about the harmful

Hillel. consequence that people refused to
loan to one another and thus violated
what was written in the Law, namel}', that a money
loan should not be withheld because of the approach
of the Sabbatical year [ih. verses 9-11], Hillel insti-
tuted the prosbul " (Sheb. x. 3). This in.stitution
was to benetit both the rich and the poor. The rich
■were thereby protected against loss of property; and
the poor could thus obtain a loan whenever they
needed it (Git. 37a). The reason for this innovation
was therefore given as "mi-pene tikkun ha-'olam"
= " for the sake of the order of the world " (i.e., for
the better organization of society; Git. 34b; comp.
Rashi to Git. 37a, s.v. "Bole" ; " Kesef Mishneh " on
Maimonides, " Yad," Mamrim, ii. 2).

From the expression " that which is thine with
thy brother thine hand shall release" (Deut. xv. 3),
the Kabbis derived the law that if one delivered his
debts to the court, he might collect them after the
Sabbatical year (Sifre nd loc; Sheb. x. 2; comp.
Maimonides' commentary ad loc. ; Git. 37a). Thus
the institution of Hillel would appear to be only a
suggestion to the people to take advantage of a law
which already existed (it is probable, however, that
this law was derived after the promulgation of the
institution of the prosbul, in order to make it ap-
pear to rest on Biblical authority). Later authori-
ties made Hillel's institution an extension of this

law. According to the law as derived from the
Biblical passage, tiie principle .if limitation by the en-
trance of the Sabbatical year did not apply in u c-ase
where the promissory notes were delivered to the
court and tiie court was thereby made the creditor.
Hillel's institution provided tiiat llie delivery of the
notes was not necessary ; that even wlien llie loan
was contracted by word of moutli("milweh'ul-peh").
the declaration in the presence of tiie court was suf-
licient to allow the creditor to collect liis debt even
after the Sabbatical year (.see H. Nissim to Alfasi,
Git. iv. 3, s.v. "Hitkin "; comp. Muk. 8b; Hash! and
Tos. ad loc; comp. Weiss. "Dor." i. 172. note 2).
Although it was concech-d that the institution of tiie
prosbul was based on Biblical authority, tiie later
amoraim expressed their astonishment at the fact
that Hillel dared to abrogate the Mosaic institution
of the release of all debts every seventh year. To
make Hiilel's venture less daring, some declared
that his innovation applied solely to the time when
the law of release itself was only rabbinic, while
others included it under the general principle which
gives power to every court to declare property
ownerless and to give it to whomever it may decide
(Git. 36a, b; comp. Tos., s.v. "Mi "; see Sabbatical
Yeak).

A prosbul could be written only when the debtor
possessed some real property from which the debt
could be collected (Sheb. x. 6; comp.
Conditions. Yer. Sheb. x. 3, where one opinion
[Rab's] has it that both the debtor and
the creditor must possess real estate, while another
opinion [H. Johanan's] permits the prosbul to be
written even if only one of them has real estate).
The Rabbis, however, were very lenient with regard
to this provision and permitted the prosbul to be
written even though the debtor had only a very small
piece of real estate, or even when the creditor trans-
ferred to him temporarily a piece of land sullicient
to erect an oven upon, or even if the debtor lield in
pledge real estate belonging to another (Sheb. x. 6;
Git. 37a; "Yad," Shemittah, ix. 19; Shulhan Aruk.
Hoshen Mishpat, 67, 22-25). A prosbul that was
antedated was considered valid; postdated, not
valid (Sheb. x. 5; comp. ^Maimonides' commentary
ndlocaml note; see Tosef., ib. viii. 11 ; " Yad," I.e. ix.
22,23; "Kesef Mishneh "rtff/flc). During the Hadri-
anic pensecutions. when all Jewish laws had to be
observed secretly for fear of the Roman ollicials. it
was ordained that a creditor might collect liis debt
even though he did not produce a prosbul : for it was
presumed that he had jiossessed one, but had des-
troyed it out of fear (Ket. «9a; comp. Weiss. I.e. ii.
134. note 1). This temporary provision became an
est:ibii,shed law for all times; and the creditor was
believed when he alleged that he had lost his pros-
bul (Git. 37b; "Yad." I.e. ix. 24; Hoshen Mishpa^.
67, 33). In accordance with the principle that "the
court is the father of the orphan," minor orphans
were not called upon to prepare a prosbul during
the Sabbatical year; for without this formality their
debts were regarded as the debts of the court (Git.
37a; "Yad," I.e. ; Hoshen Mi.shpat. 67, 28).

The Amoraim were divided in their opinions about
the value of Hillel's institution. Samuel said that
if he had had the power he would liave abolished it.

Proselyte

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

22a

while R. Nahman wished to extend it so that even if

no prosbulwas written the debt niiglit be collecte<l

after the Sabbatical year (Git. 36b).

Varying Onl}' the highest court in each genera-
Views tion might undertake the preparation
About of a prosbul (ib., according to Tos. ,

Prosbul. n.r. "De'alinii"; "Yad," I.e. i.v. 17).
While tlie question raised in the Tal-
mud (/6.) whether Hillel established the prosbul only
for his generation or for all generations to come was
left undecided, it appears that the institution was in
force in Talinudic times as late as the fourth century.
The disciples of R. Ashi satistied themselves with an
oral contract between them, a practise which was
later established as law (Hoshcn Misiipat, 67, 20, and
Isserles' gloss). In the Middle Ages the use of the
prosbul ceased entirely, so that Asher ben Jehiel,
at the beginning of the fourteenth century, stated
that on his arrival in Spain he was ve.xed to find
that people were accustomed to collect debts after
the Sabbatical year without any prosbul. His
endeavors at reviving this institution, however,
proved of no avail (Aslieri, Responsa, No. 77 [ed.
Wilna, 1885, p. 71b]; Hoshen Mishpat, 67, 1, Isser-
les' gloss; see S.\BBATiCAL Ye.vk).

BiBi.ioonAPnv : Blooli. S/ifl'are Tnrat hn-Takkatiot, division
ii.. p.-irti., pp. 9rJ-113, Cracow, IWH, where a detailed discus-
sion of the whole subject is given; Hamburger, R. Ii. T. ii., s.r.
E. C. J. H. G.

PROSELYTE (xpwr^P.iTOf, from -poaepxeaHat):
Term employed generally, though not exclusively,
in the Septuagint as a rendering for the Hebrew
word "ger," designating a convert from one religion
to another. The original meaning of the Hebrew
is involved in some doubt. Modern interpreters
hold it to have connoted, at first, a stranger (or a
•'client," in the technical sense of the word) residing
in Palestine, who had put himself under the protec-
tion of the people (or of one of them) among whom
he had taken up his abode. In later, post-exilic
usage it denotes a convert to the Jewish religion.
In the Septuagint and the New Testament the Greek
equivalent has almost invariably the latter signifi-
cation (but see Geiger, "Ursclirift," pp. 353 ct seq.),
though in the Septuagint the word
The "Ger." implies also residence in Palestine on
the part of one who had previouslj^
resided elsewhere, an implication entirely lost botli
in the Talmudical " ger " and in the New Testament
TTpoaip.vro^. Philo applies the latter term in the
wider sense of "one having come to a new and
God-pleasing life" ("Duo de Monarchia," i. 7), but
uses another word to express the idea of "convert"
— iirri'/.vc. Josephus, though referring to converts to
Judaism, does not u.se the term, interpreting the
Biblical passages in which "ger "occurs as apply-
ing to the poor or the foreigner.

Whatever may have been the original implication
of the Hebrew word, it is certain that Bil)lical au-
thors refer to proselytes, though describing them in
paraphrases. Ex. xii. 48 provides for the prose-
lyte's partaking of the paschal lamb, referring to
him as a "ger" that is "circumcised." Lsa. xiv. 1
mentions converts as "strangers" who shall "cleave
to the house of Jacob" (but comp. next verse).
Deut. xxiii. 8 (Hebr.) speaks of "one who enters

into the assembly of Jacob," and (Deutero-) lsa. Ivi.
0-6 enlarges on the attitude of those that joined
tiiemselvt's to Yiiwii, "to minister to Him anil love
His name, to be His servant, keeping the Sabbath
from profaning it, and laying hokl on His covenant."
" Nokri " {ihnq = " stranger ") is another equivalent
for "proselyte," meaning one who, like Ruth, seeks
refuge under the wings of Y'nwii (Ruth ii. 11-1'2;
comp. lsa. ii. 2-4, xliv. 5; Jcr. iii. 17, iv. 2, xii. 16;
Zeph. iii. 9; I Kings viii. 41-43; Ruth i. 16). Prob-
ably in almost all these passages "converts" are as-
sumed to be residents of Palestine. The}' are thus
"gerim," but circumcised. In the Priestly Code
"ger" would s(M'm to have this meaning throughout.
In Esther viii. 17 alone the expression "mityahadim "■
(= " became Jews ") occurs.

According to Pliilo, a proselyte is one wlio aban-
dons polytheism and ailnpts the worship of tiie One
God("De P(enitentia," § 2; " De Caritate," § 12).
J(isei>hus describes the convert as one who adopts
the Jewish customs, following the laws of the Jews
and worshiping God as they do — one who has be-
come a Jew ("Ant." xx. 2, ^^ 1, 4; comji. xviii. 3,
§ 5; for another description see the Apocalypse of
Baruch, xii. 3, 4; xlii. 5). By many scholars the
opinion is held that the phrase "yir'e Adonai " de-
notes either proselytes in general or a certain class
(" ger toshab " ; see below). This interpretation is
that of the Midrash (Lev. R. iii. ; Shoher Tob to Ps.
xxii. 22). While this construction is l)orne out by
some passages (Ps. cxv. 11-13, cxviii. 4, cxxxv. 20),
in others the reference is clearly to native Israelites
(Ps. XV. 4, xxii. 23-25, xxv. ri-14, it al.). For the
value of the term in the New Testament (in the
Acts) see Bertholet, "Die Stellung der Israeliten
und der Juden zu den Fremden " (pp. 328-;i34),
and O. Holtzmann, "Neutestamentliche Zeitgesch."
(p. 185). According to Schiirer ("Die Jiuh'n im
Bosporanischen Rciclie," in " Sitzungsbcrichte der
Berliner Akademie," 1897), the phrase "those who
fear the Most High God " designates associations of
Greeks in the first post Christian centuries, who had
taken their name and their monotheistic faith from
the Jews, but still retained many of the elements of
Greek life and religion (see Jacob Bernays, "Die
Gottesfurchtigen bei Juvenal," in his "Gcsammeltc
Schriften." ii." 71-80).

The attitude of ancient Israel to pro.selytes and

proselytism is indicated in the history of the term

"ger "as sketched above, which, again, reflects the

progressive changes incidental to the

Historic development of Israel from a nation
Conditions, into a religious congregation under
the priestly law. (For the position of
strangers see Gentii-e.) Ezra's policy, founded on
the belief that the new commonwealth should be
of the holy seed, naturally led to the exclusion of
those of foreign origin. Still, the non-Israelite could
gain admittance thiough circumcision (see Ex. xii.).

Pre-exilic Israel had but little reason to seek pros-
elytes or concern itself with their status and recep-
tion. The "strangers" in its midst were not many
(II Chron. ii. 16 is certainly unhistorical). As "cli-
ents," they were under the protection of the com-
miniity. Such laws as refer to them in pre-c.\ilic
legislation, especially if compared with the legisla-

221

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Proselyte

tivc provisions of otluT nalious, may justly be said
to he liiimaue(see Dkitkuonomy ; Gentile). That
the aboriginal population was looked uponwitli sus-
picion was due to their constituting a constant peril
to the monotheistic religion, lleuce tlie cruel pro-
visions for their extermination, which, liowever,
were not carried into elTect.

During tlie Exile Israel came in contact with non-
Israelites in a new and more intimate degree, and
Deutero-Isaiah reflects the conse(|Ucnt change in
Israel's attitude (see passages quoted aliove). Even
after the restoration Ezra's position was not with-
out its opponents. The books of Jonali and Ruth
testify to the views lield b}' the anli-E/ra pleaders
for a non-racial and all-embracing Israel. Not only
did Greek Judaism tolerate the reception of prose-
lytes, but it even seems to liave been active in its
desire for the spread of Jewish monotheism (comp.
Schlirer, I.e.). Philo's references to proselytes make
tliis sure (comp. Kenan, "Le Judaisme en Fait de
Keligion et de Race ")•

According to Josephus there prevailed in his day
among tlie inhabitants of both Greek and barbarian
cities ("Contra Ap." ii., § 39) a great zeal for the
Jewish religion. This statement refers to Emperor
Domitian's last years, two decades after Jerusalem's
fall. It shows tliat throughout the Roman empire
Judaism had made inroads upon the pagan religions.
Latin writers furnish evidence corroborating this.
It is true that Tacitus ("Hist." iv. 5) is anxious to
convey the impression that only the most tlespicable
elements of the population were found among these
converts to Judaism; but this is amply refuted bv
other Roman historians, as Dio Cassius (67, 14, 68),
Cicero ("Pro Flacco," § 28), Horace ("Satires," i. 9,
69; iv. 142), and Juvenal (xiv. 96).

Among converts of note are mentioned the royal

family of Adiabene — Queen Helena and her sons

Izates and Monobazus (" Ant." xx., ch. 2-4), Flavins

Clemens (Dio Cassius, I.e.), Fulvia, the wife of

Saturninus, a senator (Philo, " Contra

Roman Flaccum," ed. Mangey, ii., ^ 517;
Proselytes. "Ant." xiii. 9, § 1 ; 11, ^ 3). Women
seem to have predominated among
them (Josephus, "B. J." ii. 20, § 2; "Ant." xviii. 3,
§5; Suk. 23; Yer. Suk. ii. 4; 'Ab. Zarah 10; comp.
Gratz, "Die Jildischen Proselytenim Romerreiche,"
Breslau, 1884; Huidekoper, "Judaism in Rome").

In Palestine, too, proselytes must have been both
numerically and socially of importance. Otherwise
the Tannaim would have had no justification for
discussing their status and the conditions of their
reception. Common prejudice imputes to Pharisee-
ism an aversion to proselytes, but perhajis tliis idea
calls for modification. That aversion, if it existed,
may have been due to the part taken in Jewish his-
tory by Ilerod, a descendant of the Idumeans whom
John Hyrcanus had compelled to embrace Judaism
—a fate sliared later by the Itureans ( " Ant. " xiii. 9, §
1 ; XV. 7, ^9; comp. xiii. 9, §3). The" proselyte anec-
dotes" in which Ilillel and Shammai have a central
part (Shab. 31a) certainly suggest that the antip-
athy to proselytes was not .shared by all. while U.
Simeon's dictum that tiie hand of welcome should
be extended to the proselyte (Lev. R. ii. 8), that he
might be brought under tiie wings of the Sliekinah,

indicates a disposition quite tlie revei-w. In this
connection tiie censure of llie Pliarlsecsin Matt. xxv.
1") is significant. GrUtz (I.e. p. 30). it is true, argues
that tiie verse refers l(( an actual incident, tlie voy-
age of R. Gamaliel. R. Eliezer b. Azariuii. R. Jnsliuu,
and R. Akiba to Rome, wiiere tliey converted Fhi-
vius Clemens, a nephew of Eiiipemr Doniitiun. Rut
the more ac.ceptuble interpretation is tliul given by
Jellinek("B. H." v.. p. xlvi.). according t<. which
the jiassioiiate outburst reeordi-d in the Gospel of
Matthew condemns the Pharisaic piaeli.se of win-
ning over every year at least one iiroselytc each
(comji. Gen. R. xxviii.). There is gooii ground also
for the contention <if Griltz (l.r. j». ;J3) timt imme-
diately after the destruction of the Second Tem-
])le Judaism made many coikuk'sIs. esjiecially
among Romans of the upper classes. Among the
proselytes of this time a certain Jndali, an Am-
monite, is mentioned, (.'ontrary to the Hiblieal law
l)roliibiting marriage bet\ve<n Jewsand Animoiiites,
he is allowed to marry a Jewess, the decision being
brought about largely by Joshua's influence (Yad.
iv. 4; Tosef. , Yad. ii. 7; comp. lier. 2Ha).

Other cases in which Biblical marriage-prohibi-
tions were set aside were those of Menyamin. an
Egyptian (on the authority of R. Akiba: To.sef.,
Kid. v. 5; Yer. Yeb. 91); Sifre, Ki Tissa, 253; Yeb.
76b, 78a; Sotah 9a), Onkelos, or Akylas (Aquiia),
from Pontus (Tosef., Dem. vi. 13; Yer. Dem. 26d).
Veturia Paulla, called Sarah after lier conversion
(see Schlirer, " Die Gemeindtverfassungder Juden in
Rom," p. 35, No. 11, Leipsic. 1879)

At this epoch, too, the necessity for determining
the status of the "half-converts" grew imperative.
By "half-converts" is meant a class of men and
women of non-Jewish birth who, forsiiking their
ancestral pagan and polytheistic religions, embraced
monotheism and adopted the fundamental principles
of Jewish morality, without, however, submitting
to circumcision or observing other ceremonial law.s.
They have been identified with the "yir'e Adouai "
(the arj,36^n'oi t'ov Qeov). Their nunil)cr was very
large during the centuries immediately preceding
and following the fall of Jerusalem; Ps. xv. has
been interpreted as referring to them.

In order to find a precedent the Rabbis went so
far as to assume that jiroselytes of this order were
recognized in Biblical law, applying to them the
term " toshab " ("sojourner," "aborig-
Semi- ine," referring to the Canaanites; see
Converts. Maimonides' explanation in "Yad."
I.ssure Biali. xiv. 7; see Griltz. I.e. p.
15), in connection with "ger" (see Ex. xxv. 47,
where the better reading would be " wc-toshab ").
Another name for one of this class was "proselyte
of the gate" ("ger ha-.sha'ar," that is, one under
Jewish civil jurisdiction; comj^ Deut. v. 14. xiv. 21.
referring to the stranger who had legal claims upon
the generosity and protection of his Jewish neigh-
bors). In order to be recognized as one of these
the neophyte had publicly to assume, before three
"haberim." or men of authority, the solemn obliga-
tion not to worship idols, an obligation which in-
volved the recognition of the seven Noarhiau
iniunclions as binding ('Ab. Zarah 64b; "^ad."
Issure Biah, xiv. 7).

Proselyte

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

222

The application to half-converts of all the laws
obligatory upon the sons of Jacob, iucludiug those
that refer to the taking of interest, or to retaining
their hire overnight, or to drinking wine made by
non-Jews, seems to have led to discussion and dis-
sension among the rabbinical authorities.

The more rigorous seem to have been inclined to
insist upon such converts observing the entire Law,
with the exception of the reservations and modilica-
tions explicitly made in their behalf. The more
lenient were ready to accord them full equality
with Jews as soon as they had solemnly forsworn
idolatry. The " via media " was tixken by those tiiat
regarded public adherence to the seven Noachian pre-
cepts as the indispensable prerequisite (Gerim iii. ;
*Ab. Zarah 64b; Yer. Yeb. 8d; Griitz, I.e. pp. 19-
20). The outward sign of this adherence to Juda-
ism was the observance of the Sabbath (Griitz, I.e.
pp. 20 ijt seq. ; but comp. Ker. 8b).

The recognition of these quasi-proselytes rendered

it obligatorj"^ upon the Jews to treat them as brothers

(see *Ab. Zarah 65a; Pes. 21aj. But by the third

century the steady growth of Christianity had

caused these qualitied conversions to

Influence Judaism to be regarded with increas-

of Chris- ing disfavor. According to Simeon

tianity. b. Eleazar, this form of adoption into
Judaism was valid only when the
institution of the jubilee also was observed, that is,
according to the common understanding of his dic-
tum, during the national existence of Israel ('Ar.
29a). A similar observation of Maimonides (" Yvd,"
Issure Biah, xiv. 7-P; ib. 'Akkum, x. 6) is construed
in the same sense. It seems more probable that
Maimonides and Simeon ben Eleazar wishetl to con-
vey the idea that, for their day, the institution of
the ger toshab was without practical warrant in
the Torah. R. Johauan declares that if after a pro-
bation of twelve months the ger toshab did not
submit to the rite of circumcision, he was to 1)('
regarded as a heathen ('Ab. Zarah 65a; tlie same
period of probation is fixed by Hanina bar Hama in
Yer. Yeb. 8d).

In contradistinction to the ger toshab, tlie full
proselyte was designated as "ger ha-zedek," "ger
ha-berit" (a sincere and righteous proselyte, one wjio
has submitted to circumcision ; see Mek., Mishpatim,
18; Gerim iii.). The common, technical term for
"making ia convert" in rabbinical literature is
"kabbel" (to accept), or "karelj tahat kanfe ha-
Shekinah " (to bring one near, or under the wings of,
the Shekinaii). Tliis phrase plainly presupposes an
active propaganda for winning converts (comp. Cant.
R. V. 16, where God is referred to as making propa-
gandic efforts). In fact, that prosel}'tes are wel-
come in Israel and are beloved of God is the theme
of many a rabbinical homily (Ruth R. iii.; Tan.,
Wayikra [ed. Buber, 3]; .see al.so Mek., Mishpa-
tim, 18; Tosef., Demai, ii. 10; Bek. 32a).

Eleazar b. Pedat sees in Israel's dispersion the
divine purpose of winning proselytes (Pes. 87b).
Jethro is the classical witness to the argument of
otiier proselytes that the "door was not sliiit in the
face of the heathen " (Pesik. R. 35). He is intro-
duced as writing a letter to Moses (Mek.. Yitro,
'Amalek,.l) advising him to make the entry into

Judaism easy for proseh'tes. Ruth and Rahab are
quoted as illustrating the same lesson (Shoher Tob to

Ps. V. 11). Emperor Antoninus also is

Views Con- mentioned as a proselyte (Yer. Meg.

earning 73b, 74a) whose conversion illustrates

Proselytes, the desirability of making converts.

The circumstance that Nero (Git.
56a), and, in fact, most of the Biblical persecutors of
Israel, are represented as having finally embraced
Judaism (Sanh. 96b), the further fact that almost
every great Biblical hero is regarded as an active
propagandist, and that great teachers like Sheniaiah
and Abtalion, Akiba and Meir, were proselytes, or
were regarded as proselytes or as descendants of
proselytes (see Bacher, "Ag. Tan." i. 5-6), go far
to suggest that proselytes were not always looked
upon with suspicion. According to Joshua ben
llananiah, " food " and " raiment " in Deut. x. 18 re-
fer to the learning and the cloak of honor which
are in store for the proselyte (Gen. R. Ixx.). Job
xxxi. 32 was explained as inculcating the practise
of holding off applicants with the left hand while
drawing them near with the right (Yer. Sanh. 29b).
]\Iodern researches have shown positively that Ju-
daism sent forth apostles. Jethro was a type of
the.sc propagandists (see Bacher, " Ag. Tan." i. 210;
Harnack, " Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Chris-
tentums," pp. 237-240, Leipsic, 1902; GrUtz.
"Gesch." 3d ed., vol. iv., note 21; S. Krauss, "Die
Judischen Apostel," in "J. Q. R." xvii. 370).

Sincerity of motive in the proselyte was insisted
upon. Care was taken to exclude those who were
prompted to embrace Judaism by the desire to con-
tract an advantageous marriage, by the hope of
wealth or honor, by fear or superstitious dreams
(R. Nehemiah, in Yeb. 24b; comp. 76a). The mid-
rashic amplification of tlie conversation between
Naomi and Ruth (Ruth R. i. 16; Yeb. 47b) reveals
the kind of conduct the Rabbisdreaded in proselj'tes
and what admonitions, with the penalties for dis-
regarding them, the}' thought wise to impress upon
the candidates. Attendance at theaters and cir-
cuses, living in houses without mezuzot, and un-
cliastity were among the former. The same spirit
of caution is apparent in a midrashic illustration to
the story of Adam and Eve, in which the proselyte
wife is warned by her husband against eating bread
witli unclean hands, partaking of untitiied fruit, or
violating the Sabbath or her marriage vow (Ab. R.
N. i.). From Ruth's experience the rule was de-
rived that proselytes must be refused receptioa
three times, but not ofteuer (Ruth R. ii.).

The details of the act of reception seem not to
have been settled definitely before the second Chris-
tian century. From the law that proselyte and

native Israelite should l)e treated alike

Mode of (Num. xv. 14 et seq.) the interence was

Reception, drawn that circumcision, the bath of

purification, and sacrifice were prereq-
uisites for conversion (comp. "Yad," Issure Biah,
xiii. 4). The sacrifice was to bean " 'olatbeheniah "
(a burnt offering of cattle; ib. xiii. 5; Ker. ii. 1 ; 8b,
9a); but to lessen the hardship an offering of fowls
was accepted as sullicient. Neglect to bring this
offering entailed certain restrictions, but did not in-
validate the conversion if the other conditions were

223

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Proselyte

complied with. After the destruction of the Tem-
ple, when all sacrifices were suspended, it was or-
dained tliat proselytes siiould set aside a small coin
in lieu of the offering, so that in case the Temple
were rebuilt they might at once purchase the offering.
Later, when the prospect of tlie rebuilding of tiie
Temple grew very remote ("mipene ha-takkahdi "),
even this requirement was dropped (conip. Ker. 8a;
R. H. 31b; Gerim ii. ; Tosef., Shekalim, iii. 22).

Nor was it, at one time, the unanimous ojiiiiion of
the authorities that circumei.siou was absolutely in-
dispensable. R. Eliezer ben Hyrcanus carried on a
controversy on this subject witli R. Joshua, the lat-
ter pleading for the possibility of omitting the rite,
the former insisting on its performance (Yeb. 46a).
The point seems to have remained unsettled for the
time (see Grtltz, " Die Judischen Proselyten," p. 13).
For Rabbi Joshua the " tebilah " (bath of purifica-
tion) was sufficient, while his antagonist required
both circumcision and bath.

The bitterness engendered by the Hadrianic perse-
cution undoubtedly prompted the Rabbis to make
conversion as difficult as possible. It is more than
a mere supposition that both at that period and ear-
lier Jews suffered considerably from the cowardice
and treachery of proselytes, who often acted as spies
or, to escape the "liscus Judaicus" (see Gratz, I.e.
pp. 7 et seq.), denounced the Jews to the Romans.
An instance of this kind is reported in connection
with Simeon ben Yohai's sufferings (Shab. 33b).
This circumstance explains the reasons that led to
the introduction into the daily liturgy of a prayer
against the " denunciators and slanderers " (" meso-
rot," "minim"; see Joel, "Blicke in die Religions-
gesch." i. 33). Yet the true proselytes were all
the more highly esteemed ; a benediction in their
behalf was added to the eighteen of the Shemoneh
'Esreh, and later was incorporated with that for
the elders and pious (Tosef., Ber. iii. ; Yer. Ber. 8a;
Ta'an. 85c; comp. Griitz, I.e. p. 11).

After the Hadrianic rebellion the following pro-
cedure came into use. A complete "court," or
"board," of rabbinical authorities was alone made
competent to sanction the reception. The candidate
was first solemnly admonished to consider the
worldly disadvantages and the religious burdens in-
volved in the intended step. He, or she, was asked,
"What induces thee to join us? Dost thou not know
that, in these days, the Israelites are in trouble,
oppressed, despised, and subjected to endless suf-
ferings?" If he replied, "I know it, and I am un-
worthy to share their glorious lot," he was re-
minded most impressively that while a heathen he
was liable to no penalties for eating

Influence fat or desecrating the Sabbath, or

of the for similar trespasses, but as soon as

Hadrianic he became a Jew, he must suffer ex-

Per- cision for the former, and death by

secution. stoning for the latter. On the other
hand, the rewards in store for the
faithful were also explained to him. If tlie appli-
cant remained firm, he was circumcised in the pres-
ence of three rabbis, and then led to be baptized ;
bat even while in the bath he was instructed by
learned teachers in the graver and the lighter obliga-
tions which he was undertaking. After this he was

considered a Jew (Yeb. 47a. b). Tlie presence of three
men was required also at the bath of women con-
verts, thougii due precautious were taken not to
affront their modesty. This procedure is obliffa-
tory at the present time, according to tlie rabbin-
ical codes (see Shulhan "Aruk, Yoreli De'uli. 2(i«;
"Yad,"Issure Biah, xiv.). The ceremony should
be performed by a properly constituted board rjf
three learned men, and in tlie daytime; but if only
two were present and Iht; ceremony took place at
niglit, it would not therefore be invalid. The r -
mony of conversion could not take placcon the -
bath or on a holy day (//<.). Proper evidence of con-
version was required before the claimant was rec-
ognized as a proselyte, though to a certain f.\tent
piety of conduct was a presumplirjn in IiIk favor.
If the convert reverted to his former waysof living,
he was regarded as a rebellious Israelite, not as a
heathen; his marriage with a Jewes.s. for inst r
was not invalidated by his lapses. The conve: .
of a pregnant woman included also the child. Mi-
nors could be converted with their parents, or even
alone, by tiie bet din. but tliey were permitted to
recant when of age.

The proselyte is regarded as a new-born child;
hence his former family connections are considend
as ended, and he might legally marry his own mother
or sister; but lest he come to the conclusion that his
new status is less holy than his former, such unions
are prohibited (see Sluilhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah,
269; "Yad,"Issure Biah, xiv. 13). This conception
of the proselyte's new birth (Yeb. 62a; Yer. Yeb.
4a) and of his new status with reference to his old
family is the subject of many a halr.kic discussion
(Yeb. xi. 2; Yer. Yeb. I.e. ; et al.) and has led to cer-
tain regulations concerning marriages contracted
either before or after conversion ("Yad, "/.<•. xiv.
l^etseq.-., with reference to the lirst-fruit offering
see Yer. Bik. 64a; Tosef., Bik. i. 2). That many of
the earlier rabbis were opposed to proselytes is
plain from observations imputed to
XJnfavor- them. R. Eliezer is credited with the
able View, opinion that the nature of proselytes
is corrupt, and that hence they are
apt to become backsliders (Mek., Mishpatim. IS; B.
K. o9b; Gerim iv.). Jose ben Judah insists that any
candidate should be rejected unless he binds himself
to observe not only every tittle of the Tonih but all
the precepts of the scribes, even to the least of thtin
(Tosef., Dem. ii. 5; Sifra 91a. to Lev. xix. 34).

Sad experience or personal fanaticism underlies
the oft-cited statement — in reality a iday upon Isa.
xiv. 1 — that proselytes are as burdensome to Isniel
as leprosy (Yeb. 47b, 109b ; Kid. 70b ; 'Ab. Zanih 3b ;
Ket. 11a; Niddah 13b); or the dictum that pro.se-
lytes will not be received during the days of tin-
Messiah (" Yad," Issure Biah, xiii -xiv. ; i6. •Aba-
dim, ix. ; Yoreh Deah. 268). While evil upon evil
is predicted for the "mekabbele gerim " (propii.
dists; Yeb. 109b). the proselytes tiiemselves, notu ::..
standing their new birth, are said to Ijcexposeil to in-
tense suffering, which is variously explained a.sduo
to their ignorance of the Law (Yeb. 4?<b), or to the
presence of an impure motive in their conversion
{e.g., fear instead of love), or to previous miscon-
duct (Yeb. 68b). Nevertheless, once received, tlu-y

Proselyte
Provence

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

224

■were to be treated as the peers of the Jew by
birth.

According to R. Simeon b. Lakish, proselytes an-
more precious at Sinai than Israel was, for the latter
would not have taken the "kingdom " upon himself
had not miracles accompanied revelation, while the
former assume the " kingdom " without haviug seen
even one miracle. Hence au injury to a proselyte
is tantamount to au injury to God (Tan., Lek Leka.
beginning; Hag. 5a). The proselyte might marry
without restriction ("Yad," Issure Biah, .\ii. 17).
The descendants of Amnion, Moab, Egypt, and
Edom formed an exception : the males of Amnion
and Moab were excluded forever, though no restric-
tion existed against marriage with their women.
Descendants of Egyptians and Edomites of either
.sex were proscribed in the first and second genera-
tions; the third enjoyed full connubial rights. But
these restrictions were assumed to have been ren-
tlered inoperative by Sennacherib's conquest, and
therefore as having no authority in later times
("Yad.'W.c. xii. 17-24).

Besides the proselytes already mentioned, all be-
longing to the Roman period, there are records of
others later. Among these were the kings of the
Jewish Himyarite empire; Arab tribes (before the
Gth cent.); Dhu Nuwas; Harith ibn 'Amr; the
Kenites; Warakah ibn-Naufal ; theChazars. Many
also must have come from the ranks of the Chris-
tians; this would be the natural inference from tlie
prohibition of conversion to Judaism issued by the
Councils of Orleans, repeating previous prohibitions
by Emperor Constantine. The code of Alfonso X.
made conversion to Judaism a capital crime (Graetz,
"Hist."ii. 562; iii. 37, 595).

In modern times conversions to Judaism are not

very numerous. Marriage is, in contravention of

the rabbinical caution, in most instances the motive,

and proselytes of the feminine sex pre-

In Modern dominate. In some of the new rituals

Times. formulas for the reception of prose-
lytes are found — for instance, in Ein-
horn's " 'Olat Tamid " (German ed.). Instruction in
the Jewish religion precedes the ceremony, which,
after circumcision and baptism, consists in a public
confession of faith, in the main amounting to a repu-
diation of certain Christian dogmas, and concluding
with the reciting of the Shema'. Some agitation oc-
curred in American Jewry over the abrogation of cir-
cumcisi(jn in the case of an adult neopliyte ("milat
gerini "). I. M. Wise made such a proposition
before the Rabl)inical Conference at Pliiladelphia
(Nov., 1869), but his subsequent attitude (see "The
Israelite" and " Die Deborah," Dec, 1869, and Jan.,
1870) on the question leaves it doubtful whether he
"was in earnest in making the proposition. Bernard
Felsenthal ("Zur Proselytenfrage," Chicago, 1878)
raised the question about ten years later, arguing in
favor of the abrogation of the rite and quoting R.
Joshua's opinion among other.s. Tiie Central Con-
ference of American Rabbis finally, at the sugges-
tion of I. M. Wise, resolved not to insist on milat
gerim, and devised regulations for the solemn recep-
tion of proselytes. I. S. Moses has proposed the es-
tablishment of congregations of semiproselytes, re-
viving, as it were, the institution of the ger toshab.

Certain restrictions regulating the status of women
proselytes are found in the Mishnah. Girls born
before tiie conversion of their mothers were not re-
garded as entitled to the benefit of the provisions
concerning a slanderous report as to

Female virginity set forth in Deut. xxii. 13-21
Proselytes, (see Ket. iv. 3) ; and if found untrue to
their marriage vows, their punishment
was strangulation, not lapidation. Only such female
proselytes as at conversion had not attained the age
of three years and one day, and even they not in
all cases, were treated, in the law regulating matri-
mony, as was the native Jewish woman (ib. i. 2, 4 ; iii.
1, 2). Proselytes were not allowed to become the
wives of priests; daughters of proselytes, only in case
one of the parents was a Jew by birth (Yeb. vi. 5;
Kid. iv. 7; see Cohen). R. Jose objects to the re-
quirement tliaj one parent must be of Jewish birth
(Kid. I.e.). On the other hand, proselytes could con-
tract marriages with n-.en who, according to Deut.
xxii. 3, were barred from marrying Jewish women
(Yeb. viii. 2). While a proselyte woman was deemed
liable to the ordeal of jealousy described in Num.
V. 11. (Eduy. V. 6), the provisions of the Law re-
garding the collection of damages in the case of
injury to pregnant women were construed as not
applicable to hor (B. K. v. 4, but consult Geniara;
"R. E. J." xiii. 318).

In these passages the strict interpretation of the
Pentateuchal texts, as restricted to Israel, prevails,
and in a similar spirit, in the order of Precedence
as laid down in Hor. iii. 8, only the manumit-
ted slave is assigned inferior rank to the proselyte,
the bastard and the "natin " taking precedence over
him. On the other hand, it should not be overlooked
that it was deemed sinful to remind a proselyte of
his ancestf)rs or to speak in disrespectful terms of
them and their life (B. M. iv. 10).

Bibliography : Hastings, Dirt. nUiIe ; Hamburger, R. B. T.\
Griitz. Oesrh.; Kaliseh, Bible Studies, vol. ii. (tbe Book of
Jonah), LonrioD, 187S.

J. E. G. H.

PROSER, MOSER : Russian Hebraist ; born
at Keidani, government of Kovno, Jan. 1, 1840.
Proser pursued the conventional course of He-
brew education and studied Talmud iu various ye-
sliibot. In 1858 he went to Wilua and prepared to
enter the rabbinical seminary there, but owing to
his father's opposition and to his own poor health
lie was compelled to return home. In 1863 Proser
went to Kovno, where he became private instructor
in Hebrew, and where he made the acquaintance
of Abraham Mapu. Proser began his literary career
with pseudonymous (Ezra me-ha-Siiafer, etc.) con-
tributions to "Ha-Meliz." In 1870 he went to St.
Petersburg and became instructor in the orphan
asylum founded by Baroness Gun/.l)urg, and wlien
" Ha-Meliz " was established in St. Petersburg (1871)
Proser was appointed editor of the department "Be-
Arzenu."
Bibliography: Sefer Zikknnm, p. 2(K), Warsaw, 1889.

ir. R. A. S. W.

PROSKUROV: Russian town, in the govern-
ment of Podolia. The Jewish community there has
one large and eight smaller synagogues, and a Tal-
mud Torah built by the late Hayyim Masel in mem-

225

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ProBelyte
Proveuce

ory of liis fiithei, Phinehas. Tlie expenses of ihv
Talmud Toruh are mot by a grant of li.OOO rubles
annually from the income of the meat-tax. There
are also a Jewish school for boys and one lor girls, a
library, founded by the Zionists, and various other
institutions. The town has a total population of
22,915, about 39 per cent being Jews (1897).

TJie district of Proskurov, exclusive of the city,
has a population of 204,246, of which 8 jjcr cent are
Jews— a decrease from the jiroportiou of 1860, when
there were 12,616 Jews there (9 per cent) in a total
population of 141,702.

Bmi.uxiRAiMiY : Brockhaus-Efron, EntzikhnKiUchcKki Sili>-
var; Ihi-Mfliz. 19CKJ, No. 8; Semenov, Geoffraftchenko-Sta-
tMichcshi SlDcar.
II. K. P. Wl.

PROSSNITZ : Austrian manufacturing town, in
the province of Moravia. Probably its earliest Jew-
ish settlement dated from the latter half of the fif-
teenth century, when exiles from Olmutz found a
refuge there (1454). Up to the time when the re-
striction on the freedom of residence of Jews in
Austria was removed, Prossnitz was the second lar-
gest congregation in ]\Ioravia, numbering 328 families
(see F.\MiLi.\NTEN Gesetz). The congregation lirst
emerged from obscurity in the beginning of the sev-
enteenth century, wlien Sinihah ben Gershon Rapo-
port ])rinted there a collection of Sabbath hymns
{" Kol Simhah," 1602). The printing-press, how-
ever, did not exist very long, nor did it produce any
works of consequence. Of the rabbis who have
officiated in Prossnitz the following are known:
Gershon Ashkenazi (r. 1650); Me'ir Eisenstadt
(Ash; c. 1700); Nahum (Nehemias) Trebitsch
(until 1830); Low Schwab (1830-36) ; Hirsch B.
Fassel (1830-53); Adolf Schmiedl (1853-69);
Emil Hoff (1870-97); L. Goldschmied (since
1897).

During the seventeenth and eighteentli centuries
Prossnitz was the center of the Shabbethaianheres}-,
notably because of the intluence of Lobele of Pross-
nitz. In the first half of the nineteenth century the
town became the center of the educational and lie-
form movement in the province. Low Schwab was
the first German preacher in Moravia, and his suc-
cessor, Hirsch B. Fassel, worked for the progress
of education, the reform of religious services, and
the encouragement of manual industr}'. He also
petitioned Emperor Ferdinand in the interest of the
political emancipation of the Jews. Through the
activity of the Jews Prossnitz has become an indus-
trial center for the manufacture of clothing and cal-
ico. The fact that the Jews have always sided with
the small German minority of the city's popula-
tion against the Slavic majority has often produced
friction.

Prossnitz had many Talmudir scholars. Moses So-
FE15, who lived there about 1790, conducted a yeshi-
bah; and during the first half of the nineteenth cen-
tury ]\Ioses Katz Wannefried presided over a large
yeshibah which numbered Adolf Jellinek among its
pupils. Of Jewish scholars and other well-known
persons born in Prossnitz, Moritz Steinschneider,
Moritz Eisler, Gideon Brecher, and Louis Schnabel
of New York may be mentioned. Among the iirom-
inent Orthodox rabbis who were natives of Pross-
X.— 15

nil/, wcrif DauKl l'iu.-,ti/. Steinsclineider of Preh-
burg, and Meuahem Katz, rabbi of Deutsch-Kreuz,
for years the recognized leader of Hungarian Ortho-
doxy. A number of artists and scholars were born
at Prossnitz, as the pianist Brl'ill.

Prossnitz has a synagogue, liedicated in 1904. a
bet ha-midrash, founded by Vcit Ehrenstunim. and
nuineioiisfoundatiun.s for charilaiili- purposes. The
former Jewish school was made a public school iu
1868, but is still largely attended by Jewish piipl!-
The town of Prossnitz has a iiopuiatifin of 21 '■*>'>
of whom l.OMO arc; Jews (1900). I).

PROSSNITZ. LOBELE(PR08TI?) .
tie iniposlnr ; born alxiut tlic t nd nf the m-s . n

century at Brody, Galicia; died about 1750. He
left his native city and went to Prossnitz, ^" ,

where he married, earning a livelilior>d by i ^

in the neighboring villages. On uccount of his
poverty he occupied a deserted hovel, which was
believed to be haunted. Suddenly he assumed the
role of a prophet, and promised to summon the
Shekinah to appear at midnight in a large gather-
ing. Liibele had stretched across his room a per-
forated curtain, behind which he liad secretly lighted
a mixture of alcohol and turpentine. He himself,
robed in white, stood behind the curtain, and the
light brf)ught out in fidl relief the gilt letters of the
Tetragrammaton, which he had placed on his breast.
The spectators were disposed to believe in a miracle,
when some one present (Jacob Emden thinks the
rabbi) pulled down the curtain and scj exposed the
fraud. The impostor was excommunicated by all
the rabbis of Moravia, among them the " Landrab-
liiner" David Oppenheimer.

In spite of all this Lobele found many followers
among the Shabbethaians. He jiroclaimed himself
the Messiah ben Joseph, and signed his name "Jo-
seph ben Jacob." He had relations with the Shab-
betluiian Mordecai Eisenstadt and with Jonathan
Eybeschlitz, and seems to have been especially in-
fluenced by the Shabbethaian impostor Nehemiah
Hayyun. Lobele wandered from city to city iu Aus-
tria and Germany, and succeeded in duping many
persons, who supplied him with fimds. In 1725 the
excommunication was renewed, whereupon he be-
took himself to Hungary. Emden relates that he
died there among non-Jews.

Lobele taught the strange doctrine that since the
appearance of Shabbethai Zebi God had surrendere<l
the guidance of the world to the latter, after whose
ascent to heaven the mission was entrusted to Jona-
than Eybeschlitz and to Lobele himself.

BiBLioijRAPnv : Gratz, Gcttch. x. :W. :«U ct <k<;-.
Emden. Tmnt lia-Knia'ot, pp. 71, 72. U'lntx-rv. ! i

(Kaliiuiul. h'jlicn h(t-Tii'iin. Vli-iiim. I>7:>: Mi-'
shat Saraf (reprinted In F.nulcn, Torat lid-h

II M

PROVENCAL, ABRAHAM BEN DAVID.

See AitUAMAM iun Pwin ri:<'\ i.\., \i

PROVENCAL, MOSES BEN ABRAHAM.
See Moses ben Abu.\ii.\m Pkoven(,\\i

PROVENCE (XVmiE) : Provinc« .i mk i.nt
France lying l)etwicn the Hhone, the Mi dilcrranian
Sea, and tiie Maritime Alps, although medieval
Jewish scholars fre(iuently applied the name to a
portion of Bas Languedoc (Meuahem Meiri. iatro-

Provence
Proverbs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

226

duction to "Bet ha-Behirah," 17b; Estori Farhi,
"Kaftor wa-Feiuh," p. 113; Abraham ben Nathan,
"Mauhig," pp. 10a, 19a). Jews settled in Provence
at an early date; and in the sixth century they
formed important communities at Aries and Mar-
seilles. In 1276 Charles I. protected them against
the Inquisition, which had persecuted them severe-
ly, obliging them to wear new badges, and going
so far in the case of some cities, as Marseilles, Avi-
gnon, and Forcalquier, as to throw them into prison
and to extort ransom. In 1308 Charles II. forbade
them to hold public otfice. In 1348 the number of
Jews who had died by sword or pestilence was so
great that Queen Jeanne, by letters patent dated
July 26 of that year, released the Jews of Provence
for ten years from the payment of their annual trib-
ute of 2,000 livres. In the same year a massacre
occurred at Toulon, where they were accused of
having introduced the Black Death into France;
and similar events took place at Luc and Forcalquier
in 1351.

Louis II. exempted the Jews from further taxation
in 1400, and forbade Christians to molest them, while
Louis III., to protect them against the tyranny of
the tribunals, appointed special guardians to whom
was reserved the power of decision in Jewish af-
fairs. The greatest nobles of Provence sought this
office ; and Charles de Castillon (Baron of Aubagne),
Jean de Matheron, and Jean de Forbin were succes-
sively invested with it. In 1445 the Jews of Pro-
vence united to present silver cups and a set of plate
to King Rene on the occasion of his marriage to
Jeanne de Laval. Although this king maintained
their ancient rights and customs, mitigated the se-
verity of tlie edict thitherto enforced regarding the
wearing of the wheel, and confirmed the privilege
of the Jewish physicians to practise the healing art,
he imposed in 1446 an annual tribute of 2,745 florins
on the Jewish congregations of the province. In
1469 this sum was increased to 18,000 florins, and in
1475 and 1476 it was set at 4,000 florins.

The year 1484 was a disastrous one for the Pro-
vencal Jews. On the 13th of Nisan (April 8) a baud
of mountaineers from Provence, Auvergne, and
Dauphine, who had come to Aries for the harvest,
attacked and robbed the Jews, and demolished their
synagogue, similar outrages being committed at
Aix and Tarascon. In 1496 the Jews were accused
of being the enemies of Christianity, and of com-
mitting "usuries, rapines, and innumerable other
crimes"; and two years later they were expelled,
although the edict of banishment was not enforced
until 1501. Some took refuge in the Comtat-Venais-
sin ; others, in the Levant, chiefly at Salonica, where
a Jewish community composed entirely of Proven-
cal Jews was founded; while many went to Italy,
where they founded a synagogue called nN'DJ'DIIQ-
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries several
Italian scholars, natives of Provence, bore the name
"Provencal."

BiBi.iofjRAPHY : Blancard, Inrentnirc Sommnire rles Archivex
DtiKirtementaUa des Bouches-du-Rln'me, B. 3489 etpamfim ;
DepplnK, Leu Juifs daim le Moyeii -'l(/f, pp. 198-2()9; Bpu-
(rnot, Lm JuifH d" Occident, part 1., p. ]:«; Bouche, i/i-xri/c
Provence, book Ix.; Idem, Chronoyraphic dc Provence, 11.
494; Camllle Amaud. Esnai mir la Condition den Juifx en
Provence, p. 24 et panxim ; Gross, Les Juifs d'ArleK. In
MonatKHchrift, 1878; Idem, Ocdlia Judaica, pp. 489-493;

Desmolets, Memoirc pour Servir d VHistoire de.'< Juifs de
Provence; Nostradamus, Hisf.de Prorfnce, pan vl.; Papon,
Hist. Generale de la Provence, HI. 61, 190, Documents, No.
15 ; R. E. J. xli. 18, xvl. 315, xlvU. 331.
G. S. K.

PROVERBS : Wise, witty, and pithy maxims
or aphorisms. Jewish proverbs are derived from
the following sources: (1) Biblical collections, in-
cluded in the canon; (2) Apocryphal collections, not
included in the canon; (3) the Talmud; (4) collec-
tions of the Moorish-Spanish period ; (5) miscellane-
ous works. The Biblical collections include, apart
from the aphorisms scattered through the P.salms
and the Prophets, the collection known as the Book
of Proverbs (see separate article). The chief .sources
for proverbs in the Apocrypha are Ecclesiasticus
(Sirach) and the Book of Wisdom. The New Tes-
tament quotes from the former without mentioning
the source (comp. Luke xviii. 22 and Ecclus. xxix.
14); the Talmud forbids its being read, including
it among the "sefarim hizouim," like the works of
Ben Tiglah and Ben La'anah, and the " Megillat Ha-
sidim." Yet, as the Talmud, despite its own prohi-
bition, cites this megillah (Yer. Ber.), so it quotes
from the book of Ecclesiasticus, with the words

"lOX KI-'D p, XT-D p nOK xfriD, and even without
naming it§ source. Many of these Ecclesiasticus
sentences acquire a more theological coloring in the
Talmud, especially when associated with Biblical
passages.

The Talmudic sources include the treatises Abot,
Abot de-Rabbi Natan, Derek Erez Rabbah, and
Derek Erez Zuta. The sporadic aphorisms of R.
Johanan, the teachers of Jabneh (see Ber. 17a), and
others, are quoted with the following formulas:

'ji^jsn n'Disn x^j-io. pam "in-'^Disn x^jno. They

fall into two classes, one inculcating the necessity
of prudence in the affairs of life (XO^Vl '^'S), and
the other consisting of regulations for the practise
of the religious life ; many of them relate to dietetics.
Most of them are compared with Biblical passages,
being connected therewith either by the phrase "i3iy
O)iyo, which lends a halakic note to them, or by the
formulas xn^'D XH XJr^, irVD p-H, pjD. The
number of Biblical passages at the basis of an apho-
rism is frequently given, as in Cant. R. 27a, and
both npn fjX (e.(/., Ab. vi. 2; see M. J. Landau,
"Geist und Sprache der Hebraer," pp. 20 ct seq.,
Prague, 1822) and D'SIOD (Yeb. 4a et <(l. ; comp.
Ps. iii. 8) occur in witticisms.

Original collections of proverbs are found in:
(1) "Mussar ha-Sekel," by R. Hai Gaon ; (2) "Ben
Mishle," by Samuel ha-Nagid; (3) "Tarshish," by
Moses ibn Ezra; (4) three translations from the Ara-
bic— "Mibharha-Peninim " and "Tikkun Middotha-
Nefesh," by Solomon ibn Gabirol, and "Mu.ssare ha-
Filosofim," by Hunain ibn Ishak. Lsolatcd proverbs
are found in Bahya ibn Pakuda's "Hobot ha-Leba-
bot, " Abraham b. Hisdai's " Ben ha-Melek weha-Na-
zir," All's "Iggeiet Mussar," Immanuel's "Mahbe-
rot," Abraham Gavison's " Omer ha-Shikha," and
others (comp. Jost's "Annalen," p. 83).

From the above sources a considerable number of
proverbs can be cited which may be regarded as
being more or less Jewish in character and which
are utilized in various ways in Jewish literature.
These maxims are quoted, either explicitly or im-

227

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Provence
Proverbs

plicitly, as proverbs, with the formulas noiN ^tyi2.

loix toinn ^EW, nox x^no. p:;'jx noxnD, noN

Nn"-)3. Nn^ n3T NJt;6. TIk- lilgh re-
Method gard in which proverbs were held is
of evident from Midr. Cant, lb: "Scorn

Quotation, not the mashal, for tiirough it thou
may est gain a firm hold u|)on the
Law ; like a king who had lost a piece of gold or a
pearl, but by means of a wick, which is worth but
a trifle, was able to find it again." The formulas
Nn^'O Nn XJD, Nin nip "'NH, and xipo 1^ K'^ are
used to connect proverbs with Biblical i)assiiges, al-
though the connection is at times merely mechan-
ical ; sometimes a proverbial meaning entirely for-
eign to it is given to a Biblical passage, as with
Lev. xi. 15, "U'D^ 21iy-^D DN, which is paraphrased
as " Like seeks like."

Some Jewish proverbs are found in the New
Testament, as -jmiH 'DN N"'DN (Gen. R. 20b; comp.
Luke iv. 23). The proverbs originating in Palestine
are generally quoted in the Babylonian Talmud
with the phrase nON Nmj?D3, <>r p-|ON pn. Jeru-
salem is mentioned in Ket. 66b (N^HD p^ntO plD
D'^tri"'a); Galilee in B. K. 52 (HN^^^J 'NH cm);
etc. An aphorism in Yer. Kid. 13a is quoted in the
name of the millers (piDN N^jritD 'JH).

The nature of the pD313 '^S^TD C Kobsin prov-
erbs ") is not clear (see ^sop's Fables). A purely
Greek proverb is given in the Jerusalem Talmud
(•'Orient, Lit." viii. 330), and Arabic proverbs are
easily recognizable (Steinschneider, "Jildische Li-
teratur," in Ersch and Gruber, "Encyc." section ii.,
part 28, p. 374). Jewish proverbs, which are mostly
in Aramaic, are restrained and gentle in their satire,
and not trivial, like the Arabic proverbs quoted by
Freytag, "Proverbia Arabum,"iii. 354 (Steinschnei-
der, I.e. p. 375). It is indicative of a high level of
culture among the Jews, as Dukes correctly ob-
serves ("Blumenlese," p. 16), that physical infirmi-
ties were seldom ridiculed in their proverbs, as they
were among other peoples. The inhabitants of
Nohar Pekoda are derided as Abderites; those of
Pumbedita and Naresh as thieves (Hul. 127a); and
those of Mahoza as " fat-guts " (ib. 58b). Many per-
sons have become historical through proverbs, as
Kaniza and Bar Kamza (Git. 55b), Shwilnai (Sanh.
82b), Tobiah and Zigud (Pes. 113; Mak. 11a), Shilo
and Johanan (Gen. R. 21b). Among the Biblical
personages quoted are Zimri and Piiinehas (Sotah
22), Shechem and Mibgai (Mak. 11a). Garments
also furnish comparisons, as in "His girdle is a sign
of his poverty " (Hul. 108a). Moral lessons are drawn
from fables, or the fables themselves are epitomized
and quoted: e.g., in Sanh. 106 (the camel which
desired grain) ; Gen. R. 58a (the raven that set fire
to its ne.st); Yalk., Tehillim, 767 (the scorpion and
the camel).

Puns were popular; e.f/.,in Palestine when any
one married it was said NVID ^N XVr3 (Veb. 63b;
comp. Eccl. vii. 27). Proverbs ('K'JX 'lONHa) are
often quoted to elucidate difficulties in technical or
philosophical problems.

Among proverbial phrases may be mentioned
that in Sotah 47b referring to the "sycophants"
(= proud" [Rashi]); Gen. R. 59b, "Thy bread is

baked every where." equivalent to "Thou wilt find
sustenance anywhere"; Kid. 16b. "iota iistheKnmll-
estobject"; Yer. Ma'as. Sh. l.-ib. "U> vvcfzul/.,- nm-ti
bodkin" (i.e., his infiuence).

The Talmudic " nmslml " (proverb) i-, uNuully
concisely worded ; it condenses the sens*- it has to ex-
press into a few clear-cut words. The aninml king-
dom is frequently drawn upon for illuHinition. and
many of the fables and moralizations drawn there
from become popular pnip.rty by rei)etiiion. and
ultimately are summed up in the form of proverl»H.
It is to be noted that the Talmudic proverb Is gener
ally expressed in concrete form, whereas proverl)8
in languages other than Hebrew favor abslraci ex-
pressions. Com pure, for instance, Ycb. 45a: K^c:
Nnp") N3PN n?D3 ("In Media the cam.-l .lances on'i
basket"), which has the same meaning oh the
French, " A beau mensonger qui vient de loin " (" He
who comes from afar may easily lie ") ; or B. K. 92m
{<3-l3 V^ NV'n nn3 (" Hurt the stalk and you hurt
the cabbage"), which corresponds to the German
"Mitgegangen, mitgefangen. "

The following may be taken as examples of Tal-
mudic proverbs:

Character: The character of a man may be refx>(niU5e<l by
three thlnj?s— his cup, his purse, and his anRer.

Man and the H'orW. Before ii man attains one-half of bU
desires, death comes.

Youth and A.(ie. He who possesses wisdom is old. Old men
for the council, young men for war. When the old demoUab.
they build ; when the young build, they destroy.

Fortune and Misfortune. ForturiL' Is u wheel which re-
volves with speed. The stars In heaven weep with him who
weeps by night. Three kinds of men <aus.-
Talmudic their own misfortunes : those who lend iii :.•
Proverbs, without witnesses [without taking a n*<'ii ; ;
those who are ruled by their wives ; and t!. ~
who go Into slavery by their own will. And who an* these [ lat-
ter] ? Those who give their whole property to their children
while they themselves are still In the flesh.

Wealth and Poverty. Whoso enjoyelh his riches is rich.
Poverty runs after the poor, and wealth after the wealthy.
[Comp. Matt. xxv. 29: " For unto every one that balh shall be
given."] Only the ignorant man is really poor.

Wi»dom and Foil II. A wise man i.s greater than a propheL
He who learns from every one Is wise.

Pietu and Virtue. Moral transgressions are worse tban
ritual transgressions. Prayer without devotion Is like a body
without soul.

Sin and Viec. Sinful thoughts are worse than sinful deeds.
The eye and the heart aie agents of sin.

I'assion. Evil inclination is at flrst slender as a spider'i
thread, and then strong as a rope. The greater the man, the
more violent his piiiision.

Self-Ktioivlediit. Adorn thyself before thou undertakest to
adorn others.

Moderation. When wine enters In, the secret slips out. He
who can digt^t barley-bread must not eat wheat-hn-ad.
Modest)/. Wantonness [leads] to hell, modesty t<> i«nidl»e.
n'orh. The famine lusted for years, but It did not enter the
houses of the working men. Better to bv a sen'ani In the t<-m-
ple of an idol than to take alms.

Lraniinii. Learning Is iH-tter than sacrlOce. LeamloK !•
better than priesthtxxl or kingship, l^-anilng pn«mc)tei pearf
in the world. If thou hast ac<iulred knowledjn'. what dost th<>u
lack? If thou lackest knowledge, what hant thou aixjulred 7
A ba.stard with learning Is In-tter than a high priest with Igno-
ranee. The sage who teaches not In as the myrtle In the di-sert.
Tcaehinu the Vounu- The teacher dt'ser*'e9 the name of
father more than does the parent . A blow wlUi tbe tomrue whlcb
goes to the heart Is belter than manv strlp^-s.

Man avil Wifr. [On woman In rabbinical llteratuiv iee
" Mittheilungen der (iesellschaft filr Jfldl.ohe Volkskunde," I.
ni. note 8.] If thy wife is short, stoop and whlnper into her
ear. Whoso remalneth unmarrl«>d deserreth not the name of
man. for it is written : " Man and woman created he them, and
he called their name man."

Proverbs

Proverbs, Book of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

228

Parentsand Children. Whoso striketh hisson that is grown
drlveth him lo sin.

BfTievfilence and Fri4:nd«hip. Thou shall be measured with
the same measure with which thou measurest. [Comp. Matt,
vii. 2.] Love him who showeth thee thy faults more than him
who only praiseth thee.

Gratitude. Cast not stones into the well from which thou
hast drunk.

Philanthropy. Benevolence is better than sacrifice. Even
the bird in the air knoweth the niggard. The beggar doth more
for the giver than the giver for the beggar [comp. " It Is moie
blessed to give than to receive"]. Who practiseth friendship
entertaineth God Himself.

Pride and Humilitu. If thou spittest Into the air. thy spittle
will fall on thine own face. Pride is a mask for faults.

Iiii>-ultaud Jiijuru. If one in a family has hanged himself,
say not to them. " Hang up the flsh," for this might be deemed
an allusion. Be persecuted rather than persecute.

Contention. It was said in Palestine: "Whoso first desist-
eth from strife is of good family." A quarrel is as a leak in a
pall, which ever increases.

Anger and MHdnei<s. Patience ["matun"] is worth 200
["matan"] dinars.

Speech and Silence. A word is worth one dinar, silence is
worth two. Like a bee. a word has honey in its sting.

Slander. The tongue of slander kills three: him who Is slan-
dered, him who slanders, and him who listens.

Luing and Truthfulness. A lie has no feet. Truth Is the
seal of God.

Seendiness. Eat and drink according to thy means; dress
above thy means. Three things are good in small measure, but
not In large : leaven, salt, and a refusal [in accepting attentions].

Self-Criticiitm. The Jews give both to build the Temple and to
make the golden calf. Israel is compared to the stars of heaven
and to the dust of earth : if it rises, it rises to the stars, and if it
falls, it falls even to the dust. The true Jew is distinguished
for three qualities : sympathy, modesty, and benevolence.

Death. So live that people may speak well of thee at
thy grave. The Just needs no memorial, for his deeds are his
monument.

The Talmud contains a large fund of genuine
world-wi.sdom in the form of Aramaic proverbs and
popular sayings. They touch the whole round of
human existence ; the home, the family, society, as
well as all the circumstances of the individual, are
treated of with a keen knowledge of life and life's
experiences. Cities and countries, as
Aramaic well as personages both Biblical and
Proverbs. non-Biblical, are made the subjects of
popular sayings. Those that follow
certain callings are also favorite subjects of these ut-
terances, as, for instance, weavers and wool-carders;
all revealing incidentally curious little points of
information concerning the manners and customs,
local happenings and circumstances, of those days in
Babylonia and Palestine.

A proverb is frequently adduced in proof or at.
testation of some special teaching — and this not ex-
clusively in haggadic portions of the Talmud; and
it is not unusual even for a halakic discussion to be
decided by the quotation of some popular say-
ing, or for a lengthy religious controversy to be
finally ended by the citation of some terse and ap-
propnate maxim of daily life. There are traces of
small collections of such sayings in the Talmud
itself, as, for instance, in B. K. 02b, 93a, and Yeb.
118b. Some proverbs, moreover, possess value as
proffering etymological explanations of words the
meanings of which have become obscure. Some,
and especially such as are paralleled in the New
Testament, were no doubt exceedingly frequent in
the mouths of the people long before the writing
down of the Talmud. Those which lefer to histor-
ical personages may be approximately fixed as to

their date, but these, of course, are in the minority.
The language in which all of these are couched is
the eastern Aramaic dialect, which about the year
500 was spoken in the upper Euphrates and Tigris

lands.
J. M. Git.

To the student of comparative proverbial litera-
ture the study of the Aramaic sayings and prov-
erbs should yield rich results. Very many of them
are encountered in some form in other languages,
and many more have been adopted verbatim. The
following may serve as examples:

niS ^^^p NDNi n^r2Z' ndn, •'c'^'n ''j'3 ^npt nDN (Sanh. 44a;
" A myrtle is called a myrtle, and is a myrtle.
Comparative even when growing among ferns"); compare
Use. " II mirto e sempre mirto benche sia I'ortichl."

n^S N-\'-\p jis.n PDipna t'^cn Nncn (Shab.
5.5a ; " The ass freezes, even in the month of Tammuz'"); com-
pare " Chi e destinato a gelare gela del mese d'Agosto."

3JJ N"\in N^N DJJ N"*aDj7 1N^ (Git. 4oa ; Kid. 56b: "Not the
mouse is the thief, but the mouse's hole ").

3jjS HNnip nxno ("Opportunity makes the thief "); compare
" Le trou invite le larron " and " Occasio facit furem."

■>in'S NDU'T\D n'r'33 Nm|i (Meg. 12b; "Even the weaver is
a ruler in his own house ") ; compare " Chacun se tient fort sur
son fumier" and " My house is my castle."

n'-^Di NH^irpT Nap ■'H, i-\?:m '•zp '">n (Yoma 79b; "Two
kabs of dates, one kab of stones"); compare " Two baskets of
dates, one basket of stones."

J. SK. L. Lew.

The following proverbs in Judaeo-German are still
current in eastern Europe :

God and the ^y'orld. None has ever lost aught to God.

God waits long, but pays with interest.

God strikes with one hand and heals with the other.

Man strives and God laughs.

Whom God would regale, man can not quail.

If thou intend a thing. God will help thee.

God gives naught for nothing.

One path leads to paradise, but a thousand to hell.

Better to receive from God by the spoonful than from man by
the bushel.

The world can be changed by neither scolding nor laughing.

A man can bear more than ten oxen can draw.

God forbid that we should experience all that we are able to
bear.

Ten enemies can not do a man the harm that he does to him-
self.

A man can eat alone, but not work alone.

Comrades are needed both for joy and for sorrow.

Better a fool that has traveled than a wise man who has re-
mained at home. [Compare " Mittheilungen der Gesell-
schaft fiir Judische Volkskunde," i. 30, and Benfey, "Pant-
schatantra." ii. 0, No. 21.]

A fool bringeth sorrow. [Compare ib. ii. 2. No. 8.]

Everything in one is nowhere found.

If folk knew what others intended for them, they would kill
themselves.

To know a man you must ride in the same cart with him.
Man and Wonxiii. [Compare "Mittheilungen." i. 31.] The
wife exalteth her husband and casteth him down.

Give thine ear to all. thy hand to thy friends, but thy lips only
to thy wife.

A man without a wife is like a " lulab " without "etrog."

A third person may not interfere between two that sleep on
the same pillow.

Women persuade men to good as well as to evil, but they al-
ways persuade.

Women refrain from reproving the tailor when he sews
shrouds for them.

Women must be led to the " huppah," but they run to the
divorce.

Fools generally have pretty wives.

(irace is worth more than beauty.

Love tastes sweet, but only with bread.
Family Life: Parents; VliUdrr)t. Small children, small
joys; large children, large annoys.

There is no bad mother and no good death.

229

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Proverbs, Book of

When the mother dlea the nelprhbors ascertain how many

children she had.
Parents may have a dozen children, but each one Is the only

one for them.
A boy, a blessing. [See " Mitthelliingen." 1. 30, and Benfey,

I.e. U. 51 : "A Kin has been twni : a ^reat care," etc.]
A married daughter is as a piece of bread that Is cut olT.
A father supports ten children, but ten children do not sup-
port one father.
The mother-in-law and the daughter-in-law do not ride In the

same cart.
Money. Though money has a dirty father, it is regarded as

noble.
A golden nail drops from a golden cart.
He who saves is worth more than he who earns.
If thou borrowest money, thou dost purchase thee an enemy.
Shrouds have no pockets.
The way most valued leads to the pocket.
In hell an ox is worth a groschen, but no man has that groschen.
The poor are ever liberal.
He that is sated believes not the hungry.
If a poor man eat a chicken, either he is sick or the chicken

was sick.
He that hath "me'ot" [hundreds] hath "pe'ot" [opinions].
Self-Criticism. Before the Jew goes t« market he buys every-
thing cheap [optimism].
If a Jew breaks a leg, he says, " Praised be God that I did not

break both legs " : if he breaks both, he says, " Praised be

God that I did not break my neck.''
When a Jew is hungry, he sings; when the master [Polish

nobleman] is hungry, he whistles; when the peasant is

hungry, he beats his wife.
Every Jew has his own Shulhan 'Aruk.
If the Jew be right, he is beaten all the more.
The master [nobleman] thinks of his horse and dog, the Jew

of his wife and child.
If only two Jews remained in the world, one would summon

to the synagogue and the other would go there.
Fate. Intelligence is not needed for luck, but luck Is needed

for intelligence.
When luck fails, the ducat loses worth.
If I can not do as I will, I would rather sit still.
Dowries and inheritances bring no luck.
Nothing is so bad but that good may come of It.
He who rejoices in his neighbor's good fortune will prosper.
He with whom luck plays the game hits the mark without

his aim.
Life and Death. The angel of death always finds an excuse.
Better ruined ten times than dead once.
No man dies before his time.

Every man knows that he must die, but no one believes It.
Better a noble death than a wTetched life.

The following proverbs are from earlier Judfeo-
Gernian literature (compare " Mittheilungen," ii.
5-22; Gliickcl of Hameln, pp. 44, 47; Emden, "I)i-
bre Emet we-Shalom," p. 16):

He often gives counsel who has none himself.

The rope drawn too taut is apt to break.

As if a fried pigeon had flown into his mouth.

Thou coverest shame with llg-leaves.

The churl should not ride the king's horse.

Where there is nothing the emperor loses his power.

Parsimony enriches not, nor does benevolence Impoverish.

Bibliography : I. Bernstein, Jlhlisch^ SpricJiworter, in Hnu.t-
freund, 1889; H. Bloch, Omri Inschi, Breslau, 18K4 ; L.
Dukes, Rnbbini.-<chc Blumenlese, Leipsic, 1844; idem, Zi/r
Eabhinixchen Spruchkunde, Vienna, 18.W; I). Ehnnann,
Au.'i Pald.'<tina und Bahyhm ; R. Faulche-Delbosi. I'roverlux
J»d<'o-£;.spa(7>iote, Paris, 189.5 ; G. N. Gotemb, Muthlc Ha-
/fanii'/n, Wilna, 1879; Ad. JcWinek, Drr JlUli.<>ehe Stanim,
Vienna, 1869; Dav. Kahane, Mi)<tde 'Am, in Ha-Asif. 111.-
Iv., Warsaw, 188C-87; M. Kayserlmg, liihl. Ettp.-Port.-Jud.:
Idem, in Revue Hispanique. Paris, 1897; Mos. Levin, ^rn-
mdische SprichwOrtcr und VnlksitprUche, Frankfort -on-the-
Main, 189.5; F. Sailer, Sim ».'>-pr(lc/ir aus dem T(dmud %ind
de7- Hahhinischen Ldrratitr. Berlin ; M. Schuhl, Sintcnces
et Prnverbefi, Paris, 1878; Jac. Stern, Lirhtstrahlcn oui'
dem Tnlm^til, Zurich, 1882; A. Tendlau, Sprivlnirntrr uiiil
liedcnxartcn I)putscf}-.Tl}dUrher V(n~zeit, Frank fort-on-thc-
Main, 18«0; M. Wahl, Da.s Sprichwnrt drr HclnfiiKch-Ara-
mdi.'^choi Lit eratKr. heipaic. 1871; Weissberg, MMdr Knd-
nxniim, Neisin. 1900; Michelstadt, Mlllin dr-RalitiaiKuu
Fraukfort-on-the-Oder. 1790 (new ed., 18C9) ; Buxtorf, 7'7on-
fcffium, etc., Ba.sel, 1648; Fiirstenthal, Rahtiinische Antho-
logie, Breslau, 1835; G. Furst, Perlen Aramdischer Onnmen,

U'IpsIc, 1KI6; Jolowlcz, mUUn Raiihiui<u-her WrtrheH

Thorn, lH4tt: DcdHuucr. SpruchUricon <

MidniMch, Hii(lii|M-st. IKTtl ; Kohut, .1

Wl)ns<he, AVue IttilrHQi zur KrUluUru...j ... , /.,,..,l,-(,. -,

(ju»T(ilmxul und HidrMch, GOttlntfen. 1»78; I. H»uiburK<T.

' M. Oil.

PROVERBS, BOOK OF: Oneof tlu- K< tiihim. or
Hagiograpliii. Iti-ldiiKing to tlie group of " Iloktuuli,"
or " Wisdom " tiooks. Tlic .Ma-sort-tic supiTmription
to the first and twenty (ifth liiuptrrs is ** Proverbs
of Solomon " (" Iklishlu Hheiomoli " ; and ho in the sub-
scrij)ti()n to tlie Jjook in the Ah-xandrian and Siria-
itic Grecii MSS.); but in tii(; Greek and in later Jew
ish usage (and in the A. V. and K. V.) the »K)ok iH <-n-
titled simply "Proverbs" (" Misliie ") Tlie longer
title belonged originally to the central collection of
aphorisms, x. 1-xxii. 16, and to xxv.-xxix., and may
have been extended early to the whole work, but
the shorter form became the predominant one, as,
indeed, there are other titles to certain
Title and sections (.xxii. 17, xxx. 1, xx.xi. 1) It
Divisions, is uncertain whether or not the name
"Wisdom" (or "All-Virtuous Wis-
dom "), common in early Christian writings (Clement
of Rome, "Corinth," i. 57; Eusebius, "Hist. Ecd."
iv. 22 et al.), was of Jewish origin; the designation
"Book of Wisdom "in the Talmud (Tosef., B. B.
14b) may be a descriptive term and not a title, and
the citation of Job xxviii. 12 ("But where shall wis-
dom be found?") at the beginning of the Midnish
merely indicates that the book belongs in the Hok-
mah category.

The following divisions of the book are indicated
in the text: (1) A group of discourses on the con-
duct of life (i.-ix.), comprising the praise of wisdonj
as the guide of life (i.-iv.); warnings against tin-
chaste women (v.-vii. ; with three misplaced para-
graphs, vi. 1-19, against certain social faults); the
description of wisdom as the controller of life and
as Ynwn's companion in the creation of the world
(viii.); and a contrast between wisdom and folly (i.v ;
with a misplaced collection of aphorisms, ix. 7-12).
(2) A collection, or book, of aphoristic couplets (x.
1-xxii. 16). (3) Two small groups of aphoristic
quatrains (xxii. 17-xxiv. 22 and xxiv. 23-^). (4)
A second collection of couplets (xxv.-xxix). (5) A
miscellaneous group of discourses and numerical
aphorisms (xxx.-xxxi.), mostly in tetraiis: reverent
agnosticism (xxx. 1-4); certainty of God's word (5-
6); a prayer (7-9); against slandering a servant (10);
against certain vices and errors (1 1-33) ; a co<ic for a
king (xxxi. 1-9); a picture of a model housewife
(10-31). These divisions, various in form and mn-
tent, suggest that the book was formed by flu- com-
bination of a number of booklet^s.

The ascription of the book to Solomon, in tlie titles
and in tradition, is without valid foundation. In
the Prophets and Psalms titles are admittedly not
authoritative — they are based on the feeling or
gues.ses of late .scribes, not on documentary evi-
dence— and they can not be more trustworthy here.

The elaborate heading to the section

Not xxv.-xxix. ("Proverbs of Solomon

Solomonic. Edited by Scholars of Ilezekiah's

Court ") is pamllele<l by the super
scriptions to some of the F^«lm» (li., Hx.. Ix.).
which are manifestly untrustworthy. Hezekiah's

Proverbs, Book of
Proverbs, Midrash to

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

230

time may have been chosen by the author of this
heading because he regarded tlie collection xxv.-
xxix. as later than x.-xxii. 16, and therefore to be
referred to the Augustan age of Hezekiah. which
followed the golden age of David and Solomon.
But there is no proof that the age of Hezekiah was
Augustan ; on the contrary, it was a period of con-
flict, and the work of editing and combining did
not begin till a century or two later. Moreover, as
is pointed out below, the thought of the Book of
Proverbs is as alien to the Hezekian as to the Solo-
monic age.

In the first place, there is no trace in the book of
the religious problems and conflicts of the pre-exilic
period. The Prophets, from Amos to Ezekiel, are
in deadly fear of foreign cults, and testify, during
this whole period, that Israel is more or less given
over to the worship of other gods than Yhwh and
to idolatry. The polemic against sucli infidelity is
the dominant note of the prophetic preaching down
to the latter half of the sixth century. But in Prov-
erbs there is not a word of all this. Monotheism is
quietly taken for granted. There is no mention of
priests or prophets (the word " vision " in xxix. 18
is a clerical error); the sacrificial ritual is almost
completely ignored. Throughout the literature till
the time of Ezra the national interest is predomi-
nant; here it is quite lacking — the name Israel does
not occur. The religious atmosphere of the book is
wholly different from that which characterizes Jew-
ish thought down to the end of the fifth century.

In no point is the change more noticeable than in
the attitude toward wisdom. The wisdom of the
pre-Ezran Old Testament writings is shrewd com-
mon sense and general keen intelligence (II Sam.
xiv. ; I Kings iii.); and because it was controlled by
worldly considerations it was looked on with dis-
favor by the Prophets as not being in harmony with
the word of God as they understood it (Jer. viii. 9,
ix. 23; Ezek. vii. 26). In Proverbs it stands for the
broadest and highest conception of life, and is iden-
tified with the law of God. Yet it is the utterance
of sages, whose counsel is represented as the only
sufficient guide of conduct (i.-iv., xxii. 17-21). The
sages do not employ the prophetic formula "Thus

saith the Lord " or appeal to the law
■Wisdom, of Moses; they speak out of their own

minds, not claiming divine inspira-
tion, yet assuming the absolute authoritativeness of
what they say — that is, they regard conscience as
the final guide of life. While the contents of the
book are various, parts of it dealing with simple,
every-day matters, the prevailing tone is broadly
religious: God is the ruler of the world, and wisdom
is the expression (through human conscience) of His
will. In one passage (viii.), animated by a fine en-
thusiasm, wisdom is personified (almost hyposta-
tized) as a cosmic force, the nursling of God, stand-
ing by His side at the creation of the world (comp.
Job xxviii. ; Wisdom of Solomon vii.). This con-
ception, foreign to the pre-Ezran Old Testament
thought, suggests the period when tlie Jews came
under Greek influence.

The theology of Proverbs is the simplest form of
theism. The individual man stands in direct rela-
tion with God, needing no man or angel to act as

mediator (comp. Job v. 1, xxxiii. 23). No super-
natural being, e.viept God, is mentioned. Salvation
lies in conduct, which is determined by man's will.
Men are divided into two classes, the righteous and
the wicked : tiie former are rewarded, the latter
punished, by God ; how one may pass from one class
into the other is not said. Reward and punishment
belong to tlie present life; the conception of the
underworld is the same as in the body of Old Testa-
ment writings ; there is no reference to ethical immor-
tality (on xi. 7 and xiv. 32 see the commentaries).
Wickedness leads to premature deatii (v. 5, ix. 18,
et al.)\ wisdom confers long life (iii. 16). Doubt-
less the authors, pious men, observed the national
sacrificial laws (xv. 8), but they lay no stress on
them — they regard conduct as the important thing.
The book contains no Messianic element. The de-
scription in xvi. 10-15 is of the ideal king, who is

controlled by the human law of right

No Im- (in contrast with the delineations in

mortality Isa. xi. 1-5, xxxii. 1, 2; Zech. ix. 9).

or This attitude may point to a time

Messiah, when there was a lull in the general

Messianic interest (about 250-200 B.C.),
but it is satisfactorily accounted for by the supposi-
tion that the sages, concerned with the inculcation of
a universal code of life, took little interest in tlie
popular hope of a restoration of national inde-
pendence.

Proverbs bears witness, especially in the first and
the third division, to the existence of some sort of
organized higher instruction at the time when it
was composed. The frequent form of address, " my
son," indicates the relation of a teacher to his pupils.
There is no information regarding regular academies
before the second century b.c. (from Antigonus of
Soko onward), but it is probable that those that are
known did not spring into existence without fore-
runners. The instruction in such schools would
naturally be of the practical ethical sort that is found
in Proverbs (on the "' mashal " form here adopted
see Proverbs). The book has been always highly
valued for the purity and elevation of its moral
teaching. Not only are justice and truthfulness
everywhere enjoined, but revenge is forbidden
(xxiv. 17), and kindness to enemies insisted on (xxv.
21). The conception of family life is a high one:
monogamy is taken for granted ; children are to
honor parents, and parents to be the guides of chil-
dren; an honorable position is assigned the wife and
mother. Infidelity on the part of a married woman
is denounced at length (v., vii.), and the youth is
repeatedly warned against the "strange woman,"
that is, the unchaste wife of another man. There
are many maxims relating to thrift and economy
(vi. 1-11, xxvii. 23-27, ct al.). Excess is denounced,
and self-control and temperance enjoined. The
motive urged for well-doing is well-being, success,
and happiness. In so far the ethical system is util-
itarian, but the success presented as a goal, while
sometimes merely material (xi. 15; xviii. 2, 18, etal.),
rises at other times to the height of an ideal concep-
tion of a happy life (iii., viii.). In this higher sense
the utilitarian view approaches the idea of a life de-
voted to humanity, though this idea is not definitely
expressed in Proverbs.

231

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Proverbs, Book of
Proverbs, Midrash to

The characteristics described above point to tiie
post-Eziau period as the time of origination of tlu;
book ; to this period alone can be referred the tacit
recognition of monotheism and monogamy, tiie ab-
sence of a national tone, and the marks of a devel-
oped city life. These traits are reproduced in Ben
Sini (B.C. 190), the similarity of whose thought to
that of Proverbs is obvious. But this latter is made
up of dilTerent parts that appear to be of dififereut
dates. From a comparison of thought and form the
following conclusion may be regarded as probable:
The earliest collections (about the year 400) were the

aphorisms contained in x.-xv., xvi.-
Date. xxii. IG, xxv.-xxvii., and xxviii.-

xxix., from which later editors formed
the two booklets, x.-xxii. 16 and xxv.-xxix. (350-
300). A little later came the collection of more elab-
orate quatrains, xxii. 17-xxiv., and, toward the
middle of the third century, the sustained discourses
of i.-ix. The latest section, probably, is xxx.-xxxi..
and the whole may have been edited not long before
the year 200. These dates are approximate, but it
seems reasonably certain that the book is later than
the year 400 B.C. On the objection made to its
canonization see Bible Canon (§ 11); on the text
and versions see the commentaries. In the Septua-
gint the order of subsections in the third, fourth,
and fifth divisions is as follows: xxii. 17-xxiv. 22;
XXX. 1-14; xxiv. 28-34; xxx. 15-33; xxxi. 1-9;
xxv.-xxix.; xxxi. 10-31. Whether this divergence
from the Hebrew order is due to accident, or to ca-
price, or to an original difference of arrangement, it
is hardly possible to say.

Bibliography: Text: Baumgartner, Etude Critique sxir
VEtat du Texte du Livre des Provcrhe^, 1890; Birkell, In W.
Z. K. M. 1891; Pinkuss (Syrlac version), in Stade's Zeit-
»chrift, 1894; Gratz, In his Monatsschrift, 1884, and Emen-
datUmes, 1892-94; Chajes.Prouer/jieu 6'<i/die»i. 1899; Muller
and Kautzsch. in S. B. O. T. 1901.

Translations and Commentaries : Midrash Mishle, ed.
Buber, 1893 ; Saadia, ed. Derenbourg, 1894 ; Rashl, Ibn Ez-
ra, Levi b. Gershom, In Giggelus, In Prnveibia Salomonis,
1620. For other Jewish commentaries see L. Dukes, in Cahen.
La Bihh\ 1847, and H. Deutsch, Die Sjjraclte Salnmou'x
nach Talmud und Midraxch DargcMcUt, 188.5 ; Ewald. Poe-
tischc BUcher des A. T.'s, 1837, 1867 ; Delitzsch, Cimmentai-y.
English trans!., 1875 ; Nowack, in Kurzuefmnten Esegetische»
Handbuch, 1887; Frankenburg, in Nowack's Hand-Kom-
mentar, 1898; Toy, in Intemaliimal Critical Cnmrnentary.
1899. See also Bois, La PnMe Onomique, 1886 ; Cheyne, Ji>h
and Snlnmon, 1887 ; Monteflore, iVotes upon Prnverhti, in J.
Q. R. 1889-90. Parallels from other literatures are given by
Malan, Oriffinal Notenim the Book of Proverbs, 1889-93, and
G. Jacobs, Altarabische Parallelen zum A. T. 1897.

PROVERBS, MIDRASH TO : llaggadic mid-
rash to Proverbs, first mentioned, under the title
"Midrash Mishle," by R. Hananeel b. Hushiel (first
half of the 11th cent.) as quoted in "Mordekai " on
B. M. iii. 293. Nathan of Rome calls this midrash
"Agadat Mishle" ('"Aruk," s.i\ npj). It was, be-
sides, called erroneously " Shoher Job " (ed. Zolkiev,
1800; Benjacob, "Czar ha-Sefarim." p. 302, Nos.
449-401). The midrash has not been preserved en-
tire ; for there are no comments whatever on several
chapters, e.g., on iii., vii., and xviii., and others have
been annotated only in part. The editor of the
Yalkut used some portions of this midrash which are
noAV missing, although it may be assumed that not
all the sentences which he included in his work with
the statement that they were taken from this mid-
rash were really a part of the Midrash Mishle which

he had at hand (comp. Buber. " Midrash Mialile," In
trod action, p. Tth).

This midrash is different from all the other hag-
gadic midraHhimin that its intiTpretution8u|)proaeh
tiie aim pie cxege.sia then in vogue,
Form. being brief and free from the prolix-
ity found in thi' other midnuiliim. ho
that this work is in the f(jrm of acommenlury rather
than in that of a midrash. The interpretations fol-
low imiiKilialfly upon the W(jrds of liie te.\t, with-
out the iiilrodiictoiy formula.s found in the other
midrashim. "as Scripture says." or " Hai)bi N. N.
began"; tin- latter fdriimla, however, oeeurn at the
beginning of the midriish. Tiie editor of the mid-
rash drew upon the Mishnali, Tosefta, Mekllta.
Sifre, Pesikta de Hah Kahana, Abot de-I{abbi Natan,
Bereshit Habl)uli, \Vuyil>ra Hiibl)ali, KcclesiiiHtes
Hal)bah, Canticles Raltbah, and the Babylonian Tal-
mud. But he does not seem to have known any tiling
about the Palestinian Talmud, since he does not quote
from it. The editor was therefore j)robablya Baby-
lonian, although this can not be definitely decided.

The exact time at which the editor lived can not
be determined. Zunz holds ("G. V." p. 2CH) tlial the
midrash was compiled in the middle of tiie eleventh
century; but Lhis is dubious inasmuch as it is men-
tioned by name by Hananeel and Nathan, both of
whom lived in the first half of that century. Buber
thinks that the midrash was compiled as early as the
eighth century, since quotations from it are found,
though not with references to the source, at the end of
the" HalakotGedolot"andin the" Seder R. Amram."
12b. Although the midrash contains comparatively
few legends, myths, or parables, it has many in-
teresting sentences for which no parallel exists in
the other midrashim. For instance, the four riddles
which the Queen of Sheba propounded to Solomon
(Buber, I.e., p. 20b) are found in noother extant mid-
rash, but they correspond to the first four of the nine-
teen riddles mentioned in the manuscript Midrasli
ha-Hefez (comp. S. Schechter in "Folk-Lore." 1H90.
p. 353).

Aside from the manuscripts mentioned by Buber
(pp. 14b-15a), there is one of the Midrash Mishle in
the library of the Jewish Theological Seminary of
America (p. 5, 1018, fols. 25a-4Sb). Tliis manu-
script, wliicli includes only rliapters

Manu- i. to xvi., corresponds in many pas-
scripts and sages with the Constantinople edition

Editions. In xiv. 34 (ed. Buber. p. MOb) it has
"Metatron" instead of " Micliael." as
in the printed editions. If this reading is the orig-
inal one, it would confirm the assumption that tii.-
editor was a Babylonian, since the name "Me^aU"" "
occurs only a few times in the Palestinian sourct-s.
the name "Michael " being found instea.l (r rj.Tnr^:
Yer. on Ex. xxiv. 1 has " Mieha.l." while S:i:;!.
381) has "Metatron").

The first edition was issued at enii.smntuiojuf
without date ; the second, at Venice in 1547. Apart
from these two, eight other editions have l)oen issued
(comp Buber. Introduction, p. lOaV The lat.-st and
best edition is that by Huber (Wilna. \xmy with an
introduction and notes. The Midrash Mishle has
been translated into German by August \N linschc
(Leipsic, 1885).

Providence

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

232

Bibliography: Zunz, O. V. pp. :J68-369; Weiss, D<jr, ill. 276;
Buber, Introduction to bis edition of the Slidnuh MMik ;
Wiinsche, introduction to his translation of the Midra«h
Muhle.
■w. B. J. Z. L.

PROVIDENCE i-p6vota): The term occurs only

in the Apocryphal books (Wisdom xiv. 3, xvii. 2),

and has no equivalent in Biblical Hebrew, the later

philosophical writers employing " hashgahah " as a

translation for the Anibic" 'inayah." "Providence"

is employed to connote (1) God's "actio sterna "

(His foreknowledge and His disposi-

Two lions for the realization of His supreme

Senses of will [-poyfuatc and Trpodeoic]), and (2)

the Term. God's "actio temporis" (His power to

preserve and to control the universe

and all that is therein). Most theologians use the

term solely in the latter sense, to which, therefore,

the following discussion is confined.

The doctrine of the providential care and govern-
ment of the world is found among non-Jewish and,
perhaps, non-monotheistic authors (comp. Cicero,
"De Natura Deorum," ii. 30 et seq.\ Seneca, "De
Providentia"). Socrates argues that a beneficent
providence is manifest in the construction of the
human organs (Xenophon's "Memorabilia," i. 4, §2).
The faith in providence, Ynwii's all-sustaining and
directing care, more especially manifest in His rela-
tions to His people Israel, is variously, but always
clearly, expressed in Hebrew Scriptures. Though
nowhere presented in coherent systematic form, the
Biblical belief in providence reflects the spontaneous
religious consciousness of humble and confident be-
lievers rather than the reasoned deductions of stren-
uous thinkers.

Disregarding questions concerning chronological
sequence, and other questions involved in the crit-
ical school's assumption of an evolutionary process
in Israel's religion, the following collection of Bib-
lical statements will serve to illustrate the views of
Scripture on providence:

From heaven the Eternal looks down ; He sees all the sons of
man (Ps. xxxiii. 13, li). In the heavens the Eternal has His
throne, but His government encompasses all (Ps. xi. 4). God's
realm embraces all the worlds (eons), still His rule extends over
every generation (Ps. cxlv. 13). God is King (■\^-z) and Shep-
herd (Ps. xxili. 1). God Is the Record-Keeper (Ps. cxxxix. 16).
Nature is constantly the object of divine sustaining solicitude,
and always under divine direction (Job xxxvi. 27, xxxviii. 25;
Isa. xl.. xll.; Jer. xxxlll. 31-a5; Ps. Ixvi. 8 et Kcq.\ riv. 13,29, 30;
cxlvll. 14-18) . God provides food In due season for all (Ps. cxlv.
16). .Man la uninterruptedly under divine care (Ps. xxii. 10;
Job xiv. 5). God directs the course of human affairs, the fate
and fortune of the peoples (Ps. xxxvii. 5, xlvi. 10, Ixvi. 7, xcl.
1-7. civ. 1»-16; Prov. xvi. 4; Dan. ii. 21, Iv. 14; Isa. x. 5-10 ;
Jer. v. 24, xvlii. 7-8; Job xxxvii. 2-7; Amos Iv. 7).

In the life of the Biblical heroes the reality of
this divine guidance and protection is prominently
brought out (Gen. xxiv. 7; xlviii. 4, 15, 20). But
it is Israel that is eminently the beneficiary of divine
solicitude, witnessing in its own fortunes God's prov-
idence (comp. Deut. xxxii.). Essentially interwo-
ven with the Biblical doctrine of the Messianic
kingdom is the thought that the providence of God,
the Ruler, is effective in the conflicts and relations
of the various peoples. A necessary corollary of
this faith in providence was the optimism which
characterizes the Biblical world-conception. Evil
was either caused by man, who had the freedom of

choosing, or was disciplinary and punitive; in
either case it served the end of divine providence.
The sinner was, perhaps, the dearest object of di-
vine watchfulness and love (see Opti.mis.m and Pes-
siMis.M). The simple faith of the Biblical writers
never stopped to inquire how providence and human
freedom could be shown to be congruous.

The position of the Tannaim and Amoraim is not
essentially different from that taken in the Biblical
books. Their opinions may be gath-
Talmudic ered from scattered homiletical and
Views. exegetical comments, from parables
and anecdotes ; but no sj'stematic pres-
entation may be reconstructed from the.se detached
observations of theirs. The following quotations
may throw light on the underlying theology: All
that God does is for a good purpose (Ber. 60b). Ac-
cording to R. Akiba, every event is predetermined,
though liberty is given. The world is judged in
goodness, yet the decision is rendered in accordance
with the predominating character of man's conduct
(Ab. iii. 24; Ab. R. N. xxxix.). All is determined
and all is finally made plain. Even in the seem-
ing irrationality of the prosperity of evil-doeis and
of the suffering of the righteous, God's purpose
is effective (Ab. iii. 16; Yoina86b). God is pictured
as making ladders, on which He causes some to
ascend and others to descend ; in other words, God
is the Arbiter of men's fate and fortune (Lev. R.
viii. ; Gen. R. Ixviii. ; Pesik. lib; Midr. Shemu'el,
V. ; Tan., Bemidbar, 18). Moses, praying for insight
into God's ways, learns why evil-doers prosper and
the righteous suffer (Ber. 7a). God protects Pales-
tine and, on its account, all other lands also. He
•guards Israel and other nations as well (Sifre, Deut.
40). None may wound a finger unless it be so de-
creed above (Hul. 7b).

God's protection is not like that extended by man
to man. Royal servants watch in the streets over
the safety of the king in the pialace. God'sservants
remain in their houses while He, the King, watches
over them from without (Men. 38b; 'Ab. Zarah 11a,
with reference to themezuzah). God's providential
care is especially extended to those that "go down
the sea in ships," to travelers in the desert, and to
those that are recovering from illness (Jollinek, "B.
II." i. 110). Rain and the miracle of human birth
are often adduced as evidences of divine providence
(Ta'an. 2; Lev. R. xiv. 2-3). Serpents, lions, even
governments, work harm only under God's decrees
(Eccl. R. X. 11). Deut. xxxi. 15 is invoked to prove
that man's physical condition and moral and mental
qualifications are predetermined by providence be-
fore birth, though freedom of choice is allowed to
him(Tan., Pikkude; Yalk. ii. 716). The actions of
the leaders in history were predetermined in God's
council at Creation ("B. II. "i. 1; PirkeR. El. xxxii.).
The old prayers aflirm this doctrine; God's crea-
tive activity is uninterrupted (so in "Yozer Or":
" He creates anew every day the works of the begin-
ning "). His governing providence is
In the manifest in Israel's history (see Aiia-
Liturg'y. bah Rahhaii). He helps and sustains
tlie living, resurrects the dead, sup-
ports the falling, heals the .sick, delivers the captive
(second benediction of the Shemoneh 'Esueh). In

233

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Providence

tlio New-Year liturgy (Rosli Im-Shaiiah, Netanneh
Tokef) God's kingship ("malkuyot") is especially
einpliasi/.cd, as well as His predeterininatioii of the
fate of individuals and nations — a conception occur-
ring also in a baraita, Bezah 151), 16a, ■with refer-
ence to man's sustenance and nourishment. God's
wise foresight is manifest even in the creation of tiie
wind, which makes profitable man's labor in jjIow-
ing, hoeing, planting, harvesting, and mowing (Pe-
sik.69a; Lev. R. .xxviii. 2). God provides food for
every man (Lev. R. xiv. 2).

As in the Bible, in the Talmud the moral liberty
of man and God's providential rulcrshij) are taught
together, without further endeavor to show their
compatibility. "Everything is ia the control of
God save the fear of God" (Ber. 33b: Meg. 25a;
Niddah 1Gb).

If the doctrine was, for the Talmudists, partly
the expression of spontaneous religious feeling,
partly the result of their labored exegesis of Biblical
passages, Philo's presentation is that of the trained,
systematic thinker. God being the benevolent au-
thor of the world, He must continue to exercise
providential care over the whole and every part of
it, for it is natural for parents to provide for their
children ("De Opificio Mundi,"§61). God holds
the reins of the cosmos by an autocratic law ("De
Migratioue Abrahami," t^ 33). He is the "archon of
the great city, the pilot who manages the universe
with saving care" ("De Confusione Linguarum,"
§ 83). In the exercise of this providential care
God's goodness is poured forth with unrestricted
lavishness (" De Allegoriis Legum," i. 13). His
judgments are tempered with mercy ("Quod Deus
Sit Inimutabilis," § 16). The recipients of God's
bounties being of limited capacity, God measures
His gifts accordingly ("De Opificio Mundi," § 6).

Philo does not conceal the objections to the faith
in providence. He endeavors to meet them, more
especially in a treatise entitled "De Providentia"
(see Drummond, "Philo Juda'us," ii. 58). The ex-
istence of pain he endeavors to explain on the
ground that God can not be held to be its author in
all cases, as well as on the ground that often evil is
good in disguise. Evil is prophylactic at times, dis-
ciplinary at others. Men who are righteous iu our
eyes may perhaps be sinners, and deserving of pun-
ishment (Drummond, I.e.).

The rise of Islam and the disputes engendered in

its household concerning predestination and free will

liad the effect of stimulating Jewish

Views of thinkers in the ]\Iiddle Ages to make

the Phi- a more profound analysis of the doc-
losophers. trine. How was human liberty rec-
oncilable with God's foreseeing, fore-
knowing, omnipotence? The cjuestion constituted
the crux of their disquisitions. Saadia discusses it
in the fourth chapter of his "Emunot we-De'ot."
Arguing that God's knowledge of things docs not
necessarily result in their reality and existence.
Saadia proceeds to maintain that God's prescience
is due to His knowing the ultimate outcome of liu-
man conduct, though it is not He that brings it
about. But in a case in which God wills that a cer-
tain one be killed and employs another as the instru-
ment of His will, is the murderer to be accounted

responsible or not ? Saadia would have the murderer
adjudged accountable. He might have refuwd to
do the act, in which case God would huve employed
other means to bring about tlie death of the Biniier.
The weakness of Saadia's argumentation is apparent.
Judaii ha- Levi conceives of divine providt-nce m*.
in tii(! main, divine government, and before Kliowing
tiiat it and human freedom are mutually consiHtenl,
he denounces fatalism, largely by an appeal ad
hominem exjiosiug the ineonsiKteneies of tlie fatal-
ists. He agrees that, iu the last atialysis, all lliingfl
are caused by God, but that they are n<ii necessurily
directly fio caused ; iu many cases God is a remold
cause. To the class of secondary or iutermediate
causes human free will belongs; it is not under con-
straint, but is at liixTty to choose. God knows
what a man's ultimate choice will be, but His
knowledge is not the cause of a man's choice. In
relation to man, God's prescience is accidental, not
causative ("Cuzari," v.).

Abraham ibn Daud, in writing his "Emunah Ra-
mah," purposed to reconcile the existence of evil
with the providence of God. Evil can not becausj-d
by God, who is benevolent ("Emunah lianiah," ed.
Weil, p. 94). God produces only reality and posi-
tivity. Evil has no positive existence; itis thenega
tion of good. As such, it has no author. God and
matter are at opposite poles. God is absolute es
scnce. Matter is non-existence; it is the cause of
all imi)erfection. Some imperfections, however, are
not evils. God's providence manifests itself in that
every creature is endowed with that degree of per-
fection which corresponds to its nature. Seeming
imperfections apparent in certain individuals are
seen to be perfections in view of the larger ends of
the community: for example, some men are born
with limited mental capacities in order that they
might profit society by their manual labor. In ref
erence to man's freedom of will in its relation to
providential prescience, Abraham ibn Daud assumes
— iu view of his introduction of the concept of po-
tential possibilities— that God Himself has left the
outcome of certain actions undecided, even as re-
gards His own knowledge, that man's will might
have the opportimity to assert itself in freedom.
As an Aristotelian, Ibn Daud is, in this as iu many
other positions, the precursor of Maimonides.

In Maimonides' "Moreh," part iii., a lengthy e.v-
l)ositiou of providence is found. He rejects the view
of providence entertained by the Epicureans, ac
cording to whom accident rules all. Ne.vt he criti-
cizes Aristotle's theory, which as.signs provid- 1,. •
to the lunar sphere and almost ex-
Views of eludes it from the sublunar sphere.
Mai- Providence has no care for imli viduals.

monides. only for the species. The Aristotle
against whom Mainionides here wages
battle is the pse\ido-Aristotelian author of " De
Mundo.' In the " Ethica Nicomachea " pas.sapcsare
found that plead for the recognition of a special
(" liashgahah peratit")as well as a general ("hiisiiga
hahkelalit") providence. Again. Maimonides dis
putes the position of the Ashariyyah (faUlists). ac-
cording to whon\ all is determined by God's Mill
and power, necessarily to the complete vxch-
denial of freedom of human action. Ne.\t .- . '

Trovidence
Prussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

234

up the theory of the Motazilites. who, on the one
hand, refer everything to God's wisdom, and, ou the
other, attribute freedom of action to man. His ob-
jection to their doctrine arises from their failure to
recognize that it involves contradictory propositions.

Maimonides then proceeds to expound the theory
of the Jewish religion. Man is free and God is ju.st.
Good is given man as a reward, evil as a punish-
ment. All is adjusted according to merit. Provi-
dence, practically, is concerned only about man.
The relation of providence is not the same to all
men. Divine influence reaches man through the in-
tellect. The greater man's share in this divine in-
fluence, the greater the ettect of divine providence
on him. With the Prophets it varies according to
their prophetic faculty; in the case of pious and
good men, according to their piety and uprightness.
The impious are become like beasts, and are thus
outside the scope of providence. God is for the
pious a most special providence.

God's prescience is essentially unlike any knowl-
edge of ours. His knowledge comprehends all, even
the infinite. God's knowledge does
Ood's not belong to time; what He knows,
Prescience. He knows from eternity. His knowl-
edge is not subject to change ; it is
identical with His essence. It transcends our knowl-
edge. God knows things while they are still in the
state of possibilities; hence His commands to us to
take precautions against certain possibilities {e.g.,
placing a guard around the roof, etc.). Maimonides'
theory has been well described (MuUer, "De Gods-
leer der Joden," p. 151, Groningen, 1898) as showing
that man knows wliat liberty is better than what
providence is. Maimonides' theodicy, which culmi-
nates in the assertion that as evil is negative and
privative, God can not be its author — that, in fact, it
has no author — is certainly mere sophistry and word-
juggling (Maimonides, "Dalalatal-Ha'irin,"iii. 17 et
seq. ; see also " Yad," Teshubah, v.).

For the theories of Joseph Albo and Levi ben
Gershon see the former's " 'Ikkarim " (iv. 1) and the
latter's " Milhamot Adonai " (iii. 2). For Bahya ben
Joseph's view see his "Hobot ha-Lebabot" (iii. 8).
Modern Jewish theology has not advanced the sub-
ject beyond Maimonides. In catechisms, of what-
ever religious bias, the doctrine of providence is
taught as well as the moral responsibility of man.

It may be worth noting that, according to Jo-
sephus, one of the points in controversy among the
Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes was the
adoption or rejection of the doctrine of providence
<"Ant." xviii. 1, §2).

E. c. E. G. H.

PROVIDENCE. See Rhode Island.

PR0VIN8 : French town, in the department of
Seine-et-Marne. Jews were settled there as early as
the twelfth century, Thibaut, Count of Cham-
pagne, made an agreement with Provins in 1230 in
which he reserved to himself all rights over the
Jews of the town. In 1298 or 1299 Hagin, a Jewish
resident of the town, was commissioned to deposit
in the hands of the royal officials the proceeds of the
taxes paid by his coreligionists of the bailiwick of
Troyes. In 1.301 Simonnet and Vivant, sons of

Simon the .lew, sold to Perronelle, widow of Jean de
Joy, goldsmith, for the sum of 21 livres of the cur-
rency of Tours, one-half of a piece of land situated
in the Jewish (juarter of Provins, above the Porte
Neuve, and bordering on an estate belonging to the
Jew Hagin Dalie. A document of 1313 mentions
the sale by Maitre Pierre d'Argemont, clerk, for the
sum of 400 livres (Tours currency), of a house which
had belonged to the Jews Josson de Coulommiers
and his son Croissant, adjoining the enclosure of the
chateau and surrounding the Jewish school. The
following are noteworthy among the names of Jews
of Provins: Abraham, Molin, Haquin, Samuel Cour-
toiz, Judas, the Jewess Bonne, and the scholars
Jacob ben Me'ir (13th cent.), Meir ben Elijah (Zunz,
"Literaturgesch '' p. 328), and Isaac Cohen of KJ2nD
= KTans (lived at Paris in 1217).

Bibliography : Gross, Gallia Judaica. pp. 4*5, 51.5-.')16; Stein-
schneider, Hebr. Bibl. xxi. 107 ; R. E. J. 11. 29. 69; xv. 240,
247, 251; xix. 253-2.55; Teulet. Layettts du Tresor dea
Chartes, 1. 186, No. 2075.

G. 8. K.

PRT7SSIA : Kingdom and the largest unit of the
German empire. The kingdom of Prussia grew out
of the margravate of Brandenburg, which in 1415
was given to a prince of the Hohen-
The zollern family. A member of this fam-

Expansion ily, who in 1525 was grand master
of of the Teutonic Order and, as such, ru-

Prussia. ler of Prussia, embraced Protestantism
and declared himself a secular ruler.
His territory was in 1618 united with Brandenburg.
New acquisitions in the west and north of Germany
under Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640-
1688), considerably increased the area of the state,
'which, under his successor, Frederick, was pro-
claimed as the kingdom of Prussia (1701). Fred-
erick the Great's acquisition of Silesia in 1742 and
of part of Poland in 1772 further increased its area.
After the upheavals of the Napoleonic period, the
Congress of Vienna in 1815 strengthened Prussia
by attaching to it various small German territories.
Finally, in 1866, after the war with Austria, Prussia
was given Hanover, Hesse-Nassau, Hesse-Homburg,
Hesse-Cassel, Sleswick-Holstein, the free city of
Frankfort-on-the-Main, and some small territories
ceded by Bavaria and Saxony. The establishment
of the German empire under Prussian hegemony,
in 1871, has made Prussia the leading state in
Germany.

Through the annexation of territories in western
Germany, Prussia has come into posses-sion of the old-
est Jewish settlements in Germany —
Oldest Set- those founded along the Rhine and its
tlements. principal tributaries, which have been
highroads of commerce since the time
of the Roman conquest. The oldest notice of Jews
in Germany occurs in an edict of Emperor Constan-
tine (321), which orders that the Jews of Cologne
shall not be exempt from service on the municipal
board. While these .lews may have been traders
living temporarily in Cologne, the probabilities are
that they were permanent .settlers, since the rabbis
and elders are expressly exempted from the duties in
question (Gratz, "Gesch." iv. 333, v. 195; Stobbe.
" Die Juden in Deutschland," pp. 8, 88, 201 ; Aronius,
"Regesten," No. 2). The Jew Isaac, whom Charle-

235

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Providence
Prussia

macne attached to the embassy which he sent to
Calif Harun al-Rasliid, most likely came from Ger-
many, lor on his return he reported at Aachen
(Pertz, "Monumcnta Germaniai Historical Scrip-
tores," i. 190; Gratz, "Gesch." iv. 333; Aronius, /.c.
No. 71). An order dated 820, authorizing a raid
upon suspicious characters in Aachen, mentions ex-
pressly both Christian and Jewish merchants (Pertz,
ih. " Leges," i. 158; Aronius, I.e. No. 79). Since Jews
are referred to frequently in Constance and Mayence
after the tenth century, there can be hardly any
doubt that in that century they possessed relatively
numerous settlements in the Rhenish cities, now
under Prussian rule. Jewish merchants in Magde-
burg and Merseburg are mentioned in 965, and about
the same time reference is made to a salt-mine under
Jewish management near Naumburg (Aronius, I.e.
Nos. 129 and 132).

In the beginning of the eleventh century, in what
are at present the western provinces of Prussia,
traces of larger communities and of spiritual activity
are found. A synagogue was built at Cologne in
1012. Gershom ben Judah (d. 1028). who taught at
Mayence, speaks of the important traffic carried on
by Jews at the fairs of Cologne. Joshua, physician
to Archbishop Bruno of Treves, was converted to
Christianity ; a later convert was the monk Herman
of Cologne (formerly Judah ben David ha-Levi),
who was baptized in 1128, and who tells in his au-
tobiography of the thorough Talmudic education
he had received. The Crusades brought terrible
sufferings to the Jews of these parts of Prussia. In
1096 a great many communities in the present Rhine

Province were annihilated, as those

Persecu- of Cologne, Treves, Neuss, Altenahr,

tions. Xanten, and Geldern. In the Second

Crusade (1146-47) the congregations of
Magdeburg (which had suffered in 1096) and Halle
were martyred. When Benjamin of Tudela visited
Germany, about 1170, he found many flourishing
congregations in Rhenish Prussia and a considerable
number of Talmudic scholars ("Itinerary," ed.
Asher, i. 162 etseq.). Even east of Rhenish terri-
tory, and as early as the thirteenth century, a num-
ber of Jewish settlements in apparently flourishing
condition existed. The Archbishop of Magdeburg
as early as 1185 granted to the convent of Seeberg
two marks which the Jews of Halle were required to
pay liim as an annual tribute (Aronius, I.e. No. 319).
Jews are mentioned as "owners " of villages near
Breslau early in the thirteenth century ; evidently
they held mortgages on lands owned by nobles; and
in 1227 Duke Henry I. of Silesia ruled that Jewish
farmers in the district of Beuthen should be re-
quired to pay tithes to the Bishop of Breslau {ib.
Nos. 360-361, 364). In the principality of Julich.
■which was annexed to Prussia by the Great Elector,
Henry VII. conceded (1227) to Count William ab.so-
lute control over the Jews in his territory; this
seems to be the first case on record in which a
German emperor made such a concession to one of
his vassals {ib. No. 441). By 1261 the Jewish legis-
lation of Magdeburg had come to be regarded as a
standard for other towns, and had been adopted by
Duke Barnim I. of Pomerania for Stettin and other
towns in his territory {ib. No. 678).

About the middle of the thirteenth century the

Archbishop of Treves claimed jurisdiction i.vf-r the
Jews. He recjuircd them to furnish annually 150
marks in silver for his mint, six pounds of pepper
for his household, and two pounds for his treasurer
("camerarius"). To this tax were added Hilkh and
belts, while the ardibishop undertook to give an-
nually to the " bishop " of the Jews a cf)W, a pitrlif-r
of wine, two bushels of wiieat, and an old mantle
"for which he had no further use " ("quo abje<-to
deinceps indui non vult"; ib. No. 581). While
originally the gifts of the archbishop were evidently
a symbol of his proUiction, the description of Iho
mantle clearly shows a desire to humiliate the Jews.
Persecutions, though less fierce than thowof 1096.
continued sporadically d\iring the thirteenth cen
tury; the dicisionsof the Fourth IaV
Ecclesias- eran Council (1215) were reaffirmed by
tical Op- various diocesun synods, incliiding
pression. that of Mayence, held at Fritzlar in
1259. Just before the century dawned
the Crusaders murdered eight Jews in Boppani
(1195); about 120G the Jews of Halle were expelled
and their houses burned; in 1221 twenty-six Jews
were killed in Erfurt. ■ The first positive bhuxl
accusation was made in Fulda in 1235, when thirty-
two Jews were killed by Crusaders. The Jews of
Halle and Magdeburg are said to have been mulcted
to the extent of 100,000 marks by the archbishf)p;
this, however, is probably an exaggeration. Occa-
sionally rioters were punished ; or, rather, the rulers
fined the offending municipality a certain sum as
compensation for the loss caused to their treas-
ury by the killing and plundering of the Jews.
Thus the city of Magdeburg paid to the archbishop
1,000 marks in connection with the outrages com-
mitted against the Jews in 1206. In 1248 King
Conrad IV., in the name of his father, Emperor
Frederick II., acquitted the citizens of Frankfort
on-the-Main of all responsibility for the riot of 1241.
during which 180 Jews had been killed. Neverthe-
less the unprotected condition of the Jews, who
were the victims alternately of mobs and of legiti-
mate rulers, became so serious a source of disturb-
ance, and the letting loose of the passions of the
mob became so dangerous to public safety, espe-
cially in view of the weakness of the federal gov-
ernment, that measures for the protection of the
Jews became a necessity. Thus King William,
in a charter granted to the city of Goslar in 1252.
promised expressly that he would not molest the
Jews of that city or imprison them without cause
(Aronius, I.e. No. 685). In 1255 be confirmed the
peace agreement (" Landfrieden ") promulgated by
the Rhenish Federation, and in which Ihf Jews were
expressly included {ib. No. 620). The Bishop of Hal-
berstadt made a treaty with that city in 1261, in
which both contracting parties jiromiscd to protect
the Jews, not to impose unlawful taxes tipon
them, and to allow them to leave the city whenever
they chose {ib. No. 676). It would app<>ur that this
treaty was a consequence of the cruel treatnjent the
.lews of Magdeburg had received from their arch-
bi.shop earlier in the same year. The Abbess of
Quedlinburg, under whose authority the Jews of
that citv lived, exhortt'd the citizens In the name

Prussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

236

of Christianity not to do any harm to the Jews (1273 ;
ib. No. 763).

In the margravatc of Brandenburg, which was the
nucleus of the Prussian monarchy, Jews are tirst
mentioned in 1297, when the margraves Otto and
Conrad promulgated a law for the Jews of Stendal.
In Spandau Jews are mentioned in 1307; in the city
of Brandenburg, in 1315; in Neurup-

Branden- pin, in 1329. Tiie Jews of Berlin and
burg. Coin (later incorporated with Ber-
lin) are tirst mentioned in a law of
Margrave Waldemar, dated Sept. 15, 1317, which
provides that in criminal cases the Jews shall be
amenable to the city court of Berlin. The jurisdic-
tion of this court over the Jews was extended to civil
and police cases in 1320, and to cases of all kinds
in 1323. This measure, however, seems to have been
a temporary one. and was probably due to the de-
sire of winning the city over to one of the claimants
to the margravate after the death of Margrave Wal-
demar in 1319. When in 1324 Ludwig IV. gave
Brandenburg to his son Ludwig the Elder, the meas-
ure was disregarded, for in the charter granted to
the Jews of the margravate on Sept. 9, 1344, juris-
diction over the Jews was again reserved to the
margrave's judges, except where a Jew had com-
mitted some flagrant offense ("culpa notoria per-
petrata "). The Jews were further protected against
exactions and arbitrary imprisonment; they might
not be indicted unless two Jewish witnesses appeared
against them as well as two Christians. They were
allowed to take anything as a pledge provided they
took it in the daytime, and they might take horses,
grain, or garments in payment of debts (Sello,
"Markgraf Ludwig des Aelteren Neumarkischcs
Judenprivileg vom 9. September, 1344," in"Der
Baer, Zeitschrift filr Vaterlilndische Gesch. und
Alterthumskunde," 1879, No. 3; see abstract in
" Allg. Zeit. des Jud." 1879, pp. 365 et seq.).

It seems that during tlie time of the Black Death
the Jews in Brandenburg sutTered as much as those
elsewhere. Margrave Ludwig recommended the
Jews of Spandau to the protection of their fellow
citizens (Nov. 26, 1349). The city of Salzwedel
sold the "Judenhof '■ (cemetery ?) with the excep-
tion of the " Judenschule " (Steinschneider, " Hebr.
Bibl." xxi. 24). The quitclaims granted by Mar-
grave Ludwig in 1352 and by his brother Otto in
1361, for "what has happened to the Jews," clearly
prove the perpetration of outrages against the latter
("Allg. Zeit. des Jud." 1879, p. 365). An obscure
report speaks of an order issued by Margrave Lud-
wig to burn all the Jews of Kijnigsberg (Griitz,
"Gesch." vii. 378). But the exclusion of Jews from
Brandenburg could not have lasted long, for in 1353
mention is made of the income which the margrave
derived from the Jews of MQncheberg.

The Hohenzollern family, taking po.ssession of
tlie margravate in 1415, treated the Jews with fair-
ness. Frederick I. confirmed their charter of 1344,
and especially their right to sell meat, which the
butchers' gilds often contested (Steinschneider. I.e.
xxi. 24). About the middle of the fifteenth century
expulsions took place in Brandenburg as elsewhere.
In 1446 Elector Frederick II. ordered all Jews re-
maining in the margravate to be imprisoned and

their property confiscated. Soon afterward, how-
ever, it was decreed that the Jews should be read-
mitted; Stendal refused to obey the
Under the decree, but was finally' compelled to
Hohen- yield to the margrave's wishes (1454 ;
zollerns. "Monatsschrift," 1882, pp. 34-39). The
growing power of the margraves, wlio
by 1488 had succeeded in breaking the opposition
of the cities, brought greater security to the Jews,
who, as willing taxpaj'ers, were settled in various
cities by the princes.

As late as Dec. 21, 1509, Margrave Joachim re-
ceived Jews into his territory. In the year following
a Christian who had stolen a monstrance from a
church testified that he had been hired by the Jews
to sell them a consecrated host; in consequence
thirty-six Jews were burned at the stake in Berlin,
while two who had accepted Christianity were be-
headed (July 17. 1510: Griitz, " Gesch. ^' ix. 99-100;
"Zeitschrift fiir die Gesch. der Juden in Deutsch-
land,"ii. 21, 23). The Jews were then expelled from
the margravate and their synagogues and cemeteries
confiscated, as appears from an agreement between
Margrave Joachim and the city of Tangermiinde
(Steinschneider, "Hebr. Bibl." xxi. 26).

The exclusion of the Jews from the Mark seems
not to have lasted very long, for in 1544 the famous
financier Michei- Ji'd is found as owner of a house
in Berlin, where he enjo^'cd the protection of Elect-
or Joachim II. It appears that the esi)ousal of the
cause of the Reformation by the latter resulted in
the repeal of the edict of expulsion; for the decree
of expulsion having been due to the fact that the
.Jews had been accused of committing a crime which
had been attended by the usual miraculous conse-
quences, and Protestant views precluding belief in
the miraculous phenomena alleged, the entire accu-
sation was discredited and the edict repealed. Joa-
chim II. employed also as financial adviser Lippold
of Prague, who upon the death of his protector be-
came a victim of the policy which had made his
master unpopular. Lippold was put to death under
the charge that he had poisoned the elector (Jan.
28, 1573), and the Jews were again expelled from
the territory (Grittz, "Gesch." ix. 474; "Jiidische
Literaturblatt," 1875. p. 94). Meanwhile two Jews
(in 1538 and 1541 resjiectively) had gained admis-
sion into Pru.ssia (Kttnigsberg), which the grand
master Albert of Brandenburg, after his conversion
to Protestantism, liiul declared a secular princi-
pality.

Uiider the Great Elector, Frederick William (1640-

1688), individual Jews were admitted into large

cities like Halberstadt, and the Jews in the Jlllich

territory were left undisturbed. Fi-

Spirit of nally Brandenburg, including Berlin,

Toleration, was opened to some Jewish families

that had been exiled from V'ietma

(1670). The edict of admission, dated May 21. 1071,

opened to the Jews all the cities of the Mark, allowed

them to deal in various goods, subjected them to the

city authorities in civil alfairs, and in criminal affairs

placed them under the jurisdiction of the elector's

courts. They were forbidden to lend money at

usury, or import debased, or export good, specie.

They were required to pay eight tlialer atimially

237

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prussia

per family as protection money, but were exempted
from the poll-tax (Leibzoll). They were grunted
freedom of worship, but were not permitted to build
synagogues (Geiger, "Gesch. der Judeii in Berlin,"
i. (ietse(j.). Complaints made by Christian mercbunts,
however, soon resulted in restrictive measures; an
edict of April 2, 1680, prohibited the Jews from deal-
ing in hides; another of July 12, 1083, prohibited
their dealing in silver and in specie. Their terms of
toleration were limited to periods of twenty years,
but renewal was always secured without any diffi-
culty (Konne and Simon, " Die Frliheren und Gegen-
wJirtigen Verhiiltnisse der Juden in den Silmmtliehen
Landestheilen des Preussischen Staates," p. 207),
although frequently a census of the Jews was taken
at which each was required to show his credentials.

In spite of this strictness in supervision, and in
spite of the fact that the Jews protected by charter
were very jealous of their privileges and assigned a
clerk to assist the police in excluding those of their
coreligionists who were undesirable, the number of
Jews in Berlin as elsewhere increased. A law of
Jan. 24, 1700, stipulated that the Jews should pay
double the amount of the former tax of eight thaler
for every licensed (" vergleitete ") family, and 3,000
thaler annually as a community, while their exemp-
tion from tlie poll-tax was witlidrawn. Those who
had no license (" unvergleitetc Juden ") were required
to pay double the amount for the time that they had
been in the country, and were then to be expelled.
A petition from the Jews was granted in a new reg-
ulation, issued Dec. 7, 1700, exempting them from
the poll-tax again, but raising their annual tribute
to 1,000 ducats.

PYederick III. (1688-1714), who in 1701 proclaimed
himself King of Prussia, needed the Jews to assist
him in raising the funds required to meet the ex-
penses of his extravagant household. Therefore he
evaded replying clearly to the demands of the Prus-
sian states (1689) for the expulsion of the Jews who,
in part under his father, had been allowed to settle
in Konigsberg, Memel, and Tilsit; he declared that
such petitions had been frequently made, and it had
been found impossible to carry out the wishes of
the states (Jolowicz, "Gesch. der Juden in KOnigs-
berg," p. 24, Posen, 1867).

JosT LiEBMANN aud Marcus Magnus, court Jews,
enjoyed special privileges and were permitted to
maintain synagogues in their own houses; and in
1712 a concession was obtained for the building of a
communal house of worship in Berlin. A law of
May 20. 1704, permitted the Jews of Brandenburg
to open stores and to own real estate ; and even the
principle that the number of privileged Jews should
not be increased was set aside in favor of those who
could pay from 40 to 100 reichsthaler, such being
allowed to transfer their privileges to a second and
a third son (Jolowicz, ib. p. 46). On the other hand,
the king was easily persuaded to take measures
against the supposed blasphemies of the Jews.
Thus the synagogue service was placed under strict
police supervision (Aug. 28, 1703), that the Jews
migl't r.ol pronounce l)lasi)liemies against Jesus
(Riiiuie i.r:l Simon, I.e. p. 208; Geiger. l.r. i. 17:
Moses, "hin Zweihundertjiihrriges Jubilttuni,'' in
" Judisclic Prcsse," Supplement, 1902, pp. 29 ct serj.).

The king further permitted the reprinting of EicKN-
.MKNOKii'8 " Entdecktes Judentluim " in his statea.
thougji liir- cinjieror had pmliibiltd it.

Frederick Williuni 1. (1714-40) was despotic
though well-meaning, and treated tlie Jews, tigiiiuHt
whom lie iiad strong religious prejudices, very
harshly. He renewed the order against the passage
in the "Alenu prayer supposed to con-
Frederick tain blasphemies againnt Jfsiis (1716).
William I. and acted on the principle that tlie
coiiununity should b*- responsible for
the wrong doings of every individual. I^-viu Veil.
a purveyor for the mint, died in 1721, leaving liabil-
ities to the amount of 100.000 thaler. The king
ordered that all Jews should assemlile in the synit-
gogue; it was surrounded by soldiers, und the
rabbi, in the presence of a court chupluin. pro-
nounced a ban against any one who was an accom-
plice in Levin's l)ankrui)tcy. The two hiws which
Frederick issued regulating theconditionof the Jews,
one for Brandenburg, May 20. 1714, the other the
"General Juden Privilegium" of Sept. 29, 1730,
breathe the spirit of intolerance. The number of
Jews was limited ; a " Privilegium " could ordinarily
be transferred only to one son, and even then only
on condition that the latter possessed no less than
2,000 thaler; in the case of a second or third son the
sum required (as well as the taxes for a marriage
license) was much higher. Of foreign Jews only
those possessing at least 10,000 thaler were admitted.
The king's general harshness of manner knew no
bounds when he dealt with Jewish affairs. Thus
he answered the petition of the Berlin congregation
for the remission of the burial dues for poor Jews
with a curt note to the effect that if in any case the
dues were not paid the hangman should take the
body on his wheelbarrow and bury it under the
gallows. He insisted that the congregation of Ber
lin should elect Moses Aaron Lembergerasits rabbi;
and when it finally obtained permission to elect
another rabbi it was compelled to pay very heavily
therefor. On the other hand, the king was far-
sighted enough to give special liberties to Jewish
manufacturers. Hirsch David I'rUger obtained (1730)
permission to estal)lish a velvet - manufacfiry in
Potsdam, and so became the pioneer of the large
manufacturing enterprises which rapidly developed
under Frederick (Geiger, l.r. ii. 77 <^ ug. . Kfilter,
" Gesch. der Ji'idi-schen Gemeinde zu Potsdam." p. 12.
Potsdam, 1903; " Mittheilungen aus dem Verein zur
Abwehr des Antisemiti.^mus," 1897. pp. 337 /■( i>rq.).
FuEDEUiCK II. (the Great) (174(»-86). although a
scoffer in religious mattc-rs, declared in nn oftirjal
edict (April 17, 1774) that hedislikcri the
Frederick Jews ("vor die Juden Ulu-rhaupt nirlit
the Great, portirt"). Earlier in his reign. In sign-
ing a"Scluitzbrief " for the second son
of a privileged Jew, he hail said that this would Ik-
exceptional, because it was his principle that the
number of Jews should be diminished (1747). Still.
great statesman as he was, he utilized the commer-
cial genius of the Jews to carry out his protectionist
plans, and therefore, following in the footsteps of
his father, he granted exceptional privileges to Jp?.-r
who opened manufacturing establishments. Thus
Moses Hies obtained an exclusive privilege for his

Prussia
Przemysl

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

238

silk-manufactory in Potsdam (1764); later on others
secured similar privileges, including Isaac Bern-
hard, Moses Mendelssohn's employer. While the
Jews were thus benefited by the king's protection-
ist policy, they suffered from it in other ways. An
edict of March 21, 1769, ordered that every Jew,
before he married or bought a house, must buj-
from 300 to 500 thaler's worth of chinaware and
e.xport it.

When Frederick acquired Silesia (1742) he con-
firmed the Austrian legislation regarding the Jews
(Berndt, " Gesch. der Juden in Gross-Glogau," p. 64,
Glogau, n.d). When he took part of the kjngdom
of Poland, in 1772, he was with great difficulty dis-
suaded from expelling the Jews, his aversion to
whom was especially manifested in his refusal to
confirm Moses Mendelssohn's election as a member
of the Berlin Academy. His revised " Generalregle-
ment und Generalprivilegium " of April 17, 1750
(ROune and Simon, I.e. pp. 241 et seq.), was very harsh.
It restricted the number of Jewish marriages, ex-
cluded the Jews from most of the branches of skilled
labor, from dealing in wool and yarn, and from brew-
ing and innkeeping, and limited their activity in
those trades permitted to them. Of his many hostile
orders may be mentioned one which held a congre-
gation responsible if one of its members received
stolen goods.

The short reign of Frederick William II. (1786-97)
brought some slight relief to the Jews, as the repeal
of the law compelling the buying of china, for which
repeal they had to pay 4,000 thaler (1788). Individ-
ual regulations issued for various communities, as
for Breslau in 1790, still breathed the medieval spirit ;
and a ^-eal change came only when Prussia, after
the defeat at Jena (1806), inaugurated a liberal
policy, a part of which was the edict
Emancipa- of March 11, 1812: concerning tlie civil
tion. status of the Jews (ROnne and Simon,
I.e. pp. 204 et seq.). Its most impor-
tant features were the declaration of their civic
equality with Christians and their admission to the
army. They were further admitted to professor-
ships in the universities, and were promised polit-
ical rights for the future.

The reaction following the battle of Waterloo and
the fact that Frederick William III. (1797-1840) was
himself a strict reactionary caused a corresponding
change of conditions. Still the edict of 1812 remained
valid with the exception of section viii., declaring the
right of the Jews to hold professorships; this the
king canceled (1822). But the law was declared to
apply only to those provinces which had been under
Prussian dominion in 1812; and so it came that
twenty-two anomalous laws concerning the status
of the Jews existed in the kingdom. This condition,
aggravated by such reactionary measures as the
prohibition against the adoption of Christian names
(1828), led first to the promulgation of the law
of June 1, 1833, concerning the Jews in the grand
duchy of Posen — this was from the start a tempo-
rary measure— and finally to the law of July 23,
1847, which extended civil equality to all Jews of
Prussia and gave them certain political rights. Al-
though the constitutions of 1848 and 1850 gave the
Jews full equality, the period of reaction, beginning

in the fifties, withdrew many of these rights by in-
terpretation.

Frederick William IV. (1840-61), who declared
in the beginning of his reign that he desired to
exclude the Jews from military service, believed
strongly in a "Christian" state. When his brother
William I. (1861-88) became regent conditions be-
gan to improve; Jews were admitted to professor-
ships and to the legal profession, but remained still
practically excluded from military careers and from
the service of the state. The last vestige of medi-
evalism disappeared with the abolition of the Oath
More Jud.\ico in 1869. The history of the Jews
in Prussia since 1870 is practically identical with
that of the Jews of Germany. See, however, Anti-
Se.mitism.

Prussia has a population of 34,472,000, including
392,332 Jews (1900).

Bibliography: Jost, Neuere Gesch. der Israelite t^vo]. l.,
Berlin, 184C; Uonne and Simon, i>ie Fr-Uhc7-en utid (icnen-
u'dJ'tigen VerhdUnisse der Juden in den SC{mmtlic)ien
Laudestheileu ric.s Prertssincheii Staates,Bres\&u.lS4S\ Gel-
ger, Gesch. der Juden in Berlin, Berlin, 1871; W. Freund,
EntU'urf zu einer Zeitgemd.'isen Verfa^^^inij der Juden in
Preussen, Breslau, 1842; VnUxtdndige Verliaudhiitfirn des
Ersten Vereinigten Preussi.'ichen Landtages lllier die
Emancipations -Frage der Juden. Berlin, 1847, and vari-
ous monographs on the history of important congrega-
tions, as Bromberg, Erfurt, KOnigsberg. Magdkbirg;
Zeitschrift fUr Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland, li. 20-29
(for periodicals).

PRUZHANY : Russian town in the govern-
ment of Grodno. It had a Jewish community at
the end of the sixteenth century, when Joel Sirkes
lield his first rabbinate there. The community is
first mentioned in Russian documents in 1583 ("Re-
gesty i Nadpisi "). In 1628 the Council of Lithuania
adopted a resolution that Pruzhany should be its
permanent meeting-place, but the resolution seems
not to have been adhered to. The number of its
inhabitants in 1817 is given as 824; but it grew fast
under Russian rule, and, notwithstanding the almost
total destruction of the town by fire in 1863, it had,
by 1865, a population of 5,455, of whom 2,606 were
Jews. The last census (1897) showed a population
of 7,634, of whom about 60 per cent were Jews.

The best-known rabbis of Pruzhany were: Abig-
dor b. Samuel (d. 1771, at the house of his son Sam-
uel, the last rabbi of Wilna); Enoch b. Samuel
Schick (went later to Shklov ; died about 1800 ; great-
grandfather of Elijah Schick, or "Lida'er"); Yom-
Tob Lipmann (son of the preceding, and probably his
successor); Elijah Hayyira b. Moses Meisel (about
1860; now [1905] rabbi of Lodz; born at Horodok,
government of Wilna, Jan. 9, 1821); Jeruham Perl-
man (from 1871 to 1883; removed to Minsk); Elijah
ha-Levi Feinstein (born in Starobin, government of
Minsk, Dec. 10, 1842; successively rabbi of Staro-
bin, Kletzk, Karelitz, and Khaslavich).

The district of Pruzhany had, in 1897, a popula-
tion of 132,245, of whom about 12 per cent vveie
Jews.

Bibliography: Entziklopedicheski Shmar; F.isenstadt. Dor
Rahlianaw we-Soferaw, 1. 45-46, Warsaw, 1895; Feinstein,
'Ir Tehillah, p. KXJ, Warsaw, 1886 ; Fuenn. Keneset Yisrael,
pp. 5, 369. Warsaw, 1886 ; JUdi«c/i€« Volk«blatt (St. Peters-
burg), 1883, No. 3.
H. n. P. Wi.

PRZEMYSL: City of Galicia; once the capi-
tal of Red Russia. While Przemysl is referred to

239

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Prusaia
Przamyal

by the Russian chronicler Nestor in the year 981,
no mention of Jews in the city occurs until 1437
("Akta Grodzkie," xiii., No. 682), and even then
they are found there only sporadically, as in the
other cities of Red Russia, with the exception of
Lemberg. According to the earliest statistics, da-
ting from 1542, eighteen Jewish families were then
living at Przemysl, including seven house-owners,
who paid annually, "et ratione Judaisnii,"a rent of
4 Polish gulden, their tenants paying 2 gulden.

The earliest legal regulation of the Jewish com-
munity at Przemj'sl was issued by King Sigismund
August on March 20, 1559, and was signed by the
highest civil and ecclesiastical author-
Early ities. The Jews, who had long ("an-
References. tiquitus") inhabited their own street,
had the right of perpetual residence
there ; they might buy houses in that quarter from
Christians, bequeath them, and enjoy all the com-
mercial privileges of Christians. They were under
the royal jurisdiction, i.e., the waywode's court,
which is mentioned in acts of the year 1576 as the
" Jews' court " ; and they had to pay the I'oyal treas-
ury 4 Polish gulden for each house. King Sigis-
mund granted three other privileges to the Jews,
which were in part confirmations and in part inter-
pretations of the preceding ones.

It appears from a lawsuit of the year 1560 that
the Jews then possessed a frame synagogue, said to
have been founded by two wealthy Spanish immi-
grants. By permission of the chapter this structure
was replaced in 1592 with one of stone.

On the accession of Stephen Bathori (June 27,
1576) the Jews obtained a second privilege, "ad
bonum ordinem," determining the internal organiza-
tion of the community and its relation to the state
authorities. This statute, containi;ig twelve sec-
tions, was granted about the same time to the Jews
of Lemberg and Posen as well, and, together with
a second ordinance, formed the basis for a new
epoch in the status of the Polish Jews in general,
who thenceforth enjoyed complete autonomy (comp.
Schorr, "Organizacya Zydow w Polsce," p. 18,
Lemberg, 1899). The two most important sections
of this statute are the fifth and the tenth. Accord-
ing to the former, the directors might not be forced
upon the community, but were to be chosen by the
Jews and then confirmed by the waywode, while
the latter section ruled that the waywode might
not force a rabbi upon the communitj', but should
merely have the right of approving or disapprov-
ing its choice (see Lemberg).

The privileges of the Jews were confirmed by
Sigismund III. on his accession to the throne (1587).
The citizens, who at first did not oppose the perma-
nent settlement of the Jews, entered into an agree-
ment with them in 1595 to the effect that on the
payment of 600 Polish gulden toward the fortifica-
tion of the city the Jews should be exempt forever
from any further payment for that purpose, and
siiould receive aid from the city in case of need.
These friendly relations were soon disturbed, how-
ever; and the complaint of the competition of the
Jews, brought before the magistracy in 1608, marks
the beginning of the economic struggle between
them and the citizens. This struggle continued

until the fall of Poland, becoming more bitter and
brutal in the course of time, and leading to pro-
longed lawsuits and to tin- ultiniale
Per- ruin of l)otli parties. In 1628 the cill-

secutions. zens fell upon the Jews, jjlundered
their shops, and even entered tlic Ikib-
pitjil, causing damage to the Jews to tiie amount of
23.000 gulden.

In 1630 an event occurred which is Btill commem-
orated in one of tlie older synagogueH by fiusting ami
by the recitation of an elegy on the 80th of Adur
A Christian woman accused certain Jews of huvinK
persuaded her to steal a eoiiseciatrd hnst. ThJH
declaration led lo a riot, during which .Mo.sis (Mosa-
ko) Szmuklerz (= "braider") was imprisoned on
suspicion, and was condernned to cruel tfirlun-s and
the stake by the Grod court after a short trial, with-
out the privilege of appeal. With hi.s last breath
he proclaimed his innocence, <lying with the cry
"Shema' Yisrael." The description of the torluren
in the documents agrees with tliat of an elegy com-
posed by the contemporary Moses ha Meilakdek
(comp. Lazar in "Ha-Asif." vol. iv., part ii.. pp.
192-198, Warsaw, 1887. and Kaufmann. ib. v.. part
ii., pp. 125-130, ib. 1889). This unjust verdict of
an incompetent court seems to have caused great
excitement among the Jews throughout Poland ;
and on the accession of King Ladislaus IV. a special
clause relating to competent courts was inserted in
the usual act of the confirmation of privileges of the
Jews throughout Poland, probably through the in-
tervention of the Council of Four Lands, this
clause containing unmistakable allusions to the case
at Przemysl.

In 1637 almost the entire ghetto, with the excep-
tion of the synagogue, was destroyed by a confla-
gration. A royal decree was issued in the following
year for the reestablishment of the community,
which had a new source of income from alxjiit
twenty-six of the neighboring towns and villages;
these were required to pay regular taxes to the
central community at Przemysl for the privilege
of holding divine service, burying their dead,
etc. It was also enacted that the rabbi of Przemysl
should be regarded as the final authority, and should
receive 3 florins a year from each innkeeper.

The economic relations between the Jews and the
citizens were regulated after many lawsuits by an
important contract made in 1645, and reiuaining in
force, almost without change, until 1772. This
contained eighteen paragraphs, in which the individ-
ual municipal gilds clearly defined the boundarie.s
within which Jewish merchants and artisans might
ply their vocations. The former privileges of the
Jews were thus abrogated, and they were subse-
quently forced to pay from time to time even for
these limited concessions.

The Jews of Przemysl did not suffer during the
Co.ssack disturbances of 1648 and 1649. wh«-n they
took part in defending the city, as is reported by
Nathan Hannover in his " Yewen Mc^ulah." nor
during the Polish-Swedish war, although th<- city
was besieged twice. A trustworthy sourc«- (Ihifen-
dorf, "De Rebus a Carolo Gustavo Gestis." p. 188.
Nuremberg, 1696) says that some Jewish <livisions
fought beside the Polish soldiers at the San River.

Przemysl
Psalms

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

240

near Przemysl, and another authority (''Teatrum
Europa-um," vii. 620, Fraukfort-on-lhe-Maiu, 1685)
states that a Jew acting for a colonel was captured
by the Swedes in the siege, this story being con-
firmed by documents in the archives. Although the
city did not suffer, the consequences of the war were
disastrous to the Jews, who were ruined by the
war taxes and by plunderings on tlie part of the
Polish soldiers quartered in the city ; so that in 1661,
to raise a larger loan, the community was obliged to
mortgage its synagogue to the nobility. According
to a statistical document of 1662, there were eighty
Jewish merchants in the city, mostly small dealers,
some braiders, apothecaries, and grocers, and one
dealer in guns, armor, and war material.

During the last three decades of the seventeenth
century and throughout the eighteenth the eco-
nomic condition of the Jews grew steadily worse, in
consequence of the increasing taxes and contribu-
tions which they had to pay to assure their exist-
ence, obliging them to contract enormous debts
among both the nobility and the clergy. The Jews
were finally ruined by a conllagration which des-
troyed the entire ghetto in 1678, leading to a series
of debtors' suits. They were so impoverished that
they even thought of leaving the city, when King
John Sobieski (1674-96) extended the time for the
payment of their debts. King Augustus II., who
had confirmed their former privileges in 170U, ex-
empted the Jews for twenty years from all taxes
paid for their right to brew mead and beer, which
were among the principal articles of commerce of
Przemysl; but ten years later he repealed his decree.
The community was further disrupted by internal
dissensions: and on account of the increasing taxes
which the directors found themselves obliged to levy
in order to pay the debts due the clergy and the no-
bility, so many Jews left the ghetto that the way-
wode forcibly checked the emigration. The unfor-
tunate condition of the Jews in the middle of the
eighteenth century is shown onlj' too clearly bj"^ the
debt of 141,750 Polish gulden which they owed the
nobility in 1773.

In 1746 Jesuit students attacked the ghetto of
Przemysl, as those of other cities, plundered the
synagogue, ruined the costly vessels, and tore up
the Torah scrolls, scattering the pieces in the streets.
They destroyed also the greater part of the valuable
archives, which contained priceless documents of
the waywode's court, only a few of tiie original
copies of the privileges being saved. The extent of
the damage is indicated by the fact that after tedious
negotiations the Jesuits finally paid an indemnity of
15,000 Polish gulden. According to statistics of the
year 1765, there were at that time about 2,418 Jews
in Przemj'sl.

During the first half of the nineteenth century,
when the city was under Austrian rule, the Jews
suffered as much as ever from heavy taxes; but
after the promulgation of the " Staatsgrundgesetze "
in 1867 the community was able to develop more
freely.

Of historic interest is the reference to the piiy-
sician Marcus Niger, who lived at Przemysl at tiie
end of the sixteenth century, and enjoyed the spe-
cial favor of the king. He officiated also as the

president of the community, and is mentioned in the
records with the title "honestus." A " Doctor Hen-
zel, son of Rebekah," is mentioned in a document of
the year 1659. A very valuable pinkesof the tailors'
gild, dating from the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury, contains important data showing that as early
as the beginning of that century there were regularly
incorporated Jewish working men's gilds, us exclu-
sive as the Christian gilds, and with similar organ-
izations.

The following rabbis and scholars of Przemysl
are noteworthy: Moses b. Abraham Katz (a pupil
of f> C "in'D, and the author of "Matteli Mosheh,"
" Peue Mosheh," and tnauy other works); Simon
Wolf (son of R. Meir Nikolsburg of Prague, the
author of a work entitled "Sha'ar Simeon"; later
rabbi at Posen, Vienna, and Prague; d. 1632);
Joshua b. Joseph (later rabbi at Lemberg; author
of " Magineh Shelomoh " and " Pene Yehoshua' " ;
d. 1648); Isaac Eizik (son-in-law of the preceding);
Aryeh LOb (son of R. Zechariah Mendel and brother
of R. Zebi Hirsch ; later rabbi at Vienna and Cracow ;
d. 1671); R. Joseph (author of "Zofiiat Pa'aneah,"
printed in 1679); Joseph Segal (son of Moses Harif ;
previously " resh metibta" at Lemberg; d. 1702);
Mendel Margolioth (d. April 2, 1652); Joshua Feivel
Te'omim (son of R. Jonah, who wrote the "Kikyon
de-Yonah " ; an act of the Council of Four Lands
was signed by him in 1713); Hayyim Jonah Te-
'omim (son of the preceding ; later rabbi at Breslau) ;
Samuel Schmelka (son of R. Menahem Mendel and
father-in-law of R. Haj-yim ha-Kohen Rapoport of
Lemberg ; d. 1713) ; Ezekiel Michael (son of Samuel
Schmelka; an enthusiastic adherent of R. Jacob
Eybcschutz; d. 1771); Aryeh Lob (.son of the prece-
ding ; later rabbi at Lemberg ; d. 1810) ; Joseph Asher
(pupil of R. Samuel Saler of Lemberg; d. 1826):
Asher Enzel (son-in-law of the preceding) ; Samuel
Heller; Lipa Meisels; Isaac Aaron Ettinger (later
rabbi at Lemberg; d. 1891); Isaac Schmelkes (now,
1905, rabbi at Lemberg).

The Jews of the city number (1905) about 15,000
in a total population of 40,000. The community
supports the following institutions: three principal
synagogues, eight chapels, two Talmud Torah
schools, three bath-houses, people's kitchen, hos-
pital, infirmary, three women's societies, a Yad Ha-
ruzim (working men's union), a Zweikreuzer-Verein
for the relief of poor school-children, and several
other philanthropic societies.

BiBMOGUAPHY : L. Hauser, Monografia Mia^ta Przemyxla,
188,5; M. Schorr, Z^idzi w Przemyshi Opracnwanici Wydmv-
7iictivi) yiatemcitu ^rc/iiiraf/icffo, LemberK. 1903; Aziilui.
Shem ha-Gedolim; Buber, Anshe Shem, Cracow, 1896 ;
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. ; Lazar, In Ha-Asif, Iv., part ii.,

pp. 12.5-1. m

D. M. SCH.

PSALMOMANCY : The employment of the
P.salms in incantations. The general use of the
Bible for magic purposes has been discussed under
Biiu.ioM.xNCV. Inasmuch as the employment of the
Psalms is mentioned there, a brief sunnnary, to-
gether with certain supplementary material, will
suffice in this article. Next to tiie Torah, the P.salms
were especially jjopular in magic, since they formed
the real book of the people, one which they knew and
loved as a book of prayers; and prayers had, ac-

241

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

Przemysl
Psalms

<'or(ling to the ]w]Milar opinion of the ancients, ex-
tremely close athnities with iueautations. As early
as the second century Ps. xci. was called "The Song
Against Demons"; and the same statement holds
triie of Ps. iii. (Yer. Slial). 81), 21; Sheb. 15b; and
]iarallel jnissages). The former psalm, which is still
recited at funerals, was found ins(Mil)c<l in a tomb
at Kertch (lilau, " Das Alt-Judische Zauberwesen,"
in " Jahresbericht der Laudesrabbiuerschule in Buda-
ju'st," IHUS, ji. 90); and the beginning of it occurs to-
gether with Jiom. xii. 1 and I John ii. 1 on a Greek
papyrus amulet, which was uudoubtedly buried
with the dead (Heinrici, "Die Leipziger Pai)yrus-
fragmente der Psalmen," p. 31, Leipsic, 11)03).

Tablets inscribed with verses of the Psalms or of
the Bible generally, and found in great numbers in
recent year.s, must have been regarded as a means
of protection for both the living and the dead,
whether the charms were Jewish or Christian in ori-
gin, as, for instance, amulets iuscribed with the
Lord's Prayer. The recitation of Ps. xxix. was
recommended to avert the peril of drinking uncov-
ered water iu the dark on Wednesday evening or
on Sabbath eve (Pes. 112a). In ancient times the
scrolls of the Law, when worn out. were placed in
the grave of a scholar (Meg. 26b) ; and the papyrus
books, which are almost without exception defect-
ive, are obtained from graves.

No other ancient examples of this use of the
Psalms are known ; but in the Middle Ages the em-
ployment of the Psalms in all the vicissitudes of life
was so extensive and detailed (comp. Jew. Enxyc.
iii. 202-205, s.v. Bi]?liom.\n"Cy) that there is no doubt
that it was based on ancient custom, especially as a
similar use of the Psalms for magic purj)oses existed
among the Syrians and the European Christians in
the early medieval period (comp. Kayser, "Gebrauch
von Psalmen zur Zauberei," in "Z. D. M. G." xlii.
456-462— a veritable Syriac "Shimmush Tehillim";
!Meyer, "Aberglaube des IMittelalters," pp. 145 et
seq., Basel, 1884). The recitation of Ps. xvi. and
cix. was regarded as a means of detection of thieves
(Meyer, I.e. p. 230); and the Psalms Avere also em-
ployed in the Oudeal (Herzog-Hauck, "Real-
Encyc." vii. 34). In all probability the origin of
the employment of the Psalms iu magic is essen-
tially Jewish.

BiBi.iocKAPiiv: Mitteilungen der GeseJUchaft fllr JUdische
Vi)U\^lmnde, x. 81 ct seq.
J. L. B.

PSALMS : Name derived from the Greek ihn/./ioc
(plural il'(Uftoi), which signifies primarily playing
on a stringed instrument, and secondarily the com-
position played or the song accompanied on such
an instrument. In the Septuagint (Codex Alexau-
drinus) ■^lidXTTjpiov is used, which denotes a large
stringed instrument, also a collection of songs in-
tended to be sung to the accompaniment of strings
(harp). These terms are employed to translate the
Hebrew " mizmor " and " tehillim." The exact deri-
vation and meaning of the former are uncertain.
It would seem that, etymologically denoting "para-
graph," it owes its signification of " psalm," "song,"
or "hymn " to the circumstance that it is found pre-
fixed to the superscriptions of a number of psalms.
The word "tehillim" is a plural, not occurring in
X.— 16

Biblical Hebrew, from the singular "te!iilhih" =
".song of i)raise." It is thus u lilting title for the
collection of songs found in the "Ketubim" or Ha-
giographa (the thini main division of the Hebrew
canon), and more fully described us "Sefer Tehillim,"
or the •• Book of I'sulms." "Tehillim " i.s uiso con-
tracted to ••lillim" (Aramaic, "tillin").

Biblical Data: Iu the printed Hebrew Bible

the Book of Psalms is tlie lirst of the Ketubim ;
but it did not always occupy this position, Imving
formerly hern preceded by Ituth (B. B. 14b; Toh,
to B. B. I.e.). Jerome, however (**Prologu8 Gulc-
atus"), has another order, in which Job is lirst and
the Psalms second, while Sejdiardic muniiscripts as-
sign to Chronicles the lirst and to the Ptiulnis the
second place (comp. 'Ab Zarah 19a). Tlie Book of
I'sahns is one of the three jioetic books <lenoti-d us
n DN (EMaT = Job [lyyobj. Proverbs [Mishle], uud
Psalms [Tehillim]) and having an accentuation (see
Accents in Hkhukw) of their own.

The Sefer Tehillim consists of 150 psalms di-
vided into five books, as follows: book i.= Ps. i.-
xli. ; ii. =: P.S. xlii.-lxxii. ; iii. = Ps. Ixxiii.-I.x.xxix. ;
iv. = Ps. xc.-cvi. ; v. = l^s. cvii.-cl., the divisions
between these books being indicated bv doxologjes
(Ps. xli. 14 [A. V. 13]; Ixxii. 19 118-19)"; Ixxxix^ 53
[52]; cvi. 48). The conclu.sion of book ii. is still
further marked by the gloss 'f p nn niSsn 'h'2 =
"The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, unM-nded."
Of the 150 psalms 100 are ascribed, in their super-
scriptions, to various authors by name: one. Ps. xc,
to Sloses; seventy-three to David: two, Ixxii. and
cxxvii., to Solomon; twelve, 1. and Ixxiii. tolxxxiii..
toAsjiph; one, Ixxxviii., to Heman; one. Ixxxix.,
to Ethan ; ten to the sons of Korah (eleven if Ixxxviii..
attributed also to Heman, is assigned to them). Iu
the Septuagint ten more psalms are credited to
David. Sixteen psalms have other (mostly musical)
headings. According to their contents, the P.sjdms
may be grouped as follows: (1) hymns of praise.
(2) elegies, and (3) didactic psalms.

Hymns of _ raise: These glorify God. His power.
and His loving-kindness manifested in nature or
shown to Israel, or they celebrate the Torali. Zion,
and the Davidic kingdom. In this group are com-
prised the i)salms of gratitude, exjiressing thankful-
ness for help extended and refuge found in times of
danger and distress. The group embraces about
one-third of the IValter.

Elegies : These lend voice to feelings of grief at
the sj)read of iiii(iuity, the triumidi of the wicke<l.
the sulTerings of the just, the "humble," or the
"poor," and the abandonment of Israel. In this
category are comprehended the psalms of supplica-
tion, the burden of which is fervent j»rayer for the
amelioration of conditions, the restoration of Isnud
to grace, and the repentance of sinners. The line of
demarcation between elegy and supplication is not
sharply drawn. Lamentation «»ften concludes with
petition; and prayer, in turn, ends in bmentation.
Perhaps some of this group ought to be considen-d
as forming a distinct category by them.Helves. and to
be designated as ])S))lms of repentance or penitential
hymns; for their key-note is open confes.sion of 5ir.
and transgression promYtted by ardent rep'
preluding the yearning for forgiveness. TL.

Psalms

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

242

distinct from the other elegies in so far as tliey are
inspired by consciousness of guilt and not by the
gnawing sense of unmerited atHiction.

Didactic Psalms : These, of quieter mood, give
advice couceruiug righteous conduct and speech,
and caution against improper behavior and attitude.
Of the same general character, though aimed at a
specitic class or set of persons, are the imprecatory
psalms, in which, often in strong language, short-
comings are censured and their conse(iueuces expa-
tiated upon, or their perpetrators are bitterly de-
nounced.

Most of the 150 psalms may, without straining the
context and content of their language, be assigned
to one or another of these three (or, with their subdi-
visions, seven) groups. Some scholars would add
another class, viz., that of the kiug-psalms, e.g., Ps.
ii., xviii., xx., xxi.. xlv.. Ixi., Ixxii., and others.
Though in these king-psalms there is always allu-
sion to a king, they as a rule will be found to be
either hymns of praise, gratitude, or supplication, or
didactic songs. Another principle of grouping is
concerned with the character of the speaker. Is it
the nation that pours out its feelings, or is it an in-
dividual who unburdens his soul? Thus the axis
of cleavage runs between national and individual
psalms.

In form the Psalms exhibit in a high degree of
perfection charm of language and wealth of meta-
phor as well as rhythm of thought, i.e., all of the
variety of parallelism. The prevailing scheme is the
couplet of two corresponding lines. The triplet and
quatrain occur also, though not frequently. For
the discussion of a more regular metrical system in
the Psalms than this parallelism reference is made
to J. Ley (" Die Metrischen Formen der

Literary Hebraischen Poesie," 1866; ''Gruud-
Form. zilge des Rhythmus der Hebraischen
Poesie," 1875), Bickcll ("CarmiuaV.
T. Metrice." 1882; and in "Z. D. M. G." 1891-94),
Grimme ("Abriss der Biblisch-Hebrilischen Met-
lik," ih. 1896-97), and Ed. Sievers ("Studien zur
Hebraischen Metrik," Leipsic, 1901; see also "The-
ologische Rundschau," 1905, viii. 41 et seq.). The
refrain may be said to constitute one of the salient
verbal features of some of the psalms (comp. Ps.
xlii. 5, 11; xliii. 5; xlvi. 7, 11; Ixxx. 3, 7, 19; cvii.
8, 15, 21, 31; cxxxvi., every half- verse of which
consists of "and his goodness endureth forever").
Several of the psalms are acrostic or alphabetic in
their arrangement, the succession of the letters of
the Hebrew alphabet occurring in various positions
— the beginning of every verse, every hemistich,
or every couplet; in the last-mentioned case the
letters may occur in pairs, i.e., in each couplet the
two lines may begin with the same letter. Ps. cix.
has throughout eight verses beginning with the same
letter. Occasionally the scheme is not coujpletely
carried out (Ps. ix.-x.), one letter appearing in the
place of another (see also Ps. xxv., xxxvii., cxi.,
cxii.).

The religious and ethical content of the Psalms
may be summarized as a vivid consciousness of
God's all-sustaining, guiding, supreme power. The
verbal terms are often anthropomorphic; the similes,
bold (e.g., God is seated in the heavens with the

earth as His footstool ; He causes the heavens to
bow down; He scatters the enemies of His people;
He spreads a table). God's justice and mercy are
the dominant notes in the theology of the Psalms.
His loving-kindness is the favorite
Religious theme of the psalmists. God is the
and Father who loves and pities His chil-

Ethical dreu. He lifts up the lowly and de-
Content, feats the arrogant. His kingdom en-
dures for ever. He is the Holy One.
The heavens declare His glory : they are His handi-
work. The religious interpretation of nature is the
intention of many of these hymns of praise (notably
Ps. viii., xix., xxix.,lxv., xciii., civ.). Man's frailty,
and withal his strength, his exceptional position in
the sweep of creation, are other favorite themes.
Sin and sinners are central to some psalms, but even
so is the well-assured conlidence of the God-fearing.
Repentance is the path-pointer to the forgiving
God. Ps. 1., for instance, rings with an Isaianic
protest against sacrificial ritualism. The sacrifices
of God are a broken spirit. Often the nation is
made to speak; yet the "I" in the Psalms is not
always national. Individualization of religion is not
beyond the horizon. Nor is it true that the national
spirit alone finds expression and that the perfect
man pictured is always and necessarily conceived of
as a son of Israel. TheuniversaHstic note is as often
struck. The imprecations of such psalms as cix.
are not demonstrations of the vindictiveness of nar-
row nationahsm. Read in the light of the times
when they were written (see Psalms, Ckitical
View), these fanatical utterances must be under-
stood as directed against Israelites — not non-Jews.
'Ps. XV. is the proclamation' of an ethical religion
that disregards limitations of birth or blood. Again,
the "poor" and the "meek" or "humble," so often
mentioned — "poverty" or humility being found
even among God's attributes (xviii. 35) — are Israel-
ites, the " servants of Yiiwh," whose sullerings have
evoked Deutero-Isaiah's description (Isa. liii.). The
"return of Israel " and the establishment of God's
reign of justice contemporaneously with Israel's res-
toration are focal in the eschatology of the Psalms;
treated as a whole. But perhaps this method of re-
garding the Psalms as virtually reflecting identical
views must be abandoned, the reasons for which are
detailed in Psalms, Ckitical View.

In Rabbinical Literature : The richest in

content and the most precious of the three large
Ketubim (Ber. 57a), the Sefer Tehillim is regarded
as a second Pentateuch, whose virtual composer was
David, often likened to Moses (Midr. Teh. ch. i.).
"Moses gave [Israel] the five books of the Torah,
and to correspond with them [DlJlSj David gave
them the Sefer Tehillim, in which also there are
five books" (t6.). Its .sacred character as distinct
from such books as the "Sifre Homerus" (works of
Hermes, not Homer) is explicitly emphasized (Midr.
Teh. I.e. ; Yalk. ii. 613, 678). The Psalms are essen-
tially " songs and laudations " (n1^at^'1n1 nn'K')- Ac-
cording to Rab, the proper designation for the book
would be "Halleluyah" (Midr. Teh. ^.c), because
that term comprehends both the Divine Name and
its glorification, and for this reason is held to be the
best of the ten words for praise occurring in the

1(1 J»

ji'AC Uj^)\ ^>3 fi3i»/K:£>;3y'J?.'&.'»r) 5^fncriamca.Fajipopulo,jcc6fumctur-^;.f»'

la-jC I^^U^ 5:'(>"!i'"','rL'J?.;>0'''«'Svj'» &£«'g"buntdcprctori!slui5.ViuJt I>ulnu" ,^

^^ ,oAi> t£ ^^^,^ ^.^j», ;, ^^,,^ D£ VS ipfc.ic lx,ird.\ru.s (brt ,, ZV; '^i:.^i^

^pAjJ|_^A A,-jrt:nb 0!3:»-|bt quoniam ante cum dabimr milj " "cvi- ^v-^ r^,

*^Jl ti^J'^Upil^l 'in.'H fortitudoe>crf..i»:mprio.5fcxJltcrur ^'l"'^'-

^ . • ■ .' ■' ' ^ ' <K]i;ijccit ;„i

^ea ^-.- ! '^/^113 '\'P'1 ilvjN DEVS tbrtisrcdcniptiomca, 'Y,'^ Z'^/'" ■"

j otiijVf ^) r»*^ .^^f ^^J Ip'ip^^ K^plJ n^n^, Scproii^ratilt populo5,qui cxr.rgunr

:^Ji^_i^fl^I J=>;i-I I'VJinfi _'S ^<^WN3NS adoffcnAonciumfarulubmc. ^

^Ucl ^JO* i?^^.5 r^iVV^^-'^V AMv>^ Eripoitmcdcpfonisinimiciti^^ ,

)oi^i^««^_^^^oc3SL:^l >S-?<v;><^x^ ft)-'p_7 irupphifijjllosacxur.vrnoccarmilu

O-*^ ^ f^ob icf^) jup'JJn,Djri valcnorcniccn!cJcs,abgcgatacab( g:i:'.

<^^\ jt-J' ''^••:;>V7f'J>»'>*':';|!?'?V rp^oi5rapacia,cif{cuUloCcicrcmb3 c^^^^^^^^

^J ^3 ,^j f::^ ><J>n Wtj : 'J^'Jl;-i^; cripfcs mc.Proptrrca JJ.;,, ^^ ^ ' ''

jjft^l o-^^'^^^-^-J^**"^ ><:^^i'''^'-^l5>?p-"i'''N laudabotcinpopubs fr-inmos

iAu-yjjl^ ;],^:^yin .-D-N^lija^i^i DEVSacnominituoIaudrxdicam. r-irr,.:.-

^"^•^ joliSiJi Li |,^n»3-1J>'i>V'o^b Magnificovtfaciatredcmptioncra tcra!,

t^^^3( ^j=='J)^^^f ii*:or;»i0n*-^S»5-a'y cumrcgcfuo,«<facicntibonuni djTutfe|:V

^j\i^ b.:^M.Ji : 7nS-1 •h•^d£>S MESSlEfuoDauidJ. pnn;n.>Mcoaun;i'io

^1 « ■• ' ruiiiliiarjni.

Aw-yi^JI *^;J^ : Xl^hjriii M'J;tSi acfcmlniciusvfvinetcrnum. ^"' ' '"'^^

■ .; ■ '"■ , C'fi'.^ ; n

^Jl-lVl XIX. Inlaudcitl, cjru.ctintclic.-

j^fjjip^ijy^ji^ wSkii^vi^ LaudaroriaDauidis. I'll" ■*"'"' ' /,

mo
ri, 1

ncnnu. i
curiH m:

-^=^ -o !_j/w-3( !.^..^^ '^5,y^ f^Wojj-t Q,ui fufpiciunt celos crarrant

nan.
(gamjair.iiiarc

4>J^[j i^Jli^A^^ >)r^<,'7<?'Vh^gp-^ glorfamDE],5cop:ramanuumc}us {^'rhlfJ^" "*;;.' ^''

.*r?-*e ,,>*>*^ .^-^ •' ><,V!?S^ (p-"!?7 /^JIQ^ aniiunciantquifufpicfirnt inacra. itaruiinccsiihouco^

i-^V^ ^4.^^ yo_^j 'ViOj^'SiSN^i'W). bicsdici appon':r,8cmanifcaat D?''Etinfuic»r, :n.-'{

j^^Jr^Y^ ^^.V^^,S,K.^-^ yerbumacnoxncH I^SSS'

JJJWa : NV--^ ;m, /,m dimfnuitacmmciatfcfcmiam. SKb.'^g ■ '/

X?J>^>^J /^•Vi.ii/TjmiO'.bA-S NocftvcrbuIamcmationi$,acnofunt '"'i^.^l^'cfPfnc.-Lij

^ww-^X O^-^I-^^J^ ^'b? >^-1^V7 'V'^ fcrmoiics tumuli-US acnon norutnc^jcfcaij.

: \«^ .< K»*Atn-_,f I. 1 "". girus. At uc:c>

. -*?:>^, J^*"-?^' ><?J^Jp'77i?.V.5^Vi> audiuiuur voces corum.Inonincm 3mCoIuniix..f,f- :j

teK3^-VI^ j^if^( p,T^;^v HAt, V7K tcrramextenfifunteffedtuscorum, SJ^'^lirj^c'r;''^'"

^f^l j^A^^^j r-7>t?VjiA'*).io^i acinffncsorbis otiinla verba eorum,

^ivu^Ja^^^Wf ^^^ .,^ ^.^;iy„V foL-pofuittalxrnaculum,

-^J^J ' ^ J^ >^J J**^ Hi^/^ J^>7?:?''1f» )?^>'"^*> illumiationc aut i iUos.Et ipfc I maiur

^J^'J^-^J^h rr-JiJ^p p&i tonnj? {an^fponfusprocedcsdcthalamofuo

r-^-^ f<^i'■nu)s;^',i<Jl^:)n:^ pulchcrrimc^acdiimdiuiditunlics

. I . .^-^-^ S-^}^ f^y^ 'IIPJ^ .'^^I'pH ad currcndam in fortimdine M'ani '

-^>f ^O^ i^J^^ i?r?^'N;^?^?by5 occafusvcf^tini.Abcxtrcuuratibus ^

Pagk from Polyglot Psalms, Genoa, 1516. Latin Gloss Mentions Discovert of America by COLmBCS.

(From the Sulzberger collection In the Jewish Theolo({lc«l S«uiln«ry of America, New York.)

THE JEWISH EyCYCLOPEDIA

244

PsEdins. are : ~ bera •

ilAi.i.Kl.; "■

stnimeDt): "aslire' (bappr. blessed); ~L

ut tbe chief editor was David t B. B. 15a :

Compoei-

tion of th.e

Asaph.

Psalter.

said

19.

n. 63«J» were

have

tliat t'

izrahi issu

ritten bj L'

*cci in nK

itetl with the aaUK
xc). They we r
tb<fy were do* ■:

Ps.' XII.

ascribed t

tne Pe:

tsofer;:

eleven psaims. xc.-e. fi:'. xsx. wa-

psalius were

. -- -.■ ^:ter the daily

-. of wine; and every liturgical psalm was
- - V. 5). During the inter-

— — ^ — ■=- !is of Aarou blew three
"ereni blasts on the (Taniid vii. 3). The

' .i they

~ . --.... .:. . :s.lviii. ;

Tuesday. Ixxxii.; Wednesday, xciv.; Thursday,

liixL; Friday, xci:' ^abbatb. xcii. (Tamid I.e.).

This - a shows tliat it was made

Liturgical at a time when Israel was threatened

Songs. with disaster (see Rasiii on Suk.

55a). The fifteen ~ Songs of Degrees ''

were sung by the Levites at the Feast of Taber-

'-.e festive drawing of water. Ps. cxxxv.

1. were recited antiphonally by the officia-

- 5t and the people. As New- Year psalms,
iii:. ':-oncluding verses of nil. were used

Those desgnated for the semiholy

s of Sukkot are enumerated in Suk. 55a. Mas-

c -• --•- -2 names those assigned for Pass-

'>n a certain psalm (number not

-d was sung in the Temple (Suk.

Ps. cv. with the concluding

. .T^'jkkah Ps. XXX. is reserved

-'). Fr - .ix.lO(seeTosefta a<f

- ■' -' "^^ :!:v. consti-

- ?>'• ^hile

ring the offering of the First-

~5alm. aswell as iii ''::.,

. .paniment of musi - : j-

!l. II

-« ) was

>. III.).

Psalm? "

sion of the enlargement of Jeru-

-Cr::

Vie-s-

entv-i-

Ps. Xi

cxxxn

ng. Tbe
oi Ps. cxiiL-C5

The Hasoral^ ..
darim." the ele ve-
in

to GriTZ ■ " P=.-

1Tb. t;

■vers*

ri). Ps. liiviiL was

into two carts

Ps. cxiv.), juid civiiL was di'

o i

were described as " orphans ' (KDVP ir''::^?:^: *Ab.
Za- :.

Tbe Book of Psalms may be

•: of the congregation of

T-ce of the Second Temple,

^.m in the collection is of a

er to which this designation may apply.

By earlier critics advancing this view

n- Book of the nature of the Psalms it was held

; : = . i that they were hymns sung in the

It__^-^. Temple either by the Levites or by

the people. Later scholars have mod-

::iinion in view of the circumstance that

...pation of the people in the Temple ritual

ry slight and also because the contents of

f the psalms are such that their recitation at

.._.ial ftmctions is not very probable (e.g.. Pa.

and 1., which have a certain anti-sacrificial tend-

■/}. While B. Jacob (in Stade's -Zeitschrift,"

-r- " ■■'-ists that tbe Psalter is a hymn-book

ration assisting at or participating in

and as such must contain also

_ _ ^ .„ -.ended for individuals who had to

ings on certain occasions, others maintain

luai, wiiiie a number of the hymns undoubtedly

■^'-re of sacerdotal import and, consequently, were

nded to be simg in the Temple, many were

written for intonation at prayer in the synagogue.

In this connection tbe determination of tbe reference

in the so-called " 1 " psalms is of importance.

~ discovery of tbe Hebrew teit of Ecclesias-
:..-; Sirach) has caused Xoldeke (Stades "Zeit-
schrift," 1900. XI.), on tbe strength of the observa-
tion that in Ecclus Sirach) IL 2-29 the "I " refers

245

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

P»iilm«

t(p Hen Sira, to uis<' tliat I lie "I" psiiliiis nmsl siin-
iliuly be construetl as individual coiifcssidiis. Tlie
tnulitioiial view Avas tiiat David, the reputed autlior
of most of tliesc "I " psalms, was in tlicin unhosoin-
iiig iiis own fceliiiirsaml relating his own experiences.
It is more prol)alile, liowevei', that, while the "I"
in some instances may have its individual signifi-
cance, on the whole this jiersonal pronoun has refer-
ence to the "congregation of Israel" or to a circle
or set of congregants at piayer, the "pious," the
"meek," the "righteous." The metrical reconstruc-
tion of the Psalms (sec IJaelligen, "Commentar," 3d
ed.) pronu.ses to throw light on this jirohlem, as the
assumption is well grtJUnded that hymns written for
or used on public liturgical occasions had a typical
metrical scheme of their own (comp. " Tlieologische
Kundscliau," viii., Feb.. 1!)()5). At all events, some
of the psalms must have served at private devotion
{c.(/., Ps. c.\li.), as, indeed, the custom of liymnsing-
ing at night-time by some of the pious is alluded to
(ib. li.x., xcii., cxi.x., cxlix.).

On the other liand, many of the didactic psalms
remind one of the general type of gnomic antholo-
gies. It seems more liUel}' that these

Didactic were recited, not sung, and were

Psalms, learned by lieart for ethical instruction
and guidance. That the "alphabet-
ical " psalms were not intended originally for litur-
gical u.ses may be inferred at least from Ps. cxi.
Most of this class reflect the study-room of the
scholar, and lack entirely the spontaneity of the
worshipful spirit. There are good reasons for re-
garding Ps. i. as a prologue, prefaced to the whole
collection by its latest editors, who were not priests
(Sadducees), but scribes (Pharisees) interested in the
rise and establishment of synagogal worship as
against the sacerdotal liturgy of the Teinple. If so
regarded, Ps. i. reveals the intention of the editors
to provide in this collection a book of instruction
as well as a manual of prayer.

The existing Psalter is a compilation of various col-
lections made at various times. The division into sev-
eral parts was not in every case altogether due to a de-
sire to imitate the structure of the Pentateuch. Books
i. (Ps. i.-lxi.), ii. (Ps. Ixii.-lxxii.), and iii. (Ps. Ixxiii.-
Ixxxix.) are marked as separate collections by doxol-
ogies, a fact which points to their separate compila-
tion. The doxology which now divides books iv. and
V. after Ps. cvi. has the appearance of being the
beginning of another psalm (comp. I Chron. xvi.,
where it occurs at the close of the interpolation
verses 8 to 36). It is impossible to determine the
date at which these older collections may have
been put together. Book i., containing "David"
psalms (originally without Ps. i. and ii.), may have
been the first to be compiled. In books ii. and
iii. (Ps. Ixii.-lxxxix.) several older and smaller
compilations seem to be represented, and that,
too, in some disorder. The {(() " David " hymns
(IfivoL =nvnn; ib. li.-lxxii.)are clearly distinct from
the (b) songs of the sons of Korah (xlii.-xlix.),
(c)" Asaph" songs (I., Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.), and {d) la-
ter supplements of promiscuous psalms (Ixxxiv.-
Ixxxix.). It is noteworthy that in the "David"
hymns duplicates of psalms are found, incorporated
also in book i. (Ps. liii =xiv. ; lxx. = xl. 14-18: Ixxi.

1-y = xxxj. 2-4). whiic Ivil. 8 el uq. is diiplican-d
in book V. (cviii. 'i-(l). Anoilier peculiarity of thig
book is the use of "Elohiin" f<tr " Yiiwii," cxce|)t
in the supi>lement (Ixxxiv.-lxxxix.).

Comparison of the texts of the diiplicai 'vm,

as well as tiie circiinisUnicc 1 1ml these ■ . ■

occur, indicates the freedom with which bucIi ml-
leetion.s were made, and suggests thai many collec-
tions were in existence, each with variant content.
Book iv. is distinct in so far as it cnntiiiiiH. with the
exception of three psalms (.\c. "<»f .Moses"; ci., ciil.
"of David "; but in the Septuagintnine nmre). finly
anonymous ones. The character of ' .-e

above) suggests thai this book w.i . .\\\

the following only to carry out the analogy with
the Pentateuch. Books iv. and v ' 'd

by the absence of "musical " suidi in-

structions. In book V. the group coniprisiug evil.
to cix. is ea.sily recognized as not organically con-
nected with that compo.sed of cxx.-cxxxiv. It is
possible that the liturgical characteranti UKcof cxiii.
to cxviii. (the [Egyptian] " Hallcl ") had n' ■• •cd
the redaction of the "Hallel" psiilms > .v.

The "Songs of Degrees" (see below) must liave con-
stituted at one time a series by thcm.selves. The
metrical arrangement is the same in all, with the ex-
ception of cxxxii. The rest of book v. is composed
of loo.se " Halleluyah " psalms, into which have been
inserted "David" psalms (cxxxviii.-cxiv.) and an
old folk-song (cxxxvii.).

As to who were the compilers of these distinct
collections it has been suggested that an inference
might be drawn in the case of the psjilms marked
"to the sons of Korah" or " to Asaph. Henian,
Ethan, Jeduthun," respectively. But the S prefixed
to the superscription in these cases is plainly not a
"lamed auctoris." the names being those of tlie
leaders of the choir-gilds (established, according to
Chronicles, by David). The headings in which
~i occurs merely indicate that the
The hymns were usually sung by the

"Lamed choristers known as "sons of Korah,"
Auctoris." etc., or that the p.salni constituting
a part of the repertoire of the singers
so named was to be sung according to a fixed
melody introduced by them. These choir mas-
ters, then, had collected their favorite hymns, and.
in con.sequence, these continued to be named
after their collector and to be sung according to
the melody introduced by the gild. It lio-i also
been urged as exjilaining the terms inS. nt?07
(" unto David," " unto Moses") that a certain melody
was known by that term, or a collection happened
to be labeled in that way. It is. however, manifest
that in some instances the superscription admits of
no other construction than that it is meant to name
the author of the psalm (Moses, for iuslAnce. in Ps.
xc), though such expressi<ins as "David song."
"Zion song " = " Yiiwii song " may very well liave
come into vogue as designations of sacred as di.stin-
guished from |)rofane poems and strains. Still, one
must not forget that these superscriptions are late
additions. The Instorical value of the note "Vrh
{= " unto David ") is not greater than that of others
pretending to give the occasion when and the cir-
cumstances under which the particular psalm was

Psalms

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

246

composed. The variants in these superscriptions
in the. versions ]irove them to be hite interpolations,
reflecting the views of their authors.

By tradition David was regarded as the writer of
most of the psalms, even the other names occurring
in the captions being construed to be those of sing-
ers underhisdirection(I)avid Kindii, Commentary on
Psalms. Preface). He was held to be also the editor
of the Biblical Book of Psidms. But this ascription
of authorship to him is due to the tendency to con-
nect with the name of a dominating personality the
chief literary productions of the nation. Thus
Moses tigures as the lawgiver, and the
Date author of the Pentateuch; Solomon,

of Psalter, as the "wise" man and, as such, the
writer of the "Wisdom books: David,
as the singer and, in this capacity, as the composer
of hymns and as the collector of the Psalms as far as
they are not his own compositions.

When the Book of Psalms first assumed its present
form is open to discussion. Certain it is that the
New Testament and Joscpluis iiresui)pose the exist-
ence of the Biblical Psalter in the form in which it
is found in the canon. This fact is further corrob-
orated by the date of the so-called "Psalms of Solo-
mon." These are assigned to about 68 B.C. ; a fact
which indicates that at that period no new psalms
could be inserted in the Biblical book, which by
this time must have attained permanent and tixcd
form as the Book of Psalms of David. It is safest
then to assign the final compilation of the Biblical
book to the first third of the century immediately
preceding the Christian era.

Concerning the date of the two i)salms Ixxix. and
cxlvi., I Maccabees furnishes a clue. In I Mace,
vii. 17, Ps. Ixxix. 2 is quoted, while cxlvi. 4 is util-
ized in I Mace. ii. 63. These psalms then were
known to a writer living in the time of the Ilasmo-
nean rulers. He construed Ps. Ixxix. as applying
to the time of Alcimus. As remarked above, the
historical superscriptions are worthless for tiie pur-
pose of fixing the chronology, even if the concession
be made that some of these pretendedly historical
notes antedate the final compilation of the Psalter
and were taken from the historical romances re-
lating the lives of the nation's heroes, in which,
according to prevailing ancient literary custom,
poetry was introduced to embellish prose (comp.
Ex. XV. ; I Sam. ii.), as indeed Ps. xviii. is found
also in II Sam. xxii.

By comparison with what is known of the events
of Jewish internal and external history during the
last centuries before the destruction of the Second
Temple, critical scholars have come to the conclu-
sion that the political and religious circumstances
and conflicts of these turbident times are reflected
in by far the greater number of psalms. Most of
the 150 in the Biblical book, if not all
Reflection of tl)em, are assigned a post-exilic ori-
of History, gin. Not one among competent con-
temporaneoiis scholars seriously de-
fends the Davidic authorship of even a single
psalm- and very few of the recent commentators
maintain the pre-exilic character of one or the other
song in the collection. Of exilic compositions Ps.
cxxxvii. is perhaps the only specimen. To the Per-

sian period some psalms might be assigned, notably
the "nature '" psalms {t.fj., viii., xix.), as expressive
of monotheism's opposition to dualism. But there
is no i>roof for this assumjitiiJU. Still a goodly
nund)er of psalms must have been composed in pre-
^laccabean years. Some psalms presuppose the ex-
istence and inviolability of tile Temideand the Holy
City (for instance, xlvi., xlviii., Ixxvi.). Ps. iii.,
iv., xi., and Ixii. niiglit reflect the confidence of
pious priests before the jNIaccabean disturbances.

But it is obvious that other psalms refer to the
trickery and treachery of the house of Tobias (Ps.
Ixii.). The IMaccabean revolution — with its hero-
isni on the one hand, its cowardice on the other, its
victories, and its defeats — has supplied many a
hymn of faith and defiance and joy. The Dn'Dn
and D''p''nV— the "faithful," the "righteous," the
"meek" — find voice to praise God for His help and
to denounce the " wicked," the foreign nations that
have made common cause with Syiia (see Ixxiv.,
Ixxxiii., cxviii., and cxlix.). Ps. xliv. and Ixxvii.
jioint to events after the death of Judas ^Maccabeus;
Ps. Iv. and others .seem to deal with Aleinuis. The
establishment of the Hasmonean dynastj' on the
tiirone and the conflicts between Piiaiuskf.s (nation-
alists and democrats) and S.\dduceks (the represent-
atives of aristocratic sacerdotalism) have left their
impress on other hymns (Ps. ex. 1-4,

Reflex "Sliim'on " in acrostic). Some of the
of Politics, psalms are nothing less than the pro-
nunciamentos of the Pharisees (ix.,
X., xiv., Ivi., Iviii.). Dates cannot be assigned to
the greater number of psalms, except in so far as
their content betrays their character as Temple or
synagogal hymns, as escliatological constructions,
or as apocalyptic renderings of ancient history or
of mythology.

Synagogal liturgy and strictly regulated Temple
ceremonial are productions of the Maccabean and
post-Maccabean conflicts. Apocalyptic ecstasy, di-
dactic references to past history, and Messianic spec-
ulations point to the same centuries, when foreign
oppression or internal feuds led the faithful to pre-
dict the coming glorious judgment. The "royal"
or "king" psalms belong to the categorj' of apoca-
lyptic efTusions. It is not necessary to assume that
they refer to a ruling king or monarch. The Mes-
sianic king warring with the "nations" — another
apocalyptic incident— is central in these psalms.
The " ' Aniyim " and the " 'Anawim " are the " meek "
as opposed to the "Gewim" and " 'A/.im" (which
readings must often be adopted for "Goyim" and
" '.Vminim "), the " proud " and " insolent." The for-
mer are the (Pharisaic) jiious nationalists battling
against the proud (Sadducean) violators of God's
law; but in their fidelity they behold the coming of
the King of Glory, the ]\Iessiaiiif Kuler, whose ad-
vent will put to flight and shame Israel's foreign
and internal foes.

The "Songs of Degrees" are pilgrim songs, which
weie sung by the particijmnts in the

Pilgrim processions at the three ])ilgrim festi-

Songs. vals; all other explanations arc fiuici-

ful. David Kimhi in his commentary

quotes the usual interpretation that these songs were

sung by the Levitcs standing on the fifteen steps

247

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Psalms

between tlu; court of tlie wmuen and tliat of tlic
Israelites. IJut lie also snu-i^csts that tliey lefer to
the post-exilie redenipi ion, liein.;^ siin.;^ by those thai
'"ascend" from captivity. In fact, Kinihi oflen re-
veals a very ck'ar percej^tion of the ])salnis of llie
post -exilic origin.

The text is oflen corru])!. It contains interpola-

tlio.se ol Dnhiii and HiiethfrcM ; aUu (;iiU/. " I'salin-
011," Inlrodncij.in). Aeconliiiy lo (Jr-ltz (/.r. p. Gl).
such coinltinulions of two psiiltuK in out* wus cuiiscd
by tiie necessities of the III urjriciil services. Ilisiiot
unlikely that some psalms wen- (hauled rcspoii-
sively, jmrt of tlie [..eviies singing one vorsv, and the
others answeiiiii; with ijie ne.M.

P'DP? ^Sr? WD "JJ^D -^n ^3 '1)'D nV^lH

r-JJBPB 'j'rr' liiy ^Th riiv^ , -51 cr"iy ^VS

nyjrj'

^^.H

niOTj;,*:j?nnp»j3

C'75^

nS j5 Hy : nsn si'oj nhvn niiy i^yyicra
vjn» . QtD' l^^ D'"»n uto3^ ynN I'ona st3
a inj •• n^D lniNj3 onn icyT va'o man*
':n : jv':!? ODLp tip onhs Ty inix'» v j*:ii
rii3tiS D'l'^Nrhiy' oionHp nanpa onHs
jian lMp3 trij nio^oo vja o'U ion : npa

• ■ -.- ■ - . T.I,/

fro fflric ou; -iwK nn' rii^yfiQ nn laS n^o

!«■

(0) ii"i r^iD pyr> 'bn o?) pnj? dtd D'HSn •j'O)'? ju rJ''pi>' ii5 ''ij y^3p "Ti'i i)Pfr?
r c^P 'u i.;3?3 cd'' r'rp rTu? o 7^;? 5"^)»(^3) piw rop^ )ih c"r> cnili'u^ yjn prr^s v>p )p3
re TTfr? r'>'r3j':' 5» 5d?? ti? f;)? c*-^? c)P35 p6 ""/rj f 'jr^fii':* ri p ^y cs-i c'rr;»
5rc Iv lvr> p? ^}P is? vr>i}y rvp^ ir>ri^ pi tjo "J'a? ♦ua 'u )rp3) V^d 5773 crrr fo c^'tjo
"V? •^DJOwP) cx»>D.^3 c»'^7r' po it 6"ifu p^ ?"^36 n ©jprvj-jinjc jpjr) -)r»rr rjppirn
:j'r 3)0*0 f>>f fcj' '3 T^hp:> '3id )"')'/^ f3 iu iw i/i ir)5>)) ?Si'n ip cirpj? ri^j^p;? cror prru
:ji fU)D' }'3 •'J'f') 's'i ^W ^D ">35 'J p'p» /)3d 610 /'5 f3 P'C" ^ifi Vph'^'^ph rw CT) c' rto'i-'
pp rz^nvp CD") C')» nj^p (»orr» )'})'>' )"'PP» iort> 'f5)ciDr v '^ '^"^ '^^ P^-^^ T"*^^ r'c^S'
)"'.^i>'r»)i5 ■'np r)"'^^ rn^3 f":iw )"'>?p' »>') pprpj c»p pwrj Cv-jju c'3j o^j5? )D3J'V)b c-'.^p
crpD rjb tj'r »)5»p ))^?') )tfw»> o'l? jdui'd pio JU35 "VIJ p»c> 051 j'^'T' )D*!J') ^i? So; ct?
-^ >p)7D' )u3r» IT'S }>t}Y> T17 Vf'D )rn )pr>i}^ hb )fr-)» /Ji'fjio') cup tis^pp f^ wpi^) ri)7j r-'j
i:h •»':> )PP0' ')p? iw? 'jicD ir: ^j' tsni/j ""u ^'?) c»JD)''>n ■'rj^j'DV)f>''c»j5-'rr O'pt -u^a

'^Stlf) fifp'hVi "[ffiho^s'mh ()»Sr «03Dr? D)7r C)pr f")? '•'I'P ^)n 0'7J/> •)»» '3D)» r)i3 C'^i/i
)?00 )P0 )X)»Dr3 ?'?< >f> U) f)0D3 1)')> Xyo:if)0 htfpy pfp Jo^p) C»3c)1» fi'P CP3D 07)^^?) |)»3a>

j5 CO p>pp pi»pr»D 'oi T^'r^ ip r):r»it3jrr 6i'»5i o"*!^ on'^N cJoi'p ct ct )^o»
.♦? r3"3''3' J^r ^'''»"' r3JP)'u) t5'r3P yta) "i^^o Pish) P'''3f r^uoa'p/'D ))?3 cJo-" ir prrin
o W3V1)} ))7n"»p3 j*):>rii p.}p^'»^ fs) i)6 p^p'ai:) prS p»p) fa ty cdV/'d jpj ijo ^•'p'rjo'p
f r" hfip) !V))j5'D'» fmP3 )fa> )r)Vt) rwir^mj op)/') rpij'i cSpn' i^'^jp Sa 'prop? co'ri^o.

r.vr.T OK A CENSORKD P.VGK KROM PS.\I..MS, MITlI Knn.ll'S COMME.VTARY. Naplks, 1487.

(From the Sukberger collection ill the Jewish Theological S uilnsry of America, New York.)

tions, marginal glosses transposed into the body of
psalms, quotations not in the original, liturgical
glosses, notes, and intentional alterations. Conso-
nantal interchanges abound. Many of the psalms
are clearly fragmentary torsos; others, as clearly,
are composed of two or more disjointed j)arts
drawn from other psalms without connection or co-
herence (comp. the modern commentaries, especially

In tlie synagogues the Psalms were chanted an-
tiphonally, the congregation often repeating after
every verse chanted by the precentor tlie first verse
of the psalm in question. " Halkluyah " was llie
word with which the congregation was invited to
take part in this chanting. Hence it originally
prefaced the Psalms, not. as in the ^I text,

coining at the end. At the couclusii..:. : .-•- psalm

Psalms

Psalms, Midrasb to

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

248

the "niakrc" or pivccntor added a doxology end-
ing-nitli JDX "nOXI ("and say ye Amen''), where-
upon llie congregation replied "Amen, Amen"
("Monatssclirift," 1872, p. 481). The synugogal
psiilms, according to tliis, then, are cv., cvi.,
cvii., cxi., cxii., cxiii., cxiv., cxvi., and cxvii. (the
shortest of all psalms), cxviii., cxxxv., cxxxvi.,
cxlvi.-cl.

Concerning the musical accompaniment less is
known. Boys seem to have been added to the men's
chorus ('Ar. 13b). Twelve adult Levitesconstituted
the minimum membership of a fhorus; nine of these
played on the "kinnor," two on the "ncbel," and
one on thecj'mbals (ib. ii. 3-5). Sing-
Musical ing seems to have been the principal
Accom- feature of their art, the instruments
paniment. being used by the singers for their
self-accompaniment only. The kin-
nor. according to Josephus, had ten strings and was
struck with a plectrum ("Ant." vii. 12, § 3), while
the nebel had twelve notes and was played with the
fingers. This information is not confirmed by what
is known of the " lyra " or " kithara '" of the Greeks.
Jewish coins display lyres of three strings, and in a
single instance one of five strings. Tosef., 'Ar. ii.
gives the kinnor seven strings. According to Ps.
xcii. 3, there must have been known a ten-stringed
instrument. The Jerusalem Talmud agrees with
Josephus in assigning the nebel to the class of
stringed instruments (Yer. Suk. 55c; 'Ar. 13b). But
it seems to have had a membranous attachment or
diaphragm to heighten the effect of the strings
(Yer. Suk. I.e.). The nebel and the "alamot" (I
Chron. xv. 20; Ps. xlviii. ; Ps. ix., corrected read-
ing) are identical (see Griitz, I.e. p. 71). The flute,
"halil," was played only on holy days ('Ar. ii. 3).
The Hebrew term for choir-master was "menaz-
zeah." See also Cymbals.

Fifty -seven psalms are designated as mtsiO ; this
is a word denoting "paragraph," hence a new
beginning. Thirty psalms are designated as i^j»'
(= "song"), probably indicating that the psalm was
actually sung in the Temple. Thirteen psalms are
labeled ^''21^, the meaning of Avhich word is doubt-
ful (see Hebrew dictionaries and the commenta-
ries). Six psalms are superscribed DDDD— another
puzzle — three times with the addition mt^TI ?y.
once nny JK^IK' (Ix-). and in Ivi. with nJV bv
D'pim. Five psalms are called ripSD = " piayer "
(xvii., xl., Ixxxvi., cii., cxlii.). Two psalms are
marked "I'ainS = "to remember "(xxxviii., Ixx.), the
meaning of which is not known. Ps. c. is desig-
nated by minS = " for thanksgiving," probably
indicating its use in the liturgy as a hymn for the
thank-offering. Ps. civ. is marked n?rin = "jubilee
song or hymn," indicating its content. Ps. Ix. has
noS!^. probably a dittogram for Tnf5 = "for David."
Ps. Ixxxviii. has the heading nijyp, which seems to
be also a cMttogram of the preceding npriD ?]}■ ^^■
vii. has another enigmatical caption (see commen-
taries).

Bini.ioGRAPnY: The most modern commentaries are those by
Duhin, in K. H. C. ; Baethgen CM ed.), in Nowack's }Iaiid-
cnmmeiitnr ; and WcUhausen, In S'. /}. O. T. Cheyne's trans-
lation (I'JOfJ) and introduction (1891) give the latest litera-
ture up to those dates. ■£, G II

PSALMS, MIDRASH TO (Midiash Tehil-

lim) : llai;g;uiif niiiliusli. known since IhecleveiUh
century, when it was quoted by Nathan of Rome in
his "'Aruk" (s.i: nriD). by R. Isaac b. Judah ibn
Ghayyat in his "Ilalakot" (lb), and by Kashi in his
commentary on I Sam. xvii. 49, and on many other
passages. This midrash is called also "Agadat
Tehillim " (Kashi on Deut. xxxiii. 7 and many other
passages), or "Haggadat Tehillim" ("'Aruk," s.r.
lyo. and in six other passages). From the twelfth
century it was called also '"Shoher Tob " (see Mid-
rash Tehillim, ed. Buber, Iutrt)duction, pp. 35 ei
st'fj.), because it begins with the verse Prov. xi.
29, "Shoher tob," etc. The true midrash covers
only Ps. i. -cxviii. ; and this is all that is found
either in the manuscripts or in the first edition (Con-
stantinople, 1512). In the second edition (Salonica,
1515) a supplement was added covering, with the
exception of two psalms, Ps. cxix.-cl. The author
of this supplement was probably 1{. Mattithiah Yiz-
hari of Saragossa, who collected the scattered hag-
gadot on Ps. cxix.-cl. from the Yalkut, adding
conmients of his own. Since there are in the Yal-
kut no haggadic interpretations of Ps. cxxiii. and
cxxxi., the author of the supplement included no
haggadic sentences on these two psalms. This omis-
sion has been supplied by Buber, in his very full
edition of the Midrash Tehillim, by printing, under
the superscription of the two psalms, collectanea
from the Pesikta Babbati, Sifre, Numbers Kabbah,
and the Babylonian Talmud, so that the midrash
in its present form covers the entire Book of
Psalms.

The name of the editor and the date of the redac-
tion of the true midrash (Ps. i.-cxviii.) can not now
be determined. The assumption that K. Johanan or
K. Simon, the son of K. Judah ha-Nasi, edited it can
not be substantiated (comp. Buber, I.e. pp. 3-4). It
may, on the contrary, be shown that the midiash is
not the work of a single editor. There are many
passages containing the same thought. Substan-
tially the same haggadot appear in
A different forms in diffei'ent passages.

Composite e.f/., Ps. vii.. No. 6 and Ps. xviii.. No.
Work. 13; Ps. xviii.. No. 25 and Ps. xcv.,
No. 3; Ps. xviii.. No. 26 and Ps. ciii..
No. 2; Ps. xxvii., No. 7 and Ps. xciv.. No. 5; Ps.
xlv., No. 4 and Ps. c. No. 4; Ps. xci., No. 6 and
Ps. civ.. No. 8.

It has been said that the date of the redaction of
the midrash can not be determined. Haggadic col-
lections on the Psalms were made at a very early
time, and are mentioned several times in the Tal-
mudim and in Genesis Kabbah, e.r/., Yer. Kil. ix.
32b; Yer. Ket. xii. 3, 35a; Gen. R. xxxiii. 2; Kid.
33a (comp. Kashi ad loc.). But it can not possibly
be assumed that the haggadah collections on tlie
Psalms are identical with the present Midrash Te-
hillim, since the latter contains many elements of
later date. It can not be denied, however, that much
material from those old collections is included in the
present midrash. It must therefore be assumed that
parts of the old collections had been preserved
among the later haggadists. Then, when a midrash
to the Psalms was undertaken together with the
other midrashim, homilies and comments on single

Title-page from Miprash Tehillim, Pragi»:, 1«513.

(From th< Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theolojlcl Scmlcry o( Amerlc, N.- York.)

Psalms, Midrash to
Pseudo-Messiahs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

250

verses were collected from the most diverse sources,
and were arranged together with the earlier hag-
gadic material on the Psalms, following the se-
quence of the Psixlms themselves. In the course of
time this collection was supplemented and enlarged
by the additions of various collections and editors,
until the Midrash Tehillim finally took its present
form. Its definitive completion must, according to
Zunz, be assigned to the last centuries of the period
of the Geonim, without attempting to determine an
exact date. But Zuuz's assumption, that the mid-
rash was compiled in Ital}', can not be accepted.
The work was edited in Palestine, as
Mode and appears from the language, style, and

Date of manner of haggadic interpretations.
Com- Nearly all the amoraim mentioned in
pilation. it arc Palestinians, and the few Baby-
lonian amoraim referred to, e.g., R.
Hisda, are mentioned also in Yerushalmi (comp.
Buber, I.e. p. 32, note 131).

The midrash contains homilies on the Psalms and
comments on single verses and even on single words.
The homilies are as a rule introduced with the
formula "as Scripture says." In only a few cases
arc they introduced as in the other midrashim, with
the formula " Kabbi X. X. has begun the discourse,"
or "Rabbi N. N. explains the Biblical passage."
Among the comments on single verses arc many
which are based on the difference of "keri" and
" ketib " as well as on the variant spellings of words,
plene and defective. 3Iany words, also, are ex-
plained according to the numerical value of the
letters (Gem.\tiu.\) or by analysis of their compo-
nent parts (NoTAKiicoN) as well as by the substitu-
tion of other vowels ("al-tikri " ; comp. the collation
of all these passages in Buber, I.e. ji. 10a, b). The
miilrash is prone to interpreting numbers, contrib-
uting likewise thereby important observations on
the number of the Psalms and of the sections of the
Pentateuch as well as on the number of verses in
various Psalms. Thus it enumerates 175 sections of
the Pentateuch, 147 ]isalms (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xix.
22), and nine verses in Ps. xx. (Midr. Teh. to Ps.
XX. 2).

The midrash contains, besides, a number of sto-
ries, legends, paraljles, proverbs, and sentences, with
many ethical and halakic maxims. Of the interest-
ing myths ma}' be mentioned that of Remus and
Romulus, to suckle whom God sends

Legends a she-wolf (Midr. Teh. to Ps. x. 6;
and Myths. Buber, I.e. p. 4oa), and the legend of
Emperor Hadrian, who wished to
measure the depth of the Adriatic Sea (]Midr. Teh.
to Ps. xciii. 6; Buber, I.e. p. 208a, b). Among the
proverbs which are found onl}' in this midrash may
be mentioned the following: "Walls have ears"
(Midr. Teh. to Ps. vii. 1; Buber, I.e. p. 31b), i.e.,
care should be taken in disclosing secrets even in a
locked room (comp. Rashi in Ber. 8b, who quotes
this proverb). " Wo to the living who jirays to the
dead; wo to the hero who has need of the weak;
wo to the seeing who asks help of the blind ; and
wo to the centur}' in which a woman is the leader"
(Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxii. 20; Buber, I.e. p. 96b).
Many a custom maj' be traced to this midrash, e.g.,
that of not drinking any water on the Sabbath be-

fore the evening (Tur and Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah

llayyim, 291; comp. Midr. Teh., ed. Buber, p. olb,

uotV48).

BiBMOORAPiiT : 3ii(/rfj.«7i TeliUUm. ed. Buber, Ininxluption,
Wllna, Xt^'M: J. Tln-otlor, Uelnr S. Uuhct\< Midiwch Te-
liillhi), reprinted from ilie Mcnoralt, LitcrntuihhtK, Ham-
burg : Zuuz, Cr. 1'. pp. 206-268.
AV. v.. J. Z. L.

PSALMS OF SOLOMON, THE : Pseudepi-
graphic work not contained in the Septuagint (and
therefore not included in the Apocryi>ha). At pres-
ent it exists only in Greek and in translations made
from the Greek; but it is probable that it was writ-
ten originally in Hebrew. It is Palestinian, and
Hebrew was the natural language for a Palestinian
Jew; the rude and sometimes imintelligible char-
acter of the Greek and the fact that a number
of its obscurities may be a.scribcd to a misunder-
standing of Hebrew words make it probable that
the Greek work is a translation of a Hebrew orig-
inal. Thus, for example, the impossible rov e't-e'iv
(•' to say " ; IDnS) of ii. 29 may easily have arisen f mm
a miswritlng or misunderstanding of "iD~i(for Id"!?;
"to change"; comp. IIos. iv. 7); and the future
tense in ii. 12 and elsewhere may be due to a false in-
terpretation of the Hebrew imperfect. It is uncer-
tain when and why the psalms were ascribed to Solo-
mon ; the simplest explanation is that as David was
reckoned the author of most of the canonical i)salms,
this later production was ascribed to Solomon, who
stood next to David in literary glory, and was the
titular author of two psalms of the Psalter.

The book consists of eighteen psalms, the con-
tents of which may be summarized as follows: suf-
fering inflicted by foreign invasion (i., viii.); dese-
cration of Jerusalem and the Temple, death in
Egypt of the invader (ii.); debauchery of Jewish
" men-pleasers " (iv.) ; recognition of God's justice in
rewarding the pious and in punishing the wicked
(iii., vi., ix., x., xiii., xiv., xv.); expectation of and
jirayer for divine intervention (vii., xi., xii., xvi.);
description of the ]\Iessiah (xvii., xviii.).

A definite mark of date is given by the mention
(ii. 30, 31) of Pompey's death (48 B.C.). The polit-
ical situation depicted (the delivery of the city to
the invader, the slaughter of tlie Jews, and the pol-
lution of the Temple) answers fairly well to the ac-
count of Pompe.y's conquest (63 b.c.) given by Jose-
phus ("Ant." xiv. 3, § 4); and there is no need to
suppose a reference to Antiochus Epiphanes or
Herod. The composition of the psalms may be as-
signed to 45 B.C., or, less exactly, to tlie period 70-
40 B.C. The date of the Greek translation is un-
certain.

The description of the internal situation reflects
the struggle between the Pharisees and the Sad-
ducecs. The author is a Pharisee, devoted to the
Law, with a high moral standard, but animated by
a bitter hatred of the " wicked " Sadducees, whose
ethical failings he doubtless exaggerates, and by
hostility to the Ilasmonean dynast}' (viii. 18-26).

The Messiah is a .son of David (in opposition to
the Maccabean priest-kings and the Levitical Mes-
siah [see Mkssi.xu]), a man without supernatural
l)ower, rai.sed up by God to purge Jeru-salem and
to reign in peace over all nations. The description
of him is taken largely from the Prophets and the

251

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Psalms, Midiash to
Pseudo-Messiahs

Psuller. lie is culkd in the text (xvii. 30) "the
lord JMessiali," or "{vnoiuted one, lord" (xfuard^
hiiiinr), wiiich is perliaps a clerical error for "tiie
anointed ol' IJie Lord," the common expression. This
conception of his character, destined to be pcrnia-
iienl, is a icturn, natural under tlie cireumslances, to
the Old Testament representation (see ^Ikssiaii).

Uihmoouaphy: O. von (JeWianlt, Die rmlmcii Hdlntun'g,
J,i'ipsic, isi)5 (Greek tt'Xt and liistoiy of MSS.); H. B. Swctc,
Tin olil Trstdiiitiit ill d'rcci:. vol. iii., :.'J ed., Camliriilffc,
Kiitr., lSi«); liylo and James. Tin I'salins nf Sdlniiiini, ih.
IS'.H ((ireek text, Kiiir. Iransl., and inlniductioii); Kittcl, In
Kantzscli, ^Ipnliriiiilitii. I,ei|)sii\ ls!(S ((iennan Iransl. and in-
trnduction); (ieiger, in JfiW. Z( i7. isr.s, vi.; Wellliauscn, Z>ic
I'liaiisi'lcr iiiid (lie S(t(liluciU'i\ .Vpiiendix. lsT4; M. Vcrnes,
Jiisl. (lis hires Mcssiatiiiiiii s, lsr4 ; Scliiircr. Hist, nf Jcuisli
Pc(>iih\ ii., p. iii.; JI. James, in Ha.stinRs, Diet. Jiihie, s.v.

T.
PSALTERY. Sec Hakp and Lyue.

PSANTIR, JACOB BEN ZELIG : Kumaniau

histcirieal writer; born at JJotosiiani June G, 1820;
died in IJucliarest Murch 22, 1901. From his child-
hood he devoted liim.self to the study of music,
and at an early age he became conductor of a band
of traveling Gipsy musicians. Once Psantir and his
band were invited to play at a festival given in the
monastery of Neamtz. A dispute arose between the
guests on the Jewish question, some of them main-
taining that all the Rumanian Jews were toreigu-
born. Psantir was then asked how long his family
liad lived in Rumania. He answered, "for several
centuries, as may be seen by tumuhuy inscriptions
found in the cemetery of Botoshani."

This incident determined Psantir's subsequent
career. He began to write a history of Jiis family,
but as he proceeded with it his ambition moved him
to enlarge the scope of his work until it finally em-
braced the history of the Jews of Rumania. For
live years, though possessing very limited means,
he traveled throughout Rumania, visiting the cem-
eteries and studying the communal documents. Tlie
results of his labors were i)ublished in two works
written in Juda;o-German, and respectively entitled
" Dibre ha-Yamim la-Arzot Rumania" (Jassy, 1871)
and "Korot ha-Yehudim bc-Rumania" (Lemberg,
1873). A Rumanian edition of both wairks was pub-
lished at Bucharest in 1877.

Psantir is the author also of two works which re-
main in inanusciipt: "Ila-Sablanut ha-Datit be-
Rumania," on religious toleiance in Rumania, and
" Ha-Kosem," on magicians and their villainies.
BUiLiOGRAPHY : Ozar lui Sifrut, iii. 80 ct seq.

B. I. Bu.

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA : Literally " books hav-
ing false titles," fraudulently or erroneously ascribed
to the authors whose names they bear. Thus Dio-
uysiusof llalicaruassus speaks of "pseudepigraphic
orations" of Demosthenes; that is, orations com-
monly attributed to Demosthenes, and included in
collective editions of his works, but not really by
him (" De Admirabili Vi Dicendi in Demosthene,"
cli. Ivii.). Similarly Serapion, Bishop of Antioch
(190-203), says concerning the Gospel of Peter: " We
receive Peter and the other apostles even as Christ;
but the writings ["Pseudepigraiiha '"] which are
falsely inscribed with their names we reject " (in
Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl." vi. 12).

By Pi-otestant scliolars the term "Pseudepig-
rapha " is employed to designate a class of extra-

cnnonical writings, in tlie nmin of Jewish oiigin.
which Catholics, in accordauce wiilj ancient Clim-
tian usage, generally call Ajjocrypha (sec Jkw.
Excvc. ii. lb. s.r. Ai'ocuvi-iia, k. l,\.|)d). Many of
these writings are pseudonymous; but otiiers arc
anonymous, so that the numo " Pwudepijjmphft " is
ai>i)lical»le to th(; wlioK; class ordy "upotiorl." Those
who introduced it doid>tless had primarily in iniiid
tlie apocal|)y.ses. such as IV Esdras. jn which tlic
ascription of authorship to some fanious man of an-
cient limes is an essential part of tlie liiijon.

The books incbideil under the name ** Pscudcplg-
rai)ha" are many and various; several of the nuwt
important have been Itrongiit to light in recent
times, and fresh discoveries are continually In-ing
matle. The most noteworthy of these writings arc
enumerated in the articles Ai-ochvimia and Ai'oca-
i.vrsii. See also Sinvi, I, INKS and the separulc urtl-
cles on the sev( ml linul^v;

1 G. F. M.

PSEUDO-ARTAPANUS. .^ee AuTAPAXtB.

PSEUDO-MESSIAHS : Persons who claim to
be the di'livereis ot Israel divinely appointe<i to bring
about the establishment of the i)riimised Messianic
kingdom. Some of the pseudo-^Iessiahs who have
arisen at various eitochs were impostnrs seeking
to exploit the credulity of the masses for svllish
purposes; others, victims of their own beliefs or de-
lusions. All of them had as their goal the resto-
ration of Isiael to its native land. Some sought
to accomplish this through penitence, fasting, and
prayer, and looked forward to miracles to a.ssist
them; others appealed to arms. In connection with
their Messianic role, some enacted the part of
religious reformers, introducing innovations and
even trying to subvert the existing Judaism. As
there existed a belief in two Messiahs
Two — an Ephraitic Messiah, who would

Messiahs, be the forerunner of the Daviiiic Mes-
siah— there appear among tlie pseudo-
Messiahs both those who claim to be the Messiah
of the house of David and those who pretend to be
the Messiah, son of Joseph. Their inlluence was
mostly local and temporary ; some, however, suc-
ceeded in attracting large numbers of followers,
and created movements that lasted for considenible
periods. The effects of these Messiainc niovementa
were pernicious. Many of these Messiahs and their
followers lost their lives in the course of their ac-
tivities; and they deluded the people with false
hopes, created dis.sensions. gave rise to secLs, and
even lost many to Judaism.

The jiseudo-Messiahs begin to appear with the end
of the Hasmouean dynasty, when Rome commenced
its work of crushing the indepi ' of J>idea.

For the maintenance of the emi > <'tn''« -hf

people looked forward to a Messiah.

From Josejihus it appears that in the nr-; (.i,tur»

before the disiruction of the Temple

In the a number of Messiahs arose pmniising

First relief from the Roman yoke, and

Century, linding ready followers. Josophus

speaks of them thus: "Another bfKly

of wicked men al.sosjirungup. cleaner in their hands.

but more wicked in their intentions, who da-

Pseudo-MesBiahs

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

252

troycci the peace of the city no less than did these
murderers [the Sicarii]. For they were deceivers
and deluders of the pcojile, and, under pretense
of divine illumination, Averc for innovations and
changes, and prevailed on tiie multitude to act like
madmen, and went before tliem in tiie wilderness,
pretending that God would there show them signs
of liberty" (Josephus, " I>. J." ii. 13, t^ 4; idem,
" Ant." XX. 8, $ G). Matt. xxiv. 24, warning against
"false Christs and false prophets," gives testimony
to the Siune effect. Thus about 44, Josephus re-
ports, a certain impostor. Tlieudas, avIio claimed to
be a prophet, appeared and urged the people to fol-
low him with their belongings to the Jordan, which
he wouKl divide for them. According to Acts v.
36 (which seems to refer to a dilTerent date), he se-
cured about 400 followers. Cuspius Fad us sent a
troop of horsemen after him and his band, slew many
of liicm, and took captive others, together with their
leader, beheading the latter ("Ant." xx. 5, § 1).

Another, an Egyptian, is said to have gathered to-
gether 30,000 adiierents, whom he summoned to the
Mount of Olives, opposite Jerusalem, promising
that at his command the walls of Jerusalem would
fall down, and that he and his followers woidd cuter
and possess themselves of the city. But Felix, the
procurator {c. 5o-G0). met the throng with his sol-
diery. The prophet escaped, but those with him
were killed or taken, and the multitude disjiersed
(ib. XX. 8, § 6; " B. J." ii. 13, § 5; see also Acts
xxi. 88). Another, whom Jo.sephus styles an im-
postor, promised the people "deliverance and free-
dom from their miseries" if they avouUI follow him
to the wilderness. Both leader and followers were
killed b}- the troops of Festus, the procurator (60-
62 ; •■ Ant." xx. 8, § 10). Even when Jerusalem was
already in process of destruction by the Koinans,
a prophet, according to Josephus suborned by the
defenders to keep the people from deserting, an-
nomiced that God commanded them to come to the
Temple, there to receive miraculous signs of their
deliverance. Those who came met death in the
names ("B. J." vi. 5, §3).

Unlike these Messiahs, who expected their people's
deliverance to be achieved through divine inter-
vention, Meuahem, the son of Judas the Galilean and
grand.son of Hezekiah, the leader of
Menahem the Zealots, who had troubled Ilerod,
ben Judah. was a warrior. "When the war broke
out he attacked Masada with his band,
armed his followers with the weapons stored there,
and proceeded to Jerusalem, where he captured
the fortress Antonia, overpowering the troops of
Agrippa II. Emboldened by his success, he behaved
as a king, and claimed the leadership of all the
troop.s. Thereby he aroused the enmity of Eleazar,
another Zealot leader, and met death as a result of
a conspiracy against liim {ih. ii. 17, § 9). lie is
probably identical with the Menahem b. Hezekiah
mentioned in Sanh. 981), and called, with refeience
to Lam. i. 17, " the comforter ["menahem"] that
should relieve" (comp. Hamburger, " K. B. T."
Supplement, iii. 80).

With the destruction of the Temple the appear-
ance of Messiahs ceased for a time. Sixty years
later a politico-Messianic movement of large pro-

portions took place with Bar Kokba at its head.
This leader of tiie revolt against Rome was hailed
as ^lessiah-king by Akiba. who referred to him
Num. xxiv. 17: "There shall come forth a star out
of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel, and
shall smite through the corners of Moab," etc. (Yer.
Ta'an. iv. 7; Lam. \\. to Lam. ii. 2), and Hag. ii.
21, 22: "I will shake the heavens and the earth and
I will overthrow the thrones of kingdoms. ..."
(Sanh. 971)). Although son)e, as Johanaii b. Torta
(Lam. \\. to Lam. ii. 2), doubted his 3Iessiahsliip,
he seems to have carried the naticm with him for
his undertaking. After stirring up a war (183-13o)
that taxed the power of Home, he at last met
his death on the walls of Bethar. His ]\Iessianic
movement ended in defeat and misery for the sur-
vivors (see B.\u Koki5.\ and B.\u Koki?.\ Wak).

The unsuccessful issue of the Bar Kokba war put
an end for centuries to Messianic movemenls; but
Messianic hopes were none the less cherished. In
accordance with a coniimtation found in the Tal-
mud the Messiah was expected in 440 (Sanh. 97b) or
471 ('Ab. Zarali 9b). This expectation in connection
with the disturbances in the Roman empire attend-
ant upon invasions, may have raised up the ]\Ies-
siah who appeared about this time in Crete, and
who won over the Jewish population to his move-
ment. He called liim.self ]\Ioses, and promised to
lead the people, like the ancient Moses, dryshod
through the sea back to Palestine.
Moses His followei's, convinced by him, left
of Crete, their possessions and waited for the
promised day, when at his command
man}' cast themselves into the sea, some finding
deatii, others being rescued. The pseudo-]\Iessiah
himself disappeared (Socrates, " Historia Ecelesias-
tica," vii. 38; Griitz, "Gesch."3(l ed., iv. 3o4-3.5o).

The pseudo-Messiahs that followed played their
roles in the Orient, and were at the same time relig-
ious I'eformers whose work influenced Karaisni. At
the end of the seventh century appeared in Persia
Ishak ben Ya'kub Obadiah Abu 'Isa al-Isfahani of
Ispahan (for other forms of his name and for his
sect see "J. Q. R." xvi. 768,770,771; GriUz, I.e.
v., notes 15 and 17). He lived in the reign of the
Ommiad calif 'Abd al-Malik ibn ]VIarwan (084-70.")).
He claimed to be the last of the five forerunners of
the Messiah and to have been appointed by God to
free Israel. According to some he was himself the
Messiah. Having gathered together a large number
of followers, he rebelled against the calif, but was
defeated and slain at Rai. His followers claimed
that he was inspired and urged as proof the fact
that he wrote books, although he was ignorant of
reading and writing. He founded the first sect
that arose in Judaism after the destruction of the
Temple (see Ishak v.kn Ya'kiij Oijadiaii Aru

'ISA AL-ISFAHANl).

Ishak's discijile Yudghan, called "Al-Ra'i"
(= "the shepherd of the flock of his people"), who
lived in the first half of the eighth century, declared
himself to be a prophet, and Avas bj' his disciiiles
regarded as a ^lessiah. He came from Ilamadan,
and taught doctrines which he claimed to have
received through prophecy. According to Shah-
ristani, he opposed the belief in anthropomor-

253

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pseudo-Messiaba

]ilysm, taui^'lit tlic (loot liiio of five will, and licM that
the Torali luul an allegorical iiicaniiig- in addition to
its literal one. He \vas thus, according to Griltz
(I.e. V. 4(57), a Jewish Mota/ilite. lie admonished
liis followers to lead an ascetic life, to abstain from
meat and wine, and to jiray and fast often, follow-
ing in this his master Aim "Isa. Ho held that the
oliservanee of the Sabbath and festivals was nierel}'
H matter of memorial. After Itis death his foliower.s
formed a sect, the Yudghanites, who believed that
their Messiah had not died, but would return (comp.
Griltz, /.<•. note 17, § 4, 18, § 1 ; Hebr. ed., iii. 503,
511).

Between 720 and 723 a S3Tian, Serene (Ins name
is given variously iu tlie sources as Slierini, Sheria,
Serenns, Zonoria, Salira ; see Griltz, I.e.
Serene. v. 401-402), appeared as the Messiah.
The immediate occasion for his ap-
pearance mav have been the restriction of the liber-
ties of the Jews by the calif Omar II. (717-720) and
his proselytizing efforts. Ou the political side this
Messiah promised the expulsion of the Moham-
medans and the restoration of tlie Jews to tlie Holy
Land. He had followers even in Spain, where the
Jews were suffering under tlie oppressive taxation of
their new Arab rulers ; and many left their liomes
for the new Messiah. Like Abu 'Isa and Yudghan,
Serene also was a religious reformer. He was hos-
tile to rabbinic Judaism. His followers disregarded
the dietary laws, the rabbinically instituted prayers,
and the prohibition against the " wine of libation " ;
they worked ou the second day of the festivals ; they
did not write marriage and divorce documents ac-
cording to Talmudic prescriptions, and did not re-
gard the Talmudic prohibition against the marriage
of near relatives (see Griltz, I.e. note 14). Serene
was arrested. Brought before Calif Yazid, be de-
clared that he had acted only in jest, whereupon lie
was handed over to the Jews for punishment. His
followers were received back into the fold upon
giving up their heresy.

Under the influence of the Crusades the niunber
of Messiahs increased, and the twelfth century re-
cords many of them. One appeared iu France (c.
1087), and was slain by the French; another ap-
peared in the province of Cordova (c. 1117), and one
in Fez (c. 1127). Of these three nothing is known
beyond the mention of them iu Maimouides' "Ig-
geret Teman."

The next important Messianic movement appears
again iu Persia. David Alroy or Alrui, who was
born in Kurdistan, about 1160 declared himself a
Messiah. Taking advantage of liis
David personal popularity, the disturbed
Alroy. and weakened condition of the calif-
ate, and the discontent of the Jews,
who were burdened with a heavy poll-tax, lie set out
upon his political schemes, asserting that lie had
been sent by God to free the Jews from the Moham-
medan yoke and to lead them back to Jerusalem.
For this purpose he summoned the warlike Jews of
the neighboring district of Adherbaijan and also his
coreligionists of jNIosuI and Bagdad to come armed
to liis aid and to assist in tlie capture of Aniadia.
From tliis point his career is enveloped in legend.
His movement failed ; and he is said to have been

as.sassinated. while asie»'p, by his own fnlhcrin-lnw.
A lieavy line was e.vaeted from the Jews for tliis
uprising. After his deaili Alroy liad many followers
in Khof, Salmas. Tain is. and Maruglia,'uu<l tliego
formed a.sect called llie .Menaheinists, from tlie .Mes-
sianic name " Meiiaiiem." us.s»nied by their founder.
See Ai.Hov, or Ai.iMi, D.wio.

Soon after Alroy an alleged forerunner of the
Messiah appeared in Yemen (in 1172) just wlion the
Mohammedans were making determined efforts to
convert the Jews living there. He dedurwl the
misfortunes of the time to be i)rogiio8ticutiou8of the
coming Messianic kingdom, and called upon the
Jews to divide their property with the poor. TIiIb
pseudo-Messiah was the subject of .Maimonldes'
"Iggeret Teman." He continued his a«tivity for a
year, when he was arrested by the Molmnnncdan
authorities and beheaded— at his own suggestion, it
is said, iu order that he nught prove the truth of
his mission by returning to life.

AVith Abraham ben Samuel Ahi'LAFIA (b. 1240;
d. after 1291), thecabalist, begin the ]iseudo-,M. ' '
whose activity isdee]>ly intluenccd by their ( a
speculations. As a result of liis mystic studios,
Abulafia came to believe tirst that he
Abraham was a prophet ; and in a prophetic
Abulafia. book which he ])ublislied in Urbino
(1279) he declared that God had sjiokcn
to him. In Mes.sina, on the island of Sicily, where
lie was well received and won disciples, he declarefl
himself (iu a work which he published Nov., 12W-1)
to be the i\Iessiah and announced 1290 a,s the year
for the i^Ie.ssianic era to begin. Solomon ben Ailrct.
who was appealed to with regard to Abulatia's
chiims, condemned him, and some congregations de-
clared against him. Persecuted in Sicily, he went
to the island of Comino near Malta (c. 12^8), still as-
serting in his writings his Messianic mission. His
end is unknown. Two of his disciples, Josi'ph Gi-
katilla and Samuel, both from Mediuaceli, later
claimed to be prophets and miracle-workers. The
latter foretold in mystic language at Ayllou in
Segovia the advent of the Messiah.

Another pretended prophet was Nissim ben Abra-
ham, active in Avila. His followers told of liim that.
although ignorant, he had been suddenly endoweil.
by an angel, with the power to write a mystic work,
"The Wonder of Wisdom," with a commentarv
thereon. Again an appeal was made to Solomon
ben Adrct, who doubted Nis.sim's projihetic pn-lon-
sion and urced careful investigation. The prophet
continued his activity, nevertheless, and even ri.xe«l
the last day of the fourth month. Tamniuz. 129.5, as
the date for the Mes.siah's coming. The credulous
prepared for the event by fasting and almsgiving,
and came together on the appointed day. But in-
stead of fininng the Messiah, some saw on their
garments little crosses, perhaps pinne<l on by unbe-
lievers to ridicule the movement. In their disap-
pointment some of Nis.sim"s followers aie said to
have gone over to Christianity. What Ix-carae of
the prophet is unknown.

After the lapse of a century another false Messiah
came forward with Messianic pretensions. Accord-
ing to Grfltz (l.r. viii. 104). this ; ' ' " -:ah
is to be identilied with Moses B ■•«•

Pseudo- Messiahs
Pseuclo-Phocylides

THE JEV'TSU ENCYCLOPEDIA

254

One of his adlierents ami partizans was Hasdai
Cicscas. Their relation is refenvd to liy Geroiiinio
diiSiintn Fc in his speecli at the disputation iu Tor-
toSii 1413 (conip. Giiitz, I.e.).

Anotliei- century later, iu 1502, Asher Lcmnilein
(Lrmunieiu), a Gerniau proclaiming himself a fore-
runner of the Messiah, appeared in Lstria, near Ven-
ice, and anuouuced that if the Jews would be peni-
tent and practise charity the Messiah
Asher would eome withiu half a year, and
Lemnilein, a pillar of cloud and of smoke would
precede the Jews on their retinn to
Jerusiilem. He foimd believers in Italy and Ger-
niauy, even among the Christians. In obedience to
his preaching, people fasted and prayed and gave
alms to prepare for the coming of the Messiah, so
that the year came to be known as the "year of
penitence." But the " Messiah " either died or dis-
appeared (see LEMMI.EI.V, Asher).

Among the pseudo-Messiahs are to be included
David Keubeni and Solomon Molko. The former
pretended to be the ambassador and brother of the
King of Ku.viuAU — a town and former district of
Arabia, in which the descendants of the tribes of
Rueben and Gad were supposed to dwell — and sent to
the pope and powers of Europe to secure cannon and
firearms for war against the ^lohanunedans, who, he
said, prevented the union of the Jews living on the
two sides of the Red Sea. He denied expressly that
he was a Messiah or a prophet (comp. Fuenn, " Kene-
set Yisrael," p. 256), claiming that he was merely a
warrior. The credence which he found
Reubeni at the papal court ia 1524, the recep-
and tion accorded to him in 1525 at the

Solomon Portuguese court (whither he came at
Molko. the invitation of John III. and where
he at tirst received the promise of
help), the temporary cessation of persecution of the
Maranos— all gave the Portuguese and Spanish Ma-
rauos reason to believe that Reubeni was a forerunner
of the Messiah. Selaya, inquisitor of Badajoz, com-
plained to the King of Portugal that a Jew who had
come from the Orient (referring to Reubeni) had
filled the Spanish Maranos with the hope that the
^Messiah would come and lead Israel from all lands
back to Palestine, and that he had even emboldened
them to overt acts (comp. Griltz, I.e. ix. 532). A
spirit of expectancy was aroused by Reubeni's stay
in Portugal. A Marauo woinan in the region of
Herara in Puebla de Alcocer declared herself a
prophetess, had visions, and promised to lead her
coreligionists to the Holy Land. She and many
who believed in her were burned.

A more important result of Reubeni's coming than
such a phenomenon is the return to Jiidaism of the
Marano Diogo Pires (b. c. 1501 ; d. 1532), an event'
of which Reubeni was perhaps the cause (see Molko,
Solomon).

To some extent belong here also the cabalists

Isaac Luria, the founder of the modern school of

Cabala, and Hayyim Vital Calabrese,

Isaac hischief disciple and successor. Both

Luria. claimed to be Ephraitic Messiahs,

forerunners of the Davidic Messiah.

Isaac LrniA (b. 1534 in .Jerusalem; d. 1572 in

Safed) taught in his mystic system the transmi-

gration and superfetatiou of souls, and believed
himself to possess the soul of the ^Messiah of the
house of Joseph and to have it as his mission to
hasten the coming of the Messiah of the house of
David through the mystic improvement of souls.
Having developed his cabalistic S3'stenj in Egypt
without finding many followers, he went to Safed
about 1509. There he met Hayyim Vital Calabre.se,
to whom he revealed his secrets and through whom
lie secured many disciples. To these he taught se-
cretly his 3Iessinhsliip. He believed that the ^les-
sianic era would commence iu tJie beginning of the
seconil half of the second day (of the year 1000)
after the ilestruction of the Temple, i.e., in 1508.

On Luria's death Hayyim Vital Calabrese (b.
1543; d. 1020 at Damascus) claimed to be the Eph-
raitic Messiah and preached of the speedy advent of
the Messianic era. In 1574 Abraham Sii.\lo.m, a
pretender to the Davidic Messiahship, it seems, sent
to Vital, saying that he (Shalom) was the Davidic
3Iessiah, whereas Vital was the Messiah of the house
of .loseph. He urged Vital to go to Jerusalem and
stay there for at least two years, whereupon the
divine spirit would come upon him. Shalom bade
Vital, furthermore, not to fear death, the fate of the
Ephraitic Messiah, as he would seek to save him
from this doom (see Fuenu, I.e. p. 353).

Another Messiah is reported by Lent (" De Pseudo-
Messiis," ch. iv., S^ 15) to have appeared iu Coroman-
delin 1615(seeJost, "Gesch. derlsraeliten," viii.481).

The juost important ^Messianic movement, and one
whose influence was wide-spread throughout the
Jewry, lasting in some quarters over a century,
was that of Sir.\.BBETn.\i Zeui (b. at Smyrna 1026;
d. at Dulcigno 1676).

After his death Shabbethai was followed by a line
of Messiahs. Jacob Querido, son of Joseph Filosof,
and brother of the fourth wife of Shabbethai, became
the head of the Shabbethaiansin Salonica, being re-
garded bj^ them as the incarnation of Shabbethai.
He pretended to be Shabbethai 's son and adopted the
name Jacob Zebi. AVith 400 followers
Shab- lie went over to Islam about 1087,
bethaian forming a sect called the Donmeii. He

Pseudo- himself even made a pilgrimage to

Messiahs. ^Mecca (c. 1090). After his death his

.son Berechiah or Berokia succeeded

him (c. 1695-1740), and was similarly regarded as

Messiah and successor of Shabbethai Zebi.

A number of Shabbethai's followers declared
themselves ^Messiahs. ^Miguel (Abraham) Cardoso
(1630-1700), born of ^larano parents, may have been
initiated into the Shabbethaian movement by Closes
Pinheiro in Leghorn. He became a prophet of the
^lessiah, and when the latter embraced Lslam he
justified this treason, saying that it was necessary
for the ]\ressiah to be reckoned among the sinners in
order to atone for Israel's idolatry. He applied Isa.
liii. to Shabbethai, and sent out epistles to prove
that Sliabbethai was the true Messiah, and he even
suffered persecution for advocating his cause. Later
he considered himself as the Ephraitic ^lessiah, as-
serting that he had marks on his body which were
proof of this. He preached and wrote of the
speed}'' coming of the Messiah, fixing different dates
until his death (see Cahdoso, Miguel).

255

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pseudo-Messiahs

PBeutln-P))()cyli<le»

Auotlier foHowcr of Sliubl)t'tliai \vl\o ictiiiiiufd
faitliful to liiin, Mordecai Mokiah ("' tlie Kebukcr")
of Eisoustadt, also pretended to be a Messiah. His
period of activity was from 1078 to 1083 or 1083.
He preaelied at tirst that Shabbelhai was tiie true
^Messiaii, that his conversioa was for mystic reasons
lu'cessavy, that lie did not die but woidd reveal
himself witliiii tliree years after iiis supposed death,
and pointed to the persecution of the Jews in Oran

(by Spain), in Austria, and in France,
Mordecai and to tlie pestilence in Germany as
Mokiah. prognostications of his coming. He

found a following among Hungarian,
Moravian, and Bohemian Jews. Going a step fur-
ther, he declared that he was tlie Davidic Messiah.
Shabbethai, according to him, was only the Ephra-
itie Messiaii and was furthermore ricli, and therefore
coulil not accomplish the redemption of Israel. He
(Mordecai), being poor, was the real ]\[essiah and
at the same time the iucaniaticm of the .soul of the
Epliraitic JMessiah. Italian Jews lieard of him and in-
viteil him to Italy. He went there about 1080, and re-
ceived a warm welcome in Reggio and INIodena. He
spoke of Jlessiauic preparations which he had to
make in Kome, and hinted at having perhaps to
adopt Christianity outwardly. Denounced to the
Intjuisition, or advised to leave Italy, he relurued to
Boiiemia, and then went to Poland, wliere he is said
to have become insane. From his time a sect began
to form tliere, winch still existed at the beginning of
tlic ^lendelssohniuu era.

Another ]\Iessiahof the Shabbethaianswas LObele
PuossMTZ (a jnirtizan of ]VIordecai), wliose theory
was that God had resigned the dominion of the
world to the " pious one," i.e., the one who had en-
tered into the depths of the Cabala. Sucli a repre-
sentative of God had been Sliabbethai, who.se soul
had passed into other "pious" men, into Jonathan
Eybeschiitz and into him.self. Another, Isaiah
Hasiil (a brother-in-law of the Shabbethaiau Judah
Hasid), who lived in Mannheim, secretly claimed to
be the resurrected Messiah, although publicly he
had abjured Shabbethaiau belief. s. Jonathan Eybe-
sciilitz may have been regarded by some Shabbe-
tliaiaiis as the Davidic Messiah (see Griltz, I.e. note
7, and j). 329).

The last of the Shabbethaiau j^Iessiahs was Jacob
Frank (b. 1726 in Podolia; d. 1791), founder of tiie
Frankists. lu his youth he had been brought into

relation with the Donmeh. He tauglit

Jacob that bj' metemp.sychosis the same Mes-

Trank. siah soul had dwelt in David, Eliia!!,

Jesus, Mohammed, Sliabbethai Zebi
and his followers to Berechiah, and linally in him
(Frank). Having secured a following among Turk-
ish and Wallachian Jews, he came in 1755 to Podolia,
where tlie Shabbethaians were in need of a leader,
and revealed himself to them as tiie reincarnation of
the soul of Berechiah. In accordance with the Sliab-
bethaiau trinitarian doctrine of the Deity, he laid
stress on the idea of the " holy king " who was at tiie
same time Messiah, and he accordingly called himself
" santo senor" ( = " holy lord "). His followers claimed
he performed miracles; and they even prayed to him.
His purpose, as well as tliat of his sect, was to uproot
Talmudic Judaism. He was forced to leave Podolia ;

and Ills 1'ci11(jW( Ts were jiersecuied. Heiitruing iu
1759, lie advised Ids followers to embrace Christian-
ity, and about 1,000 were converted. He himself
was converted in Warsaw Nov., 1759. Later his
insincerity \vasexpo.se(l, and he was JiniJrJBoned us a
heretic, remaining, however, even in jirison the heiul
of this seel (.sec FitA.SK, J vcoh, .v.vu'riiK FuA.\KibTt»),
Mo-sis J.layyim Luzzatlo (b. 1707 iu Paduu; d.
1747), the poet, al.so believed him.self to be u Mes-
siah. He liad early been initiated into the Cabala.

Self-deluded as a residl of lii.s oteupu-

Moses lion with the Zoliar, and inHueneed by

Luzzatto. tli(! cabalistic atmosphere in which he

lived, he bebevcd llial u divine spirit
had given to him an insight into its mysteries,
and at last fancied himself to bo d ' " by
means of the "Second Zohar," which h , to

redeem Israel (.see Griltz, I.e. x. 378. note 1 ; idem,
Hebrew ed., viii. 389, note 1). His Caliala was nt
first kept within a narrow circle of (lisciples. When
the secret was revealed, an oath was exacted of Luz-
zatto that he would refrain from writing, publishing,
and teaeliing his doctrines unle.'^s he went to Pales-
tine. He returned to his cabalistic adiviiy, and
was several times excommunicated. About 1744
he went to Palestine, there to engage in hi.s cabalis-
tic studies undisturbed, or to fill his Messianic rOlc;
and there he died.

Bibliography: Gratz, Gccc /i. passim; UainlmrRer. /? R T.
s.v. MexMasc ; M. Gaster, In Jew. i'limn. Feb. 11 ai
11, ]W)8; A. M. Hyamtion, F'iIkc Mitniiahii, In (Jei
McHiazi)ie, Ixix. "9-89; Jobannis a Lent, Dr Jxnui .rtu.x
Fi<cuih)-Mc»slis.

K. H. G. F.

PSEUDO-PHOCYLIDES : A Judao-llellcnis-
tic poet and the author of a didactic poem iu epic
style of 250 verses. He assumed the name of the
ancient gnomic bard Phocylides of Miletus; and
medieval scholars, regardless of criticism, accepted
his composition as a genuine classic work. Since
its ethical teachings are of the highest, antl in entire
harmony with Christian and monotheistic doctrines,
it was used until the sixteenth century and even
later as one of the most popular school manuals of
epic style ; and onlj' after classical philology had been
firmly established on a critical ba-sis was discarded
the naive belief that an ancient heathen pott had
preached monotheism and a system of ethics of
cfiual purity centuries before Christianity was
known.

The problem of the authorsliip of this pm-m was
first solved by Jacob Bernays in 1856. He provotl
that the composition was entirely dependent on the
Bible and was directly opposed to
Author- heathenism, while there was no allu-
ship De- sion whatever in it to Christianity or
termined to the New Testament, which showed
by Jacob that it was absolutely uninfluencetl by
Bernays. Christian teachings. He prove<l also
that the source of the most i
teachings of the work is the Pentateuch. ;
jirecepts are especially the so-called law of rcawn.
which the author hoped would appear ai
the Gentiles; for such prohibitions as tli
ing eating flesh torn by an animal (="terefah'';
verses 139. 147-14S; comp. Ex. xxii. 80), or taking
the mother bird and h. r brood together from the

Pseudo-Phocylides
Pseudonymous Liteiature

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

>56

uest (verse 84; comp. Deut. x.\ii. Gj, may be cousid-
ered moral laws. Commaudmeuts which apply es-
pecially to the Jews are not mentioned by pscudo-
Phocylidci=, since he could not hope tiiat the Gentiles
would listen to them. It was, therefore, the laws
that were binding upon the Noachidaj which the
pseudoPhocylides preached (Krauss, in " K. E. J."
xlvii. 32); he, however, omitted the prohibition
against idolatry, whioii he, curiously enough, did
not attack, probably for the simple reason that he
wished to preserve his anonymity, in which case he
does not deserve in any degree Beruays' reproach of
lukewarmness and cowardice.

The essentially Jewish character of the poem of

pseudo-Phocylides is proved by the fact that his

precepts may all be traced to the Bible. Bernays

confined his ]iarallels to the Pentateuch ; but later

investigators have carried the search

Jewish *"urther and have shown that the au-
Character tlior drew largely on other books of
of Poem, the Bible, especially the gnomic liter-
ature, Proverbs, Job, and Ecclcsiastes,
as well as on Apocryphal wiiliugs, such as Ecclesi-
asticus (see I. Levi, "L'Ecclesiastique," partii., p.
Ixiv., Paris, 1901) and the Wisdom of Solomon. To
verse 129, in which the Logos is described as being
inspired by God, an exact parallel is found in Wi.s-
dom vii. 24-25; and the statement in verse 106,
"The spirit is lent by God to men, and is His very
likeness," finds its closest analogue in Wisdom ii.
23. In addition to Bernays and Gomar, Arthur Lud-
wich has contributed much to the establishment of
a correct text of the poem.

Whether pseudo-Phocylides won success among
the Gentiles by his moral teachings is quite unknown.
This question might perhaps be answered if the time
and authorship of the poem were established. Con-
cerning the date of its composition it can only be said
that it was written after the completion of the Sep-
tuagint, but before Christianity (which the author to-
tally ignores) had become wideh' known, since after
this time — in other words, after 150 c.e. — the new re-
ligion'would have demanded mention. It would seem
that the home of the author was Alexandria ; for there
all the conditions for such a pseudepigraphical work
were existent. This view is perhaps confirmed by
the strict prohibition of the dissection of the ca-
daver, a prohibition which is based by the author
upon the doctrine of the resurrection of the body
(verses 104-105), although this argument can not be
pressed far, since the passage is very possibly a
Christian or a pagan interpolation (Harnack, "Die
Chronologic der Altchristlicheu Litteratur," i. 589,
Leipsic, 1897).

The poem does not seem to have been well known ;
for the Church Fathers Clement of Alexandria and
Eusebius, who eagerly collected everything pertain-
ing to Judico - Hellenistic literature, were igno-
rant of its existence. It is remarkable that verses
5 to 79 of the poem have been incorporated, with
a simple omission of verses which have a Gentile
ring, into the Sibyllines (ii. 56-148). The impor-
tance of the poem lies further in the fact that it was
used as a text-book in schools at the time of the Ref-
ormation; and with this object in view it was re-
printed, annotated, and translated repeatedly after

its first edition in 1495. The value and inlluence
of the poem have been exaggerated beyond measure
even in the most recent times; Lemcke makes the
incorrect assertion that it is older than Aiexan-
drianism, ami that it carried Parseeism to Judea,
where it intluenceil all religious life and activity.

Bini.ionRAPiiY: J.Hernays, I'chrr iJiJH Phtikyliilfiachc Gidicht,
Urst published in J<i)in;<lii rivlit dtsJUUisvlicn Thnihinisihcn
Stiniiiarszu Jircsluu, lS5r>, then in (jii^aituiultf AhlniiiiUun-
(jt'ti, !. 19:i-2tjl, Berlin, ISK'), where the older literature and the
amended te.xt are g-iveu ; (iustuv Gomur, Dc l'i<cu(li)-l'liiicii-
Jitli\ in I'liihihitjH!', xiv. Jll 112; K. Sebestyeu. A. I'aeitdi).
Pliiikuliihs, Budapest, l^W) (discussion and text). There are
also studies on the tt-.\t by A. Hart, in .)alirl)iUliir fllr Clax-
si!<vlic J'liHi)liniii\ 18»>8, .xcvii.; H. llinek, ih.; idem, in Itliiiii-
isvlifs Museum, new series, 1871, .x.wi.; and A. l.ndwieh.
Lectioties I'KCUdotjhoculUlLUV, Konigsberfr, 187;i. Or. tlie new
manuscript discovered in Janina see I'liilolinjus, hi. Cli>-(i:il(;
K. F. A. Lincke, Samaria iitnl Seine I'roijluteu, wilh a sup-
plement: Die Weiftheitslilire dcs P/io/fi/iuJts, Oriecliisch
uud Ihntscli, Tiibinpen, liXO; Griitz, Gescli., 4th ed., iii. ;J7T-
379, tun tjll ; and Schiirer. Gesch., 3d ed.. iii. 473-47t), with
e.xliaustive literature. The text has been edited with a critical
apparatus by Beruk, in I'netd' Ltirici Gnvci, 4th ed., ii. 74-
Kllt, and by Keulinfr, Phocjilides, I'oem of Adminiitiou witJi
Introductiiiii a)id Cummentaries, translated by Uoodwin,
Audover, Mass., 187'J.

T. S. Ku.

PSEUDONYMOUS LITERATURE AND
WRITERS : The habit of adopting literary dis-
guises is a very old one in Hebrew literature. Ac-
cording to the views of higher criticism, there are
a large number of books of the Old Testament which
might be included tmder the foregoing heading. The
cabalists of later days often chose the names of Rabbi
Islimaeland Rabbi Akiba, wiiom tradition celebrated
as the greatest teachers of esoteric doctrines. But
the choice of names was not always as appropriate
as in these instances. No one, for example, can tell
why the " Sefer Yezirah " should have been ascribed
to Abraham, and the "Sifra di-Zeui'uta" to Jacob.
In these instances, however, it must be borne in
mind that the pseudo-authorship is perhaps the
invention of a later day, and that the books were
originally anonymous (Zunz, "G. V." 1892, p. 175).

The employment of pseudonyms may be said to
have been more in vogue among authors of imag-
inative and mystic writings, while those who wrote
halakic works, if they did not acknowledge their au-
thorship, left them anonymous. In their search for
great names the pseudonymous writers not only
leaped over centuries, but even ascended to heaven.
Thus the "Sefer Razicl" is ascribed to an angel of
that name.

The pseudonymous literature of the jMiddle Ages
is too extensive to be treated here exhaustively.
The best-known works, besides those
Early already mentioned, are: the "Otiyyot
Instances. de-Rabbi 'Akiba"; the " Sefer Bahir,"
ascribed to Nehunya b. ha-Kanah ; the
"Sefer ha-Taggin," ascribed to R. Ishmael b. Elisha
or to the high priest Eli (Zunz, I.e. p. 418, note b);
and the Zohar, ascribed to R. Simeon b. Yohai.
This last-named work is perhaps the greatest literary
forgery of all times, considering the influence it ex-
erted upon the Jewish people. Of adilTerent charac-
ter, but no less popular, were the two ])seudonymous
books "Yosippon," ascribed to Josephus, and the
"Sefer lia-Yashar," .said to have been found during
the destruction of the Second Temple.

Ill modern times the use of literary disguises has
been more widely adopted; but, at the same time,

267

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

PBeudo-Phocylides
Pseudonymous Literature

tliu number of literary forgeries lias consideraiily
<liinii)isl)e(l. PeriiajJS the last great literary forgery
was the "Bosainiiu Kosh " (Berlin, 1793) of H. Saul
Berlin, which he ascribed to 1{. Asher It. Jehiel.
Authors have now more often cause to conceal their
identity ; but the names they assume generally hold,
as it were, the real name in solution.

The most ordinary class of pseudonyms is that
■which is composed either of the initial or the final
letters of the author's real name. Such, for instance,
is AB (= "father ") for Abialiam Berliner, and
I laBeT ( = " look ") for Solomon Lob Rapoport. Oc-
casionally an author will hide his identity under an
anagram, composed of the letters which, in the ar-
rangement of the alphabet, immediately precede or
follow tlie initials or final letters of his name. Thus
the pseudonym p:;*J, which Abraham Baer Dobse-
witcli ()*'1iyDn nyi omnx) employed, is composed
of letters which in the alphabet immediately follow
the final letters of his name. Another common
method of forming pseudonyms is metathesis, e.g.,

PDj? "It;' yvi;'' yy^'' for •'poiyt^'yiy::' '3V- sometimes

the pseudonym is nothing more than a Hebrew
translation of the author's family name, as Ish
Mahshabot for Trachtmann. Less frecjuent is the
pseudonym based on a Biblical allu-
Methods sion, as Ben Tamar for.!. L. Perez, an
of allusion to Gen. xxxviii. 29. Still

Formation, rarer is the pseudonym based on an-
other pseudonym. This is met with
in cases where a writer well known under one
pseudonj-m forms another out of the first. Thus
A. S. Friedberg, known under the pseudonym Har
Shalom, often signs himself ^r\, which is an abbre-
viation of Ids pseudonym. The most complicated
pseudonym, formefl by a combination of several of
the above-mentioned methods, is ^OJp'DH iT'l"!^* p,
which is the nom de plume of Joseph Brill of Jlinsk.
By metathesis "'DJP^Dn stands for "ipDron, "the
native of Minsk," and n'-nv p for 2Xr, according
to II Sam. ii. 13 ; and 2X1\ again, contains the initials
of ^^"13 P|DV ■'JX- Finally, there are pseudonyms en-
tirely independent of the author's name, but indica-
tive of the writer's attitude, as Ahad ha-' Am ("'one
of the people") for Asher Giinzburg, while others
nre rare Biblical names, as Bukki ben Yogli (Num.
xxxiv. 22), the pen-name of J. L. Katzeuelson.

In the selected list of pseudonyms that follows
here only those pen-names have been included which
have been used by the authors themselves, or which,
through long usage, have become inseparably asso-
ciated with an author's works, as, for example,
Rashi, which is always used for R. Solomon of
Troyes when mention is made of his writings. Pen-
names like ysX for Abraham ibn Ezra, JJN for Abra-
liam Geiger, or '^anxn for De Rossi, belong rather
to abbreviations and nicknames. Every name in the
subjoined list is followed by a corroborative source,
except in such well-known pseudonyms as require
no corroboration. TIic letters within jiarentlieses
refer to these sources as given in the bibliography
at the end of this article. It should be added that,
since the following list is bilingual, some of the let-
ters of the pseudonyms must, of necessity, appear
unrepresented in the real name, and, furthermore,
that the letters X. n, n, O. J, 1 of the pseudonym are
X.— 17

not reproduced in tiic real nanie wlien tliey slund
for '<jx, nm. |Dpn. IJ-llJO, DIKJ. '3-1. Tin- san'ie holds
gooil for any condjinallDU of these word.s.

ACTllOIW AM) TllKin I'KKCOONYMS.

.N N = Isaar Kui-lu'l.

.n .N = Abruhaiii Dubstowlu-h (" Ila-Mell?." In;9. p. l.'.j.

."^ .N = Abru'iuiu I.iHlwIiKil (S.).

.D .C.N = Abnihuni MfiiUel Mohr (BJ. |>. aOi.

.ty .D .H = Vliior Muruic'lHleln C'Arbu" I^uhIivmI ").

.j; .N = A. Elyiisliov (S.).

.N-c .N = KHc/cr Skrelnka ^;1•1^2, v. 01-71; R.).

-tDNN = At)ruliiUii Kllluti Saniller (8ch.).

-<NK = Abruhuiii Aim UakdWMkl (8.).

3'N = Abraliaiii Uirllutr (" Or lia-yayyim." p. CIO. Frankfort-
on-lhe-Malii, IsStl).

nnn 3'n = Abruham b. Judah Ha.sld ; Ahht-r b. Jehiel (L.i.

N3N = Abraham b. al-Nakkur (11. B. xvl. p. 05!; Abnihaiii b.
Asher, -\"3 ^y ti'ZH u-no, 1^0 'Ji;" (K. 1. «i; Asher b Eli-
jah (Konstantln) Shapiro (SI.): Elijah Beuunio^eKh iSl.f.

J3N = Abraham Uacr (iolllnber.

■•ynNn ij3N = Alter Droyanov '8.).

S'njN = Judah L<")l) I^win (S.).

m '^N = Jacob Saiuiifl Yalskan (S.).

O'lnpiT'D-nja ON — l$i-njamln Maiulclstamm.

3'>2N = Abraham b. Hezcklah Ha.sjiii 'D.i; Isaac Bcnjacob 'BJ.
p. 1S4); Reuben A. liraudesCsi.); Arnold U. Ehrllch (n2*"i|i.
p. Vii, New York).

n^as = Israel Zebi Boriistein (Sch.); Albert llarkavy ("fj-i.
vi. 2:J7); I. n. Ilurwitz (S.); Abraham b. Judah ha-LevI
Minz (M. p. 39).

'^-p C"N n>3N = Israel Zebl Bornstein (So. p. 195).

jvaN = Abraham Jonah of Venice (SI.).

qDraN = Reuben Hrainln (S.).

Tnit'3N' = J. L. Katzenelson {2p''^, p. 14).

■'ON — .\braham b. Isaac Joshua Latasn ("Iggerot Sbadal," p.
199).

p3.s =: Adolph Neubauer (Sch.).

j,"3N = Abraham b. Isaac Antlbl (SI.).

ps = Abraham b. Nathan ha-Yarhl 'L.).

-i^> pN = Juilali Liib Rittermann (Z. p. VM).

l-n px — .\braham b. Samuel Flrkovlch.

pj3X = Aaron Noah Karainka (S.).

1J2N = Aaron b. Nahum Rosenfeld (" Ha-Boker Or," Iv. 1475).

J,'3N = Abraham Ehrlich (Sch.).

jxax = (by metathesis an-\3N p ox =is:» - Hirs<-h Schere-
schewsky (S.).

|->3N = Abraham b. Kanders (Sch.).

Ssj3-i3N = Abraham Levkowitz (" Ha-Boker Or." vl. 2i: Abra-
ham ben Aryeh Lcib Rakowsky (" Ha-Kol." I. 6i.

niS D.-n3N = A. L. Lewinskl <" Luah AhiiLsaf," 1.. col. 2i.'r.

aiVa' 3vS = Abraham Shalom of Padua (;-.-ii33. ISM. p. 36).

ly'^j Ti' ':'N'-\3JX - I. Goldberg (S.).

-,ijs = w. Goldstein (Sch.).

nS>jx = Eliakim Getzel Kohen ("Ha-Kol." 111. IfiJi.

px = Abraham Gapin of Jerusalem (Si.).

-l^-^^< = Epliraim Deinarci.

-i-i,s = Atiraham Dob Cohen (SI.).

C-iN = D. M. Aniiennann (Sch.); Elijah Unnlel del Bene (M. p. T).

PDD DIN = Abraham Dob Biir Leln-nsohn.

HN = Aaron Halle C Ha-Mea.ssef." 17W. p. 122).

^n.x = Alexander ha- Levi Lantrtmnk ("ozarha-Sifrut."!. »-37).

^..|,^sj^Q-, pnD"'"C n<-MX — Judah LOb .Miesi--^ f'Tekunnt ha-
Rabbanim." Lemberg. 1879).

"jr-iix = Senior Sachs (i"^cn, 1860, p. rA).

3ilx = Judah 1,0b Gordon (S.).

i-:z' ^Ni-.:"3 ^i""! ""HN = Israel Salant (BJ. p. 656).

D'licn -inx = Isaac Jacob Welssberg (S.).

ayn inx = Asher Gunzlmrg.

r)''N3 inx = Aryeh Lob Frumkln (" Eben ShcmuVl." p. 110.
Wilna, 1S74).

PiDDxn i^;'3r; -inx = Havylm Ijiznr Muschkat (Z. p. 31*..

nao '"^is "TIN = Mosesi Ijizar El.*«'nsudl ; laaac Jacob WeU»-
berp (" Ha-Yom." 1.. N". If*: >*'••■

j^ji,,,, .,,„ ,-,,s,^ -inx = Isaac .Melr Dick ("HB-Ore«^"K0nlir»-

berg. 1860; Bj. p. 30).
Nj^'i^": pxn. . . '>-<«s''."^3 "ins = lU'nJamIn S<>

("Sefer Gebla' Gebia' ha-Kesef" [shklov. 1-

6.56).
'^'^n S;i' VTs'^PS "^nx = Joseph Ros<'ntbal (?.».
mx = Aaron IJayylm Voiu-rm, n-^«c'^« (" Ba<^k«»hah Hada-

shah." Leghorn. 1710; W. No. 1558).

Pseudonymous Literature

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

258

n^nn = H. Abraham Wagenaar ("Toledot Ya'abez," Amster-
dam, 1868).
3x:'nK = I. J. Weissberg (S.).
C'n-\3>N = Abraham Ludwipol (S.).
P'K = Abraham Joseph Uanon (" Maskll le-Etan," Adrlanople,

1888).
3VN: Pi"'-co 3i'V-i n-i-'x p 3VN = Joseph Brill ("Ha-Shahar,"

vili. 317).
3V|->2 3VN = I. J. WeLssberg (S.).

n^'-N = AaroD Judah Lob Horowitz {" Ha-Karmel," i. 16).
'^331 'D'N = Abraham Jacob Slut'ki (S.).
D3711J"DU' r^X'N = David Frischmann (" Ha-Yom," 1887. No.

307).
-\«»< = Aaron Joseph Randegger (" BIkkure ha-'Ittim," xi. 169-

177).
C"K - Saul Jacob Elvashar (SI.); Eliezer Isaac Shapiro (So. p.

lloi: Israel Stelner tSch.); Abraham Jacob Stern ("Ha-

Nesher." V. 189).
o^^tt C"N = Asher b. Isaiah da Montagna (M. p. 41).
->C'3 C"N = .\klba Fleischmann ("Kadlmah," p. 172).
■<J C"N = Abraham Joseph Solomon Graziano (BJ. p. 132).
m->n f<N = Albert Katz (S.).
'n C"N = Jonas Gurland.
ao^*: crn cn = Abraham Mendel Mohr (In notes to "Zemah

Dawid," Lemberg, 1847 : Bj. p. 510).
.-men U"S — Eliezer David Libermann (" Ge Hlizayon," War-
saw. 1889; W. No. 1938).
>-ii-i' c"N = Jesiah David Silberbusch (S.).
N-\CO i-nni \i'^H = Moses Mordecai Pros (Si.).
'I*? r-a"; a^n — Jacob Samuel ha-Levi Trachtmann (S.).
Kjni- CM = Moses Dob ha-Kohen b. EleazarAryeh Goldmann

("Shlrim," Vienna. 1886).
.-lacn-; r^N = J. S. Trachtmann ("Migdanot," p. 45).
":>J w"t< = Elimelech Wechsler.
-,.j.j j.„f^ _ Elijah b. Moses Israel, author of " Kol Eliyahu "

(Si.).
3NT |3 n'^d NipjH ii ir''N = Raphael ha-Kohen (" Hut ha-Me-

shullash." Odessa, 1874).
OiSg. ;^;yf^ — jjeir Friedmann.
':«K>,niN — Israel Neumann (" Ha-Berlt ha-Hadashah," Breslau,

1821; VT. No. 1630).
nnn c^m i'n = Albert Katz (SI.).
^N = A. Luria (" Ha-Karmel." 1., No. 16).
Kn"n'7N3 pin '] qDNSs = Aaron Chorin (" Iggeret Elasaf,"

Prague, 1826; W. No. 171).
HTSm'^N = S. Rosenfeld (S.).
Up «iiSn = Wolf Kaplan (" Migdanot," 1883, p. 33).
jso t]y^t< = J. S. Trachtmann (S.).
Jt'Sn; ysc'^N — I. J. Weissberg (S.).
dSn = Ablgdor Levi of Glogau (Jew. Encyc. s.v. Abigdor ben

SIMHA).

^nuD'^N = Julius Furst (Concordance, Leipsic, 1840).

p^t< = A. L. KaterzinskI ("Ketab Yosherhe-Hadash," Warsaw,
1885).

nCN = Isaac Meir Dick.

fi-N = Mordecai Penso (L.).

VZi< = Moise Schwab (L.).

PZtt = Aaron Margolis ("Semel ha-Ahabah weha-Kln'ah." Vi-
enna, 1877).

p-ix>nN ]}-y-2H f3 'PCN = David Caro ("Berit Emet." Dessau,
1820; BJ. p. a5).

i-\ ]2 n-5ri> )3 v-'CN - Leon of Modena (BJ. p. 553).

n3jn 'jN = Moses Proser (S.).

ncin 'jN = Mordecai Weissmann-Hajes ("Ha-Nesher," iil. 66).

UTnt< e\Dy^ ^:t< - Joseph Eliezer b. Abraham.Morpurgo (j;n'i'33,
vil.95 96; R.).

-iSn a'^c <js = J. S. Trachtmann (y^'^rn, 1864, No. 7).

rps = Abraham Epst<'iii. jvx —t^fr: (inrn. xil.).

1DN = Proflat Duran (L.); Eliezer David Finkel (S.).

>DK = Abraham Farlssol (H. B. xvi. p. e.'j); Abraham Palagl (Si.).

T'^DH = David Frl.schmann (S.).

DXX = Abraham Zuckermann.

'jum '^riN = A. Droyanov (S.).

IK - A. Rabblnowltz (" Leket Shoshannlm." Paris, 1878).

31J-»N — I. J. Weissberg (S.).

nN = Alexander Zederbaum.

^TN = Isaa/: A.shkeriazi Luria.

Sn'-in = Judah Liib Gamso (S.).

]J">N = Eliezer Nahinan Foa (M. p. 23).

B>n CN = Abraham Shalom Friedberg ("Luali Ahlasaf," iil.,
col. 180).

pimo NPN = I. J. Weissberg (S.).

•<-p-3 = Baruch Jettelea (" Ha-Meassef," 1790; C. B. No. 3713).

J3 = Israel B. (iedaliah Bristiner (S.); Beer Goldberg.

^3 = S. Bernfeld (" Lual.i Ahiasaf," vlii. 317).

-\iZ' 13 = Bemhard Schlesinger (" Bikkure ha-'Iitlm," v. 60-

62: R.).
">2' 13 = Bemhard Schlesinger (J'ni33, iv. 191-192; R.).
■.Sj^ p ^-,)3 = J. I,. Katzenelson ("Ha-Yom," 1886, No. 25).
>''n3 = Jacob Israel Horgin ("Hed Harlm." Berdychev, 1891.

autograph copy ) .
I'';:3 = J. Ch. Tavyov (S.).

r'-\jv^3'3 = A.s. Freidus (" Ner ha-Ma'arabi." 1.. No. 6, p. 37).
ny2 - Juduh Liib Levin (S.).
1N^3 = Hirsch Schereschewski (S.).
■■-ij J3 ir'^a = M. M. Litewski (S.).
inj''3N J3 = Abraham L. Shalkovitz (S.).
onn3N p = Isaac S. Fuchs (S.).
-i::'N p = Isaiw Wurschawskl (S.).
J3 J3 p = Judali Liib Kantor (S.).
jviu p = Micah Joseph Berdyczewski (S.).
3'n p = Aaron Libushitsky (S.).
3Nr 13 = Herman Moeller (" Ha-Modia' la-Hadashlm," 1., No. 7,

New York).
3''"*in p = Beer Jeruchamsohn ("Talpiyyot").
miD' p = E. Perlmann.
-\nx' p — Michael Rabbinowltach ("Or Mat'eh," Warsaw,

1896).
snni p = Beer Jeruchamsohn (see " Ben Horim ").
in';';:'> j3 — J. S. Trachtmann (S.).
^Nii:"' p = J. David Silberbusch (S.).
cnjD p = Moses Mendelssohn.

yi p = Morris Winchevsky(" Ha-Modia' la-Hadashim."i.. No. 2).
^12'; p = N. E. MendrcK-hovitz (S.); M. J. Rabinowitsch (Wie-
ner, " Yiddish Literature." p. 384).
aicp p = M. Sablotzki (S.).

MD p = Ephraim Silber ("Pernh Shoshan," Drohobicz. 1896).
'3X p = Em. Benzion (" Orah Zedakah." Odessa, 1876 ; W. No.

911); M. A. Eisenstadt (S.);'m. Sablotzki (S.).
JVX p = Joshua Tulsky (S.); I. J. Weissberg (S.).
'CJp'Dn ninx p = Joseph Brill (see above hmix p 3i'N).
D'jB'ii:' p = Moses Rosensohn 0' 'Ibri Anoki." xvii.. No. 19).
lan ]3 = Judah Lob Perez (S.).
D^"MOn ^y2 — Jacob b. Asher.
]>^>t:i2 n'^jo '?j,'3 = David Apotheker (" Ha-'Ibri," 111., No. 14,

New York).
PO'i'nc Sp3 = J. S. Trachtmann.
S^jii jpt n'^sn '^io = I. J. Weissberg (S.).
oa'J.'3 = Israel of Meseritz.
-iyj-ij:3 = 1. J. Weissberg (S.).
p3 = J. C. Rabnitzki (" Pardes." 11. 262).
31 -3 P3 = M. J. Berdyczewski (S.).
N-M-n 13 = Arthur Freeman (" Ha-Shahar," ix. 86).
pxp 13 = J. (;. Rabnitzki (Wiener, I.e. p. 384).
NC'id N'.:"'ipi N13 = Adolph M. Radin ("Ner ha-Ma'arabl,"

1., No. 8).
if>3MiN3n3 = J. L. Lewin (S.).

^S^j-^3 = Joshua Eisenstadt (" Luah Ahiasaf." vil. 320).
>ii,T'n i'^Mi3 — Baruch Jekuthiel Susmanowitz (" Ha-Dod Mo-

sheh." Warsaw, 1893. W. No. 2318).
Sit 3 — Joel Lowe.
a^'n'^N inSo '^n>i'^;:' p n''3i3 = Abraham Abulafla ("Sefer ha-

Yashar"; Bj. p. 2:J4).
pi3 = J. Ch. Rabnitzki (S.).
n .3 .3 — Gershon Bader (S.).

10J = Gabriel b. Joseph Rawitsch (" Ha-Kol," 1. 59).
IM = Gabriel Judah Lichtenfeld (D.).
pi^j = Gershon Letteris (Letteris, In "Ha-Zeflrah,"p. 88).
HCJ = J- L- Perez (" Keneset Ylsrael." lii., cols. 409-411).
Dj'= Gabriel Polak (" Ben Gorni," p. 60).
'S33n pj — Lazar Atlas (S.).
■«jN ^n Vi 1J = Michael Gordon.
3ii'i.ni ij — Eliezer Isaac Shapiro (S.).
. .3D .0 .D .1 = David Friedrichsfeld (C. B. No. 3713).
j''XJNi — Moses Schatzkes (Z. p. .')5).
n^jS' 13 111 = David Kahan ("Hokmat Yehudah," 1892).
^Z'on in = David Franco-Mendes.
Dcn - David Moses Mitzkun (" Ha-Karmel," 11. 199).
ncSpNT 311 N^n'' pi = Havyiin .ludah Lub Markon (ib. Iv.

621-624).
jiNtDiUND i"jpn = I. J. Weissberg (S.).
lop'^ 3ia '^m = M. Weissmann (" Ha-Kol," ill. 19).
Piiicn f'N '^X'ji = L. B. Libermann (" Ha-Shahar." vi. 46).
1NJ3 ^N''ji = Judah LOb b. Asher Gordon (" Ha-Kannel." vlil.

139).
pi = David Kaufmann.

259

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pseudonymous Literature

3>3xn = Abraham Jacob Bruck (" Ha-Kannel," Iv. 219).
(IN-jji'^DC) n'^NH = A. Lipsehitz (a^njDDN DM, Mayence, 187^;

Z. p. 214).
CN1 ]">"it< ]2 BTNn = Moses Abraham Romm ("Amet ha-La-

shon," Wllna, 1855).
02n - Solomon LOb Rapoport (" Blkkurc ha-'Ittlm," 1823, p.

139).
[2jn = Gabriel ha-Kohen Fischmanii ("Sefer lia-Noten ba-Yom

Derek," Warsaw, 1S1»:{).
N-(jn = Elijah of Wilna.
P'S*? e-im = Isaac Zel)i Elsenberg (S.).

D-in = BeerSufrin (" Mizinor Shir Haiiiikkali," Cracow, 1888).
mn = Hirsch Soiimierliuusen {" HaKRatlah le-Lel Shlkkurim,"

p. ii.).
■\r'.r p '^^'n = Judah L. Landau (8i.).
jD'H - Aaron Halle (C. B. No. 3713).
(C) pNTjy;n''n = M. Sablotzki (S.).
•"jaSn = I. J. WeissberB (S.).
tSn - Leon Zololkoll (" Ha-Yom," 1836, No. 4).
yi^en = J. L. Gordon ( S.).
Cyitco) T'Xrn = Mordecai Zebi Mane (Si.).
-\'3i:":n = Mattithiah S. Uabener (Sch.).
n''!:'::^ = Moses Israel Hazan ("Naiialah le-Yisrael," Vienna,

laii).

tl'jn; p^nri'jn = Nachman Isaac Fischmann ("Ha-Nesher,"

V. 93).
vjn = H. Neumanowitz (Si.).
Dpjn = Nachniau Krochmal (Letteris, " Zikkaron ba-Sefer,"

p. 52).
-Na^^n r|iDi'^Dn — G. Selikovitsch ("Ha-'Ibri," i.. No. 8, New

York I.
N3i-n = Zebi Benjamin Auerbach (" Ha-Zofeh 'al Darke ha-

Mlshnah," p. 54).
-\y^-in — Joseph Rosenthal (S.).

0''i">''"ixn 'iS pa "cyxn = L. Libermann ("Ha-Emei," p. .56).
yz'Z nn = Moses Beer b. Shemariah Oretzkin (" Ha-Karmel,"

iii. 278).
-11J n -ST\ = M. S. Feierberj? (S.).

Di'^'^ -\n = A. S. Friedberg (Si.)-

nxnn = Simeon Judah Stanislavskl (S.).

]-\-i = Moses Proser (S.).

n-\n = I. J. Weissberg (S.); FranchettadaMontpellier (M.p. 24).

cn = A. S. Friedberg.

Nini Kim = Mattithiah Straschun (" Ha-Karmel," iii.).

I -n = Aaron Halle (" Ha-Meassef," 1790, p. 186).

(OiS:;') tJDNmxii — M. Rodkinssohn (" Ha-Kol," iii. 126).

.T = M. Sablotzki (S.); J. H. Sagorodski (S.).

.1 .N .1 := Alexander Suskind Raschkow ("Weg zum Lebens-

baume," Breslau, 1825).
^-i3T = J. D. Silberbusch (S.).

^7\] = Selig ha-Kohen Lauterbach ("Ha-Shahar," ii. 177-184).
VI - S. Jacob Wlchnianskl ("Beromo shel '01am," Odessa,

1894).
2S 1? = Selig Lauterbach (S.).
icS:3 S''3Jt = Judah Steinberg (S.).
BT = Seliginann Pappenheim (Delitzsch, "Zur Gesch. der Ju-

dischen Poesie," p. 108).
P3I = S. Fridkin ("Ha-Yom ha-Aharon be-Hayye ha-Niddon

le-Mitah," Warsaw, 1898).
ipt = Wolf Kaplan.

Snj fipt = Leon Solotkoff.

rr^r = Eliezer Isaac Shapiro (S.).

.-\ .n = A. S. Bettelheim (" Shishshah Miktablm," Kuschau,

1886).
|xn = Hayyim Arkin ("Ha-ICol," iii. 257).
pip^n = Israel David.son (" Ha-'Ibri," viii.. No. 23).
'NriDP yr^:^-^ in = Abraham Jacob Paperna ("Ha-Meliz,"

1869, p. 44).
unan p in = J. L. Levin ("Ha-Tehiyyah," 1900, No. 23).
•■siNn ^•,:'in = J. J. Lewontin (S.).
^xrn = Hayyim S. Eliaschewicz (Z. p. 22).
D:n = Hayyim Selig Slonimski.

xn3 Ti = Hayyim Jonas Gurland (" Ha-Shahar," ill. 687).
2,1 in - Hayyim J. Katzenellenbogen (" Ha-Karmel," 1., No. 19).
NTTI = Hayyim Joseph David Azulai.
nT>n = Hayyim Deutsch (" Bet Talmud," v. 149-153),
jrn = Hayyim Jonas Gurland.

3"n = Hayyim Judah Markon (" Ha-Karmel," Iv. 129).
'D-\iD n iJ''inr2 n^iij! a^n = Baruch Jeiteles (" Ha-Oreb,"

1795; W. No. 52:^).
3|-ii '''^n - Hayyim Judah L6b Katzenellenbogen (" Ha-Mebas-

ser." ii."82).

jn = Hananeel Nepl (8.).

310 jn = Hlrwh Edeliimnn.

Sxn = Hayyim Zi-bl I^-nuT.

inn - Jacob Frun<<-!t (" Meltlj .Sefatoylm." p. 15).

"^DB'n = N. S. l.llM.wltz.

'CV aa = Llpniaiin of MnblhuiUM-n (»J. p. K«, No. 6T0).

.0 .3 .' = Jo<'l Beer Knikowlliich C Abluwlttb." 0<1«

W. No. •.i.-,).

^^.•> = Joitfph WelHitt! (" BIkkun- hu-'lttlm." vll. ««<: It.).
.T .n.' = J. V. Rabnitzky (" Ha-t<hl|ii<i^." Iv. 90).
mS n'3a il'^K . . .^ .' = Iiiruel Ijmdau (t«l. "Or^jot •t»l»m."

Prague, 179:1; W. No. 823).
.0 > .'' = Judah L^h Perez (8.).

.0. ..■> = Jullu.s Mi'IUt ("Kokebe Vl?|)a^," v. 41-45; B.).
•7 .D .' = Jacob Mordecai I^-wlnnohn <"(;un PenUjlm." ItWI.

p. 6:j).
.0 .D .' = Jeblel MIcbai'I Pines (8.).
■0 .J? .> = J. E. Salkln.sfjn (" Wa-Yeifaniih hs-A'Um," Vienna.

1871).
tDNi = Israel E. Goldblum (80. p. Itli.
nN< = Joshua Eliezer Roiln (" Ha-Karmel," 111. 123). ' r

(" Dlbre Ya'er," Berlin, IHM ; W. No. 214:1); J. o

Randeggcr ("ZIyyon." I. i:U).
■iN3^ = Isaiu; b. Aaron UUtent>erg (" Oair ha-Slfrut." I. 81).
BO' — Israel Tropp (" Ha-Kaniiel," v). 2Sfl).
^31 P'Z^ MH J3 ^3' = Jo«'l Lflwe ("Hii-MeanKpf." ITW).
03' = Israel Bahmer ("Kerem Hemed," Ix.); MIcab JoiK>pb

Berdyczew.skl (" Ila-Kcrem." p. tSJi.
nnn u-n "*-}•' = Morris Wlnchevskl ("Asefui Ilakimilm." No. 2>.
CN T — J. Elsenstein ("Ozar ha-Hokmab W(lm-Ma<J<la'." No.

2, p. 25).
on' = Israel David Milller (" Ha-Shahar," vl. 645^^8).
ijipi' = Saul Berlin ("Ketab Yoeher," LemberK, 17*4; BJ. p.

248, No. 3;j<i).
^j^Snii t:"X n3j.'n n-pii = S. Mandelkern ("Ha-Karmel." Iv. IW).
^3n' = Judah b. Jonas Jeiteles ("Shir Tehlllah." Vk-nna, 1835;

BJ. p. 578).
ODifm'' = Phlnehas Turberg (S.).
hny = Samuel Zebi Kamenetzkl (" Ha-Kol," III. 35); Judah Le-

wik (S.); Isaac Lewln.tkl (" Keneset ba-Gedolab," II. 14S».
DiSn^ = Joshua Mesach (S.).
SSni = Judah Lob Levin.
'JKTI S'''.T' = Ezekiel Leavitt (S.).
tfn> = J. H. Schorr.
3Nr = Joseph Brill ("Ha-Kol," I. 44).
Snv = Joseph Almanzi (" Abne Zlkkaron." p. 4).
taDi^D '''Kv = Joseph Elijah Trlwosch ("Ml-Mlzra^? umlM.v

'arab").
•'D-lDH "^av = Joseph Brill (" Ha-Kol," 111. 4.3).
D';p-\'y'T:v sp-iv = N. M. Schalkewltsc-b (".Mumar le-Hak'U,"

Warsaw, 1879).
>PC!< ]3 njv = M. A. Gflnzburg ("Maggid Emet," Lelpslc,

1843; "Ha-Morlyah," pp. 34-48).
n-^v = Joseph Schechtmelster (" Ha-Iyol," III. 282).
''Dd'^n i:in» = Joseph Elhanan .Melamwl (" HaKol." 111. .V.C.
tn' = Israel Hayyim Sagonnlskl (" IIa-.\slf." II. H9).
^ytn a"i"'3f< '"N'n' = Hayyim Judah Lob Markon (" Ha-Kar-

inel."lv.. No. 10).
->j,'3 'I'N^n' - David Frisrhmann (" Ha-Yom," 1887. No. 234>.
S^ry> — Isaac Hayyim Cantarliil of Padua.
ntc on' = Joshua Hayyimowliz of Neu .*^ager (r^n -^J:JK;c ;

' "Ha-Karmel." vl. 89).
inj3> - I. N. Goldtierg ( Wiener, /.r. p. 383).
S'. = Judah LOb BOhni (" BIkkun- lia-'Ittlm." vl. 107: R.).
na S^ = Israel Bahmer (W. No. 868).
«S >n ':'' = liirael Iia-Levi Undau ("Ho\£ l«sYlarmel." PramK*.

1798; BJ. p. 199).
p S' = Jchiel Mendelssohn t" Ha-Bo(fer Or." Iv. 4).

jS' = J. L. Gordon ; J. L. Ganiso (S.).

pS' = J. L. Bensew (Delltzs<h, l.f. p. 108); J. Lcwlk (S.).

-\S> = Nnphlall Mi-ndd Schorr (Z. p. 349).

0' = Jacob Mordecai Nelter (".><bclewlm MIn ha-Yom." Vlmna.

la' = Joel Mordecai Relnhertz (" HB-Me««s«-f. p. 4. w«r«ew.

1886). ., _.

''nj« = N. H. van Blema ("Rwheroal Yenahel. Am^erOua,

19a-)).

yz';-' = Israel Jacob b. Zebi Emden.

po-; ->r ris" V3?' - HIrech 8cherwcbew»kl ("Boeer Abol,"
Odessa, 1876).

Pseudonymous Literature
Ptolemy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

260

TJT p "^NV = '^oW Jawetz (" Ha-Shahar." x. •k;T-470).

s.~i c-N apy' = J. S. Trachtmann ("Aguddah Ahat," p. 43).

re N"' 3,V = J. S. Trachtmann ("Ha-Boker Or," v. 6).

[K'C3T<1 f">N3 [p^'Ni] »1>''N = Isaac Baer Levinsohn {" Dibr.?

Zaddikim," Vienna, ISicJ; W. No. 2230).
'nnx' — Z. H. Masliansky ('" Ha-VLzhari." Manchester, 1895).
^^,s,2 '1 pnx' = Saul Berlin (Z. p. 380).
n- = Josel Pik Rochnove (Delitzsih. I.e. p. 108); Israel Rail.
i^-jTo - M. J. Berdyczewskl C'Ozar ha-Sifrut," iv. 1-40).
»Nr>"'i cnn' = Joseph Gabreelow (" Ha-'lbri,"iii., No.24, New

York).
D-i' = Mendel Mlrlinskl (Z. p. 435).
Nr' = Saul Jacob Elyashar (St.).
3r' = J. S. Bik.

■^N'as" = Jacob S. b. Isaac Olschwang (" Ha-Meliz,"1869.p.l9).
2<s»»i-,>.»"[< ^s-'i = Israel Jonathan Jerusalimsky ("Ha-Ke-

rem." p. 119).
Nij-jcr- C'N ^Z" = Israel Isaac Black ("Shebile ha-Yahadut

be-Angliyah." Manchester, 1903).
]T' = M. Johalemstein. 3^'^ -layc aoror ("Ha-MeUz," 1888).
yz"> = Hirsch Schereschewskl (S.).
cu" = Jacob Samuel Fuchs (S.).
.132" = Joseph Shabbethai Farhi (SI.); Israel Pleskin ("Ha-

Mapirtd," vil., Nos. 45-51).
-<;" — Isaac Samuel Reggio.
«"-<:■•■: •^•«•■' = Joseph Solomon Delmedigo.
''s'lr'' nji2rn H'Tii ''N-i';>'> = J. s. Olschwang (see '?!<'3B'').
'''Nnr^n nn.i' = A. Harkavy (S.).
njn I'-N |3 ^2^2 = Joseph Masel ("Megillah Hadashah le-

Purlm," Manchester, 190-_').
N-»cD n""! ND^'D n'^ = A. A. Rakowski ("Masseket Shetarot,"

Warsaw, 1894; " Ha-Modea' la-Hadashim," ii. 17).
]y:2'^ - I. J. Weissberg (" Ha-Vom," 1886, No. 113).
3'C3 "^^ = Leopold Dukes ("Bikkure ha-'Ittim," vl. 75).
Y"^ = J. L. Perez (S.).

noxS = J. L. Perez ("Die Zukunft," New York, 1902).
p^ = J. L. Kantor ("Ben Ammi").
.11 .0 = Michael Weber (S.).
.1 .n = M. Sablotzki (S.).
b .C = Mendel Levin ("Masse*ot ha-Yam," Lemberg, 1S59; Z.

p. 165).
T > .•: = Abraham Mendel ,Mohr ("Kol Bo le-Purlm," Lem-
berg, 1*55; Bj. p. 240).
.a .C — Moses Mendelssohn ("Ha-Meassef," 1784, p. 1:33).
> .D .2 = M. M. Lilien C Kokebe Yizhak," xiii. 67-69; R.).
p .c = Moses Kunitz ("Mosedot Tebel," Prague, s.a.; Bj. p.

306).
pN2 = Moses Eliezer Belinson ("Kokebe Yizhak," xxviii. !J4-

25).
inNTDyTN-: = J. L. Smolenskin ("Ha-Shahar," vi. 79).
I't -I'N"; = N. S. IJbowitz ("Efrayim Dainard u-Sefaraw be-

Araerika," New York, 1901).
CNt = Meir Friedmann (" Bet Talmud," i. 24).
31 = M. Braunstein (" Ha-Yekeb," p. 72).
N32 = Moses b. L'ri ("Ha-Meassef," 1810; see Delitzsch, I.e.

p. 108).
JO-; = Jacob Kaplan (" Keneset ha-Gedolah," ill. 65).
^yz": = -M. Braunstein 'see 3C).

J2 = Mordecai Gbirondi (" Bikkure ha-'Ittim," vl. 57; R.).
]^2 i-j:: = Zebi Schereschewski (S.).
Sns = Melr ha-Levi Letteris.
''N^'^na = A. B. Gottlober.
s-\ne = Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg (Zunz, I.e. p. 40); Meir

of Lublin <BJ. p. 275, No. 37).
iiKn'ai B-<nc = Moses Schatzkes (" Gan Perahim," 1882, p. 50).
l-int = .\ahman of Breslau (" Likkute ]-\n:2 " ; Bj. p. 265).
K-j^-13 - Solomon Alfasi of Tunis (Si.); Samuel Edles (Bj. p

183, No. 468).
Sc-ins = Solomon Luria.

nio = Mordecai Weissmann-Chajes (see ncin 'jn).
^ts = M. Sablotzki (S.).
S'tN3 Sra = M. Sablotzki (S.).
01': = Mordecai Dob Friedenthal (W. No. 2353).
C1JX rnrnc = J. S. Trachtmann (S.).
3'C - M. J. Berdyczewskl ("Ozar ha-Slfrut," 11. 234).
]2W-\ ]z 'i'n;-: = Raphael Kirchheim (ed. "'Alilot Debarlm " ;

"Ozar Nehraad," Iv. 17S).
Sa'n = Micah Joseph Lebensohn.
jox'^x p ''NU"- = Samuel L. CitrOn {" Ha-Eshkol," 111. 153-160).

2,,„,_ [_ p-,,3, ^nvj' nji' TTi';] = M. J. Rosenfeld ("Ozar

ha-Sifrut," i. 121 ; W. No. 1141).
'^12 = Meir Letteris (>*nir3, iv. 181 ; C. B. No. 6i:U).
aoS": — Mt'ir Lebush h. Jehiel Michael ("Mashal u-Melizah,"

Warsiiw, 1877).
'^'^3 — Moses L. Lilienblum (" Asefat Hakamim," p. 72).
c'S B"!; - .Menahem Mendel Lowenstamm (" Bikkure ha-Sha-

nah," 1843, p. 48; R.).
m:"; = Nahum Sokolow ("Zaddik we-Nisgab." Warsaw, 1882).
3S cn:-: — J. L. Kantor ("Ha-Yom," 188t), p. 151).
IN 'J*: — Selig Lauterbach (S.).

'^1": = M. N. Litinski (S.).

"^rrv: = Simeon Judah Stanlslavski ("Ha-Yom," 1886. No.

22; S.).
0'"(DD i:n •'^>ij>:; = Shalom Jacob Abramowltsch.
C"; = Michael Friedlander (r|DNcn; Delitzsch, I e. p. 108).
noe = Lazar Atlas (So. p. 6).
i")D — M. Creizenach ("Ziyyon").
S|">D = Moses Kleinmann (S.).
-\n = Moses Reines ("Ozar ha-Sifrut," ill. 95); Mordecai Roch

(" Ha-Meassef," 1794; Delitzsch. I.e. p. 108).
31 n3 •<•: — M. Reines (S.).

CD 131S = Mordecai b. David Strelisker (" Ha-Shahar," i. 31).
i3-\": = Moses Rosensohn (" Ha-Karmel," iv. 7tj8).
onro 'o-n?: = Moritz Adelmann ("Ha-Shahar," vil. 504-508).
jn:; = Hirsch Schcreschewski (S.).
013 = Havvim Lazar Muschkat ("Tikwat Hanef," Warsaw.

1888'; Z. p. 438).
n'3r2 = Moses b. J. Schatzkes ("Ha-Kol," iii. 241).
m"2 = Moses Simeon Antokolski (" Ha-Karmel," iii. 492).
'):i3.-i;:'vSi a^',:'3 = Isaac Euchel ("Ha-Meassef," 1790, p. 171;

see Letteris, S^a^s nn'i'i.-, in " Ha-Meassef," p. 44, Vienna,

1862).
aii'C = Meir Friedmann (" Bet Talmud." 1. 62-63).
C'^ro = Moritz St*?inschneider ("Ha-Karmel," iii. 309).
'] '] = Reuben Brainin (S.).
.|i .c .J = A. B. Dobsewitch (see above).
JCNJ = Moses Aaron Rachamim Piazza (nn-rn miN, Leghorn,

1786; Roest, "Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl." ii. 932).
N3J = Benjamin b. Jacob Espinoza ("Yafeh Naf." Leghorn,

1773; Bj. p. 228).
an = Naphtali S. Tur (" Ha-Karmel," ii. 121).
"'3nj - N. S. Libowitz ("Ner ha-Ma'arabi," ii. 106).
'DD1 p ■'3nj = J. B. Lewner (Wiener, I.e.).
'pDvx-i -iny 13 Dinj = J. L. Kantor (" Ha-Shahar," v. 23).
cnc"i 'porxn ainj = j. L. Kantor ("Asefat Hakamim," p. 40).
S.T'j = Isaac Satanow (W. No. 1898).

a^'^Ji i;J = David Apotheker (n3>.'n, iii.. No. 14, New York).
Oj = Nahum Sokolow.
a>J = N. M. Mendrecliowitz (S.).
3'Xi = Naphtali Zebi Judah Berlin (Si.).
|ij = Naphtali Keller (" Ha-Kokabim," p. 32).
mipj = Reuben Brainin (S.).
Ss'j = N. S. Libowitz.

I-I .D = Solomon Gotthold ("Bikkure ha-'Ittim," i. 120-136).
I'H^ 1D1D = Ezekiel Lipschitz ("Galgal ha-Hozer," Warsaw.

1886).
3-D ->DiD = J. S. Trachtmann (S.).

ira^'D = Saadia Meir b. Tobias Jonah (" Ahiasaf," vii. 301).
pD = Phineha.sMenahemHeilpriii("Teshubotbe-AnsheAwen,"

Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1845).
P|D = H. Witkind (^ipn, 1. 75).
DTD — J. S. Trachtmann (S.).

.3 .•; - Isaac Euchel (^DN-Dn, 1790; see C. B. No. 3713. and Mar-
tinet. "Tiferet Yisrael." p. 186).
3y = O. Blohstein (S.).
S'Sj C'NI nij-13;; = I. Goldberg (" Ha-Yerah," Berdvchev.

1895; S.).
n'<-\3iy = Joseph Perl (" Kerem Hemed." iii. 5:J-C1).
ijn''N£3'D 1113 p n'-i3iv = Saul Berlin ("Mizpeh Yoktel," Ber-
lin, 1789; see Jew. Excvc.s.r.).
HTiro p H'-iiU" — Joseph Perl.
ID'.:' 113 Ni;>' - M. Proser (S.).
-ioin ^ti--\r; - A. Felgin (S.).
'^; = J. LOwe (" Ha-Meassef," 1784; C. B. No. 3713).
':iS' = J- Ch. Tavyov (S.).
'''•iN-|inxi pxp ^^y' = I. J. Linetzki (" Ha-Meliz," 1869, pp. 113-

114).
DID N^i:'o N3'p>' — Jacob Frances (" Metek Sefatayim," p. 105).
ID - I. Freid.sohn ("Zikronot," Warsaw, li>02i.
vrx p Diro = N. S. Lil>()Witz ("Ner ha-Ma'arabl," 11. 51).
3SI p n'^d. See 3Nr p n'^'d Nipji ii t"N.

261

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PBeudonymouB Lit«ratur«
Ptolemy

'N^'D = Abraham b. Elijah of Wilna ("Gebulof Ercz," Berlin,
1801; W. No. WW): I'hinehas M. Hellprin (" Ehc'n IJohiin."
Fiankfort-on-tho-Main, 184t); W. No. 51); Zecharlah Isaiah
JoUes (W. No. :S31G); Moses Cohen (" Dabar be-'Itto." War-
saw, l^<a"); \V. No. 205:;); A. G. Lewltan ("Debar Torah,"
Warsaw, IKSK); W. No. -'(Xii)); J. L. Perez; Alexander Zeder-
bauin (" Ha-Kol." i.. No. 19).

Ni^O — llirech Schereschewskl (S.).

31-'3D ■'JIdSn <jiSd = M. Ueichersberg (" Ha-Kol," 111. 384).

Nin nNDpNil ^jlSfl = I. Kaniiner (ib. ill. 22:5).

'JlSy ^01*^0 = J. C. Tavyov (S.).

(S*) ^N'O'^D = Joseph Ellas Triwosch (S.).

]0 = Moses b. UrI Philippson (" Ha-Meassef "; see C. B. No.
3713).

CO N^'D n nu-\s n^jjn Dnjs = Baruch Jeiteles (" Ha-Oreb,"
Vienna [V], 1795; W. No. 523).

(nz^'i- 'ID Di'^D l-x-^-ino = A. B. Lebensohn ("Tokahtl la-
Bekarim," Wilna, 1868; " Kol Shire Adam we-Mikal," 1.,
p. xvil.. i7). KS95).

mx = H. Dan HawH ("Shoresh Dabar," Wilna, 18(J6).

■\ns = Ilirsch Rabbinowitz; Herman Rosenthal.

•'ijN'^->ipn ins = Herman Rosenthal.

mSh r-imx = I. B. Hurwitz ("Gan Perahlm," 1890, p. 108).

nninn a^iinn -13 -in^'-s - Moses L. Lilienblum.

njx = rerez Smolenskin (" Ha-Shahar," xi. 569).

•'jnys ''JlDS = David Mapgid (S.).

aV|i = I. J. Weissberg (S.).

^Sl = J. L. Kantor (" Ha-Yom," 1887, No. 15).

Nip = Eliezer Isaac Shapiro (S.).

Hoy'y^ Dmi.n ■'DT hz' ^2y-\p — J. S. Traehtmann (S.).

-\ = Joseph Rosenthal (S.).

.3 .n = Reuben Brainin (S.).

.n .y .•^ = Abraham Mendel Mohr (see n .h .c).

N .p .n = Eliezer Isaac Shapiro (S.).

tt'N") = Asher b. Jehiel.

Tj'X 3-1 = Hayyira Tschernovitz ("Sefer ha-Yobel," p. 309,
Warsaw, 1904).

pnx "31 = Isaac Zebi Brodotzki (o'-p'-ix ir-nc, Berdychev,
1899).

I'xp ■'3") = J. C. Rabnltzki (see psp 12).

2^^\p ■'3n = A. L. Lewinski (S.).

p'\-\ — David Kimhi.

Ssm - Abraham h. Samuel Abulafla (Bj. p. 43, No. 833).

N3n — Isaac Kaminer ("Ha-Shahar," viii. 69).

San — Joseph Brill ("Keneset Yisrael," i., col. 593).

San = Isaac Baer Levinsohn (" Yalkut Rlbal," Warsaw, 1878).

P|i-i = Isaac Alfasi.

NET = Moses Isserles.

D3C1 = Moses b. Maimon.

ps-^ = Moses b. Nahman.

TD-i = M. Selikowitsch ("Yalkut ha-Ro'im," Odessa, 1869).

3>n = ObadiaU of Bertinoro.

pT =^ Meir Obeniik (" Ha-Meassef." 1784; C. B. No. 3713).

N3".:'i — Solomon ben Adret.

oasn = Samuel b. Meir.

i^l = Solomon b. Isaac of Troyes.

.J .a .ti' = Solomon Mandelkern ("Keneset Yisrael," 1., col.

1000).
Ss'taSfl .C = Joseph Elias Triwosch ("Ha-Shahar," x. 574).
SB> = Eliezer Skreinka (" Bikkure ha-'Ittim," v. 50-52; R.).
JKB* = S. I. Oraber ("Ozar ha-Sifrul," 1.); Samuel Aba Goro-

detzki (S.).
jnxt'^is'.;' = David Frlschmann ("Ha-Asif," ii. 764).
r|«r = Simeon Eliezer Filedensteln (" Keneset ha-GedoIab," 1.

103).
2Z' — S. Bernfeld.
tar = S. Bernfeld.

natf — Samson Bloch ("Kerem Hemed," i. 95).
nat^ = Shabbethal b. Hayyim Korngold("Ha-Karrael,"vlil.74).
a'<aa' = Simeon b. Isaac Bacharach (Simon Bacher).
Soc = Solomon Gelbblum ("Sefer ha-Mllllm," Wilna,

1892).
•nia jaN am ov ja vnac = Arnold B. Ehrlich ("Mikra kl-

Peshuto," Berlin).
Sna-^r = Samuel David b. Hezekiah Luzzatto (" Bikkure ha-
'Ittim," ix. 76).
r'itt' = Samuel David Luzzatto.
SNiii^S aiD "im!f — W. Federow (" Yerushalayim," Vienna,

1876).
nnviy = Samuel Weissmann-Cliajes (S.).
iDViy — David Frlschmann (S.).

D"C' pa njiMC = 8. Osiowske C'SUubai bu-Malkab," 1«00).
VZ' = Senior Sachs ("Kereiu yemed." Ix. Wi.
nntc = 8. J. Hulberstuin.

•^lanc = Samuel Hayyim b. Duvld LoUl ("Bikkure bM-'liUm,"

lx.76).
^n-Z' = Idem ; S. J. HaHxTHtamm (</).).
'jnr.T >-\j;' = lllrmrh S4her.-»lH-WHkl (S.).
n"i' = S. 1. KuchM (S.); Samuel J<««'ph Kucnn.
"yv = Solomon J. I(n|Mi|)iirt.
•^y = Shabbethal hu-Kohen.

i->V = Samuel Uib (ioldenberj{; Samuel LOb Gordon (8.).
oa^'^'i' DiStp - Solomon IlablnowltHOh.
'^,x<ci''tt' = Idem (S.).
nrn« p Vk'Ci^C = Frledrlch Albert Chrtxtlan. edIUir ud

translator of " Zal,)kan .Melummad u-Mlttmn-V." IttOfUbo-

wllz, Njmc N''->, p. 115).
>2'p'^Nn ri-:^Z' = S. EiwU-ln ("Kawen-I." pp. 04. 70).
na-)is t)OV p pc^i- = Jiffieph Freldkln.
irS-J' - Ilirsch Mendel Plneles.
PJS p njctt" = (iershon Bader (8.).
I3tt' = Shalom Cohen (C. B. No. :{595).
nstt' = S. Mandelkern (" Ha-Shal^ar," Ix. 107); N. M. Srnevke-

wltsch ("Mot Yesharlin," Warsaw, 1K87).
n^js* - Senior Sa<h8 (" Kanfe Yonah," p. ;Jk).
oy = Shema Satanow (" Ha-Meassef," 1787, p. 191 ; I>(>ll(zarb,

I.e. p. 108).
nov = Phabl Jolles (Sch.).

'yo -^na aoZ' = Tobias P. .Shapiro ("Ha-Mellz." 1W9, p. 75).
•'PCN p ry^aoy = Phinehas Turberg (".Me-'K.i le-*Et," 19«i).
■)D1DT jDir = Samuel Felgensohn (ed. "SIddur l^orbun Tamld."

Wilna, 1893 ; S.).
■\yz' = Samuel P. Rabbinowitz.
-\Z' - S. Rosenfeld (S.); Bemhard Schleslnger ("BIkkun? ba-

'Ittim," Ix. 59-60 ; R.).
^dSij'h S>n p ntr = SImhah Reuben b. C. J. L. Edelmann

("Shoshannim," Konigsberg, 1860).
a> ^-y ir - Joshua Meisach.
oi'^^ •\y - A. B. Dobsewltch ("Ha-'Ibri." 11.. Nos. fl. 15, .New

York).
-\3iD-1 r^•'•^y = A. S. Rablnovltch ("Ha-Dor," I., No. 42).
r\-\y = S. F. DIker (Si.).
Z'Z< = Lebusch Holisch (C. B. No. a')95).
in = Aaron Luria ("Ha-Karmel." Hi. 219).
DP = J. S. Traehtmann.

Bibliography: Benjacob, 0?flr?ia-St/<iriHi [quoted In the fore-
going article as Bj.] ; (J. H. Hiindler. Lfxikomirr A1>>>rivia-
turennUAnhaniizuDahnan'nAramlli.scli-^' •lushes

W'Ortcrhuch [D.]; L. Liiwenstein. ,4/i/</ ■ iPa-<3

amas, pp. 255-264, Frankfort-on-the-Main. ■ • ■ M.

Mortani, Iiidicc IM.]; M. Roest, -\oD P'^P, Am-' ^57

[R.] ; M. Sablotzki, aT'jniDO pp'Dp^ Berdyctn ■ , -1 :
M. Schwab, Itiitinh'i< et PfurtdmiiimeK Hihrtux, in Krytr-
toire. Supplement, pp. 200-207, Paris, 19(0 [Sch.]: D. Simon-
sen, ^/)(/t'/tll»-2/e HehrUiiiche SchrifMcllfrnamtu. In /.rU.
far He}))-. liOil. iv. 87-SG [Si.] ; N. Sokolow. jn:? icO. War-
saw, 1890 [So.] ; Steinschneider. Cat. lioiU. [C. B.J. pp. xxvlU
xcvil., cxxxii. ; Idem, Hcln: IWiLlM. B.] xvi. &'> : xxl. 103;
L. Wiener, The Hixtorii nf rn/i/iV/i Littratuif ii> U\r Siue-
tceiith Centum, pp. 38:»-384, New York. !««; S. Wiener.
nyv nSnp [W.], St. I'elershui-g. !><«: Z«-lilln. Ii>l>l. I'^fl-
MendeU. Leipsic, 1891-95 [Z.]; Fflrst, mbl.jwl. (K.j: Zed-
ner. Cat. Hehr. Bmihs Rrit. Mw. [Zed.]. Kv-says on ti»e
literature: N. H. Getzow, In a-«:^, pp. 158 IK; S. lau-
terhach, in pjn, i. 61-m ; I. S. Regglo. •>:•» ry-^in (U-tler
1): J. H. Schorr, in yi'^nn, Ix., x.; L. Schulmann, In pj.-i,
11. 104.

.1. I. n.

PTOLEMY: 1, Prince (t^'trarch) of Ilurea and
Chalci.s from about yS to 40 h.c. in wliic-li year he
died; son of Menna-us. He tried to extend liin
kingdom by wiuliki' expeditions (Stral>o. xvi. 2.
t; 16); and ruled the Lebanon, threatened DaniasTtis,
subjugated .several distriels on the Plienieian coji.hI,
and once had Paneas in his hands (.losephus, " Ant."
XV. 10, t^i^ 1-;}). In fact, the whole of Galilee had
formerly been in the possession of the Itii id

had been taken away from them in 1":^
bulus I. {ib. xiii. 11, S 3).

The Jews tlioujrlil themselves opp!is.vil by i'toi-
emy, anil hence Aristobulus II., at that time still

Ptolemy I.
Ptolemy IV.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

262

prince and sent by his mother, Alexandra, undertook
an expedition against Damascus to protect it against
Ptolemy (ib. 16, ^ 3; idem, " B. J." i. 5, § 3). Pompey
destroyed Ptolemy's strongholds in the Lebanon
and doubtless took away from him the Hellenic
cities, as he did in Judea. When Aristobulus II.
was murdered by Pompey 's party iu Juilea(49 n.c),
his sons and daughters found protection with Ptol-
emy ("Ant." xiv. 7, § 4; "B. J." i. 9, ^ 2). It may
be that the national Jewi.sh party at that time de-
pended for siipport on the Itureans in Chalcis,
and perhaps the following statement has reference
to that fact: " On the 17th of Adar danger threat-
ened the rest of the " Soferim ' in the city of Chal-
cis, and it was salvation for Israel " (Meg. Ta'an.
xii.).

Antigonus. son of Aristobulus, also supported
Ptolemy in his eflort to establi.sh himself as king in
Judea ("Ant." xiv. 12, § 1). Ptolemy died just as
the Parthians were invading Judea (ifj. xiv. 18, g 3;
"B. J." i. 13, § 1). He was succeeded by his son
Lysanias.

Bibuo(.rapht: Gratz. Ge^c?!. 4th ed.,iii. 148, 174,186; Schurer.
Oc-ich. 3d ed., i. 712-713.

2. Strategus of Jericho; son of Abubus (=
313n?), son-in-law of Simon Maccabeus. He wished
to gain possession of the rulership over Judea,
and hence when his father-in-law was visiting him at
the fortress of Dok, near Jericho, in the month of
Shebat, in the 177th year of the Seleucid era (= 135
B.C.). Ptolemy gave a banquet at which he caused
Simon and his two sons Mattathias and Judas to be
murdered (I Mace. xvi. 11-17; Josephus, "Ant." xiii.
7, § 4). Moreover, he sent men to murder the third
son, John Hyrcanus, who was in Gazara ; but the
latter, having been warned in time, killed the men,
and took possession of Jerusalem, so that Ptolemy
was obliged to retire to Dagon (doubtless identical
with Dok). Here he was besieged by John ; but as
he threatened to kill John's mother, who was in his
power, and as the Sabbatical year was approach-
ing, the siege was unsuccessful. Although Ptol-
emy was now able to withdraw without opposi-
tion, he nevertheless caused John's mother to be
killed before he left ("Ant." xiii. 8, § 1 ; "B. J." i.
2, §§ 3, 4).

BlBLior.RAPiiv: Gratz. Gesch. 4th ed., iii. C3-65; Schurer,
Ge*<c/j. 3d ed., 1. 255 S8.

G. S. Kh.

PTOLEMY I. (surnamed Soter and Lagi) :
At tirst satrap (322-307 u.c), then king (30r)-285), of
Egypt. He founded the dynasty of the Ptolemies,
which, from his father's name, is also called that
of the Lagi. Aaj^c means "hare"; and a rabbin-
ical tradition relates that the Septuagint avoided
translating by /Jiyur the word "hare" in Lev. xi. 6
and Deut. xiv. 7. In more recent times an attempt
has been made to prove from Egyptian inscrip-
tions that Ptolemy I. tried to conceal his father's
name and that he called himself " Ptolemy, son of
Ptolemy " in consequence (Revillout, " Revue Egyp-
tienne,"i. 11): but this theory can not be maintained,
because the father's name is often mentioned ex-
plicitly in documents, and tiie "Ptolemy, son of
Ptolemy " referred to is not Ptolemy I., but his son

Ptolemy II. (Mahaffy, "The Empire of the Ptol-
emies," p. 21).

It was Ptolem)' I. wlio brought Palestine and the
Jews under the dominion of the Ptolemies. After
the death of Alexander the Great
Takes CoeleSyria and Judea were appor-
Jerusalem tioned to Laomedon, but Ptolemy I.
on the took them from this weak jiriuce — as
Sabbath. Josephus maintains, at least as re-
gards Jerusalem by deception as well
as b}' persuasicm. Ptolemy ajipeared before the city
(320 B.C.), pretending that he wished to sacrifice,
and seized it on a Sabbath, a day on which the Jews
did not tiglit. As authority for this statement Aga-
tharchides of Cnidus, a Greek author, is cited by Jo-
sephus ("Contra Ap."i., § 22; more briefly in "Ant."
xii. 1, Jii 1; comp. Mliller, " Fragmenta Historicorum
Graecorum," iii. 196; T. Reiuach,"Textes d'Auteurs
Grecs et Romains Relatifs au Judaisme,"i. 42). On
this occasion Ptolemy I. is said to have taken many
captives from Jerusalem and from the rest of Judea
as well as from Samaria, and to have settled them in
Egypt. Furthermore, since he knew how sacred an
oath was for the Jews, he is said to have used them
to garrison important strongholds ("Ant." I.e.).
Josephus adds that thereafter many Jews went vol-
untarily to Egypt to live, partly on account of the
excellence of the land and partly- on account of the
kind treatment accorded them by Ptolemy (ih.).

Elsewhere also the kindness of the Ptolemies
toward the Jews is highly praised by Josephus
("Contra Ap."ii.,^§ 4, 5); and this
Kindness especially in comparison with the cruel
to i^ersecutions which the Jews suffered

the Jews, later at the hands of the Seleucida' in
Syria. In fact, the policy of the lead-
ing circles in Jerusalem was always to rely on the
Ptolemies iu opposition to the Seleucida'. But that
manifested itself only in the course of time. As re-
gards the earl}- period the statements of Josephus
are very doubtful, since both the early settlement of
Jews in Egypt — which, at least in the case of Alex-
andria, is .said to have taken place under Alexander
the Great — and their military virtues seem to
have been assumed for apologetic reasons when
the hatred of the Jews, proceeding from Alexandria,
made an apology desirable. According to a later
authority, no less than 30.000 Jewish soldiers were
placed in Egj'ptiau forts (Aristeas Letter, ed. Wend-
land, ^ 13). Something similar must at any rate
have hai)pcned later; for a "camp of the Jews" is
explicitly mentioned, and military achievements of
the .lews are certainly spoken of. It is positive that
the legal organization of the P2gyptian Jews, as iu
fact the whole legal organization of the Ptolemaic
state, was instituted by Ptolemy I. It can liardly
be doul)ted that he gave the Jews at Alexandria
equal rights ((aoTzo?.iTela) with the incoming Mace-
donians.

Ptolemy went to Palestine several times on mili-
tary expeditions, e.fj., in the campaign of the year
320, and in that of 312, which ended with the battle
of Gaza. Although he w^as victorious, he found
it expedient to evacuate Palestine for the time being ;
and on his departure he caused the strongholds of
Acre (Acco), Joppa, Gaza, Samaria, and Jerusalem

263

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ptolemy I.
Ptolemy IV

to he raz«Hl to the groiiiul (see Appian, "S3Tiacn,"
§ 50). According to the testiinouy of llecattuus of
Abdera, whom Josephus(" Coutra Ap." i., § 22) cites,
many Jews felt inipcMed on tiiis occa-
Many Jews sion to move to Eyypt, and tiie gen-
Follow erally respected liigh priest lle/ekiah
Ptolemy also attached himself to Vtr)lcmy. It
to Egypt, was, in truth, dillicult for Egypt to
retain Palestine in opposition to the
newl}' arisen Syrian kingdom, hut Ptolemy I. and
his successors never relin(iuislied their claim to the
cities of Gaza, Joppa, and Jerusalem. The wars
which were waged for these i)laces between the
Ptolemies and the Seleucidte, and the sull'crings
Avhich ensued therefrom for the Jews, are graph-
ically described in Dan. xi. ; the " king of the south "
in verse 5 of that chajiter referring to Ptolemy I.
(see Jerome in the name of Porphyrins ad he).
o. S. Ku.

PTOLEMY II. (surnamed Philadelphus) :
King of Egypt from 285 to 247 R.c. He continued
the struggle for Cade-Syria and Palestine and estab-
lished himself permanently in possession of those
countries about 274. Like all Diadochi, he took
pleasure in building cities; and Philadelphia (Ste-
l)hanus Byzantius, s.t". ; Jerome on Ezek. xxv.),
Philoteria (near Lake Tiberias; see Polybius, v. 70,
5~ 3), and Ptolemais (pseudo-Aristeas, § 115) were
founded on Palestinian soil during his reign. Re-
cently it has been believed that his statue and that
of his wife Arsinoe have been found in Ptolemais
<"Pevue Archeologique," 3d series, 1893, xxi. 98).
He married his sister Berenice tp the Syrian king
Antiochus II. for the sake of peace, of which union
it is said in Dan. xi. 6 (H. V.): "And at the -end of
years they shall join themselves together; and the
daughter of the king of the south shall come to the
king of the north to make an agreement." The
murder of the young queen, however, led only to
further wars between Egypt and Syria.

According to Aristeas, the Septuagiut originated
during the reign of Ptolemy II. ; and although the
trustworthiness of the Aristeas Letter is generally
<loubted, it may nevertheless be regarded as histor-
ically true that it was Ptolemy Philadelphus who
gave the impvdse to the translation, for his literary
efforts are known silso from other sources (Schlirer,
"Gesch." 3d ed., iii. 309).

G. S. Ku.

PTOLEMY III. (surnamed Euergetes I.) :
King of Egypt from 247 to 222 u.c. ; referred to in
Dan" xi. 7-9. According to that passage, the Egyp-
tian king made great conquests in Syria, which
statement is confirmed by external authorities. The
idols of the conquered, together with gold and silver
vessels, were, according to the Biblical passage,
seized by him for Egypt ; and the marble monument
of Aduli supports this account in stating that Ptol-
emy III. brought l)ack to Egypt 40,000 talents of
silver and 2,r)00 statues of the gods, among them
those which Cambyses had stolen from Egypt:
this deed won for him the cognomen "Euergetes"
(=: "well-doer") in his land.

Ptolemy III. was gracious toward the Jews. After
his great victory he went to Jerusalem, sacrificed

there aceortling tu Jewisli cuslom, and made uu
ollering of incense (Josephus, "Coulru Ap." ii., g 5).
Willi his reign refereuccs to tlie numerous Jews
settled in Nomos Arsinoe, the pre.s<'iii Kuyum, begin
to b(! fretjuent; <.</., the Jew Jonathan is mentioned
in the tentli year of liis reigu (Mahaffy. "Tlie Flin-
ders Petrie Papyri," ii. 23). On • e,iun great
danger threatened the Jews of P,i 'J'he »vu-
ricious high jiriest Onias II. had withheld twenty
talents of silver which should have been delivered
annually as a voluntary contribution logetiier with
the taxes; and the king in anger tlireuteued to di-
vide the land of the Jews into lots ami to give ll to
his veterans {k/.i/ixw xoi ; Joseplius. " .\nl." xii. 4. ^ 1).
The danger was averted by the clever nephew of
Onias, the young Jo.sei)hus: and althougli the long
story related by Flavins Jo.sephus in this connec-
tion .sounds very legendary, it nevertheless shows
plainly the gracious, even friendly, attitude of the
king toward the Jews. The king appointed Jo.sepliu8
tax-collector not only of Judea but of all C<L'le-Svrla
{ib. t?§ 1-5).

An inscription (at i)resent iu the Berlin Mus< uni)
from Lower Egypt, which bears witness to Ptoh-iny
Ill.'s care for the Jews, deserves to be mentioned
here because it stands almost alone. It relates that
at the conuuand of the "king and queen "(whose
identity is not known) the following tablet in a
"proseuche,"z. e., a synagogue, was restored: haai-
Afi'f nro/f//rt(of E'ref>}iTr/r T>)v -iiiintv\f/v iiftv'/in\ That is
to say, the right of asylum had been conferred on
that synagogue, which was probably a high distinc-
tion ("C. I. L."iii.. Supiilement. No. 6583; Schlirer.
"Gesch." 3d ed., iii. GO). It is nf)teworthy that the
king, doubtless out of consideration for the Jews,
does not mention (5tof (God). It is highly jiroliable
that a synagogal inscription only recently discovered
in Shedia, a piace in Lower Egypt, refers to Euer-
getes I. It reads: 'T]-fp (iaau.iui \ UTo>.tfiatov nai |
(iaatliaatiq \ liepevihric: «(5t/. | ^;/f koI ^vvaisof Kiti \ ruv
TfKvuv I Tjjv TTpoaevx'/v I oi 'lovdaiut (" In honor of King
Ptolemy and of Queen Berenice, his sister and wife,
and of their children, this synagogue the Jews [ded-
icate] " ; see T. Keiuach in " H. E. J." 1902. xlv.

161-164).

S. Kk.

PTOLEMY IV. (surnamed Philopator) : King
of Egyi>t from 222 to 205 u.c. ; hero of the events
described in Dan. xi. 11-12. The passage in ques-
tion refers to battles between him and .\nti»<hus the
Great, more especially the decisive battle at Haphia
(217 B.C.). in which Ptolemy won a brilliant victory.
and by that very fad showed himself to be a much
more able ruler than is conunonly supposed.

Two episodes in the battle of Haphia arc men-
tioned in III Maccabees al.so: (1 ) how a certain The-
odotos. conducted by a Jew called Dositheus. son of
Drimylus, tries to murder Ptolemy in his sleep, but
fails in his ]iurpose; and (2) how Arsinoe. sister of
the Ecyptian king, incites the trwps to fight bravely
(III Mace. i. 1-7). Both accounts originate with
Polybius (V. 79), and hence are historical. Accord-
ingly the rest of the story narrated in III Mac
cabees can not be pure invention, althougli then-
are ab.surd details in it which are doubtless due to
the faet that the author is trying to glorify a great

Ptolemy V.
Publican

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

264

miracle. The author relates that after the battle of
Kaphia Ptolemy Philopator visited Jerusalem aucl
declared that he would enter the Temple. By di-
vine interposition, however, lie fell to the .i,nouud
stunned. When he had returned to Alexandria he
thought of revenge, and caused all the Jews of Al-
exandria and Egypt to be bound and dragged mto
the arena to be trampled by his elephants; but the
beasts threw themselves upon the king's troops in-
stead. The Jews celebrated their escape by an an-
nual feast-day {ib. vi. 36).

At least this feast-day must be historical, for Jose-
phus mentions it ("' Contra Ap." ii.. $^ 5), placing the
event, however, in the reign of Ptolemy VII., Phys-
con, and relating the simple fact without referring to
any miracle. Schiirer (I.e. iii. 365) prefers the version
of Josephus; Mahatfy (/.<•. p. 269) inclines to III
Maccabees, the author of which was well versed in
Egyptian atfairs, and, for example, was right in
saying that the king observed tiie cult of Dionj'sus
(see Dionysus). According to MahalTy, it was chiefly
a question as to whether or not the Jews of Alexan-
dria should be allowed to preserve their equal rights;
though they may also have become involved in an
insurrection which the native Egyptians had insti-
gated against the king, and in which the king's anger
appears to have changed in their favor. I. Abrahams
(in "J. Q. R."ix. 39-58) and A. Biichler (-'Tobiaden
und Oniaden," pp. 172-212, Vienna, 1899) are of the
opinion that the persecution extended to only a
small portion of the Egyptian Jews ; namely, to those
in the noma of Arsinoe. Tlie offen.se of the Jews
probably consisted in the fact that they did not wish
to take part in the Dionysus cult which was prac-
tised by the Ptolemies in this verj' nomc. Re-
cently, however, Willrich has revived the theory,
held by Ewald and Grimm, that the Third Book
of Maccabees refers to events under Caligula. He
claims even that they are the same as those related
in the Book of Esther.

G. S. Kr.

PTOLEMY V. (surnamed Epiphanes) : King
of Egypt from 205 to 182 B.C. lie was a child of
five when he came to the throne. The protracted
struggle for the possession of Ctele-Syria and Pales-
tine was now finally decided in favor of the Syrians.
Antiochus the Great conquered the land (202); and
the Egyptian general Scopas, who tried to retake it
for Egypt, was defeated at the sources of the Jor-
dan, his army being wholly destroyed at Sidon
(Jerome on Dan. xi. 15). According to Josephus
(■'Ant." xii. 3, J^ 3), the Jews in Jerusalem aided
Antiochus and even besieged tJie Egyptian garrison
independently. This jjolicy of the Jews appears to
have been the result of tiie persecution experienced
in the preceding reign : Daniel (xi. 14) appears to
blame them for their attitude toward the Ptolemies,
because the latter were at any rate preferable to the
Seleucidae. Ptolemy Epiphanes died from poison,
as Jerome (on Dan. xi.) relates in the name of Por-
pliyrius.

G. S. Ku.

PTOLEMY VII.(surnumed Philometor ; gen-
erally known as Ptolemy VI.) : King of Egypt
from 182 to 146 B.C. ; eldest son of Ptolemy V. With
him the power over Egypt passes into unworthy

hands. Philometor was still a child when he came
to the throne, the Jewish philosopher Aristobulus of
Paneas being mentioned as his teacher (II Mace. 1.
10; SchQrer, "Gesch." 3d ed., iii. 384). The procla-
mation of his independent rule, usually called ava-
K/.T/rr/pta, but in II Macc. iv. 21 7rpuT0K?uaia, was a
call to Antiochus IV.. the ojipressor of the Jews,
to look to his own wolfarc; for, acconling to Dan.
xi. 24 (where DnVD is to be read instead of D-lvaD).
he always had the concjuest of Egypt in niiiul. In-
deed, it wasa regular jKirt of the Egyptian policy to
attempt the conquest of Syria; and Antiochus had
to take account of that fact, as Jerome (on Dan. xi.
22) relates. Antiochus wished to anticipate the
Egyptians, and hence attacked and defeated tliem
(170 B.C.) in a sanguinary battle which is described

in I Macc. i. 18-20. Philometor was

Is forced to flee; and the Alexandrians

Dethroned, raised to the throne his younger

brother, who was known afterward as
Euergetes II. Antiochus now carried x)n opera-
tions in favor of Philometor. He besieged Alex-
andria, and even assumed the crown of Egypt, so
that he had two kingdoms (I Macc. i. 16); but he
had to withdraw on account of pressure from the
Romans. It was probably in this war that Ptolemy
Macron, governor of Cyprus, deserted Philometor
and went over to Antiochus (II Macc. x. 13).

The two neighboring kingdoms, which were mor-
tal enemies of each other, disagreed materially in
their treatment of the Jews: in Syria the latter were
persecuted; in Egypt they were favored. In the
ensuing disputes about the succession to the throne
in Syria, Philometor always took a part, reckoning
on the Jews who were at war with the Syrians. In

150 B.C., when he gave his daughter

Honors Cleopatra to Alexander Balas to wife,

Jonathan atPtolemais, the Maccabean Jonathan

Maccabeus, was present and was treated with

great honor by both kings (I Macc. x.
57-60). This marriage, however, did not prevent
Philometor from warring with Alexander, or from
giving his daughter to Alexander's rival Demetrius.
On the march Jonathan was accused before Pliilo-
metor ; but the latter would not listen to the charges,
and instead met Jonathan kindly in Joppa {ib. xi.
5-6). It is noteworthy that the First Book of Mac-
cabees represents this expedition of the Egyptian
king as treacherous and faithless, whereas Josephus
("Ant." xviii,4, §8) sets the Egyptians in the right.
The former is from the Syrian standpoint ; the latter
from the Egyptian, as Mahaffy {I.e. p. 371) rightly
observes. From this it follows that at that time
there must have been a party in Jerusalem which
saw in the Egyptian king the salvation of tiie Jews,
and justly so; for Philometor was well disposed
toward them.
With some exaggeration Josephus says of Philo-
metor ("Contra Ap." ii.,§ 5) that he and
Entrusted his wife Cleopatra entrusted their en-
His tire kingdom to Jews and that the com-
Eingdom manriers-in-chief of their army were
to Jews, the Jews Onias and Dositheus. The
Onias temple was built under him, and
the work of Afistobulus on the explanation of
the Mosaic laws was intended primarily for him.

265

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ptolemy V.

Publican

The Greek postscript to the Book of Esther sliows
that tluit book was brouglit to Egypt in the fourtli
year of his reign, for the passage tiierein concerning
Ptolemy and his wife Cleopatra without doubt refers
to liim. The syuagogal inscription of Athribis also
probably refers to liini.

IMiileiny Philonielor died from a wound received
in the battle on the Kiver Oenoparus in Syria (I
Mace. xi. 14-10; "Ant." xviii. 4. § 8). Tlie friendly
attitude of this king toward the Jews caused Grillz
("Gesch." 4tli ed., iii. 577) to assigu tlie Septuagint
to his reign, but that work, as Freudenthal espe-
ciall}' has demonstrated, is much older. On tlie
other hand, to the reign of Philometor may be as-
signed the origin of another class of literature, and
that is the polemic hostile to the Jews, which pro-
ceeded from Alexandria and which arose from the
fact that the Jews filled public offices, seized the
leadership of the army, and built a central sanctuary.

G. S. Ku.

PTOLEMY IX. (surnamed Euergetes II.;
known also as Ptolemy VII., but more commonly
as Physcon) : King of Egypt from 146 to 117 u.c.
After the death of Ptolemy Philometor, his brother,
Euergetes II., tried to overthi-ow liis widow and suc-
cessor, Cleopatra, whose army was commanded by
the Jewish general Onias (Josephus, " Contra Ap."
ii., § 5). In this connection Josephus deals with the
captivity and the rescue of the Jews in Alexandria
which, on the strength of the Third Book of Macca-
bees, are assigned to the reign of Ptolemy IV. Since
the Jews were persecuted by Ptolemy IX. not for
their religion but on account of their political posi-
tion, the matter is of little importance; and with
the establishment of order, peace was doubtless re-
stored to the life of the Jews also.

Willrich ("Juden uud Gricchen vor der Makka-
baischcnErhebung,"pp. 142- 153) gives some reasons
which make Ptolemy IX. appear in the light of a
friend to the Jews. The grandson of Jesus b. Sira
went to Egypt in the thirty-eighth year of Euergetes
(the king reckoned his reign from the year 170) and
found leisure there to tran.slate the book Ecclesias-
ticus (Sirach). This king is probably identical with
the seventh king of Egypt of Hellenic stock, who
is mentioned three times in the Sibyllines (iii. 191,
318, 608).

From 117 B.C. onward, Cleopatra III. reigned
with her sons, Philometor (Soter II.) or Lathy-
rus and Ptolemy Alexander (117-81). An account
of the wars of Lathyrus on Palestinian soil may
be found in the history of the Jewisli princes Hyr-
canus I. and Alexander JannsEUS (see also Cypuus).

G. S. Kk.

PTOLEMY MACRON : General of King Anti-
ochus Epiphanes of Syria; sent by the prefect Lys-
ias with two other generals, Nicanor and Gorgias,
to fight against the Jews under the ^Maccabees. In
I Mace. iii. 38, II Mace. iv. 45, and in Josephus,
"Ant." xii. 7, § 8, he is called the son of Dorymenes.
In the second passage cited it is related that Mene-
laus sent him many presents to secure his interces-
sion with the king. That fact alone avouUI show
that Ptolemy was a man of higher rank, and in II
Mace. viii. 8-11 he is called governor of Cade-Syria

and Phenicia, who as such sent NMcanor and Gorgias
against tiie Jews.

Ptolemy is given the cognomen " Macron " in II
Mace. X. 12, which supplies a short bkeleh of liis life.
He faithlessly abandoned Cyprus, which hud iK't-u
entrusted to him by the Egyptian king PtoU-niy Phil-
ometor, and went over to Anliochus E|)i|)lmne«, for
which he was rewarded with the governorship of
Cade-Syria and Phenicia. Since he tried, however,
to treat the Jews kindly, ho wa.s (kiiounced b. f. .r..
the king, whereupon he ended his life by p
The passage in I'olybius (xxvii. 12) and ilie biug-
rajihy which Suidus gives of Ploh-my i<f( r to hiii
conduct in Cyprus.

PUAH : 1. (*iic 1)1 ilir iwo midwivi s v,\,i, «ire
ordered by Pharaoh to kill all the Hebrew male chil-
dren (Ex. i. 15). Philo ("Quis Heriini Divinaruin."
ed. 1613, 1). 3«9; eil. Schwickert, 1828. iii. 30. ^ 26)
possibly correctly identities this name, whicli iu
Hebrew is nyiD. with another Puuh written io
Hebrew nXIQ. antl exjjlains •I'om ifn^ipav fftfir/iiiirai,
i.e., "Puah, which is interpreted ' the red.'" In
the sense of "color'' "pu'ah " (Arabic "fuwwah ")
occurs in Shah. 89b and Yer. "Er. 26c.

In Midr. Tadshe (on Ex. i. 15) it is assumed that
Puah, as well as the other mi<lwife, was a proselyte,
and was not identical with Miriam. For the differ-
ent views which identify Puah with Miriam or EH-
sheba see Miiu.xm in R.\bbinical Litku.\ti'ue nud
Jochp:bed.

2. Father of Tola the judge, and son of Dodo of
the tribe of Issachar (Judith x. 1). The Septuagint
renders " Dodo " by uncle (of Abimelech) and inter-
polates the word "Kareah," which is not found in
the Masoretic text of this passjige. The opinions
of recent commentators are very much divided re-
garding the meaning of the word "Do<lo."

3. Second son of Issachar (Gen. xlvi. 13). In the
desert he formed the tribe of the Puniles (Num.
xxvi. 23); and he is mentioned in I Chron. vii. 1.
In the Authorized Version the name is spelled
"Pua"; in the Revised Version, "Puvah."

BIBLIOORAPHY : Lew, Ncuhehr. n'iirtcrh. s.v.; LOw. vlrrtm<7-
Uschc PHaiiznitinmciu T>. 2.')1. Vienna, 1881; Hollentwis.

in St&ie's Zcitxchrift, I. lOi ct acq. ^

K. G. ir. S. O.

PUBERTY, AGE OF. Sec M.uoniTV.

PUBLICAN: Local tax-farmer, the offlce ex-
isted among the Jews imder the Roman dominion.
The Romans were accustomed to farm out, genemlly
for five years, the customs dues on exports. Tlii-sc
taxes were mainly ad valorem, and therefore, as the
value placed upon goods varied, lent th. • to

extortion; hence the impopularity of the i ':i«.

especially when, as under the Romans, they were
Jewsexploitingtheir fellow Jews. E' ' " - ill

repute are found in the New Testanii : . b-

licansare coupled with sinners (Matt. ix. 10; Luke v.
30, vii. 34). and even with the most depnule<l per
sons (Matt. xxi. 31). Taxes were levic<l on pearl*
(Kelim xvii. 15), slaves (B. B. 127b). and boal« ('Ab.
Zarah 10b). Tax-farmers were not eligible as
iudges or even as wilncs.ses (."^anli. 25b). and it was
even regarded as undesirable to exchange money

Pucher
Pulpit

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

266

with tbern, as the)' might be in possession of stolen
coin. If one member of a family was a publican, all
its members were liable to be considered as such for
purposes of testimony (Slieb. 39a).

Bibliography: Levy. Neuhehr. IVOrterh. s.v.: iastrow. Diet.
s.v. ND^i-: ; Herzfeld, Handc(i<gesch. der Jmleti iks Alter-
thums, pp. l(J0-lt)3.
T. J.

PUCHER, SOLOMON: Habhi; born 1829 at
Neustailt-Slnrwiiii. Pnluiul ; ilic'il Nov. 23, 1899, at
liiga. Educated at tlie yeshibah of Georgenbuig
and at the rabbinical .school of AVilna, he was called
in 1859 to the rabbinate of Mitau. As a rabbi Pu-
cher received from tlic government the silver and
the gold medal of merit. In the si.xth decade of the
nineteenth century he bravely opposed, in speeches
and in written articles, the Christian-Jewish mission
in Courland, thereby creating a great sensation. He
labored with tact and di.scretion to obtain civil and
political rights for the Jews, and in 1864 he was
called to St. Petersburg as a member of the com-
mission for securing the right of residence to Jewish
workmen. About twenty years later he wrote and
presented to Count Pahleu, chairman of the Jewish
commission, who was staying in Courland, a de-
tailed memorandum in their favor of the condition
of the Jews. His efforts to improve their status
represent a portion of the history of the Jews not in
Courland on)}-, but in Russia generally. With
equal energy he worked to develop the inner life of
the community. He labored also for the religious
education of girls, establishing confirmation classes
for them, and he gave the boys free religious in-
struction in the gymnasium.

In 1893 he accepted a call as rabbi to Piga, Pus-
sia, where he labored till 1898, when he retired from
public life. The community at Riga raised a large
fund in his honor, the interest of which is used for
the benefit of widows and orphans.

Pucher's literary activit}' is represented by several
printed sermons, by a pamphlet, "Uebcr den Thier-
schutz," and by articles directed against the Chris-
tian-Jewish mission, especially his " Offenes Send-
schreiben an die Kurlandischen Herrcn Synodalen,"
in the "Baltische Monatsschrift," xvi. 217-241.

JI. R. J. Bl{.

PUCHOWITZER, JUDAH L6b B. JOSEPH
PARZOWER : Russian lablii, ealjalist, and author;
lived in tlie last quarter of the seventeenth century.
He was rabbi at Pinsk, and in his old age emigrated
to Palestine and settled at Jerusalem, leaving behind
him an injunction to his son Elijah to publish his
writings.

He was the author of: " Kene Hokmah," seven-
teen homilies, Frankfort-on-tlieOder, 1681; "Derek
Hokmaii." on morals and asceticism, in thirty-two
ciii.pters, ifj. 1683; " Dibre Hakamiin": (1) " Da'at
Hokmah," on moral subjects, in four divisions; (2)
" Mekcn- Hokmali," notes on f)rah Hayyiin, Avith
an appendix, "Solet Belulah," on the ritual deci-
sions after the compilation of the Orah Hayyim,
Hamburg, 1692; " Kebod H!d<amim," e.\tiacts from
his otlier works, with ten additional homilies, ed.
by M. S. Piukerle. Venice, 1700.

Biiii.iofJRAPnY: Steinschnelder. Cat. Tindl. col. 57(54; Fiirst,
Uihl. Jwl. Hi. 108; Michael. Or ha-Uaumm. |). 461; Azulai,

Shem ha-Gcdnlim, ii. 28. i:)0: Nepi-Ghimndi. Tolcdot Gcdnle
Yiararh p. l!*9 : Benjacob, Ozar lia-Sifdnm. pp. 103. 236,
530; Zedner, Cdt.Htbr. Buoha'Brit. Mxis. p. 644.
H. 15. A. S. W.

PtrCKLER-MUSKAU, WALTER, COUNT :

German aiiii Sciiiilic agitator; lioiii Oci. 9. 1860, at
Rogan. near Rreslau. He graduated from the Uni-
versity of Breslau with the degree of doctor of hnv,
and was a])pointed refeieiidar, but .soon left the
public service. After 1899 he became very notori-
ous in connection with tiie anti-Semitic movement,
liis harangues l)eing distinguished for extreme vul-
garit}' of language. In all his addresses, mostly
(k'livered in Berlin, he has advisetl the most violent
measures again.st the Jews — breaking into their
stores, plundering, whipping, driving tiiem from
their homes, killing them. From his constant repeti-
tion of "beat the Jews," "crack tlieir skulls," "kick
them out," "thrash them," and similar rowdyisms,
he has received the cognomen "Dreschgraf" (the
thrashing count). He considers himself the legiti-
mate successor of Stiicker and Alilwardt, although
the former sharply criticized him for his violence
and vulgarity. The anti-Semitic journals, esi)ecially
the Berlin " Staatsbiirgerzeitung." wiiicli judjlished
his addresses, lia ve greeted him as a worliiy ally ; yet a
few of them have repudiated liis api)eals to violence.
Generally, no restraint has been i)ut upon him bv
the autiiorities, though he has occasionally been
tried for inciting to violence. His declaration before
the court of Glogau, May 12, 1899, often repeated
since, that his expressions were tigurative and
meant no harm to the Jews, was accepted as a valid
plea.

On Jan. 12, 19U5, a Berlin court sentenced Piick-
ler-Muskau to six months' imprisonment. He ob-
jected to one of the judges, Simonson, on account
of his Jewish descent, but his objection was not
sustained. His plea that he had been acquitted sev-
eral times when he had used much sharper language
was not considered valid. After being sentenced he
challenged the presiding judge toaduel, whereupon
he was sentenced to three days' further imprison-
ment for contempt of court. Dr. Neumann, expert
alienist, expressed the opinion before the court that
Plickler was mentally unsound and should be sent to
an asylum for tiie insane. TluTeupon Plickler ciial-
lengcd Neumann also to a duel and was condemned
to two months' imprisonment in the fortress of
"Weichselml'inde. He then i.ssued a jiaper entitled
"Der Better aus der Judennot," the first number of
which was seized by the police. See Anti-Sk.mitism.

Bibliography : MittJiciUiimcn aus dcin Vcrein zur Atiwehr
dcs Anti)iemitu<nms, 1899-1905.
D. S. Man.

PUGILISM. See Athletes; Bandoff, Benja-
min ; Bei-as((), Auhaham; Belasco, Isuakl; Ben-

.lAMIN, WiLMA.M; BeUNSTEIN, JOSEI'H ; BiTTOON,

Isaac; Chovnski, Joseph; Elias, Samuel; Evans,
Sami Ki-; Mendoza, Daniel.

PUL : A usurper Avho ascended the throne of
Babylonia in 745 B.C. and reigned until 737; iden-
tical with Tiglath-pileser III. He appears in the list
of kings as "Pulu," l)ut his identity with Tiglath-
pileser, first suggested by Rawlinson(" Athenaeum,"
Aug. 22, 1863), was six years later independently
established by Lepsius. On his accession Pul

267

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pucber
Pulpit

restored jx'aro in Babylonia. In 788 lie concjuert-d
KuUani, apparentl}' tlie IJiblical Calno (Isa. x. 9).
Tribute Avas leviccl also on Syria as far soutlj as
Samaria. In liis inscriptions Minaliiniu (— Mcna-
iieni of Samaria) is mentioned, prol)al)ly identieal
witli tiie one mentioned in II Kings xv. lo' Tiglatli-
pileser spcalis of himself as King of Assyria, of
Siinier, and of Aecad.

Bini.iofiiiAiMiY: Schrailer, K.fl.F. pp. 423-40)1; Wincklcr,
(Jcsch. Ualiuhinicns unit ^Issyrinis. I.cip.sic, 1K!(2.
K. ti. 11. S. Fr.

PULGAR, ISAAC BEN JOSEPH IBN. See

Ihn l'ri,i;Ait, Isaac i!i;.n .Iomii'ii.

PULITZER, JOSEPH: American editor and
journalist; born April 10, 1847, at Budapest, Hun-
gary; educated privately. In IHtiB lie left his native
town for the
United States,
w )i i e h h e
reached in time
to enlist in the
Federal army as
a private in a
cavalry regi-
ment. He took
part in the fight-
ing until the
close of the war.
On receiving his
discharge and
failing to obtain
employmeut in
the city of Xew
York, Pulitzer
Av e n t t o S t .
Louis, -where he
joined the stalf
of the "West-
liche Post," first
as a reporter,
later as mana-
ging editor and
joint proi)rietor
(1866-68). Gain-
ing prominence
in state i)olities,
Pulitzer was
elected to the
legislature of
Missouri in 1869,
and in 1872 was
appointed dele-
gate to the National Liberal Republican Convention
at Cincinnati which nominated Horace Gre(dey for
the presidency. In 1874 he was elected delegate to
the Missouri State Constitutional Convention. Dur-
ing the fall and winter of 1876 and 1877 he acted as
correspondent of the New York "Sun " in Washing-
ton, D. C, and in the following j-ear purchased
tlie St. Louis "Dispatch" and "Post." and, amalga-
mating them, pul)lished the " Post-Dispatch," which
cjuickly sprang into prominence (1878).

In 1880 Pulitzer was again active in politics, and
was elected delegate to the National Democratic
Convention and took part in the drafting of the
platform. Three years later he purchased the New

t\"T.i,n,"r ('■ I't'i^v

.' P'J.T:^:)

Interior of a Sj'nagoj^e, Showing the Pulpit.

(From a fourUenth-cvntury manuscript In the BrUtsh Museum.)

\ork " VVorhi," wliich he mised from an InsigMill-
cant RJieet to an inlluential daily nr He

was elected as a Demcciat from the . . Mslrict

of New York a member of Congress for tlie term
1885-^7, hut resigned after liavirig ' , few

months. Neverl]iele8.H lie continued i ,ii act-

ive interest in i)olitics and lulvrH-Hted the ^'atiooal
Democratic ticket, favoring the gohl Hlunduni in
1896.

In Aug., VMVA, Pulitzer don«to<l $l.(KK).(K)0 to

C;olund)ia I'niversily for llie purpow <if f- ' • - a

school of journalism, llie opening of wlii. ikj

postponed until after Ids deatii.

^ R 11 V.

PULPIT : In the earliest limcn posic* •amMiud ")
was used instead of u pulpit ; from it the 1 ke

to till ,..,.ie,
and from it, Jo-
si a Ji renewed
witli tile people
the covenant of
tiie I^w before
tiie Lord (II
Kings xi. 14,
xxiii. 8). When
f>.ra returned
from Babylon lie
"stood upon a
pulpit l"mig-
dal"] of wo«l
. . . made for
the purpose"
(Nell. viii. 4). to
read the law of
Moses in the
street l)eforc the
people. In the
Talmudic and
geonic periods
the pulpit was
placed either on
the Ai.MKM.Mior
in front of the
Ark; in Pales-
tine it was
placed on the a 1-
memar: else-
where it was
stationed in
front of the Ark

(sec P.M.F.STI.NK,
L.WVS AND ClH-

TOMS). The Talmudic term for the pulpit is ** telmh "
(desk). Whenever a fast day wa^ ilecreed ' ■ " ' ''t

din, the desk was taken into ' i.

Facing and the elder (hakam) stood f

the People, il, facing the i>eoplc, and ,m d

them in words of humility (Tn'an. il.
1). In the synagogue the eltlers sat in ' t

row facing the peojde anti with their back . ...iJ
the side of the Ark. The desk was placed opposite
the peojile with its back toward the Ark.

Maimonitles states that in the center of the syna-
gogue is placed the nlmemar. on ivhich the reader of
the Pentateuch or the preacher " -

may be '!i" bitt.T liirird Tin ^

Pulpit
Punctuation

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

268

the pulpit on the almemar in the center of the syn-
agogue, facing the Ark. The Zohar calls the pul-
pit "migdal 'oz " (a strong tower ; Prov. xviii. 10).
The (lesiv is ascended by six steps, above which is
an additional step to receive the Pentateuch and to
serve as a pulpit for the lecturer. The six steps
represent those of Solomon's throne (II Chron. ix.
18: Zuhar. Wayakhel, Ex. 206a; Isaac Horowitz,
"Shelah."Nuni". 164b).

In the case of a large congregation the almemar,
with the pulpit, was originally placed in the center
of the synagogue in order that the voice of the
reader or preacher might be heard by all the wor-
shipers; whereas the hazzan stood by the Ark, it
being easier to follow him in the familiar prayers.
The placing of the almemar with
Pulpit and the pulpit in the center of the syna-
Almemar. gogue was purely a matter of con-
venience, and not of obligation. In
later times, when the congregations became smaller,
the almemar was erected nearer the Ark (Caro,
"Kesef Mishneh" to "Yad." Tefillah, xi. 3, 4).
The case of Orthodoxy against Reform, in the
nineteenth century, in regard to taking the almemar
from the middle of the synagogue and placing

Pulpit from a Synagogue at Modena, Early Sixteenth Century.

(Now iu the Miuee it Cludy, Paris.)

it near the Ark, was not based on Jewish law, but on
the adopted custom, strengtliened by the desire to
avoid the appearance of aping Christian practises.

In modern times the Orliiodox Jews still keep
the almemar separated from the Ark and about one-
third of the length of the synagogue from it. The
reader of the Pentateuch, from the desk on the al-
memar, faces the Ark. But the preacher's pulpit is
on the platform of the Ark and facing the audience.

Individual worshipers also use a pulpit or desk,
called a "stiiuder" or "stodt" (= "stutt,"' "statte,"
i.e., place) in which to lock their tallit. tefilliu, and
prayer-books.

BinLiociRAPiiY: David Stlileslnger. liar
1861 ; Akiba Joseph, Lili ha- Ihri. p. '
Schreiber, Iitfi>nmil Jiulai.tn), p. 152.

Tahin: Presburg,
li, Leinberg, 1873;

J. D. E.

PUMBEDITA. See Ac.\nEMtF.s in B vhvi.oxia.

PUMPIANSKI, AARON ELIJAH B.
ARTEH LOB : Kiissian government rabbi and
author; born at Wilua iu 1835; died at Riga April
26, 1893. He graduated from the rabbinical school
of Wilna in 18.o9 and edited, in conjunction with
Asher Wohl, the Russian supplement to"lia-K-ir-
mel". (1860-61). In 1861 Pumpianski was chosen
government rabbi of Ponevezh, government of
Kovno, where he remained until 1873; he was then
elected to the same otlice in the Jewish community
of Riga, remaining there until his death.

Pumpianski was the author of a collection of ser-
mons in the Russian language which he delivered in
Ponevezh (Riga, 1870); a new edition of the Psalms
with a Russian translation and a Neo-llebrew com-
mentary (Warsaw, 1871); "Solomon Premudroi"
(Riga, 1882); a Russian drama which he published
under the pseudonym "I. Heiman"; "Shire Ziy-
yon," Hebrew poetry, of which the latter part con-
tains translations from Russian poets. He also
edited a monthly magazine, " Yevreiskiya Zapiski,"
of which twelve numbers appeared in Riga in 1881.
He wrote for that magazine and for various other
Russo-Jewish and Russian periodicals numerous ar-
ticles on divers topics, among them being a sketch
of the history of the Jews in Courland and Tiivonia.

Bibliography: JTa-A.^'if, vi. 166; Sokolow, Stfcr ZiI;karon,
p. 8.5, Warsaw, 1890; Ha-Shahar, vi. 84-85.

II. if. ■ P. Wi.

PUNCTUATION (llel)r. nipj) : When the Bib-
lical text received its linal form in the schools of
Palestine during the first and second centuries, and
the Masorah began its task of preserving this text, it
consisted exclusively of letters to which were added
no signs either to indicate the vowels or to mark the
larger and smaller divisions. The method of read-
ing this text, which consisted almost entirely of con-
sonants, and iu which only the chapters ("parashiy-
yot") were marked, and these merely by spaces,
wasentrusted tooral tradition, which was preserved
as accurately as the written text itself by those
who transmitted the Masorah — the scholars proper,
the teachers, and the readers. At an early period
the principle was established, " Yesh em la-mikrah "
{= " the readmg has a firm foundation, a sure tradi-
tion"); but by the side of this was developed also
another principle, "Yesh em la-masoret " (= " the
transmission of the written text has a firm founda-
tion "). On the basis of this latter maxim, exegesis
in its interpretation and application of the Biblical
text permitted itself to adopt a vocalization which
diverged from the traditional reading (Bacher, "Die
Aelteste Terminologie," j). 120).

In some few passages, however, the written text
contained points over individual letters, words, or
parts of words. These points, which occur in ten
places in the Pentateuch, in four in the Prophets,
and one in the Hagiographa (see Ben Asher, " Dik-

269

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pulpit
Punctu&tion

duke lia-Tc'aniim," cd. Baer and Stiack, p. 48),
have only a critical or excgetical value (see Blau,
" Massoretische Untersuchunujen," pp. 6 f< At*?.), and
even in tlie tannaitic period tliere was a rule for
tiie iiilerpretation of sueli words as
Original liad them (Baclier, " Ag. Tan." ii. 431).
Dotted Tlicse points were regarded as an in-
Letters. tegral jnut of tlie consonantal text ;
later tlieir name (''nckuddah "; plural,
"nekuddot": .see Cant. i. 11) was ajiplied to the
newly invented vowel-points, and from it was de-
rived the word "nikkud" (= '"punctuation "), a
"nomen aetionis" from the verb "nikked" (="lo
punctuate "). The word " nekuddah " was used also
to denote those parts of poiutdike individual letters
that resembled dots (.see the pas.sages cited by Levy, '
"Neuhebr. "Worterb." iii. 434b, with which is to
be compared Blau, I.e. p. 164; comp. also Eccl. R.
vii. 1, where a baraita on the names of tlie tribes
of Israel written on the breastplate of the high priest
states that no point ["nekuddah ahat"] may be
omitted there, perhaps meaning by this the hook of
the "yod"; comp. further j\Ien. 29a; Matt. v. 18).
No trace of any other points or characters added to
the consonantal text of the Bible is found in all the
traditional literature, nor is there any allusion to
punctuation even in the treatise Soferim, which
dates at the earliest from the sixth century, and
forms a compilation of the rules for the Biblical
text. In this tractate only one sort of punctuation
is mentioned (Soferim iii. 6 [ed. Joel Miiller, Ger-
man i)art, p. 48]): "A copy of the Torah in which
the verses are separated by points [" nikked "] may
not be used for reading in the S3'nagogue."

Such points were found at the beginning of verses
in the Samaritan Pentateuch. Their use to separate
ver.ses represents the initial stage of the punctuation
which later developed into a stereotyped body of
signs denoting vowels and accents, although noth-
ing is known regarding the date of the completion
of this system or when its first elements were intro-
duced to facilitate the reading and
Beginnings study of the Bible. The oldest extant
of Punc- manuscripts of the Scriptures, dating
tuation. from the ninth and tenth centuries,
are punctuated; and the two great
Biblical scholars of the tenth century, Saadia Gaon
and the ISIasorite Aaron ben Asher, regarded vowel-
pointing as a long-established component of the
tradition. It is safe to assume, therefore, that by
the beginning of the ninth century, or the middle of
the eighth, punctuation already existed as a whole;
and there is even historical justification for the view
which regards the middle of the cigTith century as
the " terminus ad quem " for this innovation. Thus
Karaism, which arose shortly after this period, pre-
supposes the existence of punctuation ; otherwise
the followers of Anan could scarcely have obeyed
the commandment of their teacher to search the
Scripttires. There is no ground, however, for the
assumption that vowel-pointing was evolved by the
Karaites; for it is incredible that rabbinic Judaism
should have accepted such an innovation from a
hostile .sect, and have developed it within a short
time into an essential part of the tradition. The
assertion that the Karaites Mocha and his son Moses,

l)oth of whom lived in the cightli century, invented
punctuation, as is believed liy V ' A (Jnietz.

is clearly inigatory (see }Iarkav\ :„ ii,e i\J.

l)rew translation of Gnietz's "Hist." Iil. 195). It
maybe regarded as practically cerliiin I' ^^c•

tuation originated in thesixlh and seventh ,».

and thatabout Ihe mid«llcof the eighth vowej-poiut*
were incorporated into the text of the !'. ' ' . a
most important aid t<» its study and u8 I Mi

indispensable.

In the texts employed in ptdilic Wdrnhip lUi.-
coi)iesof the Penluteu<-li and the wroll of Khilu-r),
frfun which the lessons were publicly read in tliu
synagogue, thi.s innovation found no place. The
opposition of the heads of Babylonian JudniHm to
it is shown by a responsiim of a gaon which in pre-
served in the Mahzor Vitry (ed. Hurwitz, ^ 120;
com]). " Kerem Hemed," iii. 2(X)). in Hnnwcr to tbe
(pieslioM whether if is ffirbidden to |iuiiftiiiite the
scroll of the Lasv. The reply runs us follows:

" We have not heard that tbo book of the Tjiw wn^ P"fnt<d
when It WM.s jrivfti to M(ws. The piim-ttini: ..•n

on Siniil, Ijiit tlR'Hat'fs ["ha-hakamlin "] liiir - ^m

[i.e., as an external aid fur thi- n-adln»f of Ui.- im.i.j. We
should transgress tin; prohlliitlon atralnst addlii;? sinvf 'itur to ihc
Torah (Deut. xlil. 1) If we sliould add tlie p to the

IJililical text; and allliou^rh the divl.xlon of \- '.i' ran-

tillation arrordliiR to thf ineanintf have Ix-en tniii- •tn

Sinai to this day. this truditiun Is. ni-vertht-h-s.H, an ■ noi

friven by means of marks of punctuation [" simane nekulBti "]."

According to GrUtz ("Gesch." v. 555). who, how-
ever, arbitrarily prefixes the gaou's name, theautbor
of the responsum was Na^ronai ben Hilai, who lived
in the middle of the ninth century.

At all events, this responsum expresses the view
that prevailed in the geonic school regarding punc-
tuation; namely, the pronunciation and the accentu-
ation of the text were transmitted together with it
as objects of oral instruction, while the
Represent visible signs of this pronunciation and
Tradition, accentuation were introduced by the
sages. Thus the Geonim recogniEcd
the appropriateness of punctuation in those copies
of the Bible which were not employed in public
worship, and at the same time they traced its
origin to those who transmitted tnjditi<m. On the
other hand, it is, inifortunaiely, not dear what
"sages" are meant in the responsum, whether Tan-
naim, Amoraini, or even those of later date. The
same view of the importance and origin of vowel-
pointing is expressed by Judah hal..cvi ("Cuzari."
iii. 31 ; comp. Bacher, " Die Bibelexepese der JQ-
dischen Beligionspliilos(iphen," ji. 1 10). Ben A.shcr's
(/.r.) rimed prose eulogy of punctuation (^ 9) docs
not disclose his view of its origin. He speaks, it is
true, of the "countless points." as if they wen; in-
separably connected with the letters in the Inuli-
tional text: but it isimpos.sible to rend either iu this
paragraph or in that on the accents (?s Ifi) tlie view
which was expres.sed two centuries later by Jiidah
Iladassi, one of the leaders of the Karaite s«hool.
who declared (" p:shkol Im-Kofer." cli. clxxiii.) that
God had not given the Torah withoir 'Is

and accents. It is well known that t, ^e-

ory whi( h was opposed in the sixteenth century by
Elijah Levita. when he expreswii in " " el

ha-Ma.s.sor< • " lii-j ri.iivictioii that the ' he

Punctuation

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

270

late origiu of punctuation was the ouly one which
was justifiable.

The problem as to the source of punctuation has
been ably treated by Graelz in liis studies on the
origin of the vowel-points in Hebrew ("Mduats-
schrift," 1891, pp. 348-367, 395-405),
The on the accent-marks in Hebrew (ib.

Source. 1882, pp. 389-409), and on the use and
significance of the dagcsh(z6. 1887, pp.
425-451. 473-497). Especially instructive is his the-
ory that in the old Masoretic expressions "above"
and "below" ("mi-le'el" and "mi-lera'"), whicli
served to distinguish similar forms from each otiier,
there is a relic of the period in wliicli tliis dilTer-
entiation was effected by pointing, since in tlie case
of that form of the word wliich contained the strong
or long vowel the point was placed above, and in
that which coutiiined the weak or short vowel it ap-
peared below. These points were not vowel-points,
but nevertheless indicated tlie vocalic pronunciation
of the text, and thus prepared the way for a system-
atic vocalization. The attempt to prove that ac-
centual points had similar forerunners has been made
by Bilchler in his dissertation "Zur Entstehung und
Entwickelung der Hebraischen Accente" (Vienna,
1891); but unfortunately not even the smallest frag-
ment of a manuscript has been preserved from the
period in wliich it is claimed that such an antecedent
system of points was used iu copies of the Hebrew
Bible, although there are Syriac manu.scripts prior
to the si.xth century that contain an analogous sys-
tem of points and one which was the forerunner of
systematic Syriac piuictuation. It is safe to a.ssunie
that both these preliminary points and the fully de-
veloped Syriac system of punctuation influenced
the Jewish Masorites; and particularly is it very
probable that the introduction of vocalization among
the Nestorians of eastern Syria immediately affected
the Jewish scholars of Babylonia. It was doubtless
in Babylonia, too, that vowel-points were first intro-
duced and systematized. An important point of
evidence for the Babylonian origin of Jewish punc-
tuation is found in the use of the same vowel-point
(" kamez ") for the two vowels which Avere pro-
nounced in Palestine as " a " and " o," and for which,
consequently, had the system of vocalization origi-
nated in Palestine, two different points would have
been employed. In Babylonia, on the other hand, the
former of these two vowels was pronounced as an
open "o" (a), so that qualitatively it approximated
"6." A single point was chosen for botli vowels,
especially as tlie quantity of vowels was disregarded
in the punctuation.

The .system of punctuation which may be regarded
as the oldest one known is the so-called Babylonian.
This system after having fallen into disuse was
forgotten imtil the middle of tlie nineteenth cen-
tury, when knowledge of it was revived from old
manuscripts of the Bible as well as from more mod-
ern ones wliich were brought from
Various southern Arabia to Europe; lor it was
Systems, employed by the Jews of Yemen until
very recent times, although it has
been now superseded by the regular system. Tlie
Babylonian system of punctuation, which is termed
also Assyrian or Eastern, exists in three very diver-

gent forms, which, however, agree in their main
vowel-signs, having as their special characteristic
that the vowel-points are written above the letters-
(wlience the systen> is called the supralinear). Op-
posed to tlie Babylonian punctuation is tlie Tiberian,
which receives its name from Tiberias, the seat of
the Palestinian .Masorites. Owing to the powerful
influence <if these scholars, it completely suiierseded
the Babylonian system, so that it became author-
itative not only for manuscripts of the Bible, but
also for all investigations of Hebrew phonology and
morphology, Hebrew granunar being entirely based
upon and developed from Tiberian punctuation.

The brief account of the .systems of punctuation
to be given in this article disregards the marks of
accentuation, since this subject has been treated
under Accknts in Hei5i:kw. To the bibliography
of that article may, however, now be added Praeto-
rius, " Ueber die Herkunft der IIebiili.sclien Ac-
cente" (Vienna, 1901), and Kahle, "Zur Geschichte
der Ilebriiischen Accente" (in "Z. D. M. G." Iv,
167-194). See also Vocai.iz.vtiox.

The Babylonian System of Punctuation :
(1) The simjile form, adopted in a large number of
manuscripts from Yemen preserved in the British
Museum. The.se manuscripts date from the twelfth
to the seventeenth century and contain texts from
the Bible and the Targums (see list iu Merx, " Chres-
tomafhia Targumica," p. xv., Berlin, 1888). Mar-
goliouth gives ("Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch." xv. 165 et
seq.) a survey of the vowel-points of the oldest two
of these manuscripts (Or. 1467, 2363). The points
indicating the six vowels are as follows: kamez,

1 V : : II ....

2; patah.l; holem,l2, 2: shurek, n, 3; 7.ere, '3, 3;
hirek, '3, 3 ; while the vocal " slicwa mobile " (hatef)
is denoted by a horizontal line, 3. The six vowel-
points of the Babylonian system fall into three
groups of two points each. These are apparently
derived from the three vowel-letters found in the
Biblical text (K, 1, '); for the signs of the first group
are abbreviations of the N; in the second thesis
given entire, either as a single vertical stroke, or as
two dots one above the other; while the third group
uses for the " i " a single dot representing the ^ and for
the zere two dots one over the other. (For other ex-
planations of the.se points see Praelorius, "Ueber das
Babylonisclie Punktationssystem des Hebraischen,"
in"Z. D. M. G."liii. 181-196; Margoliouth, /.c. ; and
Friedlilnder, in "Monatsschrift," 1894, p. 315.) The
two manuscripts cited above also have a sign for the

rafe over the letters n S3 T J 3, as in 3; but a point
for the dagesh within the letters is found only in
the Hebrew text, and not in the Targum.

(2) The complex form, found in the famous codex
of the Prophets dating from 916 and preserved in
the Library of St. Petersburg, as well as in certain
fragments in the same collection. The vowel-points
are the same as in the simple system, except that

when the "waw" is written pleue, shurek is rep-

resented by a point within it, e.g., ^2, not ^2-
Combinations of these points with the stroke of the
hatef, however, form new points to indicate the
position of the vowels within the word and the con-
sequent modifications of pronunciation, thus giving
rise to the following vowel-signs: _Z-, kamez be-

271

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Punctuatioa

fore a dagcsli forte (as in ^j~i, Isa. liv. 1); ~7 , patah
before a dagesli forte (as in ippi, Hab. i. 8); j,
shurek before a dagesh forte (as in D73, ih. i. 6);
~ . zero (the segol of the Tiberian system) before
a dagesh forte (as in "JIVKV Isi^- xlix. 8); _l_, hirelj
before a dagcsh forte (as in npSn, Hal), iii. 1); and

also A ._!_. —.< _!L, for kaniez (n^L^'D■ >Ial. i. 14),
shurelt (inVOn, Hos. vii. 4), ?ere (-|3n\ Hab. ii. 1),
and hirck ("|y)OK', ib. iii. 2) in a closed syllable. For
patah in a clo.sod syllable (as in CiDO, Hab. ii. 0) the
vowel-point is not j; , but -i , this being perhaps
imitated from the similar S^'riac point zekafa, al-
though the last-named corresponds to the kamez.
No combinations are formed from the holem (J_).
Of the combinations used in (dosed syllables three
( i , ± , -), serve to designate semivowels witli
gutturals, and thus correspond to the t: , ~^.', and
~ of the Tiberian punctuation.

(3) A third form of Babylonian punctuation is
found in some fragments that contain texts of the
Bible written in shorthand (see Neubauer in "J.
Q. K. " vii. 361 ; Friedlander, ib. 564 et secj. ; idem, in
"Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch." 1896, pp. 86 et seq. ; Kahle,
"Beitrage zur Geschichte der Hebriiischen Punkta-
tion," in Stade's "Zeitschrift," xxi. 273 et seq.) as.
well as in some Hebrew poems published by Levias
in the " Am. Jour. Semit. Lang." xv. 157 et seq. The
vowel-points of this system have the following forms :

kamez, 3 ; patah, 3 ; holem, 3 ; shurek, X ; zere, K ; and
hirek.x. To these may be added as a seventh vowel-
point the 3, which corresponds to the Tiberian segol
and is also used for the vocal shewa. This note-
worthy form of Babylonian punctuation agrees
with the Tiberian in the seventh vowel and in the
point for the patah, while it harmonizes with both
the principal types of the Babylonian system in
that the points are above the letters. The vowel-
points themselves, however, are absolutely dilTerent
from those of the first two forms, whose sign for the
holem denotes hirek in the third system, while their
shurek sign is used to represent kamez, and their
zere, shurek (for further details see Friedlander and
kahle. I.e.). The existence of this third form of
supralinear punctuation is especially interesting as
showing that repeated efforts were made to fix in
writing the vowel pronunciation of the text of the Bi-
ble. Of these three .systems only the first survived
for any length of time, and, as already noted, it
was employed as late as the seventeenth century
not only in manuscripts of the Bible and the Targum,
but also in writing poetry (see "Berliner Fest-
schrift," pp. 18, 30). It was most fortunate and
important for the development of a grammatical
knowledge of Hebrew that the Babylonian system
of punctuation, already existing in divergent forms,
was superseded by the Tiberian, which attained un-
disputed supremacy.

The Tiberian System: This contains seven
vowel-points, the segol being added to the Baby-
lonian systeiu. Its inventors, proceeding partly on
the basis of a divergent pronunciation of the vowels,
confined the dilTerent cases in which there had been
applied in the Babylonian system the patah, the zere,
or the hirek to a single vowel, which was a shading

•g

It.

'h
lie

of the patah to "ft" or "6." inventing for tbU ibe
vowel-point — . This, like the
the holem, was written under lli.
it. ?ere and hirek had the same pojnw (~
as in the supralinear punetuulion. wl ' '
for kamez and patah ( t~, ^ ) w.
only abbreviations of tlio Babylonian BigUH
lem was written with a single point i; •
two as in the Babylonian system,
sluirek was written plene with "waw." it wuh des-
ignated, as in liie complicuted Baljvlonian Kystcm.
by a point witliin the"waw," or.' if the " waw "
was lacking, by a point between two otljers wlijch
were arranged obliquely (~~). To indiculc the
semi-vowel (vocal sliewa), and at the same timn to
designate tliat a cr)ns()nant whs vowel nt

shewa), two points one above the other .. .; . m-
ployed CD, with wliich the segol or shewa of the
third system of supralinear punctuation (__) may
be compared. To give the exact pronunciation of the
shewa with gutturals, one of the three vowcl-poinUi
for kamez, patah, and segol was employed in com-
bination, thus giving rise to the signs ~t ~, "=7~, ~.
The Tiberian system adds to these vowel-points
the signs for dagcsh (3) and rafe (3), which are
of much importance in the rules for vocaliza-
tion. This system, as has been noted above, al-
though developed by the Masf)retic school of Tjl)e-
rias, is Bab3'lonian in origin, and it may be assumed
that it became localized at Tiberias by Babylonian
Masorites who settled there (see Bacher, " Die An-
fjlnge der Hebriiischen (Jrammatik," pp. 15. 19;
Steinschneider, "Vorlesungeu Qber die Kundc He-
braischer Handschriften," p. 12).

The names of the seven vowels or of their points
as given in the Tiberian system are first found com-
plete in Saadia (commentary on the "Sefer Ye?irah."
ed. Amsterdam, p. 42), and areas follows: "kamc?,'*
"patah," "holem," "segol," "hirek," "?erc." and
"shurek." With the exception of "segol," the
Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew "eshkol" (clus-
ter of grapes, .so called because of the shape of the
vowel-point ~T), these words are properly to be
read as substantives of the segolate class: "^emp?.*
"petah" "helem." "hercljL." "?eri." and "shcrclic."

With the older grammarians the

Names names of the vowels still have their

of Vowels, original form ; but later the tendency

to introduce the sound of each vowel
into its name led to the linguistic monstrosities which
are still current, and in which tl • " .ble of

the name of the vowel is pre: li the

vowel sound it designates. The names of the vowels,
again, with the exception of the segol. r. ' - ' "he
S()un(ls themselves, and not to the sIl ;ig

older than the latter and traceable to the instruc-
tion which traclurs gave their pupilsat a • ■ rly
period to impress upon them the correct ; a-

tion. Thus, to distinguish betwten the two "a"
vowels, one shading into "o." ami the other preserv-
ing the pure "a' sound, pujuls w.tp instructetl to
"round the mouth" (hence "keni' '-n

the mouth "(hence" peUib": ori:. .U A-

ing to a Masoretic note. " miftah puma " ; see further
Bacher. I.e. pp. 15-17). At a very early : '''«

holem was called al!=" '!"■ ' fuln. -s ..f tl. n "

Punctuation

Purchase Under Mistake

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

272

("melo fuiii''), and the sbiirek the " rounding of the
mouth" ("kiljbuz fum," from which "iiubbuz," the
later name for " u." was derived). It was not until
the fifteenth century that the term "melo fum"
was introduced as a name for thesliurek (see Nestle
and Bather in "Z. D. M. G." Iviii). The seven
vowels of the Tiberiau system were called "the
seven kings" by Ben Asher (I.e. p. 34), as determin-
ing the forms of speech ; and this designation was
retained even by the grammarians, theshewa, which
Ben Asher regarded as an eighth vowel, being
added.

After Hebrew grammar had been placed on a scien-
tific basis by Judah Ilayyuj and his school, the theory
of the vowels and their number was essentially modi-
fied. A knowledge of Latin grammar led Josepli
Kimhi (see his "Sefer Zikkarou." ed. Bachcr, p. 17)
to disttnguish long and short vowels in Hebrew and
thus to introduce the factor of quantity into the
theory of the vowels. He thus postulated ten
vowels, dividing kamez into two, a short (desig-
nated as the short vowel of holem) and a long one
(with patah as its short vowel). He likewise di-
vided tlie hirek into two vowels (I, I), and tlie shurek
into two (a, u), while he regarded segol as a short
vowel (e) and zere as long (e). This innovation,
which its author's sons, Moses and David Kimhi,
introduced into their grammars, gradually attained
supremacy' in the presentation of the teaching of
the Tiberian school. Since the punctuation was not
altered, however, there was a continual discrepancy
between theold system of "the seven kings," which
regarded merelv the quality of the vowels, and the
new system of five long vowels and five short, this
incongruity leading to confusion even in grammat-
ical literature.

Punctuation, the most important product of the
activity of the Masorites of the early geonic period,
itself became an object of their studies; so that the

determination of vocalization and its

Masoretic variations formed the basis of a con-

Punc- troversy between Ben Asher and Ben

tuation. Naphtali, who may be termed the last

Masorites in tlie strict sense of the
word. When the reading of the Biblical te.xt with
the help of points to indicate vowels and accents
bad once been fi.xed in writing, it became all-impor-
tant to add these points accurately and correctly to
the consonantal manuscripts of the Bible. Punctu-
ation thus became a learned profession, even though
the "punctuators" ("nakdanim "), who fiourished
especially in Germany, France, and England, are not
mentioned by this title before the twelfth century.
In the establishment of their rules, on which some
of them wrote special treatises, the best known be-
ing the "Sefer ha-Nikkud " of ]\Ioses ha-Nakdan.
the nakdanim made frequent use of the writings
of the grammarians (see Steinschneider, I.e. p.
15; Zunz, "Z. G." pp. 107 et seq. ; and N.akdani.m).
Hebrew grammatical science is Imsed upon the Maso-
retic punctuation and its rules. The "nikkud " (a
term first found in Ben Asher; Bacher, I.e. p. 26)
brought together tlie mo.st important material for a
knowledge of the Hebrew language; and it may
even be said that in tlie Masoretic punctuation, and
the phonology and morphology which it established, |

the whole of Hebrew grammar was implied. The
first Hebrew grammarian known, Saadia, wrote a
work on "nikkud," although this is known only
from a citation (in Raslii on Ps. xlv. 10), and Ju-
dah Hayyuj also wrote a "Kitab al-Tankit," or
" Book of Punctuation," containing rules for vowels
and accents, and dev(>ting itself particularly to
the segolate nouns. iVIore closely related to the real
teachings of the Masorites is the "Introduction for
the Reader of the Bible," written by another gram-
marian of the Spanish golden age, Judah ibn Ba-
laam. The theory of vowels and accents, however,
is treated by the older Hebrew grammarians only in
passing, or even receives no special notice at all,
since they considered this subject as the special
property of the Masorah; nor was it until centuries
later that this portion of Hebrew grammar became
an integral part of the science under the name of
"nikkud."

Punctuation, originallv confined to the te.xt of the
Bil)le, was used also for other works of Jewish liter-
ature in so far as the}' were written with Hebrew
letters. It was therefore employed
Applica- not only in Hebrew and Aramaic
tion. books, especially the liturgical and
poetical works as well as copies of the
Mislmah and the Targum, but also in compositions
in other languages. Thus it is that the Juda?o-Ger-
man books of modern times are made more clear by
pointing, although the vowels are usually desig-
nated by the vowel-letters. In like manner recent
Judteo-Persian books, which are almost exclu-
sively popular in character, are, nearly without ex-
ception, punctuated, and this is also true of a great
portion of Juda;o-Persian manuscripts. On the
punctuation of Arabic texts among the Jews of
Yemen see "Berliner-Festschrift," pp. 12-16.

The oldest statement regarding the supremacy of
Tiberian punctuation over Babylonian is found in a
manuscript of the Pentateuch (Codex De Kossi No.
12), which states that the Targum in this codex (or
in its original) was copied from one brought from
Babylonia, which was "punctuated above with the
nikkud of the land of Asshur," this being changed
by the copyist to the Tiberian system (Zunz, "Z.
G." p. lioi Luzzatto, in"Halikot Kedem," 1847,
p. 24), while a similar transcription forms the basis
of the Sabbionetta edition of the Targum Oukelos
of 1557 (see Berliner, "Targum Onkelos," ii. 187 et
seq.). A noteworth}' passage is found in the Mah-
zor Vitry (introduction to Abot, ed. Hurwitz, p.
462): "The Tiberian punctuation is not like ours,
and neither is it like that of the land of Israel."
This statement is luiintelligible, unless it be as-
sumed that its author was a Babylonian .scholar,
who designated the Babylonian vowel-pointing as
"ours" ("niijkud she-lanu "), while "punctuation
of Palestine," which dilfered from that of Tiberias,
may denote the third form of supralinear punctua-
tion (see Friedlander in "Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch."
1891, pp. 86-98; comp. Kahle, ^.c. xxi. 275). These
forgotten statements first became known to Jewish
.science in the fifth decade of the nineteenth century,
and at the same time, after centuries of oblivion,
specimens of this method of vowel-pointing were
brought to light, being first published in the He-

273

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Punctuation

Purchase Under Miatak*

brew journal "Ziyyon" (1841, i. 152). The lirst
tliorougli account of this system of punctuation was
given in 1869 in Pinsker's Hebrew "Introduction to
the Babylonian-Hebrew Systems of Vowel INiiiit-
iiig," where its complicated form is described on the
basis of the codex of the Prophets dating from 91G.
Since the eighth decade of the nineteenth century a
large number of manuscripts brought from southern
Arabia to Europe have furnished abundant data re-
garding the simple variety of the supraliuear punc-
tuation. See Voc.sMZATiON.

BIRLIOGKAPIIY : In afidition to the works rited In the body of
this article see the bibliofrraphy of Vocalization.
T. ^^ • 1^-

PUNISHMENT : It has been shown in the arti-
cles Cai'it.vi- Punishment, Chime, Homicide, and
Stkipes that a court may inflict for the violation
of one of the prohibitive laws a sentence of: (1)
death in one of four dillereut forms; (2) exile to one
of the cities of refuge in the case of involuntary
manslaughter; (3) stripes, not to exceed forty; in
practise thirty-nine or less. In Jew. Encvc. iv.
358b, s.v. Chime, some rather irregular punishments
have been referred to. The offenses against prop-
erty, such as theft, the fraudulent conversion of a de-
posit, embezzlement, robbery (see Bailments; Em-
bezzlement ; RoBBEKV ; Theft), are puni.shed only
by the exaction of more than the value of the thing
taken, the excess going to the injured party, and
thus differing from a true fine or forfeiture to the
community. The housebreaker is liable to be slain
with impunit}-.

A tine in the modern sense is unknown to Scrip-
ture, unless the guilt-offering discussed in Lev. v.
can be considered in that light. The
Fines. payment of one hundred shekels
by a husband who has falsely ac-
cused his newly wedded wife, under the provision
in Deuteronomy goes to the wife's father; the
" bridal price " (" mohar ") for seducing a virgin and
the mulct of fifty shekels for ravishing one go to
the girl's father.

So much for the repressive measures of the Mo-
saic law. But when the power to deal with crime in
the regular way was slipping away from the Jewish
courts, the sages contrived the lesser and the greater
Excommunication, called by them "niddui" and
"herem," to maintain the control of the community
over its backsliding or refractory members. They
laid down also the dangerous doctrine that in an
emergency steps may l)e taken to keep down ex-
cesses (niviS. ilie German " Ausgelassenheit ").
steps which are allowable only "for the hour"
and can not be drawn into precedent. The doctrine
was broached in a baraita by R. Eliezer ben Jacob
(Sanh. 46a) :

" I have heard [i.r., I have the tradition from my teachers]

that a court mav wliip or otherwise punish where this can not ite

done according to the Torati, not indeed to transpress the words

of the Torah, but in order to make a fence

Cases of around it. So it wiis done to one who at the

Emergency, time of the Greeks [i.e.. during the war against

Antiochus] wiis found riding on the Sabbath ;

they brought him before the court and [under its orders] stoned

him to death-not because he was guilty of any capital offense,

but because the hour made it necessary ; and again there \vas a

man who had cohabited with his wife under a llg-tree [i.e..

in public and in open day] and was whipped [received forty

stripes] for it."

X.— 18

It may be remarked tliat as early us the MishnaU
(.see Naz. iv. 3) a " beating for disobedienoe " (" inuk
kat mardut") was pre.scrihi-tl in a ca.sL- in which uo
Biblical proiiibition was actually vinlatt-d, tliough
there was an intent to conimil sucli vlulutioM. The
case is that, of a woman who, not knowing that her
husband has dissolved her Nu/.arite vow. but lie-
lieving herself to be still bound by It, lius drunk
wine or touched the dead. The same i»Uru8e. " mak-
kat manliit," is used in nearly the same sense and
application in the Talmud (Kel. 451) ct al.).

Reference is also made to the act of Simoon ben
Shetah, the head of the Phariside : he

reign of Alexander Jannaiis; he • rt

of court martial, eighty women gnilly of rioting at
Ashkelon to be i)ut to death in one day.

When the Jews came to live in exile, and. by
the doctrine that only "ordained judges" can in-
flict Scriptural punishment, were prevented from
enforcing, under regular legal forms, any discipline
against lawbreakers even though the Gentile gov-
ernment might give them ample autonomy for the
purpose, they had to resort to the principle tliat an
emergencj' overrides and supjilants the written law.
This principle is expressed by Maimonides(" Yud,"
Sanhedrin, xxiv.), by Jacob ben Aslier in his Arba'
Tiuim, and again in the Shulhan 'Aruk, Hoshen
Mishpat, § 2, substantially in the words of the fore-
going baraita; and the codifiers add the important
clause that if the defendant be "defiant and power-
ful " ("allim ") they may work out his punishment
through the power of the Gentile authorities. This
]irocedure is justified under the Mishnah (Git. 'X.
8): "A bill of divorcement, written under compul-
sion of Israel [a Jewish court], is valid; under com-
pulsion of Gentiles, it is invalid; but if Gentiles use
force, saying [to the husband],' Do what the Israelites
demand,' it is valid." The codifiers seek to miti-
gate these dangerous rules by declaring: "All these
things must be for Gods greater glory ["le-shein
shamayim"], and must be directed by tlie foremost
men of the age, or at least by the best men in the
community." Maimonides, in his zeal to stem a flfKxi
of heresy and apostasy, goes further than Joseph
Caro: he names among the measures of repression
imprisomueut in a very harsh form.

ReMA, in his gloss upon Hoshen Mishpat, s; 2.

gives a practical hint : " It has become customary in

many places that where a man has

Fines done a thing for which under the

Instead of Mosaic law he ought to receive forty

Stripes. stripes, he is called upon to pay forty

florins." Here is foiuid at last a true

fine and a penalty easy of enforcement. As Iherc

is no injured party to whom tlie forty florins ("ze-

hubim") can be paid, they must nee<ls go into the

coffers of the community See also Finks and

Forfeiture.

E. c. '• *^

PUPILS AND TEACHERS. Sec Peda-

GOliK'S.

PURCHASE AND SALE. S.c Salk.

PURCHASE UNDER MISTAKE.
Fhaui> am> Mistake.

Pur^tory
Purun

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

274:

PURGATORY : An intermediate state through
which souls arc to pass in order to be purified from
sin before they are admitted into the heavenly para-
dise. The belief in purgatory, fundamental with
the Roman Catholic Church, is based by the Church
authorities chiefly upon II Mace. xii. 44-45: "If he
[Judas] had not hoped that they that were slain
should have risen again it had been superfluous and
vain to pray for the dead. . . . Whereupon he
made an atonement that thej' might be delivered
from sin"; for this indicates that souls after death
pass through an intermediate state in which they
may by some intercession be sjived from doom. The
same view, that an atonement should be made for
the dead, is expressed in Sifre, Deut. 210. The
idea of an intermediate state of the soul, release
from which may be obtained by intercession of the
saints, is clearly dwelt upon in the Testament of
Abmham, Recension A, xiv., where the description
is given of a soul which, because its good and its evil
deeds are equal, has to undergo the process of puri-
fication while remaining in a middle state, and on
whose behalf Abraham intercedes, the angels join-
ing him in his prayer, whereupon the soul is ad-
mitted into paradise.

The view of purgatory is still more clearly ex-
pressed in rabbinical passages, as in the teaching of
the Shammaites: "In the last judgment day there
shall be three classes of souls: the

Rabbinic righteous shall at once be written

Views. down for the life everlasting; the
wicked, for Gehenna; but those whose
virtues and sins counterbalance one another shall
go down to Gehenna and float up and down until
they rise purified; for of them it is said: '1 will
bring the third part into the tire and refine them as
silver is refined, and try them as gold is tried' [Zech.
xiii. 9] ; also, ' He [the Lord] bringeth down to
Sheol and bringeth up again' " (I Sam. ii. 6). The
Hillelites seem to have had no purgatory; for
they said: "He who is ' plenteous in mercy ' [Ex,
xxxiv. 6] inclines the balance toward mercy, and
consequently the intermediates do not descend into
Gehenna "(Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 3; R. H. 16b; Bacher,
"Ag. Tan." i. 18). Still they also speak of an inter-
mediate state.

Regarding the time which purgatory lasts, the
accepted opinion of R. Akiba is twelve months ; ac-
cording to R. Johanan b. Nuri, it is only forty-nine
days. Both opinions are based upon Isa. Ixvi. 23-
24': "From one new moon to another and from one
Sabbath to another shall all flesh come to worship
before Me, and they shall go forth and look upon
the carcas.ses of the men that have transgressed
against Me; for their worm shall not die, neither
shall their fire be quenched "; the former interpret-
ing the words "from one new moon to another" to
signify all the months of a year; the latter inter-
preting the words "from one Sabbath to another,"
in accordance with Lev. xxiii. 15-10, to signify
seven weeks. During the twelve months, declares
the baraita (Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 4-5; R. H. 16b), the
souls of the wicked are judged, and after these
L ''elve months are over they are consumed and
transformed into ashes under the feet of the right-
eous (according to Mul. iii. 21 [A. V. iv. 3]), where-

as the great seducers and blasphemers are to under-
go eternal tortures in Gehenna without cessation
(according to Isa. Ixvi. 24).

The righteous, however, and, according to some,
also the sinners among the people of Israel for whom
Abraham intercedes because they bear the Abra-
hamic sign of the covenant are not harmed by the
fire of Gehenna even when they are required to
pass through the intermediate state of purgatory
(■Er. 19b; Hag. 27a).

The idea of the purging fire through which the
soul has to pass is found in the Zend-Avesta (" Bun-
dahis," XXX. 20): "All men will pass into the melted
metal and become pure; to the right-
History eous it will seem as though he walks
of through warm milk " (comp. Enoch,

Purgatory. Hi. 6-7, Ixvii. 6-7). The Church Fa-
thers developed the idea of the "ignis
purgatorius" into a dogma according to which all
souls, including tliose of the righteous who remain
unscathed, have to pass the purgatory (Origen on
Ps. xxxvii.. Homily 3; Lactantius, " Divinaj Insti-
tutiones," vii. 21, 4-7; Jerome on Ps. cxviii.. Ser-
mon 20; Commodianus, "Instrucliones," ii. 2, 9)r
hence prayers and olTerings for the souls in purga-
tory were instituted (Terlullian, "De Corona Mili-
tis,"3-4; "De Monogamia," 10; "Exhortatio Cas-
titatis,"ll; Augustine, "Enchiridion ad Lauram,"
67-69, 109; Gregory I., " Dialogi," iv. 57). Hence
also arose in the Church the mass for the dead cor-
responding in the Synagogue to the Kaddish (see
Kaduish).

Bibliography: Boeklen, Die Verwnndt.<chaft der JUdisrh-
Chriittliclien mit der Fersischen Exchatolnijic, 19()2, pp. 118-
12,5; Atzberjrpp, Die ClirUitUcbe Bsc/mtoio^/ie, 189(1. pp. 99
et sa/.. 163, 275 ; Herzojf-Hauek, Iteal^Encyc. s.v. Fcgcfeuer;
McCllntock and Strong, Cyc. s.v.

PURIFICATION. See Taharah.

PURIM : Jewish feast celebrated annually on the
14tii, and in Shushan, Persia, also on the 15th, of
Adar, in commemoration of the deliverance of the
Persian Jews from the plot of Ilaman to exterminate
them, as recorded in the Book of Esther. Accord-
ing to that book the feast was instituted as a na-
tional one by Mordecai and Esther. For a critical
view of Purim see Esther. In the present article
are treated only the various features of the feast as
developed after its institution.

Aside from the much-mooted question whether
Purim is of Jewish or of heathen origin, it is certain
that, as it appears in the Book of Esther, the festi-
val is altogether devoid of religious
Non- spirit — an anomaly in Jewisii religious
Religious history. This is due to the worldly
Character, spirit of the Book of Esther. The only
religious allusions therein are the men-
tion of fasting in iv. 16 and ix. 31, and i)erhap3
the expression of confidence in the deliverance of
Israel in iv. 14. This secular character has on the
whole been most prominent in this festival at all
times. Like Hanukkah, it has never been univer-
sally considered a religious holy day, in spite of the
fact that it is designated by the term "yom-tob"
(Esth. ix. 19, 22). Accordingly business transac-
tions and even manual labor are allowed on Purim,
although in certain places restrictions have been

275

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Purgatory
Purim

imposed on work (Shulhan 'Aruk, Orali Hayyiin,
696).

Nevertheless Purim has been held in hlgli esteem
at all times and in all countrii's, some oven main-
taining that -when all the prophetical and hagio-
graphical works shall be forgotten the Book of
Esther will still be remembered, and, accordingly,
the Feast of Purim will continue to be observed
(Yer. Meg. i.5a; Maimonides, "Yad," Megillah, iii.
18; comp. Scliudt, ".li'iilisclie Mcrkwlirdigkeiten,"
ii. 311). It is also claimed that J'urim is as great as
the day on which the Torah was given on Sinai
(" Mordekai " on
B. M. ix., end;
comp. Lampron-
ti, "Pal.iad Yiz-
hak," s.r. "Pu-
rim "). In Italy
the Jews, it
seems, have
even used the
word " Purim "
as a f a m { 1 y
name, which
also proves the
high esteem that
the festival en-
j o y s among
ihen\ (Vogel-
stein and Rieger,
"Gesch. der Ju-
<len in Rom," ii.
420; but comp.
Steinschneider
in " ]\I 0 n a t s -
schrift,'' 1903,
p. 175).

The Book of
Esther does not
prescribe any re-
ligious service
for Purim; it en-
joins onl}'' the
annual celebra-
tion of tiie feast
among the Jews
on the 14th and
15t]i of Adar,
c o m m and in g
that they should
" m a k e the m
days of feasting
and joy, and of

sending portions one to anotlier, and gifts to the
poor." It seems, therefore, that the observance of
Purim was at first merely of a convivial and social
nature. Gradually it assumed religious features.

The first religious ceremony cu'dained for the cel-
ebration of Purim is the reading of the Book of
Esther in the synagogue, a regulation
Reading- of ascribed in the Talmud (Meg. 2a) to
the tiie "Jlen of the Great Synod," of

Megillah, which Mordecai is reported to have
been a member. Originally this enact-
ment was for the 14th of Adar only ; later, however,
R. Joshua b. Levi (3d cent.) prescribed that the Me-

Purim Players.

(From LcuaJcn, " rli'ln]o(;us llebroio-Miilus," 1C57.)

gillali should be read on tlie eve of Purim also.
Further, lie ol)liged women to attend the reading
of the Megillah, inasmuch as it was a woman. Queen
Esther, tlirough whom tlie miraculous deliverance
of tiie Jews was accomplished (Meg. 4a: see, how-
ever, Yer. Meg. ii. 5. where this law is nporlcd
in the name of Bar Kappara; comp. " R. E. J."
x.x.xii. 42).

In the Mishnah there is a dilTeronce of opinion as
to how mucii of the Megillali one must read in order
to discharge one's duty. According to R. Judali.
the portion from ii. 5 to tlie end suffices; others

considered tlie
portion from iii.
1, or even from
vi. 1, to the end
sullicienl ; while
R. MeYr de-
m a n d e d the
reading of the
entire scroll, and
his view was a<-
cepted in the
Talmud (Meg.
19a). In some
congregations it
was customary
to read the tirst
portion of the
Megillah, i.-vl.,
at the "outgoing
of the first Sab-
bath" iu Adar
and the rest on
the outgoing of
the second Sab-
bath of that
month. In other
places the whole
Megillah was
read on the out-
going of the
secon<l Sabbath
(Soferim .xiv.
18). In some
places it was
read on the Mth
of Adar also (if>.
x.vi. 8), fur ex-
ample, at Tyre
(comp. Zunz ,
"Riius." p. 56).
According to
the Mishnah, the " villagers "' wire pt-rmitted for
the sake of convenience to read the Migillah on the
^Monday or Thursday of the Purim week, on which
days they came to the towns for divine service.

In the Mishnah the recitation of a benediction
either before or after the reading of tlie Megillah is
not yet a universjilly recogni/ed obligation. The
Talmud, however, presciilxd three benedictions be-
tVue and one after the reading (comi>. Meg. 2lb;
Yer. Meg. iv. 1; Mas.seket Scjferim xiv. 5. 6. where
the formulas for the closing benediction difTer;
comp. al-so Shulhan "Aruk. (»rah Hayyim, 692. 1).
The Talmud added other provisions also iu connec-

Purim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

278

tion with the reading of the Megillali. For example,
the reader was to pronounce the names of the ten
sons of Haman (Esth. ix. 7-10) in one breath, to in-
dicate their simultaneous death (Meg. 16b; Orah
Hayyim, 690, 15). Tlie congregation was to recite
aloud with the reader the verses ii. 5, viii. 15-16,

" Haman Klopfers" Used on Purim Feast by Jewish Children
of Russia.

(From " Glubus.*')

and X. 3, which relate the origin of Mordccai and
his triumph (Abudarham, ed. Amsterdam, 1726, p.
76; Orah Hayyim. /.<■.). This rule is of geonic ori-
gin (see Brlick, " Pharisiiisclie Volkssitteu," p. 158).
Saadia Gaon demanded that only the first two verses
of the four mentioned above l)e read aloud; and
this was the custom in .Spain (Abudarham, I.e.).

The Megillah is read with a traditional chant dif-
fering from that used in tlie reading of the pericopcs
of the Pentateuch. In some places, however, it is
not chanted, but is read like a letter,
The because of the name "iggeret" (opis-

Megillah— tie) which is applied (Esth. ix. 26. 29)
How Read, to the Book of Esther (comp. Judali
'Ayyasli, "Bet Yehiidah," No. 23,
Leghorn, 1747). For tlie same reason it has been
also customary since the time of the Geonim to unroll
the whole Megillah before reading it, in order to
give it the appearance of an epistle (Orah Hayyim,
690. 17; comp. Brlick, l.r. p. 1.59).

Finally, it is to be mentioned that the Megillah
may be read in any language intelligible to the audi-
ence. In Hebrew and also in Greek it may l)e read
even when not understood (Meg. 18a; Orah Hay-
jim, 690, 8-12; see, however, Soferim xxi. 8, where
it is saiil that all Israel is in duty bound to read the
IMegilhih in Hebrew). In Saragossa the ]\Iegillah
was read in Spanish, a practi.sc against which Isaac
ben Sheshet (Responsa, Nos. 388-391) and Nissim
Gerondi protested (see GrUtz. "Gesch." viii. 35;

Abrahams, '"Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," pp.
345 et seq. ; Steinschneider, in " Monatsschrift," 1903,
p. 178). Talking during the public recitation was
prohibited (Orah Hayyim, 692. 2). According to
the Mishnah (Meg. 30b), in addition to the Megillah
Ex. xvii. 8-16, the story of the attack on the Jews
b}' Amalek, the progenitor of Haman, is to be read.

Purim gave rise to many religious compositions,
some of which were incorporated into the liturgy.
For the large number of hynms intended for the
public service as well as other writings (dramas,
plays, etc.) intended for general edification, both in
Hebrew and in other languages, see the exhaustive
study by M. Steinschneider, "Purim und Parodic,"
in "Monatsschrift," xlvi.-xlviii.. Index, especially
xlvi. 279 (t seq., 372 et seq. ; for Karailic rites see ib.
pp. 373 et seq.

As pointed out above, the Book of Estlier pre-
scribed "the sending of portions one to another, and
gifts to the poor." This became in the course of
time one of the most prominent features of the cele-
bration of Purim. Jews sent gifts of food, espe-
cially dainties, to one another; and the
Social poor were made recipients of charity.
Customs. In the sj'nagogue, too, regular collec-
tions were made on the festival, and
the monej' so procured was distributed among the
needy. No distinction was to be made among the
poor ; any one who was willing to accept, even a non-
Jew, was to be allowed to participate (Orah Hay-
yim, 694). It was obligatory gpon the poorest Jew,
even on one who was himself dependent on charity,
to give toother poor — at least to two {ih.). In some
congregations it is customary to ])lace a box ("knp-
pah ") in the vesti-
bule of the syna-
gogue into which
every one may put
the half of the unit
coin ("niahazit ha-
shekel ") of the coun-
try, corresponding to
the half-shekel which
had been given to the
Temple in Adar (ih.).
The general provision
is for eveiy one to
give three halves ; but
some give according
to the number of
persons in the fam-
ily (comp. Jehiel Ep-
stein, "Kizzur Sliene
Luliot ha-Berit," p.
105b. Amsterdam,
1701). The amount
of money thus dis-
tributed on Purim by
wealthy members of
the community often reached very huge sums (see
Steinschneider, l.r. xlvi. 180 et seq.). Dedications
of works appear among the various forms of Pu-
rim presents {ih. and xlvii. 174 ct seq., Nos. 5,
7, 19).

The national rather than tl)e religious character
of the festival made it ajipear appropriate to cele-

Purim Players at Prague. Early
Eighteenth Century.

(From n c»>iilt'mpor.iry ilrawinj;.)

277

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Purlm

brate the occasion by feasting. Hence it was the
rule to have at least one festive meal, called "se'udat

Purim," toward the eveuiiiir of the
Feasting. Htli (Meg. 7b; Oiah llayyiin, CJo, 1).

In this connection it may be mentioned
that for the celebration of Purini there developed
among the Jews a special kind of baking. Cakes
were shaped into certain forms and were given
names having some symbolic bearing on the histor-
icc'l events of Purim. Thus the Jews of Germany
eat "Hamantaschen" and "Hamanohren" (in Italy,
"orrechi d'Aman"), " Kreppchen,"" " Kindchen,"ctc.
(comp. ISteinschneider, I.e. xlvii. 177, 360 et seq.).
The jovial character of tlie feast was forcibly illus-
trated in the saying of the Talmud (Meg. 7b) that
one should drink on Purim until he can no longer
distinguish " Cursed be Ilaman " from '* Blessed be
Mordecai," a saying which was codified in the Shul-
han "Aruk (//'.), but whicli was hiter ingeniously

186), even liaii.Ngreasions of a Biblical law, such as
the appearance of men in women's attire and vice
versa, which is strictly proliiljite<l in Deut. .x.\ii. 5.
This went so far that if through exuberance of
spirits a man inllicted damage on the jiroperty of
another on I'uiiui he was not compelled to repair
it (Orah Hayyim, / <• ainl tin- nfcreuces Ihtrc
given).

One of the strangest spctics of nurrymaking was

the custom of ma.S(iuerading, which was tirsl iiitio-

duced among the Italian Jews about the close of the

fifteenth century under the influence of the Roman

carnival. From Italy this custom spread over all

countries where Jews lived, except

Masquer- i)erhai)S the Orient (Stcinsthneider, I.e.

ading. p. 1«1 ; .\lvii. 4(59, No. 9). The first

among Jewish authors to mention this

custom is Judah Minz (d. l.'JOM at Venice) in his Hc-

sponsa, No. 17, (pioted l)y IsserU-s on Orah Hayyim,

OBSEIIVA.NXE OF PUKI.M IN A GKKMAX SY-NAGOGfE OF TIIK ElGHTEE.NTH CKSTURY.
(From BodeDSi'hsti, " Kirchliche VtrfassunR," n4S.)

explained as referring to the letters occurring in the
sentences pH IIIX and "DTlD 'Xr\1, in each of which
the numerical value of the letters amoimts to 502
(comp. Abudarham, I.e. ; Lewin, "Gesch. der Juden
in Lissa," p. 212, Pinne, 1904). While the Jews
have always been noted for abstemiousness in the
use of intoxicants, drunkenness was licensed, so to
speak, on Purini, to comply with the counnand
which seemed to lie in the Biblical term "mishteh"
(drink) applied to Purim (Abudarham, ^<;.). It is,
therefore, not surprising that all kinds of merry-
making, often verging on frivolity, have been in-
dulged in on Purim, so that among the masses it
has become almost a general rule that "on Purim
everything is allowed " (comp. Steinschneider. I.e. p.

696, 8. lie expresses the opinion that, since the
purpose of the masquerade is only merrymaking, it
should not be considered a transgres.Mon of the Bib-
lical law regarding dress. Although .some rigorous
authorities i.ssued prohibitions against this cu.stoni
(comp. Isaiah Horowitz, " Shene Lul.iot ha-Berit,"
261b, Amsterdam, 1G53), the jieople did not hetnl
them, and the more lenient view prevaih-d (comp.
I.sserl'es, I.e. , and Lampronii, I.e.). The custom still
obtains among the Orthodox Jews of the ea.Meni
parts of Europe. Boys and girls walk from hous«;
to house in grotesque masksaml indulge in all kinds
of jollity. As a rule. th< y sing some comic dog-
gerel, e'q., "heuf is Purim. morgcn is aus. gebt
mir a Kreuzer, und wcrft mich hinaus " ; and lliey

Purim
Purim Plays

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

278

are often given a few coins (comp. Stelnsclineider,
I.e. xlvi. 176, 182).

Puiim songs have even been introduced into tlie
synagogue. For the childien's sake certain verses

from the Book of Esther have been
Songs. sung in chorus on Purim (Abrahams,

I.e. p. 33). Indeed, Purim was an oc-
casion on which much joyous license was permitted
even within the walls of the synagogue itself. As
such may be reckoned the boisterous hissing, stamp-
ing, and rattling, during the public service, at the
mention of Hainan or his sons-, as well as the whis-
tling at ihe mention of Mordecai by the reader of the
Alegillah. This practise traces its origin to French
and German rabbis of the thirteenth century, who,
in accordance with a passage in the Midrash, where
the verse " Thou shalt blot out the remembrance of
Amalek " (Deut. xxv. 19) is explained to mean "even
from wood and stones," introduced the custom of
writing the name of Haman, the offspring of Ama-
lek, on two smooth stones and of knocking or rub-
bing them constantly until the name was blotted
out. Ultimately, however, the stones fell into dis-
use, the knocking alone remaining (Abudarham, I.e. ;

Bruck, I.e. ; see, however, L5w," Le-

Boisterous- bensalter," p. 297, also p. 291, No. 10).

ness in Some wrote the name of Haman on the

the Syna- soles of their shoes, and at the mention

gogue. of the name stamped with their feet

as a sign of contempt ; others used for
the same purpose a rattle — called " gregar " ( = Po-
lish, "grzegarz"), and producing much noise — a
custom which is still obser%'ed by the Russo-Polish
Jews. Some of the rabbis protested against these
uproarious excesses, considering them a sinful dis-
turbance of public worship (comp., for example,
Isaiah Horowitz, I.e. pp. 260a, 261a, below), but
often in vain (see Briick, I.e., and Zunz, "Ritus,"
p. 69).

Outside the synagogue the pranks indulged in on
Purim by both children and adults have been carried
even to a greater extreme. Some of them date from
the Talmudic period (see, e.(/., the tale in ^leg. 7b;
Sanh. 64b and Raslii ad loe.; comp. also '"Aruk,"
s.r. "niB', and Abudarham, I.e.). As early as the
fifth century (see Schudt, I.e. ii. 309), and especially
in the geonic period (9th and 10th cent.), it was a
custom to burn Ilaman in efligy on Purim. Tliis
is described in tJie " 'Aruk " ( /.c.)as follows: " Four
or five days before Purim the young men make an
effigy of Haman and hang it on the roof. On Puiim
itself they make a bonfire into which they cast tlic

effigy while the}' stand around joking

Burning and singing, at the same time holding

of Hainan's a ring above the fire and waving it

Effigy. from side to side through the fire"

(see Giii/.berg in "J. Q. H." xvi. 600 ;
Abudarham, I.e.; Briick, I.e.). In Italy tiie Jewish
children used to range themselves in rows, and pelt
one another with nuts; while the adults rode
through the streets witii fir-l)ranches in their hands,
shouted, or blew tnunpcts round a doll icpicscMtiiig
Haman and wliich was finally burned with due solem-
nity at the stake (Abrahams, t e. p. 260; and espe-
cially Giideniaini, "Gcsch." p. 211, Vienna. 1^84).
In Frankfort -nn-the-Main it was customary to make

a house of wax wherein the figures of Haman and his
executioner, al.so of wax, were placed side by side.
The whole was then put on the almemar, where
stood also the wax figures of Zeresh, the wife of
Haman, and two guards — one to her right and the
other to her left — all attired in a flimsy manner, and
with pipes in their mouths. As soon as the reader
began to read the Megillah the house with all its
occupants was set on fire to the enjoyment of the
spectators (comp. Schudt. I.e. ii. 309; S. Cassel,
" Juden," in Ersch and Gruber, "Encyc." section ii.,
part 27, pp. 78 et seq.).

It must be mentioned here that these customs
often aroused the wrath of Christian.s, who inter-
preted them as a disguised attempt to ridicule Jesus
and the cross and issued prohibitions against them;
e.,9., under the reign of Honorius (395-423) and of
Theodosius II. (408-450; comp. Schudt, I.e. ii. 309,
317, and Cassel, I.e.). Moreover, the Rabbis them-
selves, to avoid danger, tried to abolish the obnoxious
customs, often even calling the magistracy to their
aid, as in London in 1783 (see M.\ii.\m.\d).

Finally, it must be stated that the Fast of E.sther,
celebrated before Purim, on the 13th of Adar, is not
an original part of the latter, nor was it later insti-
tuted "in commemoration of the fasting of Esther,
Mordecai, and the people " (Hastings,
Fasting "Diet. Bible," i. 854, col. 2), since this
Before and fasting fell, according to rabbinical
After Pu- tradition, in the month of Nisan and
rim. lasted three days. Thefirst who men-

tions it is R. Aha of Shabha (8th
cent.) in "She'eltot," iv. ; and the reason there given
for its institution is based on an arbitrary interpre-
tation of Esth. ix. 18 and Meg. 2a, "The 13th was
the timeof gathering," which gathering is explained
to have had also the purpose of public prayer and
fasting (comp. Asheri on Meg. i., beginning; Abu-
darham, ^.r. p. 94; Briick, I.e. pp. 56 et seq.; and
Berliner, in "Kaufmann Gedeukbuch," p. 270,
Breslau, 1900). Some, however, used to fast three
days in commemoration of the fasting of Esther;
but as fasting was prohibited during the month
of Nisan (see Soferim xxi. 2) the first and second
Mondays and the Thursday following Purim were
chosen {ib. xvii. 4, xxi. 1; Orah Hayyim, 686,
3). The fast on the 13th is still commonly ob-
served; but when that date falls on a Sabbath the
fast is put back to Thursday, Friday being needed
to prepare for the Sabbath and the following Purim
festival (Al)udarham, I.e. p. 94b; Orah Hayyim, 686).
In leap-3'ears Purim is celebrated in the second
Adar, but l)y the Karaites in the first; the respect-
ive days of the first Adar being then called "Purim
Katan " (Little Purim), for which there have been
set forth certain observances similar
Purim Ka- to those for Purim proper, with the ex-
tan. cei)tion of reading the Megillah, send-
ing gifts to the poor, and fasting on
the 13th of the month. Tlie distinctions between
the first and the second Purim in leap-years arc
nuMitiniied in the Mishnah (Meg. i. 46b; comp. Orah
Hayyim, 697).

Bini.ior.UAPiiY : Abrahams. .Ttiri-ih Life in the Mifldte Agei^-
biilf X. s.v. Pniiiii ; Hcrlinpr, .1 i(.i(/((/i Lihni dcr DrutKcJifii
.liiihii iiii Mittrliillrr, p. ;52. HiTlin, 1!XH): M. Briick. I'hn.
7-isiiiM-hi: Viilhs.'<iUni. pp. -V;, l.Vi, Fraiikfurt-on-Uif-Mairi ;

279

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Purim
Purim Plays

Cheyne and Blark, Encyc. BihJ. s.v. FMher and Ptjrf m ;
Gratz. Gvsvh. lil. 171, vill. 3.5: Epstein, In Kaufmaun
Oedciiktiuch, pp. 313 ct i<c(j.; Giidemann, (icxcli.. iHM4, p.
211; Hastings, Diet. Bible, s.v. Esther and Purim ; J. 6.
II. xvi. (J.50 f( fieq.; Leopold Low, Die LeheimxUcr in der JU-
<li.-<che>i Littratur. pp.291. 2i)'>et wy., Szegedln, 1H75: I'erlcs,
In (iriitz J^dichcltrift. p.'^x Breslau, 1887; Schudt. JlU/ise/ic
Merkwllrdiokeiteu, part ii., pp. :W-317, Fnmkfort-on-tlie-
Main, 1714 ; Vopelstein and Rieger, GeKvh. dtr Judeii in
iJo»i. i. ;i37 ct seq.: Steinsclineider, F^iriin unil Punxlic, In
J/(>(i(tfs.vt7in'/<, -xlvl.-xlviii.; Zunz. Kifii.s, p. .iti ; and the arti-
cles Estiikr: Fasting and Fast-Days; Mahamad.
K. H. M.

PURIM PLAYS: Jewish folk-comcdics, writ-
ten lor perfornmnce in Jewish family circles or be-
fore a Jewish public durin? the month of Adar,
especially' on Purim. While in general a dramatic
performance was considered frivolous, an exception
was made with regard to Purim. Even in the Tal-
mud mention is made of certain spectacular enter-
tainments and buffooneries, which must liave been
very common on Purim (see Sanli. 641); Meg. 7b).

In geonic times the dramatization of the story of
Esther was a well-established custom among the
Jews of the Orient. The central figure of these
plays was a dummy representing Ila-
In Geonic man, which was burned while the
Times. spectators were jesting and singing.
Similar amusements are reported of
the Jews of other countries during the Middle Ages,
and they may be seen in some countries even to-
day (see PuuiM ; comp. Giidemann, " Gesch." iii. 211
etseq.; Low,"Lebensalter," p. 296). The real Purim
play, however, the Juda?o-German "Purimspiele,"
did not make its appearance until the first decade of
the eighteenth centur}-. There were, it is true, some
dramatic productions on the subject of the Book of
Esther and the Feast of Purim long before that
time, as the drama "Esther," by Solomon Usque
and Lazaro Gratiano(lo67) — the first Spanish drama
written by a Jew (comp. Kayserling, '• Sephardim,"
p. 141 ; Berliner, " Yesod '01am," p. xiii. ; Low, I.e.
p. 298) — and the " Comedia Famosa de Aman y Mor-
dechay " (Leyden, 1699), by an anonymous author,
probably the noted Spanish poet Antonio Enriquez
Gomez (comp. Kayserling, I.e. pp. 228, 350; Stein-
schneider, in "]\Ionatsschrift," xlvii. 170); but these
dramas were probably intended for the general
stage, since there is no record that they were ever
performed by the Jews.

According to information drawn from a satirical
poem written in Judfeo-German in 1598, it aj'tpears
that a Purim play entitled "Spil von Tab Jilklein
mit Sc'in Weib," etc., was acted "ever}' Purim "at
Tannhausen in the sixteenth century. No trace of
this play exists, and possibly it was never printed (see
Steinsclineider, I.e.). Therefore as the first Purim
plays intended for and actually performed on the
stage during the days of Purim must be considered
the two Judito-Gcrman dramas, if they really deserve
this name, described by Schudt in his "Judische
Merkwiirdigkeiten" (ii. 314-317). One of these
bears the title " Ahashwerosh-Spiel," and was pub-
lished anonymously at Frankfort-on-
The the-Main in 1708 (later reprinted in

Frankfort Schudt, I.e. ii. 202-226). A specimen
Plays. in English translation will be found in
Abrahams' "Jewish Life in the Mid-
dle Ages" (p. 265). This comed)' does not reveal
any literary value; its language is very often frivo-

lou.s and was justly criticize.l by Schudt (I.e. ii. 316).
and later by S. L. Ihipoport in ids Hebrew Purim
drama " She'erit Yehudah " (Vienna. 1827). Indeed,
the Jewish authorities at Frankfort-on-thc Main,
where it was performed several times, have forliid-
den its performance and confist:aled and burned all
obtainable copies (Schudt, I.e. ; Berliner, I.e. p. xv).

The other jilay, written by Uaermann of Lim-
burg, bears the title "Mekirat Yosef," its theme
being tlie story of Jose]ih and his brethren. It \mi«;
published at Frankfort by Lob Ginzlturg b<'fore 1711
(not, as Steinsclineider, following Wolf, says. I.e.
xlvii. 88, in 1712). Scliudt (I.e. ii. 314) reports that
all the copies of this first edition were burned in tin-
great conflagration of the Frankfort ghetto in 1711,
and that another edition was prepared there in 1713.
The matter is of some importance, as all the bibli-
ographers differ on that point (comp. Berliner,
I.e.). The play was published in a third edition by
Schudt {I.e. iii. 226-327), with a German translation.
It must have been performed at Frankfort and
Metz several years before 1711 (Schudt, I.e. ii. 314).
The actors in both places were Jewisli students of
Prague and Hamburg, with the above-mentioned
Baermann of Limburg as their theatrical manager.
The play excited great interest, and two soldiers
were required to keep back the crowd; but when
Christians also began to Hock to the play, the per-
formance was prohibited (Schudt, I.e.).

It should be said that this comedy, although on
the whole of no literary or artistic value, is far su-
perior to the "Ahashwerosh-Spiel," both in moral
tone and in diction. The only frivolous character
in this play is the clown named Pickelhilring (comp.
Schudt, I.e. iii. 305), who is not a Jewish iavention,
but is taken from the German drama (Abrahams. I.e.
p. 264). This comedy became very popular among
the Jews, and was performed in Minsk as late as
1858 (Steinschneider, I.e. xlvii. 88); probably it i.<»
still acted in eastern Europe.

In this connection should be mentioned a Purim
play which was performed at Frankfort, alternately
with the "^Mekirat Yosef." during the wluile month
of Adar, and whose subject was the story of David
and Goliath. This comedy is probably
The David identical with the one quoted by Stein-
and Schneider (I.e. xlvii. 87) under the title

Goliath "Aktion von KOuig David und Go-
Play. Hath" (n.d.. n.p.). If this is so. its
first jniblication should be placed be-
tween 1714 and 1719, as it had not yet been printe<i
when Schudt, who published his "Jndisclie Merk-
wiirdigkeiten " in 1714, reported its perfornmiuc (ii.
314). Another play which calls for special nu ntinn
is one in Juda?o-German, which was performed in
1720 at Prague, where it was published a I
(in the same year) under the title " Akt;i i
'Achascliwerosch " (later edition, Amsterdam. 1 1 14).
This comedy differs very favorably from tli ' =
described above, in both its dramatic com;
and ethical tendency (comp. Berliner. I.e.). <»n ilic
title-page of the play it is asserted that "it was
acted ar Prague in a regular theater, with trumpets
and other musical instruments" (comp. Hoest, "Cat.
Rosenthal. Bibl." i. 67 [Hebr. part. ii.. No. 171)).
The actors were all pupils of R. David OiTEN-

Purims, Special

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

280

HEiM of Prague, who gave bis couscnt to the per-
formance.

There is a considerable number of other Purim
plays, inchiding comedies and tragedies composed
iu Juda'o-German and other languages (among them
Hebrew and Arabic)and written during the hist two
centuries, of which a list is given b)' Steinschneider.
Of special interest is " Hainan, der Grosse Judeu-
fresser," by Jacob Koref (Breslau, 1862), to which
Lagarde ("Purim," pp. 56-57, Gottingen, 1887) has
given undue prominence.

Bibliography : Abrahams, Jewiah Life in the ^^i(Idle Aac>>,
cb. .\iv.; Berliner, .■lw.'< dein Lcben der Deiitscheii Juden,
pp. 32 et se<i., Berlin, 190(1; liiein, Yestnt'Ohiin, Introduction,
Berlin, 1874; Franz Delitzsch, Zur Gesch.der JlUlisclieii I'n-
exit', p. t>l ; >r. Grunbaiini, J Vid isch-Deutsvhe Litcr\ttur, in
Winter and Wunsclic, Die Jlldiftclie Litteratur, lii. 5%;
Kayserllng, Seijhardim, pp. 141, :i28, Leipsio, is.'i9 ; Low,
Lf}>e)i!^dtt)\ pp. :iyj et seq.; Scbiuit, JiUlixilie MirliXciinliu-
htitcrh ii. IU- et seij., iii. 2<ri-327, Frankfort-on-tbe-Main, 1714 ;
Steinschneider, Purim und Parodie, in Monatsschrift, xlvii.
84-^9, 169 et seq.

D. H. M.

PTJRIMS, SPECIAL : Certain fast- and feast-
days spicialiy ubscrved iu some Jewish communi-
ties, in imitation of the national Purim, to commem-
orate deliverance from some danger which threatened
either a whole community or an individual family.
At the celebration of these anniversaries a Hebrew
megillah (scroll), giving a detailed account of the
event commemorated, is read in the synagogue or
iu the family circle, certain special prayers are re-
cited, and business is suspended for the day. Quite
a number of such Purims are known, some of which
are enumerated here in alphabetical order.

D. M. Fh.

Purim of Abraham Danzig (called also Pul-
verpurim = " Powder Purim") : ^lemorial day estab-
lished for himself and his family by Abraham Dan-
zig, to be annually observed by fasting on the 15th
of Kislew and by feasting on tlie evening of the
same day in commemoration of the explosion of a
powder-magazine at Wilna iu 1804. By this acci-
dent thirty-one lives were lost and many houses
destroyed, among them the home of Abraham Dan-
zig, whose family and Abraham himself were all
severely wounded, but escaped death (see Dan-
zig, Abraham ben Jp:hiel). Danzig decreed that
on the evening following the 15th of Kislew a meal
should be prepared by his family to which Tal-
mudic scholars were to be invited, and alms should
be given to the poor. During the feast certain
psalms were to be read, and hymns were to be sung to
the Almighty for the miraculous escape from death.

BIKI.IOGRAPIIY : Abraham Danzig, Ilnmie Adam. R 1.5.5 ; idem,
Jiinat Adum, p. (>4, Wilna, 1S44; Steinschneider, Purim uud
Pannlii , in Miinat''s()irift. xlvii. 473.

Purim of Ancona: Celebrated by the Jews of
Ancona on the 21st of Tebet, and intended to pre-
serve the remembrance of severe earthquakes which
occurred in that city on the date in question (Dec.
29, 1600), threatening great disaster. The fea.st is
preceded by a fast on the 20th of Tel)et ; and special
prayers are ordained for l)oth days. An account of
the event is printed with the prayers in '"OrBoker"
(p. 47, Venice, 1709; comp. Steinschneider, "Cat.
Bodl." col. 2791; idem, in "Monatsschrift," xlvii.
285. No. 13; Zunz, "Ritus," p. 129).

D. H. M.

Purim of Angora: Celebrated on the 11th of
lyvar (see Havvini Beuveniste, " Keneset ha-Gedo-
liih," § 682; David Amado. "'Ene ha-'Edah," p.
93d. Smyrna, 1866).

Purim Borghel : In 1793 a certain Borghel, a
cor-sair, took possession of Tripoli with his galleys,
and drove out the governor, Ali Pasha Karamanli,
the Jews becoming the victims of many atrocities.
At the end of two years Karamanli recaptured the
city, on 29th of Tebet, 5558 (= 1793); and the anni-
versary of this date was celebrated as the Purim
Borghel (Franco, "Histolre des Israelites Ottomans,"
p. 121).

Purim di Buda. See Buda, Purim of.

Purim of Cairo : In the year 1524 Ahmed Shai-
tan Pasha, governor of Egypt, imprisoned twelve
of the leading Jews of Cairo in order to extort from
them a considerable sum of money. Among them
Avas the chief rabbi, David ibn Abi Zimra. This
governor— a rebel against his suzerain, Sulaiman the
Magnificent, because the latter wished to stamp
coins witli his own image — excited popular anger
by his cruelty. One day he promised to^ massacre
all the Jews in Cairo as soon as he had taken his
bath. However, while in the bath he was stabbed
by one of his subordinates; and the Jews thus es-
caped a general massacre. For this reason the
Purim of Cairo is annually celebrated on the 28th
of Adar (Franco, I.e. pp. 48-49).

D. M. Fk.

Purim of Candia : Observed by the Jews of
Candia on the 18th of Tannnuz. It is mentioned by
Isaac Lampronti (" Pahad Yizhak," letter *7, fol. 81a,
col. 1), who refers to unpul)lislied lesponsaof Elijah
Capsali (1523) as his source, without stating the ori-
gin of this festival or tlie time when it was first in-
stituted.

Bibliography: Steinschneider, PwriHi nnd Pamdie, in ^^l)-
iintf<schrift, xlvii. 286, No. ~1 ; Zunz, Ritus, p. 128.

D. II. M.

Purim. of Chios (called also Purim de la Se-
hora = "of Ilie Good Lady"): Celebrated by tiie
Jews of Chios in commemoration of an event which
occurred, according to some, in 1595, according to
others in 1820. The event of 1595 was the descent
upon the island of 500 soldiers from a sc^uadron of
Ferdinand I., Duke of Tu.?cany, commanded by
Virginio Orsino. The event of 1820 was the revolt
of Chios against the Turks during the Greek war
of independence. In either event a good Jewish
housewife in putting her bread into the oven in-
advertently rested the glowing end of her shovel
near a cannon, the fu.se of wliich took fire, causing
it to be discharged. It should be explained that, as
in other places iu the Orient, the Jews on the island of
Cliios lived in a bastion of the fortress. At the
sound of the cannon the Turkish soldiers extermi-
nated the enemy. The lady obtained a " beral "
granting her certain privileges and the Jews certain
favors.

Biiu.ioGRAPnv : Hayvim Benvcniste, ICciicsct ha-Oedi)lah ;
FA Ti iiipii, Consiantinopli', March, 1901!.

Purim de los Christianos (called also Purim
de las Bombas) : In 1578 Sebastian, King of Por-
tugal, landed in .Morocco and fought the battle

281

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Purims, Special

of the "Three Kings," at Alcazar-kebir, with the
view of reinstating tlie detlironed Muhii Hamad.
The Jews had boeu in great danger, but tliey es-
caped; lience the institution of a Purini and the
reading of amegillahon the 1st of Elul. At Tetuan
this fete is called "Purini de los Christianos " ; at
Tangier, "Purinide his Bonibas."

BinLioGRAPHY : Revue des Ecnles dc V Alliance Israelite Uni-
versclle, p. 211; Bulletin Mcnsucl dcrAlliaiice Israelite
Univcrselle, ISW, p. 113.

Purim Edom (called also Purim al-Nasara) : In
1541 Charles V., aided by Admiral Andrea Doria, at-
tempted to seize Algiers from Kiiair al-Din Barba-
rossa. The Spaniards landed; but their fleet was
destroyed by a tempest, due, legend says, to the
prayers of K. Solomon Duran, grandson of the cele-
brated Solomon ben Simon Dukan. The Jews thus
escaped the fanaticism of the Spaniards; and they
instituted this Purim on the 4th of Heshwan.

Bibliography : Revue des Ecolesde V Alliance Israelite Uni-
vcrsclle. p. 211.

D. M. Fu.

Purim of Florence : Celebrated by the Jews of
Florence on the 27lh of Siwan, on which day in 1790
they were saved from a mob by the efforts of the
bishop. The festival is preceded by a fast on the
26th of Siwan. The details of the occurrence are
related in full by Daniel Terui in a Hebrew pam-
phlet entitled "Ketab ha-DaT," Florence, 1791.

Bibliography: D. Simonsen, in 3Ionaf.sso?iri7f, xxxviii. 52.");
M. Steiiischneider, Furim und Parodic, ib. xlvii. 280, No.
16 ; see also Florence.

Purim di Fuoco. Sec Puriji of Padua, No. 1.

Purim Flirhang' (Curtain Purim): Festival en-
joined on his family by Hanok b. Moses Altsciiui.
of Prague, to be observed by it annually on the
22d of Tebet in remembrance of liis deliverance from
the hands of a tyrant. In 1623 damask curtains
were stolen from the palace of the governor. Prince
Lichtcnstein, during his absence from Prague. In
compliance with an order from the custodian of the
palace an announcement was made in all the syna-
gogues of Prague that any one having the stolen
goods in his possession should turn them over to
the sexton. Thereupon a Jew, Joseph b. Jekuthiel
Thein, delivered the curtains to Altschul, at that
timese.vton of thelNIeisel Synagogue, Prague, stating
that he had bought them from two soldiers. Vice-
Governor Count Rudolph Waldstein, who was in
charge of the affairs of the provincial government,
demanded that the buyer be named and delivered to
him for punishment; but as the congregational stat-
utes forbade the naming of receivers of stolen goods
who voluntarily had given them up, the sexton re-
fused, and, in consequence, Avas thrown into prison,
an order being issued to hang him on the following
day.

To save his life Altschul, with the permission of
the presidcntof the congregation, revealed the name
of the buyer, whereupon Altschul was set free and
Joseph Thein was sentenced to the gallows in liis
stead. All the efforts of influential Jews to effect
his release proved futile, but liually througli the
efforts of a prominent Christian and upon the inter-
cession of the city councilors Count Waldstein re-
leased the pri.soneron the condition that the congre-

gation pay a fine of 10,000 florins. In „rder to
humiliate the Jews he furllier ordered tliat this
money, divided into ten etjuul partH. be puld in silver
coin and carried in linen bags l)y ten ju t

Jews escorted l)y soldiers through tlie .-; i

Prague to tlie eity hall.

Altschul recorded the event in u scroll entitled
"Megillat Pure ha-Kela'in>" ("The Scroll of the
Purim of the Curtains"), and made It obligatory
upon all his descendants to read the Hcroll unnuully
on the 22d of Tebet, on which day he was libcmted,
and to observe the day i)y "feasting and giving
thanks to Cod for his salvation." The event wua
made the subject of a novel by Matthias Kis* h.

Bibliography: Gratz. Ocsrh. x. .')!, nolo 1; A. Kl-h. In

(Jn'llz Julirl.ychrift (Hebrew purti, pp. 48 «/ >■•■: . I'.i. -hm.
1887; M. Kisfh, rr</7i(oiy/j|(;-i//i, //i>f(.Mw/(»- / ^

dem Pnifier (ilu Itit. Vienna. 1><W i r.prlni<-<l r
reichii^chc WnclieiD'clirift, iShK, wtijre i
Vor)id)me), Vienna; 1). Siuionsen. In .V..
520; Stt'inschnelder, Purim und Parody, ai.h. ..-•.
D- H. M.

Purim of Gumeldjina (popularly calleil Purim
de los Ladrones =z •■ Purim of liandits"): In ITsG
about 5,000 mountain brigands (" tokatchikli ") in
trying to pillage the town of Gumeldjina. near Adri-
anople, entered the bastion inhabited by the Jews
and terrorized them. The governor succeeded in
driving olf the brigands, but the Jews were ac-
cused of having conspired with them. The Jews
energetically protested and proved their innocence.
In memory of tiiis escape from a double misfortune
the 22(1 of Elul was ordained by the rabbis as a
local Purim.
Bibliography: Yosif Da'at, Adrianople, Dec. 2u, Innk.

D. M. Fk.

Purim of Jonathan b. Jacob of Fulda: In-
stituted by Habbi Jonathan b. Jacob of Fulda on
the 17th of Tammuz to commemorate a calamity
that was averted from his congregation. He him-
self called this festival "Purim Shell" (=".My
Purim ").

Bibliography: Simonsen. in Moimt.o.sclirifl, x.\xvlll. 'iX:
Steinschneider, Purim uud Paradic, xlvll. 284. note 3 ; Idem.
UescliiclUlichc Literatur dcr Judeit, p. 87, i m.

Purim of Lepanto : Celebrated by the Jews of
Lepanto on the 11th uf Tebet in commemoration of
a miraculous escape of the Jews from danger. It is
mentioned in the responsa of Moses b. ls;iac Alash-
kar (Sabbionetta, l.")54), No. 49 (comp. Simonsen in
"Monatsschrift," xxxviii. 526).

Purim of Narbonne : Celebrated on tiie 21 si nf
Adar by the Jews of Narbonne in coniiiiemoratioii
of an event which took place there on that ilay in
1236. The facts, as recorded by R. MeYr b. Isaac of
Narbonne, are as follows: In a quarrel between a
Jew of Narlionne and a Christian fisherman the
former dealt the latter a heavy blow froni which lie
died. This aroused the wiath of the Christian jiop-
ulacc, which attacked the whole Jewish commuuiiy
and started a riot in the Jewish (juartor. itillaginj;
liist the house of the above-mentioned Rabbi Melr
and carrying away his entire library. Fortunately
Don Aymeric, the goveruorof Narbonne. app»nr..|
on the scene with a force of .soldiers for the pr -
tion of the Jews. The mob was soon disixrv. .i.
order was reestablished, and even the spoil wlii< li
had been taken from R. MeVr was returned to him.

Purims. Special
Purity of Race

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

282

He then recorded the event; and the 21st of Adar

was instituted as the " Purim of Narboune."

Bibliography: D. Kaufiuann, in R. E.J. xxxii. 129 et seq.;
Neubauer, in M. J. C. ii. 2.'>\ ; Stf insi-lineider, in Mouats-
Khrift, 1908, p. 283; S. A. Wertheiiner. Gi/i2« Yenishaiayim,
1.9.

Purim of Padua: 1. (Purim di Fuoco.)
A festival, still observed by the Jews of Padua on
the 11th of Si wan, in commemoratiou of a great
conflagration which occurred in that city in 1795
and which was extinguished through extraordinary
efforts on the part of the vice-podesta ; it is for this
reason that it is called "Purim di Fuoco." The
event is fully described by Jacob Raphael Finzi (d.
1812) in his work "Leshon 'Esh," Offenbach. 1798
(comp. Steinschneider, "Purim und Parodie," in
"Monatsschrift," xlvii. 286, Xo. 18; "II Vessillo
Israclitico," 1880, p. 373). 2. (Otherwise known as
Purim di Buda.) Sec Bud.\, Puuim of.

Purim Povidl (Plum-Jam Purim): Instituted by
David Braudeis of Jung-Buuzlau, Bohemia, in 1731,
to be celebrated annually by all the members of his
family on the 10th of Adar in commemoration of ids
deliverance from a calamit\^ that was brought upon
him by slanderers. Brandeis kept a grocery-store
at Jung-Bunzlau. On the 4th of Shebat a Christian
girl, the daughter of a bookbinder, purchased from
Brandeis some " povidl " (= •' plum-jam"), after par-
taking of which the members of the bookbinder's
family became ill, and the bookbinder liimself died
witliin a few days. The burgomaster of the city,
being informed of the matter, ordered the store to
be closed and David Brandeis, his wife, and son to
be imprisoned on the charge of selling poisonous
food to Christians. After a careful investigation
by the municipal authorities and later by the court
of appeal at Prague also, it was found that the
bookbinder's death had been due to consumption,
wliereupon the prosecution was dropped. Brandeis
recorded the event in a Hebrew scroll which he
called " Shir ha-Ma'alot le-Dawid, " making it obliga-
tory upon all his descendants " to read this scroll
every year on tlie 10th of Adar and to make that
day a day of rejoicing and gladness." The festival
was still observed by the descendants of David in
the nineteenth century.

Bibliography: M. Grunwald, Povidl-Purim in Jung-
Bunzlmi. In Berliner's Magazin, xv. 191-196; Ozar Tot),
]s88, pp. I}-."); D. Slmonsen, in Monatsschrift, xxxViii. 527;
M. Stelnschneifler, Puiim und Parodie, In Monatsschrift,
xlvii. 'M.'), No. 15.

I>. II. M.

Purim of Rhodes : In 1840 the Greeks on the
island of Hhodes, in revenge upon the Jews who
were competing with tliem in the sponge trade,
caused the disappearance of a child. The child,
however, was later found alive on the island of
Syra. In the meanwhile the Jews of Rhodes had
been imprisoned and tortured. Sultan 'Abd al-
Majid deposed the governor, and gave the Jews a
firman declaring that the accusation of ritual mur-
der was false. By a curious coincidence the imjjris-
onment of the Jews and the granting of the firman
took place on tlie day of the Purim of Estlier (14th
of A(hir). Since then Purim is celebrated as a double
festival at Rhodes, and special prayers and liymns
are read.

BiBMoGKAPiiY: Franco. //i.s/oirf lies Israiiitcs Ottomans,
p. 158.

Purim of Saragossa : In the year 1380 or 1420.
under Peter IV. or under Alfonso V.. King of
Aragon, whom the Megillah written for this Purim
designates "Saragossanos," a converted Jew called
Marcus accused the Jews of Saragossa before the
king of having atteuded the parade lield in honor of
the kiug with cases in their arms from which the
scrolls of the Law, usually kept therein, had been
purposely removed. This was true, the removal
having been ordered by the rabbis of the city be-
cause of religious scruples. The king resolved, on
the advice of Marcus, to liave the cases opened in
the street on the next similar occasion. But, the
story continues, the prophet Elijah appeared in the
night to the beadles of the twelve synagogues and
told them to take proper measures. Accordingly,
the next day, when the king passed by, tlie guards
opened the cases and stated that no deception had
been practised. The anger of the king fell upon
Marcus, and he was hanged. In memory of this
miracle the descendants of the Jews of Saragossa
celebrate this Purim on the 17th or 18th of Sliebat
in the synagogues founded by their ancestors at
Constantinople, Magnesia, Melasso, Smyrna, Aidin,
Jerusalem, and Salonica.

Bibliography : Revue des Ecoles de VAUiance Israilite, pp.
14.H l.-,2. Paris. I!t01~2.

Purim Sherif: In 1705 the governor of Tunis
laid siege to Tripoli in Africa, devastated the envi-
rons, and threatened to destroy all the population if
he should enter the town. Fortunately, the plague
broke out suddenly among his followers, and the
siege was rai.sed. Hence the rabbis instituted the
Purim Sherif on the 24th of Tebet. The populace
call it "Purim Kidebuni" {= "the false") to distin-
guish it from the Purim of Esther (Franco, "His-
toire des Israelites Ottomans," p. 121 ; comp. Stein-
schneider in "Monatsschrift," 1902, p. 375; and,
especially, 1903, p. 285, No. 14).

Purim of Shiraz (called also Purim of Mo'ed
Katan) : On the 2d of Heshwan the Jews of Sldraz
in Persia celebrate a festival called "Mo'ed Katan"
(Little Feast). On that day they do no work, ex-
change vi.sits. and salute one another witli the words,
"Mo'ed Katan" and "Abu al-Hasan." According
to a tradition wliich is substantiated by an ancient
Jud.'PoPersian manuscript of uncertain date (possi-
bly written about 1400 or even as early as 1200), a
Jew named Abu al-Hasan. who was both shohet and
butcher, was accused of liaving sold terefah meat
on the eve of the Feast of Rosh Jia-Shanah. The
anger of the Jews was aroused against the culprit,
wh(j immediatel}^ embraced Islam, and accused his
former coreligionists of many crimes. The jMoiiam-
rnedans gave the Jews their choice between death
and conversion to Islam; and all chose the latter
alternative. One month aftrrward Abu al-IIasan
died mysteriously, on the 2d of Heshwan, and a
statement was found in his |)ockct declaring that
the Jews were innocent of the charges brought
against them. They were then permitted to return
to Judaism ; and in memory of the event the Purim
of .Mo'ed Katan was instituted.

BiBLiOGRAPHV: liullitin Mcnswl de VAlliaitcn Ixinrlite
Uiiicnsillr, May 5, l".t(i:t.

Purim of Tammuz at Algiers: In 1774 Mo-

hamnu'd ibn Uman, t he dey of Algiers, courageously

583

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

Purlms. Special
Purity or" Race

defended tlie cit}' against the Spanisli general
O'Reilly. The Jewish legend has it that llames
which came out of the graves of the rabbis Isaac
ben Sheslietaiid Solomon ben Simon Duian contrib-
uted to the Spanish defeat. Hence, in order to
celebrate the miracle of iiaving again escaped from
the Spaniards, the Jews of Algiers instituted a
Purim on the 11th of Tanmiuz.

BiBUOGUAPiiv : Revue dcsEcoleit de V Alliance Israilite Uni-

vcrsellc, p. ^'U.

Purim of Tiberias : In 1748 Sulaiman Pasha,
governor of Damascus, came in the capacit}' of a
feudal lord to lay siege to Tiberias, where ruled the
sheik Dair al-Amar. The Jews suffered much dur-
ing the eiglity-three days of the investment. The
date of the raising of the siege (4th of Elul) and that
of the news of Sulaiman Pasha's death (7th of Elul)
became the days of the local Purims.

Bibliography: I'ose/ Da'at, Adrianople, 1888, p. 212.
]>. M. Fh.

Purim of Tripoli : Festival mentioned in a
fragment of an old "' luah " in the possession of D.
Siinonsen of Copenhagen. It was celebrated on the
15th of Shebat. See also Puuim Sherif.

Bibliography: D. Simonsen, in Monat.-^Kchrift. xxxviii. .527 ;
Steinschnelder, Purim und Parodie, ib. xlvii. 280, No. 22.

D. H. M.

Purim of Widdin : In 1807 Passvanoglu, the
feudal lord of the region of Widdin, on the Danube,
had in his service as physician ("'hakim bashi ") a
person named Cohen. Passvanoglu having become
mortally ill through contact with a jioisoned sword,
the Mohammedan population accused the Jewish
physician of having made an attempt on the gov-
ernor's life, and the Jewish community was threat-
ened with a general massacre. Fortunately the
dying man himself energetically defended his phy-
sician, and the threatened calamity was averted.
Hence the 9th and 10th of Heshwan, the dales of
the events, were declared days of Purim.

Bibliography : Annuarul Pciitru Israelitzi, Bucharest, 1888,
vol. xi.
D. M. Fk.

Purim Winz (called also Purim Frankfurt) :

Instituted liy the Jews of Frankfort-on-the-Main for
the 20th of Adar because of their deliverance from
the persecutions of Vincent Fettmilch and his fol-
lowers in 1616. For the details of the events and
for the mode of celebration, see Fkttmiix'H, Vin-
cent, and Steinschnelder, in " Monatsschrift," 1903,
p. 284. No. 9.

Purim of Yom-Tob Lipmann Heller : Festi-
val established b}' Kabbi Yom-Tob Lipmann Hel-
ler in 1644 to be celebrated annually by his family
on the 1st of Adar (i.e., the second day of Posh
Hodesh Adar; see his " Megillat El)ah," end). In
1630 Heller had enjoined on his family the observ-
ance of the 5th of Tammuz. the day on which his
troubles began, as a perpetual fast-day : but he hesi-
tated to direct it to be followed by a Purim. as at
that time, although freed from ]U'ison, "he was still
in trouble and hud no reason to rejoice" {ib. ed.
Munkacs, 1897, fol. 6b). But when, fourteen years
later, ho was elected to the rabbinate of Cracow he
established also the Purim on the 1st of Aiiar.

BiBLiOGRAPiiy : MeoiUnl Ehnh ; Slmoniien. In Munalstehnft,
*M^"iv"'^*''^^! Sl.-liiM<liiiL-ldcr, Purim und PitriAlir, lb.
Xlvll. 285, iiott' 11. und p. 47.1.

For local Purims in general, compare Heinrich
Zirndorf, " Imitative Purim," in " Deboraii " (Cincin-
nati). 1892. Nos. 35-51 ; 1898. Nos. 1-3. For family
Purims not mentioned in this article, see StfinBchnel-
der, "i'lirim und Pamdie," in "Monatsschrift,"
xlvii. 472 et neq.

" H. M.

PURITY OF RACE : The question whether
the Jews of to-day are in tiie main descended from
the Jews of I5il)le limes, and from them aloDC. is
still undecided. No one denies tjial tiie Jews of
Bible times were to a certain extent of mi.xed parent-
age, and the attempts made by Ezra to prevent the
intermi.vture shows its wide extent. Intermurriage
seems to have been mainly witii Ammonites. M<Mib-
ites, and Idumeans, all recognized to have been of
the same origin. In Babylon, during the later exile,
certain districts were regarded as prohibitory with
regard to intermarriage (Kid. 71b). For a discussion
on " 'issah " (= " paste "). as intermi.xture was called
by the Talmudists, see "Monatsschrift," 1879. pp.
481-508; 1881. pp. 38-48. 113-123. 207-217. but such
discussions refer mainly to the purity of marriages
of Kohanim. or descendants of the priests, upon
which marriages there are special restrictions, in-
cluding some with regard to the descendants of
proselytes (see Cohen).

The number of these latter appears to have been
great in Biblical times. Wiierever Paul lectured he
found them — in the congregations at
Proselytes. Antioch, Thcssalonica. Athens (Acts
xvii. 4. 16-17, 26). They are referred
to even in the post-e.xilic Isaiah (Ivi. 6) and in Esther
(viii. 17, ix. 27); and three of the later ]>salms
(cxvii., cxviii., cxxxv.) divided the Jews into three
classes — "the House of Israel." "the House of
Aaron," and "those who fear the Lord" (that is.
proselytes). Josephus frequently refers to prose-
lytes ("B. J." vii. 3, t^ 3: vi. 9. $5 3). On the other
hand, Tacitus sjiys that Jews and aliens never inter-
married ("HistoriiC," v. 5). The proselytes, liow-
ever, were not allowed to share the Pas.sover meal
(Josephus, I.e.), and Christianity particularly ad-
dressed itself to them. As soon as the Church be-
came iiredominant, intermarriage between Cliris-
tians and Jews was declared to be on the same
footing with adultery (Codex Theodosianus. Iv. 2),
and puuishable witii death. Thus, while of the
two hundred tannaiin seven are of Gentile extrac-
tion (comp. Brnll. " Mishnalehrer von Ileidntsclier
Abkunft." in his "Jalirb." ii.), only three of the
fifteen hundred amoraiin lielong to that ( lass— Mnri
bar Hahel. Ju lah of India, and Samuel bar Shilnl—
showing a marked decrease in the number of mixe<l
marriages. In the classical inscriptions only two
juoselytes are mentioned, and in (lie twenty thou-
sand or .so inscriptions of medieval and mwlern
times the numlter mentioned is likewise only two
proselytes, these being of Amsterdam.

Wolf gives a list of proselytes in the Midille Ages
mnnbering only forty-four names, to whicli perhaps
five could be added from the memor-books Dur
ing the years from 1830 to 1877. in an average pop-
ulation of twenty-five thousand Jews there were

Purity of Race
Quail

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

284

only thirty mixed marriages in Algeria (Ricoux,
"La Demographie de I'Algerie," 1880, p. 71). Al-
together, there is verj' little historic evidence for
any intermixture. Tiie chief instances are alTorded
by the Chazars (from whom in all probability most of
the Karaites of the Crimea are descended), tiie Fala-
shas, and the Daggatuns (the case of tiie Beni-I ::rael
is doubtful): none of these intermarry with Jews.
In the majority of cases where intermarriage can be
traced, as in Spain before the expulsion, almost all
the descendants disappear from Judaism. It has,
besides, been shown that the fertility of intermar-
riages is much below that of pure Jewish marriages,
and consequently the proportion of persons of mixed
descent would decrease in geometrical proportion
(see BiHTiis).

Against this general historical evidence of the
purity of race, anthropologists bring forward the
varieties of type shown by measurements of modern
Jews and Jewesses. They are pre-
Anthropo- dominantly brachycephalic, or broad-
logical headed, wJiile tiie Semites of Arabic
Evidence, origin are invariably dolichocephalic,
or long-headed. Against tiiis it may
be urged that modern Semites have largely recruited
the race from slaves brought mainly from Africa,
while some anthropologists are inclined to associate
the racial origin of the Jews, not with the Semites,
whose language the}' adopted, but with the Arme-
nians and Hittites of Mesopotamia, whose broad
skulls and curved noses they appear to have inher-
ited. The small variability of the crania of the
Jews (see Ckaxiomf:tuy) might be adduced as fur-
ther proof of purity of race. The more recent in-
vestigations of Fishberg, however, have shown that
eastern Europe as a whole shows the same narrow
range of variability of the skull-index, so that even
if intermixture had occurred, the frequency-curve
would not betray it.

The comparatively large number of blonds among
Jews (see Evk; Haiu) would, however, seem to
indicate admixture to the extent indicated by the
proportion, which reaches on an average 2o per cent.
But Virchow has pointed o;it that Jews are blondest
where the general population is least blond, and
vice versa, so that it would be difficult to explain
the blondncss by any modern intermixture. This
argument, however, could be met by reference to
the wandering nature of the Jewish population,
which was driven about in mid-Europe forneailv
three centuries. Almost equal variation is found in
the shape and appearance of the nose, which is far
from uniform among Jews.

On the other hand the remarkable unity of resem-
blance among Jews, even in different clitnes, seems
to imply a common descent. Photographs of Jews
taken in Bokhara resemble almost to identity those
of Jews in Berlin or New York. Such similarity may
be due to the existence of a type which lias cau.sed
social, and thus sexual, selection, but the fact that it
remains constant would seem to prove the existence
of a separate variety. Countenance and expression
can be selected from one gcMcration to another, but
do not necessarily imply similarity in head-form or
other anthropological marks. Wherever such a typ<'
had been socially or racially selected, the law of in-

heritance discovered by G. Mendel would imply that
any hyCrids tend to revert to it, and a certain
amoimt of evidence has been given for the prepo-
tenc}' of the Jewish siile in mixed marriages. One
branch of Jews, the Kohanim, are prevented by
Jewish law from marrying even proselytes, and j'et
the Cohens do not appear to dill'er anthropologically
from the rest of Jews. This might be used to prove
either the purity of the race or the general impurity
of the Cohens. Altogether, the question is a very
complex one, on which no decisive answer can
at present be returned. All hi.story points to the
purity of the race; some anthropological facts are
against it.

Bibliogr.\phy: E. Renan, Lc JudaLtmc Coinmc Race ct
Commc Ii('U{}i'>'t, Paris, 1!<8.3 ; A. Neubauer, in Jour. A nthro-
pohnjical Iiixtittttc, 1885: Andree, Zi/c Vtillothiindc dcr Ju-
dcti. 1881 ; W. Z. Kipk'V, T)ic Uaics of Eiiroitc, New York,
1891); Judt, Die Jmlcn ah Ii<iS!<t\ lU'rIiii. 190:i: A. Riippin,
Die Jiiden dti- Gcfjenivart, pp. -ll-'^'S. Berlin, 1904: J.
Jacobs, Slitdies in Jtwisli !<tati)itic!<, pp. xvii.-x.\x.

J.
PURPLE : :Mention is made in the Old Testa-
ment of two kinds of purple, or purple dye: (1)
"argaman" (Aramaic, "argevan"; Greek, Trcipfdpa),
probably the bright-red purple, which was costliest
when it had the color of coagulated blood, and
appeared black when viewed directly, but lustrous
red when viewed obliquely; (2) "tekelet" (Greek,
vaKivdoc), which, according to Philo and Josephus,
resembled the color of the sea, the air, or the clear
sky, and was, therefore, termed also blue. In in-
stances it was black or dark-colored.

It is now possible to ascertain from what source
the ancients obtained their purple dye. There are
remains of the old workshops for making purple at
Tarentum, in the Morea, and especially at Tyre.
These consist of concrete hill-shaped masses of spi-
ral-like shells. An examination of these heaps
has up to the present revealed only two kinds of
murex, found on the Mediterranean coast, Murcx
brandaris and Murex trunculus; the former at Ta-
rentum and in the Morea, and the latter at Tyre.
Without doubt, of the two kinds of murex described
by Pliny, the one which he calls " purpura " or " pe-
lagia" is not the species now so called, but Muirx
hraiidnris, as he mentions not only the spines on
the whorl of the shell, but also the duct which is a
prolongation of the aperture. This duct lie thought
contained the tongue, though, as a m;itter of fact,
it holds the respiratory organ of the mollusk.
Probably he included Murex trunculus under the
same name.

Besides these two, another species of the present
genus Purpura is found in the Mediterranean, Pur-
pura hcemastonui, the iiurjde juice of which is even
now occasionally used by the inhabitants of the
coast for marking linen. Although shells of these
mollusks have not yet been found among the re-
mains of ancient purple dye-works, it is likely that
the ancients knew and used them, as they answer
better than Murex trunculus to Pliny's description
of the second species mentioned by him, Murex buc-
cintiin.

The pigment is secreted by a gland in the lining
of the stomach. The juice is at first whitish, but
changes on exposure to the atmosphere, and be-
comes successively yellowish and greenish, and at

285

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Purity of Race
Quail

last either reddish (in the species Murex brandaris
and Purpura hcBtnastoma) or violet (iu Murex trun-
cuius). Tiie molhisks Avere found on the Piifiiirian
coast, on tlie Palestinian shores, farther south (as at
Dor), on the coast of Caria in Asia Minor, on the La-
conian coast of Greece, on the shores of the strait of
Euripus, and on the North-African coast. It is re-
markable that in the Old Testament mention is made
of purjilc imported into Tyre, hut not of that made
in I'iiciiicia itself, although the Phenicians were re-
garded by the ancients as the discoverers of purple-
<lyeing, and the manufacture of purple -vvas known
to them in very early times.

Purple fabrics were very costly. Both kinds of
]iurple were used for the carpets anil curtains of the
tabernacle, and for the high priest's gala dress, as
also for the curtain of the Holy of Holies in the
Temple. Bluish purple was used more extensively
for sacred purposes than reddish. Blue material was
used for the entire outer garment of the high priest
as well as for the covers put over the sacred chattels
in transportation. lied was used only in the cloth
of the altar of burnt offerings. The loops holding
the curtains of byssus in the tabernacle (Ex. xxxvi.
11), the "lace" fastening the high priest's breast-
plate and miter (ib. xxviii. 28, 31, 37, 39), and the
threads of the tassels on every Israelite's outer gar-
ment had to be made of bluish purple.

No mention is made of purp'e garments of Israel-
itisli kings, with the exception of the reddish-purple
seat (covering?) of Solomon's chariot (Cant. iii. 10),
whereas references occur to the reddish-purple rai-
ment of the kings of Media (Judges viii. 26), and the
blue raiment of Assyrian "captains and rulers"
(Ezek. xiii. 6). At the Babylonian court the be-

stowal of reddish-pnrple raiment was a mark of
the highest favor (Dan. v. 7, 16. 29; v»\n\\. I
Mace. X. 20. 62, 64; xi. 58; xiv. 43 et uq. ; II Mace

iv. 38).

K. (1. 11. ys ^

PYGARG (l^'n): Chan animal mentioned iu
Deul. xiv. 5, following the Septuugint. The iden-
tity of the animal has not been esUiljIislied.
innLlOfiiiAPnv: Trlstrum, yuturnl IliKlnni ,,f the IhlAe.

K- «• " I. M. C.

PYKE, LIONEL EDWARD : English barris-
ter; born at Ciiathani April 21, 1854; died in Brigh-
ton March 26, 181)9. He was the s. . ' ., .,f
Jo.sejjh Pyke, warden of the Central . .Mr,

London, and was educated at Rochester Cuthedrai
Grammar School and at London University, taking
the degrees of LL.B. and B.A. He entered as a
student of tiie Inner Temple Nov. 3. 1874. and was
called to the bar June 13, 1877. In 1880 lie be-
came a member of the coimcil of the Angio-Ji-wish
Association, and served on the executive committee
from 1882 until his death. lie took a great interest
in yachting. His most extensive practise was in tiie
Admiralty Court; he became queen's counsel in
Feb., 1892, and immediately attained a leading posi-
tion in the Admiralty Court; he became the leader
of that branch of the bar designated as the Probate,
Divorce, and Adnnralty divi.sion on the elevation
of Sir W. Phillimore to the bench. In 1895 Pyke
unsuccessfully contested the Wilton division, Wilt-
shire, in the Liberal interest.

BiBLiOGRAPnY : Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, March 31. 1S99.
J. G. L.

QUADRATUS, UMMIDIUS CAIUS : Ro-
man governor of Svria from 50 to 60 c.e. The proc-
urator Cumanus had showed partiality to the Sa-
maritans, who were at variance with tlie Galileans,
and both parties appealed to Quadratus. The gov-
ernor went to Samaria in 53 and suppressed the dis-
turbance. The Samaritan and Galilean insurgents
were crucified ; five (eighteen according to Josephus,
*'B. J." ii. 12, § 6) Galileans whom the Samaritans
pointed out as in.stigators of the movement weiu
executed in Lydda ; the high priest Ananias and
Anan, the governor of the Temjile, were sent in
chains to Pome ; and the leaders of the Samaritans,
the procurator Cumanus, and the military tribune
Celer were also sent to plead their cause before the
emperor. In fear of further disturbances, Quadra-
tus hurried to Jerusalem ; finding the city peacefully
celebrating the Feast of Passover, he returned to
Antioch (Josephus, "Ant." xx. 6, §^ 1-2; " B. J."
ii. 12, §§ 3-6; Zonaras, vi. 15). Cumanus was de-
posed and was succeeded by Felix, a]i])ointecl at
the recjuest of the high ]iriest, Jonathan, whom also
Quadratus had sent to Pome.

The version of Tacitus ("Annals." xii. 45, 54) can
not be reconciled with that of Josephus. since, ac-

cording to the former, Felix and Cumanus were proc-
urators at the same time, the one in Samaria and the
other in Galilee. According to Tacitus, also. Quad-
ratus himself sat in judgment upon Cumanus, and
he expressly states that Quadratus was superior to
the procurator in authority. Quadratusdied during
his tenure of ollice (Tacitus. "Annals." xiv. 26).
Several coins struck by him have been found.

RiBi,ior.R.\pnY : Gratz. Gesch. 4th jhI.. Iii. 7i"> T2S : s<hanT,
trf.-ic/i. ;W ed..i. ;«.'), 570; I'rosopiygrayhia ImiKiti ll'iwaiit,
iii. 468, No. COO.

s. S. Ku.

dXJAIL Cl^L") : ^lentioncd in E.\. xvi. 11-13 and
Niun. xi. 31 (coinp. Ps. Ixxviii. 27. cv. 40) in con-
nection with the nuraculous feeding of the chil-
dren of Israel in the wilderness. Quails pass over
the Sinaitic Peninsida in vast nmnbers, migrating
northward in spring and returning south in the
autumn. They fly very low. are soon fatigued, and
fall an easy jney. Yoina 75b enumerates four kinds
of quail, including, besides the (jvniil jiroper. the
fieldfare, the partridge, and the thrush. The fat-
ness of the (juail likewi.se is alluded to.

Bibliography: Tristram. Xntural HM'TU "f tlft BiMe, p.
^Ja; Lewvsohn, ZooIoi7i<; i/M ra/miKtii, p. 210.
E. G. U.' 1 >I. C.

Q.uebec
Quorum

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

286

QUEBEC : Capitol of the province of Quebec :
situated on tiie left bank of the River St. Lawrence.
The first Jew known to have resided in Quebec was
Abraham Jacob Franks, who settled there in 1767.
His son David Salesby (or Salisbury) Fk.\nks, who
afterward became head of the Montreal Jewish com-
munity and an officer in the American Revolutionary
army, also lived in Quebec prior to 1774. Abraham
Joseph, who was long a prominent figure in public
affairs in Quebec, took up his residence there shortly
after his father's death in 1832. Quebec's Jewish
population for many years remained very small, and
early efforts at organization were fitful and short-
lived. A ceme-
tery was ac-
quired in 1853,
and a place of
w o r s h i p w a s
opened in a hall
in the same year,
in which serv-
ices were held
intermittently;
but it was not
until 1892 that
the Jewish pop-
ulation of Que-
bec had suffi-
ciently augment-
ed to permit of
the permanent
establisliment of
the present syn-
agogue, Beth Is-
rael. The con-
gregation was
g r a n t e il the
right of keeping
a register in
18 9 7. Other
communal insti-
tutions are the
Quebec Hebrew
Sick Benefit As-
sociation, the
Qiiebec Hebrew
Relief Associa-
tion for Immi-
grants, and the
Quebec Zionist

Society. The present (1905) Jewish population is
about 350, in a total population of 08,834. See

C.\N.\D.\.

BMU,ior;RArnY : Mcrrnntilc Rccnrdrr, 1838 ; .Taoqups .1. Lyons
and .Aliraliaiii (le Sola. ./('in'«/i Cnhiulnr uilli liitroiluvUirii
Essnii, .Montreal, 1H.J4 ; Le Jins Caiindn. Quehcc. 18.")7; I'm-
jilc itf Lower Canada, I860: The Star (Montreal), Dec. 30,

J. C. 1. l)K S.

QUEENSLAND : Britisli AustiaJasJan colony.
When (Queensland s<-i)arated from tlie mother colony
of New South Wales (1859) a few Jewish families
from Sydney settled i)ernianent]y in Brisbane. The
names most prominent among lliese were those of
Coleman, Davis, W. E, Jewell, ^I. Mendoza, Samuel
D.ivis. John Goldsmid, Benjamin Benjamin, A. E.
Alexander, and others, wlio formed a congregation

Uyniijros'uc at Brisbane, Queensland.

(From a photograph.)

about 1864 and invited the Rev. Joseph E. Myers of
Sydney to act as its minister; he served up to Oct.,
1865. when he returned to England. Shortly after
this a commercial crisis occurred in Queensland, and
public services were discontinued. This state of
things, however, lasted but for six months, when
the colony regained its status; anew era of progress
was entered upon, and many of the old colonists
returned, among whom was Jonas M. Myers (b.
1824), who acquired a small building and reassem-
bled the congregation under the name of K. K.
Sheaari Amoon, which it still bears.
Jonas 3L flyers, after serving the congregation

for over thirteen
years, was com-
pelled for per-
sonal reasons to
relinquish his of-
fice, and the
Rev. A. P. Phil-
lips, who had
been the second
minister of the
]\Iell)ourne syn-
a g o g u e , was
called to the rab-
binate. By this
time the com-
m unit y h a d
greatly in-
creased, and
more accommo-
dations were re-
quired. A large
room was rented,
therefore, in the
Masonic Ilall,
which served its
purjiose until
the present edi-
fice was erected
in 31 a r g a r e t
street (1886).
The Rev. A. P.
Phillips resign-
ing, Jonas M.
JMyers was again
invited for a pe-
riod of three
years, on the e.\-
jiiration of which he was presented with an illumi-
nated address and a pur.se of a hundred guineas. The
Rev. Chodowski, from New Zealand, then otliciated
lor about three years. Jonas M. Myers then re-
sumed his ministry, which he still (1905) maintains.
During an interval of twelvemonths (1901-2) Myers
was relieved by the Rev. B. N. Miclielson, who re-
signed in consequence of ill health.

A congregation, of wliicli ilie Rev. A. P. Phillips
is minister, exists at TooAvooinba.

J. J. M. :\r.

QUEMADERO (QUEMADERO DE TA-
BLADA) : Place of execution buill by the lirst
inquisitors at Seville in 1481 : it was decorated with
four large statues representing prophets. The archi-
tect, as a follower of Judaism, was one of the first

287

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Quebec
Quorum

to fall a victim to the Inquisition. The Queniiulero
was not destroyed until 1809, when the material
was used for fortifications during the French inva-
sion of Andalusia.

BiBi.iofiRAPiiv: Ad. de Castro, ]{ixt. deloaJudloacn Espaflo,
p. 116.
s. M. K.

aUERIDO, JACOB (called also Jacob Zebi) :

Successor of Shabbelliai Zebi; boru at Salouica;
died at Alexandria in 1690. He was a son of Josepli
" the Philosopher" and a brother-in-law of Shabbethai
Zebi. Ilis sister, Shabbethai 's widow, is saitl to liave
alleged, in order that Jacob might succeed to the
leadership of the sect, that he was her son by Shab-
bethai. Assisted by Solomon Floreutin, a learned
Talmudist who had joined them, he gained a large
following, and embraced Mohammedanism about
1687. He then made a pilgrimage to Mecca with
many of his disciples, and died on his return to Alex-
andria. He was succeeded by his son Bcrcchiah.
Querido was regarded as the real founder of the
apostate sect of Salonica which formally renounced
Judaism and took the name of Donmeii (Dolmeli).

Another Jacob duerido, a contemporary of tlic
preceding, was hakam at Middelburg, Holland,
wliero he died at an early age. A third Jacob
Q,uerido, also living at this time, was rabbi at Smyr-
na and a son-in-law of Joseph b. Elijah H.\zz.\n,
who in his " 'En Yosef " mentions Querido's commen-
tary on the Bible.
Bibliography: Gratz, Gc^ich. x. 'SS7 ct ser/., Ixvi.; De Barrios,

Arbol de (as Vida-s, p. i-S; Nepl-Ghirondi, Tolcdot Ucdole

YiJirael, p. 168.

D. M. K.

QUETSCH, SOLOMON: Austrian rabbi and
Talmudist; born at Nikoisburg, Moravia, Oct. 18,
1798 ; dietl there Jan. 30, 1856. He was educated at
the yeshibah of his native city under Mordecai
Benet, whose favorite disciple he was. He offici-
ated as rabbi successively at Piesling, Leipnik, and
Nikoisburg. In the last-named city, where he suc-
ceeded Samson Raphael Hiuscir, he officiated only
a few montiis. He was a rabbi of the old school,
but was distinguished by a tolerant and kindly dis-
position. Of his literary works only some Talmudic
novelkie are known, edited under the title "Hokmat
Shelomoh, " in the collection " Har ha-Mor, " by Mo-ses
Lub Kohn (Vienna, 1862).

BiBMOiiRAPHY: Frieilliimier, Korc ha-Dnrnt, p. 62, Briinn,
1876; Kaufmann GedenhlnicKp.'^iaS; Die Dihorali, IfKtt,
p. 38; Sclinitzer. Jildische KulHuhUdrr nuif Mfi)um Lr-
hen, pp. 38-.56, Vienna, 1904; Van Straalen, Cat. Hchr. nooks
lirit. 3/i(s. p. 21 ; S. Klein, in preface to Likkutc Shelomoh,
I'aks, 1893.

s. D.

Q,TJIETUS, LUSIXJS : Roman general and gov-
ernor of Judea in 117 c.e. Originally a 3Ioori.sh
prince, his military ability avou him the favor of
Trajan, who even designated him as his successor.
During the emperor's Parthian campaign the nu-
merous Jewish inhabitants of Babylonia revolted,
and were relentlessly sui)pressed by Quietus, who
was rewarded by being appointed governor of Judea
(Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl." iv. 2; idem, "Chronicon";
Orosius, vii. 12; Dio Cassius, Ixviii. 32). The rest-
lessness in Palestine caused Trajan to send Ids favor-
ite, as a legate of consular rank, to Judea, v.iiere he
continued his sanguinary cour.se. Rabbinical tradi-
tion (Sotah ix. 14, and Seder '01am Rabbah, near

end, tlie correct reading in both places being Dt3'p
instead of DO'D = " Titus ") mentions the war i>{
Quietus, referring to the Palestinian campaign. U8
GrUtz correctly stiites, nitlier than to that in Mesopo-
tamia, as Sclilirer suppo.ses, since it is mentioned to-
gether with the wars of Vespa-sian and Bar Kokba.

The contention of Voikmar and Grtttz. however,
that the campaign of Quietus is described in the Btnik
of Judith, can not be proved. In consequence of this
war the Rabbis forbade the garlanding of lirides on
their wedding-day and the study of Greek liieruture
(the latter proiiibition probal)ly being intended to
cause a rupture with the Jews of the Diaspora in
Cyprus, Cyrene, and Egypt, with whom the rebel-
lion had really originateil). Theconfused Tain:
accounts imply that a cruel i)ersecution to(jk i ...
under Quietus which exposed Jewish virgins to dis-
honor (Kraiiss, in " R. E. J." xxix. 88), while the
"Hegemon" with whom R. Gamaliel came into ofll-
cial relations was the governor of Judea himself (ib.
p. 40). Talmudic tradition relates further that the
Roman general who caused the Jews sucii inis^-ry at
this time was suddenly executed. The Bources, In-
deed, appear to indicate Marcius Turbo as this gen-
eral, but they more probably refer to Quietus, and
the tradition contains a reminiscence of the fact that
Lusius Quietus was recalled b}- Hadrian and exe-
cuted shortly afterward as a possible rival (Sjtartia-
nus, "Vita Hadriani," §^5 5, 7; Dio Cas.sius, Ixix. 2).
An inscription found in Palestine ("C. I. G." No.
4616) seems originally to have contained the name
Quietus, which was perhaps later erased at the com-
mand of Hadrian.

BiBi.iooRAPHY: Borghesi.fEurres. 1.500; Gr^tz^GfM-h.Mofi.,

iv. 116c< sw/., 4(1" cffcq.; Schurer. Gexch. Med., I.e.!" ' ■ "
ProKopogrnphia Iwprrii liomaiii. ii. SiS, No. :ti'i :
Die Tage Trajans uiid lladriau!', p. 90. liuierslol.. . ..
s. S. Ku.

aTJlRINIirS, p. STJLPICITTS: Roman --v-
ernor of Syria about 6 c.i:., wiiii whose name are ;is-
sociated events and problems of great importance.
After the banishment of Ai{CiiKi,.\is in the y- . ^^
a date confirmed by Dio Cassius (I v. 27 >. .1 .
came under the direct administration of the Romans,
and was incorporated with the province of Syria.
It thus becomes clear wliy the emjieror Augustus
should have ordered the ex-consul Quirinius (Greek,
Kiyiz/ivof) to Syria to levy an a.ssessment fJosephus,
"Ant." xvii. 13, t- 5). At the same time CoI'omi s
was sentas procurator of Judea; but Quirinius went
tliither al.so, since the levying of the tax on the
entire province was his special duty («A. xviii. 1, t; 1).

The assessment caused great dissjitisfaclion among
the Jews {if'.), and open revolt was prevented only
by the etforts of the high priest Joazar (i4. 2, § I).
The levying of tins assessment resulted, moreover, in
the revolt of Jri).\s tmk G.\i.ii.e.\n an<l in the forma-
tion of the party of the ZE.vLOTs(Josephu8." B.J." vii.
8, § 1 ; Lucas, in Acts v. 37). Josephus nu-ni ions the
assessment in anollier passage also ("Anf "w •''' - 2\

BiBMO(;RAPnY: The lltemiiire Is irlven In Scl

t>d.. I. ."i08-">4:<. the followintf wor'- '

T. Momiiisi'M, li>s (iflii hivi i

pp. 17."> (•( si-i/.): Kelin. t!i.Th. J. . . . .

ricli. 187:1: Slniiiss. /><».•< I.diat Jcjiu. litii wi.. i

Bonn. 189">: Edersheliii. I^i<f »f Jc«uf the .Vr*

London, 1883; HaverOeld. In The Claaictil lUvwi. ii"'.

<; O. iVR.

aUORUM. See AIiNYAN.

Itaab
Kabbah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

288

RAAB (Hungarian. Gyor) : Cliicf town of the
county of the same name, possessing one of the old-
est Jewish communities in Hungary. As early as
1490 a Jew named Simon, living in Raab, brought
a suit against the municipality. In the sixteenth
century the number of Jews in the place had largely
increased, as is evidenced by the fact that the of-
ficial records mention a "Jew street, facing the
mountain." In the second half of the seventeenth
centur}' General Montecuccoli expelled the Jews
from the town, admitting them to the fairs only.
According to a census taken in the middle of the
eighteenth century, about forty Jews were then re-
siding in Raab.

The synagogue built in 1798 is still used. The
corner-stone of the new synagogue was laid Oct. 15,
1869, and the building was opened Sept. 15, 1870.
Among the institutions supported by the Jewish
community are a grammar-school for both boys and
girls, a Talmud Torah, a hebra kaddisha, a women's
charitable society, and a society for the aid of the
sick.

The list of rabbis who have officiated since 1803
is as follows: Abraham Schick, Eleazar Strasser,
J. Salomon Freyer, Salomon Rauschburg, Gyula
Fischer, and Moritz Schwarz, the present incum-
bent.

D. M. Sz.

RAAMSES. See Rameses.
RAB ASHI. See AsHi.

RABA (properly, R. Aba) B. *TJLLA : Babylo-
nian amora of the third generation. The exact time
at which he lived is uncertain, although he was a
friend of 'Ulla, the pupil of R. Johanau (Yeb. 77a;
Hag. 25b). His comments are mentioned before
those of Raba b. Joseph b. Hama (Er. 21b; see the
variants in the edition of Rabbinowitz) and R. Papa
(Ijul. Ola). Raba was also a haggadist, and some
of his maxims have been preserved (Shab. 31b, 62b),
one of which is as follows: " When the Bible says,
'Be not over much wicked' [Eecl. vii. 17], it does
uot imply that one may sin a little; but it is rather
an exhortation to him who has once committed evil
not to repeat his iniquity, but to repent " (Shab. 31b,
according to the correct reading in Yalk., Eccl. ; see
the variants in Rabbiuowitz's "Variae Lectiones "
adloc).

This Raba b. 'Ulla must not be confounded with
the later Rabbah b.'Ulla, who was a pupil of Bibe
b. Abaye ('Er. 8a), although confusion frequently
occurs in the writing of their names.

Bibmoorapiiy: Hpllprin. ^e.der lia-Dnrot. ii. a"?:, Warsaw,
1««4; Bacher, Au- Hah. Amoi: pp. 139-140.
W. B. J. Z. L.

RABA (B. JOSEPH B. HAMA) : Babylonian
amora of the fourth gt-ncratioii ; boni about 280 c.e.
at ilahoza (where his father was a wealthy and dis-
tinguished scholar); died there in 352 (Shcrira, in
Neubauer, " M. J. C." i. 32). In his vouth Raba went

to Sura, where he attended the lectures of R. llisda
and associated with Rami b. Hama. About ten
years after the latter's death Raba married his
widow, the daughter of R. Hisda (Yeb. 34b).

The teachers of Ral)a were R. Joseph, Rabbah,
and, chiefly, R. Nahnian b. Jacob (who lived in
Mahoza). The chief companion of his studies was
Abaye, who was about the same age, and Ijoth of
them developed the dialectic method which R. Ju-
dah and their teacher Rabbah had established in
their discu.ssions of tradition; their debates became
known as the " Ilawayot de Abaye we-Raba " (Suk.
28a). Raba surpassed Abaye in dialectics; his con-
clusions and deductions were as logical as tliey were
keen, whereas those of Abaye, although very inge-
nious, were not always sound.

When, after the death of R. Joseph, Abaye was
chosen head of the Academy of Pumbedita (Ilor.
14a), Raba founded a school of his
Founds a own in Mahoza, and mauj- pupils,
School preferring his lectures to those of
at Mahoza. Abaye, followed him thither (B. B.
22a). After Abaye's death Raba was
elected head of the school, and the academy was
transferred from Pumbedita to Mahoza, which, dur-
ing the lifetime of Raba, was the only seat of Jewish
learning in Babylonia.

Raba occupied a prominent position among the
transmitters of the Halakah, and established many
new decisions and rulings, especiallv in ceremonial
law {e.g., Hul. 42b. 43b, 46b, 47a, b;>es. 30a). He
strove to spread the knowledge of the Ilalakah by
discoursing upon it in lectures, to which the public
were admitted, and many of his halakic decisions
expressly state that they were taken from such dis-
courses ('Er. 104a; Shab. 143a; Pes. 42a; B. B. 127a).
He was a master of halakic exegesis, not infre-
quentl}' resorting to it to demonstrate the Biblical
authority underlying legal regulations. He adopted
certain hermeneutic principles which were in part
modifications of older rules and in part his own
(comp. Bacher, "Ag. Bab. Amor." pp. 131-132).
He was regarded as a greater authority than Abaye,
and in cases where there was a ditference of opinion
between them Raba was generally followed; there
are only six instances in which Abaye's decision
was preferred (Kid. 52a).

Raba was as preeminent in Haggadah as in Hala-
kah. In addition to the lectures to his pupils,
he used to hold public discourses, most of them
haggadic in character, and many of his interpre-
tations of the Haggadah are expresslj' said to have
been delivered in public ((?.^., Sanh. 107a, 108b, 109a;
Hag. 3a, 15b ; 'Er. 21b ; et al.). Even
As more numerous are the interpretations

Haggadist. which, although not expressly stated
to have been delivered in public,
.seem to have been presented before a general au-
dience, since they do not differ from the others in
form. The greater part of these expositions, which
frequently contain popular maxims and proverbs

289

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Raab
Kabbah

<comp. liiicher, I.e. pp. 124 et seq.), refer to the first
books of the Hagiographa— Psiihns, Proverbs, Job,
Song of Songs, and P^'cU'siastcs.

Bachcr justly infers from tliis tliat the liaggadic
lectures of Raba were delivered iu connection with
the Sabbath afternoon service, at which, according
to a custom observed in Neiiardea and later, i)roba-
bly, in Mahozaalso, parashiyyot were read from tiie
Iliigiographa (Shab. 116b; Jiapoport, " 'Erek Mil-
lin," pp. 110 et mj.). Uaba tlierefore appended Ids
liaggadic discourse to the section whicii luid been
read.

The study of the Eaw is a frequent topic of Raba's
Haggaduii. In the reckoning in the future world
each one will be obliged to state whether he devoted
certain times to study, and whether he diligently
pursued the knowledge of the Law, striving to de-
duce the meaning of one passage from another
(Shab. 31a). Tlie Torah, in his view, is a medicine,
life-giving to tliose who devote themselves to it
wilii right intent, but a deadly poison for those Avho
do not properly avail tliemselves of it (Yoma 72b).
"A true discii)le of wisdom must be upriglit; and
his interior must harmonize with his exterior" {ib.).
Raba frequently emphasizes the respect due to
tcacliers of tin; haw (e.g., Sanh. 99b; Shab. 23b),
the proper methods of study ('Ab. Zarah 19a), and
the rules applicable to the instruction of the young
<B. B. 21a). In his Haggadah, furthermore, he re-
peatedly discusses the characters of Biblical history
(Sauh. 108b; B. B. 123a; Sotah34b; etc.).

Raba was secretly initiated, probably by his

teacher R. Joseph, into liaggadic esoterism (Bacher,

I.e. p. 130); he is the author of a

Mystical number of aphorisms which arc tinged
Tendency, with mysticism (see especially Sanh.
65b). On one occasion he wished to
lecture in the academy upon the Tetragrammaton,
but an old man prevented him, reminding liim that
such knowledge must be kept secret (Pes. 50a).
Raba enjoyed the special protection of the mother
of Shapur II., the reigning King of Persia (Ta'an.
24b), and for this reason, and in consideration of
large sums which he secretly contributed to the
court (Hag. 5b), he succeeded in making less severe
Shapur's oppressions of the Jews in Babylonia.

Bibuogr.\phy: Hellprln, Seder hn-Dorot, ii. 323-327; Griitz,
Ucsch. iv. 331-;«7; A. I. .laffe, in Berliner's Maaazin, 188.),
pp. 217-224 ; Bacher, An. Bah. A mor. pp. 108 ct seq.. 414-43:} ;
SVeiss, Dor, iii. 200-209; Halevy, jDorot ha-RLshonim, li. 4.3-
480.
W. B. J- ^^- T^

BABA B. ADA : Babylonian amora of the third
generation; pujiil of R. Judah b. Ezekiel at Pum-
bedita (Bezah 33b). He quoted sayings by Rab
which he had heard from his (Raba's) father or from
R. Judah (Men. 39a; Yoma 53b; comp. Ta'an. 24b),
and aphorisms l)y R. Isaac (Tem. 29a; Mak. 18b),
but none of his own sayings has been preserved.
Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-DoroU H. 337.

AV. B. J- Z. L.

RABAD. See Abkaham ben David of Pos-

<^UIEUES.

BABAI OF ROB : Youngest sabora of the first
generation; succeeded R. Simona as head of the
Academy of Pumbedita; died iu 550. Sherira says
X.— 19

of him, " It is said that he was a gaon." This, how-
ever, does not mean that he was the first gaon.
Slierirau.ses theterm "gaon" asequivak-nt lo "liead
of a seiiooi," for he says of R. Jose al.so, tlie last of
tiie Amoraim, that he was a gaon, though in his
case it can mean only " head of a hcIiooI."

Bini.io(iUAi'iiv : SlHTlru. in .Nfiilmuor. M. J. C. \. a*-3.'); GrtU.
Uesch. V. 7, not4.'2; Uulevy, iMiuit ha-IiishdUim, III. 27 30.
w. H. J. Z. L.

RABBAH (RABBATH) : Capital of the Am-
monites, wliere, according to Deut. iii. 11, the bed
of tiie giant Og was shown. David I'' 1 iind
took tiie city (II Sam. xi. 1), but undiT :i, dt

soon after tlie division of the kingdom, when Am-
nion regained its independence, Rabbah again l)e-
came a great and llourisiiing place witii inagniticeDt
jialaces, and tlie Propliets more tlian onceannouiu ed
the destruction of it as of a liated enemy (Amos i.
14; Jer. xlix. 4; Ezek. xxv. 5). In the post exilic
l)eriod nothing is known of the city until the Dias-
pora, wlien it was rebuilt on a magniticeiit scale by
Ptolemy Philadelphus and nanwd Philad(-I])hia. It
then became one of the most important Hellenistic
cities of the east-Jordan country ; it belonged to the
Decapolis. The city was taken by Antiochus Epiph-
anes in 218 B.C., and continued to flourish in the
Roman time, as is shown by its ruins, which lie in
a well-watered valley, on both sides of tlie Nahr
Amman. The date of its destruction, which wiis
due in great part to earthquakes, is unknown. The
Arabic liistorian and geographer Abu al-Fi(hi states
that it was in ruins when the Mohammedans con-
(juercd Syria.

The ancient name has been preserved in the pres-
ent'Amman, which replaced the Greco-Roman name;
this has happened fie<iuently in Palestine. The
fortress was situated on the hill on the northern
side, and the "city of waters," on the lower part of
the stream, is distinguished from the city proper
{i.e., the upper part, with the fortress on the hill)
as early as the account of David's campaigns (II
Sam. xii. 27 et seq.). A colony of Circassians is now
settled in the ruins.

BiBUOORAPiiv: Siirvcuof Kn.-(. di raUMitir. ■^'""•'l'';t- j-}^
ctseq.; G. A. Smith, Hi.^'tnricnl 'iVoyrd/i/n/. pp. .>!«>-«»<;
BaedeliHr, Palestine, Otli ed., pp. l-".* el .sc.;.

E. G. H. ^- "•■••

RABBAH B. ABUHA : Babylonian amom of
the second generation; teacher and father-in-law of
R. Nahman b. Jacob. He was related to the hous*.'
of the e.xilarchs (Letter of Sherira Gaon. in Ncu-
bauer, "M. J. C." i. 23; Halevy. " Dorot Im-Risho-
nim " ii. 412), and is even said to have been an ex-
ilarch himself (Weiss, " Dor." iii. 176; Bacher, " Ag.
Bab. Amor." p. 46). He liv.-d at Nehardea; and
after the destruction of that city in O.-iO he went
with his son-in-law to Mahoza. where they Inith s.-t-
tled (Letter of Sherira, I.e. p. 29). There arc allu-
sions to a number of decisions and rulings made by
him while at the latter city (Yeb. 115b; Shab. 59b:
'Er. 26a). He was a iMipil of Rab (Abba Arika),
whom he fre.iu.ntlv cited as an authority (Sanb.
63a; Shab. I29b, 136b; 'Er. 75b. a5a, 86a; Git. 62b;
and manv other passjiges).

Rabbaii was not a prominent teacher; and he
himself admitted that he was not thoroughly versed

Rabbah G^on
Babbah b. Mari

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

290

even in the four orders of the Mislinah, which were
generally studied in the schools (B. M. 114b). Some
of his interpretations of various niishnaic passages
have been preserved {e.g., Ber. 53b; Shab. 57a;
Sheb. 49b), as well ascoufirraationsof earlier halakot
{e.g., B. K. 46b; Shab. 149a). and halakic decisions
of his o\\n{e.g., Ber. 21b; Shab. 76b; B. M. 91b).
The following haggadic ma.vini bj- him may be cited
here: "The commandment to love one's neighbor
[Lev. xi.\. 18] must be observed even in the execu-
tion of a criminal, since he should be granted as
easy a death as possible " (Ket. 37b). According to
a legend, Kabbah was a friend of the prophet Elijah
(Meg. lob; B. M. 114a, b), who gave him leaves
from jiaradise, so that he became rich (B. M. I.e.).

Bibliography : Heilprin. firder hn-Dorat, ii. 335-336. Warsaw,
1882: Weiss, Dor, ili. 17&-177 ; Bather, Au. Bah. Amtrr. pp.
46, 81 : Halevy, Dorut ha-Rinhmiim, ii. 206a-207b.
w. B. J. Z. L.

KABBAH GAON (MAR RABA) : Gaon at
PuinbL'ditu from 64U to 6.jU (lialev\', "Dorot ha-
Rishonim," iii. 177; comp. "Sefer ha-'Ittur," i. 59b);
or, according to Gratz, from 670 to 680. He was a
contemporary of Huna, gaon of Sura. These two
school leaders were the authors of a very important
regulation regarding divorce. According to Tal-
mudic law, a wife may seek a divorce only in very
rare cases, as when her husband is afflicted with
a loathsome disease or is engaged in an offensive
business. Their decision, however, made it possible
for a woman to secure a divorce on grounds of in-
compatability, and that without the necessity of
waiting a year from the date of application and
without suffering any loss of property, which had
been the previous practise (Sherira, in "Sha'are
Zedek," No. 15, cd. Cassel). This decision intro-
duced legal equality between man and wife.

BiBLiOfiRAPHV : Sherira, In Neubauer, M. J. C. i. 35: GrStz,
Gesch. V. 117, 3t9; Halevy, Darot ha-Rishonim, Iii. 173-177.

w. B. J. Z. L.

RABBAH B. HANA (R. ABBA B. HANA
OF ELAFRI) : Babylonian amoia of the first gen-
eration ; nephew of R. Hiyya and cousin of Abba
Arika (Rab; Sanh. 5a). Like Rab, he went to Pal-
estine, where he was one of the prominent pupils of
Judah ha-Nasi I. When he was about to return to
Babylonia he was empowered by the latter, at the
instance of R. Hiyya, to decide all forms of relig-
ious questions and to officiate as dayyan {ib. ). After
his return Rabbah was frequently associated with
his cousin Rab (Kid. o9a; B. B. 52a). He trans-
mitted a saying of his uncle R. Hiyya (Yer. B. K.
X. 7b) ; and some of his own halakic sayings have
been preserved (Hul. 100a, where " Rabbah b. Hana "
should be read instead of " Rabbah bar bar Hana " ;
Yer. Bezah iv. 62d ; Yer. Shab. iv. 7a; Yer. Git. i.
43b, quoted by Ze'era).

Bibliography: Heilprin. Seder ha-Dornt, ii. 331; Frankel,
Meho. p. 57a, b ; Gratz, Oesch. Iv. 197, 2.57.
W. B. J. Z. L.

RABBAH BAR BAR HANA : Babylonian
aiiioni of the second generation ; grand.son of Hana,
the brother of Hiyya. He went to Palestine and
became a pupil of R. .lohanan, whose sayings he
transmitted. Rabbah bar bar Hana (Rabbah bar
Rabbah bar Hana) does not seem to have en-

joyed high regard in his adopted countrj', for it was
taken as a matter of course that R. Simeon b. La-
kish should not do him the honor of addressing him
in public (Yoma 9b). After a somewhat prolonged
sojourn in Palestine he returned to Babjionia, re-
siding both at Pumbedita and at Sura. In the
former city he at first refused to attend the lectures
of R. Judah b. Ezekiel (Shab. 148a), but he soon
became his friend, and was consulted by him in dif-
ficult cases (M. K. 17a). Judah and his pupil Rab-
bah b. Nahmani once visited Rabbah, who was ill,
and submitted a halakic question to him. While
they were there a Zoroastrian priest ("geber")
suddenly appeared and extinguished the lamp, the
day being a festival of Ormiizd, on which Jews
were forbidden to have fire in their houses (GrUtz,
"Gesch."' 2d ed., iv. 292). Rabbah thereupon sor-
rowfully exclaimed: "O God, let us live either un-
der Thy protection, or at least under the protection
of the children of Esau " (the Romans ; Git. 16b-17a). _

The persecutions of tlie Babylonian Jews by the
Sassanids caused Rabbah to resolve to return to
Palestine (Pes. 5 la), although it is nowhere said that
he carried out that intention. During his residence
at Sura he wished to introduce the recitation of the
Decalogue into the daily prayer, but was dissuaded
by R. Hisda (Ber. 12a). Later he visitei^ Mahoza,
and he tells of the wonderful feats he saw per-
formed there by a juggler (B. B. 73a, b; comp.
Bacher, "Ag. Bab. Amor." p. 88, note 7, Avith
Neubauer, "G. T." p. 398).

Some haggadic sayings b}' Rabbah bar bar Hana
have been preserved. He compares the Law to fire
(Jer. xxiii. 29), in that as fire does not
Hag'g-adic start of itself neither does the Law
Aphorisms, endure in solitary study (Ta'an. 7a).
His interpretations of Prov. ix. 3, 14
and Isa. xxviii. 26 (see Sanh. 38a, 105a) also are note-
worthy ; his saying that "the soul of one pious man
is worth the whole world " (Sanh. 103b) is especially
memorable.

Rabbah bar bar Hana's stories of his marvelous
experiences during his voyages and his journeys
through the desert have become famous. These
accounts may be divided into two classes. In the
first he records his observations, generally begin-
ning with the words "I have seen." Among these
are his remarks regarding the identity of the most
fertile part of Palestine — "the land flowing with
milk and honey" (Ket. lllb-]12a); the distance
between Jericho and Jeru-salem (Yoma 39b); tlie
area of the district in the plains of Moab mentioned
in Num. xxxiii. 49 as the camp of the children of
Israel (Yoma 75b); the castor-oil plant cultivated in
Palestine, or the gourd of Jonah (Shab. 21a). Here
also belong his accounts of his relations with the
Arabs, one of whom once used a term which ex-
plained to him the word i^n' in Ps. Iv. 23 (Ket. 72b,
75a; Yet). 120b; R. II. 26b).

The other group of the narratives of

Fantastic Rabbah l)ar bar Hana includes his fan-
Ad- tastic adventures on the sea and in the

ventures, desert. In these stories one of the most

conspicuous figures is the Arab who

was the guide of Ral)bali and his companions on

their journey through the desert. This Arab knew

291

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rabbah Oaon
Babbah b. Marl

the route so well that he could tell from the odor of
the saiul when a spring was near (B. B. 73b). The
travelers passed throutrli the desert in which tiie
ciiildren of Israel wandered for forty years, and the
Arab showed Mount Sinai to Kabbah, wlio heard
the voice of G<h1 speakiuir from the mountain and
regretting Israel'sexile. Tlie Arab likewise pointed
out tiie place where Koraii and Ins followers had been
swallowed by the earth, and from the smoking abyss
Rabbali heard tlie words, "i^Ioses is truth and liis
teachings are truth, but we are liars" (B. li. 74a).
lie was shown the gigantic bodies of the Israelites
who had died in the desert, lying face upward, and
the phice where lieaven and earth almost touclied,
so tliat he coidd watch the rotation of the heavenly
spheres around the earth iu twenty-four hours (ib.).
Kabbah's stories of his adventures on tlie sea re-
semble tales of other navigators concerning the im-
mense size of various marine animals. As an exam-
ple tlie following one may be cited: "Once, while
on a siiip, we came to a gigantic lish at rest, which
we supposed to be an island, since there was sand
on its back, in which grass was growing. We
therefore landed, made a fire, and cooked our meal.
But when the fish felt the heat he rolled over, and
we would have drowned had not the ship been
near" (B. B. 73b). Here the resemblance to the
later voyage of Sindbad is obvious. Rabbah him-
self tells how his tales were received. In regard to
two of them his colleagues remarked, "All Kabbahs
are asses and all Bar bar Hanas fools" (B. B. 74a).
Rabbaii's stories have called forth an entire litera-
ture; in addition to the numerous commentaries on
the haggadic portions of tlie Talmud which dwell
by preference on these accounts, more than twenty
essays interpreting and annotating them have ap-
peared in various periodicals.

Bibliography: Heilprin, Seder ?ia-Doro(, it. 331 : Bacher,^!/-
Bab. Amor. pp. 87-93.

w. B. J- Z. L.

RABBAH B. HAN AN : Babylonian amora of
tlie fourth generation ; pupil of Kabbah bar Nahmani
and a colleague of Abaye, who was of the same age
and liad been his fellow student (Ber. 48a, according
to the correct reading; comp. Kabbinowitz, " Varia;
Lectiones"). Kabbah bar Nahmani declared that
both his pupils would eulogize their teacher after
his death (Shab. 153a). Kabbah ben Hanan fre-
quently conversed with Abayo, addressing questions
to him ('Er. 14b, 38b, 45a, '68a, 75b; Shab. 148b;
Men. 14b; Bek. 54a). and he once called Abaye "tar-
da" (heedless one; Ker. 18b). He associated much
with Kaba also, expounding problems for him (Zeb.
55a) or addressing questions to him (Men. 40a; Be-
zah 12b). He resided at Artebaua, a small town
near Pumbedita, which he could easily reach on tiie
Sabbath ('Er. 51b), and he was evidently wealthy
{ib. ; comp. Kashi ad loc).

BinLiOGRAPHY : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, p. 335, Warsaw,

1882.

W. B.

J. Z. L.

RABBAH B. HIYYA OF CTESIPHON :

Babylonian amora of the second generation, lie is
said" to have performed the ceremony of halizali in
a manner which was considered allowable only by

one tanna, the majority disapjiroving. For this he

was censured by R. Samuel (Yeb. 704u).

Hiiii.ifxjiiAi'iiY : Heilprin, Seder ha-Durut, p. 337.

w. n. J. Z. L.

RABBAH B. HTJNA : nabyloniiin amora of
tlic tiiird gciK nitinii ; died in H22 ; son of K. Huna,
tiie iiead of tiie Ai iidiiny of Sura (H<il])rin, " S«-der
liaDorot," ii. 167b). He was a man of true piety
(Shab. 31a, b) and genuine modesty (M. K. 2«u;
comp. Git^. 43a), and was urged liy Ids father to at-
tend K. Hisda's lectures diligently and l<> profit by
his acumen. At tirst, however, Rabbali hclil aloof
becau.se matters were discusse*! which did not a|ipeul
to his earnest nature (Shab. 82a); but later he Ijc-
came clo.sely associated with R. Hifula, and was ap-
pointed judge under him (ib. 10a); suksoquenlly the
two treated of haggadic subji-cLs togellu-r (Pes.
110a, 117a; Sotah SUa). After the death of R. Ijis-
da, Rabbah became the head of tl>e Academy of
Sura, though he apparently held this position
without the approval of the exilarch. Hi.s general
relations with the exilarchate were by no means
friendly, and lie declared himself independent of ita
authority (Sanh. 5a).

A number of halakicand a few haggadic .sentences
of Rabbah b. Huna have been preserved: "He
who is insolent must be considered a transgressor"
(Ta'an. 7b). "When one falls into a rage he loses
the respect of God " (Ned. 22b). " He who possesses
learning [in the Torah], but is without the fear of
God, is like unto a steward to whom have been given
the keys of the inner storehouses but not the outer
keys; he can not gain access to the storehouses"
(Shab. 31a, b).
Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dnrnt. pp. l«Th. liXx War-

siiw. 1882 ; Weiss, Dor, ill. 195; Badier, Au- Halt. Amor. pp.

tK>-<a.

W. B. •> ^- ^■

RABBAH B. LIWAI : Babylonian amora of
the fourtli generation; contemporary of Raba b.
Joseph- b. Hama, two of whose decisions he proved
to be wrong, thus compelling their annulment (Pe.s.
40b ; ' Ab. Zarah Gob). A sjiyiug of his has been pre-
served (Nid. 46b). Kaba was extremely vexc«l with
iiim, and once, when a misfortune befell Kabbah,
Kaba said that it was a punishment for having con-
futed him during a public discourse (Pes. 110a).
Bibliography: Heilprin. Seder h<i-I>)n»Ml. 335. Warsaw. 1888.

w. B. "^^ Z. L.

RABBAH B. MARI : Babylonian amora of the
fourth generation, who resided for a time in Pales-
tine and then returned to his liome (Yoma 78a).
where he transmitted aplmrisms of K. Johanan (B.
K. 92a) and especially of R. Joshua b. Levi (Ber.
42b, 44a). He also delivered haggadic lectures ("Er.
86) of which some passages were known even in
Palestine (Yoma 86b: B. B. 16b). altlunigh his name
is mentioned neither in the Palestinian Talmud nor
ill midiasliic literature.

He was a frequent visitor at the house of R i^-i
(Ber. 42b), on whose haggadah he exercised gi-ii
iiitluence. Raba asked for the Biblical ba-sca of the
ideas expressed in manv aphorisms current am. nc
scholars (B. K. 92a: Yeb. 62b), and the ans«. r,
given satisfied him. Raba also showed Rabbah thir-
teen popular provcrl)8, for which the latU-r gave

Babbah b. Matna
Rabban

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

292

references to the Bible (B. K. I.e.); and it is note-
worthy in this connection that Rabbah cited a pas-
sage from Ben Sira (Eccius. [Sirach] xiii. 15) and that
he regarded the latter as one of the hagiographic
"ketubini." In reply to Raba's inquiries, Rabbah
b. Marl also interpreted the passages in Jer. xxxiv.
5 and II Kings xxii. 20 as being in entire harmony
with Jer. xxxix. 7 and II Cliron. xxxv. 23 (M. K.
28b).

Bibliography: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dnrot. ii. 169a, Warsaw,
18.S2; Bacber. Ao- Bab. Ami>r. pp. 124-127.
\V. H. J. Z. L.

BABBAH B. MATNA : Babylonian amora of
the fourth generation ; contemporary and colleague
of R. Zera II. Rabbah was slow and careful in his
methods, and his conclusions were generally correct
and were accepted as authoritative in practical mat-
ters (Hor. 14a). Rabl)ali is mentioned in two other
passages in the Talmud; one being Shab. 21a,
where he transmits a baraita, and the other Pes.
34a, where he comments on a difficult mishnaic
passage.

Bibliography: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dnrnt, ii. 338, Warsaw,
1882 : Halevy, Dorot ha-RUshonim, ii. 460-461.
w. B. J. Z. L.

RABBAH B. NAHMAN B. JACOB : Baby-
lonian uuioraof the third generation; contemporary
of Rabbah b. Huna, with whom lie was closely as-
sociated. The latter visited him at his home (Shab.
119a), and once sent him a question, addressing him
with the words, "May our teacher teach us" (Yeb.
25a). These friendly relations, however, were sub-
sequently disturbed, for Rabbah b. Nahman once
had some of Rabbah b. Iluna's trees cut down be-
cause they stood on the banks of a river and inter-
fered with the river traffic. When Rabbah b. Huna
heard of this he cursed Rabbah b. Nahman: "Maj'
the offspring of him who caused these trees to be
cut down be uprooted." It is related that Rabbah
b. Nahman's children died in consequence of this
malediction (B. M. 108a).

Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dornt, ii. 336, Warsaw, 1882.
w. 15. J. Z. L.

RABBAH B. NAHMANI : Babylonian amora
of the thiid generation; born about 270; died about
330; a descendant of a priestly family of Judea
which traced its lineage to the prophet Eli (R. H.
18a). He was a pupil of R. Huna at Sura and of
R. Judah b. Ezekiel at Pumbedita, and so distin-
guished himself as a student that R. Huna seldom
decided a (luestion of importance without consult-
ing him (comp. Git. 27a; B. M. 181); B. B. 172b:
Yeb. 61b). His brethren in Palestine were little
pleased with his residence in Babylonia, and wrote to
liim to come to the Holy Land, where he would find
a teacher in R. Johanau, since it would be far bet-
ter for him, wise though he was, to have a guide
than to rely on himself in his studies (Ket. Ilia).
Rabbah, however, seems not to have answered this
urgent request, and apparently never left Baby-
lonia, all supposed evidence to th(! contrary being
refuted by Bacher (" Ag. Bab. Amor." pp. 1*7 c( xeq.).
In Shebu. 10b and Ned. 57a, where Rabbah is asked
by R. Hisda, "Who will listen to thee and thy
teacher R. Johauan?" the latter is only figuratively

called Rabbah s teacher. There is no foundation
for the theory which attributes to Rabbah the
authorshij) of the haggadic compilation Bereshit
Rabbah and of the other mitlrashic works bearing
the designation of " Rabbah " (Abraham ibn Daud,
"Sefer ha-Kabbalah," in Neubauer, "M. J. C."
p. 58).

Rabbah was not a prolitic haggadist and was,
therefore, scarcely fitted to project such a collection
of haggadot. While most of his halakic aphorisms
have been preserved, only about ten of his haggadic
sayings are known (Sanh. 21b, 26b; Shab. 64a; Pes.
68b; Meg. 15b; Hag. 5b; 'Ar. 8b; 'Er. 22a; Git.
31b); evidently he had little interest in haggadic
exegesis. His main attention was devoted to the Ha-
lakah, which he endeavored to elucidate by inter-
preting the mishnaic decisions and the
Halakist. baiaitot. and by determining the fun-
damental reasons for the various Pen-
tateuchal and rabbinical laws and explaining the
apparent contradictions contained in them. He
often asks: "Why did the Torah command this? "
" Why did the sages forbid this? " His keen dialec-
tics won him the name of "'Oker Harim" (uprooter
of mountains; Ber. 64a), since he deduced new con-
clusions by separating individual passages from
their normal context. He did not confine his interest
to the practical ordinances of the JMishnah, however,
like his teacher R. Judah, but studied the entire
six mishnaic orders (Ta'an. 24a, b), and even in
the remoter subject of the Levitical regulations
on cleanness and uncleanness he was the leading
authority (B. ^l. 86a).

On the death of R. Judah, Rabbah was elected
"reshmetibta"of the Academy of Pumbedita, which
oflice he held until his death, twenty-
At Pumbe- two years later (Ber. 64a; Letter of
dita. Shcrira Gaon, in Neubauer, " M. J. C."
pp. 30-31). He greatly increased the
prestige of the academy and attracted a host of audi-
tors, so that during the " kallah" months his audience
is said to have numbered twelve thousand (B. M.
86a). He was wont to begin his lectures with witty
aphorisms and interesting anecdotes which put his
audience in a cheerful mood and made it receptive
of serious thoughts (Shab. 30b).

Rabbah frequently tested the judgment of his
audience, and quickened its attention l)y captious
questions and paradoxical halakot(Ber. 33b). With
all his critical ability, however, he was unable to
free himself from certain views on demonology
which he shared with his colleagues (Hul. 105;
comp. Bacher, I.e. p. 101, note). Rabbah was highly
esteemed by scholars, but was hated b}' the people
of Pumbedita because of his severe and frequent
denunciation of their fraudulent proclivities (Shab.
153a; Rashi (id loc).

Rabbah and his family lived in great poverty, and
seem to have suffered various calamities; even his
death was a wretched one. Tiie charge was brought
against him that during the kallah months his
twelve thousand auditors took advantage of his lec-
tures to escape tiieir poll-tax. Bailiffs were sent to
seize him ; but, being warned, he fled, and wandered
about in the vicinity of Pumbedita. His body,
which had been concealed by the birds (B. M. 86a),

293

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rabbah b.
Rabban

Matna

was found in a thicket where he had hidden from
liis pursuers. Many legends exist concerning his
death {ib.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hcitprin, Serlcr ha-Dorot, II. ;Vi2-ZU, Wnrsaw,
188a; Weiss, Doi; lii. 190-191; Uiilevy, D<iri)t ha-UMmnhn,
li. 21«a-220a; (iriitz, Gesch. Iv. a;i*i-327 ; Bacher, A(i- Hah.
Amor. pp. 97-101.
w. R. J. Z. L.

BABBAH OF PARZIKI : Babylonian amora
of the sixth generation; contemporary of R. A.shi,
with whom he often had discussions (Sotah 26b; Pes.
76b; B. K. 36a). His learned son lluua also was a
pupil of K. Ashi.

BmLiOGRAPiiY : Hellprin, Seder ha-Dorot., ii. 338.

w. B. J. Z. L.

RABBAH B. SAMUEL (called also Abba b.
Samuel) : Babylonian amora of the second half of
the third century; son of Mar Samuel of Nehardeu.
He was an associate of \\. Hiyya bar Abba, to whom
he addressed a question (Zeb. 105a, where he is called
Abba), of R. Hisda (B. K. 98b), and of R. Sheshet
('Er. lib, 3i)b; Sheb. 4ob). To the two last named
he communicated a number of baraitot previously un-
known to them. Rabbah b. Samuel was evidently
well versed in these traditions, since he appears in
Hag. 17b and R. H. 20a as expounding them. In
Ber. 29a he raises an objection to a tradition of his
father as cited by R. Nahman, and in Ber. 40a he
transmits others of R. Hiyya. A number of his own
apothegms, both halakic(Shab. 12b; Yer. Sanh. 21c)
and haggadic (Yeb. 63b; B. B. 15b; Meg. 14a, b),
have been preserved.

BiBi.ior.RAPHY : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot. ii. a36, Warsaw, 1882;
Baolier, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 533-533.
w. B. J. Z. L.

BABBAH B. SHELA : Babylonian amora of
tlic fourth generation; contemporary of Raba, and
a judge (Ket. 104b), probably at Pumbedita. His
strict honesty is shown by a judicial maxim of his
which states that a judge may not borrow anything
from those who are under his jurisdiction, unless he
is in a position to lend something in return, since
otherwise he may be bribed by the kindness which
has been done to liim in the making of the loan in
question (Ket. 105b). Rabbah was probably a pu])il
of 1^ Hisda, to whom he once addressed a halakic
<|uestion (Shab. 81a, b) ; he also quotes some of
llisda's halakic and haggadic passages (Sliab. 7a,
33a). He likewise transmitted maxims in the name
of R. Nahnian (B. B. 1551)) and of R. Matna (Hag.
23a). Several of his interpretations of Biblical pas-
sages have been preserved, some being liis inde-
pendent opinions (Yoma 54a, b; Men. 87a; Ned.
41a), while others were derived from his predecessors
(Ta'an.2a; Sotah 35b; B. B. 123b).

According to a legend, Rabbah had a conversa-
tion with Elijah in which he asked what was the
occupation of God, receiving the answer that He
was pronuilgating halakic maxims in the name of
the sages, altliough there were no citations from R.
Meir, becau.se he had studied under Aher (Elisha b.
Abuyah). Rabliah replied : " Why is (his? R. MeVr
has studied only the Torah under Aher, and bas
disregarded his other teachings, like one who tinds a
pomegranate and eats tiie fruit, but throws away
the rind." Thereupon Elijah said: "Because of

thine argument God has just quoted an aphorism
by R. MeYr " (Hag. 15b).

Bini.iofjUAPHV : Hfllnrln. Si-tUr ha-Dorol, II.X1&337, Waniaw,
1KK2; Bachtr, .!(/. hal,. Amor. 11. WO-Ul.
W. I!. ,1. A L

RABBAH TUSFA'AH(T08EFA'AH); IJub-

ylunian anu^ra ol tlie .si'Vciith ^41111 i;iiioii. He wua
a pupil of Rabina I. (Suk. 82a; conip. Halevy,
" Dorof ha-Rishonim," iii. 96) and a contemporary
of Rabina II., willi wliom, sometimes, he is men-
tioned in the Talmud (Shab. 95a; M. I^. 4a). A few
independent decisions of Rabbah have been j)re-
servcd (Her. 50a; Yeb HOb). Dne of tliem (Yeb.
80b) assumes that the pregnancy of a woman may
extend from nine to twelve months. Tin- chief
work of Rabbah was to comi)lete, by additions and
amplifications, the compilation of the Talmud begun
by R. Ashi. These additions consisted for the
most part of siiort, explanatory remarks, indispen-
sable for an understanding of Talmudic tliemes or
for deciding between the conflicting opinions of
older authorities (Halevy, I.e. p. 20). From these
additions and amplifications (tosafot) to tlie Talmud
he is said to have derived his name of Tosefa'ah
(= "the completer"; Halevy, I.e. iii. 19; BrUH's
" Jahrb." ii. 19). It is more probable, however, that
he was so named after his birtliplace — Tusfah
= Thospia (Briill, I.e.). Rabbah Tosefa'ah is seldom
mentioned by name in the Talmud — only in nine
places. However, all .sayings in the Babylonian Tal-
mud introduced by " Yesh omerim " (some say) are
ascribed to him (Heilprin, "Seder ha-Dorot," iii, 337:
Briill, I.e. ii. 13). Rabbah Tosefa'ah succeeded Mar
b. R. Ashi (Tabyomi) as head of the Academy of
Sura, which position he held for six years. He
died in 494 (Sherira, in Neubauer. "M. J. C." i.
34; Abraham ibu Daud, "Sefer ha-Kabba1ah," ib.
i. 59).

Bibliography: ]{e\\\)T\n, Seder ha-Dorot. U.^i^ ; W>'— ('■■'■.
iii. 314 315; Briill, Jnhrh. ii. 12-i:i, Frunkfort-oi,
1876; Griilz, Ge^ch. iv. 374; Halevy, I>yrof ha-Uifl-
95-98.
W. B. J- ^- ^•

RABBAH B. UFRAN : Babylonian amora of
the tliiid century. He transmitted a haggadic
aphorism of R. Eleazar b. Petlat (Meg. 15b); and
an independent haggadic interpretation of Jer. xlix.
38 by him has also been preserved (Meg. 10b).
Nothing further is known concerning him.

w. B. ■'• Z. L.

RABBAN (lit. "our teacher." "our mastxr"):
Title given only to patriarchs, the presidents of the
Sanhedrin. The first person to be called by tliis title
was the jiatriarch Gamaliel I.. ha-Zaken. The title
was handed down from him to all succeeding p iT'
archs. According to Frankei (" Hodegetica in .Mi-
nam," p. 58). Gamaliel I. received this title becau-
presided over the Sanhedrin alone witiiout an ali ImI
din besiile him, thus becoming the sole master. Tliis
derivation. Jiowevcr. is disproved by the fact thai Ga-
maliel's father, Simon b. Hillel. was not called by tint
title, although he was the sole president of the S:ii,
hediin ami had no ab bet din beside him. Another,
still more improl)able, explanation of the titl. is
given by Briill ("Einleitung in die Mischnali." i 51 1.
It is more likelv that there was no special rcai^n

Rabban, Joseph
Rabbi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

294

for the title, beyond the fact that the people loved

and honored R. Gamaliel, and endeavored in this

way to express their feeling (Weiss, " Dor," i. 179).

E. c. J- Z. L.

RABBAN, JOSEPH. See Cochin.

BABBENU HA-KADOSH. See Jidah I.

RABBI ('21 = "my master").— The Title:
Hebrew term used as a title for those who are dis-
tinguished for learning, who are the authoritative
teachers of the Law, and who are the appointed
spiritual heads of the community. It is derived
from the noun 21, which in Biblical Hebrew means
"great" or "distinguished," and in post-Biblical
Hebrew, " master " in opposition to " slave " (Suk. ii.
9 ; Git. iv. 4) or " pupil " (Ab. i. 3). In the Palestinian
schools the sages were addressed as " Rabbi " (my
master). This term of respectful address gradually
came to be used as a title, the pronominal suffi.x "i "
(my) losing its significance with the frequent use of
the term. Nathan ben Jehiel, in the " 'Aruk " (s.r.
"3X), quotes the following passage from the letter
addressed by Sherira Gaou to Jacob ben Nissim with
regard to the origin and signification of the various
titles derived from 21 : " The title ' Rab ' is Babylo-
nian, and that of ' Rabbi ' is Palestinian. This is
evident from the fact that some of the tannaim and
amoraira are called simply by their names without
any title, e.fj., Simon the Just, Antigonus of Soko,
Jose ben Johanan ; some bear the title ' Rabbi, '
e.g., Rabbi Akiba, Rabbi Jose, etc. ; others have the
title 'Mar,' e.g., Mar 'Ukba, Mar Yanuka, etc. ;
others again bear the title ' Rab, ' e.g. , Rab Huna,
Rab Judah, etc. ; while still others have the title
'Rabban,' e.g., Rabban Gamaliel and Rabban Jo-
hanan ben Zakkai. The title ' Rabbi ' is borne by the

sages of Palestine, who were ordained

"Rabban," there by the Sanhedrin in accordance

"Rabbi," with the custom handed down by

and the elders, and were denominated

"Rab." 'Rabbi,' and received authority to

judge penal cases; while 'Rab' is
the title of the Babylonian sages, who received
their ordination in their colleges. The more ancient
generations, however, which were far superior, had
no such titles as 'Rabban,' ' Rabbi,' or 'Rab,' for
either the Babylonian or Palestinian sages. This is
evident from the fact that Hillol I., who came from
Babylon, liad not the title 'Itabban' prefixed to his
name. Of the Prophets, also, who were very emi-
nent, it is simply said, ' Haggai the prophet,' etc.,
'Ezra did not come up from Babylon,' etc., the
title ' Rabban ' not being used. Indeed, this title is
not met with earlier than the time of the patriarchate.
It wasfirstusedof Rabban Ganialifl the elder, Rabban
Simeon his son, and Rabban Jolianau ben Zakkai, all
of whom were patriarchs or presidents of the Sanhe-
drin. The title ' Rabbi,' too, came into vogue among
those who received tlie laying on of hands at this
period, as, for instance, Rabbi Zadok, Rabbi Eli-
ezer ben Jacob, and others, and dates from the time
of the disciples of Rabban Johanan ben Zakkai
downward. Now the order of these titles is as fol-
lows: 'Rabbi' is greater than 'Rab'; 'Rabban,'
Bgain, is greater than ' Rabbi ' ; while the .simple name

is greater than ' Rabban. ' Besides the presidents of
the Sanhedrin no one is called ' Rabban.' "

Sherira's statement shows clearly that at the time

of Jesus there were no titles; and Griltz ("Gesch."

iv. 431), therefore, regards as anach-

' ' Rabbi " ronisms the title " Rabbi " as given in

in the the gospels to John the Baptist and

Gospels. Jesus, Jesus' disapprobation of the

ambition of the Jewish doctors who

love to be called by this title, and his admonition

to his disciples not to suffer themselves to be so

styled (Matt, xxiii. 7, 8).

A different account of the origin and the signifi-
cation of the titles is given in tlie Tosefta to 'Edu-
yot (end): "He who has disciples and whose disci-
ples again have disciples is called ' Rabbi ' ; when
his disciples are forgotten [i.e., if he is so old that
even liis immediate disciples belong to the past
age] he is called ' Rabban ' ; and when the disciples
of his disciples are also forgotten he is called simply
b}' his own name."

In modern times the term " Rabbi " (in Judaeo-
German, " Rab ") is u.sed as a word of courtesy sim-
ulating the English "Mister."

Bibliography: LightfootandWetsteinonJfaff. xxlii.7; Bux-
torf, De AbhreviaturU Hebraicis., pp. 127-17"; Carpzov,
Apparatus Ht'it<irico-Cnticw'< Antkruitatum et Codicis
Sacri et Oentis Hehrcvce. p. 139; Winer, B. R. H. 296: Pres-
sed in Herzog, Fteal-Enaic. 1st ed.. xii. 471 : Gratz, Gcsch.
iv. 431 ; Ewald, Gesch. v. 25, 305; Schurer, Gesch. ii. 315.

S. I. Br.
In Ancient Times : The rabbi in the Tal-

mudic period was unlike the modern official minis-
ter, who is elected by the congregation and who is
paid a stipulated salary. The function of the rabbi
of the Talmud was to teach the members of the
community the Scriptures and the oral and tradi-
tional laws. Tliere were three positions open to
him: (1) the presidency of the community with the
title "Nasi," (2) the head of the judiciary ("abbet
din "). and (3) the ordinary master of civil and ritual
laws and exemplar in charitable work and moral
conduct. For the first position the rabbi was elected
b}' the leaders of the community ; for the second,
by the members of the judiciary; while the third
position was a matter of duty imposed upon the
rabbi by the very Law he was teaching. All these
were honorary positions, without emolument, save
the bare living expenses of the rabbi when he gave
up his occupation for the public welfare (Shab.
n4a). The rabbi as a justice could claim only com-
pensation for loss of time (see Fek). Rabban Gama-
liel III. .said the study of the Law without employ-
ment l)rings transgression (Ab. ii. 2).

The Rabbis invariably had their private occupa-
tions. The elder Hillel earned a "tarpe'ik" {rpo-
TraiK6r = ii half-denarius) a day as a wood-chopper,
spending one-half of las earnings to gain entrance
to a bet ha-midrash ; Shammai was a builder (Shab.
31a); R. Joshua, who was elected nasi, a black-
smith (Ber. 2ba); R. Jose, father of R. Ishmael, a
tanner (Shab. 49b); Abba Hoshaiah

Vocations of T'lryi' ^ laundrymaii (Ycr. B. K.

of Rabbis, x. 10); R. Hanina and R. Osliaya,

shoemakers (Pes. 113b); Kama, a

wine-taster; R. Huna, a water-carrier (Ket. 105a);

Abba b. Zemina, a tailor (Yer. Sanli. iii. 6); and

295

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rabban, Joseph
Habbi

Hisda and R. Pappa were brewers of mead (Pes.
113a). Other rabbis whose names indicate their
callings are: Isaac Nappaha = " the smith"; K.
Johanan ha-Sandaiar = "the sandal-maker "; and H.
Abin Naggara = " the carpenter. " Rabbis were also
found as merchants, but principally as agricultur
ists (see Artisans).

The Rabbis were indirectly assisted by the prefer-
ence given to then> in their trades and business en-
terprises. Thus when R. Dim! of Nehardea im-
ported a vessel-load of dried (igs, tlie president of
the community (" re.sh galuta ") gave orders to " hold
the market" for R. Dimi(/.e., to allow him to dis-
pose of his goods first; B. B. 22a). The rabbi had
also the privilege of exemption from taxes, follow-
ing the instruction of Artaxerxes, "It shall not be
lawful to impose toll, tribute, or custom upon them "
(Ezfi vii. 24). Scholars were exempt from provi-
ding substitutes as laborers on public works; but
tliey were required to lend their services in digging
street wells (B. B. 8a).

The rabbi worked at his trade one-third of the day
and studied during the remainder. Some, espe-
cially farmers, worked in summer and studied in
winter (Eccl. R. vii.). R. Judah b. 'Ilai complained
that times had changed ; that the rabbis of former
generations spent most of their time in study and
less time in labor, yet succeeded in both, while those
of later generations made study subservient to labor
and failed in both (Ber. 35b).

Outside her household duties thewifeof the rabbi

was not connected with the business nor even with

the charitable concerns of her hus-

The band. Like all Oriental wives, she did

Rabbi's not mix in society beyond her own
Wife. family circle. All marketing was done
by the husband. Regarding the ques-
tion of matrimony, R. Johanan thought one could not
study the Law with "a millstone round his neck."
The consensus of opinion was that the home student
should not be fettered by matrimony, but that the
traveling student might be married before he started
for the yeshibah in a foreign country, the family in
this case being provided for beforehand, and there
being no fear of his being disturbed while studying
(Kid. 29b; Rashi ud loc). Rabasaiii to his pupils:
"I pray ye, do not come to see me in the days of
Nisan [harvest-time] nor in the days of Tishri
[viticulture-time], that ye may provide for your
maintenance for the whole j'car" (Ber. 3ob).

The title " Rabbi " was obtained through merit of
learning. Any one might become qualified as a
rabbi, irrespective of his antecedents. The cele-
brated Resh Lakish was a gladiator before he became
a rabbi. The circumstances under which he was
induced to give up his former life arc related as fol-
lows: "R. Johanan, seeing Resh Lakish diving in
the Jordan after him, remarked, ' Thy strength
should be preserved for the Law.' Resh Lakish re-
joined, 'And thy beauty for women.' Said Jo-
hanan, ' If thou wouldst be converted I will give
thee my sister, who is more beautiful tlian I. ' Resh
Lakish consented; and Johanan taught him the
Scriptures and the oral law and made of him a
great rabbi. One day the scholars at the bet ha-
midrash discussed the question, ' The sword, knife,

dagger, and spear, in what state of finisli are they

liable to contamination?" Johanuu referred the

question to licsh Lakish as a conipett-nt judge,

l{<sii Lakish took ollunse and irouic-

Converted ally asked. ' IIow didst thou bencdt

Brigand as me'.' Tliey called me "Rabbi" [eliief

Rabbi. of liie gladiators] llieii ; mid they cull

me " Ralibi " now.' Said Johanan. ' I

did benefit tliee by bringing thee iinder the wings

of the Sliekinah'" (B. M. «4a ; see Baelier. " Ag.

Pal. Amor." i. 344).

li. Judah Jia-Nasi ordained the son of R. Eleazur
as rabbi for the purj)ose of inspiring him with am-
bition to mend his ways and study the I.4iw. The
same Judah converted the licentious gnimlson of
R. Tarfon and induced him to become a rabbi by
promising him his daughter in marriage (il>.).

The personal appearance of the rabbi should
command respect. R. Johanan said, "The rabbi
should appear as clean and pure as an angel." He
quoted, "They shall seek the law at his mouth, for
he is the angel of the Und Rebaoth " (Mai. ii. 6.
Hebr. ; Mak. 17a). The Rabbis generally dressed
in long, flowing white robes, and sometimes wore
gold-trimmed official cloaks (Git. 73a).

The honor paid to the Rabbis exceeded even that
due to parents. The "elder in knowledge" was re-
vered even more than the "elder in years" (Kid.
32b). "When the nasi ent^-rs the as-

Honor sembly the people rise, standing till
Paid to the he bids them sit down ; when llie ab

Rabbis. bet din enters, they form a row on

each side of him, standing till betakes

his seat; when a hakam enters, each one ri-ses as the

wise man passes him" (Hor. 13b; comp. Kid. 33b).

The rabbi or hakam lectured before the Talmud
students at the bet ha-midrash or yeshibah. He
seldom spoke in public except on the days of Km,-
LAii, i.e., during the monthsof YA\\\ and Adur (Ber.
8b), and on the Sabbaths immediately preceding the
holy days, when he informed the jieople of the laws
and customs governing the approaching festivals.
The rabbi who was a haggadist or maggiii preached
before a multitude of men, women, and children
(Hag. 3a). A short sermon was delivered by him
every Sabbath after the reading of the Pentateuchal
portion (Sotah 41a; Bezali 3Sb). With regard lo
preaching on fast-days, funerals, and special occa-
sions see Kali.ah; M.\ggid; Yksiiiiiaii.

Bibliography: Schfirer. /fiat, of the Jeui*h Peoi>ff. v-^l~,
Edinburifh. I»t0 ; Mnnatsschrift, 1«C p. 66; IWM. p. :WJ.
J J. !)• E.

-In Modern Times : In the last quarter of

the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth

century a great change took place in regard to

the i)osition and requirements of the nilibi and

to the services expected of him. a change which

finally amounted to a compleU^ revolution of former

ideas. This change originateil in Gor-

Influence many, which country from that t

of Moses became the center for the dev. .. ;

Men- ment of Heform Judaism ami for
delssohn. llie scientific treatment of Jewi-li
history and Jewish religion. The im-
pulse to this movement was given by Mos«>s Men-
delssohn. Througli his translation of the Bible

Rabbi

Babbiner Seminar

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

296

into pure German, Mendelssohn taught his people
to speak the language of Germany, to read her
classical authors, and to feel that they were integral
parts of the nation in whose midst tliey lived; that
the country of their birth was their fatherland.
In this way he breathed new life into the sluggish
masses and educated the German Jews to take an
active part in the national literary and social life.

Meanwhile some rabbis of even large congrega-
tions remained out of touch with the educated
Jews. They came into contact with tlieir constit-
uents chiefly in the decision of ritual and cere-
monial questions, and in the performance of certain
legal acts, especially in connection with the laws of
marriage and inheritance. Their literary activity
was confined to casuistry, their opinions- being ren-
dered only in Hebrew. Some led lives so retired from
the world that their influence upon the members
of their congregations was scarcely perceptible.
Many of them, though very learned in Talmudical
lore, had not even the most elementary knowledge
of the things essential to a common education. They
could hardly make themselves understood in the
language of Iheir country. Some, again, addressed
their congregations only twice every year, and then
on subjects uninteresting to the great majority of
their hearers.

By the abolition of the specific Jewish jurisdic-
tion, the rabbis' acquaintance with the civil law of
the Jewisli code, to which in former times the great-
est attention had been paid, became unnecessary
for most practical purposes, and the imperative ne-
cessitj' for a general education became obvious.

After the foundation for a scientific treatment
of Jewish history and religion had been laid by
Leopold Zunz and his colaborers, a number of en-
thusiastic young rabbis, struggling against the most
violent opposition, strove to bring about a recon-
ciliation of rabbinism with the modern scientific
spirit. Foremost among these was Abraham Gei-
ger, who devoted his whole life to tlie battle for
religious enlightenment and to the Avork of jilacing
Judaism in its proper liglit before the world. He
and liis associates succeeded in arousing the German
Jews to the consciousness of their duties. By fear-
lessly uncovering existing evils they cast light upon
the proper sphere of rabbinical activity and showed
how the moral and religious influence of the rabbin-
ical office could be enhanced.

It was one of the results of their labors tliat some
congregations awoke to the fact tliat rabbis ouglit
to be more than merely Jewish scholars, that they
should be equipped with a thorough secular educa-
tion. Tliis tendency was furthered by the circum-
stance that first in Austria (under Joseph II.), next
in France, and thereafter in many other European
(especially German) states, the government began to
demand evidence of a certain degree of general edu-
cation from rabljiiiical aspirants.

The yesliibot, and uncontrolled instruction by indi-
vidual rabbis, were found to be increasingly unsatis-
factory. The necessity of preaching in tlie vernacu-
lar and of explaining and defending the Jewisli re-
ligion in a scientific manner involved sy.stematic edu
cation and training. Abraliam (Jeiger recoMiincndcd
and entJuisiastically worked for the establishment

of a faculty of Jewish theology at one of the Ger-
man universities, parallel to those existing for Chris-
tian theology. This would have been
Rabbinical the ideal solution of the question of

Schools. the education of Jewish rabbis; but

its application was prevented by

the inveterate jirejudice of the ruling authorities.

Tlie next best thing was the foundation of semi-
naries and special institutions of learning for Jewish
theology. These sprang up in rapid succession.
The oldest were that in Metz, founded in 1824 and
transferred to Paris in 1859, and that in Padua, Italy,
founded in 1837, where Samuel David Luzzatto was
the ruling spirit. Then followed the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary at Breslau in 1854 ; the Lehran-
stalt fur die Wissenschaft des Judeuthums in 1873
and the Rabbiuer Seminar in 1873, at Berlin; the
Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, founded by
Isaac M. Wiscin 1874; the Landesrabbiner.schule at
Budapest in 1877; tiie Jewish Theological Seminary
of America, New York, in 1886 (reorganized in
1901); and the Israelitisch-Tlieologische Lelirenstalt,
Vienna, in 1893.

While tiiese institutions have equipped many rab-
bis with a thorough knowledge of Jewish religion
and literature, based upon general education pre-
viously acquired at colleges and universities, they
have by no means abandoned the principle that
there is in Judaism no distinction between the
clergy and the laity except that given by superior
learning and character.

Frankel thus expresses this piinciple: *' In Juda-
ism there is no power endowed witii the right to
bind and to loose; there are no clergymen wlio by
higher insi)iration stand above tlie laymen; but only
teachers, who expound the Law and give infor-
mation thereof " ("Jahresbericlit des Breslauer Se-
minars," 1860, p. xviii.). Geiger observes: "The
practical theologian [rabbi, minister, or priest] holds
among the Jews the position of moral influence ap-
propriate to him. Neither as jiriest, liy his ordina-
tion, nor as oflicer, by the material power of the
state, is he entitled to interfere in tlie direction
of religious alTaiis; but only tiirough his knowledge,
through the call he receives from the congregation,
and through being imbued with the spirit, is he so
entitled and is he furtliennnre tlie custodian of the
eternal contents, of tiie transient history, and of the
further development, of Judaism; as such he is
entitled to a more authoritative voice than others.
As little as he is a master, .so little he is a mere serv-
ant" (Geiger, " Nachgelassene Schriften," ii.27).

In the Jewish religion the rabbi is no priest, no
apostle; he has no liierarcliical power. He is a
teaclier, one who unfolds and explains religion,
teaches the young in the school and the old from the
pulpit, and botli by his writings.

Bibmographv: Geiper, Tn.*'!. Zcit. JUd. TJirol. ii. 18 et neq.;
idem, JUd. Zril . XXfi'l, pp. 105 ft seq.: idi'iii, JVar/(f/c/ns,sc)l6
Scliriftni, ii. 'Z7-'M : (iiKiemunn, in MontUsschrift, lK(i4, pp.
09 rt si-<i.. 97 rt si-i/.. :W it sc./., 421 it ,s(</.: id.-ni, (liscji. i. 23,
24(): iii. .'il (I Kii/.; Hainlmrtrcr. II. Ii. T. Suppli'inciit iv., pp.
H2-HH ; Hiildliciiti, (iiittrsilini.'<tlii-hr Vorlrilui . Pl>. -xiv. ct xeq.,
Frankfort -iiii-tlic-.M;iiii, 1K(9: Liindaii, in Vv:i\\\<fV^'/.i itxvhrift
fUrtlii' Ucliqiiiscii l)ilrrc!<si)i ilrs .litiliDthttnis, IH-l.'i, pp. 139
ft .sc'/., 182 rt .st'f/..2I4<7,s(Y;.; Lc'iw, A'a(7i(/«'?'('<w/i<; .SWinYten,
iv. lot) 210, V. "iHetseq.; Zuuz, U.V. i., c-b. xxlv.; idem, Z. G.
pp. 185 et seq.

K. M. Lan.

297

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rabbi

Kabbiner Seminar

The chief distinction between the old and the

modern rabbi consists in the functions they sever-
ally discharge. The former, if living

The Old in Eastern countries under medieval
and conditions, was expected principally

the Modern to decide questions of law, ritualistic
Rabbi. or judicial, for people who adhere
scrupulously to the rabbinical code.
He supervised the religious institutions of the
community, such as the Mikwicii and the SiiK-
HiTAii, and, as head of the council of rabbis of the
town, formed a bet din for the giving of a get or
ahalizah; some of the other rabbinical functions,
such as preaching, were regarded of secondary im-
portance. It was his example rather than liis pre-
cept that led the community in the fear of God and
in a life of purity and sanctity.

The modern rabbi, on the other hand, though
trained to some extent in the halakic literature, is as
a rule no longer expected, except in extraordinary
cases and in matters concerning marriage or di-
vorce, to decide ritualistic questions; but greater
stress is laid upon his work as preacher and ex-
pounder of the tenets of Judaism, as supervisor and
promoter of the educational and spiritual life of the
congregation. In matters concerning ancient tra-
ditions and beliefs and the views and aims of mod-
ern culture he is looked to to reconcile the present
with the past. As the spiritual head of the con-
gregation he is on all public occasions regarded as
its representative, and accordingly he is treated as
the equal of the dignitaries of other ecclesiastical
bodies. In countries in which state supervisors
guard or support the interests of religion, the
function of the rabbi or chief rabbi is defined and
prescribed by the government, and accordingly the
necessary equipment and fitness are demanded of
him (see Jost, "Neuere Gesch. der Israeliten," i. 98,
131, 214, 260, 365, 372-377; ii. 100, 169).

As a matter of course, the example of the minister
in the Church, especially in Protestant countries,
exerted a great iutiueuce upon the function and
position of the rabbi in the Synagogue; even upon
his outward appearance, since the vestments of the
Christian clergy, or their abandonment, have some-
times been copied by the modern rabbi, much to
the chagrin of the followers of the tradition which
prohibited the imitation of non-Jewish rites as
"hukkat ha-goy " (see "Die Amtstracht der Rab-
binen " in L. Low's "Gesatnmelte Werke," iv.
216-234).

Another function of the modern rabbi which fol-
lows the pastoral practise of the Christian minister
is the oU'ering of consolation and sympathy to per-
sons or families in bereavement and distress, in
forms perhaps more cheering and elevating than
those formerly' in use. Here, as well as in his pul-
pit and educational work, the modern rabbi has the
opportunity of bringing the blessings of religion
liome to every individual in need of spiritual up-
lifting. He claims to have infused a new spijit
and ardor into the divine service and other religious
rites by his active participation therein; ami in the
communal work of charity and philanthropy he
takes a conspicuous share. Modern life with its
greater complexity and deeper problems has pro-

duced the new type of rabbi, possibly less ascetic
and not so well versed in Hebrew lore, but more
broad-minded, and more efficient in the direc-
tion of manifold activities in a larger field of usc-
fiilnesw. jf

RABBI. S( f Games and Sj'ohtb.

RABBI MOR. See LsSPKHtAlsniNKU

RABBINER, MORDECAI BEN ABRA-
HAM: Ku.ssian rabbi; born at Slob(»da, a suburb
of Hauske, Courlaml, n.lH; died at Hauske IKM) ■ a
descendant on liis niollier's side of .Mordecui Jaffe.
author of the "Lebushim." He was rabbi at Hauske
from 1800 to 1830, and wrote: "GeduIIat Mordekai."
respon.sa, and " Parashat Mfirdekai," sermonH, pub-
lished by his grandson Habbi Mr Uabblner to-
gether with his own rrsjK.tisa and those of his
father, Benjamin Salkind Rabbiner (1). at IJuuskc
1852), for many years president of the yesliiliah at
Dunaburg (Dvinsk) and since l^oi ,^ ralibi in New
York, U. 8. A. Zemah Rabbiner (It. ai IJauske
1862), a brother of Henjamin Salkind, studied at
Dorpat and Berlin, from wiiich latter place he grad-
uated with the degree of doctor of philosophy. He
published " Heitrilge zur Hebrilisehen Synonymik im
Talmud und Midra.shim." IJerlin, 1H99.

H P.

RABBINER SEMINAR FXTR DAS OR-
THODOXE JUDENTHUM: Tliis iiisiHiitiwn
was founded at Berlin by Dr. Israel Hildesheimer
tor the training of Orthodox rabbis. In accepting
the call as rabbi of the Berlin Orthodox party in
1869 he stipulated that he be allowed to continue
his activities as rabbinical teacher just as he had
done at his former rabbinical office in Eisenstadt,
Hungary. After delivering lectures whicli attracted
a great many jiupils, he addressed ten prominent
Ijersons in ditTerent ]iarts of Germany in 1S72, and
explained to them the necessity of organizing an
Orthodox rabbinical .seminary at Berlin. These men
at once took up the subject, and a central committee
was formed, which included Oberrath J. Altmann
of Carlsruhe, Rabbi Dr. A)ierbach of Halberstaclt.
Chief Rabbi Dr. Solomon Cohn of Schwerin, A. H.
Heymann (a banker) of Berlin, Gustav Hirseh of
Berlin, Sally Lewisohn of Hamburg, and Knianuel
Schwarz-schild of Frankfort-on-theMain. Tiies<'m-
inary was dedicated on Oct. 22, 1873. At the open-
ing of the institution the faculty included the rec-
tor, Dr. Israel Ilil'lcsheimer, and two lecturers. Dr.
David HolTmann (for the Talmud, ritual cfxiices,
and Pentateuch exegesis) and Dr. A. Berliner (for
post-Talmudic history, history of litemture. and
auxiliary sciences). In 1874 Dr. Jacob Bartli, sub-
sequently son-in-law of Hildesheimer. was added to
the faculty as lecturer in Hebrew, exegesis of the
Bible with the exception of the Pentateuch, and re-
ligious philosophy. Dr. llirsih Hildesheimer. son of
the founderand a graduate of the .seminary, was ap-
pointed in 18S2 lecturer in Jewish hi d ihe
geography of Palestine. When Dr. ."- Cobn
removed to Berlin from Schwerin in 1876 he took
charge of the courses in theoretic and practical homi-
letics, continuing them until he went to Breslau in
1894. By this time the attendance had greatly in-
creased, and owing to the large number of pupils

Eabbiner Seminar
Babe

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

298

at the institution it became necessary to employ a
new teacher; accordingly in 1895 Dr. J. Wohlge-
muth, a former pupil, was appointed. After the
death of the founder, Dr. Hildesheimer, June 12,
1899. Dr. D. Hoffmann, the lecturer, was elected rec-
tor of the institution.

The seminary is divided into an upper and a lower
division. Pupils in the lower division follow a two
years' course, being promoted to the upper division
on passing an examination; but pupils who have
quaiitied in the principal branches are immediately
admitted to the upper division. The course in this
division is one of four years. The conditions for ad-
mission to the seminary include, besides a blameless
religious life, the following: (1) the candidate must
prove by examination that he is able to understand
a moderately difficult Talmudic text, Riishi, and the
Tosafot ; (2) as regards the secular sciences he must
either have a certificate of graduation from a clas-
sical gymnasium or be able to show that he is fitted
for the graduating class of such a gymnasium. At
the end of the course, pupils who leave the institu-
tion as qualified rabbis must pass special examina-
tions showing that aside from their attainments in
the various branches of Jewish science they are suf-
ficiently familiar with the ritual codices to decide
correctly ritual and religio-legal questions.

In the thirty-two years of its existence the semi-
nary has graduated about two hundred pupils, most
of whom have become rabbis, although many have
accepted positions as teachers in higher institu-
tions of learning, or as librarians in large libraries.
Among them are Dr. Eduard Baneth, lecturer at the
Lehranstalt fiir die Wissenschaft des Judentums at
Berlin; Dr. Alexander Marx and Dr. Israel Fried-
lander, professors at the Jewish Theological Semi-
nary of America at Mew York ; Dr. Hart wig Hirsch-
feld, reader at the Jews' College, London ; Dr. David
Herzog, lecturer at the University of Prague; and
Dr. Jacob Horowitz, lecturer at the University of
Berlin.

The seminary is supported partly by the yearly
contributions of the members of an association es-
tablished for its support, partly by voluntary contri-
butions and by the interest derived from the fund.
The library is a very large and valuable one, and is
open to any one studying Jewish literature.

Bibliography: Annual Report of the Seminary for 1873-
1H7U; Dat Rahhiner-Seminar zu Berlin: Bericht ilher die
Ernten FUnf und Zvcamiu Jahm Seines Bestehens, Ber-
lin, 1899.

6. J. Z. L.

RABBINOWICZ, ISRAEL MICHEL : Rus

so-FrLiJcli autiior and translator; born at Horo-
detz, near Kobrin, government of Grodno, June 6,
1818; died in London May 27, 1893. His father, R.
Asher Zebi, like his grandfather R. Israel, was
rabbi of Horodetz; and Rabbinowicz received the
usual rabbinical education. In 1828 the elder Rab-
binowicz became rabbi of the neighboring city of
Antopol; and there the son grew up and became
noted as a clever Talmudist. He pursued his rab-
binical studies in Grodno and Brest, and afterward
studied Greek and Latin at Breslau, subsequently
entering the university of that city, where he stud-
ied philology and medicine. In 1854 he went to
Paris to finish his medical studies, and for several

years acted as " interne des hopitaux " in that city.
He received his degree of M.D. in 1865, but never
took up the practise of medicine seriously, being
too much absorbed in theoretical studies and in the
preparation of his works.

Rabbinowicz 's fame rests on his translations of
parts of the Talmud. His " Legislation Civile du
Talmud,"' a translation of entire tractates and parts
of tractates of the Babylonian Talmud, with intro-
ductions, critical commentaries, etc., comprises five
large volumes (Paris, 1873-80). His "Legislation
Criminelle du Talmud " {ib. 1876), critical transla-
tions of the tractates Sanhedrin, Makkot, and part
of 'Eduyot, was published by the French govern-
ment. He wrote also "La Medecine du Talmud"
and " Principe Talmudique de Schehitah et de Tere-
pha au Point de Vue Medicinal" {ih. 1877; German
edition Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1886). His intro-
duction to the Talmud was translated into Ger-
man by Sigmund Mayer ("Einleitung in die Ge-
setzgebung des Talmuds," Treves, 1881); his " Me-
bo ha-Talmud " appeared after his death (Wilna,
1894).

Rabbinowicz was besides the author of Hebrew,
Polish, French, and Latin grammars. Of his other
works and essays, the most noteworthy are: "Traite
des Poisons de Maimonide," Paris, 1865; "Le Role
de Jesus et des Apotres," i6. 1866; "La Religion
Nationale des Anciens Hebreux," 2'6. 1873; "Essai
sur le Judaisme," ib. 1877; and "Histoire Sainte:
Ancien Testament."

Bibliography: Ozar ha-Sifrut, lii. 117-123; Bisehofl, Kri-
tische Gesch. der Tatmud-tfebersetzitngen, p. 64, Franktort-
on-ihe-Maln, 1899 ; Ha-Asif, 1894 ; Ahicusaf, 1894.
n. u. P. Wi.

RABBINOVICZ, RAPHAEL NATHAN :

Talmudical scholar and antiquarian ; born at Novo-
Zhagory, government of Kovno, Russia, in 1835;
died at Kiev Nov. 28, 1888. At the age of twenty-
eight he left Russia, and, having spent some time in
Leinberg, Presburg, and Eisenstadt, went to Munich,
where he finally set-
tled. There he found
buried in the royal li-
brary the famous " Co-
dex Hebraicus." This
manuscript of the Bab-
ylonian Talmud was
written in 1342 and had
the good fortune to
escape the hands of the
censors. One hundred
and fifty years before
Rabbinovicz first saw
this manuscript its sig-
nificance had already
been pointed out by
R. Nathan Weil, the
author of the " Korban

Netan'el," but nobody had yet ventured to under-
take the immense task of editing it. Rabbinovicz
determined to make a critical examination of it.
His task was greatly facilitated by the munificence
of Abraham Mcrzbacher, a wealthy antiquarian of
Munich, whoapprojiriated a large sum of money for
the maintenance of Rabbinovicz while engaged in

Raphael Rabbinovicz.

299

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rabbiner Seminar
Rabe

his work of research, and who put his magnificeut
library at his disposal.

Kabbinovicz spent six j'ears in study and travel.
During this period he visited many libraries in
France, Italy, England, and Russia. Every wliere
he gathered material for his magnum opus, the
" Dii>dui<e Soferim." In 1868 tiie first volume, com-
prising Berakot and Zera'im, was published. It was
followed in quick succession by others; fifteen vol-
umes were published by 18S8; the si.xteentli vol-
ume was being prepared for publication when death
closed his career.

Tiie " Dikduke Soferim, Variie Lectiones in Misch-
nam et in Tahuud Babylouicum," a work that is
indispensable to the student of the Talmud and its
antiquities, gave to Rabbinovioz a world-wide repu-
tation. Scholars in every part of Europe, Jewish
and non-Jewish, turned to him whenevej- a disputed
point in Talmud needed to be elucidated. Among
other Avorka written or edited by Rabbinovicz are
the following: " Kontres 'Ikkere ha-'Abodah," a col-
lection of rules and regulations for the offering of
sacrifices at the Temple (Presburg, 1863); "Ga'on
Ya'akob," a treatise on 'Erubin by Rabbi Jacob of
Vienna; "Moreh ha-Moreh," a reply to the attacks
of Zomber in his "Moreh Derek " (Munich, 1871);
"YihuseTaua'im we-Amoraim,"a genealogy of the
great Talmudical rabbis, based on an old Oxford man-
uscript (edited, with notes; Lyck, 1874); "He'erot
we-Tikkunim," annotations to the"'Ir ha-Zedek "
of J. M. Zunz {ib. 1875); "Ma'amaral-IIadefasat ha-
Talniud," a critical review of the dilTereut editions
of the Babylonian Talmud since 1484 (Munich,
1877); "Oliel Abraham," a catalogue of Merzbach-
er's library (ib. 1888).

BIBLIOOKAPHY: Milnchcnrr AUgemeine Zeitxinq, Nov., 1888;
Ha-McUz, Nov., 18S8; Zeitlin, Bihl. Post-Mendelx. p. 281.

H. K. J. Go.

RABBINOWITZ, SATJL PHINEHAS

("1 DC') : Russian Neo-Hcbrew publicist and histo-
rian ; born in Taurogen, government of Kovno, April
8, 1845. At tiie age of five he was taken to Wilna,
where Ins father, Samuel ]\Iordecai Rashkes, became
rabbi of the old suburb of Shnipishock. Saul re-
ceived his Hebrew and Talmudic education from
his father and his maternal grandfather, Simon
Zarhi, rabbi of Taurogen. At the age of fourteen
he entered tlie yeshibah of R. Jacob Barit; at eight-
een he was ordained rabbi. A Protestant minister of
Poniemuni, near Kovno, taught him the rudiments
of German, to which Rabbinowitz added a knowl
edge of several otlier languages. In 1871 he began
to contribute to "Ha-Maggid"; in 1874 lie settled
in "Warsaw, wliere he still (1905) resides. From
1877 to 1882 lie was one of the ciiief collaborators
of "Ila-Zefiraii" (to whicli he contributed a biog-
raphy of Ckkmieitx), and he was afterward em-
ployed in a literary and secretarial capacity by the
CiiovKVEi ZioN. From 1886 to 1887 lie edited
volumes 1 to 3 of the year-book " Keneset Yisrael "
(Warsaw), and he edited also the succeeding two
volumes of that annual publishe<l by Isidor Hur-
witz. In 1888 he began the work on which his
reputation rests: the translation of Griitz's "Ge-
schichte der Juden " into Hebrew.

The first volume of the Hebrew translation (War-

saw, 1890), whidi bfurH the title " Dibre hu-YumJm
li-Beue Yisruei," lias u short Hebrew prefucu by
Grtttz himself, who was much pleased with IhJH
translation of his lile-work. The volume coutuius
nearly tiie entire first volume of the " VolksthUniiJchu
Geschichtc der Juden," wilhumplificalions from tlie
larger work, Imt does not cover the whole perio<l to
the destruction of llie Second Temple, us docs the
original work. The translator e.v plains tlmt the
events leading up to llie fitnd tlowiifall of Jiidcii are
of too great importance U) be treated brietly at the
end of a volume. The third volume (ib. 1898) con-
tains volume five of the original, and concludes with
a collection of im|)ortJUil notr.s by A. Ihii kavy. The
next four volumes (4-7) contain volumes six to nine
of the original ; but in volume eight, after following
tlie original (vol. 1(J), liic translator divides llie elev-
enth or last chapter into two and inserts an original
chapter, by himself, on the history of the Jews In
Poland, Lithuania, While Ru.ssia, and Red Russia
from the middle of the seventeenth to the latter half
of the eighteenth century. At the end of this vol-
ume, wliicli is the last, Rabbinowitz gives Ids reason
for not translating the closing volun.e of Grfltz. It
is, briefiy, that Griilz has denied space and atten-
tion to the history of the Jews in Russia and Poland
in later times, and failed to appreciate the influence
on Judaism exercised by tlie lives and teachings of
such men as Israel Baal-Shem orEi.u.Mi hen Soi.o-
.MON' of Wilna. The translator promises to cover that
period himself, from the standpoint of the Russian
Jews, and to include the results of the latest re-
searches into their history.

The translation is valuable for its many amplifi-
cations and for the short discourses which refer to
tlie comments of competent authorities upon the
original work; for the rearrangements which bring
the history of Russia and Poland into greater prom-
inence; and for the e.\planalions of terms, events,
periods, and personalities in general history which
Griilz assumed to be well known to the German-
reading public, but which were generally unfamiliar
to readers of Hebrew. On the other hand, appro-
priate changes arc made in recognition of tiie closer
familiarity of the Hebrew reader with Biblical and
Talinudi(;al subjects.

In 1895 Rabbinowitz published (at Warsaw) his
"Moza'e Golali," a history of the exiled Spanish
Jews and of their literature, considered to be one of
the most accurate works on that subject. He has
written also an exhaustive biography of Zunz (" li.
Yom-Tob Lijiinan Zunz." Warsaw. 1896). a mono-
graph on Zacharias Frankel (ib. 1898). and several
minor works.
niBi.ior.RAiMiv: Sefer Zihkamn, PP. ICO-IW. Wan«w IHW:

Zeitlin, Bihl. poxt-Memlrlx. pp. ac-a« ; I.lpp«-. nit-Uf>fpyi-

phiichex Lexicou,ii. *»-2i5. v. •^'<-3(W : H.i-?f 'irn/i, 1^^H^.

Nos.8-1;.

II. n. I . >> I.

RABE, JOHANN JACOB: German tmn'^lator
of the .Mishnaii and the Talnnid ; born 1710 in Lind-
fiur, Unterfranken; died Feb. 13, 1798. He was
city chaplain in Ansbach (Onolzbachl "This man
is a strong Talmudist." wrote Moses Mendelssohn to
Herder under date of Dec. 8. 1771. "and I wonder
at his patience. He has translated into German the
first three parts ff tb-' B.il.\ Ionian and the Jerusa-

Rabener
Rabinovich

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

30a

lem Talmud, as he informs me, and lias them ready
for the printer, but can find no publisher for them."
Rabe's works include the following: "Mischnah
Oder Text des Talmuds; aus dem Ebriiischcu
Uebersetzt, Umschreiben und mit Anmerkungen
Erlautert," Ansbach, 1760 et seq. (reviewed by M.
Mendelssohn ; see his " Gesammelte Schriften," iv. 2,
\^\et »€(].); " Der PredigerSalomo, niiteiner Kurzen
und Zureichenden Erklaruug nach dem Wortver-
stande zum Nutzen der Studiiendon von dem Ver-
fasser des ' Phildon ' ; aus dem llebraischeu Ueber-
setzt von dem Uebersetzer der Mischnah," ib. 1771;
''Der Talmudische Traktat Berachoth von den Lob-
spriichen, als das Erste Buch im Ersten Theil nach
der Hierosolymitischen und Babylouischen Gemara ;
aus dem EbrUischen Uebersetzt und mit Anmer-
kungen Erliiutert," Ilalle, 1777; "Der Talmudische
Traktat Peah von dem Ackerwinkel, Uebersetzt und
Erlautert, Nebst cincr Abhandlung von Versorgung
der Armen," Ansbach, 1781.

EiBi.iOfiR.xPHr : Nloolal, Reisen, i. 193; Filrst, Bibl. Jud. iii.
]27 : Kaysorling. Moses Me mlelssoh u. Se in Leben und Seine
Werhe. 1st ed., p. 515; Zunz, Monatstage, p. 8.
T. M. K.

RABENER, MATTITHIAH SIMHAH B.
JTJDAH LOB: Austrian Hebraist and educator;
born in Lem berg Jan. 23, 1826. After receiving the
usual rabbinical education, he took up, at the age
of fifteen, the study of Neo-Hebrew and modern
languages. In 1860 he became head teacher of a
Jewish school in Czernowitz, Bukowina, and in
1867 a teacher of Jewish religion in the gymnasium
and the general schools of Suchaw, Moravia. In
1867 he became director of a Jewish school in Folti-
chani, Rumania, where he occasionally ofliciated as
preacher. In 1869 he was called to Jassy to the
positions of preacher in the Reform synagogue and
director of the Jewish orphan asylum. He retired
from these otlices in 188/3. He had one daughter,
Sabina, and two sous, Leo (army physician) and
Emil (merchant and musical composer).

Rabener is the author of " 'Et lia-Zamir," a He-
brew translation of a number of poems by Schiller
(Czernowitz, 1862; Jassy, 1868); "Neginot 'Eber,"
a translation of Byron's "Hebrew Melodies" (Czer-
nowitz, 1864); "Ila-Shulamit," a German dramati-
zation of the Song of Songs (Jassy, 1888). He has
written aLsoa number of songs, mostly elegiac, and
articles, published in various periodicals, and was
the editor of a Hebrew quarterly magazine entitled
"^li-Zimrat ha Are/.," two numbers of which ap-
peared iu Jassy in 1872.

BiBLior.RAPHV: Oznrha-Sifrut, ii. 294-:Jlt(J; Zeitlin, liihl.
PoKt-Mendels. p. 1'80.
8. P. Wl.

RABIN B. ADDA: Babylonian amora of the
third generation; Ijrother of liabbah b. Adda and
pupil of Judah b. Ezekielof Pumbedita(Bezah 33b).
He transmitted traditions by R. Isaac (Ber. 6a; Pes.
8b, where he is called Abin) and a decision of
Raljbi's, but none of his own has been preserved.

w. n. J. Z. L.

RABINA I. : Babylonian amora of the fifth
generation; died aljout 420. He was a pupil of
Raba b. Joseph b. Hama. and his extreme youthful-
ness at that time is shown by the fact that his

teacher designated him and Hama b. Bisa as " dar-
deki" (children; B. B. 16b). He frequently ad-
dressed questions to Raba (Mak. 8a; Men. 67a),
whose sayings he cites (Shab. 136a, b). At an early
age Rabina was recognized as a teacher, leaving the
academy at Mahoza while Raba was still living-
('Er. 63a; Halevy, "Dorot ha-Rishonim," ii. 543-
544). Wherever he lived he was recognized as a
teacher and judge, and was called upon to render in-
dependent decisions ('Er. 40a; Git. 73a). Rabina was-
on friendly terms with Nahman b. Isaac (Git. 321);
Hor. 9a), and was a colleague of R. Aha (b. Raba),
with whom he had many disi)utationson legal ques-
tions, Rabina being inclined to liberal interpreta-
tions while R. Aha upheld those more rigorous.
Rabina's decisions always prevailed, with the ex-
ception of three cases in which, contrary to liis
custom, he advocated stern measures (Hul. 93b).
When R. Aslii became director of the Academy of
Sura (or Matah Mehasya), Rabina became a student
there, although he was at least as old as Ashi —
perhaps even a few years older; however, he was
rather the associate of Ashi (" talmid haber")thaa
his pupil ('Er. 63a). Next to Ashi, Rabina had the
greatest sliare in the redaction of the Talmud un-
dertaken by Ashi and his colleagues. Rabina died
seven years before Ashi.

Bim.iOGRAPiiv: Heilprin, .Scf/cr 7ia-DoroMi. 339; Halevy, Do-
rot ha-Ri^honim, ii. 536-550, iii. 74-85.

W. B.

J. Z. L.

RABINA II. (B. HUNA) : Babylonian amora
of the seventh generation. He did not remember
his father, R. Huna, Avho died while Rabina was still
a child, but the Talmud states several times that his
mother communicated to him the opinions held by
his father (Ber. 39b; Men. 68b). After his father's
death, his maternal uncle, Rabina I., became his
guardian (Ket. 1001)). Rabina II. ollieiated as judge
at Sura shortly after Ashi's death (Ket. 69a), and
was a colleague of Mar b. Ashi (Men. o7b; Ber.
36a), although he was not so prominent. After
Rabbah Tosefa'a's death Rabina l)ecanie, for a year
(474), diiector of the Academy of Sura (Al)raliam
ibn Daud, "Sefer ha-Kabbalah," in Neubauer, "M.
J. C." i. 61). According to Sherira Gaon (Neubauer,
I.e. i. 34). Rabina, "the last of theHora'ah" (B. M.
86a), died in 500. His death marks the close of the
amoraic period and of the completion of the Tal-
mud redaction (see Talmud).

BiBi.ior.RAPiiY; (iratz, Gcsc?i. iv. 377; Halevy, Dfmitha-Rishn-
)iim. iii. 5-14.

w. H. J. Z. h.

RABINA III. OF UMZA: Sal)ora of the first
generation; died Adar, 508. Nothing furtlierabout
him is known (Sherira Gaon, in Neubauer, " M. J.
C. " i. 34; Griilz, "Gesch." iv. 377).

w. B. J. Z. L.

RABINOVICH, LEON : Russian physicist
and journalist; born at Brestovitz, government of
Grodno, Jan. 2, 18G2. He is descended on his father's
side from Yom-''rob Ijipmann Heller, and on his
mother's side from Mei'r Eisenstadt, being a grand-
son of Abraham Hirsch Eisenstadt. He received his
early education in tiic heder and from his mother,
who tanglit him Germ.iii. At the age of fourteen

301

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Habener
Kabinovlch

years he went to the j-eshibah of Mir and tlience to
that of Volozhin. In 1881 he went to Konigsberg,
where he pursued thestudy of medicine for two years.
In 1884 his predilection for physics took him to Paris,
where he entered tlie Sorbonne. He won a gold medal
at the Paris Exhibition of 1890 for various inventions
in machinery. His inventions, which are numerous,
include an oil-raiser, a rotating thermometer, a porta-
ble fountain, an automatic siphon, and a distributor
for liquids.

Kabiuovich contributed a series of scientific arti-
cles to " Ha-Mcliz " in 1887, and later wrote for other
Hebrew periodicals, as well as for " La Nature." In
1890 he undertook the editorship of "Ha-Meliz " and
of " Die Blatter " (Yiddish) ; in 1904 he began to pub-
lish " Der Tag," a Yiddish daily. Rabinovich's arti-
cles in " Ha-Meliz " were collected under the title
" Ila-Yerushah weha-Hinnuk."

BiBLiOGRAPiiY : Ozar ha-Sifrut, iii. 63-67.

ir. K. A. S. W.

RABINOVICH (RABBINOWITZ), OSIP
AARONOVICH: Russian Jewish author and jour-
nalist; born Jan. 14, 1817, at Kobelyaki, govern-
ment of Poltava; died at Meran, Tyrol.'Oct. 16, 1869.
His father, Aaron Rabiuovich, one of the officials of
the government liquor monopoly, spoke Russian
fluently, though the Jewish masses, even in the
southwestern part of Russia, had only a slight
knowledge of that language. Aaron gave his son a
very careful education in both Hebrew (under Mei'r

Eniden, who had traveled
in America for about fif-
teen years) and European
languages. The South-
Russian Jews of that time
were inclined to see the
first step toward apostasy
in such a liberal education,
and it required much
firmness and influence to
avert religious ostracism.
When Rabiuovich reached
the age of eighteen a mar-
riage was arranged for
him by his parents. Fam-
ily life, however, did not
interfere with his former occupations; he contin-
ued to study assiduously, especially jurisprudence
and western-European legislations. In 1840 Rabi-
novich went to Kharkov, passed the required exam-
inations, and entered the medical school of the uni-
versity. He would have chosen a legal career had
not his religion closed that profession to him accord-
ing to the laws of the time. Before he had com-
pleted his course, however, his father lost his fortune,
and Rabiuovich was compelled to leave the univer-
sity and engage in business. Later he accepted a
position as inspector in connection with the govern-
ment liquor monopoly ; but, that occupation proving
distasteful to him, he surrendered it and removed to
Odessa (1845). At Odessa he engaged himself as a
clerk to a prominent law firm, and within a year he
was attached as attorney to the court of commerce.
He soon acquired a large practise, and in 1848 be-
came a notary public.

Osip Rablnovich.

Rabinovich's translation of Eiclienbaum's Hebrew

poem " Ha-Kerab" apjjcared in 1847. Tliis masterly

translation awoke admiring comment

His in Russian periodicals — " Hiblioteka

Russian dlya Chteniya." "Odessk! Vyestnik."

Produc- etc. It seemed hardly credible to the
tions. Russians that a Jew could posw-ss such
mastery of their language. In the
same year, in tlie "Odesski Vyestnik," he pulilished
"Novaya Yevniskaya Sinagoga v Odessye." It
raised a storm of indignation among the Orthodox
Jews because it exposed some of their religious
prejudices and advocated religious reform. Tln-se
first productions were followed by an article enti-
tled "Po Sluchayu Dobravo Slova," inspired, us the
title indicates, by the friendly attitude of the Hu.s-
sian writer Balitzki toward the Jews. This arti
cle placated even the Orthodox part of the Jewish
community, which now learned to appreciuli- the
motives tliat jjromplcd ]{abinovich's revelation of
the dark side of their lives.

At that time there was formed in Odessa a liter-
ary circle which issued a periodical entitled " Lile-
raturnyye Vechera"; Rabinovich's "Istoriya Tor-
govavo Doma Firlich i Co." (a story; 1849) and his
"Moritz Sefardi " (1850) appeared respectively in
its first and second volumes. The year 1850 intro-
duced one of the most reactionary periods in Rus-
sian history and one of the most calamitous for the
Russian Jews; the autocratic hand of Nicholas I.
ruled over Russia with a rod of iron. Rabiuovich
naturally felt the general oppres.sion, and did not
write anything until the end of the Crimean war.
The reign of Alexander II. inaugurated an era of
general awakening whose influence was felt even
among the Jews, while the Russian press discussal
their status and e.xpressed sentiments of tolerance
hitherto unheard. At this time Itabinovich pub-
lished an essay entitled "O Moshkakh i Yoskakh "
(in "Odesski Vyestnik," 1858, No. 10), in which he
rebuked his coreligionists for the habit of distorting
their names, thus manifesting a lack of self-respect
that exposed them to the derision of their adv»r-
saries. In 1859 he published, in the " Novorossiski
Literaturny Sbornik," an e.ssay on the same subject
— "O Sobstveuuykii Imenakh Yevreyev." This
essay suggested the adoption of names shown to be
correct philologically. Previous to tliat he had
published (in the " Russki Invalid," IH.W. No. f<3)
an essay entitled "Ustaryelye Vzglyady." a vehe-
ment protest against the calumnies and malicious
attacks upon the Jews on the part of the anti Jewish
press. Afterward Rabiuovich began the publication
of a scries of talcs under the general title " Kartiuy
Proshlavo" (Pictures of the Past). The most note-
worthy of them are "Shtrafnoi " (in
His the "Russki Vyestnik." 1859) and

Stories. " Nasyledstvenny Podsvyechnik " (in
"Razsvyet." I860). These stories
dctply impressed the public by their vivid por-
trayal of the terrible sufferings of the Jews under
Nicholas I. and by their striking descriptions of
actual Jewish life. It is worthy of note here that
" Shtrafnoi " was translaU-d by the historian Jost into
r,erman immediately after its appearance (in " Jahr-
buch fnr die Gesch. der Juden und des Juden-

Rabinovich
Rabiuowitz

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDLY

302

thums," Leipsic, 1860), the whole edition of 4,8u0
copies selling within two weeks. Kouelsky's He-
brew translation of "Shtrafnoi,'' under the title
"Ben Ouesh," appeared at Oiiessa in 18G5.

While these works won for Kabiuovich great pop-
ularity, his services to the Russian Jews were more
important as founder and editor of the first Jewish
journal published in Russian — the "Razsvyet."
Many enlightened Russian Jews had realized the
importance of such a paper years before, but the
moment propitious for its establishment was long in
coming. Even in an epoch of great reforms, marked
by almost complete changes in the principles gov-
erning Russian social and public life, the obstacles
seemed insurmountable, and it was due only to the
perseverance and energy of Rabinovich that permis-
sion to establish such a paper was at last granted
by the minister of the interior (Jan., 1860). The
first number of the "Razsvj-et" was
The "Raz- issued May 27, 1860, and as editor of

svyet." the paper Rabinovich fully demon-
strated his talent as a jiublicist and
novelist. The " Razsvyet " existed about a jear,
only forty-five numbers appearing. The reason for
its discontinuance was the unfavorable attitude of
the Russian authorities, especially of the new Rus-
sian governor-general, Count Stroganov; Rabino-
vich decided to discontinue the paper rather than
submit to the official restrictions. With the " Raz-
svyet" his literary activity practically ended. A
humorous sketch, "Chaim Shulim Feighis," pub-
lished by him in Odessa in 1865, has little literary
merit. Notwithstanding its short existence the
" Razsvyet " had great influence among the Jews of
Rus.sia and inspired many of the younger generation
to seek education and Western culture.

During his closing years Rabinovich was active
in commercial undertakings. In 1859 he was in-
vited to share the labors of the committee in Odessa
appointed to draw up a new communal statute.
He became a member of the city coiuicil of Odes-
sa. Poor health drove him to seek relief at Me-
ran, Tyrol, where he died. A complete edition
of his writings, with a biography, was published
in three volumes, St. Petersburg and Odessa, 1880-
1888.

BiBUOGRAPHY : Sochlnenlya, O. A. Rnl>innvicha. vol. iii.,
Odessa, 1K8«; Den. 1869. Nos. 24. 28; liazsvjict, 1880. Nos. 36,
37; Hessen Gnllereya Yevreiskikh Dyeuatelei, part i., St.
Petersburg, 1898.

H. R.

G. D. R.

RABINOVITZ, JOSHUA BEN ELIJAH:

Russian rahlii ; born at Sliat, near Kaidan, in 1818;
died at Nesvizh, government of Minsk, March 18,
1887. Rabinovitz was instructed in Talmud and
rabbinics by his father, who was known as Elijah
Ragoleu. At the age of eighteen he married the
daughter of a wealthy resident of Kletzk, where
he afterward iiecame head of the yeshibah and, in
1847, rabbi. Twenty j'ears later he was invited
to the rabbinate of Nesvizh, where he officiated
until his death. Rabinovitz's fame was such that
even Christians accepted him as an arbitrator in
their disputes, and he was held in great esteem by
Prince Radziwill, tlie proprietor of Nesvizh (comp.
Leon Gr)rdon in "Ha-Asif," 1889).

BiBLiOGR.\PHY : Tolidot EUmhu Frtimkiu, p. 27, Wilna, 1900;
Kitiisit I'iarael, lN5i<. p. 200; SteinscLneider, ^Ir Wilna, p.
278 : yalwlat Abot. p. 24. Wilna, 18'J4.

B. B. El.

RABINOVITZ, SAMUEL JACOB: Russian
rabbi and author; born in Chchn, government of
Kovno, 1857. He became rabbi at Jevije in 1887,
and was called in the same year to Alexoty. He
contributed a number of articles to "HaMeliz,"
which later were published under the title " Ha-Dat
weha-Le'umit " (Warsaw, 1900). He was a delegate
to the Zionist Congress at Basel in 1897. In 1900
he became rabbi of Sopotkiu. He published his
"Orah Yashar," a catechism of the Talmud, at
Wilna in 1904.

II. It. B. Ei.

RABINOVITZ, SHALOM (pseudonym, Sha-
lom Alekem) : Russian journalist and novelist;
born in Pereyaslav, goverunieut of Poltava, 1859.
At the age of twenty-one he became government
rabbi of a small town in the neighborhood. Later he
settled in Kiev, where he still (1905) resides. Rabi-
novitz is a constant contributor to Hebrew period-
icals. He lias written the following Hebrew novels:
"Shimele," in "II.-\-Asif " (1889); "Shoshannah," in
" Ha-Zcfirah " (1889) ; " Don Kishot mi-Mazepewka,"
in "Pardes" (1892); and "Gemar Hatima," in "Bet
'Eked "(1892). His silhouettes, which first appeared
as feuilletous in "Ha-Meliz" (1889-90), afterward
separately under the title "Temunot u-Zelalim"
(St. Petersburg, 1889-90), rank with the highest of
their kind in Nco-Hebrew literature.

Rabinovitz has written also a Russian novel of
Jewish life called the "Mechtatel," which appeared
in " Yevreiskoe Obozrenie" for 1886. But he is chiefly
known by his contributions to Judaeo-German litera-
ture. His two best-known novels are " Stcmpenyu,"
in which an untutored musical genius is the hero, and
" Yosele Solovei," in which the adventures and tragic
life of a ]ilienomenal young " hazzan " are described.
Both stories were published in the year-book " Volks-
bibliothek " (1889). Rabinovitz has written many
other novels and criticisms, the best known among
the latter being: " Kinderspiel," St. Petersburg,
1887; "Reb Sender Blank," ib. 1888; and the sensa-
tional review of the works of N. M. Shaikevitch
(Shomer) which he published under the title
" Shomer's Mishpat " (Berdychev, 1888). The first
volume of his collected works was published by
the "Volksbildung" society, Warsaw. 1903.

BiBLior.RAPHT: Wiener. Historii nf Yirtdish Literature in
the Nineteenth Ccntttru, pp. 106. 110. 194-202; Sefer ZikUa-
ron, Warsaw, 1890. p. lai; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Meii<le.U. p. 285.
H. u. P. Wr.

RABINOWITSCH - KEMPNER, LYDIA :

Physician; born at Kovno, Russia, Aug. 22, 1871;
educated at the girls' gymnasium of her native city,
and privately in Latin and Greek, subsequently
studying natural sciences at the universities of Zu-
rich and Bern (.M.D.). After graduation she went
to Berlin, where Professor Koch permitted her to
pursue her bacteriological studies at the Institute
for Infectious Diseases. In 1895 she went to Phila-
delphia, where she was appointed lecturer and,
subsequently, professor at the Medical School for
Women. There she founded a bacteriological insti-

303

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rablnovich
Ktrbinowltz

tute, though still continuing her studies every smu-
mer under Professor Koch. lu 18'JG slie delivered
before the International Congress of Women iit Ber-
lin a lecture on the study of medicine by women in
various countries. lu 1808 she married Dr. Walter
Kempner of Berlin. At the congress of scientists
held at Breslau in 1904 she presided over the section
for hygiene and bacteriology.

BiBi.iOGRAPiiY : Anna Plotliow, fn Der \ycllxpicficl, Oct. 27,
I'JOi : JJculKchc Jlausfraiuitzcitmnj, July, 1897.
6. R. N.

RABINOWITZ, ELIJAH DAVID BEN
BENJAMIN: Russian rabbi; boru at Pikeln, gov-
ernment, of Kovno, June 11, 1845. He studied Tal-
mud and rabbinics under his father (who was rabbi
successively at Shilel, Kogova, and Vilkoinir), and
at the age of fifteen had acquired a substantial
knowledge of Talmudic and rabbinical literature.
In 1873 he was invited to the rabbinate of Poue-
viezh, in the government of Kovno. After twenty
years in that rabbinate lie was appointed rabbi of
Mir, government of Minsk. In 1901 he was ma<te
assistant to Samuel Salant (chief rabbi of the
Ashkenazic communities at Jerusalem), whose age
precluded his continuing to discharge unassisted
the full duties of the rabbinate. liabinowitz wrote
novelhe on iVIaimonides" " Yad " (Wilna, 1900), and
published also novellfe and glosses on all branches
of Talmudic literature in "Ha-Tebunah," " Kebod
ha-Lebanon," "Ha-Zofeh," "Ha-Maggid," "Kene-
set Hakme Yisrael," " 'Ittur Soferim," and "Kene-
set ha-Gedolah." Many of his novellfe and notes
arc printed in works to which he gave his appro-
bation.

J. B. Ei.

RABINOWITZ, HIRSCH (ZEBI HA-
KOHEN) : Russian scientist and publicist; born
at Linkovo, near Poneviezh, government of Kovno,
Feb. 23, 1832; died in St. Petersburg Jan. 16, 1889.
His chief instructor in Talmud and kindred subjects

was his father, wlio was
the local rabbi. Hirsch
very early evinced an in-
clination to scientific stud-
ies, and was happy when
his father permitted one
of his old friends to in-
structhimintherudiments
of mathematics. At the
age of twent}' he was well
acquainted with natural
science, and in 1852 com-
menced to write scientific
works in Hebrew. About
that time he married and
removed to Diinalmrg
(Dvinsk), wliere he found-
ed a technical school for
a thorough master of the
Russian language and wrote in the " Yevreiskaya
Biblioteka " of 1873 a memorable rt'ply to tiie attack
on the Jews contained in the " Kniga Kahala" of
Jacob BuAFMANN, a converted Jew.

Settling in St. Petersburg, Rabinowitz- became
an active member of the Society for the Promotion
of Culture Among the Jews of Russia. In 1879 he

Hirsch Rabinowitz.

Jewish boys. He was

and L. BFnuMANN rstablifihed in that city t' ';
sian weekly " Russki Vevrei," and in 1
montlily " Yevrciskoc Obozreuie," both of which in
1880 ceased to appear. In tlie latter y - ' .-
raised by the government to honorary <.
recognition of Ids w^rvices to literature and lUo ad-
vancement of knowledge,

Rabinowitz's works include: "Yesodc Hokniut
ha-Teba'": book i., "Ha-Menuhuh wehu-Tenuuli "
(Wilna, 1807). containing the principles of ux-' '•'•■!
and of acoustics; "Hosafah .Madda'il," a ■^
supplement to " Ila-.Meliz " (St. Petersburg, 1-,.
three months); "Mishpe^e liu-.Mugljilini " (I'A. 18;;,,
of which tlie second half is a translation of a work
by the mathematician S. Pineto; and "O/.nr Im
llokmah weha-Madda' " (German title, "liibliothek
derGesammtenNaturwisscnschafU'n "): vol. i., **To-
ledot ha-Esh weha-.Mayim," on heat ar.d steam ; v,
ii., "Eben ha-Sho'ebet," on magnetism, which i i:
tains his own theory of original matter and of
motion; vol. iii., "Ha-Harkabah weha-IIn'
on chemistry, the last three works bring p ;

in Wilna in 1876.

In his luiblicistic writings in tiie Ru&sian lan-
guage Rabinowitz always insisted that the Jews
are hated not for their faults, but for their excellent
([ualities. He continually pointed out that only
those nations Avhich stand low in the scale of civili-
zation or are retrograding persecute the Jews, while
those which are really civilized or progressing are
the most friendly toward them. He was not in
favor of religious reforms; and, unlike other prog-
ressists of liis kind, he never wrote a harsh word
against the strictly Orthodo.x Jews, among wliom
he had been brought up.

Bibliography : Zaporodskv. in Ha-Ai>if, lli.44fM47 (wit* por-
trait); ill. V. 101-Kr_'; Sefir ZiTcfcaroa. pp. KIJ-KH. Warsaw.
1890; Zeitlin. Dihl. Post-.\frndrli<. pp. 2M avi; Ha-SliUnalf,
i. ltil-lC2 ; Sokolow, Sefcr ha-Shnuah. IMK. pp. 241-21:.' : Del-

nard, Ma^a' bc-Eiiropa, pp. t<7, 108. 131. l^'<.

n. It. f- Wi.

RABINOWITZ, ISAAC (ISH KOVNO):

Russian poet; born in Kovno Oct. 13. 184t); dic<i in

New York (U. S. A.) March 9, 1900. He began to

compose Hebrew songs at an early age. When

fourteen he took instruction in Hebrew grammar

from Abraham Mapu. At eighteen he entered the

rabbinical school at Wilna. In 1867 he married and

settled in Tclshi. where he enjoyed the friendship

of ]SIordecai Nathansohu (his wife's grandfather)

and of Leon Gordon, who was a teacher in that

city. Rabinowitz lived therefor twenty-two years.

being engaged most of that time in busini-ss, and

writing occasionally for Hebrew periodicals. In

1889 he removed to Vilkomir; in 1891 he went to

New York, to which city his children had precede<l

him. Here lie translated novels into Yiddish.

"Zemirot Yisrael " (Wilna. 1891) contains most of

his Hebrew songs. Those written after his arrival

in the United States fall below the standar.! ,,f his

fornuT i)roductions.

Rini.IoCiRAPnv : Oznr hn-Sifrut, 111. 74 •
I'lmt-MctuUbt. p. ■•>■'> : *'<■ Hu.l»T, In Dtf ■

V. Wi.

died in Kishinef May 12. 1899. He was

n. R.

RABINOWITZ, JOSEPH: '

arv to the Jews, burn in OriTtyev. i
23. 1837

Saca
Bachel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

304

brought up as a hasid, but later acquired some sec-
ular knowledge and mastered the Russian language.
For a time he practised law iu the lower courts
of his native town, settling subsequently in Kish-
inef. In 1878 he wrote a long Hebrew article on
the improvement of the rabbinate, which was pub-
lished in Gottlober's " Ha-lJoker Or" (iv., Nos. 7-8).
This was his only contribution as a Jew to He-
brew literature. In 1882 he founded the sect Novy
Israel, and began in a veiled and cautious way to
preach a kiuil of new Christianity to the Jews of
Kishiuef. Following immediately upon the found-
ing of the BiBLEiTZY brotherhood bv Jacob Gordin
at Elizabethgrad, the new movement attracted much
attention, and was freely discussed in Russian news-
papers. Rabinowitz succeeded for a time in inter-
esting Professor Delitzsch of Leipsic in his move-
ment and in allaying the suspicions of the Russian
government, which strictly prohibits the formation
of new religious sects. But his open conversion to
Protestantism had the natural result of estranging
many of his followers. He was baptized in Berlin
on March 24, 1885. See Now Isu.vel.

Bibliography : Dunlop, Memoirsof Gnupcl Triumphs Among
the Jews, pp. 445 et seq., London, 1894 ; J. F. A. de le Roi, Ge-
schic}it€ der Evatujeligchcu Jiule)i-Mii!Sii)n. i. 34.5 et seq.,
Leipsic, 1899 ; Vosikhnd, 1888, No. 8, pp. 45-46 ; Ha-Meliz, 1885.
Nos. 3. 8, 10. 32 ; Missionary Review, Jan., 1894 ; March (pp.
3(V>207); and July (p. 360), 1899.
H. K. P. Wl.

BACA (REKA) : Noun formed from the adjec-
tive "rek " (= "empt}' "), and ajiplied to a person
without education and devoid of morals (comp.
Judges xi. 3). The noun occurs several times in
the Talmud; e.g., Ta'au. 2Ub; Ber. 22a. 33b; Git.
58a; B. B. 7oa; Pesik. R. 28 (ed. Friedmann, p. 54a).
The plural " rekaya " is found in Ecclesiastes Rabbah.
" Raca " occurs also in the New Testament (Matt. v.
22), where it is equivalent to an expression of con-
tempt.
Bibliography: 'Anih, s.v. (""">; Levy, Neuhebr. WCrrterb.

T. J. Z. L.

RACE, THE JEWISH. See Anthuopology.

RACES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT : The

ancient Hebrews from time to time came in contact
with peoples who were obviously of different speech,
customs, or physique from their own. To these
they learned to give names. A whole list of such
names is contained in Genesis x., which is a kind of
ethnographic survey of the nations known to the
Hebrews and inhabiting territory that extended from
Mesopotamia, Tarshish, and Abyssinia to the .'Egean
Archipelago. Many, if not most, of these names
occur elsewhere in the Old Testament, showing that
they were in use among the people, and were not a
mere name-list derived from official or literary rec-
ords. The arrangement in Gen. x. is on the whole
geographical and political, Canaan, for example,
being included under the sons of Ham.

Evidence of explicit knowledge of these various
tribes and nationalities is mainly given, as might

be expected, in regard to the inhabit-
Races in ants of Palestine. There appears to
Palestine, have been a tradition that the earlier

inhabitants were giants and Anakim,
who sometimes bore the names of Rephaim, Zuzim,
Zamzummim, Emim, and Avim, while the Horites

or "cave-dwellers" are also specially referred to
as inhabitants of Seir (Gen. xiv. 5, 6; Deut. ii.
10-12, 20-23). The most numerous inhabitants of
tiie land when the Israelites first entered it are re-
ferred to as Canaanites. Sometimes names of more
restricted meaning are given to them, as Amorites,
Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites, Jebusites, and Girga-
shites. Of these the Amorites are most frequently
mentioned, and are ethnologically the most interest-
ing if, as is claimed for them by Sayce, they were
of light complexion and blue-eyed, besides being
dolichocephalic or long-headed. This description,
however, has been based on the colored pictures of
Amorites found on the Egyptian monuments (W.
M. Flinders-Petrie, "Racial Types from Egypt,"
London, 1887), and which to a certain extent are con-
ventional. The Hivites, who were found both in the
north (Josh. xi. 3) and in Shechem (Gen. xxxiv. 2),
are sometimes called Amorites, and are consequently
ethnologically connected with them. So, too, were
the Amalekites, with whom may be reckoned the
Kenites and Kenizzites (zi. xv. 19; Num. xxiv. 20,
21), who were nomads of southern Palestine. Two
other tribes which are mentioned as dwelling in
Canaan were probably immigrants like the Hebrews:
the Philistines on the southwest coast are stated to
have come from Caphtor (regarded by some schol-
ars as the coast of Asia Minor), and were, therefore,
possibly of Aryan origin ; and the Hittites, found
in both the north and south of Canaan, were related
to the inhabitants of the Hittite empire in northern
Syria. These latter have been connected ethnolog-
ically by Jensen with the modern Armenians, but
his argument is not convincing.

In the immediate neighborhood of the Hebrews are
mentioned the Edomites or Iduraeans (south of the
Dead Sea) and the Moabites and Ammonites (east of
that sea), who were regarded by tradition as racially
connected with the Hebrews, wiiile still farther to
the southeast the Ishmaelites of Arabia were also
similarly connected. Other tribes of Arabia are
mentioned, as the Joktanitosin the extreme south of
Saba (Gen. x. 26-30), while the Midianitesof Arabia
Petrtea in the north are represented as related to
the Amalekites and as intermarrjing with the He-
brews in the time of Moses. Northwest were the
Plienicians, dwelling mainly in Tyre and Sidon, who
certainly spoke a liinguage identical with tlie He-
brew. Finally should be mentioned the Samaritans
of later date, who were regarded as the descendants
of the "mixed multitude" brought by the Assyrian
conquerors to colonize the Northern Kingdom. See

SAMAKIT.A.NS (ANTHROPOLOGY).

With regard to their relations to tribes and peoples
farther removed, the Hebrews had a tradition con-
necting themselves with the Arameans, who were
regarded as sons of Shem (ih. x. 22) and
Tribes of grand.sonsof Nahor(ii. xxii. 21); audit
Asia is supposed to liave been from Padan-
Minor. aram that Isaac and Jacob, tiie fathers
of the nation, derived their wives. This
would tend to connect the early Hebrews with the
Assyrians and Babylonians. Literally Aram refers to
the districts of north Sj'ria; and various divisions of
Aram are mentioned, as Aram of Damascus (II Sam.
viii. 5, 6, Hebr.) and Aram of Beth-rehob (ib. x. 6).

305

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Raca
Rachel

The knowledge of the Hebrews with regard to
persons of Aryan descent was somewhat limited.
The ships of Solomon seem to have gone to Tar-
shish, in Spain; Cyprns is known asChittim; and
the Greeks of the Asiatic continent were known as
lonians under the name of Javan. Later the Per-
sians became known. The Arj-aus of Armenia did
not enter that country until the seventh century
li.c., Avlien they followed the Medes. Before that
time this part of Asia Minor was inhabited by the
Tabareni and Moschi, the Tubal and Meshech of the
Old Testament. Otiier tribes of this neighborhood
were referred to as Gog or Magog; both terms are
possibly but not probably derived from the name of
the King of Lydia known in (Jrcek history as Gyges,
whence woidd come the Assyrian form " Mat-Gugu "
(the country of Gyges). The derivations of other
names referring to the same neighborhood, like Ash-
kenaz, Togaimah, and ]{ipliatli, are less certain,
though their solution may throw considerable light
upon the racial aflinity of the Hebrews. The three
great divisions, Shem, Ham, and Japhet, are geo-
graphical and political : Shem represents the region
stretching from the Aral)ian peninsula to Elam
(which in language was not Semitic) ; Ham is Egyjit
and its dependencies (including Canaan); Japhet is
Asia ]\Iinor and probably the Greek peninsula.

The whole question of the purity of the Hebrew
race is at present obscured in the absence of ade-
quate anthropological data with regard to the in-
haliitants of Asia Minor. The indications in the Old
Testament point merely to linguistic affinities, those
who spoke the same or a similar language being re-
garded as of the same descent. Up to the present
very few crania have been unearthed in Palestine or
in the neighborhood; and it would be dillicult in
most cases to determine their racial relations even if
many more should be found. The only other source
of information, the pictures on the Assyrian and
Egyi)tian moniuneuts, has not been sufficiently an-
alyzed. See also Nations .vnd Langl'AGes, The
Seventy.

BiBi.iocin.\rMV : Savpp, Uaerx of the Old Testament, London,
]89l ; (i. A. Barton, Skctrli of Semitic ()ri{iinK New York,
1902; 11. Stiiart-l'oolc, in. Journal of the AntlirDinilodieal
Institute, May, 1SS7; 1?. Hertin, i7(. Nov., 1888; Jacobs,
Studies in liiiiliral ArctKColmni, pp. 11-12.
T. J.

RACHEL (^n-| = "a ewe'"). — Biblical Data:
Laban's younger daugliter, who became one of Ja-
coi)'s wives (Gen. xxi.x. 3(5-28). Her first meeting
with Jacob occurred at a well near Haran, whither
she had taken the flocks for water. As she was
beautiful and well favored, Jacob fell in love with
her and agieed to serve Laban for seven years on
the Cf)ndition that at the end of that time Kachel
shduld become his wife. Thiongh the fraud of
Laban, Jacob's marriage with Kachel took place
after he had married her elder sister, Leah, who,
though less loved than Kachel, became the mother
of four sons, while the latter was childless. This
tilled Kachel with envy, and, having expressed her
feelings to Jacob, slie bade him take her haudniaid
Ihlliah to wife in order that she migl'.t obtain a fam-
ily tlirough her (.x.xix. 9-12, 17-lS, 31; xx_x. i5).

Later, Kachel became the mother of Joseph (xxx.
22-24). Kachel and Leah persuaded their husband
X.— 20

to flee from Laban 's houfie, and at the moment of
Jacob's llight Itacliel stole her fulhers leniphiin.
She put tliem in tlie "furniture" of the camel on
which she sat, and when her father came to
for them she pleatledsiekness(xxxi. 14-16. in .
At his meeting wiili Esiiu. Jacob sliowed IiIh partic-
ular ullectiou for ]{achel by placing her lasl, witU
lier son Jo.sepli (xxxiii. 2, 7). Jacob was on Iuh way
back to his native country when Haeliel die<i while
giving birth to her wcond son. Ikmjumin. Her
<leath occurred not far from Eplirutli. and she wa«
buried on the road leading thitln-r, Jacol) setting up
a pillar on her grave to perpetuate her memory (xxxv.
16-20). Rachel and her sister Leah are lueutioned
as the two women who founded llie house of !».
rael, Kachel, though younger. U'ing meutioued lirst
(Kuth iv. 11). Jeremiah represcnt-s Kachel, weep-
ing for her children being driven into capti\ ity, os
the personilication of tenderness (.br. xxxi. 14).

K. o. II. M. Ski..

In Rabbinical Literature: Ka( hel and Ix-ah

were twin sisters, fourteen years olii wlien Jacob
came to their father's liousc; consequently they
were twenty-one years old at the time of their mar-
riage to Jacob (Seder 'Olam Kabbah ii.). TJie
terms "elder" and "younger." applied respectively
to Leah and Kachel (Gen. xxix. 16), are exjjlained
by the Kabbis as referring to. the divine gifts
bestowed upon their descendants; for while roy-
alty and the priesthood remained jiermanently with
Leah's descendants, they were held only temponirily
by Kachel's — royalty with Joseph and Saul, and the
priesthood with the tabernacle of Shiloh (Gen. K. Ixx.
1')}. In other respects the two sisters were alike, both
being ancestresses of kings, heroes, jirophets, judges,
and conquerors (/i. Ixx. 14; Tan., 'A'ayeze, 13).

When Jacob met Kachel near the well, and pro-
posed to marry lier, she informcil him that she
had an elder sister, and that as her father was of a
deceitful nature, he (Jacob) would be
Rachel and imposed upon. Jacob repli<Ml that he
Leah. was her father's equal in trickery;
and he agreed with Kachel upon cer-
tain signs which would enal)le him to re her.
Later, when Leah was given in marriag' ■! of
Kachel, the latter revealed the signs to her sister in
order to spare her from being disgniced by Jacob.
It was through the merit of her discretion liiat
Kachel became the ancestress of King Saul, who also
was discreet (Meg.. 13b; B. B-. 12:ia: Midr. Apadah
to Gen. xxix. 12; Targ. pseudo-Jonathan <»*/ /<*•.).

Kachel's envy at her sister's fertility (comp. Gen.
xxx. 1) is only once ((^-n. K. xlv. G) interjireted by
tiie Kal)bis as indicating one of the characteristics of
women. Most of the Kabbis consider the idea of
Kachel being an envious woman us incompatible
with what has been previously .said of her. They
declare that Kachel was not envious of her sister'.s
fertility, but of her righteousness; she thought that
if Leah had not been a better woman than she. slie
would not have had children. Besides. Kachel was
afraid that her father, si-eing that she had no chil-
dren bv Jacob, might nnirry her lo Esau (Midr.
Agadat Bereshit Ii. 1: Gen. K. Ixxi. 9). She
therefore insisted that Jacob pray to Giwl for chil-
dren, arguing that his father, Isiuic. had done »o

Rachel
Ba^oler

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

306

(comp. Gen. xxv. 21). Jacob objecting on the
ground that his father had one wife only, while he
himself had two, and that though one of them was
childless, he had children by the other, she urged
him to follow Abraiiam's e.\aniple. and to take her
handmaid for a wife (Midr. Agadat Bereshit I.e. ;
comp. Midr. Agadah to Gen. xxx. 1 ; Tan., Wayeze,
19; Gen. K. Ixxi. 10). According to tiie "Sefer ha-
Yashar" (section "Waj-eze," p. 46a, Leghorn, 1870),
Rachel herself prayed God to give her children,
and God finally answered her prayer.

In the episode of tlie mandrakes, when Leah
reproached her .sister for having robbed her of her
husband (Gen. xxx. 14-15), Rachel's feelings were
wounded, and she replied bitterly: "Jacob is not
thy husband ; lie is mine. It was for my sake that
he came here and served our father for so many

6), this prayer of Rachel caused Leah's seventh
child, which at the time of conception was a son, to
be transformed into a daughter; otherwise Rachel
would have been the mother of only one son (comp.,
however, Ber. 60a, and Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to
Gen. xxx. 21).

The Rabbis differ as to the reason why Rachel
stole her father's teraphim. Some consider that she
did so in order to conceal Jacob's flight; others, that
her object was to turn her father from idolatry
(Pirke R. El. xxxvi. ; Gen. R. Ixxiv. 4; "Sefer ha-
Yasliar," section " Wayeze," p. 47a).

As Rachel's death occurred fifteen years after her
marriage, slic must have died at the age of thirty-
six (Seder '01am Rabbah I.e. ; Midr. Tadshe, in
Epstein, "Mi-Kadmoniyyot ha-Yehudim," Supple-
ment, p. xxi., where the number 37 must be cor-

Traditional Tomb of Rachel.

(From a photograph by Bonfils.)

years. Had I not revealed to thee our signs, he
would never have become thy husband" (Midr.
Agadah to Gen. xxx. 15). Tlie affair of the man-
drakes is generally represented by the Rabbis as
unfavorable to Rachel; and it was due to her mode
of obtaining them (comp. Gen. I.e.) that siie was not

buried in the cave of Machpclah by

Her Self- the side of her husband (Gen. R. Ixxii.

Ab- 2). God remembered Rachel on Rosh

neg«.tion. ha-Shanah (Ber. 29a; R. H. 11a), and

it was particularly her self-abnegation
at the time of Jier sister's marriage wliich gained
for her the divine clemency (Gen. R. Ixxiii. 2; Midr.
Agadah to Gen. xxx. 22).

Rachel's words at the birth of Joseph, "The Lord
shall add to me another son" (Gen. xxx. 24), show
that she was a prophetess. She knew that Jacob
was to have only twelve sons, and, Jo.seph being
the eleventh son, she prayed for only one son more
(Tan., Wayeze, 20). According to Gen. R. (Ixxii.

rected to 36). The "Sefer ha-YaSliar" (section
"Wayishlah." p. 56b), however, gives her age at
the time of her death as forty-five. Rachel's early
decease was due, according to the general opinion
of the Rabbis, to Jacob's involuntary curse uttered
when Laban wassearciiing for the teraphim, " With
whomsoever tiiou findest thy gods, let him not
live "(Gen. xxxi. 32), he not knowing that Rachel
had taken the images. R. Judan's opinion, how-
ever, was tliat Rachel died before Leah because,
although she was liie younger sister, slie spoke be-
fore Lcaii when they were addressed by their hus-
band {ib. xxxi. 14; Midr. Agadat Bereshit ii. 3;
Pirke R. El. I.e.; Gen. R. Ixxiv. 3, 6).

Rachel's death was so deeply felt by Jacob that
he considered it the greatestof all his sorrows (Ruth
R. i. 3). He buried her on the road to Ephratli be-
cause he foresaw that the Israelites, when driven
into captivity along that road, would need lier in-
tercession with God in their behalf (Midr. Agadah to

307

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rachel
Raeroler

Gen. XXXV. 19; Gen. R. Ixxxii. 11). Jer. xxxi. 15

(sec Biblical Data, above) is the source of tlieniid-

rashic legend that wlien the Israelites were driven

into captivity l)y Nebuzar-adan, and

"Rachel the supplications of the Patriarchs
Mourning' and of Moses proved of no avail,

for Her Rachel arose from licr grave and ini-

Children." plored God's clemency, basing her

plea upon her own self-abnegation

with regard to lier sister. God thereupon promised

her the restoration of Israel (Lam. R., Pctihta, 25).

Rachel was one of the four Jewish matriarchs, all
of whom were prophetesses (Ber. 60a), and who are
often referred to in the liturgy, Rachel being men-
tioned before Leah. As the four dilferent plants
with wiiich the Jews were commanded to celebrate
the Fea.st of Tabernacles (Lev. xxiii. 40) are consid-
ered by the Rabbis to symbolize the four matriarchs,
Rachel, who died the youngest, they consider sym-
bolized by the willows of the brook, which fade
sooner than any other plant (Lev. R. xxx. 10).

E. c. M. Sel.

RACHEL. See Akiba n. Joseph.

RACHEL, ELIZABETH. See Felix, Elisa-

Ra( HKl..

RADIN, ADOLPH M. : Americati rabbi ; born
at Neustadt-Schirwindt, Poland, Aug. 5, 1848. He
received his Talnuidical education at Volozhin and
Eiscshok, and studied at the universities of Berlin,
Konig.sberg (where he was editor of the " Jiidische
Grenzbote "), and Grcifswald (Ph.D.). After suc-
cessively occupying rabbinates at Mewe, Kempen,
Kalisz, and Lodz, he went to the United States,
where he assumed the rabbinate of the congrega-
tion at Elniira, N. Y., and later of the Congregation
Gates of Hope, New Y'ork city. At present (lOO.'i) he
officiates at the People's Synagogue. Radin is es-
pecially concerned in the care of Jewish prisoners.
BiDLiOGRAPiiY : American Jewish Year Book, ]9()3-4, p. 87.
s. F. T. H.

RADNER, DAVID: Hebrew writer; born
Feb. 22, 1848, at AVilna, Russia; died there Nov. 11,
1901. He translated into Hebrew Schiller's " Will-
iam Tell" (1878) and "Don Carlos" (1879), Mosen-
thal's " Deborah " (1880), and Cassel's "Geschichte
und Litteratur der Juden."

BniLiOGUAPHV : Solfolovv. SrferZikhar()n,Vi'arsin\, 1889; Win-
ter cind Wiinsehe, Die JUdhchc Litteratur, iii. 895.

J. I. Wak.

RADO (originally RODER), ANTON: Hunga-
rian poet and autlior; born at -Moor June 29, 1862; son
of the grammarian Adolf Roder. He studied clas-
sical and modern philology at Steinanianger (Szom-
bathely) and Budapest, and engaged in journalism
in 1880. After obtaining his Ph.D. degree in 1883
with the Avork •' A Magyar INlliforditas Tortenete "
(History of the Hungarian Art of Translation), he
went to Italy to study, and later won a reputation
in Hungarian literature as a translator.

Rad6's renderings include Tasso's "Jerusalem,"
Byron's "Lara" (i882); Petrarch's soiuiets (1884);
the lyric poems of Lcopardi, Corneille's "Cid,"
Euri pides" " Iphigenia in Aulis," Ariosto's " Orlando
Furioso" (1893); and extracts from the Persian of
Firdusi ("Syavush," 1896; "Zal and Rudabah,"
1898). For the stage he has translated librettos

of Wagner, Boito, Verdi, Riccini. Ponchielli, Mag-
cagni, Leoncavallo, Kicn^l. Giurdauu, Qiuc-osu. Cos-
tetti, Bracco, Rovettn. Goldoni, and Cuvallotti.
Hado has pidjlisiied, besides, a collectjnn of original
poenis, an anthology of Greek aud I^tin poetry
(18Hr)), and a history of Ilalian litemture ("A/-
Oiasz Irodaloin Tfirtenete," 2 vols,, 1H96). He is a
member of the Hungarian Kisfahidy society.
Bini.ior.RAPiiv : I'allan Lex.

s. L. V.

RAFFALOVICH, ARTHUR : Russian econo-
mist; born at Ochs.sji in lH'ui. a member of the
well-known banking family of that nunie. He
studied economies and diplomacy at I'aris and lionn,
aud became private secretary to Count Schuvuluv
in London (1876-79); at the same time he was cor-
respondent of the "Journal des Debats"; later, of
the "Temps." He was appointed member of the
Superior Council of Commerce in Russia. His wri-
tings are mainly devoted to economic and finan-
cial subjects: " L'Imi)ot sur les .Mcohojsel le Mono-
pole en Allemagne " (Paris, 1886); "Le Logement
de I'Ouvricr et (lu Pauvre " (1807) ; "Les F'
de la Russie " ( 1899). He publishes an annuu
cial review, "L'Annee Financiere," and is the chief
editor of the " Dictionnaire de I'Economie Politiijue."

Bibliography: Xouicau LnraiDv^c lUiuitre.

s. J.

RAFRAM I. (BEN PAPA) : Babylonian air.ora

of the fourth century. In ids youth he was a pupil

of R. Ilisda (Shab. 82a), in whose name he transmits

various halakic and haggadic sayings (Ber. 20b;

Shab. 81a; 'Er. 83a; Ta'an. 13a; Kid. 81b; Ber. 8a.

59a). He succeeded Rab Dimi as head of the school

in Pumbedita. He died, according to Abraham ibn

Daud, in 387; according to Sherira Gaon, in 395.

BiBi.iociUAPHY : Abraham ibn Dnud, ."^r^cr hn K'tl)l>nlnh.in
Neuliauei, .V.J. ('. i. 59; Sherira (Jaon. ih. 1. ;C' ; lleiiprln.
Seder ha-lJorot, il. :JH ; Weiss, Dor, iii. U1I7; Halevy. L*r»n>t
^(i-Ki.s/ioiu'Hi, iii. 8;)-8y. f F7 T

w. 1!. J. Z. L.

RAFRAM II. : Babylonian amora of tlic sev-
enth generation; he was a pupil of R. Ashi. to
whom he fretiuently addiessed (piestions (Ket. 9.'ib;
Gif. 42a), and a colleague of Rabina II. (Yonja 7Sa).
He succeeded R. Gebiha as head of the Academy of
Piunbedita, and held that position from 433 until
his death in 443 (Slieriia, in Neubauer. ">[. J. C."
i. 34; Abraham ibn Daud, ib. i. 61).
BmLiORRAPHY: Halevy. Dnrntha-Ri»t)onitn. lu ^. •■■■.

w. li. -L Z. L.

RAGOLER, ABRAHAM BEN SOLOMON:
Lithuanian 'raliuudisl <■! ihf . i::hteeii!h oniury;
born at Wilna; biotherof Elijah b. Solomon rKlijali
"Wilna). Ragoler was preacher at Shklov
author of "Ma'alot ha-Torah " {2d ed.. KOn
1851), a collection of Talmudic pas,sages i ^
the Torah and its students.
UinuoGRAPiiv: Benjn.-. '■ "— ■ »' '-<'''. ".m. p. 351. No. JT«3:

Fiirsi, Itihl. ,lwi. ill. ■

Waltlen. Sliem hn-Ci •■

E. C.

RAGOLER, ELIJAH BEN JACOB: Rus-
sian rabtii and cabalisl : born at Neusladt Stigind,
government of Kovno. in 1794; died nt Kalisz Nov.
5, 1849: a descendant of Mordocai JalTe throi!?rli
Zebi Hirseh Ashkenazi (Hakam Zebi). After Rapo-
ler's boyhood had i>asscd he studied the Talmud

AbniMin Wilna):

l.V

M. Skl.

Raeoler

Ranem Na 'Alaw^

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

308

alone; and as lie had never attended any yeshi-
bah, his mind was free from casuistry (" pilpul ").
He clun*^ to the literal interpretation of the Tal-
mud, preferring the commentary of Hashi, and
often endeavored to understand the Talnuuiic text
without the aid of any commentary whatever. Be-
sides Talmudic literat\ire, Ragoler
Early Pro- devoted himself to the study of the
ficiency. Bible and Hebrew grammar, and, in
addition, of Latin and German. At
the age of twenty-one he turned his attention to
the Cabahi, and, after he liad studied alone for some
time, he went to Volozhin with the intention of con-
tinuing his investigations under Hayyim Volozhiner.
He, however, remained only a short time at this
place; and when he returned to his native town he
was forced, by a reverse in his father's fortune, to
accept a rabbinical office.

Ragoler was called to the rabbinate of Shat,
government of Kovno, and in 1821 to that of
Eiragola, in the same government, commonly
known to the Jews as Ragola, whence his name,
Elijah Bagoler. He remained in this place three
years and then (1824) became rabbi of Viliampol-
Slobodka, a suburb of Kovno. There he lectured
on Talmud before a great number of students; and
most of his jiupils became rabbis. In the beginning
of 1840 Ragoler was called to the rabbinate of
Kalisz, where he officiated until his death. Although
Kalisz was a larger town, his occupancy' of the
rabbinate brought liim little satisfaction, so much
did he miss his former pupils.

Ragoler Avas one of those enlightened rabbis who,
in defending Orthodox Judaism against its adver-
saries, carried on the struggle with moderation. In
1844, when the Reform rabbis, under
Defends the leadership of Abraham Geiger, as-
Orthodox sembled at Brunswick for a confer-
Judaism. ence, Ragoler was invited by Zebi
llirsch Lehren of Amsterdam to join
the Orthodo.x rabbis in their protest. He accord-
ingly, in a letter to Lehren, argued against the
tenets of Reform rabbinism, but at the same time
insisted upon the avoidance of violence and partic-
ularly of insulting words. He contended that il was
not worth while to bring on a quarrel so long as his
party was without particulars of the conference.
Besides, he declared, insulting the Reform rabbis
would only enrage them the more without pnjfiting
Orthodoxy. He contented himself with indicating
the means of preventing the mass of the Jews from
"falling into the net of Reform."

Althougii, as stated above, Ragoler studied Cab-
ala, he did so only from a scientific point of view;
he objected to its practise, detesting the writing
and use of "kemi'ot" (see Amulet). The chief
points of his method of study are: (1) never to tire
one's mind with commentaries on Rashi ; (2) after
having studied a section of the Pentateuch, to study
the Talmudic passages in connection
His with such section; (3) to teach chil-

Method of dren first the Pentateuch, then the
Study. Prophets and Hagiographa, and then,
when their minds are ripe enough, the
Talmud. In delivering his decisions he followed
the Law strictly; he thus abolished many old cus-

toms which he considered to be contradictory there-
to. His ordinances ("takkanot "), the observance
of whicli he strongly recommended, are very char-
acteristic, e.g., that women in particular should not
go to the river on Rosh ha-Shanah for the recitation
of the "Tashlik" (he held that it would be well to
abolish this custom altogether); that one should
not recite the " kidilush halebanah " under the open
sky, nor on Yom Kippur and the Sabbaths follow-
ing the Passover feast the pivyutim which occur
before "Shema'."

Ragoler left a number of writings, some of which
were published half a century after his death by his
sonin law David Levitin, under the title " Yad
Eliyahu " (Wilna, 1900), the work consisting of three
parts: (1) "Pesakim." responsa on the four divi-
sions of the Shulhan 'Aruk ; (2) " Sefer ha-Kelalim,"
an alphabetical index of Talmudical subjects; (3)
"Ivetabim," novella on the Talmudic themes, ar-
ranged in alphabetical order.

liiBi.ioGKAPnv: Arveli Liib Frunikin, Tolcdot EUmhu, Wilna,

lilOO.

K. c. M. Set,.

RAGSTATT, FRIEDRICH VON "WEILA :

Convert to Christianity; born in German}- 1048.
His Jewish name was ]irobably Weil, whence his
surname von Weila. He embraced Christianity
at Cleves in 1671, and became pastor in a Dutch vil-
lage. Ragstatt was author of the following works:
(1) "Yefeh Mar'eli " (Amsterdam, 1671; written in
Latin), in which he endeavored to prove, as against
the Jewish controversialists, especially Lipmann of
Mlilhausen, the Messianic mission of Jesus. A Dutch
translation of this work, which contains also an ac-
count of Shabbethai Zebi, was published at Amster-
dam in 1683. (2) "Uvtmundende Liefde Jesu tot
de Zeelen," ib. 1678. '(3) "Van het Gnaden Ver-
boud," if). 1683. (4) Two homilies on Gen. xlix.
10 and Mai. iii.. The Hague, 1684. (5) "Noachs
Prophetic von Bekering der Ileyden," Amsterdam,
1685. (6) Addresses delivered on the occasion of
the ba]itism of the Portuguese Jew Abraham Gabai
Faro, ib. 1688. (7) "Brostwepen des Geloofs," tA.
1 689. (8) " Jesus Nazarenus, Siou 's Koning, on Psalm
II. 6," Amsterdam, 1688.

Bibliography: Wolf, Bibl. Hcbr. iil. 948, No. 1832; Fiirst,
Dild. Jud. iii. 128.
D. I. Br.

RAGUSANO, AARON BEN DAVID HA-
KOHEN. Sec A.vkgn ben D.\.vid Cohen of

R.\GTS.\.

RAHAB : Originally a mythical name designa-
ting the abyss or the sea; subsequently applied to
Egypt. Job ix. 13 and xxvi. 12 indicate that it is an
alternative for "Tianiat," the Babylonian name of
the dragon of darkness and chaos; Ps. lxxxix.9 also
indicates that " Rahab " is a name applied to the sea-
monster, the dragon. According to a sentence pre-
served in the Talmud, "Rahab" is the name of the
demon, the ruler of the sea (" Sar shel Yam " ; B. B.
74b). It is used as a designation for Egypt in
Ps. Ixxxvii. 4 and Isa. xxx. 7. Similarly, in Isa. li.
9, which alludes to the exodus from Egypt, tlie de-
struction of Pharaoh is described as a smiting of the
great sea-monster Rahab or the dragon Tannin. The
juxtaposition of "Rahab" and "Tannin" in this pas-

309

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOrEDIA

Ragoler
Ruiiein Na

'Alaw

sage cxpliiiiis wliy " Kaliah '" was used as a designa-
tion for Egypt, wliich was otlieiwisu called "Tannin "
(seeEzck. xxix. 3, Hobr.). It must he noted tiial llie
Jewish exegetes deprived the word " Hahab " of its
niythologieal character, and explained it as merely
an eciuivaleiit for "arrogance," "noise," or " tunndt"
— applied both to tiie roaring of the sea and to the
arrogant noisiness and proud boasting of the Egyp-
tians (comp. Abraham ibn P]zra on Ps. Ixxxvii. 4
and Ixxxix. 9).

Bibi.iograpiit: Cheyneand Bhu'k, Kiicuc.mhl.; Smith, DiX.
Bililc; Gunkel, SiliOitftuio mid T/khw, pp. :tiM(), (iottinKfii.
1895.
w. I!. J. Z. L.

BAHAB (nm = " broad ").— Biblical Data : A

woman of Jciieho who sheltered the spies sent by
Joshua to search out the laud. Having arrived at Jer-
icho, the two spies remained at Hahab's house, situ-
ated in the wall of the city and having a window on
the outside (Josh. ii. 1, 15). Hahab was ordered by
the king, who had been informed of the arrival of
the spies, to deliver them to him ; she, however,
lad them on the roof and declared that they had
come and gone without her knowing who they
were (ii. 3-6). In lier conversation with the spies
upon the roof, Rahab proved to have been well
informed of the progress of the Israelites since
they had crossed the Red Sea. She told them that
she was certain of their final conquest of the land,
and asked them to reward her by sparing herself
and her whole family — her father, mother, broth-
ers, and sisters, all of whom lived in the interior of
the city (ii. 8-14). After she had let the spies down
through the window of her house, they en joined her
to take her whole family into her house, which she
should distinguish by placing a scarlet string or rope
m the window through which they had made their
escape (ii. 15-21). At the conquest of Jericho by
the Israelites, Joshua ordered the two spies to rescue
Rahab and her family, whose descendants thencefor-
ward dwelt in Israel (vi. 22-2B, 25).
E. G. H. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature : Rahab was one

of the most l)eautiful women in the world, the mere
mention of her name exciting inordinate desire
(Meg. 15a; Ta'an. 5b). Later Jewish commentators,
Rashi among them, interpret njlTH, the Hebrew
term for "harlot," as "one wiio sells food," basing
their view on Targum Jonathan (to Josh. ii. 1),
which renders it by XJT'pnJ'lQ (= "innkeeper";
comp., how^cver, David Kimhi ad loc). In the Tal-
mudic literature, however, it is accepted that Rahab
was a harlot. She was ten years old when the
Israelites came out of Egypt, and she pursued her
immoral calling during the forty years that the
Israelites were wandering in the wilderness. There
was not a prince nor a ruler that had not had rela-
tions with her; and she was therefore well informed
of what was going on outside Jericho (Mek., Yitro,
'Amalek, 1; Zeb. 116b). At the conquest of that
city by the Israelites, Rahab became a sincere prose-
lyte to the cult of Y'nwii. She then married Joshua
and became the ancestress of eight priests who were
prophets as well, Jeremiah among them, and of
the prophetess Iluldah (Meg. 141)). Rahab was also
one of tlie proselyte women styled "the pious"

("husid<it"; Midr. Tudshe. in Epstein. **Mi-?[ad-
moniyyotha-Yeliudiin." Supplement, p. xliii). The
words "and the families of the liousf of them tliat
wrought line linen," etc. (I C'hrou. iv. 21). are con-
sidered l)y llie Habbis to refer to tlic hoiiHcof \U\mh
(Kutli R. ii. 1).

The con version of Hahal)isregiir(led by tlie Habbis
as more com|d(te tlnin Ihul of J«'ihro and Nounmn ;
for while the latter two did not free •" "vi-b

entirely froni a belief in other go<ls. Hah,> \\\

edged that Yiiwii was the only (Jim! both in heaven
and on earth (Mek., /.r-. : D.-ut. H. ii. 19). This nc
knowlcdgmcnt of Hahab <alled forth the adnumliuii
of God Himself, who said: "On earth thou couldcHt
see with thine eyes that there is no other Go<I Ik?-
sides Me; but to acknowledge also liiat I uni the
only God in heaven needs special faith. I promise
thee, therefore, that one of thy descendants [refer-
ring to Ezekiel] shall see what no prophet Ix-fore
him shall have seen" (cf)mp. E/ek. i. 1); thus ma-
king Ezekiel also one of Ituhab'sdescentlants (Midr.
Shemuel, in Yalk., Josh. 10). Ruhab's reward was
alluded to by Ile/ekiah in his pniyer for recovery
from his sickness (comp. II Kings xx. 2). when lie
said that as Rahab was greatly recompensed for
the rescue of only two men, he who rescued so
many from idolatry certainlv deserved .some re-
ward (Eccl. R. V. 2).

E. c. M. Ski..

BAHABI, DAVID: Indian calendar maker;
born in the state of Cochin about the middle of the
eighteenth century. His father, Ezekiel Hahabi.
was one of the wealthiest merchants there; and
when he died (1771) David took over the manage-
ment of his business, devoting, however, consider-
able time to his studies also. He is known through
his work " Ohel Dawid " (Amsterdam, 1785). which
treats of the origin of the Hebrew calendar.
BiBLlOGnAPUV : AUij. Zcit. ilcsJud. 1840, pp. 710-711.

.1. F. C.

RAHAMIM, NISSIM : Turkish rabbinical wri-
ter; lived at Smyrna; dietl there 1828. He was the
author of a Hebrew work entitled " Har ha-Mor"
(Salonica, 1835), consisting of sermons and disserta-
tions on Maimonides (Hazan, " Ha-Ma'alot liShelo-
moh," p. 250).

D. M. Fn.

RAHEM NA 'ALAW: A dirgeof the Sephar-
dim, chanted by those taking part iu the sevenfold
processional circuit around the bier before interment
(see H.\kk.\fot), as depicted in the print by Picart,
1723, reproduced in Jew. Encyc. iii. 433 (see also
FuxEK.M, Rites). In accordance with the tone of
pious resignation jiervading the Jewish funcr
mony ("Zidduk ha-Din"). the melody to wli:
dirge is chanted breathes a di.stinct note of prayer-
ful hope. The .same chant is used ii' '
hymn by Solomon ibn Gabirol. each -
commences "Elohim Eli Attah." prefixed as u "re-
shut" (see Kekohot) to the ancient prayer "Nisli-
inat kol hai," in the morning scrvire of the Day of
Atonement, according to the Sephardic ritual. The
melody is by many deemed to bo of nv " '"^ni
origin than the majority of the chants i i In

the tradition of that ritual.

Rahmer
Rainbow

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

310

RAHEM NA 'ALAW

fi LargheUo.

me - lek 'o - lam,

ki 'im - me - ka.... me- kor hay - yim.

,-/> • h H

1 H V

1 — 1 1 —

1 — 1

1 N 1 — 1

1 — 1 ^

1 ^ — ^ —

-jHi P ''^

— 1 2 1—

— 1 1 —

=d-5-

-»■ F5 1 —

, ^

=5ti^

-i — p — w—

rrv? — i^ — -»—

» J

» ^

L« • ^

^ •

ttt — " ^ —

♦ [> L>

^—

W'e - ta - mid yit - hal - lek

■we - ta -

ah naf - sho.... bi-ze - ror.

ha - hay

vim.

Bibliography: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 411; D. A. de Sola,
Ancient Meladict nf the f^ephardic Lif i/rffi/, pp. 17.23, and
No. TO. London, 18.")7 ': P. Nanmbourp, Ri'cueil <lc Cliantu Rf-
ligUiu-, No. 57, Paris, 1874 ; Cohen and Davis, Voice of Prayer
and Praise, No. 360, London, 1899. „ ^ ^

A. F. L. C.

RAHMER, MORITZ : German rabbi ; born
Dec. 12. 1837, at Rybnik, Prussian Silesia; died at
"Magdeburg March 2, 1904. After studying at the
seminary of Hreslan (18o4-62) he was called to Thorn
(1862) as preacher and rabbi ; subsequently he went to
^Magdeburg (1867), where he officiated until his death.
Among his writings are the following: "Ueberdie
Einleitung zu IMaimonides' Mischnaconimentar "
(Breslau, 1860); "Die Hebraischen Traditionen in
den Werken des Hieronymus" (ib. 1861; continued
in "Ben Chananja," 1864, and in "Monatsschrift,"
xiv., xvi., xvii.); " Hebrilisches Gebetbuch fur die
Israelitische Jugend " (6th ed., 1890); and "Hierony-
mus' Commentar zu den Zwfilf Kleinen Propheten"
(Berlin. 1902). He was editor of the "Jiidisches
Litteraturblatt " from 1873 until his death, of the
"Israelitische Wochenschrift " from 1878 to 1895,
and of several volumes of a " Predigtmagaziu "
(1878).

Bibliography: Brann, Gescli. des Brcslauer JIldiKch-The-
ologinchen Seminars, 19a'>; AUg- Zeit. desJud. March, 1904.
P. S. O.

RAIMTJCH (REMOCH), ASTRUC : Physi-
cian of Fraga in the fourtfciUii CL-iitury. As an
Orthodox Jew he visited Benveuiste ibn Labi of
Siragossa and other prominent Jews; but in 1391
111" rfnoiinced his religion, taking the name of Fran-
cisco Dias-Corni, and endeavored to convert his
former Jewish friends, among them En-Shealtiel
Bonfos, probably a son of the physician Isaac Bon-
fos b. Shealtiel of Falces.

Bibliography: Letter sent by Ueinoph to En-ShealticI, In
Efodi's epistle^/ Tehi. Appendix: Geiper, Da^JudenUium
und Seine (reach. IIL 105; Gratz. Gesch. vilt. So et seq.
8. M. K.

RAIN. — Biblical Data : Palestine did not re-
quire such laborious artificial irrigation as Egypt;
Yh WH supplied it with " water of the rain of heaven "
(Deut. xi. 11). The harvests were regarded as the gift
of Yhwh, since they depended on rain coming at the
proper time. Yiiwii revealed His might by giving
or withholding rain (Zech. x. 1 ; Job xxxvi. 27 et
seq.), which He caused to fall in some places and
denied to others (Amos iv. 7). Abundant and sea-
sonable rain is promised to the people as a reward for
faithfully keeping the commandments (Lev. xxvi.
4; Deut. xi. 13 et seq., xxviii. 12; Jer. v. 24; Ezek.
xxxiv. 26). Israel's sins, on the other hand, cause
the course of nature to be disarranged (Jer. v. 25),
and Yiiwn punishes the people's iniquity by with-
holding rain (Deut. xi. 17, xxviii. 23 et seq.). The
favor of the king is "as a cloud of the latter rain"
(Prov. xvi. 15). The farmer longs especially for the
"latter rain" (Job xxix. 23). Cant. ii. 11 et seq. de-
scribes the awakening of nature after the winter
rains. See Palkstine.

E. G. II. I. Be.

In Rabbinical Literature : The source of

rain is in dispute in the Talmud. P. Eiiezer held
the opinion that all the world drank the water of
the ocean, quoting, "There went up a mist from the
earth, and watered the whole face of the ground "
(Gen. ii. 6). " The clouds," he explained, " 'sweeten '
the salt water of the ocean," R. Joshua thought
clouds are formed like bottles; they open their
mouths to receive the water from the heights, and
then they sprinkle the earth as through a sieve, with
a hairbreadth space between the drops (Ta'an. 9b).

When rain is spoken of in rabbinical works, it re-
fers only to that of Palestine, unless otherwise speci-
fied. The " yoreh " (early rains) fail in Heshwan, and
the "malkosh " (later rains) in Nisan. K. Jose says
the yoreh are due in Kislew (Ta'an. 6b).

The most convenient times for rain are Wednes-

311

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Balabov

day night and Friday night, when th« peoi)lL' rc-
nuiin at lionie. Kuin on Friday disturbs sliopping
in preparation for Sabbath (Ta'an. 8b, 23a; Hashi
ad lor.).

On the last day of Sukkot the people observed the

wind for indications of the following year's rain.

Tlie pilgrims in Jerusalem watciied

Signs of the drift of the smoke from the altar
Rain. in the Temple: if it drifted toward
the north, there would be plenty of
rain; if toward the south, the rains would be scanty
(Yoma 21b). R, Hisda said that after tiie destruc-
tion of tile Temple the southern winds no longer
brouglit rain (B. B. 25b).

Scarcity of rain is attributed to the stoppage
of the contributions of tithes, resulting in famine
and loss of business. Tithe-giving causes the win-
dows of heaven to open and the outpouring of the
blessing of rain (Mai. iii. 10). R. Johanan said rain-
less heavens follow the people Avho fail to keep
their i)romise to give alms, quoting, "Whoso boast-
eth himself of a false gift is like clouds and wind
without rain" (Prov. xxv. 14; Ta'an. 7b, Qb).

The heathen, in the event of a drought, sacrificed
human life to appease the anger of their idol; their
priest selected the victim indicated by a dream ('Ab.
Zarah 5a). The Jewish remedy was prayer. The high
priest on Yom Kippur prayed for healthful, rainy
seasons (Yoma 53b). Shemini ' Azeret is the water's
judgment day (R. H. i. 2), when Gkshkm (the rain-
prayer) is recited in the 'Amidah at Musaf, before
the phrase "Mashshib ha-ruah ii-morid ha-gashem."
It is interpolated in the benediction

Prayers of the resurrection, inasmuch as rain
for Rain, revives the products of nature (Ber.
V. 2, 33a). The insertion of " Tal u-
matar" in the ninth benediction of Shemoneh 'Esreh
is known as the "'request" or "solicitation" ("she'e-
lah") for rain. In Palestine the she'elah prayer is
first recited on the 7th of Tishri. R. Gamaliel set this
date so that the pilgrims whose homes were in the
east might, on returi^mg from .Jerusalem, have fif-
teen days after Sukkot in which to reach the Eu-
phrates (Ta'an. i. 3). Beyond Palestine the she'elah
does not begin until the sixtieth day after the au-
tumnal equinox (i.e., during the twentieth century
on Dec. 5; Ta'an. 10a). Both interpolations are
omitted from the first day of Passover till the next
yiiemini 'Azeret, as rain in summer causes injury to
the harvest. In countries where rain is beneficial
during the summer, the rain-prayer is inserted at
the end of the sixteenth benediction (Shomea' Te-
fiUah), including a country even as large as Spain
or Germany (Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 117, 2).

The Jews who went to Brazil in the first half of
the seventeenth century (probably 1642-46) found
that the rainy season there occurred at a different
time in the year; they therefore addressed a ques-
tion to R. Hayyim Shabbethai of Salonica as to the
necessity of changing the time of the rain-prayers
from winter to summer to meet the conditions of
the Brazilian climate. R. Hayyim decided that the
rain-prayer might be omitted in winter and might
be inserted at Shomea' Tetillah ("Torat Hayyim,"
iii., No. 3, Salonica, 1713-22). This is the first casu-
istic record of American Jewry.

A .series of fast - days follow if the rainy fiensf)n
is delayed. The fast • duy.s are known us 3 n3
("Sheni Hamishshi we-Sheui"; that i». Mouday,
Thursday, and .Monday). If tli.
by tlie 17th of Hi-siiwau tl)e pioi,

fast-days; if the ruin Ims not come by
Fast-Days the 1st for Ki-"
for Rain, additional pwi

day for three successive weeks. In
case this remains ineffective, the bet " '
other three-day la.st, with all the n .
Yom Kippur fust day, each beginning from the pre-
vious evening. If these do not avail, the bet din
decrees seven more fast-days in which shofur-blow-
ing takes jilace. The ceremony is conducted in the
public square of the town, and the elder of the cou-
gregation preaches humiliation (Ta'an. i. 4-7, ii. 1).
When rain falls on the fast-day, the duy is ended by
the recitation of full Ilallel. The benediction for
needed rain is, " We thank Thee, O Lord, for every
drop of rain which Thou caiiscst to descend upon
us " (Ber. 59b).

Honi ha-Me'aggel was tlie most successful in pray-
ing for rain in the Second Temple period. But he
would not pray against an excess of rain, saying, " I
have a tradition not to pray against overabundunce."
Once, however, when the people urged him to pn»y
for the cessation of rain which caused damage, he
prayed: "O Master of the Universe! Thy people
Israel, whom Thou hast delivered from Egypt, can
bear neither too much good nor too much evil ; they
can stand neither Thy wrath nor Thy overabundant
blessings. May it please Thee, O Lord, t<i stoj) the
rain" (Ta'an. 23a).

Bibliography : Shulhan "Aruh, Orah J^ayvim, .5T5-srr. For
the prayei-s for rain and tor the cessaUon of rain. • ■"
of special psalms, see Baer,'^-lA;odat Yiarael (ROtlt-lt.'

W. B. J. 1>. i:.

RAINBOW (nci'P)-— Biblical Data : This phe-
nomenon of nature is nu'ntioiifd but rarely in the
Old Testament. The beauty of the rainbow is
dwelt upon (Ecclus. [Sirach] xliii. \\ ct seq., I. 7).
and the glory surrounding Yinvn is compured to
the splendor of the rainbow (Ezek. i. 2^ ; coinp. Rev.
iv. 3, X. 1). A poetic interpretation, based on an-
cient mythological ideas, has been given to the rain-
bow in connection with the story of the Fl<K>d.
When the waters subsided. God placed the rainbow
in heaven in token of the covenant He had made
with Noah (Gen. ix. 12 et acq.). The rainbow is
Yiiwii's immense bow of war ("my bow"). This
idea may be compared with the conception of the
flashes of lightning as Ynwii's arrows (Ps. vii. 18 ft
scq.\ Ilab. iii. 11). If Yiiwii lays aside His bow
and hangs it in the clouds, it is a sign thut His anger
has subsided; on beholding it men may feel nswurod
that the storm is past and that no floo<l will come.
These mythological conceptions are of course very
ancient. They are found in India, where tl ' ■ '-
Indra's weapon, which he lays aside after 1.
with the demons. The Arabs also regard the rain-
bow as Kuzahs bow. which he han_- " *' o clouds
when he has finished shooting. Ti. 1 of the

rainbow is not found in any of the fragnienu of the
Gilgamesh epic.

E. O. H. I- B^

Ha'is
Barneses

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

312

In Rabbinical Literature : The Talimul

classes the rainbow with otlier things created at
twilight on tlic last day of Creation (Pes. 54a), as
the Rabbis were disinclined to believe that the laws
of nature were changed after Creation. Nahmani-
des, in his comnientarj' on the Pentateuch, says:
" We are forced to accept the view of the Greek
scientists that the rainbow is the natural result of
the sun's reflection on the clouds." The literal
translation of "Kashti natatti be-'anan " (My bow
have I set in the cloud) indicates that the rainbow-
was already an established institution; but it there-
upon assumed a new role as a "token" of God's
covenant with tlie earth against the Flood. The
token shows that Heaven's wrath ceased, the ends
of the bow pointing downward, as the warrior low-
ers his bow on declaring peace {ib.).

The rainbow is a sign of censure and a reminder
that the wickedness of mankind is deserving of
punishment. The virtue of the righteous is sup-
posed to protect his generation from evil, and the
appearance of the rainbow is a reproach to the com-
ujunity, as it shows that there were none worthy of
such protection (Ket. 77b). The rainbow is the rev-
elation of God's glory on earth, and to show due
respect one must not gaze at the rainbow, just as
etiquette forbids one to gaze at a high ofBcial (Hag.
16a). R. Joshua b. Levi thought that on seeing the
rainbow one should fall on his face in reverence, as
did Ezekiel when he saw "the appearance of the
bow that is in the cloud " (Ezek. i. 28). The Rabbis
of Palestine, however, censured the custom, as to
kneel before the rainbow savors too much of
heathenism; but they approved the custom of re-
citing the benediction, " Praised be He who remem-
bereth the covenant " (Ber. 59a). The full text of
this benediction is: "Praised be the Lord our God,
the King of the Universe, who remembereth the
covenant and is faithful in His covenant, and main-
taineth His word."

w. B. J. I). E.

RA'IS : Until the time of Mahmud II., the title
of the presiding officer or head of a community in
Egypt. Eacli Judao-Egyptian community had its
own ra'is, who was recognized by the calif and
who exercised both spiritual and judicial functions,
being empowered to appoint or confirm the presi-
dent and hazzan, and to inflict punishment for
crime. This official, who was termed "nagid" by
the Jews, received a regular salary from the commu-
nity, in addition to fees for executing legal papers.
The office is said to have been introduced into Jew-
ish communities by the daughter of a calif of
Bagdad. Maimonides is called ra'is by all of the
Arabic historians who mention him. See Egypt.

BiBLiOGRAPirv : Gratz. Gench. vl. 2.'A. 302.

■J. S. O.

RAKOWER (BLOCH), JOSEPH B. DAVID
TEBELE : Polish rabbi and Hebraist; died in Ei
liiiLsciilitz, Moravia, Nov., 1707. He was rabbi of
Eibenschiitz, whither he had removed from Cracow.
He is chiefly known as the author of " Lesiion Naki,"
one of the best Hebrew " letter-writers " of the earlier
period. It first appeared in Frankfoft-on-the-Oder,
in 1689, and was several times reprinted, entire and

in part. Rakower wrote also a work entitled " Mer-
kebet ha-Mishuah," which remained in manuscrijn,
and at the end of which is described a conflagration
which took place in Plock.

Bini.iOGRAPiiY : Fiirst, nth}. JmL iii. 129; Orient. Lit. x. .W-
a<V>; Steinschneider, Cat. lindl. .No. . 5980 ; idem, Jiihlioiimith-
i.vr/if.s- Hn)ull>uch Ufxr die Tlicureti.'tche uiid Prahtimhe
Litcratur fUr Hcbrilisclte Sprachhunde, No. 161t, Leipsic.

K. C. P. Wl.

RAKOWSKI, ABRAHAM ABEL : Austrian
autiior; born at Maryanipul, Austrian Galicia, Dec,
1855. He studied Talmud under his father (who
was a rabbi) and was educated privately in IIel)rew
and modern languages. Since 1872 Rakowski has
been a frequent contributor to Hebrew journals, es-
pecially to " Ha-Zefirah." He has publisiied the fol-
lowing : " Niddehe Yisrael," a translation of Philipp-
son's novel upon the subject of the Maranos in
Spain (Warsaw, 1875); " Hoter mi-Geza' Yishai," a
translation of Disraeli's romance " David Airoy " {ib.
1880); "Ha-Nekamah," a historical narrative (ib.
1883). The following appeared in "Ha-Asif":
"Nispeh beio Mishpat," a historical novel (1884);
" Lei ha-Pesah," a story of the Prague ghetto (1884) ;
"Ta'alumot ha-Mikr<).skop,'' a humorous story
(1884); " Dibre IIakamim,"a collection of pithy say-
ings and citations from universal literature (1884);
"Min lia-Mezar," a story of the ghetto of Prague
(transl. from Auerbach ; 1884) ; " Ha-Kesef," a history
of the development of money and of its influence
upon culture, political economy, and commerce
(1885); "Takkanot Ilanhagat ha-Ychudim" (1886);
"Debar Elohenu Yakum le-'01am,"an epitome of
the history of Semitic nations during the Biblical
ages (1886); "Zaken wa-Yeled," a translation from
the Polish of Okanski (1886); "Mirtala,"a transla-
tion from Orzhesko (1888). By 1895 Rakowski had
become a prosperous merchant at Zambraw, Rus-
sian Poland.

Bibliography : Sokolow, Sefer Zikkaron, Warsaw, 1889 ; Zeit-
lin. Bihl. Post-Mendels.
11. K. I. WaU.

RAM. See MeIr ben Samjel.
RAM. See Sheep.

RAM AH (RAMATH or RAMATHA) : Word
(meaning "height ") of frequent occurrence as an
element in the place-names of the mountain districts
of Palestine ; as, Ramath-lehi ; Ramath- or Ramoth-
negeb; Ramath- or Ramoth-gilead ; and Ramath-
mizpeh. It occurs also in the form of Rama-
thaim. In addition, there are a number of dijfferent
towns designated simplj' Ramah.

1. Ramah in Asher (Josh. xix. 29): Probably the
present Ramiya, southeast of Tyre, a small but very
ancient village.

2. Ramah in Naphtali (Josh. xix. 36): Fortified
place, probably the present Er-Rameh, 12 kilo-
meters southwest of Safed, and favorably .situated
in a well-watered region.

3. Ramah in Benjamin: Mentioned together with
Gibcon (Josh, xviii. 25) as being north of .lerusalem,
near Gibeali or Geba (Judges xix. 13; Isa. x. 29),
and near the boundary-line between Jiidah and
Israel. Baasiia of Israel fortified it in order to close
the road from JeriLsalem to the north (I Kings xv.
17 et seq. ; II Chron. x vi. 1 ci .seq.), but Asa of Judah

313

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ra'is
Riimeses

iiniiu'diiitely razed tlic works (I Kings xv. 22). Ac-
cording to tlie " Ouomasticou " of Euscbius, it was
6 Roman miles from Jerusalem, opposite Botli-el. It
iind()ul)todly corresponds to the i)resent village of
Al-Ham, ou the ruatl fron\ Jerusalem to Nablus, and
9 kilometers north of Jerusalem. liefcrence to tins
Hamah is intended in Jer. xxxi. 1.1, Jmlges iv. 5, and
Ilosea V. 8, although it is a moot point wjiether it is
identical with the birthplace of Samuel (see Hamah
No. 4).

4. The native place of Samuel. In I Sam. i. 1,
the place is called Ramathaim, but elsewhere Ra-
mali; the Septuagint, however, always uses the first
form. According to I Sam. ix. 5, Samuel's home
lay in the territory of Zuph, so that his father is
called a Zuphite (see Ram.vtii.mm-zophim) ; the ad-
dition, "of Mount Ephruim," shows that this terri-
tory and Ramah were situated on the mountain of
Ephraim, in the southern part, on the frontier of
Benjamin. In like manner, it is clear from 1 INIacc.
i. 34 ('Prti'^a/zfiv) that Ramathaim was farther north
than Ramah No. 3, for according to this passage
Ramah, like Ephraim and Lydda, was originally
part of the Samaritan territory, not being incorpo-
rated with Judea until 145 B.C., so that Eusebius
l)laces Ramah iu the vicinity of Diospolis (see Lyd-
da). The tomb of Samuel, which according to the
Biblical account was iu Ramah (I Sam. xxv. 1), is
by current tradition pointed out iu " Nabi Samwil" ;
the latter place, however, is certainly not Ramah, but
corresponds to the ancient Mizpeh in Benjamin. No
detinite identification of Ramah has yet been made.
Ramaliah, a large Christian village west of Al-Birah,
has been suggested, but this does not agree with the
statements in the "Onomasticon." The site is more
probably that of Rentis, about 15 kilometers east
of Lydda; or Bet Ramah, somewhat east of that
place.

E. G. II. I. Be.

RAMATH-LEHI : Place on the frontier be-
tween Judah and Philistia; mentioned only in the
story of Samson (Judges xv. 9, 14, 17). The name,
^n^ nm (=" -Taw-Bone Height"), is explained by
the tradition that Samson slew there 1,000 Philis-
tines with the jaw-bone of an ass and then cast the
bone away. More probably the hill was so called
because of its peculiar form. The name of the spring
'En ha-Kore (= "Partridge Spring"), which Hows
past the hill, is explained by leg(!nd to mean the
"Spring of the Caller" ("Kore") because it was in
answer to Samson's prayer that Yiiwh cleft the Jaw-
bone, sending forth a well of water. The scene of
the Samson stories was laid in the vicinity of Tim-
nath and Zareah, in the present Wadi al Sarar. It
is also stated that Ramath-lehi lay near the chasm of
Etam. Since the place is called linyd)^ in the Sep-
tuagint, it has been identified with the site of Kiiir-
bat al-Siyar, south of Wadi al-Sarar ("Z. D. P. V."
X. 152 ei seq.).
E. G. H. I- Be.

RAMATHAIM-ZOPHIM : Birthplace of Sam-
uel according to the i)resent text of I Sam. i. 1,
which, however, is corrupt. The usual interpreta-
tion, "Ramathaim of the Zophites,"is an impossible
one, since it would be contrary to Hebrew linguistic

usage to regard "Znphiiu" us t|uuiifying "Rama-
thaim." The reading must be, tlierofore. "a man
of Ramathaim [or "of the llamathites"], a Zophitc
of Mount Kphniim." Zupii is, according to I Sum.
ix. 5, a district .south of Ephraim, on the frontier
of Benjamin. No detuilH are given regarding itgRJt-
nation, but according to I Sum. i. 1, Samuel's na-
tive city, !{amiitliaim. lay in this distrit i

K. <;. n I Bk.

RAMBAM. Sic Mt»HEH u. Maimun.

RAMBAN. See Moses ii. Nai.iman

RAMESES : 1. Egyptian city; ..n. ..i ilie
"treasure cities" built l)y the Isrucliti'fl in their
servitude (Ex. i. 11: "Raamses"); the point from
which they started on their journey tlirougii the
wilderness (Ex. xii. 37). Further, the northeast «li-
vision of Egypt contained a region known as tlie
"land of Rameses" (Gen. xlvii. 11). Tlierc the
migrating Israelites were settled, "in the hind of
Goshen" (Gm. xlvi. 34, xlvii. 4, e( ul.). The addi-
tion of the Septuagint to Gen. xlvi. 28 — "to tlie city
Ileroopolis," preceding the words "into the land
of Goshen" — seems to include the city of Pitliom
(Heropolis, Heroo[n]polis) in this region, wliik- the
passages concerning Rameses a.s the starting-point
of the Exodus extend its boundary so far to the east
that " land of Goshen " and " land of Rameses "
would seem to be synonymous. The latter name
seems to be derived from the famous King Rameses
II., who, by digging a canal and founding cities,
extended the cultivable land of Goshen, fonnerly
limited to the country at the mouth of the modern
Wadi Tumilal, over the whole valley to the Bitter
Lakes. Less probable is it that the "land of Ram-
eses" is to be limited to that part of the region that
was newl)' colonized by Rameses II.

The city of Rameses betrays its builder and the
date of its foundation by its name; from Ex. xii. 87
and Num. xxxiii. 3, 5 it may be concluded that it
was situated one day's journey west of Succoth—
the modern Tell al-Maskhutah or its vicinity. Con-
sequently it ought to be not far from the entrance
into the Wadi Tumilat, near the modern Tell al-
Kabir. There is, however, so far. no epigruphic
support for this assumption, and the various ruins
identitied with Rameses (Tell Abu Sulaiman; T. 11
al-Maskhutah; see al)ove for its identity wiili Sur-
coth) have not confirmed it. The inscriptions of
Rameses II. mention various cf)lonies — one being
called "House of Rameses," in Nubia, not far fnmi
Tanis— but only once such a city in or near Goshen.
This place, where, in the twenty first year of Ram
eses II., the treaty of peace and alliance lvt\v..)i
Egypt and the Hittites was made, was probal>ly
thcBildical Rameses; but an exact determination of
its situation can n<U yet be furnished (romp. Na-
ville, "The Store-City of Pithom and the Route of
the Exodus," 1S84). '

2. Egvptian king; the founder of the city of
Rameses "and of Pithom (comp. Ex. i. 11). who
would. conseq\iently. seem to be the Pharaoh of the
Exodus. This king, the second of his name (Egyp-
tian. Ra'mes su; Ra'-meses). and the third ruler of
the Egvptian dvnast v. succeeded his father. Scthos
I in early youtii and'reigned for almost sixty-seven

Bami b. Ezekiel
Hanger

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

314

years. Concerning him, under the name Sesostris
(possibly confounded with a king of the twelfth
dynasty), the Greek writers tell stories of great con-
quests in Asia, Europe, and Africa; the monuments
narrate, however, that he waged only one serious
war, that with the Hittite empire, in Asia Minor and
Syria, and that this long war, followed by a mar-
riage with the daughter of the "great king of the
Hittites," had no other result than to contirm him
in the possession of his modest inheritance — Pales-
tine and half of Phenicia. The frequent representa-
tions of the same few victories, especially that at
Kadesh on the Orontes (celebrated also in a lengthy
epic erroneously ascribed to Pentaur), seem to have
given to later generations a false impression of Ram-
eses' achievements. The king was quantitatively
the greatest Egyptian builder, and the Kamesseum
(called the tomb of Osymandyas by Diodorus, after
the second, official name of Rameses II., User-ma' [t]-
n-re'), with its colossal statues, the temples at
Luxor, Abydos, Abu Simbel in Nubia, etc., belongs
to the grandest constructions of ancient Egypt;
many other monuments, however, were only usurped
by this indefatigable builder. The colonization of
Goshen and the digging of canals from the Nile to
the Bitter Lakes (but hardly to the Red Sea!) formed
another great monument of this Pharaoh. His
sepulcher is in the valley of the royal tombs at
Thebes; his mummy is in the museum of Cairo.
E. c. W. M. yi.

RAMI B. EZEKIEL: Babylonian amora of the
third generation ; younger brother of Judah b. Eze-
kiel. the founder of the Academy of Pumbedila.
He studied under his father, Ezekiel (Sanh. 80b).
Disregarding the opinion of his brother Judah that
it was a sin to leave Babylon for Palestine, Rami
went to Bene-Berak (a city southeast of Joppa),
where Akiba's academy had once stood, and there
he became convinced that Palestine was indeed a
land Ilowing with milk and honey (Ket. lUb). He
subsequently returned to Babylonia, however, and
corrected many of the sayings which his brother
Judah had cited in the names of Rab and Samuel :
"Harken not to the sayings quoted by my brother
in the name of Rab [or Samuel], for Rab [or Sam-
uel] spake thus" (Ket. 21a, 60a, 76b; Hul. 44a).
Rami occasionally quotes a baraita (Shab. 138a;
'Er. 14b, 58b). He had friendly relations with 'iab
Huna (Shab. 138b).

Bibliography : Heilprln, Seder ha-Dorot, 11. 343; Gratz,
GcKch. Iv. 29".
w. B. J. Z. L.

RAMI B. KAMA : Babylonian amora of the
third generation; a pupil of R. Hisda, and a fellow
student of Raba, who was somewhat his junior (B.
B. 12b; Suk. 29a; comp. Rabbinowitz, "Vari.TeLec-
tiones"). He frequeutlv addressed questions to R.
Hisda (Ket. 86b; Yoma 58a: Pes. 27b; 'Er. 8b, 73a).
R. Hisda once asked him a (juestion to which Rami
found an answer in a mislinah ; R. Hisda thereupon
rewarded him by rendering him a personal service
(B. K. 20a, b). He was also associated with R.
Naliinan, whom he often endeavored to refute ('Er.
34b; B. M. 65a; Hul. 35a). Rami married the
daughter of his teacher Hisda; when he died, at an

early age. his colleague Raba married his widow.
Raba declared that his premature death was a punish-
ment for having affronted Manasseh b. Tahlifa, a
student of the Law, by treating him as an ignoramus
(Ber. 47b). Rami b. Hama was possessed of rare
mental acuteness, but Raba asserted that his un-
usual acumen led him to reach his conclusions too
hastil}'. He attempted to decide questions inde-
pendently, and would not always search for a misli-
nah or baraita to support an opinion. His pupil
Isaac b. Judah left him, therefore, to study under
R. Sheshet, saying that although a decision might
apparently be based on correct reasoning, it must
be ignored if a mishnah or a baraita could be found
that contradicted it ; but a decision rendered in agree-
ment with a mishnah or a baraita does not become
invalid, even where another mishnah or baraita can
becited in opposition toit(Zeb. 96b). Ramib. Hama's
daughter married R. Ashi (Bezah 29b).

BiRi.iocjRAPHY : Heilprin. Seder ha-Dnrot, II. 343.

w. 15. J. Z. L.

RAMI B. TAMRE : Babylonian amora of the
third generation; a native of Pumbedita, and proba-
bly a pupil of R. Judah. He once went to Sura on
the eve of the Day of Atonement, and attracted at-
tention by conduct which was not regarded as per-
missible there. According to Hul. 110a, b, he justi-
fied his behavior, wiicn brought before R. Hisda, by
citing a saying of R. Judah's, thereby proving him-
self an acute scholar. In the same passage he is
identified with Rami b. Dikuli, who transmits a say-
ing of Samuel in Yeb. 80a. In another pas.sage he
is designated as the father-in-law of Rami b. Dikuli
(Men. 29b).

Bibliography : Heilprin, Seder ha-DoroU H. 344.
w. B. J. Z. L.

RAMOTH-GILEAD : One of the cities of ref-
uge, in the east-Jordan district, in the tribe of Gad ;
apportioned to the Levites (Josh. xx. 8, xxi. 38;
Dcut. iv. 43; I Chron. vi. 80). When Solomon di-
vided the country into districts, Ramoth-gilead was
made the center of one of them and the seat of a
governor (I Kings iv. 13). In the Syrian wars Ben-
hadad captured it from the Israelites as an impor-
tant frontier post, and Ahab was killed in an at-
tempt to recapture it (I Kings xxii. 3 et seq.). His
son Joram succeeded in taking it (II Kings viii. 28
et .seq.), and had returned to Jezreel to recover from
his wounds when Jehu was proclaimed king in
Ramoth-gilead (II Kings ix. 1 et seq.). The subse-
quent history of the city is unknown, but probably
it .soon fell again into the hands of the Syrians. Ac-
cording to the "Onomasticon" of Eusebius, Ramoth
was fifteen Roman miles west of Philadelphia, a
localization which seems to indicate the present Al-
Salt, about 10 kilometers .south of the Jabbok, and
which has, therefore, frequently been identified with
Ramoth-gilead. Al-Salt, however, was the ancient
Gedor, and Ramoth-gilead can hardly have been so
far south. The city for whose possession the Syr-
ians and Israelites were continually fighting lay
near the frontier, and consequently in the northern
part of the east-Jordan district. The reference in I
Kings iv. 13 also points to a site in the north. As
the governor of Ramoth-gilead ruled over the dis-

315

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rami b. Ezekiel
RiinK*^r

trict of Argob in Bashan, he can not have had Lis
capital south of Jabbok. There were, moreover, two
otluT governors farther south, so tliat Al-Riiiiilah,
11 kilometers southeast of Dar'at, and Haimuu, west
of Jeiash, have been proposed as the site of the city.
It is also frequently identified with Mizpehgilead,
since a Ramatli-mizpeh is mentioned in Josh. xiii.
26; but this identification is doubtful. SeeMizPAU.
E. I!. II. I. He.

RAM'S HORN. See Siiofau.

RAMSGATE : Seaside resort on the Kentish
coast of England. This small town owes its im-
portance in modern Anglo-Jewish history to its con-
nection with Sir Moses Moutefiore, who in 1830 pur-
cliased the East Clilf estate there as his country-
seat. A small community of Jews was already in
existence, but the nearest synagogue and established
congregation wore those of Cauterburj\ One of
the first uses to which Montcfiore put his newly
acquired estate was to build a synagogue, which
he opened to allcomers. The foundation-stone was
laid in 1831, and the building was consecrated
two years afterward. Two brothers, Isaac and
Emanuel Myers, were appointed ministers. Sir
]\Ioses became president of the sj'nagogue, and a
regular attendant at its services when at Ramsgate ;
and it was his invariable custom to extend the hos-
pitalities of East Cliff Lodge to all visitors from
London whom he recognized at his place of wor-
ship. When his wife. Lady Judith, died (1862),
she was buried in the synagogue grounds; and over
her grave was erected a white-domed mausoleum,
being a facsimile of the historic tomb of Rachel.

This mausoleum is not tiic only Jewish memorial
of Lady Judith with which her husband endowed
Ramsgate. Seven years after her death he founded
the Judith ]\Iontefiore Theological College, "to pro-
mote the study and advancement of the holy Law
and general Hebrew^ literature." The first princi-
pal of this college was the eminent Orientalist L.
L6we, wiio had accompanied Sir Moses on many of
his missions to the East ; and learned men were in-
vited from various parts of Europe to devote their
declining days to the objects for which the institu-
tion was founded. At the same time a valuable
li])rary was accumulated. When Sir Moses died the
institution passed into the trusteeship of the Spanish
and Poituguese Congregation in London, which reor-
ganized it under the principalship of the haham, M.
Gaster. A department was added for the training of
Jewish students and of candidates for the ministry.
This department and a portion of the Montefiore Li-
brary liave since been transferred to Jews' College.

The Judith Montefiore Theological College has
now reverted to its original uses as a place of study
for retired scholars. Two hours every morning and
every afternoon are devoted to this object; and
monthly lectures are delivered, on the first Sunday
in the month, to which the public are admitted.
The principal collegian is the Rev. J. Chotzner;
and the librarian is the Rev. G. S. Belasco, who is
also the minister of the synagogue.

The present Jewish population of Ramsgate is
130; but this is largely increased during the holiday
season. In the summer of 1903 the Union of Jewish

Literary Societies held its mst sumuier u^vmbly

at Ram.sgate. SeejLurrii Mu.stkhouk Coi.i,k«.k.

liiiii.iouKAi'iiY: Lui-len Wolf. Uu>{jun,Uu <>1 Sir Muttn Mon-

lijii'tf. pp. .11 ft ««•(.; J,i((Wi lV<ir n<M,k. l'J«; llriMirl* nf

the Juililh Mnutelhtrr (OUryr, \H\(i cl Mni.; J. <j. li ntti tt

.(J.n
MSS.

■/ tht
il

Are-

[u!»ed

«i/.; IkMcrinlii'i <attilo{/xu uf the tUlireu:
Mduteftore Library.
J. 1

RAN. Sec N1881.M n. Rkuiien Gerondi.

RANDAR or ARENDATOR (P<.lisl..
darz ; jirolmbly from tiie FientU " reudcui "
as early as the fourteeutli century for "teuaiit"],
tlie medieval Latin "arniidatarius." "arrcndntor."
" renderius"); Name originally applied to the teuanls
of a fee-farm, or even of an entire village, In Poland.
Litiiuania, and Little Russia, as well an in llir- Slavic
liortioiis of Atislria. Subsequently the name was
upidied also to the tenants of mills and taverns on
llie highways or within the boundaries of th<- rities.
These tenants are still f(»und throughoiii Polund In
districts where there are few railways. Such tav-
erns were and still are leased almost exclusively by
Jews, and the Jewisii tenant of tlie tavern ha.s Ix-eonic
a permanent personality in Polish literature. Under
the name of "Jankiel" he figures as the type of
submissiveness and of ever-ready helper in the works
of famous Polish pro.se-writers (as Korzeniowski in
"Speculator" and "Kollokacy") and poets (like
A. Mickiewicz in " Pan Tadeusz " ).

The randar is always ready to give good advice,
and is noted for his patriotism. He apjK-ars in an
especially idealized form in the "Pan Tadeusz,"
where, among various good qualities, there is as-
cribed to him knowledge of the art of cymbal-play-
ing, by which he delights the court of his master,
the "soplicy." In thisjioem his home is depicted as
a storehouse for the arms of the Poles in 1812. In
Russia also the Jews occasionally lease the taverns;
in the nineteenth century not less than fhiity-three
regulations referring to such taverns were issued.

Bibliography: Adam Mkklewlcz, Pan Tadeuitz. pa>«ltn; W.

Korolenko, DcrGcrichtxtaq. I.eipslc, n.«1. ; //«-•>■'■■''■ >• i--\
iii. ti.51-(»5; Ha-^hil<,<ih. 181*7. 11. 4:.M-4:C5: V. .
Sbornik, St. Petersburg, 1874 ; S. Orshan.vki. Y-
St. Petersburg, 1877.
8. S. O.

RANDEGGER, MAIER : Austrian education-
ist; born at Randegg Feb. 9, 1780; died at Triest
March 12, 1853. He was etlucated at home, at
Lengau (Switzerland), at Flirth (Bavaria), and at
Presburg, after which he accepted a position as in-
structor in Vienna. Later he removed to Triest.
where he opened a private school. He passetl the
remainder of his life at Triest, with the. 1 of

the years from 1838 to 1847. spent in ; =: at

Fiume and Fiorenzuola. In 1832 and again in 1834
he acted as rabbi daring temporary vacancies i>cca-
sioned by the deaths of two incumbents.

Randegger maintained a correspondence with the
leading rabbisand scholars of his time. Among his
works may be mentioned "ifiunat Dawid " (Vienna.
1841) and "Haggadah" (ib. 1861), with an Italian
translation by his daughter and annotations by
himself.
BiBLiOGRAPnY : Schott, In Allg. ZeU. da Jud. ItvW. p. 333.

F. T. H.

RANGER, MORRIS: English financier; b<im
in llesse-Cassel about 1830; died at Liverpool April,

Ranschburg
Raphael

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

316

ISyT. He joined the Liverpool Excluinge, and at
one time was one of the largest cotton -speculators
in the world, but later failed in business. The
vastness of his transixctions may be gathered from
the fact that he spent about £100,000 per annum in
brokerages and commissions, and in the year of his
failure turned over nearly £10.000,000. Ranger was
prominentl)' identified with Jewish affairs in Liver-
pool. He exercised great benevolence and founded
a scholarship at the Liverpool University.

Bibliography: Jen-. Wurhl. April 22, 1887.
J. G. L.

RANSCHBITRG, PAUL : Hungarian psychia-
trist; burn at Uaab Jan. 3, ISTO. On taking his de-
gree of M.D. at the L'niversity of Budapest in 1894,
he was appointed assistant at the psychiatric clinic
there. In 1899 he established a psychoph^'siological
laboratory.

rjauschburg's writings are as follows: "Transi-
torische Geistesstorungen," 1894; "Studien uber
den Werth der Hypnotisch-Suggestiven Therapie,"
1895; " Hysteric "im Greisenalter," 1896; "E.xperi-
mentelle Beitrage zur Psychologic des Hysterischen
Geisteszustandes," 1897; "Qualitative und Quanti-
tative Veranderungen GeistigerVorgiingeim Hohen
Greisenalter," 1899; "Psychotherapie,"l900; "Stu-
dien ilber die ilerkfahigkeit der Norraalen, Neuras-
theuischen und Geisteskranken," 1901; "Schwach-
befahigte und Schwachsinnige Schulklnder," 1903;
"Der Sporadische Kretinismus," 1904; and "Phy-
siologische und Pathologische Psychologic des
Kindes," 1904.

s. L. V.

RANSOHOFF, JOSEPH: American physi-
cian; born in Cincinnati, (Jliio, May 26, 1853. After
graduating from the Medical College of Ohio (M.D.
1874), he studied surgery at the universities of
Wiirzburg, Vienna, Berlin, Paris, and London
(F.R.C.S. 1877). Returning to his native city, he
became, in 1879, professor of anatomy at the Med-
ical College of Ohio; this chair he filled until 1902,
when he was called to the chair of surgery in the
same institution. In 1903 he was appointed a trus-
tee of the University of Cincinnati, and he has been
a member of the surgical staffs of the Cincinnati
Jewish hospitals. He is a fellow of the American
Surgical Society, of the American Academy of Med-
icine, and of the Society for the Advancement of
Science.

Ransohoff has made a number of important con-
tributions to the science of surgery in connection
with diseases of the gall-bladder, the vermiform
appendi.x, the brain, the kidneys, and the arteries
(aneurisms). He has contributed to the "Interna-
tional Encyclopedia of Surgery," the "Reference
Handbook of Medical Sciences," and "Surgery, by
American Authors."

.\. S. M.\N.

RANSOM (□"'•'12K' JV"ID) : Captivity being con-
sidered a punishment worse than starvation or death
(B. B. 8b, based on Jer. xv. 2), to ransom a Jewish
captive was regarded by the Rabbis as one of the
most important duties of a Jewish community ; and
such duty was placed above that of feeding or cloth-
ing the poor. He who refrains from ransoming a

captive is guilty of transgressing the commandments
expressed or implied in Biblical passages such as
the following: "Thou shalt not harden thy heart"
(Deut. XV. 7); "Thou shalt not shut thine hand
from thy poor brother" (ib.); "Neither shalt thou
stand against the blood of thy neighbor " (Lev. xix.
16); "He shall not rule with rigor over him in thy
sight" (i/j. XXV. 53, R. V.); "Thou shalt open thy
hand wide unto him" (Deut. xv. 8, 11); ". . . that
tiiy brother may live with Ihee" (Lev. xxv. 36);
"Thou shalt love thj' neighbor as thyself" (ib. xix.
18); "Deliver them that are drawn unto death"
(Prov. xxiv. 11; Maimonides, "Yad," Mattenot
Aniyim, viii. 10; Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 252,
2). One who delayed in the work of ransoming a
JewLsh captive was placed in the category of the
murderer (Yoreh De'ah, 252, 3).

Any money found in the communal treasury, even
though it had been collected for other purposes,
might be utilized in ransoming cap-
Urgency tives. Not only the monej' collected
of for the building of asj'nagogue might

the Duty, be so used, but also the building mate-
rials themselves might be sold and the
money diverted to that end. If, however, the syn-
agogue had already been erected it might not be sold
for such purpose (B. B. 3b; "Yad," I.e. viii. 11;
Yoreh De'ah, 252, 1 ; see Desecr.\tion).

If there were several Jewish captives and the
money in the communal treasury was not sutlicient
to ransom all of them, the cohen (priest) had to be
redeemed first, and then the Levite, the Israelite,
the bastard, the Natin (see Nethixim), the prose-
lyte, and the liberated slave in the order named. A
learned man, however, even though a bastard, took
precedence over a priest who was an ignoramus. A
woman captive was to be released before a man
captive, unless the captors were suspected of prac-
tising pederast}'. One's mother takes precedence
over all others in regard to release from captivity ;
and thereafter one is required to release himself, then
Iiis teacher, and then his father (Hor. 13a; comp.
Precedence).

When a man and his wife were taken captive the
court might sell the man's property, even against
his will, for the purpose of redeeming his wife.
The court might sell also a captive's property for
his own redemption, in spite of the captive's pro-
test. If a man voluntarily sold himself into slavery,
or was taken captive for debts he owed, the com-
munity was obliged to pay his ransom the first and
second times, but not the third time, unless his life
was in danger. His children, however, were in any
case to be redeemed after his death (Git. 46b). The
community was not obliged to liberate a convert
from Judaism, even when his apostasy consisted in
the fact that he gave up only one of the laws of the
Jewish religion. A slave who had gone through
the ceremony of the ritual bath and had lived as a
Jew was to be liberated at the expense of the com-
munity ("Yad," I.e. viii. 14).

In the tannaitic period it had already been found
neces.sary to make provision against paying too
high a ransom for Jcwi.sh captives, so as not to en-
courage pirates in their nefarious practises. The
ransom-money might not exceed the value of the

317

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ranachbure:
Raphael

captive, if sold as a slave, or the price usually jilaced
on captives (Git. 45a; "Yad," I.e. viii. 12; Yorcli
De'ali, 252, 4). This lavi^ was relaxed
Provisions in later times. A man might give all
Against he possessed for his own release, or
Excessive for that of his wife (see Husband
Ransom, and Wife). The community was re-
quired to pay all that was demaniled
for the ransom of a learned man or of a promising
youth (comp. Git. 45a; Tos. s. ». " Delo " ; KOSII
ad loc. ^ 44; comp. Griltz, "Gesch." 3d ed., vii. 175,
where it is related that R. Meir of Rothenburg re-
fused to be released for the large sum of 20,000
marks, which the German Jews were willing to pay
for his ransom, lest similar captures should be en-
couraged thereby). The Rabbis forbade the assist-
ance of captives in their attempts to escape, lest
the treatment of captives generally should inconse-
quence become more cruel (Git. 45a). See Captivks.

BiBi.ror.RAPHY: Abrahams, Jetvixh Life in the Middle Afifi',
pp. 96. 'SA'i, Philadelphia, 1896 ; Hamburger, R. D. T. ii. 82 ;
Kol Bo, § 82, Furth, 1782.
w. 15. J. H. G.

RAPA, ELIJAH B. MENAHEM (ELIJAH

RAPOPORT) : Italian Talmudist of the si.xteentli

■century. He was the author of "Be'er Mayim

Hayyim " (Corfu, 1599), on Talmudic and other

subjects, and "Erez He fez " (n.d.), on Biblical and

Talmudic subjects.

Bibliography: Eiseustadt- Wiener, Da'at Kedoshim, p. 147,
St. Petersburg, 1897-98. ^_

E. C. A. S. W.

RAPA (PORTO), MENAHEM ABRAHAM
B. JACOB HA-KOHEN (MENAHEM RAPO-
PORT): Italian rabbi and author; lived at Porto,
ill the district of Verona, and at Cremona; died
Dec. 30, 1596. He was a descendant of the Rapa
family, but he changed his name to Rapopokt (i.e.,
Rapa of Porto). Early in life Menahem went to
Venice, where he studied Hebrew with the helj) of
Elijah Bahur and medicine under Victor Trincavella,
Ijesides Talmud and the sciences generally (Reifman,
in "Ha-Shahar,"iii. 353). He was proof-reader of
Hebrew books printed at Venice.

Rapa was a witness of the burning of the Talmud
pursuant to the papal bull of 1553, and observed
the date of the auto da fe as a fast-day for the rest
of his life (.see his "Minhah Belulah," p. 203b, Cre-
mona, 1582). In 1574 he became rabbi of Cremona
(Carmoly, I.e. p. 7).

Rapa was the author of the following works: (1)

■"Zofnat Pa'neah," Venice, 1555, on cryptography;

Eisenstadt, in "Da'at Kedoshim," p. 144, attributes

this book to another Menahem. (2) "Ma'amar 'al

Mezi'ut ha-Shedim" (unpublished), on the existence

of devils. (3) "Minhah Belulah," Cremona, 1582,

■commentary on the Pentateuch, with a preface of

1,000 words, each beginning with the letter 3. (4)

Responsa (unpublished with the exception of the

article " Dagim," which was printed in " Pahad Yiz-

hak "). He edited the " Yalkut Shim'oni," Venice,

1565.

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Azulai, Shem ha-Qedolim, 11. 82, Wilna, 1852 ;
J. Reifman, Toledot R. Menahem ha-KnheJU \nHn-!>hahat.
ill. 353 et seq.; Carmolv, Ha--Orehim it-Benc 1 ^•.'"jn- PP; ^
et seq., Rodelhelm, 1861 ; Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da at Jycdn-
shim, p. 144, St. Petersburg, 1897-98.
E. C. ^- S- W.

RAPA (PORTRAPA). SIMHAH BEN
GERSHOM HA-KOHEN : luhiUKlK scholar and
author of the si.xteentli and sevcntecntli centuries;
born at Porto, Italy; died at Viiiina H<- was a
younger cousin of Menahem Abniham ItAPA; wlicn
the latter clianged his name to Uapoport. Simhah
began to call himself P(.rlrai)a (Cumujly, " Ha-
Oicbim u-BeiieY<jua]i." p. «).

Rapa went to Venice, wliero he lived at the liouse

of his cousin, and studied Talmud un<l<r Samutl

Judah Katzenellenbogeii, raljbi of that city. lu \'t\)9

he settled at Prossnitz, Moravia; and thence moved

to Vienna, where lie remained till his dratli. He was

the autlujr of " Koi Siinhaii " (Pros'^nitz. 1»W»',M, a

hymnal acrostic on Saturday.

Bibi.io(;rapiiv: Carmoly, Ua-^Orthiux u-Ucut I'luiuh, p. 8,
KiWclhcim. 1861.
K. C. A. S. W.

RAPHAEL (^XSI) : One of the archangels.
The word occurs as a personal name in I Chron.
xxvi. 7 (A. V. and R. V. "R< phaer'j, but it is not
found as the name of an angel in the canonical books,
as are the names of Michael and Gabriel. This must
be due to chance, however, since Raphael is an iin-
portiinttigure in the pre-Christian Apocrypha, while
from the fact that he ranks immediately below the
two angels just mentioned it may be concluded that
he appeared in Jewish angelolog}' shortly after
them. The late Midrash Konen (Jelliuek, "B. H."
ii. 27) states that he was once called I^ibiel, but
there is no evidence in support of this statement.

Raphael is one of the seven archangels who bring
prayers before God (Tobit xii. 15), altliough Ik •
not one of the six who buried M

One of (Targ. Yer. Dent, xxxiv. tt). In

the Seven Enoch, xx. 1-7 he is the second among

Arch- the six or seven angels, Michael, as

angels. the most prominent, being placed in
the middle (see Jew. Encvc. i. 590.
s.v. Akgelology); yet in a papyrus devoted to
magic, in which the seven archangels appear, Ra-
phael ranks second, immediately after .Michael
( Wessely, " Griechischer Zauberpapyru.s." ii. 65. line
38). In the same place Suriel is mentioned as the
fourth angel, and in a gnostic diagnun cited by
Origen ("Contra Celsum." vi. 30) Suriel is also reck-
oned as one of the seven, together with Ra{>iri' '
this refutes Kohut's theory (" Angelologie." p. :; •
of the identity of the two (see LQken, "Michael." p.
7, GOttingen, 1898). In the lists of plai '^

given in the Jewish calendar. Raphael i r

the sun and over Sunday {ib. p. 66).

The four angels Michael. Gabriel. Raphael, and
Uriel appear much more often in works of Jewish
mysticism. From heaven they behold all the blood-
shed on earth and bring the laments of souls »>ofore
the Lord (Enoch, ix, 1-3). From outof thedarkm>ss
they lead souls to God (Sibyllines. ii. 214 ^f .vy. ..
They are the four angels of the Presence, and stand
on the four sides of the Lord, whom they elorify
(Enoch, xl., where the fourtli angel is I'
Each has his own host of angels for the pi..,-...^ l
God. around the four sides of whose throne are the
four groups of angels. In accordance with their
position in heaven, they are the four leaders of the
camp of Israel in the wilderness : Michael on the

Raphael
Kapoport

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

318

east, opposite the tribe of Levi; Rapliael on the
west, opposite Ephraiin ; Gabriel on the south, facing
Reuben and Judah; Uriel on the north, facing Dan
(Pirke R. El. iv. ; Hekalot R. vi., in Jellinek, "B.
H." ii. 39, 43; Pesik. R. 46 [ed. Friedmann, p.
188a] ; Num R. ii. 10).

In like manner, the four rivers of paradise are
divided among these lour angels ("Seder Gan
•Eden," in Jellinek, "B. H." iii. l38). The magic
papyrus also names the four angels (Wessely, I.e.
ii. 70 et seq.), and accordingly, on page 41, line 641,
where the names of Michael, Raphael, and Gabriel
are plainlj* legible, the letters missing after kuiov
must be supplied so as to read nal Ovph/?.. Schwab
("Vocabulaire de I'Angelologie," p. 10) cites an
exorcism by these "'holy angels," who, as the most
august, according to the apocr^-phal fragments of
Bartolonijeus, were created tirst (Luken, I.e. p. 114).

Raphael, like every other angel, can assume any
form he will (Tobit); a tablet on his breast bears the
name of God (Pesik. R. 108b); according to the
Zohar, heisthechief of the"ofannim." A realization
of the foreign character of this angel is inferred in
the statement of Simeon ben Lakish (in 250 c.E.) to
the effect that the names of the angels originated in
Babylon, meaning among the Parthians who ruled
there (Gen. R. xlviii. 9). Raphael, as his name
implies, is the angel of healing diseases and wounds
(Enoch, xc. 9) ; he overcomes Asmodeus, the evil
spirit (Tobit V. 4 et seg.; ix, 1, 5; xi. 1, 6; Testa-
ment of Solomon, in "J. Q. R." 1898, p. 24); he
binds even Azazel, and throws him into a pit
(Enoch, X. 4). He cures blindness (Tobit I.e. ;
Midrash of the Ten Commandments, in Jellinek,
"B. H." i. 80), and because of his healing powers he
is represented as a serpent (Origen, I.e.). Raphael,
as the third in rank, appeared with Michael and Ga-
briel to cure Abraham (Yoma 37a; B. M. 86b; Gen.
R. xlviii. 10). He cures also moral evil (Pesik. R.
46 [ed. Friedmann, p. 188a]).

Raphael was a favorite figure in Christian as well
as in .Tewish angelology, and early Christian amu-
lets, encolpions, tombstones, and other monuments
have been found bearing the names
Raphael in of the angels Michael, Gabriel, and
Christian Rapliael (Liiken, /.c. p. 119). A small,
Theology, gold tablet discovered in the grave of
Maria, the Avife of tlie emperor Hono-
rius, bears a similar inscription (Kopp, "Paieo-
graphia Critica," iii., § 158; comp. Lliken, I.e. pp.
118, 122). The names of the same angels occur on
Basilidian gems, and Origen likewise mentions them
(LQken, I.e. pp. 66, 68), although in the magic papyri
Raphael appears chiefly in the formulas for amulets.

In post-Talmudic mysticism Raphael preserves
his importance, and is himself described as using
Gemathi.^ (Zohar, iii. 133, 228, 262; Jellinek, "B.
H." ii. 27, 39, 43, et al. ■ Schwab, I.e. p. 249; Talk.,
Hadash, ed. Presburg, p. 67a et al.). His name oc-
curs in Judaeo-Babylonian conjuring texts (Stilbe,
p. 27), and is conspicuous in the liturgy — as in the
evening prayer, where he is mentioned together
with the three other angels, at whose head stands
God, exactly as in the Christian version of Zechariah
vi. (Liiken, I.e. p. 122). He is mentioned also in
association with various ofannim (Zunz, "S. P."

p. 479), evidently being regarded as their head.
Naturally, his name appears on amulets intended
to prevent or cure diseases (Grunwald, "Mittheil-
ungen," v. 77). See Angelologv; Gabriel; Mi-
chael.

Bibliography: Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. 96; Hastings, Diet.
BihU ; Kohut. JVLdische Auoehilnqie. pp. 115 ct seq.. Leipsic,
1866; W. Luken, Michael. (iiJUingen, 1898; Rielun, liihl.
Han(Uc6rtrrhuc}i ; M.Schwab, Vocal mlaire de VAixjiluli)-
gie, pp. 10, :J49, 345, Paris. 1897 ; C. Wessely, G rice JiW(/i</Z(iu-
herpapyrus, Vienna, 1888; idem, ^I'cwt; Gricchi^chc Zaxiher-
papuri, lb. 1893.
J. L. B.

RAPHAEL, FREDERICK MELCHIOR :

English soldier; born in London 1870; died at
Spion Kop, Natal, Jan. 24, 1900; son of George C.
Raphael; educated at Wellington College. Joining
the Rifle Brigade (:Militia Battalion) in 1889, he
passed into the regular army in 1891, being assigned
to the First Battalion South Lancashire Regiment.
He was gazetted first lieutenant in that regiment in
1893, and in 1898 reached the rank of captain. He had
qualified in signaling and in military topograph}',
and had also acted as instructor in musketry and
as adjutant to his regiment.

At the outset of the conflict between the English
and Boer governments, Raphael was ordered with
his regiment to South Africa (Nov., 1899). He was
senior subaltern in his battalion and acting captain
in charge of 130 men and a machine gun ; he was
killed in Warren's engagement with the Boers at
Spion Kop.

Bibliography: Jew. Chrnn. Feb. 2, 1900.

.T.

G. L.

RAPHAEL, HENRY LEWIS : English finan-
cier and economist: born at London 1832; died at
Newmarket May 11, 1899; son of Louis Raphael.
He was senior partner in the firm of R. Raphael &
Sons, stockbrokers and bankers, and his influence
on the Stock Exchange was considerable. Raphael
showed a grasp of difficult economic subjects, and
gave evidence before various royal commissions and
parliamentary committees, including the Gold and
Silver Commission of 1888. He was a man of large
charities, dispensed not within the Jewish circle
only, but over a wider area. In memory of his wife
(d. Aug., 1897) he gave £20,000 to Guy's Hospital
for the endowment of a " Henriette Raphael Ward."
He was a generous supporter of the London Jewish
Board of Guardians and of other charitable insti-
tutions. He took a great interest in the turf also.

Raphael's son, Herbert H. Raphael (b. 1859),
has sat on the London County Council ami the
London school board, and has contested various
parliamentary seats.

Bibliography: Jeic. Chron. May 12, 1899; The Times (Lon-
don), Mav 12, 1899.
.1. G. L.

RAPHAEL BEN JEKUTHIEL StJSSKIND
HA-KOHEN : Talinudist and author; born in
Livonia Nov. 4, 1722; died at Altona Nov. 26. 1803.
He was educated at Minsk under Aryeh Lob ben
Asher, whose successor as head of the yeshibah of
that town he became in 1742. In 1744 he was called
to the rabbinate of Rakov, and in 1747 to that of
Vilkomir (a town not far from Wilna), where he re-
mained till 1757, when he was called as chief rabbi

319

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Raphael
Riijjoport

to Minsk. Six years later he became rabbi and
lioad of tlie yeshibah at Pinsk. In 1771 he went to
Berlin for the puri)osc of publishing there his work
"Torat Yekutiel." Tlie seiiolars of that city re-
ceived him with enthusiasm and respect, and offered
him tiie rabbinate, which was tlien vacant, l)ut for
some unknown reason he declined tiie oiler. In 1772
lie became rabbi of Posen, and four years afterwards
he was called to take charge of the "Three Com-
munities " (Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbeck ; .see
Ai/roNA).

For twenty-throe years he nnuistered to these
congregations, and then retired from active service,
spending the remainder of his life among his former
parishioners. IIow highly his work Avas esteemed
may be inferred from the fact that the King of Den-
mark, to whose territory these congregations be-
longed, upon hearing of Raphael's resignation, sent
him a letter in which he expressed his appreciation
of the service he had rendered to the Jewish com-
munity. Kaphael was Mendelssohn's bitterest oppo-
nent, and intended to utter a ban against the latter's
Pentateuch translation while it was still in manu-
script. Indeed, he fought against all modern cul-
ture, and on one occasion fined a man for wearin"-
his hair in a cue.

Raphael was the author of the following works:

(1) "Torat Yekutiel" (Berlin, 1772), novelke and
comments on the Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ali
(to the end of paragraph 106), appended to which
are some responsa. It was against this work that
Sant Berlin wrote his "Mizpeh Yekutiel " {ib. 1789).

(2) "Marpe Lashon " (li. i790), lectures on ethics.
(3) " We-Shab ha-Kohen" (Altona, 1792), 101 responsa
explaining the laws of the four parts of the Shul-
han 'Aruk. (4) "Sha'alat ha-Kohanim Torah " {ib.
1792), novelke and comments on the Tahnudic trea-
tises Zebahim, Menahot, 'Arakin, Temurah, Keritot,
Yoma, and Me'ilah. (0) "Zeker Zaddik " {ib. 1805),
his last two public lectures.

Bini.ioGKAPiiY: Griitz, Gascli. xi.540; Lewin, Talpiyyot, p. 8,
Berdychev, 1895; Lazarus Iliesser, Zeker Zaddik, Altona,
ISfto; Eisenstadt, Rabbane Minsk wa-Hdkameha, p. 18,
Wilna, 1899.

E. C.

B. Fr.

RAPHAEL, MARK : Italian convert to Chris-
tianity; flourished at Venice at the beginning of the
sixteenth century. He was a halakist of some re-
pute, and it was said that he was a "chief rabbi"
before his conversion. He was consulted by Henry
VIII. on the question of the legality, according to
Jewish law, of his levirate marriage to Catharine of
Braganza, and was invited by him to England.
Rapjiael accordingly arrived in London on Jan. 28,
1531 ("Calendar of State Papers, Spanish," i. 335).
He decided that such a marriage was legal, but sug-
gested that the king might take another wife con-
jointly with the first. This advice not being accept-
able, Raphael revised his opinion by pointing to the
object of levirate marriage, and contending that as no
children had been the result of the union, the king
must have married his brother's widow without the
intention of continuing his brother's line, and that
consequently his marriage was illegitimate and in-
valid. His opinion was included in the collection
presented to Parliament, and Raphael was rewarded

in many ways; amnujr (,ti,rrs, he \va>- 1 a

license to import si.\ imndreil tons of <. nud

two woads in 1532 (Gardner, " Letters and Papers of
Henry VIII." v. 4H5).

Bidmograimiy: L. Wolf. In I'ltperit i,f the ^ni/Jov/ruWi }fis.
tonral hxhibUion, p. 83; D. Kaufmaun. In ]{. K.J. xxvll.
fC, XXX. :)!().

RAPHALL, MORRIS JACOB: Rahhi and
author; horn at .Slutklioiiii. Swidiu. (Jet. 3, ITUH;
died at New York June 23. 1808. At the nge of
nine he was taken by liis faliier, who wan Ijunker to
tiie King of Sweden, to Copenliagcn. where he was
educated at the Hebrew grammar-scliool. I.4itcr lie
went to England, wlure he devoted himself to the
study of languages, for tiie better acquisition of
which he subsequently traveled in France. Ger-
many, and Belgium. After lecturing on Hebrew
poetry he began to publish the "Hebrew Review,
and Magazine of Rabbinical Literature," which
he was forced to discontinue in 1836 owing to ill
health.

For some time he acted as honorary secretary to
Solomon Herschell, chief rabbi f)f Great Britain.
He made tran.slations from Maimonides. Allio. and
Ilerz Wessely; conjointly with the Rev. D. A. de
Sola he published a translation of eighteen treatises
of the Mishnah; and he also began a translation of
the Pentateuch, of which only one volume ap-
peared. In 1840, when the blood accusation was
made at Damascus, he published a refutatifin of it in
four languages (Hebrew, English, French, and Ger-
man) and wrote a defense of Judaism against an
anonymous writer in the London "Times."

In 1841 he was appointed minister of the Bir-
mingham Synagogue and master of the school.
He continued in these capacities for eight j'ears. and
then sailed for New York (l.'*49). In that city he
was appointed rabbi and preaciier of the B'nei Je-
shurun congregation, where he continued as pastor
till 1866, his duties then being relaxed owing to his
infirm health.

Raphall was the author of a text-book of the
post-Biblical history of the Jews (to the year 70
C.E.). He received the Ph.D. degree from the Uni-
versity of Erlangen (Germany).

BinLiOGRAPHT: Jew. Chron. July 17, 1868; Morals. KmiticfU

TKraditc.i.

.1. I. Co.

RAPOPORT : Family, tlie various biandies
of which claim a common Kohenilic origin. The
names of Rapa or Rappe lia-Kolien ()' 3 KE1) are
met with about 1450. At tliat time Meshullam KusI
(abbreviated from " Jckuthiel ") Rapa hu-Kohen-
Zedek, theearlicst known member of the family, lived
on tlie Rhine, probably in Mayencc. Several decades
later the family disappeared from Germany, proba-
bly on account of the expulsion of the .lews from
Mayence Oct. 29. 1462. In 1407. in Mestre. near
Venice, tlie wealthy Hayyim Rajipe is found as col-
lector of alms for the poor of the Holy I^and. In
Venice the physician R. Mosc.s Rap was exempted
in 1475 from wearing the .lew's badge.

The Polish branch of the family ex - name

through the following lcgen<l : One ;.. a cer-
tain Jew, to prevent his enemies from smuggling the

Rapoport

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

320

body of a Christian child into his house, closed
all possible CDtrances and openings except the
chimney. Down the chimney, however, the dreaded
corpse fell, but when a crowd stormed the house
nothing but a partridge (Old German. " Rephuhn " or
"Raphulm") was found in the fireplace. But the
" Von don Jungen Rabeu " in the signature of Abra-
ham Menahem ha-KoheuRapa von Port (see Rapa,
Menaiie.m Abraham ii. Jacob ha-Koiien) at the
end of his Pentateuch commentary, and tiie addi-
tional fact that the coat of arms of the family bears
two ravens, clearly show that XD"1 signifies "Rabe"
(Middle High German, "Rappe"). The family
name, therefore, at the end of the si.xteenth century
seems to be clearly established as Ha-Kohen Rabe.

In the middle of the si.xteenth century there ap-
pears in Italy a Kohenitic family of the name of
Porto. On ^iarch 18, 1540, R. Isaac Porto ha-Kohen
obtained from the Duke of ^lautua permission to
build a synagogue (Ashkenazic). The name of the
family is to be derived neither froni Oporto (Portu-
gal) nor from Fiirth (Bavaria), but froni Porto, near
Mantua, where undoubtedly the above-named Isaac
Porto ha-Kohen lived. An alliance between the
Rabe and Porto families explains the combination of
the two family names in Rapoport; indeed, in 1565,
officiatingin the above-mentioned synagogue of Man-
tua, there is found a Rabbi Solomon b. Menahem
ha-Kohen Rapa of Venice, while a Rabbi Abraham
Porto ha-Kohen (1541-76) was parnas of the com-
munity. See Rapa.

However this may be, in the middle of the seven-
teenth century authors belonging to the Rapa-Port
familv were living in Poland and Lithuania, the

,\rms of the Rapoport Family.

name having meanwhile undergone the following
modifications: Rapiport, Rapoport, Rapperport,
and Rappert. The family spread principally from
Cracow and Lemberg; in the latter place, in 1584,
was bom the famous Talmudlst Abraham Rapa von
Port (called also Schrenzel). In 1650 Rapoports
lived in Dubno and Krzemeniec; in the eighteentii

century descendants of R. Judah Rapoport are
found in Smyrnaand Jerusalem. About 1750 there
were two Rapoports in Dyhenifurlh (Silesia) — one
named Israel Moses and the other R. Mei'r: the
former came from Pinczow, the latter from Kroto-
schin. Both foiuid employment in the printing es-
tablishment at Dyhernfurth.

The sons of the Rapoport of Krotoschin who set-
tled in Breslau and Liegnitz adopted, in 1818, the
name of Warschaucr. During the last 450 years
members of the family have been found in eighty
different cities of Europe and Asia. S.

Abraham Rapoport (Schrenzel) : Polish Tal-
mudist ; born at Lcnil)erg in 1584; died in 1651
(June 7); son of R. Israel Jehiel Rapoport of
Cracow and son-in-law of R. !Mordecai Schrenzel of
Lemberg. Rapoport was a pupil of R. Joshua Falk
ha-Kohen. For forty -five years he was at the
head of a large yeshibah at Lemberg. Being very
w'ealthy, he had no need of seeking a rabbinical
position; and he was able, therefore, to expend
large sums in behalf of the pupils of his academy.
He was president of the Council of Four Lands,
and was administrator of the money collected for
the poor in the Holy Land. Rapoport 's "Etan lia-
Ezrahi" (printed at Ostrau, 1796) is divided into two
parts. Part i. contains responsa and decisions; part
ii., called "Kontres Aharon," contains sermons on
the weekly sections of the Pentateuch. He is said
to have written a number of works which have
been lost.

Bibliography : Azulai, Shcm ha-Gedolim, i.. No. 17 ; Solomon
Biiber, ^?is/ic Shem, pp. 7-13, Cracow, 1895.
s. J. Z. L.

Arnold Rapoport, Edler von Porada : Aus-
trian deputy; grandson of S. L. Rapoport; born in
1840 at Tarnow. In 1848 he accompanied his fam-
ily to Cracow, where he subsequently studied law;
he took his degree in 1863 and opened a law-oflice
in 1870. In 1874 he was elected a member of the
municipal council of Cracow, Avhich ofiice he held
until 1881, when he went to Vienna. In 1877 he
was returned to the Galician Diet by the Cracow
chamber of commerce, of which he is still a member
(1905). lie was elected to the Reichsrath in 1879.
As a member of the Austrian legislature he has
devoted himself chiefly to economic questions, and
more lately to questions relating to canals and water-
ways in Austria.

Since the beginning of his public career Rapoport
has been actively interested in ameliorating the piti-
able condition of his Galician coreligionists, organ-
izing committees and founding societies for their
relief. In 1890 he was ennobled by the emperor
Francis Joseph; he is a knight of the Legion of
Honor, and the Turkish order of Nishan-i-Medjidie
and the Servian order of Sawa (1st class) have been
conferred upon him.

s. E. J.

Aryeh Lob b. Baruch Rapoport : German

rabbi of the eighteentii century. He was at first a
wealthy merchant, but after lo.sing his wealth be-
came rabbi of Odensoos, Schnaittach, and Iliitten-
bach ; later he was elected rabbi of Herzfeld (Car-
inoly, "Ha-'Orebim u-Bene Yonah," p. 18) and

321

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Rapoport

WQrzburg (1757). In conjunction with his fathir,
lie wrote a liaskaniaii (Siil/hach, 1755) for tiie " llok-
niat Shelonioh " of Solomon Luria (Eiseustadt-
Wiener, "Da'at Kedoshim," p. ICl).
s. A. S. W.

Baruch. b. Moses Meir Kahana Rapoport :

Polisli raltbi ; liorii prohalily in Lcnilicii: ; died in
Fi'irth, Bavaria, in 1746(Nisan), at an advanced age.
According to Fuenn he was rabbi of Wilna for a
siiort time about 170!) ; b>it Ihcre is evidence that lie
went to Fiirth as early as 1701. When his uncle
Sind.iah Rapoport left Grodno for Lublin in 1715.
Baruch was .selected to succeed him, but he refu.seil
to abandon the smaller connnunity of Fi'irth, because
he desired to remain in Germany. Still he assumed
the title of rabbi of Grodno, which he appended to
two approbations dated about that time. His re-
sponsa are included in the Michael collection of man-
uscripts, now in the British Museum. He opposed
Nehemiah Hayyun and Closes Hayyim Luzzalto.
A letter addressed to him in defense of the latter,
written by K. Lsaiah Basan, is reproduced in " Kerem
Hemed " (ii. 62).

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, j). QH; idem,
Kcticsrt Yisrael, p. 197; Ozerot Hamiinu Nos. 788-789, Ham-
burg, 1848; Eiseustadt- Wiener, Da'rtf, X'edo.shi/n, pp. 1.5t)-
157. See also Ettliausen, Or Ne^elam, responsum No. 39,
Carlsruhe, 1765.
s. p. Wi.

Benjamin ben Simhah ha-Kohen B,apo-
port : Galician preacher; lived at Brzezany toward
the end of the eighteenth century. He was the au-
thor of "Gebulot Binyamin " (Lemberg, 1799), con-
taining novella; on the Pentateuch arranged in the
order of the "parashiyyot," novellas on the sayings
of Babbah bar bar Hanah, and a commentary on the
Pesah Haggadah.

Bibliography: Eisenstadt- Wiener, Da'at ^edoshim, p. 156;
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 174.

B. M. Sel.

Benjamin Zeeb Wolf ben Isaac ha-Kohen
Rapoport : Hungarian rabbi ; born at Nikolsburg,
Moravia, in 1754; died at Papa, Hungary, April 14,
1837. From his childhood Rapoport manifested
extraordinary ability in the study of the Talmud.
From 1771 to 1781 he was lecturer in Talmud in
Alt-Ofen; and from 1781 until his death he was
rabbi of Papa. Rapoport's liberalism with regard
to ritual decisions drew down upon him the dis-
pleasure of men like Mordecai Benet, chief rabbi of
Moravia, and ]\Ioses Schreiber, rabbi of Presburg,
both of whom urged the community of Papa to dis-
miss him. Failing in this, they accused him before
the Austrian government of introducing a new
Torah, with the result that he Avas commanded bj'
the government either to rescind his decisions or
to support them by evidence. lie was an opponent
of Cabala and Hasidism.

Rapoport was the author of the following works:
"Simlat Binyamin u-Bigde Kehunnah" (Dyheru-
furth, 1788), novellre on that part of the Shulhan
'Aruk (Yoreh De'ah) which deals with vows and
oaths; "Netibot ha-Hokmah,"or "Simlah Sheniyah"
(Vienna, 1800), a collection of thirty-two responsa;
" 'Edut le-Yisrael " (Presburg, 1839)', novella; on the
treatise ]\Iakkot, edited and supplemented by his son
X.— 21

Mendel Ra|)oport. Carmoly and EiscnstadtWIcner

credit to Itapoimrt tiie following works, whicli they

declare were published by Mnid.d Rapoport wiih-

out giving |)lace or date of publication : " Noy Suk-

kah," containing the regulations peculiar io the

Fea.st of Tabernacles; "Sha'ar Hinvamin." i

on tiie Talmud ; and " Vikkawu ha .Mayiin," :,

Talmudic work. In addition. Carmoly aficribes to

him a work entitled "Se.ler ha-Mishnali," on the

three divi.sionsof the Torah— the Bible, the Misli-

nah, and the Gemara— while Eis<'nHtadl-Wiener on-

eribes to him the authorship of "Shelosb Mc'ot

Kesef," homilies.

Bibliography: CBrmoly. Hn-'Oreliim u-ltrue Vniinli. pp 21-
-'-'. l{(Kl<-llicirii, 1K61; El!<«'nKl4i(lt-Wl.-n«T, iMi'al h'r<l«Hl',i,n
p. l-;i; Kiirst, /?//,/. ./»</. ||(. i;vi (wli.-n- tliln lUwjport U con-

fused with Ik-njaiuln U. Slmlmli llaixiiiort)
s

Sr<. I!

M. Ski..
T' I I.I.Mr n. Mena-

Elijah Rapoport.

IIE.M.

Hayyim b. Bar Rapoport: Rabbi at O.strog.
Russia, in the lirst half of the nineteenth century.
He was the author of the collection of responsa called
"Mayim Hayyim " (parts i. and ii.. Jitomir, ia'37;
parts iii. and iv., i/j. 1858). The appendi.x. entitled
•'Ozerot Hayyim," contains novella; on the Penta-
teuch.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Kenenct Yifnirl. p. :vi~; Benlorob.
Ozar lia-Sefarim, p. 334. No. 11 1^
s- J. Z. L.

Hayyim b. Simhah ha-Kohen Rapoport :
Polish rabbi; born about 17()0; died in Lemberg
1771. He was rabbi in Zetel, Lithuania, about 1729,
but in the following year appears as rabbi in Slutsk,
in the government of Minsk ; his signature, attached
in that year to an approbation of R. Jehiel lleilprin's
"Seder ha-Dorot," indicates that he was even then
considered an authority. Ten years later he was
chosen rabbi of Lemberg, a position to which his
father had been chosen twenty-two years previously,
but had died before he could assume the office.
With R. Baerof Yazloviczaud R. Israel Baal Shem.
in 1759 Hayyim, under orders from Bishop Mikolski.
held the memorable disputation with the Fninkist
leaders. His responsa and approbations are found
in numerous contemporary works, including those
of his brother-in-law Zebi of Ilalbcrsladt.

Hayyim had two sons. Aryeh Lob (d. 1759). head
of the yeshibah of Lemberg. and Na^man, rabbi
of Glogau. Of his three daughters, the lirsl was
married to Joel Katzenellenbogen. a Galician rabbi;
the second married Aaron ha-Lcvi Ettinger (d. at
Lemberg c. 1759). for some time rabl»i of Rzeszow,
Galicia; the third became the wife of a certain Ikiruch
b. Mendel b. Ilirz. Hayyim ha-Kohen Rapo-
port of Ostrog, Volhynia, author of "Mayim llay-
yim," responsa (.Jitomir. 1858). who died in 1839.
was Hayyim b. Siinhah's great-grandson.

Hayyim's works remained in manuscript for
nearly a century after his death. The first, a col-
lection of responsa entitled "She'elot u-Teshuljot
Rabbcnu Hayyim Kohen." in the order of the Shul
han 'Aruk. was published in Ix'inbergin 1861. The
second, "Zeker Hayyim." sermons and funmil ora-
tions, also appeared in Lemberg. in 1866. He is
said to have written several more works M-hich are
still in manuscript.

Rapoport
Rappoltsweiler

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

323

Bibliography: Dembitzer, Kelilat Yofi. pp. 137 et acq., Ctsl-
cow. IhSti ; Eleazar lia-Koben, /Ciii'tif Sojtfinu P- T3, note,
Lemberg, ISST- ; BubtT, Anshc Slum, pp. (59-72, Cracow, 1895.

8. P. Wl.

Isaac b. Judah ha-Kohen Rapoport : Pales-
tinian rabbi ui the (.'iglut'cnth century ; born and
died at Jerusalem, a pupil of R. Hezekiah da Silva.
After a journey to Europe in behalf of the haluk-
kah fund, he was elected rabbi of Smyrna, where lie
remained forty years. At an advanced age he re-
turned to Jerusalem, where he was appointed to a
rabbinate. He was the author of a work entitled
" Batte Kehunnali. " The first part contains responsa
and treatises on the posekim (Smyrna, 1741); the
second part consists of sermons, together witli
studies on the Talmud (Salonica, 1744).

Bibliography : Furst, Dibliotheca Judaica, lil. 130-131.
s. J. Z. L.

Jekuthiel Stisskind (Siissel) Rapoport :
Russian communal leader; born 1802; died in Minsk
March 7, 1872; son of Hayyiin ha-Kohen, rabbi of
Ostrog, Volhynia (d. 1889), and great-grandson of
R. Hay3Mm ha-Kohen Rapoport of Slutsk and Lem-
berg. He married into a wealthy family of Minsk,
where he settled. His extensive Talmudic knowl-
edge and his piety did not prevent him from S3'm-
pathizing with the progressive movement for the
spread of secular knowledge among the Jews of
Russia, and he encouraged Dr. Lilienthal, who vis-
ited Minsk on his tour through Russia in 1842. In
1856 he was chosen a member of the rabbinical com-
mission which met the following year in St. Peters-
burg to discuss Jewish affairs. lie and his brother
Jacob, rabbi of Ostrog, published their father's
"Mayim Hayyim" (Jitomir, 1857-58). Jekuthiel
left two sous, Jacob of Warsaw and Wolf of
Minsk (d. 1898), and three daughters, one of whom
married Israel ^leisels, rabbi of Siedlce.

Bibliography: AIlp. Zeit. (UftJiuL lM9,p.435; Ha^Maugid,
iii. 147, 163; xvi.. No. 27; Ha'Sliahar, iii.333; Lckct Ama-
riw. p. 89. St. PetershuPK, 18.'^9; Fiienn, Keiieset YisraeU pp.
313-314 : Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da'at KaUmhim, pp. 174, 177, St.
PetersburK, 1897-98.
s. P. Wi.

Menahem Rapoport. See R.\rA (Porto), Men-
AHEM Abu.\ham b. Jacob ha-Kohen.

Moritz Rappaport: Austrian poet and physician ;
born at Lemberg Jan. 19, 1808; died at Vienna May,
28, 1880; cousin of Solomon Judah Lob Rapoport.
He received his early education at home; his father
belonged to the party of Reform, while his mother
was strongly Oithodo.x. The period from 1822 to
1832 Rappaport spent in Vienna, attending the gym-
nasium of the Benedictine monks and studying med-
icine at the university (M.D. 1832). Immediately
after graduating he established himself as a physi-
cian in his native town. For forty years he was one
of the leading physicians of Lemberg, where he was
appointed chief physician at the Jewish hospital.
Rappaport took an active interest in the welfare
of his coreligionists, spending both time and money
in behalf of the synagogue, the school, the orphan
asylum, and the poorhouse. From 1872 to 1878 he
resided in Vienna ; in 1879 he was again in Lemberg ;
but in the last year of his life he returned to Vienna.

Moritz Rappaport's " Moses," an epic-lyric poem in

five cantos, appeared in 1842; his "Bojazzo," in
1863. Under the title "Hebraischc Gesauge" he
translated Lamentations, the Song of Songs, the
" Lekah Dodi," etc.

Bibliography: Karpeles, Gcoc/i. der Jfldischen Literatur^ii.
1129-113(1; Winter and Wunsche. Jlldische Litteratur,m.
883 ; AUg. ZcH. dcs Jud. 18811. p. 427 ; 1892, p. 48;5 (■( pnxgiin.

s. F. T. H.

Solomon Judah Lob Rapoport : Austrian rabbi
and scholar; born at Lemberg June 1, 1790; died at
Prague Oct. 16, 1867. Thrown upon his own re-
sources about 1817, Rapoport became cashier of the
meat-tax farmers. He had already given evidence
of marked critical ability, though his writings pre-

Solomon Judah Lob Rapoport.

viously published were of a light character — poems,
translations, etc. His critical talent, however, soon
revealed itself. In 1824 he wrote for " Bikkure ha-
'Ittim " an article on the independent Jewish tribes of
Arabia and Abyssinia. Though this article gained
him some recognition, a more permanent impression
was made by his work on Saadia Gaon and liis time
(published in the same journal in 1829), the first of
a series of biographical works on the medieval Jew-
ish sages. Because of this work he received recog-
nition in the scholarly world and gained many
enthusiastic friends, especially S. D. Luzzatto (Bern-
feld, "Toledot Shir," p. 33).

By this time Rapoport's circumstances had be-
come straitened. In 1832 the farming of the meat-
tax fell into the hands of his enemies, and he was left
without a source of income. He endeavored, with
tlie aid of his friends Zunz and Luzzatto, to secure
a rabbinate in Berlin or in Italy ; but for a position
in the former place he was not suflliciently proficient
in German, and for one in the latter he had not the

323

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rapoport
RappoltBweiler

required universit}' diploma. The intellectual Jews
of Bro(l\% therefore, estiiblishod a business and made
Kapoport its superintciuk-nt (" Iggerot Shir," p. 209).
In 1837 he was appointed, tiirough theenileavorsof J.
Perl and other Masliilim, rabl)i of Tarnopol (" Kercm
Honied," iv. 241 ct seq.), and in 1840
Rabbi rabbi of Prague. Rapoport was con-
at Prague, servativc in his religious views. His
Orthodoxy was of the type of Zacha-
rias Frankel's. He wrote "Torah Or" against the
radical views Geigcr had expressed in his "Ur-
schrift," rebuked Jost for taking the same attitude
in his "Tokahat Megullah"(an open letter to the
rabbis assembled at Fraukfort-on-the-Main in 1845,.
j)ublished with a German translation by Raphael
Kirehheim, Frankfort-on-tlie-Main, 1846; see p. 1),
anil assumed a negative attitude toward the conven-
tion of German rabbis at Frankfort-on-the-I\Iain in
1840.

Rapoport was chiefly distinguished as a critical
investigator. As such he was preceded by Zunz,
Jost, and Krochnial, though in his researches he
was independent of them. He differs from the first
two in that he is deeper and more thoroughgoing in
his researches, and from Krochmal in tliat his in-
vestigations are more minute and detailed. It was
in virtue of this excellence that Rapoport succeeded,
in most of his investigations, in establishing histor-
ical dates. Thus he was the first to throw light
on the life and period of Saadia Gaon
Biog-- ("Toledot Shir," p. 33). He did sim-,
raphies. ilar service in connection Avith the bi-
ographies of R. Nathan (author of the
" 'Aruk "), Ilai Gaon, Eleazar ha-Kalir (" Bikkure ha-
'Ittim," 1840-41), R. Hananeel, R. Nissim(i6. 1842),
and others.

Of the other works of Rapoport, the following
are the most important: notes on the English trans-
lation of " The Travels of Benjamin of Tudela "
(London, 1840-41); "'Erek Millin," encyclopedic
dictionary of Judaism (parti., Prague, 1852); "Dil)re
Shalom we-Emet," in defense of Zacharias Frankel
against the attacks by the Orthodox {ib. 1861);
"Nahalat Yehudah," against the Hasidim (written
1861) and against Geiger's "Urschrift" (Cracow,
1868); "Nahalat Yehudah," strictures on "Ben Yo-
hai" by M. Kuniz (Lemberg, 1873); "Zikkaron la-
Aluironim," letters to Luzzatto (Wilna, 1881); "Ig-
gerot Shir," other letters (Przemysl, 1885); an
article in " Kerem Hemed" (v. 197 et seq.) on the
Chazars, the Lost Ten Tribes, and the Karaites
(this article regained him the lost friendship of Luz-
zatto) ; various other articles on similar subjects.

Bibliography: Bernfeld. Toledot S/iir, a biography of Rapo-
port (Berlin, 1899) : Halberetam, Toledot Hapoport, Cracow.
liKX) ; Dan Centenarium. S. J. L. RapoporVx, Vienna, 18{K) ;
Griitz, Ge-sOi. xi. 449 et seq., Leipsic, 19(K): I. H. Weiss. Zili-
ronotni, pp. 86 et scq.. Warsaw. 189.5 ; Jellinek. in I\emed.
1867. No. 4tJ ; PorRes, in Ha-Shahay, 1869 (separate fascicule);
Ha-Ro'eh. criticism on tlie woflis of Rapoport by dilTerent
sdiolars (Ofen, 1839); Milsahapri. n'^^xn, strictures on tlie
works of Zunz and Rapoport (ib. 1837).

RAPPAPORT, PHILIP: American lawyer
and journalist; born in 1845, at Fiirth, Bavaria,
where he was educated. Removing to the United
States in 1866, he became reporter for the "Frei-
heitsfreuud," in Pittsburg. The following year he

held the editorship of a German daily at Wheeling.
W. Va., studying law at thesjime time. After being
admit te<l to the burin 1870 he removed to Cincin-
nati, where he became as.sistant editor of the "Cou-
rier." later of the " Volksblalt." In 1874 lie went
to Indianapolis. Ind. and took uj) the practise of
law. In 1881 he founded the " Indiana Tribune."
of which paper he was the principal own<r unil
editor for nineteen years. Since 1900 he has been
practising law in Indianapolis.

A. F. T. II.

RAPPOLDI, EDOUARD: Aiistrian violinist;
born at Vienna Feb. :.'!. l^l'.'J. He studied at the
Vienna Conservatorium under Jansa. Hcllmesberger,
B5hm (violin), and Sechter (composition). From
1854 to 1861 he was a member of the Vienna court
opera orchestra, and made succes-sful tours through
Girmany, Holland, and Belgium. From T^Hl to
lytUi he was concert-ma.ster at Uoiterdam, and from
1866 to 1870 conductor at Lllbeck, Stettin, and
Prague. In 1871 he was appointed teacher of llin
violin at the Konigliehe lI(Hh.>.(liule fUr Musik in
Berlin, where he remained until 1877, when he Ik?-
came chief instructor in the violin at the Dresden
Conservatorium, which position he held for lifteen
years. Until his retirement in 1898 he was also con-
cert-master of the Dresden opera orchestra. In 1874
he married Laura Kahrer, the pianist.

Though a violinist of the first rank, Rappoldi pre-
fers artistic interpretation to display. He is also
distinguished as a quartet player, and has contrib-
uted greatly to the advancement of chamber-music
in Dresden. His compositions include .symphonies,
quartets, sonatas, and songs with pianoforte accom-
paniment.

BiBLiOGRArn Y : Ludwig Ilartmnnn, in Mitniknlischru fViichen-
hlatt, Leipsic, ix. 480: Cliamitlin. Tj/c. <./ Music oiul Muei-
cians; Mendel, Miisihalinchcs Koitvcnalioii.^-fjirihou.
S. J. So.

RAPPOLTSWEILER (French. Ribeau-
ville): Townof Upper Al.>;aee. The earliest known
official document concerning its Jews dates from
1821. In that year Louis IV., Emperor of Germany,
transferred the Jews of Rappoltsweiler to the Sieur
de Ribeaiipierre as surety for a loan of 4n0 silver
marks. Ten years later they were plctlped by
the same monaich to John of Rappolt-stein. In
consequence of the Aumlkdeu riots of 1337 the
Jews of Rappoltsweiler were partly massacreil and
partly banished by the Loid of Rappoltstein. The
emperor at first threatened the perpetrators of those
cruel acts with severe pimishment for the enrronch-
ment upon his property: but later he grantol in-
demnity to the brothers John and Ansclme of Rap-
poltstein.

In 1349 the comnumity of Rappoltsweiler was
completely annihilated in consequence of the perse-
cution caused by the Black Dkath. "^ " \v-
ever, Jews again settled in the town and i itl
themselves there until the end of the sixteenth cen-
tury, when the municipality issued ii ' ' " 'n-
ishment. Toward the middle of tl, tli
century they were again allowed to settle in Unp-
poltsweiler, under tlie condition that each of the
first ten settlers should pay a yearly pn.trction tax
of 20 florins, while those that came later should pay,

Baschkow
Bashi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

824

besides the yearly tax, 200 livies for admission,
liappoltsweiler at the end of tlie seventeenth cen-
tury contained about 20 Jewish families; in 1784
these had increased to 58 families, comprising 286
persons. Upon the establishment of consistories
(1808) Rappoltsweiler became part of the con-
sistorial diocese of Colmar. The rabbis who have
held office at Rappoltsweiler during the last fifty
years have been Elijah Lang and Weil (the present
incumbent).

The Jews of Rappoltsweiler number (1905) about
210 in a total population of 6,100.

Bibliography: Depping. Les Ji(if.s au Mouen Age, p. 91;
Stbeid. HiMnire rff.s Juifn d' Alsace, pp. 11, 14 ; Reuss. L'Al-
mce au XVII' Sitcle. ii. 5S0; Salteld, Marturulogium, pp.
239,283.
D. I. Br.

RASCHKOW, LAZAR (ELEAZAR) : Ger-
man pliysiciuu and writer; burn at Kaschkow, prov-
ince of Posen, 1798; died Aug. 2, 1870. He received
his early instruction in Hebrew from his father, who
■was the local rabbi, and at an early age took a
position as tutor at Xeisse, where he prepared him-
self for the "secunda" of the gymnasium of that
city. After his graduation he studied medicine at
the University of Budapest, and was then appointed
surgeon in the Austrian array, but was obliged to
resign because of his writings on behalf of the
emancipation of the Jews. He then began to prac-
tise at Mad in the county of Tokay, but being soon
forced to give up this work on account of ill health,
he engaged in tutoring and writing. From this
period dates his history " Kerot Yeme '01am," Avhile
his dramatic poem "Amnon we-Tamar" (Breslau,
1832) is a product of his youth. Shortly before his
death he composed his epitaph, in which he related
the story of his life.

BiBLior.RAPHY: Furst Bibl. Jud. lii. 133; Silbermann, in Ha-
Maggid, 1870, No. 33; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mcndels. il. 2ft3.

S. M. L. B.

RASCHKOW, StJSSKIND: German poet;
died at Breslau April 12, 1836. He was the author of
the following works: "Yosef we-Asenat," a drama
(1817); "Hayye Shimshon," an epic poem (1824);
and "Tal Yaldut," poems and proverbs (1835).

Bibliography: Zunz, Monatstage.TieTWn. 1872; Steinschnei-
dt-r. Cat. Bodl. col. 26W ; Winter and Wunsche. Die JUdische
Litteratur, vol. iii., s. i\, Treves, 1896.

n. n. I. War.

RASCHPITZ (RASCHWITZ), HAYYIM :

Scholar of the seventeenth century ; martyred, prob-
ably at Prague. He wrote the prayer " "lyyun Te-
fillah," on the persecutions and the martyrdoms of
Prague (2d ed., Amsterdam, 1671; 4th cd., Dessau,
1671; 5th ed., with German transl. by Zebi Hirsch
Kaidanover, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1709).

Bibliography : Zedner, Cat. Hchr. Hooks Brit. 3/ws. p. 183;
Benja^ob, 0?ar ha-Sefarim, p. 437; Stelnachneider, Cat.
Dodl. cols. 832-833.
P. S. O.

RASHBA. See Adret, Solomon ben Abra-
ham

RASHBAM. See Samtei, hen MeITr.

RASHI (SOLOMON BAR ISAAC): French
commentator on Bible and Talmud ; born at Troves
in 1040; died there July 13, 1105. His fame has
made him the subject of many legends. The name

of Yarhi, applied to him as early as the sixteenth
century, originated in a confusion of Solomon bar
Isaac with one Solomon de Lunel. and a further error
caused the town of Lunel to be regarded as Rashi's
birthplace. In reality he was a native of Troves,
where, a century ago, butcher-shops were still shown
which were built on the siteof his dwelling and which
flies were said never to enter. R. Simon the Elder
was his maternal uncle ; but a genealogy invented at
a later date assigned this relationship to the tanna Jo-

Rashi Chapel at Worms.

(From a photograph.)

hanan ha-Sandalar. According to tradition, Rashi's
father carried his religious zeal so far that he cast into
the sea a gem that was much coveted by Christians,
whereupon he lieard a mysterious voice which fore-
told him the birth of a noble son. Legend states
also that his mother, imperiled in one of the nar-
row streets of Worms during her pregnancy, pressed
against a wall, which opened to receive her. This
miraculous niche is still shown there, as well as the
bench from which Rashi taught. As a matter of

fact, however, Rashi merely studied

His at Worms for a time, his first teacher

Teachers, being Jacob b. Yakar, of whom he

speaks with great veneration. After
Jacob's death liis place was successively filled by
Isaac ben Eleazar ha-Levi, or Segan Lewiyah, and
by Rashi's relative Isaac b. Judah, the head of the
school of Mayence, a school rendered illustrious
through R. Gershom b. Judah (the "Liglit of the
Exile"), who may be regarded as Rashi's precursor,
althougli he was never his teacher.

Tradition to the contrary notwithstanding, Rashi
never made the extensive journey through Europe,
Asia and Africa which Jiave been attributed to him,
and accounts of whicli have been embellished with
details of a meeting with Maimonides and of Rashi's
marriage at Prague. About the age of twenty-
five he seems to have left his masters, with whom
he always maintained most friendly relations. His
return to Troyes was epoch-making, for thenceforth
the schools of Champagne and northern France were
destined to rival, and shortly to supplant, those of
the Rhenish provinces. Rashi most likely exercised

325

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Raschkow
RiiHhi

the functions of rabbi in his native city, but he
seems to liave depended for support chiefly on his
vineyards and the inanufaclure of wine. About
1070 he founded a scliool wliich attracted many dis-
cipUs and wliich became still more important after
the death of his own preceptors. His most noted
pupils were yimhali of Vilry and IShemaiaii, wiio
were his kinsmen, and Judah b. Abraham, Joseph
b. Judah, and
Jacob b. Sam-
son. He had no
sons, but tluee
daughters, of
whom Miriam
and Joe he bed
married two of
his pupils, Ju-
dah b. Nathan
and M e i' r b.
Samuel; so that
his family be-
came, in a sense,
the ditt'users of
rabbinical learn-
ing in France.

Kashi's train-
ing bore fiuit in
his commen-
taries, possibly
begun while he
was still in Lor-
raine. His last
years were sad-
dened by the
massacres which
took place at the
outset of the
first Crusade
(1095-1096), in
which he lost
relatives and
friends. One
legend connects
his name with
that of Godfrey
de Bouillon, to
whom he is said
to have foretold
the defeat of
his expedition;
while another
tradition attrib-
utes to him a
journey to Bar-
celona, in the latter part of his life, to seek a man
indicated to him in a dream as destined to be his
comrade in paradise. Another legend further states
that he died and was buried in Prague.

J. M. Lib.

Rashi's commentary on the Pentateuch was first
printed without the text at Reggio in 1475 (the first
dated Hebrew book printed); five years later it was
reprinted in square characters. Its first appearance
with the text was at Bologna in 1482, the commen-
tary being given in the margin; this was the first
commentary so printed. Since that date there have

Interior of Lhe Rashl Chapel at Worms

(From a photograph.)

been published a great many editions of the Penta
teuch with Rashi's coinnienUiry only. At dilTcr.nl
periods oilier parts of the Old Testament appeared
with his eomtnenUry; the Five Serollg (liologna,
c. 1484); the Five Scrolls, Daniel. Ezi-a. and Nehe-
miidi (Naples, 1487); Job, Psjdms. Proverbs, and
Daniel (Saionica. 1515); the Pentateuch, the Five
Scrolls, Ezra, and Cljronieles (Veuioe. 1617). The

edilio prim ipn
of Rashi on the
whiiluof theOld
T' wtt«

<:i. •: ..ru'ot

Gedolot" (ib.
1525). in which,
however, of
Proverbsandtho
bookn of Job
and Daniel tho
text alone was
given. Owing
to its im por-
tance. I{ashi's
commentary
was tninslaled
into I.Atin by
Christian schol-
ars of the seven-
teen! hand ■

eenlh cenu

some parts sev-
eral times. The
most complete
Latin translation
is that of Jdhn
Frederick Breit-
haupt. which
a p J) eared at
Got ha: on the
Pentateuch ,
1710; on the
Prophets, the
twelve Minor
Prophets, Job,
and Psalms,
1713 ; on the
Ejirlier p*rophet8
and the Hagi-
ogni|>iia, 1714.
The whole com-
mentary on the
Pentateuch was
translated into
German by L.
Dukes (Prague, 1838). and parts of it wen-' -hI

into Judito-German by Judah Lcib Bresch :i-

tion of the Pentateuch (Cremona. 1560). and likewise
by Jacob b. Isaac in his " Scfer ha-Maggid " (Prague.

1576).

No other commentaries have been the subject
of so many superconmienturies as tli " M.

The best known of the.^ superconit. -•:

the "bi'urim" of Israel Isserlein (Venice. 161»); the
" SeferhaMizrahi" of Elijah V -" -V.e

"Keli Yakar" of Solomon I , -'»

(Lublin. 1602); and finally the most popular one,

Hashi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

326

the '• Sifte Ilakamim " of Shabbethai Bass (appearing
iu many Pentateuch editions by the side of Kashis
commentary.)

Kashi's commentary on the Tahnud covers the
Mishnah (only iu those treatises where there is Ge-
mara) and the Gemani. In the various editions
Kashi is assumed to include all the treatises of the
Talmud, with the exception of 3Iak-
Lacunse in kot from 19b to end, Baba Batra from

Talmud 2Ub to end, and Nedarim from 22b to
Commenta- end. Modern scholars, however, have
ries. shown that the commentaries on the

following treatises do not belong to
Rashi: Keritot and Me'ilah (Zunz, in his "Zeit-
schrift," p. 368). Mo'ed Katan (Riifmann, in ":Mo-
uatsschrift,"iii. 221), who credits the commentary on
this treatise to Gershon Me'or ha-Golah), Nazir and
Nedarim (allotted by Peifmann. I.e.. to Isaiah di
Trani), and Ta'anit (Azulai, "Shem ha-Gedolim," i.
168). Raslifs commentary on the treatise Berakot
was printed with the text at Sonciuo in 1483.

c l.»^3-Section of the Raslii Chapel at Worms.

The editio princeps of the whole of the Talmud,
with Rashi, is that of Venice, lo20-22. Rashi's
mishnaic commentarj' was printed with the Basel
1580 (the order Tohorot) and the Leghorn 1654 (all
six orders) editions. A commentary on Pirke Abot
was printed, with the text, at Mantua in 1560 and
was attributed to Rashi; the critics, however, doubt
that the commentary is his work. Rashi's Talmudic
commentary was soon afterward the object of severe
criticism by the tosafists, who designated it under
the term ''kontres" (pamphlet). But in the seven-
teenth century Joshua IlOschel b. Joseph, in his
"Maginne Shelomoh " (Amsterdam,
covering several treatises, defended
the attacks of the tosafists.

Other works attributed to Raslii are: commen-
taries on Genesis Rabbah (Venice, 1568; not Rashi's
according to Jacob Emden in his " 'Ez Abot,"
Preface) and Exodus Rabbah (Vatican MS.); "Sefer
ha-Pardes," a collection of halakot and decisions (a
compendium, entitled " Likkute ha-Pardes " [Venice,
1519], was made about 1220 by Samuel of Bamberg) ;
"Siddur Rashi," mentioned 'in Tos. Pes. 114 (MS.
owned by Luzzatto); "Dine Isikkur ha-Basar"
(Mantua, 1560), laws of porging. Several decisions
found in the " Sefer ha-Pardes " are separately quoted
as Rashi's. Rashi's responsum to the rabbis of Au-
xerre was published by Geiger in his " Melo Chofna-
jim " (p. 33, Berlin, 1840). Two other responsa are

1715), a work
Rashi against

to be found in Judah b. Asher's 'Zikron Yehudah "
(pp. 50a, 52b, Berlin, 1846), and twenty-eight were
published by Baer Goldberg in his "Hefes !Mat-
mouim" (Berlin, 1845). Rashi was also a liturgist;
threeselihot of his, beginning respectively : " Adonai
Eloheha-Zeba'ot,"" Azteremnimtahu,"an<r'Tannot
zarot lo nukal," are found in tiie selihol editions;
his hynm on the unity of God ("Shir 'al ahdut lia-
bore '■) has not yet been published.
J. M. Sel.

Rashi's attainments appear the more remarkable
when it is remembered that he confined himself to
Jewish fields of learning. Legend notwithstanding,
he knew neither foreign languages, except French
and a few words of German, nor secular science,
save something of the practical arts. But in Bib-
lical and rabbinical literature his learning was both
cxten.sive and reliable, and his numerous quotations
show that he was familiar with nearly all the He-
brew and Aramaic works of his predecessors. Ra.shi's
celebrity rests upon his commentaries on the Bil)le
and the Talmud, this vast task of elucidation being
entirely his own, except for a few books in the one
and certain treatises in the other. They are not con-
secutive commentaries, but detached glosses on difti-
cult terms or phrases. Their jirimary
His Com- qualit}' is perfect clearness: Rashi's
mentaries. explanations alwaj's seem adequate.
He manifests also a remarkable facility
iu the elucidation of obscure or disputed points, re-
curring, whenever he finds it necessarj-, to schemata.
His language is not only clear, but precise, taking
into consideration the actual context and the prob-
able meaning and reproducing every varying shade
of thought and signification. Y"et it is never diffuse ;
its terseness is universally conceded. A single word
frequently sufiices to summarize a remark or antici-
pate a question.

Rashi sometimes translates words and entire propo-
sitions into French, these passages, written in He-
brew characters and forming an integral part of the
text, being called "la'azim." Rashi was not the
first to employ them, but he greatly extended their
use by adopting them. Ilis commentaries contain
3,157 la'azim, forming a vocabulary of 2,000 words,
a certain number of which are contjiined in later
Hebrew -French glossaries. These glosses are of
value not only as expressions of the author's thought,
but as providing material for the reconstruction of
Old French, both phonologically and lexicograpliic-
all}-. It is not difficult to retransliterate them into
French, as they are transcribed according to a defi-
nite system, despite frequent corruptions by the
copyists. A large number of manu.scripts were read
and much material bearing on the la'azim was col-
lected by Arsene Darmesteter, but the work was
interrupted by his death.

Tlie Biblical commentaries are based on the Tar-
giimim and the Ma.sorah, which Rashi follows, al-
though without servile imitation. He knew and
used the almost contemporarj-^ writings of Moses
H.\-D.'iHsn.\N of Narbonneand of ^lenahem b. Ilelbo,
of whom tJie former confined himself to the literal
meaning of the text while the latter conceded much
to the Haggadah. The two principal sources from
which Rashi derived his exegesis were the Talmudic-

327

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

RuBbi

niidiiishic literature and tlie lic'imciieulic processes
which it employs — the " pesluit '' and the "derash."
Kashi, unfortunatel}', attributed too great impor-
tance to the second process, often at the expense
of the first, although he intended it, as he states on
several occasions, only to elucidate the simple, ob-
vious meaning of the text. To his immediate fol-
lowers he entrusted the honorable task of comple-
ting the reaction against the tendencies of his age,
for his own scieulitic education was not without
deficiencies. His grammatical knowledge was ob-
viously inadequate, although he was acquainted
with the works of the JudaM)-Spanish grammarians
jMenahem b. Saruk and Duuash b. Labrat, and had
gained a thorough knowledge of Hebrew. Rashi's
qualifications for his task, and even his faults, have
made his commentaries on the Bible, particularly on
the Pentateuch, especially suitable for general read-
ing and edification, and have won for him the epi-
thet of "Parshandatha" (Esth. ix. 7), taken by
some writers as "parshan data" (= "interpreter of
the Law ").

Rashi's commentaries on the Talmud are more
original and more solid in tone than those on the
Scriptures. Some were revised by the author himself,
while others were written down by his
On the pupils. Here, as in his Biblical cxege-
Talmud. sis, he followed certain models, among
them the commentaries of his teachers,
of which he often availed himself, although he .somc-^
times refuted them. JAkc them, and sometimes in
opposition to them, Rashi began by preparing a
rigid recension of the Talmud, which has become
the received text, and which is the most natural and
most logical, even though not invariably authentic.
To explain this text he endeavored to elucidate the
whole, with special reference to the development
and discussions of the Gemara, striving to explain
the context, grammar, and etymology, as well as
obscure words, and to decide the meaning and im-
port of each opinion advanced. He Avas seldom
superficial, but studied the context thoroughly,
considering every possible meaning, while avoid-
ing distortion or artificiality. He frequently availed
himself of jiarallel passages in the Talmud itself,
or of other productions of Talmudic literature;
and when perplexed he would acknowledge it
without hesitation. A list of general rules to which
he conforms and which may be found in his Biblical
commentaries presents the rudiments of an introduc-
tion to the Bible, resembling the collection of prin-
ciples formulated by him in his commentaries on
the Talmud and constituting an admirable Talnnidic
methodology. These commentaries contain, more-
over, a mass of valuable data regarding students of
the Talmud, and the history, manners, and customs
of the times in which they lived. Whether they
were derived from written sources, oral tradition, or
imagination, their consistency and ingenuity arc
praised by scholars, who frequently draw upon them
for material.

As a rule, Raslii confined himself strictly to com-
mentatorial activity, although he frequently deemed
it necessary to indicate what was the halakah, the
definite solution of a problem in cases in which
such a solution was the subject of controversy or

doubt, or could not readily be di.scerned amid the
mass of Talmudic controversy, or wus iudisiiensjiblc
for a clear coinproliunsion either of a text uuder
consideration or of passages ni " it. Inovery

case Rashi's authority carried .. • i equal t<. that
of the leading " poseljLim," nud it would have had
still more inlluencc if his ridings and Ids :
wliKch his (lisci|)leH carefully nuled — astln
even his slightest acts and gestures— had been united
in one collection, as was IJie case with tli' ^- ■ -di
and German Talmudists, instead of beiii;. . d

through a number of com))ilationB. The most im-
portant of these collections are: the "Scfcr ha-
Pardes," often attributed to Rashi iiiniself, but in
reality composed of two others, one of which was
probably made by Rashi's i)Upii Sheniaiidi ; the
"Sefer ha-Orah," also compiled from two other
works, the first containing fragments which appar-
ently date fiom the lime of Rashi's followers; the
"Sefer Issur we-Hetter"; tlie "Mahzor Vilry." a
more homogeneous work (with additions by Isaac b.
Dorbolo), compiled by Sinihah of Vitry. a pupil of
Rashi, who introduced into it, in the order of the
events of the ecclesiastical year, his teaclier's laws
of jurisprudence and his respon.sa. The first and
fourth of these works were published respectively
at Constantinople in 1H05 and at Berlin in 1892, and
editions of the remain-
ing two have been pro-
jected by Buber.

The re3pon.sa of Rashi
throw a flood of light
on the character of both
their author and his
period. The chief sub-
jects of discussion are
the wine of non-Jews
and the relations between
Jews and baptized Jews
(possibly an echo of the
times of the Crusades).
In his solutions of these
Rashi shows sound
judgment and much
mildness. No high de-
gree of praise, however,
can bcawarded to several
liturgical poems attrib-
uted to Rashi, for they

rank no higher than the bulk of the class to which
they belong, although their style is smooth and
flowing and they breathe a spirit of sadness and a
sincere and tender love of God.

If the merit of a work be proportionate to the
scientific activity which it evokes, the literature to
which it gives rise, and the influence
His which it exerts, few lK>oks can 8ur-

Influence. pass those of Rashi. His writings cir-
culated with great rapidity, and his
commentary on the Talmud greatly extendeil the
knowledge "of the subject, thus increasing the num-
ber of Talnnidic schools in France, which soon came
to be of great imiiortance. especially tiioso at Trove*,
Ramerupt, Dampierre. Paris, and Sens. His two
sons-in-law. Judah b. Nathan (RIBaN) and MeVr b.
I Samuel, and especially the lattcr's three sons. Sam-

Itasbi Clialr at Worms.

Rasbi
Ratbaus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

328

uel (RaSIIBaM), Jiidah. and Jacob (R. Tarn), were
tlie first of a succession of tosalists who were closely
identified in work and methods witii Rashi. The
achievements of their leader in Biblical exegesis, a
favorite study of almost all of the tosafists, were
equally lasting and productive, even though later
commentaries, written in imitation of Rashi's, at
times surpass their model. Samuel b. Mcir. Joseph
Kara. Joseph Bekor Shor. anil Eliezer of Beaugcncy
are the best known but by no means the only repre-
sentatives of this brilliant French school, which has
never won the recognition which its originality,
simplicity, and boldness merit.

The fame of Rashi soon spread beyond the bound-
aries of northern France and the German provinces
of the Rhine. Shortly after his death he was known
not only in Provence, but in Spain and even in the
East. The Spanish exegetcs, among them Abraham
ibn Ezra and Nahmanides, and such Talmudists as
Zerahiah Gerondi, recognized his authority, although
at first they frequently combatted his opinions. In
France itself, however, repeated expulsions by suc-
cessive kings and the burning of Hebrew books, as
at Paris in 1240, scattered the Jews and destroyed
their institutions of learning. Throughout these
persecutions the Bible and the Talmud, with the
commentaries of Rashi, were their inseparable com-
panions, and were often their supreme as well as their
only solace, and the chief bond of their religious
unity.

The French Jews carried their literature with
them and diffused it among foreign communi-
ties, in which its popularity steadily increased.
Rashi's commentaries on the Talmud became the
text-book for rabbis and students, and his commen-
tary on the Pentateuch the common study of the
people. The popularity of the works extended to
their author, and innumerable legends were woven
about his name, while illustrious families claimed
descent from him. This universal esteem is attested
by the numerous works of which his commentaries
were the subject, among them being the supercom-
mentaries of Elijah Mizrahi and Shabbethai Bass,
which have passed through numerous editions
and copies, while Rashi's commentary on the Pen-
tateuch is the first Hebrew work of which the
date of publication is known (Reggio, Feb.,
1475).

Rashi's influence was not confined to Jewish cir-
cles. Thus the French monk Nicolas de Lyre (d.
1340), the author of the "Postilla; Per-

Outside petute " on the Bible, was largely de-
Influence, pendent on the commentaries of Rashi,
which he regarded as an official re-
pository of rabbinical tradition, although his ex-
planations occasionally differed from theirs. Nico-
las in his ttirn exercised a powerful influence on
Martin Luther, whose exegesis thus owes much, in
the last analysis, to the Jewish scholar of Troyes.
In the same century the humanists took up the
study of grammar and exegesis, then long neglected
among the Jews, and these Christian Hebraists stud-
ied the commentaries of Rashi as interpretations au-
thorized by the Synagogue. Partial translations of
his commentaries on the Bible were published ; and
at length a complete version of the whole, based on

the manuscripts, was published by Breithaupt at
Gotha (1710-13).

Among the Jews themselves, in the course of
the eighteenth century, such Talmudisls as Joel
Sirkes, Solomon Luria, and Samuel Edels brought
to the study of Rashi both profound learning and
critical acumen ; but it was Rapoport and Weiss, by
their extensive use of his writings, who created the
scientific study of the Talmud. Mendelssohn anil
his school of bi'urists revived the exegesis of the pe-
shatand employed Rashi's commentaries constantly,
even attempting an interpretation of the French
glosses.

The name of Rashi is inseparably connected with
Jewish learning. In 1823 Zunz wrote his biogra-
phy; Hciilenheim sought to vindicate him, even
when he was wrong; Luzzatto praised him enthusi-
astically ; Weissdevoted a monograph to him which
decided many problems; while Geiger turned his
attention especially to the school of tosafists of which
Rashi was the founder, and Berliner published a
critical edition of Rashi's commentary on the Pen-
tateuch.

Rashi's lack of scientific method, unfortunately,
prevents his occupying the rank in the domain of
exegesis merited by his other quahties. Among the
Jews, however, his reputation has suffered little, for
while it is true that he was merely a commentator,
the works on which he wrote were the Bible and the
Talmud, and his commentaries carry a weight and au-
thority which have rendered them inseparable from
the text. Even if his work is inferior in creative
power to some productions of Jewish literature, it
has exercised a far wider influence than any one of
them. His is one of the master-minds of rabbinical
literature, on which he has left the imprint of his
predominant characteristics — terseness and clear-
ness. His work is poptdar among all classes of Jews
because it is intrinsically Jewish.

Bibliography: Zunz. Salnmnn h. I/^aac, Genannt Raschu
in Zeit^chriftfUr die Wisse)i>tciiaft dcs Judenthums, 1SJ3,
pp. 277-384 (Hebrew transl., with additional notes, by Bloch,
LemberR, 1840; 2d ed., Warsaw, 1H52); idem. S. P.; idem,
Literaturgc!<ch.; Weiss, Hahlntiu Slielomoli iiar l"i2/.i<ik, in
Bet-Talmud, ii., Nos. 3-10 (reprinted as part ii. of Toledol'Ge-
dole Yisrael, Vienna, 1882); (ieorires, Le Rabbin Salomon
Raschi. in L''Annuaire Adminintratif . . . du Departe-
ment de r.iuhe, 1868, partli., pp. 3 etseq.; Cl(5nient-Mullet,
Ddcumtnts pour SeiTir d VHiMoire du Rabbin Salomon,
Filx de Isaac, in Memoires de la Societe d' Agriculture . . .
du Departement de VAubc, 18S.5, xix. 143 ct seq.; Idem, Pn-
hies nuSelichol Attribueeii a Ratichi, in Mfmoires de la i>o-
cii'te Acaditniquc de VAube, 185t), xx. 131-142; Griitz, Gesch.
vi. (Hebr. transl., vol. Iv., Warsaw, 1894); Kronberg, Raschi
alg ExcQct, Halle, 1882; Geiger, iVi(c'e Na'amanin, Berlin,
1847; idem, Pai-itchntidata; die Kordframdsische Exegc-
teniichide, Leipsic, 18.V); L^vy, Die iJxetfe.se bei den Fran-
zOsischen lar-oeliten.ih. 1873; Berliner, RaKchi, Commentar
zum Pentateuch, Introduction. Berlin, 1866; idem. Zur
Charakteristih RaxchVs, in fCaufmann Gedenkhuch; idem,
Zur Gesch. der Ra^chi-Commentare. 1904; Darmesteter,
Reliques Scieutifiiittes, vol. 1., Paris. 1890; Weiss, Dor, iv.
321-334 ; Winter and Wunsche, JUdiische Litteratur, II. 276
et seq., 4.58, 462.
.1. M. Lib.

BASHI CHAPEL. See Rashi; Wohms.

RATHAUS, ABRAHAM B. MENAHEM
MANISH : Ru.ssian pioneer of the "haskalah"
movement; died in Berdychev Jan. 6, 1886, at an
advanced age. One of the first in Berdychev to be-
come imbued with the spirit of progress, he sympa-
thized with the efforts of the Russian government
under Nicholas I. to spread secular knowledge
among the Jews of Russia. When Lilienthal,

COLOPHON OF THE FIRST EDITION OF RASHI ON THE PENTATErCH. THE FIRST DATED UKBRKW BOOK.

(Finished 10th of adar, 5XJ5 = Feb. 5. HT5.)

(Id the public llbrmry at rarma, luly.)

.CO

Eathenau
Katisbon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

330

journeyed through Russia to induce the Jewish
communities to estabhsh schools, Rathaus acted as
liis secretary. In his hiter years, Rathaus, who was
a man of wealth and a patron of Hebrew literature,
was one of tlie prominent members of the Jewish
community of Berdychev ("lumeset Yisrael," i.
1122).

II. R. P. Wi.

RATHENAU, WALTHER : German natural-
ist, banker, and writer; born in Berlin Sept. 29,
1807; educated at the universities of Berlin (il.D.
18S9) and Stras-
burg. In 1S91
he entered as
scientific assist-
ant the service
of a joint-stock
company in the
aluminum in-
dustry at Xeu-
hauscn, Switzer-
land. There he
worked out. to-
gether with the
director Kiliani,
a method for the
electrolytic pro-
duction of chlo-
rin and alkalis.
To turn this in-
vention to ac-
count he found-
ed the electro-
chemical Avorks
at Bitterfeld in
1893. the first
German under-
taking in con-
nection with
electrochemical
processes e.xclu-
sivelj'. "While
he was director
of this company
and of the elec-
trochemical
works e 3 1 a b -
lished two ^'ears
later at Rhein-
feld, he devised
electrolytic and
electrothermic
methods for pro-
ducing natrium,
magnesium, carbid. ferrosilicium, etc., details of
which may be found in the corresponding jjatent-
writs.

In 1899 Rathenau entered the board of directors
of the Allgemeiue Elektricitats-Gesellschaft, which
position he lesigned in, 1902 to become manager of
the Berlin Handels-Gesellschaft, one of the oldest
banking-houses in Germany. In 1902 he published
a collection of essavs under the title " Impressioneu."

RATIBOR. See Silesia.

Interior of the Old SynagoRue at Ratlsbon.

(From a drnwlog by Altdorftr.)

RATISBON : Bavarian city; capital of the
Upper Palatinate; formerly a free city of the Ger-
man empire. The great age of the Jewisii commu-
nity in this city is indicated by the tradition that a
Jewish colony e.visted there before the conunon era;
it is uniloubtedly the oldest Jewish settlement in
Bavaria of whicli any records e.xist. The earliest
historical reference to Jews in Ratisbon is in a doc-
ument of 981, where it is stated that the monastery
of St. Emmeram bought a piece of property from
the Jew Samuel (Aronius, "Regesten," No. 135).
The Jewish quarter, "Judaioruni habitacula," is

mentioned as
early as the be-
ginning of the
eleventh c e u -
tury (1006-28),
and is the oldest
German ghetto
to which there
is any reference
in historical
sources (Aro-
nius, I.e. No.
150). The Jews
were granted
their first privi-
leges there in a
charter of 1182.
Therein Em-
peror Frederick
I. confirmed
tiie rights they
had received by
the favor of his
predecessors,
and assigned to
them, as to their
coreligionists
throughout the
empire, the sta-
tus of cham-
ber servants
(see Kammer-
kxeciitschaft).
But their polit-
ical position be-
came compli-
cated later bj'
the c i r c u m -
stance that the
emperor trans-
ferred them to
the dukes of
Lower Bavaria
without releasing them from their obligations as
chamber servants. To these overlords the Jews
of Ratisbon were pawned in 1322 for the yearly
sum of 200 pounds of Ratisbon pfennigs; but they
were also subject to taxation by the municipal
council of the city, though the}'' received some
compensation in the fact that thereby they secured
the protection of tlie city council against the ex-
cessive demands of the emperor and the dukes.

During the first Crusade (1096) the community
suffered like manv others in German v. Later o"

331

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rathenau
Ratisbon

old chronicle says with reference to the persecutions
tliut took i)ltvc(' in Franconia and Swahia in 1298
(SCO IJiNUKLKist'ii): "The citizens of
History of Katishon desired to lionor their city
the Com- by forbidding the persecution of the
munity. Jews or the slaying of thoni without
legal sentence." The wave f)f fanat-
icism which swept over Germany in 1349 was
checked at Katisbon, in a similar spirit, by the dec-
laration of the magistrates and the citizens that they
would protect and defend their Jews. Tlie munic-
ipal council again shielded them by punishing only
the guilty when, in 1384, a riot occurred because
some Jews had been convicted of giving false re-
turns of their property to the tax -assessor. The
protestations of the magistrates, however, could
not protect their wards against the exactions of tiie
emperor Wenzel wlien (138o-90) he replenished his
purse by ccmtributions levied upon the German
Jews. In the following years they were again heav-
ily taxed by both emperor and dukes, and in 1410
the magistrates, tired of ineffectual ]irotest, took
part in the game of spoliation by making an agree-
ment with the duke that the Jews should pay 200
florins a year to him and 60 pounds a year to the
city, extraordinary taxes to be divided between the
two. Tliis marks the turning-point in the history
of the Jews of Ratisbon, who were henceforth aban-
doned to their fate; religious intolerance and social
prejudice threatened their very existence.

After tiie Jews had been expelled from the vari-.
ous Bavarian territories Duke Ludwigthe Wealthy,
Palsgrave of the Rhine, demanded in 1453 that
the Jews should be driven from Ratisbon as well.
Though the city council did not at first accede to
this demand, it ordered the Jews henceforth to wear
the badge. A chronic persecution now began, aided
especially by the clergy ; and a number of sensa-
tional accusations of ritual murder were brought
against the community and its rabbi, presaging its
approaching destruction despite the repeated and
energetic intervention of the emperor. In 1486 the
duke placed their taxation entirely in the hands of
the city council, "that the expulsion might be ef-
fected the sooner." The preacher of the cathedral.
Dr. Balthazar Ilubmaier, incited the people from
the ]iulpit, and the more prudent counselors who
still dared to take the part of the Jews were mock-
ingly called " Jew kings. " The ghetto
Persecu- was threatened with boycott, although
tions. imperial influence shielded it until the
interregnum following the death of
Emperor Maximilian in 1519. Then 500 Jews had
to leave the city, after they themselves had de-
molished the interior of their venerable synagogue,
on the site of whicli a chapel was built in honor of
the Virgin. According to a chronicle the exiles
settled, under the protection of the Duke of Bavaria,
on the opposite bank of the Danube, in Stadt-am-
Hof, and in villages in the vicinity ; from these they
■were expelled in the course of the same century.

The first cemetery of the community of Ratisbon
was situated ona hillock, still called the " Judenau."
In 1310 the congregation bought from the monas-
tery of St. Emmeram a plot of ground, oiitside the
present Peterthor, for a new cemetery, which was

destroyed in the course of excavations made in the
city in 1877. It served as a burial-ground for uU the
Jews of L'j)per and Lower Bavaria,
Cemetery and, in consequence of llie catuslrophe
and Syna- of Feb. 21, ir,19. mentioned ubove,
gogue. more than 4,000 of its gravt-slones arc
said to liave bccu cither demolislied
or used in thebuihlingof ciiurches. Th<
tiiat wasdestroyud was an cdilice in Old l;
style, erected between 1210 and 1227 on the site of the
former Jewish liospital, in the center of the glielto,
where the present Neue Pfarre stands. Tin- jrlietio
was separated from the city iLself by walls and
closed by gates.

The "hakme Regensburg " of tiie twelfth century
were regarded far and wide as authorities, and a
number of tosjifists tlourished in this
Scholars, ancient community. Especially note-
worthy were R. f}i'iiii.\i.M ii. Isaac (d.
about 1175), one of the most iironiinent teachers of
the Law and a liturgical itoet, and R. Baiucii b.
Isaac, author of the "Sefer ha-Terumah " and of
tosafot to the treati.se Zeimhim ; but the best known
of all was R. Jidah u. Sa.miki, iii:-IIasid (d. 1217),
the author of the "Sefer l.Iasidim"and of various
halakic and liturgical works. The Talmudic school
of Ratisbon became famous in the fifteenth century ;
a chronicle of 1478 says, "This academy lias fur-
nished ' doctores ct patres ' for all parts of Ger-
many." II. Israel Bruna (15th cent.) narrowly
escaped falling a victim to an accusation of ritual
murder. The chronicler Anselmus de Parengar
gives an interesting description of the magnificent
apartments of the grand master Samuel Belassar.
Shortly before the dispersion of the community R.
Jacob Margolioth, the father of the convert and anti-
Jewish Avriter Antonius Margarita, was living at
Ratisbon ; he is referred to in the " EpistoUc Obscu-
rorum Virorum " as the " Primas Judieorum Ratisbo-
nensis." Finally, the learned Litte (Liwe) of Ratisbon
may be mentioned, the authoress of tlie "Samuel-
buch." Avhich paraphrased the history of King David
in the meter of the "Nibelungenlied."

In 1669 Jews were again permitted to reside in

Ratisbon ; but it; was not until Aiiril 2, 1841, that tlie

community was able to dedicate its new

In Modern synagogue. R Isaac Alexander (b.

Times. Ratisbon Aug. 23, 1722) was probably

the first rabbi to write in German.

His successor appears to have been R. Weil, wlio

was succeeded by Sonnentheil and tlie teacher Dr.

Schlenker. From 1860 to 1882 the rabbinate was

occupied bv Dr. LOwenmeycrof Sulzburg. who was

followed in Jan., 1882, by Dr. Seligmann Meyer.

the editor of the "Deutsche Israelitische ZciHing."

The present (1905) total population of Ratisbon is

45,426, of whom about 600 arc Jews.

BiBLioGRAPnv: For cnrllt-r works on Ratisbon '
WehcT, Litiratur dcr IhutKChrn SfnoLvif'-h '
Leipslr. IWX): u list of mor«» v
Quelle nhuiiiU zur (ie.^ch. dtt
See also : C. Tli. (ienit'iiiiT. Chi
stiffs lieocusfiuiv (Riitlsl)on, l"^-
cus. Tract lit ux iff liati-^lxixd M
Itiiiliin Jtiiliinruvi. Aiar-tiiinr,
rxnn Script orc-i. ITtH; Rlf*!. '
maticux f'))i-ici>i>ntit!i liati.ilume /..-*.-. i;«;
Oesch. rier liiKctu'tfr v»n Iif{ini'>tiura- <■
Ocnsburuer Gachichlt, Sagenuml .VrrM- uMuy . . .

Batisbonnc
Havenna

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

332

1830-40; Hugo Graf von Waliierdora. Regemhurg in Seiner
Veryangen)ioit und (iegenuwrt. 4th eil., il>. l^lMi ; Bavaria.
i<iJit/t>- i"i'' Volkshtnuie de^ Ki'inigsrcicln.-i iiaj/frn. ii. 675
et >>eq ; Wiener, HtgcMen zurGc^eli. dcrJuden in Lhutseh-
lami }yaiirend des MUttlalterg, iJStK; Aronius, liegesten ;
Stobbe, DieJuden in Deutfchland ^y^thrlnd dcs Mtttelal-
terii, l&X, pp. 67-83; Train. Die Wiclitigsten Tatsachen aus
der (Je.-iflt. der Juden in licgtnstmrg. in AUg. Zi it. JUr die
HiM. Ttieul'igif. 1.S37. vii. 39-i;?>i; L. (ieiper, Ziir Ge»c}t. der
Juden in Itege niihurg, in Cieiger's Jil(/. Zeit. 18ii7. pp. Wet
ifeq.; M. Stern, Aus der AeUeren Geseli. der Juden in lie-
gentiburg.ia Oeiger's Ze it . fitr Ge»eh. der Juden i)i Deutsvlt-
land, i. asj ct seq.; H. Hresslaii, Zur Gesch. der Juden in
Deutschland. in Steinschneider, Hebr. liUd. 1870, x. 107 et
seq.: Mimatfschrift, 1867, pp. ItU et .sc(/..389 et seq.; 1868, pp.
34o ei seq.; Lehinann, Der hraelit. 1877. No. 48. p. 1150;
Gratz, Wtw/i.: (Jst und WeM, Munatssehrift Jllr Mi>derne.i
Jwientuni. 1901, pp. 831-8;«; Aretin, Gexeli. der Juden tu
Bauern, 1803; Kohut, Gcsch. der Dcutschcn Juden.
D. A. E.

RATISBONNE, ALPHONSE - MARIE :

French cuiivert to Catholicism; brother of Maric-
Tlieodore Ratisboune; born at Strasburg Maj' 1,
1812 ; died at Jerusalem May 6, 1884. After taking
bis degree in law he visited Home, where he ab-
jured the Jewish faith (Jan. 20, 1842). He then en-
tered the order of Notre Dame de Sion, after passing
through his novitiate in the Society of Jesus. His
conversion, under singular and romantic circum-
stances, became the subject of numerous pamphlets
taking widely differing views of the matter. Ratis-
bonne founded a monastery at Jerusalem. He was
the author of " Elevations sur les Litanies de la Sainte
Vierge" (1847).

Bibliography : La Grande Encyclopedic.

?. J. Ka.

RATISBONNE, MARIE - THEODORE :

French convert to Catholicism; born at Strasburg
Dec. 18. 1802; died at Paris Jan. 10, 1884; son of
the president of the Jewish consistory of Strasburg.
He practised law until his conversion to Catholicism
in 1826, when he took boly orders. He became suc-
cessively professor in the Petit Seminaire, assistant
rector of the Cathedral of Strasburg, and superior-
general of the order Notre Dame de Sion, founded
by him in thanksgiving for the conversion of his
brother, Alphonse-Marie. Among other works Ratis-
bonjie published: " Essai sur I'Education Morale"
Strasburg, 1828); " Histoire de Saint-Bernard" (2
vols., lb. 1841; 5th ed., 1864); " Le Manuel de la
Mere Chretienne" (ib. 1860); "Questions Juives" (ib.
1868) ; " Miettes Evangeliques " (ib. 1872) ; " Reponse
aux Questions d'uu Israelite de Notre Temps" [ib.
1878).

Bibliography : La Grande Encuclopedie.

8. J. Ka.

RATNER, DOB BAER BEN ABRAHAM
BEZALEEL: Russian Talmudist; born at Wilna
about 1^45. He is the author of: " Mebo la-Seder
'Ulam Rabbah," on Josef ben Halafta's historical
work (Wilna, 1894); "Seder 'Oiam Rabbah," a crit-
ical edition of thete-xtof the "Seder '01am Rabbah "
{ib. 1897); " Ahabat Ziyyon we-Yerushalayim," vari-
ants and additions to the text of the Jerusalem Tal-
mud. Of the last-named work only three volumes
80 far have been published : on Berakot (j7». 1901);
on Shabbat (ib. 1902); on 'Erubin ? (ib. 1904).

BiBLiofjRAPHY: R. E. J. XYlll. 301 : Zeit. fur Hebr. Bibl. vi.

43. vii. 3.

8. I. Br.

RATNER, ISAAC : Russian mathematician ;
boi-u at Shklov in IboT. He has written mathemat-
ical anil astronomical articles for various jouinals,
and is the author of "Mishpat Emet " (St. Peters-
burg, 1884), a criticism on Lichtenfeld's pamphlets
against Slonimski's works. He edited a second edi-
tion of Sloniinski's " Yesode Hokmat ha-Shi'ur," on
the principles of algebra (Wilna, 1888).

UiBi.iO(iRAPHV : Sokolov, Scfcr Zikkaron ; Zeitlin, Bibl.Post-
Mendelg.
II. H. I. War.

RAUDNITZ : Town of Bohemia. According
to trudiiiou it is one of the oldest three communities
of Bohemia, the other two being Buuzlau and Koliu
(the mnemonic word is l"p3 ). The ancient ceme-
tery was situated near the present Kapuzincrgarten,
where tombstones Avith Jewish inscri|)tions have
been found. These arc preserved iu the Podripske
Museum. In the old cemetery in the former ghetto
there arc more than 1,500 tombstones, including
m.any of the seventeenth century, and several tombs
of martyrs. The new cemetery was opened in 1896.
In 1853 a large temple was built, the services in
which are conducted with choir and organ. The
hebra kaddisha is mentioned on tombstones as early
as the seventeenth centtiry.

The earliest known rabbi of Raudnitz is Rabbi
Neheiniah (d. 1637), who officiated here for more
than twentv-five years (see Hock-Kaufmann, "Die
Familien Prags," p. 336, Presburg, 1892). Other
noteworthy rabbis were : Abraham Broda ; Simeon
Jeiteles (d. 1762), buried iu the old cemetery of
Prague (ib. p. 168); Moses Spiro (d. 1760); R. Mat-
tathiasNeugrOschel (d. 1778; ib. p. 224); the district
rabbis Joseph Deutsch (1778-1825), Mahler, Pereles,
and Albert Cohn (d. 1872); Moritz Klotz (1889-93).
Julius Reach is the present (1905) incumbent (since
1894).

Down to 1872 Raudnitz was the seat of the district
rabbinate. Since the law of 1890 the congregation
has comprised all the Jews living in the county of
Raudnitz. In 1903 there were 400 Jews in a total
population of 8,000.

D. J. Re.

RAUNHEIM, SALT (SAMUEL HIRSCH
BEN MEN AHEM) : American mining-engineer;
born in Frankfort-ou-lhe-Main June 7, 1838; died in
New York city Sept. 9, 1904. He was educated in
his native city and at the universities of Heidelberg
and Freiburg, and in 1861 became engaged in the
mining industry. In 1863 he bought for the French
banker Reinach a zinc-mine in Rauheim, near Hei-
delberg, which two years later was sold for 2,000,-
000 francs, having cost but 30,000 francs.

In 1879 Raunheim emigrated to the United States,
and with his brothers-in-law Leonard and Adolph
Lewisohn organized in 1881 at Butte, Mont., the
Montana Mining Compan}', which company was
bought by the Amalgamated Copper Trust. During
the years 1888-91 Raunheim developed the copper-
mines of San Pedro, New Mexico, which also were
the property of the Lewi.soiins.

From 1891 Raunheim lived in New York city,
where he took great interest in Jewish affairs.
Bibliography: Jewish Comment, Sept. 23, 19(M. p. 11.

A. F. T. H.

333

THE .TEWTSIT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ratisbonne
Ravenna

RAUSUK, SAMSON: Hebrew poet; born at
Wilkuwiski, J^itlnuuiia, in 1793; died in Lnnddii
S('i)t. 11, 1877. lie inirsued at his native place the
career of a merchant. On the occasion of tlie visit of
Sir Moses Monteliore to Russia in 1846, Kausuiv was
one of the delegates ai)pointed to receive him. He
went to Loudon in 1848, and held the post of libra-
rian to the bet ha inidrash for n( arl}' a qnarter of a
centur}'. He was an erudite Hebraist and Talmud-
ist, and possessed poetic powers of some merit.
Many of his Hebrew compositions, dealing with
subjects of passing interest, were published; he
was regarded as the poet laureate of the London
community for nearly thirty years.

Bnu.i()(;HAiMiY: Jciv. Chrrm. Sept. 14. 1877; Jacobs and Wolf
Uilil. Aitiilo-Jud. Nos. 20W-~'(«7, :.'U50-2054, 2lk-)7-2002. 2007,
2071-2074.

■I- G. L.

RAVEN (Hebrew, "'oreb'"): The first bird spe-
cifically mentioned in the Old i'estament (Gen. viii.
7), where it is referred to in connection with Noah
and the ark. It is included among the unclean birds
in Lev. xi. 15 and Deut. xiv. 14, where the term em-
braces the whole family of Corridfe — crows, rooks,
jackdaws, etc. It has eight species in Palestine.
The raven lives generally in deep, rocky glens and
desolate places (comp. Isa. xxxiv. 11). Its habit of
commencing its attack by picking out the eyes of
its victim is alluded to in Prov. xxx. 17. The figure
of the raven is used illustratively where references
are made to the care with which God watches over
His creatures (comp. Ps. cxlvii. 9). Ravens are said
to have provided Elijah with food (I Kings xvii.
3-G). The dark, glossy plumage of the raven is
compared to the locks of youth (Cant. v. 11).

In the Talmud, besides " 'oreb " (B. K. 92b, etc.),
the raven is designated "puslikanza" (B. B. 73b), and,
from its croaking, " korkor " (B. B. 23a). " Shalak "
in Lev. xi. 17 is explained in Hul. 63a as a bird which
takes fishes from the sea, and Rashi adds, " It is the
water-raven " (comp. Targ. ad loc, and see Cormo-
rant). "Zarzir" is considered a species of raven,
and this gave rise to the proverb : " The zarzir goes
to the raven, for it is of its kind "—the equivalent of
the English "Birds of a feather flock together" (sec
Hul. 62a, 6ob; and, for other species, Hul. 63a, 64a).
While ravens love one another (Pes. li3b) they lack
affection toward their young as long as the latter
remain unadorned with black plumage (Ket. 49b) ;
but Providence takes care of them by causing
worms to arise from their excrement (B. B. 8a ei al.).
In copulation the spittle ejected from the mouth of
the male into that of the female effects conception
(Sanh. 108b). The wealthy domesticated the raven
(Shab. 126b), but on account of its fihhiness the bird
was frightened away from the Temple by means of
a scarecrow (Men. 107a). The croaking of the raven
was an ill omen (Shab. 67b). The comparison of
dark locks Avith the jilumage of the raven is found
also in Hag. 14a. See Dove.

Bnu.ioGRAPHY : Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 198; Lewysohn, Z. T.
p. 172.
E. G. H. I. M. C.

RAVENNA: Italian city, capital of the prov-
ince of Ravenna. A Jewish community existed in
Ravenna from very early times ; during an at-
tack by the populace in 519 its synagogues were

burned. Tlie Jews appealed to King TheiHloric
at Verona, who condenuied the city to rebuild the
ruined .synagogues at its own expense; •,
unal)le to pay tlie line levied for that purp
cond( inncrl to t},,, lu„i,. Alxiiit 930 U. Solomon bon
'I'anhum ben Zadok was viclorious in a religious con-
troversy in the Romagna. In the early j.art of the
thirleenth century the emjjeror Fred'erick H. un-
(hMtook thedefenseof Donfolino. a Jew of Ruvenna.
against an unjust extortion by the mayor Pietro
Traversari (J.dy 11. 1226). In "1248 Card'inal Ott^i-
viano I i)aldini. legate of Pope Innocent IV.. seized
Ravenna and annexed it to the papal d<.mimr)ns.
Under the nde of the i)op<-8 at least a part of the
Jews lived in the (luarter known as San Pietro Mug-
gioro, where they wen- engaged in usury. Itavenna
passed under the domination of the" republic of
Venice in 1441. The treaty of cession provided that
in the interest of the city and of the district the
Jews should be permitted to remain and lend money
at the rate of interest of live denarii jut lira to the
citizens of the city and district of Itavenna. and of
six to strangers. The Doge of Venire, Francesco
Foscari, confirmed this treaty March 20, 1441.

Toward the end of the century the Jews of Ra-
venna obtained leave to remove their sv .-to
another locality (1489). They were, h" not
left long uimiolested. In a short time the fiery ser-
mons of Fra Bernardino da Feltre. the implacable
enemy of the Jews, so roused the old popular hatred
against them tiiat the money-lenders
Monte narrowly escaped expulsion. In op-
di Pieta. position to the latter class he estab-
lished the monte di pieta, an institu-
tion .soon afterward appr'>v,.,i ,,r k,- Pope Julius II
(Aug. 25, 1508).

In 1508 Pope Julius joined the League of Cambrai
against the Venetian republic, and in 1509 Ravenna
was reconquered by the pope's nephew, Francesco
M^iiia dclla Rovere, Duke of Urbino. and, until its
union with the kingdom of Italy, was governed by
ecclesiastical officers. The community of Ravenna
was represented at the congress of rabbis held at
Bologna in 1416, and at that of Forli in 1418. when
the Jews of Italy united to seek a means of averting
the dangers that menaced them. A similar conven-
tion was held somewhat lateral Ravenna (1442), when
Pope Eugene IV. issued a bull, of forty-two articles.
which deprived the Jews of all the rights they had
hitherto enjoyed. They were forbidden, under j>en-
alty of confiscation of propert}', to study anything
but the Pentateuch ; they were deprived ■ ' "
of residence in the city without special i
the authorities; and later all tnuU'S were prohibited
to them, and the Jewish tribunals wen ' '' ' cd.
The representatives of the Italian comnr ion

met in synod at Tivoli, and later at Ravenna. The
persistent efforts of these a-s.semblies wrung from
Gian Francesco Gonzaga j)ermi.'vsion for Jews to
reside in Mantua and enjoy liberty in matters of
religion, law, and commerce. At length, after pay-
ment of immense sums of money, the .^ynod ob-
tained the annulment of the b\dl.

On Feb. 10, 1.535, Pope Paul HI. granlc<l the
community of Ravenna certain additional privi-
leges already enjoyed by the Jews of the Marches

Rawicz
Razsvyet

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

334r

and contirmcd them June 30. 1540. On Aug. 12,
1553, Julius in. published an edict commanding that
both Palestinian and Babylonian Taliuuds be contis-
cated and burned. This edict was strictly enforced
at Ravenna, where a number of copies of the Tal-
mud were burned on the Sabbath day. Paul IV.
(1555-59) issued several bulls conceived for the fur-
ther curtailment of Jewish liberties. Under his suc-
cessor, Pius IV. (1559-66), the Jews enjoyed a short
respite; but Pius V., the next occupant of the pon-
tifical throne (1566-72), pursued the malevolent pol-
icy of Paul IV., and published a bull, dated Feb.
26, 15C9, ordering the complete expulsion, within
three months, of the Jews from all Pontifical States
but Rome and Aucona.

With the exception of a few who abjured their
faith, the unfortunate Jews emigrated in the follow-
ing May, abandoning their property and all the
debts due to them, the latter amounting, according
to Gedaliah ibn Yahya C'Shalshelet ha-Ivabbalah,"
p. 96b), to more than 10,000 ducats in
Expelled in Ravenna and Imola. Under Gregory
1569. XIII. (1572-1585) a Jewisli commu-
nity was again established at Ravenna,
but the Jews were finally lianishcd by Clement VIII.
(1593). In 1901 there were only thirteen Jews living
in the cit}'.

BiBLiooRAPHV : Fantuzzi. ^^onum€uti Ravcnyiati, i. 378; iii.
75, .iixi, ,i''). 429; v. 183; Gedaliah ibn Yahya. Slialsheltt ha-
Knbbalnh^ ed. Ainsterciam, pp. 94a ct .st»/'.; Griitz. Gcsrh. 'M
ed.. V. 37. viii. 179. ix. 382; J. Q. li. iv.61.5; Joseph ha-Kohen,
'Emek lia-Baka, ed. Wiener, p. 90 ; Stern, UrlnnuiUcIie Bei-
trilqc' Uhcr die StcUimu <le>' Piipste zuden Ji(dc)i,i.78. 82;
Vogelstein and Rieger, CIcsch. dcr Judcn in Rdw, i. 130, 160;
ii. 11, 146 et xeq.
S. U. C.

RAWICZ, VICTOR MEYER : German rabbi ;
born at Breslaii Aug. 19, 1846. He attended the
Jewish theological seminary and the university of
his native city (Ph.D. 1873). Rawicz has held suc-
cessively the following rabbinates: Kempen (1874),
Schmieheim (1876-93), and OfT^nburg (Baden). He
has published a translation of the following Tal-
mudic tractates: Megillah (1883), Rosii ha-Shanah
(1886), Sanhedrin (1892), and Ketubot (1900).

RAWNITZKI, JOSHUA HAYYIM : Rus-
sian author; born Aug. 14, 1845, at Odessa. His
first literary efforts appeared in "Ila-Kol," and he
soon became a frequent contributor to Hebrew jour-
nals. In 1887 he published, in conjunction with
Krankenfeld, •' Der Jlidische Wecker, " in which ap-
peared his article " Der Pintele Jud " ; from 1892 to
1896 he edited "Ha-Pardes" (Odessa). He wrote:
"Peninim mi - Yam ha -Talmud" (Odessa, 1892);
"'Aseret Kesef," a novel of Jewish life (in "Kene-
set Yisrael," iii. 1888); and "Safali Berurah," an
essay on NeoHebrew (in "Kawweret," 1890). Un-
der the title of "Ha-Abib" (Warsaw, 1889) he pub-
lished a collection of Hebrew poems for children.

BiBLiofiRAPHY : S<pkolov, Scfcr Zikharo)t ; Zeltlin, Bihl. Poft-
Mendeh.
II. K. I. War.

RAYNAL, DAVID : French statesman; born
at Paris Feb. 26. 1841 ; died Jan. 28, 1903. The son
of a merchant, he was brought up for a commer-
cial career, and in 1862 he founded the house of As-
true et Raynal in Bordeaux. There lie became ac-

quainted with Gambetta. During the Franco Prus-
sian war he held the rank of major of the volunteers
of the Girondc.

Raynal entered public life in 1874, when he be-
came alderman for Bordeaux. In 1879 he was
elected deputy, and took his seat among the repub-
lican unionists. In 1880 he was appointed general
secretary in the Department of Public Works. Re-
elected in 1881, he became minister of that depart-
ment, under Gambetta. Resigning with the cabinet
in Jan., 1882, he accepted the same portfolio under
Jidcs Ferry in Feb., 1883; but again resigned with
the cabinet in 1885. Reelected in 1885, 1889, and
1893, he became in Dec, 1893, minister of the in-
terior, but resigned in May of the following year,
when Casimir-Perier withdrew from the presidency
of the French republic. During this time Ra}--
nal was a member of the parliamentary finance
committee, and belonged to the republican unionists.

In Jan., 1897, Raynal was elected senator for the
department of the Gironde, joining the left wing of
the republicans in the Upper House. He served as
president of the commission for the improvement of
the merchant navy. Raj'nal took an active part in
the debates of both houses, being an able speaker.

Bibliography: Curinier, Diet. Xat. li. 43; LaOrande En-
euclnpedie ; Nouvcau Larousse: Jew. Chron. Jan. 30, Feb.
6, 1903.
s. F. T. H.

RAYNER, ISIDOR: American senator; bom
at BaltiiHoie, ,M(1., April 11, 1850. He was educated
at the University of Virginia (1866-70), pursuing
the academic course for three years and the law
course for the last year. On leaving that institu-
tion he became a law student in the offices of
Brown & Brune, Baltimore; shortly afterward he
was admitted to the bar, and soon secured a large
trial practise. In 1878 Rayner, as a Democrat, was
elected a member of the ^laryland legislature.
Thereafter he devoted himself entirely to law until
1886, when he was elected state senator. lu the
same year he was nominated for Congress, and was
elected for three terms; he declined nomination for
a fourth term.

Raj'ner served upon the committees of foreign
affairs, coinage, w^Mghts and measures, and com-
merce. He was chairman of the committee on or-
ganization, and was conspicuous in the contest for
tiie repeal of the Sherman silver act.

In 1899 Rayner was elected attorney-general of
^Maryland, and in 1901, when Admiral Schley wa&
called before a government court of inquiry, he was
appointed associate counsel, becoming senior coun-
sel upon tiie death of Judge Wilson. He increased
his reputation by his masterly defense of that ad-
miral. Rayner was elected United States senator on
Feb. 4, 1904, for the term beginning IMarch 5, 1905.

A. S. II. L.

RAYNER, WILLIAM SOLOMON: ,AIer-
chant and financier; born in Oberelzbach, Bavaria,
Sept. 23, 1822; died in Baltimore, 31(1., .Alarch 1,
1899. In 1840 he removed to the United States.
Declining an offer of the position of religious teacher
in the old Henry Street Synagogue, New York, he
removed to Baltimore, where he entered upon a suc-
cessful mercantile career. At the close of the Civil

335

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

RaMvicz
Razsvyet

war he became one of the cliief figures in tlie finan-
cial development of Baltimore, serving for many
years on tiie directorates of the Western National
Bank, the Baltimore Etiuitable Society, and the
Western :Maryland Railroad.

Haynev was instrumental in organizing the Har
Sinai Verein, which soon after l)ecame the liar
Sinai congregation. He was a strong advocate of
Reform, and it was mainly through his influence
that David Eixiiorn became rabbi of this congre-
gation (ISoo). He was one of tiie founders of tlie
Baltimore Hebrew Orphan Asyhim, donating its
first building and grounds. He was also the first
president of the Baltimore IIel)rew Benevolent
Society under its present state charter. He repre-
sented the city of Baltimore for many years in the
management of the House of Refuge and served as
a vice-president of the Baltimore Poor Association.
During tiie Civil war he was very active in the for-
mation, of the Union Relief Association, and was
one of its first vice-presidents. In 1844 he married
Amaiia Jacobson. Of this union four children sur-
vive; two of them, in memory of their father, en-
dowed a fellowship in Semitics in tlie Johns Hop-
kins University; the eldest son, Isidor Ravner, was
elected, in 1904, to the United States Senate.

A. C. A. R.

RAZIEL : Angel, first named in the Slavonic
Book of Enoch (written before the common era; see
Jew. Encyc. i. 591, s.v. Angelology), where, under
the name " Raguel " or " Rasuel," he is mentioned to-
getlier with Siicmiel or Shemuel. Apart from this,
he is unknown both to the Jewish and to the Christian
literature of antiquity, the next occurrence of his
name being in the Targum on Eccl. x. 20: "Each
day the angel Raziel makes proclamation on Mount
Horeb, from heaven, of the secrets of men to all
that dwell upon the earth, and his voice resounds
through all the world," etc. His name, indeed, de-
notes "secret of God," and it was given to him be-
cause of his transmission of "secrets " ("Each angel
is named according to his vocation, as Raziel. because
he transmitted the Book of Secrets " ; "Raziel," ed.
Amsterdam, p. 31b).

With the communication of the Book of Secrets
the real importance of Raziel ends, nor is he men-
tioned as often as the angels Micluiel, Gabriel, Ra-
phael, etc. According to the Book of Raziel, he is
tlie angol of magic, who teaches men astrology,
divination, and the lore of amulets; the mysticism
associated with him is the precursor of the "prac-
tical Cabala." In this capacity Raziel appears in
the astrology of the Arabs, where he presides over
the twentieth lunar station in the zodiac. In
view of these characteristics a distinction must be
made between the mysticism of the 3Iehkab.\ii
and of Metatkon on the one hand, and the
mysticism of Raziel on the other. See Raziel,
Book op.

inz, G.V. p. 167; Blocli, Gcsch. rlrr Entivickc-
ila, pp. a2-;U, Treves, 1«»4 ; Schwab, Vocabn-

L. B.

RAZIEL, BOOK OF : Collection of secret wri-
tings, probably compiled and edited by the same
hand, but originally not the work of one author.

BinMOCiRAPiiv: Zur
hiny der Kahbala, . .
laire de V Angelolngie, p. 246, Paris, 1897.
T.

Tiiis appears from tlie fact thut the book eon-
tradicts itself in regard to the person to wliom its
contents are claimed to have been communicated.
Tlu; first part states that tliey were imparted by
Raziel to Adam wiien lie was driven from paradiso
(2a); the third part (84a) says they wore communi-
cated to Noali before lie entered tin- ark. The book
was engraved on sapphire-stone ami liunoi li down
from generation to generation until it, together with
many other secret writings, came into tlie in

of Solomon; tiie Book of Raziel. howevti !ip

best preserved of these works (15. 84a).

Zuuz("G. V."2d ed., p. ITR).: tiiue

main parts: (1) the Book I laMul I Great

Raziel; (3) the Book of Secrets, or tlie Book of Noah.
These three parts are still distinguishable — 2b-7a,
7b-33b, 34a and b. After these follow two shorter
parts entitled "Creation" and "Shi'ur Koniah,"and
after 41a come formulas for amulets and incanta-
tions. The first part, "which contains little but
strange conceits ascribed to the angel Raziel, and
which describes the entire organization of heaven "
(Zunz), was composed at the earliest in the eleventh
century, as is shown by both content and language,
and by the coined words and angel-names, which
number several thousand {ib. ). Koliler (Jew. Excvc.
i. 595, s.v. Angelology) correctly compares the
Book of Raziel with the "Sword of Moses." edited
by Gaster (London. 1896), also a book of magic.
Curiously enough, the name "Raziel" occurs not
once among the names of angels, of which there
are over a thousand. The citations made in the
middle portion of the work under consideration
prove its comparatively recent date of composi-
tion, and upon this fact Zunz based his theory that
it was written by Eleazar r. Jcdah ». Kalosv-
Mus OF Worms, a hypothesis refuted by Jellinek from
the original manuscript of it ("Orient," 1846, No.
16), although it is probable that the redactor com-
bined an older work with that of Eleazar of Worms
(Bloch. "Gesch. der Entwickelung der Kabbalah,"
p. 34, No. 1). The Book of Raziel was first printed
in .Vmsterdam in 1701, under the title KlED HT
nXOnp DTXI- The belief was formerly current that
the Book of Raziel protected from fire the house
which contained it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zunz. G. V. 2d ed pn. 176 .fsro.: Bloch.

Gci^ch. der Entwichduno drr hitlihnhi. vi: .O :^l. In'ves,
1894 (in ■.vliicli isfound a (ierninn tmi: '•'nl

portion of Uie Bonk of Hnziel): S.'h\val.. ^ .»"-

gelulogic, p. 2-16, 1'aris, 1897 : Ozar ha-Hi/iinm, in. oIk .No. 1-1.

RAZSVYET: Russo-Jewish weekly; founded
in Odessa by Osip Rabinovich May. 1860. It was
the first journal in the Ru.ssian language devoted to
Jewish interests; and considerable difficulty was
encountered by its foumler in seen !
sary governmental permis.<;iou for it-
Owing to the powerful influence of N. I. Pirogov,
the permission was ultimately obtained ' ' ^itl»
the stipulation that the journal be i i in

Yiddish. Rabinovich was greatly discouraged with
the result of his petition; for. apart from the fact
that it was the Russian language which he liad
specified therein, the proposed journal was placed
under the supervision of the Kiev censor, and since
onlv two cities. Jitomir and Wilna. were allowed to

#^H

J"TT?-.

7H mil 'T«-i:n -'-•■

.«. .^- ^,^ j.„W, .

'5?'
"O

♦.— i'^

^^^^ -> :j

iv>

• Auk rnoU IliK t«f.KKci KA£ii.L, AJi^it.Kl'AM, Kui.
{Trom ;h* SoUStrftr colltctioa ia the Jtvisk Tbrolofcieal S«niia»rT o£ Aawrtv-a, New Y->ri.1

336

337

TFIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Riizavyat
Real BaUt*

have Hebrew priiitiii/j^-liouscs, llie matler was nn-
dereil very coini)li('!ite(l. Haljiiiovicli ayairi jx'ti-
tioued the governmeut, and with llie aid of Pirogov
the desired periuissioii was finally obtained.

The purpose of the journal was to dilTuse light
among the ignorant Jewish masses of Russia; and
accordingly its motto was "'Let there be light." lu
the tirst petition of 1850 liabinovieh in outlining the
policy of the proposed journal said that the corrupt
jargon used by the great mass of Kussian Jews was
not adapted to mental enlightenment and progress,
since it could not be used for the expression of ab-
stract thoughts; that the Jews would by means of
the proposed journal become more familiar w ith their
country and its people, and that the Russian people
would become better acciuainteil with their Jewish
neighbors. The journal was to concern itself with
questions of religion, sociology, histor3^ criticism,
science, biography, travels, trade, agriculture, etc.

The first numbers of the "Razsvyet" raised much
bitter criticism on the part of the conservative Jew-
ish people; for the editors fearlessly undertook to
point out and to comment on the bad as well as
the good features in the life of the Russian Jews.
Much opposition was raised particularly by the arti-
cle "A Few Words About the Jews of AVestern
Russia," which appeared in the first number. From
all parts of the couulrj' letters and telegrams, some
of them containing threats, were addressed to
the editors ; but they fearlessly continued in what
seemed to them to be the right course. In the
third number they again declared that they were
not working In the interests of any party, but in
the interests of Judaism. Gradually the Jewish
public began to appreciate the sterling worth of
the journal, and waited impatiently for the ap-
pearance of every number. Its educational value
proved of great moment to the Jews of Russia,
and laid the foundation for much future good.

In the forty-fifth number Rabinovich announced

his intention of discontinuing the publication of

the "Razsvyet," "on account of insurmountable

difficulties." He remained firm in his resolve in the

face of a storm of protest ; but in the fiftieth num-

"ber it was announced that in view of the great

regret caused by the proposed discontinuance of the

" Razsvyet " Dr. Pinsker and Dr. Soloveichik had

undertaken to continue its publication, and that in

future it would appear under the title "Sion."

Bibliography: Voskhnd, 1881, No. 6, p. 133; o. M. Lemer,
Yevreii v Novorussiskom Kraye, p. 191, Odessa, 1901.

11. n. J. G. L.

BEADING : City of Berks county, Pa. A few
Jewish immigrants settled here before 1847, when
Reading became a city. In 1864 a cemetery plot
was acquired in the southern part of the city, and
in the same year Congregation Oheb Sholom was
founded with about fifteen charter members, most
of them South-Germans. In 1884 a house of wor-
ship, located on Chestnut street, near Pearl street,
was bought from the Evangelical Church, and, after
being rebuilt, it was dedicated July 31, 1885, by
Isaac M. Wise. A rabbi and Sabbath-school teacher
was engaged ; and Reform service of a moderate
type was instituted. In 1897 Rabbi Julius Frank,
the present (1905) incumbent,- introduced the Union
X.— 22

I'rayer-Hddk and full lu-lorm service. In IHJ(8 the
congregation i)ought another cemetery ul Shilling-
ton, three nules from llie city, the old one being
vacated, and about si.xly bodies wen- removed to the
new burial ground, ("onneeled with the congrega-
tion are the Ladies' Hebrew Aid Society and the
Ladies' Au.xiliary.

The ()rlhodo.\ Jewish element, consiHting entirely
of Ru.ssian and Polish immigrantH or Iheir deHccud-
ants, ci)nd)ined in 1HH7 and formed Congregulion
Shomre llabris. Their house of worship is located
on North 8th street. A Hebrew Free School, sllu-
atcd on Moss street, is connected with thin congre-
gation.

Reading has a population of about 90,000. of
whom approximately 800 are Jews. Most of these
are engaged in mercantile life, and a few are manu-
facturers. Ben Austrian, a jminter of still life, has
gained a reputation in the artistic world.

A. J. F.

REAL ESTATE (niypip) : Landed prop<Tty.
The ditlereuces between landed or immovable and
chattel or movable property have been indicated
in the articles Alienation, ArritAisK.Mi:NT. Dkiits
OF • Decedent, Deed, Execution, Fuavd and
Mistake, Infancy, Ona'ah, and Sale. In what
respects the two kinds of projjerty are treated alike
has been pointed out under Aunatks and Wills.
In the articles Fixtuues and Landlord and Ten-
ant it has been shown which of the things resting
upon or growing upon the land are treated as part
of it, and which as personalty (" mittaltelin ").

As regards inheritance and wills, as is shown un-
der AciNATEs, there is no difference between the
rights of succession iu land and those in personalty;
herein the Jewish law dilTers radically from the
common law of England, but agrees with the Ro-
man law. The eighth chapter of Baba Kanuna,
which defines who are heirs, nowhere distinguishes
the kind of property to be inherited. In like man-
ner the "gift of him lying sick." which takes the
place of the last will (see Wills), was, if made un-
der the proper conditions, that is. during apprehen-
sion of speedy death which canjc true, as valid in
its operation on lands as on goods and credits. For
" the words of him lying sick are considered as writ-
ten and sealed " ; hence they fill the part of a deed
required to pass lands as well as that of the manual
taking or "pulling" recjuired to change ownership
of goods.

As to changes of title between seller and buyer,
or donor and donee, the forms differ according as one
or another kind of jiroperty is the object of siile or
of gift by the healthy; but goods may always be
transferred by sale or gift along with land by any
formalities which give title to the latter (sec Alien-
ation AND Acquisition).

In theTalmudic law, contrary to the Biblical idea
of an inalienable title to lands vested in the family
rather than in the individual owner, and contrary
to the customs of nations other than the Jews and
to the English and American laws, lands and not
goods were deemed the primary fund for the pay-
ment of debts. Lands and " Canaanitish slaves " to-
gether were known as " wealth which has its respon-
sibility " C'aharayot"). This meant mainly that

Hebekah
Recauati

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

338

property of tl)is kind, land and slaves, was bound
by the owner's bond from the time of its delivery, a
bond meaning a written contract attested by two
subscribing witnesses; and the debt might be levied
not only on "free estate,"' but also on "subjected
estate," that is, on such as had tliercafter been given
away, sold, or encumbered. Under the older law
also, only lands and slaves were liable for the debts
of decedents, till the almost universal landlossness
of the Jews necessitated a change (see Dehts of
Decedents; Deed); but for the security and peace
of mankind ("tikkiui ha-'olam") it was ordained
that a bond, in so far as it secures unliquidated dam-
ages, should operate only on "free estate"; for in-
stance, the warranty in a deed of convej'ance, in so
far as it indemnities the buyer against the jjaymcnt
of mesne protits, or the covenant in the wife's Ke-
TUBAH, which secures alimony to her and to her
daughters (Git. v. 3).

The occupation of land, in so far as it gives title
of derelict (see Dekeluts), or raises, after a lapse
of three years, a PiiESiMrxiON of grant from the
former owner, is governed bj' different rules from
those which govern the possession or occupation of
goods and chattels.

The manner of subjecting land to the payment of
debts under writ of Execitiox after due ArruAiSE-
mext, is very formal and elaborate; and for this
purpose land is divided into three classes, best, mid-
dling, and cheapest, while the sale of the debtor's
chattels is rather informal and summary.

Under the head of Infancy, Legal Aspect of, it
has been shown that until young persons arrive at
the age of twenty years they have no power to sell
those lands which have come to them by inheritance.

Under Ona'ah it has been pointed out that the
rule under which a seller or purchaser may set aside
a sale or purchase bj' reason of excess or deficit of
one-sixth above or below the market price does not
apply to lands or slaves, on the ground that lands
and slaves have no market price; but when one
party to a sale charges actual Fuaid or Mistake
there is no material difference between sales of land
and sales of goods.

E. r. L. N. D.

REBEKAH. — Biblical Data : Daughter of
Kethuel, sister of Laban, and wife of Isaac (Gen.
xxii. 23, xxiv. 29, 67). Abraham sent his servant
Eliezer to seek a wife for Isaac. Arriving with his
attendants at Aram-naharaim, Eliezer stopped near
the well outside the city and declared to Yirwii that
he would choose the first maiden that should offer
to draw water for himself and his camels, though he
should ask it only for himself. After Rebekah had
drawn the water, Eliezer asked and obtained her
father's and brother's consent to her departure.
Rebekah remained childless for nineteen years, when
she bore two sons, twins, after Isaac had besought
YriwH to remove her barrenness (Gen. xxv. 20-26).
Afterward, when Isaac temporaril}' settled at Gerar,
he and Rebekah agreed to pass as brother and sister.
A'.jimelech, the King of Gerar, having discovered
that Rebekah was Isaac's wife, under penalty of
death forbade any to do them harm (Gen. xxvi. 6-11).
Shortly before Isaac's deatli, Rebekah, moved by her
preference for Jacob, induced the latter to intercept

by a trick the blessing which his father had destined
for his brother Esau (Gen. xxvii. Getseq.). Later
she exhorted Jacob to flee to her brother Laban
until Esau should have forgotten the injury done
him. Rebekah was buried in the cave of Machpelah
(Gen. xlix. 31). See Jacob.
e. c;. II. M. Sei,.

In Rabbinical Literature : The Rabbis dis-
agree as to the age of Rebekah at the time of her
marriage to Lsaac. The statement of the Seder 'Olam
Rabbah (i.) and Gen. R. (Ivii. 1) that Abraham Avas
informed of Rebekah's birth when he ascended Mount
Moriah for the 'Akedaii, is interpreted by some as
meaning that Rebekah was born at that time, and
that consequently she was only three years old at
the time of her marriage. Other rabbis, however,
conclude from calculations that she was fourteen
years old, and that therefore she was born eleven
years before the 'Akedah, both numbers being found
in different manuscripts of the Seder 'Olam Rabbah
(comp. Tos. to Yeb. 61b). The "Sefor ha-Yashar"
(section "Hayye Sarah," p. 38a, Leghorn, 1870)
gives Rebekah's age at her marriage as ten j'cars.

From the fact that when Rebekah went down to
the well the water rose toward her (Gen. R. Ix. 6)
Eliezer immediately recognized that she was the
maiden chosen by God as Isaac's wife. The miracles
Avhich had been wrought through the virtue of Sarah
and which had ceased after the latler's death, re-
commenced through the virtue of Rebekah (Gen. R.
Ix. 15) when she was taken by Isaac into his tent
(Gen. xxiv. 67).

Rebekah joined Isaac in prayer to God for a child,
they having prostrated themselves opposite each
other. Isaac praj'ed that the children he was des-
tined to have might be borne by the righteous Re-
bekah, the latter that she might have children by
Isaac onl}'. Isaac's prayer alone was answered
(comp. Gen. xxv. 21), because he was a righteous
man, and the son of a righteous man, while Rebekah's
whole family was wicked (Yeb. 64a ; Gen. R. Ixiii.
5). It is said that Rebekah, when suffering from
her pregnancy (comp. Gen. xxv. 22), went from
door to door, asking the women whether they had
ever experienced the like. The answer she received
(lb. xxv. 23) came, according to R. Eleazar b. Simeon,
directly from God ; R. Hama b. Ilanina declares that
God spoke through an angel, and R. Eleazar b.
Pedat that the answer was delivered through Shem,
the son of Noah, into whose bet ha-midrash Rebekah
had gone to inquire (Gen. R. Ixiii. 6-8). She should
have borne twelve sons, fathers of twelve tribes, but
through the birth of Esau .she became barren again
(Pesik. iii.23b; Gen. li. Ixiii. 6-7). Rebekah w'lis a
prophetess; therefore she knew that Esau intended
to slay Jacob after Isaac's death, and the words
" Why should I be deprived also of you both in
one day" (Gen. xxvii. 45) are interpreted as be-
ing her prophecy to this effect (Sotah 13a; Gen. R.
Ixvii. 9).

The Rabbis agree that Rebekah died at the age of
133 years (Sifre, Deut. 357; Midr. Tadshe, in Ep-
stein, "Mi-Kadmoni^'yot ha-Yehudiin," p. xxii.;
"Sefer ha-Yashar," section " Wayishlah," p. 56b).
Her death occurred while Jacob was on his way back
to his parents' home; and it was coincident with

339

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bebekah
Kecanatl

that of Deborah (conip. Gen. xxxv. 8). Her decease
is not mentioued because Jacob not having yet ar-
rived, Esau was the only son present to attend to
her burial. ^Moreover, the ceremony was performed
at night out of shame that her collin should be fol-
lowed by a son like Esau (Pcsilj. I.e. ; Midr. Agadah
on Gen. I.e.). According to the Book of Jui)ilce8
(xxxi. 8-11, 48), Jacob, when he arrived home,
found his mother alive; and she afterward accom-
panied him to Beth-el to accomj)lishhis vow (comp.
Gen. xxviii. 19-20). She died at the age of 153, five
years before Isaac's death (Jubilees, xxxv. 1, 41),
this determining that her age Avhen she married was
twenty years.
E. c. M. Sel.

REBENSTEIN, AARON. See Beknstein,

A.\i;o.\.

REBICHKOVICH, ABRAHAM JOSEPHO-
VICH. See Abraham Jesofovicii.

REBUKE AND REPROOF : "Faithful are the
wounds of a friend," says the Old Testament prov-
erb (Prov. xxvii. 6), doubtless referring to rejiroof.
A mild rebuke administered for a breach of etiquette,
or for an act of disrespect, was called "hakpadah " ;
a severe rebuke, as for contempt of authorit}-, was
known as "nezifah." In both cases, however, the
offense involved is unintentional. They are thus dis-
tingui-shed from cases that are punishable by the
declaration of the Ban, nezifah involving a mild
form of ostracism (see Excommunication).

A rebuff to a friend for a breach of etiquette is
mentioned in a case in which R. Hiyya called at
the house of Baba, but neglected to wipe liis feet
before he sat on the couch. Desiring to express dis-
approval of hisconduct, Baba rebuked himindirectly,
propounding to him a legal question (Shab. 46a, b).

B. Johanan expressed indignation because his dis-
ciple Eleazar lectured in the bet iia-midrash on a cer-
tain subject without recognizing the authority of his
master (Yeb. 96b). B. Joseph reproached B. Ze'era
because lie had insinuated that the former had had
so many masters that he was apt to confound his
sources; he indignantly asserted that his onlv master
was B. Judah (Hul. 18b).

The manner of showing disapprobation is illus-
trated by B. Sheshet, who stretched out his neck
snakelike toward B. Ilisda for omitting certain por-
tions which the former thought should be inserted
when saying grace (Ber. 49a). R. Judah I., in his
desire to maintain strict discipline among his disci-
ples, rebuked them whenever they fell short in re-
spect for his authority, although their lapses were
unwitting. B. Simeon, son of Babbi, and Bar Kap-
para were studying together when they came to a
diflicult passage. R. Simeon suggested that it be
submitted to his father, whereupon Bar Kappara
remarked, "How can Babbi solve it?" The next
time Bar Kappara appeared before Babbi the latter
turned to him and said, " I do not recognize thee."
Bar Kappara considered this as a nezifah, though
Rabbi probably intended only a hakpadah.

A similar incident occurred when Babbi ordered
that his disciples should not study in the street. B.
Hiyya and his two cousins disregarded the order.
When Hiyya next went to see Babbi the latter said,

" Art tiiou not wanted outside? " Hiyya understood
this question as ii rebuke, and renminc'd uwuy tliiny
days (M. ly. lOn. b; .see Gen. B x.xxiii. 8).

A delicate (luestion presents itself to the prcuclicr
as to how far lie may remonstrate with u friend in
regard to impropriety of conduct. Indeed, B. Jurfon
doubted the advisability of forcing the issue, since
few are willing to accept a rebuke. " If a preacher
says, 'Take out the mote from thy eye,' u friend
retorts, 'Take out the beam from thine own eye'"
(comp. Matt. vii. 3). Rub said a iireuclier should
remonstrate with his friend until the hitter resent*
violently; R. Joshua .said, until he curses; but R.
Johanan thinks the limit should be a mere re-
buke. They all refer to Jonathan's remonstrance
with Saul in regard to David ('Er. 16b). See
Anatiie.ma.

•'• .1. 1). E.

RECANATI: Town in Italy, on the Musonc.
and ill tiie province of Macerata; formerly included
in the Pontifical States. Jews are known to liave
lived in Becanati as eariy as the thirteenth century,
when B. .Menahem Becanati nourished in that city.
The usefulness of Jewish money-lenders was well
recognized in the Marches, almost every town liav-
ing its money-lender, who ranked almost as a public
official. In Becanati there were several, who main-
tained business relations with those of I'rbino. In
1433 one Sabbatuccio di Alleuzzo, a Jew of Beca-
nati, obtained permission from the Duke of Urbino
to establi-sh a money-lending business in that citv.
He went there, and on June 30 of the same year
entered into business relations with others, which he
maintained until Dec. 9, 1436.

Notwithstanding the protection accorded by the
authorities to Jewish money-lenders, tlie popular
hatred against them continued unabated. When
Pope Nicholas v., at the instance of Capistruno, a
bitter enemy of the Jews, forbade them to lend
money at interest (1447), and commanded the restora-
tion of all money that had been received by them
as interest, a general rising of the mob took place in
Bome, rapidly followed by similar risings through-
out Italy. The community of Becanati took steps
to avert a similar calamity, and, being unai)le to bear
\uiassisted all the necessary expenses, endeavored to
form a union with other Italian communities for this
purpose, particularly with that at Ancona. With
this object a letter was written to the latter commu-
nity, urging it to appoint a day on which delegates
from the principal communities might meet and dis-
cuss measures of jirotection. Thecommimity of An-
cona, however, unwilling to take the lead, advised
the community of Becanati to secure the influence
of the bishop of its city through the Jews of Borne.

This terminates all information relative to this
matter, the outcome of which is unknown. But it
is certain that the circumstances of the Jews were
no longer flourishing. One of the measures dircrtod
against them was the establishment of a "monto dl
pieta" at Becanati in 1468. On the Day of Atone-
ment in 1558, Filippo. a converted Jew. made a
forcible entrance into the synagogue of Becanati and
placed a cross upon the Ark; and when the indig-
nant Jews drove him forth he made .<;uch a disturb-
ance that the wrathful popidacc surroundi-d the

Recanati
Kechabites

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

340

synagogue. Two Jews were arrested by the author-
ities aud publicly tlogged. The sixteenth century
■witnessed the end of the Recanati community. Pope
Pius V. banished tiie Jews from the Papal States, e.\-
ceptiug those of Rome and Ancona (Feb. 26, 1569),
and his decree, although abrogated for a short time
by Six t us V. (Oct. 25, 1586), was renewed by Clem-
ent VIII. (1593). R. Rafael Fiuzi da Recanati, R.
Jacob ben Rafael Finzi da Recanati, and R. Petha-
biah Jare. all of the sixteenth century, were rabbis
at Recanati. Isaac ben Hayyim ben Abraham ha-
Kohen lived in Recanati in 1517.

Bibliogr.^phy: Joseph lia-Kohen. "fJmik ha-Baka, ed. Wiener,
p. 97 ; Luzzatto, / liautltieri El>ni in i'rbino luW eta Lni-
calt, pa^im ; David Kaufmann, in R. E. J. xxiii. 2;5l et seq.;
Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in fioni, 11. 14, 92;
Mortara, Indivc, passim,
e. U- C.

BEGAN ATI : Italian family deriving its name

from the city of Recanati in the former Papal States.

Subjoined is the famil}' tree:

Sbabbetbai Elbanan Recanati

I
Menahem Recanati

I
Judah Hayyim Recanati

I
Sbabbetbai Elbanan Recanati

Moses Nahamu Recanati

Isaac Samuel Recanati
(d. 1812)

I
Jacob Hayyim Recanati

Moses Nahamu Recanati Emanuele (Menahem) Recanati

The more important members are the following:

Amadeo ( Jedidiah) ben Moses Recanati :

Lived in the sixteenth century, lie translated Mai-

mouides' "Moreh Nebukim " into Italian in 1583,

under the title "Erudizione dei Confusi," dedicating

his work to the cabalist Menahem Azariah da Fano.

Elijah. Recanati : Lived in the Romagna about

1660. At an advanced age he wrote a "widdui" in

rimed pro.se, beginning " Ribbono sliel 'Olam," and

a lament for the wars, pestilence, aud famine, which

simultaneously afflicted the country.

BiBLiOGRAPHv: Zunz, .9. P. p. 440; Vogelstetn and Rleger,
Gesch. der Judrti in Rnm, ii. 21.").

Emanuele (Menahem) Recanati: Italian phy-
sician; born at Sienna in 1796; died at Verona, where
his father had been rabbi, Jan.. 1864. After study-
ing medicine Emanuele practised as a physician at
Verona. Ho wastheauthor of : " Grammatica Ebraica
in Lingua Latina" (Verona, 1842); " Dizionario
Ebraico-CaldaicoedItaliano"(ti. 1854); "Dizionario
Italiano rd Ebruiro " (ih. 1856).

Jacob Hayyim Recanati : Rabbi and teacher ;
born ill Pe.saro 1758; died Feb. 27, 1824; son of Isaac
Saiiiuel Recanati. In hisyouth he was an elementary
teacher at Ferraia, and later was successively rabbi
of Sienna, Acfjui, Moncalvo, Finale, Carpi, Verona,
and Venice, in which last cit}' he succeeded Jacob
Menahem Cracowa. He was, moreover, a gram-
marian and a profound mathematician. Recanati
was the author of several works, among them be-
ing the following: " Poskc Rekanati ha-Al.iaronim "
(Leghorn, 1813); a treatise on arithmetic, jiublislieil
at Sienna; a compendium of the doctrine of Judaism

(Verona, 1813); and "Ya'ir Netib " (Dessau, 1818), a

respousum on the Hamburg Reform Temple. He

wrote also Hebrew poems, and left some collections

of sermons in manuscript.

Bibliography : Nepi-Gbirondi. Tolednt Gedole Yisracl, p.
Io-t; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1248; Dlvla, Elcitia Fi(-
nehre pel Rabhiiio de Verona, Giacobbe Vita Recanati,
Verona. 1824.

Judah Hayyim ben Menahem Recanati :
Rabbi of the Spanish community of Ferrara in the
second half of the seventeenth century. One of his
responsa is contained in Jacob Recanati's "Poske Re-
l>anati ha-Aharonim," § 5.
Bibliography : Nepi-Gbirondi. Tolcditt Gcdole Yis>rafl, p. 127.

Menahem ben Benjamin Recanati : Italian
rabbi ; flourished at the close of the thirteenth cen-
tury and in the early part of the fourteenth. He
was the only Italian of his time who devoted the
chief part of his writings to the Cabala. He wrote:
(1) "Perush 'Al ha-Torah " (Venice, 1523), a work
full of mystical deductionsaud meanings based upon
a textual interpretation of the Bible; it describes
many visions and celestial revelations claimed to
have been experienced by the author, who was
blinded by cabalis5tic ideas, and expresses the highest
respect for all cabalistical autliors, even the most
recent apocryphal ones. The work was translated
into Latin by Pico di Mirandola, and was republished
with a commentary by Mordecai JafTe, at Lublin in
1595. (2) " Perush ha-Tefillot " aud (3) " Ta'ame ha-
Mizwot," published together (Constantinople, 1543-
1544; Basel, 1581). Like the preceding work, these
are strongly tinctured with German m5'sticism. Re-
canati frequently quotes Judah lie-Hasid of Regens-
burg, Eleazar of Worms, and their disciples, and
alludes also to the Spanish cabalists, Nahmanides
among them. He is rarely original, quoting almost
always other authorities. Although Recanati had a
high reputation for sanctit}% he exercised less influ-
ence on his contemporaries than upon posterity. To
assist him in his cabalistic researches, he studied
logic and j)hilosophy ; and he endeavors to support
the cabala by philosophical arguments. (4) " Poske
Ililkot," Bologna, 1538.

Bibliography: Gudemann. Gesch. 11. 180 6t seq.: Zunz, Lite-
vatiirqeM-h. p. 369; idem, in Geicer's Jf/ri. Zeit. Iv. 139; Ge-
daliah ibn Yahya, Slialalicht ha-Kahbaloli, p. 48b.

Menahem Recanati : Ral)l)i of Ferrara in the
seventeenth century. He wrote a number of re-
sponsa, some of which are inserted in Jacob Re-
canati's "Poske Rekanati ha-Aharonim" (^^ 4,6.
33). The legend reiated by Nepi, in " Toledot Ge-
dole Yisrael" (p. 225), refers not to this Menahem,
but to Menahem ben Benjamin Recanati.

BinLioGRAriiY ; Gedaliah ilm Yal.iya, Shahlielct lia-Kabbalah,
p. 4Hb; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1734.

Moses Nahamu Recanati : Rabbi of Senigaglia
and Pesaio in tlie eiy-litccntli century.

Moses Nahamu Recanati : Joint rabbi with his
fatlier-inlaw, Moses Aanm Yahya, of Correggio at
the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Bibliography: Nepi-(;hirondl, To^cdotGedo/c I'isracJ, p. 157.

Shabbethai Elhanan Recanati : Rabbi of
Ferraia in the beginning of tiie seventeenth century.
He lived at the time of the establishment of the
ghetto.
Bibliography: Nepi-(;birondi, Toledot Gedole l'is/-uci, p. 335.

341

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Recanati
Bechabltes

Shabbethai Elhanan Recanati : Ivjiblji for
many years of tho iSpauish cuniimuiity in Eerrara.
One of his responsa is inserted in the "Debar Siie-
muel" (p. 280) of Baniucl Ahoal). Approbations
("haskaniot ") by him are frctjiiently met with, e.y.,
in Lampronti's " Pahad Yiziialj:," Jacob Daniel
Ohno's " liesliitBikkure Ka/.ir," Samson ^lorpurgo's
"Shemesli Zedakah," antl Siiulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh
De'ah, § 50. In the section Eben ha-'Ezer of the
last-named work is included a responsum by Re-
canati on the writings of Maimonides.

Bibliography: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedolc I'tsracf, p. 319.

Other branches of the family are found in various
Italian cities, e.g., in Rome: Shabbethai Recanati
(see ]MS. De Rossi No. 402) ; Maestro Joab in 1553
(see Vogelstein and Rieger, "Gesch. der Juden in
Rom," ii. 420); at Santa Vittoria, Eermo: Jehiel
ben Joab in the fifteenth century ("Mose," v. 192);
in Pesaro: in 1626, Lazzaro and Elia Recanati,
bankers; Isaac di Salvatore, Jacob, and Abramo Re-
canati. In the nineteenth century the rabbinate of
Pesaro was held by Giuseppe Samuele Recanati (b.
at Pesaro in 1807; died there Oct. 15, 1894).

A branch of the Finzi family bears the cognomen
"Da Recanati," and claims descent from the first
Menahem Recanati (see Jew. Encyc. v. 389b, s.v.
Finzi).

s. U. C.

BE C HA BITES. — Biblical Data: Mem-
bers of a family descended from Hammath, the pro-
genitor of the house of Rechab; otherwise known as
the Kenites (I Chron. ii. 55), who were the descend-
ants of Hobab (Jethro), the father-in-law of Moses
(Judges iv. 11). In Jeremiah (xxxv.) it is recorded
that the prophet took some Rechabites into the
Temple and offered them wine to drink, and that
they declined on the ground that Jehonadab, son
of Rechab, their ancestor, had commanded them
not to drink wine or other strong drink, or to live
in houses, or to sow seed, or to plant vineyards, and
had enjoined them to dwell in tents all their days.
Jeremiah used this fidelity of the Rechabites to their
principles as an object-lesson in his exhortations to
his contemporaries.

Jehonadab appears at an earlier point in the Bible
as the companion of King Jehu when lie slaughtered
the prophets of Baal (comp. II Kings x. 15, 23). Je-
honadab was apparently a champion of the wor-
ship of Y'liwii as against that of Baal. After the
Exile Malchiah, the Rechabite ruler of the district of
Beth-haccerem, built a portion of the walls of Jeru-
salem (Neh. iii. 14, 15). In I Chron. (ii. 55) it is
stated that certain people of Jabez in Judah were
"the Kenites thatcame of Hammath, the father of the
house of Rechab." It is clear from these passages
that the Rechabites Avere a people who endeavored
to resist the customs of settled life in Palestine by
maintaining the nomadic ideal; that they existed at
different times in both the Northern and Southern
Kingdoms; that they were especially interested in
the worship of Yhwh; and that the Chronicler con-
nects them with the Kenites.
E. c. G. A. B.

-In Rabbinical Literature: God's promise

that the Rechabites "shall not want a man to stand

before me forever" (Jcr. xxxv. 19) is interpreted by

R. Jonathan to mean that they shall become scribes

and members of the Sunhedrin.

In the Other rabbis say the Rechabites jnar-

Talmud, ried their daut'liters to priests and
had grandchildren in the priesthuiMl
(Yalk., Jer. 323). Jonathan's appears to be Ihe
accepted view, as the Rechabites became scribes (I
Chron. ii. 55) and sat with the Sanhedrin in the gran-
ite chamljer ("lishkat ha gazil"; perhaps the sjinic
us the chamber of Hanan) of the Temple. Tho names
of the subdivided families, the Tirathites. the 8he-
mealhitcs, and the Suchathites (/V).), are a|)pellaiion8
indicating their learning and (in Ihe ca.se of the last-
named) their custom of living in tents (Mek., Yitro,
ii. 60b; Sifre, Num. 78 [ed. Fricilmann, p. 20a];
Sotah 11a). R. Nathan remarked that God's cove-
nant with the Rechabites was superior to tlie cove-
nant with David, inasmuch as David's was cmidi-
tional (Ps. cxxxii. 12), while that with the RechabiU-s
was without reservation (Mek., I.e.). The Talmud
identifies "ha-yo?crim" ("the potters"; I Cliron.
iv. 23) as the Rechabites, because they observed
("she-nazeru ") the commandment of their father (U.
B. 91b). Evidently the Talmud had the reading
"ha-nozerim" (= "diligent observers") instead of
"ha-yozcrim." This would explain the term "Mig-
dal Nozerim," the habitation of the Rechabites.
in contrast with a "fenced city" (II Kings xvii. 9,
xviii. 8). The appellation of "Nozerim" or"No-
zerites " is perhaps changed from " Nazarites " as in-
dicative of the temperate life of the Rechabites.

The appointed time for the service of the Recha-
bites in the Temple was the 7th of Ab (Taan. iv.
5). After the destruction of the Sec-
In ond Temple, traces of the Rechabites

the Second are found in the pedigree of R. Jose b.

Temple. Halafta. the author of " Seder ' Olam,"
who claimed to be a direct descendant
of Jehonadab ben Rechab ^Gen. R. xcviii. 13).

Judah Low b. Bczaleel, in his "Nezah Yisrael"
(Prague, 1599), claims that the Jews in China are
descended from the Rechabites and that they are
referred to in Isa. xlix. 12 ("the land of Sinim").
Benjamin of Tudela (1160) found Rechabites in his
travels: "Twenty-one days' journey from Ikby-
Ion, through the desert of Sheba, or Al-Ycmcn. from
which ^Mesopotamia lies in a northerly direction, arc
the abodes of the Jews who are called the Re( ha-
bites. " He describes them as " an independent tribe.
The extent of their land is sixteen days* journey
among the northern mountains. They have large
and fortified cities, with the capital
According city of Tema. Their nasi is Rabbi
to Hanan |a name suggestive of the

Benjamin chamber of Hananj. The Rechabites
of Tudela. make marauding expeditions in dis-
tant lands witii tlieir allies, the Anibs.
who live in the wilderness in tents. The neiplilM)r-
ing countries fear the Jews, .some of whom cultivate
the land, raise call le, and conlribute tithes fertile
men learned in the Law. for the jmor of Palestine,
and for the mourners of Zion and Jerusalem, who.
except on Sabbaths and holy days, neither eat meat
nor drink wine, and who dress in black and live in
caves." Benjamin's description of the Rechabites is

Rechabites
Recording Angel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

342

ambiguous, and, the text being unpunctuated, it is
difficult to tell wheu be refers to tbe Kechabites,
wheu to the Arabs, and wheu to the mourners of
Zion. Probably the tents referred to are those of
the Arabs, and the abstention from meat and wine
applies to the mourners of Zion. The latter evi-
dently were Karaites, who made frequent pilgrim-
ages to Jerusalem in the tenth and eleventh centuries

(see PlI.GHIMAGE).

The Kechabites were found also by the English

missionary Dr. WollI, in 1828, near Mecca in Arabia.

He credits them with the observance of the pure

ilosaic law. They speak Arabic and a little Hebrew.

They are good horsemen, and number about 60,000.

BiBLioGP.APHY: Lewisohn, Shorshe Lebanon, pp. 220-228,
Wilna. 1841 : M. A. Ginsburg. Dehir, i. 90-101. Warsaw-, 1883;
L. de St. .\iKuaii, La Trihu de liccJtabitoi Rctrouvi'e, Ver-
sailles, 1871; The Itinerai-u of Utujamin of Tiidela, ed.
Asher, Loudon, 1840-41.
W. B. J- D. E.

-Critical View : According to Evvald, Schra-

der, Smend, and Budde, the Kechabites represented
areaction against Canaanitish civilization. As Budde
points out, in the wilderness, or steppes, the relig-
ion of Ynwn was the religion of a simple nomadic
people, devoid of the voluptuous ritual which the
greater wealth of Canaan made possible (comp.
"The New World," 1895, pp. 726-746; " Keligion
of Israel to the E.xile," ch. i.). The Yhwii religion,
he holds with Tiele and Stade, was the religion of
the Kenites.

These Kechabites, a part of the Kenites, as even
the late Chronicler remembered, bound themselves
to maintain the nomadic ideal of life and the primi-
tive simplicity of Yhwh's religion. This would ex-
plain the form of their life as depicted by Jeremiah,
and the aid rendered by their ancestor to Jehu. If,
however, this view is correct, they are really much
older than Jehonadab, the contemporary of Jehu.
Budde supposes that Jehonadabdid not originate, but
revived or reimposed, the old rule of their brother-
hood.

If they were Kenites, how came they in the
Northern Kingdom at this time? The Kenites were
dwellers on the southern borders of Judah until
absorbed by that tribe (see Kenites; comp. I Sam.
xxvii. 10, XXX. 29). The explanation is probably
to be found in I Chron. ii. 55, which connects Kech-
abites with Ilammath, a town at the hot springs by
the Sea of Galilee, a little to the south of Tiberias
(comp. Buhl, "Geographie des Alten Palitstina,"
pp. 115, 226). Probably a colony of them settled at
this point for a time, and so became residents of the
Northern realm. The same reference connects them
with Jabez in Judah. It is probable, therefore, that
all were of one family. In the time of Nehemiah
they were connected with Beth-haccerem, a town
near Tekoah, southeast of Bethlehem. Budde has
well shown tiic importance of the Jiechabites for an
understanding of the religion of Israel.

BinLiOGRAPHV: Ewald. Oenrh. 111. .543 rt w/.: Smend, Altten-
tnmeullir]ie [{eliuionsficsrhiclitc, 2dcil., ])\kU'.)i t sci/.; Smith,
Rel.of Srin. 2*i cil., pp. 4H4 ct .sf</.; Uudde, lOlinioji of Im-nel
to the Erile, ch. i.; Dillmann. ()hl Tesloment Tltcolouji, p.
172; Barton, Sketcli of Semitic (Jriniux. p. 277.

E. c. G. A. B.

RECIFE (PERNAMBUCO) : Brazilian city and
seaport; capital of the state of Pernambuco. It

was merely a collection of fishermen's huts when
occupied by the French in 1561. Shortly afterward,
however, it began to attract attention as a port.
Both Kecife and the neighboring town of C^liuda
were cai)tured by the Dutch under Admiral Loncq
in 1631. Thereafter Kecife became one of the most
important strongholds of the Dutch in Brazil.

The liberal policy of the Dutch mduced many Jews
and Neo-Christians to remove thither from other
parts of Brazil, and soon Kecife had a large Jewish
population. It is described by Portuguese writers
as being chiefly inhabited by Jews, who by 1639
had the trade of the city practically
Under the in their own hands; and in a work

Dutch. published at Amsterdam in 1640 they
are stated to have been twice as numer-
ous there as Christians. They were permitted to ob-
serve their Sabbath. The importance of the city in-
creased during the wars between the Dutch and the
Portuguese. Anxious to make it the foremost city
of their possessions, the Dutch endeavored to attract
colonists from abroad, and appealed to Holland for
craftsmen of all kinds. In response many Portu-
guese Jews left Holland for Kecife, induced to do
so not only by pecuniary considerations and the ad-
vantage of the free exercise of their religion, but
doubtless by a preference for a community in
which the Spanish and Portuguese tongues were
spoken.

Within a few years the Jews at Kecife numbered
thousands, and one of them, Gaspar Diaz Ferreira,
was consitlered one of the richest men in the coun-
try. Nieuhoff, the traveler, writing in 1640, says:
"Among the free inhabitants of Brazil the Jews are
most considerable in number ; they have a vast traf-
fic, beyond all the rest; they purchased sugar-mills
and bought stately houses in the Keceif." In 1642
several hundred Spanish and Portuguese Jews emi-
grated from Amsterdam to Brazil. Among these
were two famous scholars, both of Avhom settled at
Kecife. One of them, Isaac Aboab da Fonseca, be-
came the hakam of the congregation, and the other,
Raphael de Aguilar, its reader. Among the promi-
nent Jews born at Recife may be mentioned Elijah
3Iachorro and Dr. Jacob de Andrade Velosino, who
wrote against Spinoza.

Recife soon became favorably known throughout
Europe. Its congregation became influential, and
among its distinguished members maybe mentioned
Ephraim Suero, the stepbrother of Manasseh ben
Israel. In fact, the latter .seriously considered going
there in 1640, and dedicated the second part of his
"Conciiiador " to the most eminent members of the
congregation at Kecife, including David Senior
Coronei. In 1645, when Joam Fernandes Vieyia
urged the Portuguese to reconquer Brazil, one of liis
arguments was that Kecife " was chiefly iiiiial)ited by
Jews, most of whom were originally fugitives from
Portugal. They have their open synagogues there,
to the scandal of Christ iaiiity. For the honor of the
faith, theiefoie, the Portuguese ought to risk their
lives and property in putting down sucii an aboiii-
ination." When the conspiracy was in its inlaney
tlie Dutch authorities were slow to realize wliat
was happening; "l)ut the Jews of Kecife were Imid
in their expressions of alarm." In the Avords of

343

THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA

Reohabitea
Recording Augel

Southcy, "They liad more at stake tbau the Dutcli ;
they were sure to be massacred without mercy dur-
ing the insurrection, or roasted without mercy if the
insurgents should prove successful. They therefore
besieged the council with Avarnings and accusa-
tions."

At the beginning of his insurrection Vieyni prom-
ised the Jews protection provided they remained
peaceably in their houses. The Jews, however, re-
mained loyal to the Dutch, and in 1046,
Insurrec- when the war was raging, they raised
tion large donations for the service of the

of Vieyra. state. When, in the same year, the
city was besieged by the Portuguese,
the Jews were its stoutest defenders, being "re-
solved to perish by the sword rather than surrender."
Dutch aid arrived in time, and the war was pro-
longed. So influential was the Jewish community
at Recife that when the Portuguese, in 1648, con-
templated the purchase of the place, they considered
the advisability of making a secret agreement con-
cerning the Jews even before broaching the sub-
ject to Holland. But the Dutch regime was
doomed. The story of the sufferings and fortitude
of the Jews at Kecifc during the siege, when
general famine prevailed, has been preserved in a
poem by Isaac Aboab, an eye-witness. Though the
first siege was unsuccessful, tlie city was again be-
sieged ; many Jews were killed, and many more died
of hunger. When it became evident that resistance
was futile, the Jews clamored for a capitulation,
" without which, they well knew, no mercy would be
shown them." They were especially mentioned in
the terms of capitulation, the Portuguese promising
them amnesty "in all wherein they could promise
it. " More than 5,000 Jews were in Recife ; they hur-
riedly removed, many going to Surinam, others re-
turning with Aboab and Aguiiar to Amsterdam, and
still others going to Guadeloupe and other West-
Indian islands. Probably the small group of Jews
that arrived in New Amsterdam (New York) in 1654
were refugees from Recife.

After the Portuguese reconquest Jews do not ap-
pear to have had a community at Recife, though
Jews were there probably during the
Under the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
Por- as the Portuguese sent large numbers

tuguese. of " reconciled " Neo-Christians to Bra-
zil between 1G83 and 1707. Most
likelj' such Jews have long since been absorbed hy
the Catholic population. No restrictions against
Jewish settlgment exist in Brazil to-day, and there
are a number of Jewish residents at Recife, largelj^
of German or Russian origin. Nevertheless, in a list
of the leading merchants of the town published by
the Bureau of American Republics (1891) such de-
cidedly Sephardic names appear as Carvalho, Seixas,
Pereira, and Machado.

Bibliography: Augustus van Quelen, Kort Verhad ran dm
Staet van Ffriumhuc, .Mnsterrtam, lt)40; Robert Snulhoy,
liisUmi of Jirnzil, li. ].V. 241, &')0 r1 scq., London. IP*.' ;
NieuholT, Toi/nf/es ami Travels in lirazil, in Pinkerton's
Collection of Travels, vol. xiv.; Alplionse de Beuuctiaiiip,
Histoire du Bresil. vol. ill., Paris, 181.5; J. B. Fernande.s
(iama, ^^em. Hist, da Prov. dc Pernainliuco. Pernaiulnico.
1844; Bariums, Rerum in Brasilia Gcstaruiit Jlistona,
lii6(); ]\. .]. Koent^n, Ocschiedenisder Jodeu in ^rderland.
Utrecht, 184:i ; Netscher, Lcs Hollandais au Bn'sd. in Le Mo-
nitexir des Indcs Orientalesct Occidcntaks, 184«-49; Enci/c.

Brit.e.v. Pcrnamhuctt; Jn/o. .....'. r'..i,-, ■ .,i/ / •,,. i i... 1 1

.OIU ; Puljlii(diiiiiif Am. Jen
und U. A. Kohiit) und U (L. Ill
vf American Uejjubllcii, volb. Ui. itu«i ix.
A. L. HI.

RECKENDORF. HERMANN (^AYYIM
ZEBI BEN SOLOMON): Uernmn scholar and

autiior; hiirn in Trehitsch in 1825; died alx.iit l'i75.
Having actjuired a tliDnnigh uciiuuintunce with tlie
Hebrew language and literature, Reckendorf devoted
himself to the study of the otiier Semitic Ian
In 1806 he went to Leipsic, where lie occupj.
self with the study of liislory; later he became
lecturer in the University of Heidelberg. Influenced
by Eugene Sue's " Les Mysteres de Paris," Reck-
endorf planned a similar work in Jewish history.
The result of his design appeared in his "Die Ge-
heimnissc der Juden" (5 vols., Ix-'ipsic, 1856-57). a
collection of sketches from Jewish history, wrilteu
in German. Tiiese, thougli independent of cue an-
other, preserve an unbroken historical sequencecov-
ering the whole period from the time wlien the Jews
were exiled by Nebuchadnezzar up to his own time.
Reckendorf endeavored especially to show thai the
line of David never disappeared; that it pasw-d from
Zerubbabel, through llilleland certain Jewi.sh kings
in Arabia, and through the Abravanels. His asser-
tions are based on various historical works and on
the Talmud, the sources being referred to in foot-
notes. Abraham Kaplan translated the first part
into Hebrew under the title of "Mistere liaYehu-
dim " (Warsaw, 1865); later the whole work was
freely translated into Hebrew by A. S. Friedljcrg.
under the title of "Zikronot le-Bet Dawid " (ib.
1893).

In 1857 Reckendorf published at Leipsic a He-
brew translation of the Koran under the title of
" Al-Kuran o ha-Mikra"; its preface, written by the
translator, contains an essay on the pre-Moham-
mcdan history of Arabia, a biography of Mohammed,
an essay oii the Koran itself, and other small trea-
tises on allied themes. In 1868 lie ]niblished at
Leii>sic " Das Lebcn Mosis," a life of Moses accord-
ing to Biblical and other sources, and a French arti-
cle on thelbn Tibbons ("Arch. Isr." xxix. 564. 004).

BiBi,iOGR.\Piiv: Alio. Zeit. des Jud. IS-JS. pi'
logue to Heekendorf's Die (Vf/ifiHiuu-cf dir .:
Bihl. Jud. iU. 137, 138; ZeltUn, Dihl. Post-MtudtU. H'- -^

"90

"s." M. Sel.

RECORD. See Deed; Judgment.

RECORDING ANGEL : The augel that, in

popular belief, records tlir deeds of all individuals
for future reward or punishment. Tlie keeping of a
general account between man and his Maker is repre-
sented by Akiba thus: "Man buys in an oi>cn shop
where tlie dealer gives credit: the ledger is open,
and the hand writes" (Abot iii. 20). Citing, "He
sealeth up the hand of every man : that all men may
know his work " (Job xxxvii. 7(. R. Shila said. "Two
attending angels follow man as witnesses, and wh-ri
a man dies all his deeds are enumenited, with pb: c
and date of occurrence, and the man himself in-
dorses the statement" (Ta'an. 11a). Again, citing
:Mal. iii. 10 ("and a book of remembrance was> wril-
teu before him for them that fcaretl the Lonl "). R.

Hed Heifer
Kee

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

344

Sbila said, "Whenever two discuss the Law their
words arc recorded above " (Ber. 6a).

All prayers are recorded in heaven by the angels
(see Prayer). The principal recording augel ap-
pears to be Gabriel, "the man clothed with linen,"
whom God ordered to place a sign upon the fore-
heads of the men in Jerusalem who were to be spared
(Ezek. i.\. 4; see Shab. 55a). The entry in the royal
annals recording the meritorious act of Mordccai in
saving the life of Ahasuerus was said to have been
erased by the royal secretary Shimshai, an enemy of
the Jews, and to have been restored by Gabriel,
the champion of Israel, which incident brought
about the fall of Human and the victory of the
Jews (Meg. 16a; Rashi ad loc). See Elijah;

E-NOCn; ESCHATOLOGY.

K. J. D. E.

RED HEIFER.— Biblical Data : According to
Yhwh's iustructionstoMosesand Aaron the Israelites
prepared for sacrifice a red heifer which was free from
blemish and which had not yet been broken to the
yoke. It was slain outside the camp, in the presence
of Eleazar, representing the high priest; Eleazar
dipped his fingers in the blood and sprinkled it seven
times in the direction of the tabernacle; then the
carcass was burned in his presence — hide, flesh, and
blood. The priest himself took cedar-wood, hyssop,
and scarlet, and cast them upon the pyre. Another
man, ceremonially clean, then gathered up the ashes
of the consumed heifer and stored them in a clean
place outside the camp, that they might be used in
preparing water of purification. The priest, the
man who attended to the burning of the heifer, and
the one who gathered the ashes had to wash them-
selves and their clothes; they remained ceremonially
unclean until sunset.

The ashes were dissolved iu fresh water, which
was sprinkled on those who were contaminated by
coming in contact with a dead body or in proxim-
ity to the dead. The one so contaminated re-
mained unclean for seven days; he was sprinkled
with the water on the third and seventh days, and
at sunset of the last day was clean again. The
sprinkling was done by one who was clean, and
who, after the sprinkling, washed himself and his
clothes and remained unclean until sunset. All who
touched the water or the unclean person were like-
wise unclean until sunset. The one who neglected
to observe this law was deprived of religious privi-
leges, for he defiled the sanctuary of Yiiwfi (Num.
xix. 1-22). Spoils of war consisting of metal vessels
were to be purified by fire and finally cleansed by
the water of purification (Num. xxxi. 21-24).

Rabbinical View : See Pauaii.

Critical View : Modern critics declare that

Num. xix. is composed of two sections— 1-13 and
14-22. Wellhau.sen and Kuenen think tliat the sec-
ond section is an appendix giving precise instruc-
tions regarding tiie application of the regulation to
particular cases; but according to the editors of the
"Oxford Ilexateuch" (1900) the second section is
derived from a body of priestly torot or decisions.
Other critics, however, arc of the opinion that the
more elaborate and peculiar title of the first section
— " Hukkat ha-Torah " — as well as other indications,

suggests rather that this section is the later of
the two and belongs to the secondary strata of the
Priestly Code (P). The connection of this chapter
with tlie preceding one is explained by Ibn Ezra:
both contain "a perpetual statute" for the priests
(Num. xix. 21). The connection with the following
chapter is thus explained by Josephus: Moses insti-
tuted the rite of the red heifer on the death of Miriam
(Num. XX. 1), the ashes of the first sacrifice being
used to purify the people at the expiration of thirty
days of mourning ("Ant." iv. 4, § 6).

The sacrifice of the red heifer should be compared
with that of the scapegoat, similarly sacrificed out-
side the camp by one who must purify himself be-
fore returning to it. The bullock as the sin-offering
of the high priest and the goat as the sin-offering of
the people were likewise burned outside the camp —
hide, flesh, and dung (Lev. xvi. 26-27). The red-
heifer sacrifice is similar to the heifer sacrifice offered
for the purpose of purifying the land from the de-
filement attending an untraced murder, a heifer
"which hath not been wrought with, and -which
hath not drawn in the yoke" (Deut. xxi. 3). In
both cases the heifer was chosen as being a more
suggestive offering in a rite associated with death.
This view is supported by Bilhr, Kurtz, Keil, Eders-
heim, and others. The Jewish exegetes point, in
addition, to the uncultivated "rough valley" and
the wilderness as suggestive of the check to human
multiplication caused by natural death and by man-
slaughter.

The performance of the rite at a distance from the
tabernacle excluded therefrom the high priest, who
could not leave the sanctuary ; hence lie was repre-
sented at the ceremony by a substitute. The term
" me niddah " (A. Y. " water of separation " ; R. V.
"water of impurity"), rendered by the Septuagint
as vf'iup pavriffjuot' (" water of sprinkling"; by Luther,
" Sprengwasser "), is interpreted by Ha.shi by com-
paring " niddah " with " wa-yaddu " (on Lam. iii. 53)
and " le-yaddot " (to cast, throw, or sprinkle ; Zech.
ii. 4 [A. V. i. 21]). Ibn Ezra compares " niddah "
with "menaddekem" (cast you out; Isa. Ixvi. 5), as
denoting "exclude from the cultus," like the Neo-
Hebrew "niddui" (to excommunicate), and he there-
fore interprets " me niddah " as " the water of exclu-
sion," i.e., the means for removing the uncleanness
which is the cause of the exclusion ; this explanation
agrees with the rendering of the Authorized Version
" water of separation."

The "cedar-wood" thrown on the fire was proba-
bly a piece of fragrant wood of Juniperus Phanicea
or Juniperus Oxycedrus {Low, "Aramilische PHanz-
ennamen," p. 57). The explanation may be found in
the belief of primitive times, when fragrant woods,
such as juniper and cypress and the aromatic plants
of the mint family, were supposed to act as a pro-
tection against the harmful imseen powers that were
thought to l)e the cause of death. Even in com-
paratively recent times, in the United States, a juni-
per-tree planted before a house was regarded as a
preventive of the plague.

The essential part of the rite, it is claimed, is
of extreme anticjuity. Robertson Smith points out
tiiat " primarily, purification means the application
to the person of some medium which removes a

345

THE JEWISH ENCYrLOPEDIA

Red Heifer
&ee

taboo, and enables a person to mingle freely in the
ordinarj' life of liis fellows." The best medium is
water, but for serious cases of iincleanness the addi-
tion of ashes is necessary (BJlhr, "Symbolik," ii.
495). The symbolical signilicance of tin; rite has
been interpreted as follows: The majestic cedar of
Lebanon represents pride, and hyssop represents
Immility; iincleanness and sin and sin and death
are associated ideas; the ceremony, therefore, is a
powerful object-lesson, teaching the eternal truth
that a holy God can be served only by a holy
people.

The early Jewish conception was that the sacri-
fice of the red heifer was an exi)iatory rite to atone
for the sin of the golden calf. The color of the
heifer, as well as the scarlet thrown upon the fire,
represents sin (comp. " your sins be as scarlet " ; Isa.
i. 18).

BiBLiOfiRAPHY : Biilir, Symbolik, 1. 493-512 ; Malmonldes,
March, iii. 47; Nowack, Hcbrili^che Archiidlogic, ii. 288;
Edersheim. The Temple, p. 304; Kent, Tfic Mcxsaaos of the
Bible, p. 347, New York, 1902; Hastings, Diet, liihie.

J. J. D. E.

RED SEA : References to the Red Sea under
that name are not found earlier than the Apocrypha
(Judith V. 12; Wisdom x. 18, xix. 7; I Mace. iv. 9).
The name refers to the body of water, termed " Yam
Suf " in all other passages, crossed by the Israelites
in their exodus from Egypt (Ex. xiii. 18; xv. 4, 22;
Num. xxxiii. 10 et seq. ; Deut. xi. 4; Josh. ii. 10; et
al.). It denotes, therefore, the present Gulf of Suez,
which at that time extended considerably farther
north, reaching, according to Greek and Latin au-
thors, as far as the city of Hero {= Pithom), in the
Wadi Tumilat. The meaning of the word "suf"
in the name is uncertain, although it appears from
Ex. ii. 3, 5 and Isa. xix. 6 that it meant "reed."
According to Ermann and others it is an Egyptian
Avord borrowed by the Hebrews, although the Egyp-
tians never applied that name to the gulf. While it
is true that no reeds now grow on the salty coast of
the gulf, different conditions may have prevailed
along the northern end in ancient times, where fresh-
Avater streams discharged into it. Other authorities
translate " suf " as " sea-grass " or " seaweed," which
is supposed to have been reddish and to have given
that body of water the name " Red Sea." Seaweed
of that color, however, is seldom found there. In
other passages the same name, "Yam Suf," is ap-
plied also to the iElanitic Gulf of the Red Sea,
which extends northward on the eastern side of the
Sinaitic Peninsula, with Ezion-geber and Eloth at
its northern end (I Kings ix. 26; Ex. xxiii. 31;
Deut. i. 40; Judges xi. 26; Jcr. xlix. 21 ; et al.). It
is difficult to say how the Red Sea received its name ;
red mountains on the coast, or the riparian Ery-
threans, may have given rise to it.

E. G. II. I- 15 f--

REDDINGE, ROBERT DE : English preach-
ing friar, of the Dominican order; converted to Ju-
daism about 1275. lie appears to have studied He-
brew and by that means to have become interested
in Judaism. He married a Jewess, and was circum-
cised, taking the name of Hagin. Edward 1., when
he heard of this, brought the case before the Arch-

bishop of Canterbury. It ia 8uid that this was one
of the causes wliidi led tlie king and his mother,
Eleanor, to aim at tiie expulsion of the Jew.s from
England.

UntLiOGRAPiiv: tiraiz, Oench. vll. 421 422.
REDEMPTION. See Salvation.

REDLICH, HENRY : Polish engraver in cop-
per ; born at Lask, government of Piotrkow. 1840;
died at Berlin Nov. 7, 1884. He went at an early
age to Rreslau, where he entered tiie piil)lic scliool.
At fourteen he returned to Russia and became a
government pupil in the Warsaw school of tine arts.
In 1861, after winning a prize, lie wont to Mu-
nich and Dresden to continue his studies. From
1866 to 1873 he lived at Vienna, and then returned
to Warsaw. In 1876 the goveriuuent appointed him
a member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Fine
Arts. Being disappointed, on account of his relig-
ion, in his expectation of a professorship. Redlich
went to Paris, where his engravings won for him a
gold medal at one of the exhibitions. Overtaken
by illness at Paris, he was removed to Berlin, where,
as stated above, he died.

Redlich's most important engravings are: "Tlie
Tempi Madonna," from Raffael; "The Entrance of
tiie Polish Army into Ilarthausen in 16.")9,*' from
Brandt; "The Preacher Peter Skarg Before the Po-
lish King Sigismund III.," from Mateiko; "Coper-
nicus Expounding His System of the World to the
Astronomers of Rome," from Gerson. Retllicii oc-
cupied himself also with drawing, especially por-
traits and Alpine scenes.

Bibliography : Entzihlopedichciski Slovar; lln-Asif, 11. 780.
n. K. A. h. W.

REE, ANTON : German educationist ; born at
Hamburg Nov. 16, 1815; died Jan. 13. 1891. He was
educated at Kiel, during which time he wrote two
works, "Wanderungen eines Mitgeno-ssen auf dcm
Gebiete der ElhiU " and " Ueber die Pflirlit." In
1838 he was appointed a teacher at the Hamburg
Israelitische Freischule, and in 1848 was promoted
to the position of director. He admitted Christian
pupils to this institution, and by 1869 they outnum-
bered the Jewish. He founded a scholarship for
Christian and other non-Jewish pupils in memory
of his only daughter, who died at an early age
("Allg. Zeit des Jud." 1891. p. 38).

8. *• *'•

REE, ANTON : Danish pianist and autlmr;
born in Aarhuus, Jutland, Oct. 5. 1820; died in Copen-
hagen Dec. 20, 1886. He studied in Hamburg under
Jacques Smitt and Karl Knbs, in Vienna under
Halm, and in Paris. In 1N42 he seltUnl in C(»pen-
hagen, where he soon gathered a great numlK-r of
pupils around him and where his superior technique
won him a i>hi(e among the foremost pianists of the
day. In 1866. when the Copenhagen Conservatory
of Mu-sic was established, he became one of its Urst
t<acliers. Anton Ree composed .some pieces for
pianoforte, and was the author of wveral artirl.-s in
Danish and German musical periodicals. He wrote
also a valuable work «.n the piano entitled " Bidrag
til Klaverspillcts T<knik " (Copenhagen, 1892). and

B.ee

Beform Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

346

an essay on the general liistor}' of music entitled
" Mnsikiiistoriske Momenter " (i'b. 1893).

Bibliography: Solmoii^cn's Store niuatrercdc Konvcrsa-
t ions- Lexicon.
s. F. C.

REE, BERNHARD PHILIP : Dauisli editor
and politician; born in AarLiuus. Jutland, July 18,
1813; died there Nov. 13, 18C8; son of Hurtvig
Philip Kee. He studied law for a while, t)ut in
1838 became editor of the " Aalborg Stiftstidcnde,"
at the same time engaging in the publishing business.
In addition to the "Stiftstidcnde," he edited and
published several magazines, of which may be
mentioned "La;sekabincttct " (1841-42, 3 vols.);
"Almindelig Dansk Landbotideude " (1846); and
"Nyeste Aftenpost" (1849).

In 1844 Ree was elected a member of the munici-
pal council, and in 1860 was reelected, serving
during both terms as a member of committees on
steamship communication, postal service, and ag-
rfcultuie dealing with questions of importance to
the community of Aalborg. From 1850 to 1854 Ree
served as a member of the Folkethiug, or Lower
House, rcprcscutiug the third and fifth election dis-
tricts of Aalborg amt. As a member of this legisla-
tive body Ree strongly advocated the sale of the
Danish West Indies to tlie United States.

In 1864 Ree was again returned to the Folkethiug,
and in 1866 he was elected a member of the Lands-
thing, or Upper House, but illness compelled him to
resign in the following year.

BiBLiOGR.\piiY: C. F. Biicka, Dausk BiograUsk Lexicon.
s. F. C.

REE, HARTVIG PHILIP: Danish merchant
and author; born in Fiedericia, Jutland, Oct. 12,
1778; died in Copenhagen Oct. 1, 1859. On the
death of his father, Ree succeeded to the manage-
ment of an important business which had been
established in Fredericia by the former. lie, how-
ever, found time also for the study of Jewish phi-
losophy and literature, the itinerant teaciier Eleazar
Lisser being his instructor. As a merchant Hart-
vig Ree was very successful, and he became one
of the wealthiest men in Jutland. He engaged in
shipbroking, in the manufacture of beet-sugar and
cocoa, and in the clotliing industry.

Ree was tiie first Danish Jew to receive full citi-
zensiiip (1814). The Jewish congregation of Aar-
huus owed its first synagogue to his munificence;
and he personally defrayed all its expenses for sev-
eral years (1820-25). In addition to several hymns
for the synagogue services, Ree wrote "Forschun-
gen liber die Ueberschriften der Psalmen," Leipsic,
1846.

In 1850 Ree settled in Copenhagen, where he be-
came interested in the new philosophj' propoundeil
by Rasmus Nielsen. Ree was the father of Anton,
liernliard Philip, and Julius Ree.

Bibliography: C. F. Bricka, Dansk Bioarafisk Lexicon.
8. F. C.

REE, JULIUS : Danisli merchant and political
autiior; born in Aariiuus, Jutland, June 1, 1817;
died in Copeniiagen Sept. 3, 1874; sou of Ilartvig
Philip Ree. In 1842 he established a wholesale

produce business in Randers, in which town he filled
many public offices, being, e.g., a member of the
harbor committee and an alderman (1849-53). He
was, besides, a representative of the Jewish con-
gregation. In 1857 Ree transferred his business to
Copenhagen, and in 1864 was elected a member of
the Folkething, or Lower House.

Ree wrote, besides several articles on national
economy, a political history of Norway entitled
" Undersogelser over Norges ForhoUl i 1814," which
appeared in several numbers of the " Dansk Maaueds-
skrift" (1862, 1863, 1865). He was one of the
founders of Kreditforeuingen for Laudejendomme i
Ostifterue (1866), a society for the promotion of
agriculture by means of loans to the owners of
small farms.

BIBLI0GR.VPHV: C. F. Bricka, Dansk DinfjrafiKk Lexicon.
s. F. C.

REED : Rendering given in the English versions
for several words used to designate rush-like water-
plants of various kinds. These words are: (1)
"Gome"; the Cyperua papyrus of Linnaeus. (2)
" Suf " (E.x. ii. 3 ; Isa. xix. 6) ; identified by Egyptolo-
gists with the Egyptian " thof " (Nile reed ; on " Yam
Suf" as a name of the Red Sea, see Red Se.\). (3)
"Aha "(Gen. xli. 2, 18: Job viii. 11); Egyptian loan-
word denoting a marsh-grass growing on the banks
of the Nile and used as fodder; the translation "fiag,"
leased on the Vulgate, is, therefore, incorrect. (4)
"Agmon" (Isa. ix. 13, xix. 15, Iviii. 5; Job xl. 26;
Jer. li. 32 ["agam"]); generally explained as a kind
of rusli ("scirpus"); according to the " Hierobotani-
con " of Celsius, the common reed. (5) "Ebeh"
(only Job ix. 26 ; Arabic, " aba' " ; A.ssyrian, " abu ") ;
the reed or sedge from which, as from the "gome"
(Isa. xviii. 2), boats were made in Egypt (comp.
Erman, "Egypten," p. 636). (6) " Kaueh " (I Kings
xiv. 15 et al.)\ proba])ly the common marsh-reed,
ihii jimudo donax oi Liuua;us(Boissier, " Flora Orien-
talis," iv. 564), which is much stouter than the com-
mon reed. It was used as a staff (II Kings xviii.
21; Isa. xxxvi. 6, xlii. 3; Ezek. xxix. 6), or made
into measuring-rods (Ezek. xl. 3), etc. Animals live
among the thick reeds (Ps. Ixviii. 31 [R. V. 30]), and
according to Job xl. 21, behemoth (the hippopota-
mus) lies "in the covert of the reed," this passage im-
plying that the word "kaneli" was used as a general
term for this plant, including the common variety
{Arundo j)hragnntes). (7) "Gofer"; see Gopiiek-
WooD.

E. G. II. I. Be.

REEVE, ADA: English actress; born in Lon-
don about 1870. Her parents were themselves con-
nected with the dramatic profession, her father being
for many years a member of stock companies which
included Toole and Irving among their members.
She first apjieared as a child of six in a pantomime
at the Pavilion Theatre, Mile End, London. Pass-
ing to melodrama, she played as a child the charac-
ters of .servant-girls ami even old women. Slie then
toured with Fannie Leslie in "Jack in tlie Box,"
and at twelve appeared as a serio-comic singer.
Later she scored a great success with a song entitled
"What Do I Care:" and in 1895 appeared at the
Criterion in "All Abroad" and afterward in the

347

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reform Judaism

"Gay Parisienne" at the Duke of York's, Loudon.
In 1899 she took a leading part in "Florodora" at
the Lyric Theatre, London, and appeared later at
Daly's Theatre iu "San Toy."
J. G. L.

REFORM ADVOCATE: Jewish weekly ; lirst
issued Feb. 20, 1891, at Cliicago. Founded by
Charles E. Bloch, of the Bloch Publishing Com-
pany, and published by liloeh ct Newman, it en-
tered the journalistic field as an advocate of progress-
ive Judaism. Since its inception it has been con-
ducted by Emil G. Ilirsch, who was its sole editor
at the outset; from 1901 to 1903 T. Schaufarber was
associate editor. It is the most fearless champion
of Reform Judaism.

Bibliography : Reform Advocate, 1., Nos. 1, 3.

H. K. I. War.

REFORM JUDAISM FROM THE POINT
OF VIEW OF THE REFORM JEW: 15y

Reform Judaism is denoted that phase of Jewish re-
ligious thought wliich, in the wake of the Mendels-
sohniau period and in consequence of the elTorts
made during the fifth decade of the nineteenth cen-
tury to secure civil and political emancipation, first
found expression iu doctrine and observance in some
of the German synagogues, and was thence trans-
planted to and developed in the United States of
America. The term is not well chosen. It suggests
too strongly that tlie movement culminates in en-
deavors to recast the external forms of Jewish relig-
ious life. Moreover, it is transferred from the ter-
minology of the Protestant Reformation, though in
its bearing on the Judaism of the modern Synagogue

the term can not be construed as im-

*' Reform" jilying that, like Protestantism to the

a Misnomer. Christianity of the early centuries,

Reform Judaism aims at a return to
primitive Mo.saism ; foi' iu that case rabbinical Juda-
ism must have been a departure from the latter.

The lieform movement in its earlier stages was
merely a more or less thoroughly executed attempt
to regulate public worship iu the direction of beau-
tifying it and rendering it more orderly. With
this in view, the length of the services was reduced
by omitting certain parts of the prayer-book which,
like the " Yekum Purkan " and the "Bameh Madli-
kin," were recognized as obsolete; the former being
the prayer in behalf of tiie patriarchs of the Baby-
lonian academies, which had for centuries ceased to
exist; the latter, an extract from the niishnnic trea-
tise Shabbat, and thus not a prayer. In addition,
the piyyutim (see Pivyut), poetical compositions
in unintelligible phraseology for the most i)art. by
medieval poets or prose-writers of synagogal hymns,
were curtailed. The time thus gained came gradu-
ally to be devoted mainly to German chorals and oc-
casional sermons in the vernacular. The rite of Con-
firmation also was introduced, first iu the duchy of
Brunswick, at the Jacob.son institute. These meas-
m-es, however, aimed at the esthetic regeneration of
the synagogal liturgy rather than at the doctrinal
readjustment of the content of Judaism and the
consequent modification of its ritual observances.

The movement later took on an altogether different
aspect in consequence, on the one hand, of the rise

of "Jewish science, " the first-fruits of wliich were

tlie investigati(Mis of Zunz, and the advent of young
rabbis wIki, in addition to a tliorough training iu
Talmudic and rubbinicul literature, iiod received un
academic educiition, coming lliereby under thf npell
of Gcrnmn philo.sophic liiouglil. On liir oilier hand
the struggle for the political emancipation of the
Jews (see Riks.sku, Gahhiki,) suggested a revision
of the doctrinal ( iiuneialions concerning the Mes-
sianic nationalism of Judaism. Toward the end of
the fourth and at the beginning of the fifth decade
of the nineieenth century the yearnings, which up
to that tinic had been rather undefined, for u read-
justment of tiie teaeiiings and practises of Judaism
to the new mental and matrrial conditions took on
definiteness in the establishment of congregations
and societies such as the Temple congregation at
Hamburg and the Reform Union in Frank fort-
on-the-Main, and in tiic convening of the rabbin-
ical conferences (.sec Conferkncks, Rauui.mcai.) at
Brunswick (1844), Frankfort (1845), and Bieslau
(1846). These in turn led to controversies (see
Frankel, Zacuarias), while the Jadische Reform-
genossenschaft in Berlin (see Holdiikim. Samuel)
in its program easily outran the more conservative
majority of the rabbinical conferences. The move-
ment may be said to have come to a
Principles standstill in Germany with the Bres-
Laid Down lau conference (1846). The Breslau

in Con- Seminary under Frankel (1854) was

ferences. in.strumental in turning the tide into
conservative or, as the party shibbo-
leth phrased it, into " positive historical " channels,
wliile the governments did their utmost to hinder a
liberalization of Judaism (see Bl'Uapk.st; Eimiorn,
David).

Arrested in Germany, the movcnuni was carried
forward in America. The German immigrants from
1840 to 1850 happened to be to a certain extent com-
posed of pupils of Leopold Stein and Joseph Aud.
These were among the first in New York (Temple
Emanu-El), in Baltimore (liar Sinai), and in Cincin-
nati (B'ne Yeshurun) to insist upon the moderniza-
tion of the services. The coming of David Einhorn,
Samuel Adler, and, later, Samuel Hirsch gave to the
Reform cause additional impetus, while even men
of more conservative temperament, like Hiibsch,
Jastrow, and Szold, adopted in the main Reform
principles, though in practise tliey continued along
somewhat less radical lines. Isaac M. Wise and
Lilieuthal, too, cast their infiuence in favor of Re-
form. Felsenthal and K. Kohler, and among Amer-
ican-bred rabbis Hirsch, Sale. Philipson. and Shul-
man may l)e mentioned among its e.vponents. The
Pliiladelphia conference (1869) and that at Pittsburg
(1885) pronudgated the principles which to a cer-
tain extent are basic to the practise aud teachings of
American Reform congregations.

The pivot of the opposition between Reform aud
Conservative Judaism is the conception of Israel's
destiny. Jewish Orthodoxy looks up-
The Center on Palesliue not merely as the cradle.
Principle. Imt alsoas the u'"' ' liomc. of Juda-
ism. Witii its 1 n isconneetcHl
the possibility of fulfilling the Law. those parts of
divine legislation being unavoidably suspended that

Befonn Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

348

are conditioned by the existence of the Temple
and by the occupation of the Holy Laud. Away
from Palestine, the Jew is condemned to violate
God's will in regard to these. God gave the Law;
God decreed also Israel s dispersion. To reconcile
this disharmony between the demands of the Law
and historical!}' developed actuality, the philosophy
of Orthodoxy regards the impossibility of observing
the Law as a divine punishment, visited upon Israel
on account of its sins. Israel is at the present
moment in exile: it has been expelled from its
land. The present period is thus one of probation.
The length of its duration God alone can know and
determine. Israel is doomed to wait patiently in
exile, prating and hoping for the coming of the
Messiah, who will lead the dispersed back to Pales-
tine. There, under his benign rule, the Temple
will rerise, tlie sacrificial and sacerdotal scheme will
again become active, and Israel, once more an inde-
pendent nation, will be able to observe to tlie letter
the law of God as contained in the Pentateuch.
Simultaneously with Israel's redemption, justice
and peace will be established among tlie dwellers on
earth, and the prophetic predictions will be realized
in all tiieir glories.

At present Israel must maintain itself in a condi-
tion of preparedness, as redemption will come to
pass in a miraculous way. That its identity may
not be endangered, Israel must preserve and even
fortify the walls which the Law has erected around
it to keep it distinct and separate from the nations.
The memories of and yearnings for Palestine must be
strengthened even beyond the requirements of the
■written law. The Law itself must be protected by
a '* hedge. " The ceremonial of the Synagogue, reg-
ulated by the Law as understood in the light of rab-
binical amplifications and interpretations, is both a
memento and a monition of the Palestinian origin
and destiny of national Israel, while life under the
Law necessarily entails the segregation of Israel from
its neighbors.

Reform conceives of the destiny of Israel as not
bound up in the return to Palestine, and as not in-
volving national political restoration
Relation to under a Messianic king with the Tem-
Na- pie rebuilt and the sacrificial service

tionalism. reinstituted. It is true, many of the
commandments of the Torah can not
be executed by non-Palestinian Israel. Yet, despite
this inability to conform to the Law, Israel is not
under sin (the Paulinian view). It is not in exile
("galut"). Its dispersion was a necessary experi-
ence in the realization and execution of its ]\Ies-
sianic duty. It is not doomed to wait for the mirac-
ulous advent of tlie Davidic Messiah. Israel itself
is the Messianic people appointed to spread by its
fortitude and loyalty the monotheistic truth over all
tlie earth, to be an example of rectitude to all others.
Sacrifices and sacerdotalism as bound up with the
national political conception of Israel's ilestiny are
not indispensable elements of the Jewish religion.
On the contrary, they liave passed away forever
with all the privileges and distinctive obligations of
an Aaronic priesthood. Every Jew is a priest, one
of the holy people and of a priestly community ap-
pointed to minister at the ideal altar of humanity.

The goal of Jewish history is not a national Mes-
sianic state in Palestine, but the realization in soci-
ety and state of the principles of rigiiteousness as
enunciated by the Prophets and sj^ges of old.

Therefore Reform Judaism has (1) relinquished
the belief in the coming of a personal Messiah, sub-
stituting therefor the doctrine of the Messianic des-
tiny of Israel, whichwill be fulfilled in a ^lessianic
age of universal justice and peace. (3) Reform
Judaism disregards con.sciously, not merely under
compulsion, all Pentateuchal laws referring to sac-
rifices and the priesthood or to Palestine (''miz-
wot ha-teluyot ba-arez "). It eliminates from the
prayer-book all references to the Mes-
Its siah, the return to Palestine, and the

Negations, restoration of the national sacerdotal
scheme. It ceases to declare itself to
be in exile ; for the modern Jew in America, Eng-
land, France, Germany, or Italy has no cause to
feel that the country in which he lives is for him a
strange land. Having become an American, a Ger-
man, etc., the Jew can not pray for himself and his
children that he and they may by an act of divine
grace be made citizens of another state and land,
viz., national Israel in Palestine. (3) Reform Juda-
ism relinquishes the dogma of the Resurrection,
involved in the Jewish national Messianic hope (see
Messiah; Pharisees) that at the final advent of the
Messiah all the dead will rise in Palestine, and elim-
inates from the prayer-book all references to it.

The foregoing shows that Reform was never in-
spired by the desire toreturn to Mosaism. Mosaism
certainly presupposes the Levitical institutionalism
of Judaism; and it is nomistic, insisting on the eter-
nally binding character and the immutability of tlie
Law. Reform Judaism ignores and declares abro-
gated many of the laws of Mosaism. Its theory of
Revelation and of the authoritative character of
Scripture must of necessity be other than what un-
derlies Orthodox doctrine and practise.

According to Orthodox teaching, God revealed
His Law on Mount Sinai to Moses in two forms, (1)
the written law ("Torah shebi-ketab "), and (2) the
oral law ("'Torali shebe-'al peh "). According to
Mendelssohn and all rationalists of the "Aufkla-
rung " philosophy, there was no need for the revela-
tion of religion, human reason being competent to
evolve, grasp, and construe all religious verities.
Judaism is, however, more than a religion. It is a
divine legislation, under wliicli the
Relation to Jew qua Jew must live. Human rea-
the son could not have evolved it nor can

Oral Law. it now understand it. It is of "su-
perrational," divine origin. It was
miraculously revealed to Israel. The Jew need not
believe. His religion, like every rational religion, is
not a matter of dogma. But the Jew must obey.
His loyalty is expressed in deed and observance.

This Mendelssohnian po.sition was undermined, as
far as tlie oral part of revealed legislation was con-
cerned, by the investigations into the historical de-
velopment of "tradition," or Talnnidic literature,
brilliantly carried to definite and anti-Mendels-
sohnian results byZunz and hisdisciples. The oral
law certainly was the precipitate of historical proc-
esses, a development of and beyond Biblical, or even

349

THE JEWISH ENCVCUJPEDIA

Reform Judaism

Pentateuclial, Judaism. Judaism, then, wus nut u
fixed quantity, a sum of 613 commandments and
pioliibitioiis. Tlie idea of progress, development,
historical growth, at the time that the young science
of Judaism establislied the relative as distinguislied
from the absolute character of Talnuulism and tra-
dition, was central in German philosophy, more
clearly in the system of Hegel. History was pro-
claimed as the self unfolding, self-revelation of God.
Revelation was a continuous process;
Influence and the history of Judaism displayed
of God in the continuous act of .selfreve-

Evolution. lation. Judaism itself was under the
law of growth, and an illustration
thereof. Talmudic legalism certainly was a product
of the Talmudic period. It was not originally in-
herent in Judaism. It must not be accepted as eter-
nally obligatory upon later generations.

But was Biblical law, perhaps, the original, di-
vinely established norm and form of Judaism, and,
as such, binding upon all subsequent generations?
If it was, tlien Reform Judaism, ignoring post-Bib-
lical develojimeut and tradition, was identical with
Karaism ; and, furthermore, its omission of all refer-
ence to sacerdotal and sacrificial institutions, though
these form an integral part of the Mosaic law and
revelation, is in violation of the assumption that
Judaism is Law, which Law divinely revealed is the
Pentateuch. This was the dilemma with which
Reform theologians were confronted. This was an
inconsistency which, as long as Judaism and Law
were interchangeable and interdependent terms, was
insurmountable. To meet it, a distinction was drawn
between the moral and the ceremonial laws, though
certainly the Torah nowhere indicates such distinc-
tion nor discloses or fixes the criteria by which the
difference is to be established. God, the Lawgiver,
clearly held the moral and the ceremonial to be
of equal weight, making both equally obligatory.
Analysis of the primitive scheme in connection with
the possible violation of the precepts, tends to prove
that infractions of certain ceremonial statutes were
punished more severely (by " karet " = " excision ")
than moral lapses.

Nor could the principle be carried out consistently.
Reform Judaism retained the Sabbath and the other
Biblical holy days, circumcision, and in certain cir-
cles the dietary laws. Were these not ceremonial?
What imparted to these a higher obligatory charac-
ter? In this artificial distinction between the moral
and the ceremonial content of the di-
National vinely revealed law the influence of
and Kantian moralism is operative. Hold-

Universal iieim, to escape this inconsistency.
Elements, urged as decisive the distinction be-
tween national and religious or uni-
versal elements. The content of revelation was t wo-
fold — national and universal. The former was of
temporary obligation, and with the disappearance
of state and nation the obligatory character cea.sed ;
but the universal religious components are binding
upon religious Israel. While this criterion avoided
many of the difiicuitics involved in the distinction
between ceremonial and moral, it was not effective
in all instances. The sacrificial scheme was relig-
ious, as Eiuhorn remarked when criticizing Ilold-

lieim's thesis, and still Reform fipnorod its oujij^a-
tory nature. Nor could Juduism be conKtrued as a
mere religion, a faith limited by crcedul propositions.

Samuel llmstii ai)pr<mciied the problenj from the

point of view of tiie symbolist. With his miuitcr

Hegel, he regarded liistory as tiie divine process of

revelation. Against Paul. Hegel, and Kant, and

against most of the Reform rabbis, he

Symbolic maintained that Judaism wiik not law

Views of but " Lehre," a iuMiy (jf truths finding
S. Hirsch. expression in Israel througli tiie gen-
ius of its prophets, and for the a|»pli-
cation of which in life and the illustration and ex-
emplifying of which before the whole world Israel
was chosen and appf)inted. This (.l)ligation and
this appointment descend from father to son, and
are imposed at birtii. "Torah" does not signify
"law," but "Ix'hre," doctrine. The laws are sym'-
bols illustrative of the truths confided to Israel.
They are aids to keep alive the Jewish conscious-
ness. As long as .symbols are vital and not mechan-
ical they may not be neglected; but when tliey have
fallen into desuetude or are merely retained in me-
chanical, perfunctory observance, or from fear or
superstition, they have lo.st their value, and they
need not be retained. Life and actual observance,
not law or custom, decide what rite shall be prac-
tised. Between theory and life perfect concord
must be established.

Yet some symbols have been expressive of the
unity of Israel. These (the holy days, the Sabbath)
must receive reverent care and fostering attention in
the synagogal scheme. Reform is, according to
Hirsch, not interested in the abolition of ceremony,
but it insists that ceremonies be effective as means
of religious culture, that they be observed not as
ends unto themselves or with a view to obtaining
reward, but as expressions of religions feelings and
as means of religious instruction. All ceremonies
pointing to Palestine as his national lionie contlict
with the sentiments and hopes of the politically
emancipated Jew. Bloody sacrifices are rejiugnant
to modern religious ideas. These national symbols,
then, have no longer a jilace in the cult of tlie mod-
ern Jew. The Sabbath, too, is a symbol. It em-
bodies the deepest truth of Judaism — man's divinity
and freedom. It is not conditioned by the notation
of the day. If modern Jews could observe the tra-
ditional Sabbath, there would be no call to make n
change. But they can not and do not. Life and
theory are at opposite poles. But the Sabl>ath is
expressive also of the unity of all Israel. All Israel
alone could make the change. The misconstruction
of Judaism as Law is the thought of the Roman
period, and is a clear departure from the broader
conceptions of the Prophets.

The foregoing detailed analysis of tlic positions of
the early German Reformers was nece.<yiary to umler-
stand their attitude with reference to the obligatory
character of the Bii)lical and Pentateuclial laws.
The Tahnudic amplifications were ignore<l as l)cinp
clearly not of divine origin and authority {e.g., sec-
ond holy days, and many of the SAnnATlT regula-
tions): but a similar <iecision was not so ea.sy in the
case of the Biblical st^rtutory insistences.

The researches of more recent years in the domain

Beform Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

350

of Biblical literature have enabled the successors of
these earlier Reformers to apply to the Bible and
Pentateuch the priuciples applied by their predeces-
sors to rabbinical literature. The Pentateuch is not
the work of one period. Pentateuchal
Influence legislation also is the slow accretion of
of Higher centuries. The original content of
Criticism. Judaism does not consist in the Law
and its institutions, but in the ethical
monotheism of the Prophets. Legalism is, accord-
ing to this view, originally foreign to Judaism. It is
an adaptation of observances found in all religions,
and which therefore are not originally or specifically
Jewish. The legalism of Ezra had the intention and
the effect of separating Israel from the world. This
separatism is to-day a hindrance, not a help, to tbe
carrying out of the Jewish mission. The Jew must
seek the world in order to make his ethical religion
a vital influence therein. The Pentateuchal ordi-
nances are binding upon the Jew in no higher degree
than the Talmudic.

But this new school — commonly designated as the
Radical — adopts also, though in a new form, Samuel
Hirsch's theory of the symbolic value of the cere-
monial element. It invokes the psychological factor
as finall}' decisive. Certain laws and institutions
have in course of time, and owing to bitter persecu-
tions, taken on a new significance. They have come
to be associated in the Jewish consciousness with
Jewish loyalty unto death in the face of apostasy and
prejudice and oppression. Circumcision, the Sab-
bath, and the dietary laws (see Bib. Book of Daniel)
may be said to comprise this class of institutions.
The former two, even in Radical congregations and
in the life of their individual members, have retained
their hold on the religious consciousness. The sev-
enth-day Sabbath, though observed only in theory,
is still regarded as the one citadel which must not
be reconstructed. It is proclaimed the visible sign
of Israel's unity. Congregations that would offi-
cially substitute the first da}* for the seventh as the
Sabbath would be called schismatic.

The dietary laws have had their own history in
Reform thought. A committee was appointed at
the Breslau conference to report on tiiem; but as the
conference never again convened, onl}- the sugges-
tions of some of the members appeared in print.
The more conservative opinions were in favor of
reverting to Biblical practise, recognizing that the
rabbinical insistence on a certain mode
The of slaughtering, and Talmudic inter-
Dietary pretations of " terefah," of "meat and
Laws, milk," etc., arc without Bil)lical Avar-
rant (see "Wiener," Die Jiidischen Spcise-
gesetze,"pp. 482e<.sf7.). In tlie United States theBib-
lical equally with the Talmudic dietary laws have
fallen generally into disuse, even in so-called conserv-
ative congregations, though no rabl)inical conclave
or synod ever sanctioned or suggested thi.s. On the
principle, fundamental to Jewish Reform, that the
national exclusivcness of Judaism is no longer its
destiny, these practises, necessarily resulting in .Jew-
ish separatism and incorporated into the Levitical
scheme to clTect Levitical purity, must be looked
upon as in one class with all other sacerdotal and
Levitically national provisions.

Reform Judaism withal does not reduce Judaism
to a religion of creed, least of all to a religion of
salvation, with the prospect of heavenlj- rewards or
life everlasting for the pious believer. In saying
that Judaism is a mission to keep alive among men
the consciousness of man's godlikeness, Reform
Judaism holds that Judaism is imposed on the Jew
by birth. It is not accepted by him in a voluntary
act of confession. The Jew by his life and exam-
ple is called to demonstrate the perfectibility — over
against the Paulinian dogma of the total depravity
— of every human being, and to help to render con-
ditions on earth more and more perfect. Insistence
on justice and righteousness are the practical postu-
late of the Jew's ethical monotheism, which is never
a mere behef, but always a vitalizing principle of
conduct. This duty of being an exemplar to others,
incumbent on the Jew by virtue of his historical
descent from prophetic ancestors on Avhose lips this
monotheism was first formulated, at times entails
suffering and always requires fortitude; but it is
imposed in the certainty that ultimately justice and
righteousness will triumph on earth, and all men
■will learn to know God and live the life which those
who know God must live. With this Messianic ful-
filment the history of the Jew will attain its goal.

Reform Judaism, then, may be said to advance
the following dogmas, using that term, however, not
in the Paulinian-evangelical sense:

(1) The world and humanity are under the
guidance of God, who reveals Himself to man in

history as the Supreme Power unto
"Dogmas" Righteousness, as the Educator and
of Reform. Father of His children, the whole hu-
Judaism. man family. The anthropomorphic
character of the theological terminol-
ogy is fully recognized.

(2) In His grace and wisdom God has appointed
Israel to be Ills witness on earth, laying upon this
His priest-people the obligation by its life to lead
the world to the recognition of the truth that love
and justice and righteousness are the onl}' principles
of conduct which can establish peace among men
and fill man's life with blissful harmony, besides
conferring on man an imperturbable sense of worth
and worthiness, independent of accidents of fortune
or station.

(3) This election of Israel confers no privilege on
the Jew, but imposes greater obligations. Everj'
human being is God's child, called to lead and capa-
ble of leading a righteous life.

(4) The dispersion of the Jews and the destruc-
tion of the Temple were not acts of providential re-
quital for sins. They were providential devices to
bring Israel nearer imtootlier children of man. The
goal of Israel's history is not national restoration and
segregation, but the rise of a more nearly perfect hu-
manity in which .Jewish love for God and man siiall
be universalized. Not a Messiaii, but the Messi-
anic age, is the burden of Israel's hope.

(5) Like all Judaism, Reform rejects the doctrine
of man's innate sinliiluess. The Law — wliich ac-
cording to Paul is a means to arouse a consciousness
of the futility of nuin'sattempt to conquersinand is
thus expressive c)f .Tu(lai.sm"s content as merely
preliminary — is not Judaism's distinctive badge or

351

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reform Judaiam

possession. Tlie Law, often of non-Jcwisli origin,
is the product of time, and is subject to growth and
change in the course of time. But Judaism is a
body of spiritual and moial trutlis, and as sucli in-
dependent of legal expression or enactment. Cm-
cuMCisioN is not, like baptism, an indispensable and
prerequisite rite of reception. Born of a Jewish
mother, the Jew is Jew by birth (.see Pkoselyte)
As Israel is not now, and is not necessarily destined
again to be, a political nation on the soil of Palestine,
there are omitted all references not onl}' to Pales-
tine as the only legitimate liome of Judaism and to
the sacerdotal and sacrificial Temple services and
laws, ])ut also to the laws and institutions that are
bound up with social conditions no longer extant
and not expected to become reactive (in Palestine)
in the future. For example, the Levihate and
Halizaii, not being applicable to our times and
conditions, are abolished as having lost binding
force. The laws regulating marriage and divorce,
as developed more especially in Talmudic casuistry,
often operate unjustly (see Get) and are, in view of
the better provisions in the civil codes of modern
nations, amended and in many respects superseded
b}' the law of the land (see Monogamy). Woman
is no longer deemed to be a minor, but is admitted
to full participation in the religious life of the con-
gregation.

As far as possible. Reform Judaism endeavors to
preserve the historical continuity Avith the past, espe-
cially in its ritual and synagogal services. The best
illustration of this is afforded by Ein-

Reform horn's prayer-book " 'Olat Tamid "

Ritual. (see Einhorn, David). Tliis is based
on Zunz's researches into th:; rise and
development of the Jewish ritual. It omits the
MusAF, as essentially sacrificial. Allusions in the
older forms of the prayers to the Messiah are
changed into expressions of hope in the Messianic
destiny of Israel and of all mankind. For the doc-
trine of resurrection is substituted that of God's sus-
taining love. Otherwise, the scheme is maintained
as it was in the synagogues of the tannaitic period,
the service on Yom ha-Kippurim alone showing de-
partures of greater scope from the traditional pat-
tern, the piyyutim being largely replaced by para-
phrases of the Psalms illustrative of the Jewish
conceptions of sin, repentance, and atonement. The
Yom lia-Kippurim itself is treated as typical of the
ultimate Messianic fulfilment. The service for tlie
Ninth of Ab("Tish'ah be-Ab ") is especially note-
wortliy. It is a resume, in fact, of tiie Reform con-
struction of Israel's history and Messianic obliga-
tions. The Hebrew language is retained in the
prayers tliat are of tannaitic origin — e.g., Shema'
with its berakot, and SnEMONEii 'Eskeii.

Some minor points resulting from the application
of the foregoing principles, in which the i)ractise of
the Reform synagogues differs widely from the tra-
ditional, sliould be noticed.

In public and private prayers the use of tiie ver-
nacular language predominates. For this tiierc is
good historical precedent (Ycr. Sotah vii. 1). R.
Jose, controverting tl)e prohibition of tiie use of any
language but Hebrew (Sotah vii. 1, 33a; Yer. Sotah
iii. 1), permits the recitation of the Shema', the

Decalogue, the " Tefillali " C Shemonch 'Esroh "). and

grace after meals in any hmpuagc un.i \ by

(lie worshiper (ccjuip. .M . .ies,

Language "Yad," I>eri'at Shema', il. 10; Sbul-
of hau 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 02. 2: 102,

Prayers. 4). Einhorn, folh.wed in the main l»y
the Union Prayer-Book (see Phaveh-
BooKs), retains the Hebrew for the mishnuic i ■
and, strange to say. the Aramaic for the K
where the original is in the vernacular of its day.
The Kaddisli in America lias become a prayer in
memory of the dead, though this perversion Of its
meaning is not countenanced by all. The Refurm-
genossenschaft of Berlin omitted Hebrew almost
entirely; but even in the most radical congrepa-
tions of America such portions as the Bareku, the
Suema', and the Kadosh (see IvEDusiisHAiijare re-
cited in Hebrew. In the reading of the Ijiw the
triennial cycle was adopted, though of late most
congregations have reverted to the annual one— read-
ing, however, only a small portion of each "pa-
rashah," which results in the Torah being read in
disjointed fragments. The scheme of the Union
Pra3'er-Book ignores both the annual and the trien-
nial cycle. The "calling up" of the prescribed
number of men is omitted, the reader reciting the
benedictions before and after and reading the por-
tion without interruption. The trope (see Jew.
Encyc. iii. o37b, s.v. Cantii-lation) also has been
abandoned.

Tallit and tefillin (see Phylacteries) arc not
worn; neitlieris the "kittel" (see Saugenes) on the
Day of Atonement; nor are the shoes removed on
that da)\ Worship is engaged in with uncovered
head. For this latter concession to Occidental cus-
tom there seems to have been a precedent in the
habits of the Jews in France in the thirteenth cen-
tury (see Isserles, "Darke IMosheii," on Tur Orah
Hayyim, 282, rh^yo L"X"13 jnipi DEIV jn:?22: and
"Ha-Manhig," ed. Berlin, p. 15, where the covered
head is called the "custom of Spain," from which it
is plain that in Provence, the country of Abraham
b. Nathan lia-Yarhi, the author of the "Mauhig."
the uncovered head was the rule).

In Reform synagogues the Organ and mixed

choirs are always among the appointments of public

worship. In Germany the gallery for

Use women is without curtain or lattice-

of Organ, work to hide its occupants from view;
while in America the segregation of
the sexes has been abandoned in favor of family
pews. Women no longer regard it as a religious
duty to clip or to cover up their hair. The Al-
.MEMAR is connected with the Ark.

The observance of the second days of the lioly
days (see Festivals) has been discontinuc<l. as
there is at present no uncertainty concerning the
proper day. Minyan is not determined by the
presence of ten men. The Dikan of the priests is
abolished, since the privileges of priest and I/'vite
are sacerdotal and thus bound up witii nationalism.
The priestly benediction is recited by I he rcacler
with reading changed from " Aaron and his .wns.
the priests, Thy holy jnoiile" to " Aaron and Ids
sons, the priests; of TJiy holy people" (from D'Jn3 to
'jns). In tlieunderstanding -•'••'"••'■' •'■•

. ,j>-

Beform Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

352

servance of the Sabbath requires, Reform Judaism
rejects the legalism of the rabbinical scheme, with
its insistence on 'Ekcb, tehum, and similar legal
fictions. Work is interpreted to be "labor for
prot]t,"and not merely such work as was under-
taken at the construction of the Tabernacle in the
desert (see Sabbath). Many of the Reform congre-
gations have introduced supplementary Sunday serv-
ices, or have set the Friday evening service at an
hour later than the "reception of the bride Sabtjath "
(n3w' n^3p). and have changed its character by in-
troducing "lectures." The regular sermon consti-
tutes the principal feature of the Reform service.
Reform synagogues are generally called "temples"
after the Hambukg precedent, probably to indicate
that they take the place of the temple in Jerusalem,
which Orthodoxy looks forward to as the to-be-re-
stored sanctuary.

See also Acb, Josepii ; Coxfekences, Rabbin-
ical; Geiger, Abraham; Hoi.diieim, Samvel;
Philippson, Lldwig; Stein, Leopold; Weciis-
LER, Bernhard; Wise, I. M.

Bibliography: D. Einhorn, in Sinai, Baltimore and Ptiila-
delphia, 1856-61, passim; idem, David Einhoni^s Ait^ge-
wUlilte Predigten iind Reden, ed. K. Kohler, New York,
1879; idem, yer Trt m id (cateohisiii), Philadelphia, 1865; Sam-
uel Hirsch, Die Reform im JiidcutlmiiK Leipsic, 1843; The
Jewish Times, New York, passim, especially 1870-72; The
Jewish Reformer, New York, 1887; Tlie Refirrm Advocate;
C. G. Monteflore, Liberal Judaism, London, 1904; E. G.
Hirsch, The Oriuinalitu of J)idaism, in Hebrew Viiion Col-
lege Annual, Cincinnati, 1904; K. Kohler, Bacltwards or
Forwards^ New York, 1885.

K. E. G. H.

-History : Although the Reform movement in

Judaism as such dates from the oi)ening years of
the nineteenth century, still its beginnings must be
sought in the radical changes wrought in the life of
the Jews during the closing quarter of the eighteenth
centur}'. That stirring era of emancipator}- ellortsof
various kinds, political, educational, social, and relig-
ious, affected no section of the people more markedly
than it did the Jews, who, in the ghettos to which they
had been forced to confine themselves for centuries,
had been virtually cut off from the life of the world.
Various agencies combined at this time in urging
the title of tlie Jews to the common rights of man-
kind. Politically, the American and the French
revolutions occupj' the foremost place ; the influence
of the doctrines which these struggles brought to
the fore gradually effected the removal of the polit-
ical disabilities of the Jews, particu-
Predispo- larly in France, England, Germany,
sing' Fac- and Italy. Educationally, the work
tors. of Moses Mendelssohn furnished the
impetus; his translation of the Penta-
teuch into pure German was the "open sesame"
which unbarred for the Jews the gates leading to
the treasure-houses of the world's learning. This
translation achieved, too, what may be termed a
linguistic emancipation ; as long as Yiddish was their
language the Jews were debarred from the intel-
lectual companionship of the masters of tlmuglit,
but wiien they succeeded in acquiiiiig the Gcniian
langua<r<' in its purify, the domain of Kant and Les-
sing, Goethe and Schiller, was open to them, and
their outlook upon things was changed materially.

In connection with this the founding of schools
"wherein .secular instruction was given to Jewish

children may not be overlooked; in 1778 the Frei-
schule, the first of its kind, was opened in Berlin;
in 1781 the emperor Joseph II. of Austria issued
his famous "Toleration Edict," wherein he com-
manded the establishment of such schools throughout
his empire. Hartwig Wessely addressed an epistle
to his coreligionists urging them to comply with the
injunction of the emperor. But a number of rabbis
pronounced the ban upon this epistle of Wessely's,
as they had upon Mendelssohn's translation of the
Pentateuch. They felt that the acquisition of the
culture of the age which the knowledge of German
and the newer education were making possible
would result in a breaking away from the old relig-
ious moorings; and this proved to be the case. Re-
ligious reform was the outcome of the educational
and linguistic emancipation.

I^Iendelssohn is spoken of frequently as the
founder of the Reform movement in Judaism. This
rests upon a misconception. True, he made the
movement for religious reform possible by giving
the impulse to modern education and culture among
the Jews. But a religious reformer lie was not.
His conception of Judaism was that it is a divine
legislation, and he held that since the ceremonial law
was revealed bj' God, it will have potency in all its
minutioe until such time as a distinct second revela-
tion repeals it ("Jerusalem," p. 31).
Attitude of The Reform movement, through its
Mendels- foremost expounders, taught the very
sohn. opposite. Whereas in Mendelssohn's
view every ceremony has eternal va-
lidity, the reformers claimed that ceremonies are the
transitory expressions of the religious spirit, and
must be accommodated to the changing needs of
successive ages. The spirit of an age also is a reve-
lation of God, and this may demand the abolition of
observances that had leligious sanction at one time,
and require the institution of others (Floldheim,
"Gesch. der Berliner Reformgemeinde," pp. 94, 127;
i(k7n, "Das Ceremonialgesetz im Gottesreich (Messi-
asreich)," pp. 58, 68; " Uel)er die von Mendelssohn in
Jerusalem Geausserte Ewige Verpflichtung des Cere-
monialgesetzes," in " Israelit des Neunzehnteu Jahr-
hunderts," vi. lo3).

An indication of the tendency in the closing years
of the eighteenth century to disregard traditional
customs is presented by a remarkable book which
appeared in Berlin in 179;3 under the title " Iksamim
Rosh." It was a collection of responsa purporting
to be by Asher ben Jehiel, the gr<?at rabbinical au-
thority of the fourteenth century, and was pub-
lished by Saul Berlin, son of Iliischel Levin, chief
ralibi of Berlin. In it such reforms arc sanctioned
as the use of rice and ])ulse on Passover, and of
cheese and wine procured from non-Jews ; the use
of a knife for shaving; riding on the Sabbath; the
cancellation of tiie obligation to abstain from eating
during the Fast of Esther; eating before the stars
appear on all fast-days except the Day of Atone-
ment; the suspension of fasting on Tisha' be-Ab in
order that the feast at a circumcision may be par-
taken of; the elimination of piyyutim from the serv-
ice on New-Year's Day. All of these dispensations
were, of course, conditioned by circumstances.

Obviously, Saul Berlin, inllueuccd by the forward

353

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reform Judaism

tendencies of Iiis age, wrote these respoiisa and as-
cribed them to Asher ben Jehiel, not daring to ad-
vocate such reforms in liis own name,
Berlin's but lioping to obtain sanction for tlicm
*' Besamim by crediting them to a jialadin of l{ab-
Rosh." binism. Tiie boolc and the autiior
were assailed by Marcus Benedict, the
chief rabbi of Moravia, Avho denounced the i)roduc-
tion as spurious; and it was defended as zealously
by Ilirschel Levin, the father of Savd Berlin. A
letter addressed by this Levin to the Berlin congn;-
gallon throws a most interesting light upon condi-
tions at this critical juncture, when (he old Juda-
ism was struggling to retain its hold and the new
had not yet made its appearance. The old rabbi
recognized that changes were impending; Judaism
seemed to liim in great danger and to be nearing
dissolution. Because of this distressing condition
of alTairs he stated in his letter that he desired to
resign his office and end his days in the Holy Laud,
since he could not endure any longer to witness the
decay of religious life among his people. From
expressions like this it becomes evident that many
Jews had ceased to conform to rabbinical practise.
There was a conflict between the traditional inter-
pretation of the faith and the larger life the people
were leading. Partaking of the philosophical and
literary culture of the time, numbers failed to find
religious satisfaction in the observance of many
forms, customs, and ceremonies which had been ac-
cepted unquestioningly by their fathers as constitu-
ting an essential element of the faith. The old Ber-
lin rabbi, and such as he, knew but one rule for the
Jew, and that was the faithful observance of every
item of religious practise as codified in the Shulhan
'Aruk. About him, however, were hundreds upon
whom this obligation sat lightly, or who disregarded
utterly many an injunction that he considered of
supreme importance.

But although change was in the air, the eight-
eenth century witnessed only one practical demon-
stration of the working of the new spirit; and this
occurred not in Germany, but in Holland. In 1796,
after great agitation, a congregation was organized
in Amsterdam underthenameof " Adath Jeshurun,"
whose avowed -purpose was to introduce certain
reforms; but the results were painfully inadequate:
they consisted merel}' in the abolition of some piy-
3'utim wherewith the synagogal service had become
overburdened, and the use of the vernacular in pub-
lic addresses.

In as far as any one individual can be credited with
being the pioneer of the movement for introducing
reforms into the Synagogue, that credit
Israel belongs to Israel Jacobson. Jacobson
Jacobson. noted with distress the indifferent at-
titude of many Jews toward their
faith, for he was deeply attached to his ancestral re-
ligion; he came to the conclusion that this indilTer-
ence was due to the fact that Judaism had degener-
ated into a lifeless formalism which could not
]iossibly appeal to such as regarded religion as the
depositary of spiritual truths. Form and ceremony
had usurped the place of the essentials. The serv-
ices in the Synagogue were unintelligible, and the
disorder and indecorum prevalent there did not tend
X.— 23

to furtlier the spirit of devotion. JttColjsiJH became
convinced that the only method whereby these
abuses could be corrected was the reform of the
service. lie proceeded cautiously. He begun his
activity in the cause of Ueforiii by founding a mIkmiI
at Seesen. in which tlie children were inHtrin i. d in
secular subjects in addition t<> the Hcbnw \>
and a rcligiouH service was insliiuted. 1 ,.,...,,
were introduced at these services which would not
have i)cen tolerated in the Synagogue, such :
and .sermons in the vernacular. Theseservic
attended frequently by adults who, bccoinlog ac-
customed to hearing the German languag.- at a re-
ligious service, were readily enlisted in the cauhe
when the time came for inaugurating reforms in the
house of worship; and when the children who
attended this and similar schools grew to maturitv,
they likewise became hearty supporters of the
new movement.

But Jacobson 's real opportunity did not come
until the time of the French occupation of West-
phalia. On March 31, lyOH, a Jewish consistory was
established in that province after the French nuMicl,
and Jacobson was named president. Determining
to use his position to carry his Reform ideas into
practise, he induced his colleagues to found at
Cassel a school similar to that at Seesen. A place
of worship was built in connection with the 8<hool,
and every Sabbath services were conducted partly
in Hebrew and partly in Gernum; a membi-r of the
consistory (which was made up of the president, three
rabbis, and two laymen) preached a sermon in the
vernacular, and German songs were sinig. The
rabbinical members of the consistory took pains to
explain that these reforms were not antagonistic to
any traditional rabbinical enactments. The su< i . -^
of this departure encouraged Jacobson to tak' i
bolder step. At his own expense be erected a tem-
ple at Seesen, placing in it an organ, and forming a
choir from among the pupils of the school.

This, the first Reform temple, was dedicated with
elaborate ceremonies on July 17. 1810. The rKca-
sion was described bombastically as
First Re- the "festival of the Jewish Heforma-
form Tem- tion." Jacobson was lauded extrav-
ple, 1810. agantly by sympathizers of the move-
ment as the regenerator of Judaism.
He took these praises seriously. He really thought
that the religious ills that had been corroding the
very vitals of Judaism were now removed. But
the evil was beyond his power to fatiiom. The
reforms wherewith his name is a.ssociated were
purely external. He did what he coid<l. ai
to his light; but he did not penetrate to tlu . :
the distemper that was playing sucli havoc with the
inherited traditions. Observing that many an unes-
thetic custom had crept into the divine s»'rvire. and
that the prayers were unintelligible, he thought thai
the introduction of German sermons. G< i
and German pniyers would render the r-
ing entity to his generation, as it liad been to the
fathers; but these few external reforms touched
merely the surface of the trouble. Still, with nil liis
limitations, liis fame is secure as theo|K'nerof a path
that many others followed latrr.

This first attcnipt at Reform was purely local; it

Eefonn Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

354

did not spread beyond Westphalia. When the
French occupation of that province ceased, the
French institutions, among them the Jewish consis-
tory, were abolished. But this did not end Jacob-
son's activity in the cause of Refcirm. At the Feast
of Weeks (1815). on the occasion of the confirmation
of his son, he established a Reform
First Ber- service in his own house in Berlin,
lin Reform whither he had removed from Cassel.
Syna- From that time a weekly service was
gogue. conducted in Jacobson's home, the
distiniruishing features of which were
music b}' a choir, with organ accompaniment, and ser-
mons and prayers in German. (It may be slated here
that the first confirmation service in the history of Ju-
daism was held at Cassel, in 1810, under Jacobson's
supervision.) The attendance at these services soon
exceeded the acconmiodations afforded by Jacob-
sou's house, and in consequence Jacob Herz Beer, a
wealthy banker, father of the composer Meyerbeer,
instituted similar services in iiis home. But the
government, appealed to bj' the Orthodox party to
stop these services on the ground that they under-
mined the traditional Jewish faith (1817), ordered
all private synagogues closed. Beer evaded imme-
diate obedience to this decree by the subterfuge that,
because the communal synagogue was undergoing
repair, his private temple must be used as a tempo-
rary house of worship for the community'. The
struggle between the two parties now began in ear-
nest. The rabbis of Berlin, whose chief was Meyer
Simon Weyl, were opposed unalterably to any re-
forms, even the preaching of sermons in the vernac-
ular. A number of compromises were suggested,
but none proved acceptable. The outcome of this
first clash between the two schools of Jewish thought
in Berlin was a complete victory for the traditional-
ists. The government was reactionary and opposed
to reforms of any kind anywhere. On Dec. 9, 1823,
a decree was issued to the etfect " that the divine
services of the Jews must he conducted in accord-
ance with the traditional ritual and without the
slightest innovation in language, ceremonies, prayers,
or .songs." This decree stopped effectually, for the
time, all efforts at reform in the Prussian capital;
the Beer temple was closed, and the old order was
continued.

In 1817 Eduard Kley, who had been one of the
preachers in the private Reform temple at Berlin,
removed from that city to Hamburg to accept the
post of principal of the Jewish Free School in that
city. He began to agitate for a reformed service
almost immediately, and, finding a number of sym-
pathizers, organized a Reform society.
The Active steps were at once taken for

Hamburg the erection of a house of worship, and
Temple, on Oct. 18, 1818, the building tliat be-
came famous as the Hamburg Temple
was dedicated. The bitterest opposition was engen-
dered. But the issue between the traditionalists and
the reformers was not as clear-cut as it might have
been; although i)rotesting ostensibly against Rab-
binism, the reformers sought to justify their reforms
from the rabbinical standpoint instead of standing
firmlj' and uncompromisingly upon the right to in-
stitute such changes in custom and interpretation as

the altered conditions of their day demanded. The
Talmud was the norm of authority for Rabbinism;
for centuries Judaism had been held to be synony-
mous with Talmudism. It excites little wonder
therefore that the early reformers sought to find
Talmudic support for their innovations. It was an
artificial attempt. The spirit of the new time was
opposed to the spirit of Rabbinism, and the religious
point of view of the Jew who was an emancipated
citizen of the state was altogether different from that
of his forefather, the isolated pariah of the ghetto.

Like other compromises, this too was unsatisfac-
tory, but it was not recognized to be so till a much
later day. The introduction of the first reforms, how-
ever, really sounded the death-knell of the authority
of the Talmud as the absolute rule for Jewish prac-
tise among those who followed the Reform teaching,
although years before the Reform movement took
shape this question had been decided ; for to all in-
tents and purposes the Talmud, or rather its codifi-
cation, the Shulhan 'Aruk, had lost its hold upon
Jews of modern culture. It is true that it continued
to be recognized offi»jially, and the struggle prom-
ised to be long ere its authority would be renounced
definitely by any representative body. (This step
was later taken by the Central Conference of Amer-
ican Rabbis, at the Rochester meeting in July, 1895;
see " Year-Book of Central Conference," Xo. 6, p. 63.)

From the present standpoint the issue between the
party of tradition and the party of Reform is seen to
have been well defined ; the two parties represented
two incompatible tendencies. The former held to
past practise and custom in all particulars; the
latter declared that the dead hand of the past must
not be permitted to rest upon the present, and that,
unless the expression of religion conformed to the
requirements of living men, these would drift away
from its influence altogether. The one party de-
fended the principle of stability and immutability
in religious practise and belief, the other that of
progress and change. That this difference was not
imderstood at first is rendered very apparent by the
Hamburg movement. There was no thoroughgoing
deriniteness. A few changes in the liturgy, the in-
troduction of German prayers, and the u-se of the
organ comprised Reform for the Hamburg Temple.
As in the innovations made by Jacobson at Seesen,
the estheticization of the service seemed to be the be-
all and end-all of the work of the reformers, though
it is true that the partial omission and the partial
modification of the prayers for the coming of a per-
sonal Messiah indicate some consciousness of the
deeper significance of the new phase whereon Juda-
ism had entered.

The three rabbis of Hamburg, Baruch ben Meir
Oser, Moses Jacob Jafe, and Jchiel Michael Speier,
issued a proclamation denouncing the heresies of the
new movement; thej' even attempted to induce the
senate of Hamburg to close the new house of wor-
ship. This caused the reformers to bestir them-
selves. The officers of the new congregation re-
quested expressions of opinion from ral)binical
authorities on the validity of the reforms they had
introduced. This resulted in the publication of
"Nogah Zedek," with an appendix, "Or Nogah "
(Dessau, 1818), containing a number of opinions

355

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reform Judaism

favorable to the new departure. The rabljis of
Ilaiiiburg appealed also to their eollea.u;ues for sup-
port in the stand tliey had taken. Tliey received
twenty-two responsa (" Eleh Dibre liaBcrit," Altona,
1819), all approving the position taken by the rahbis
of Hamburg and violently denouncing the reformers.
These condenniatoiy opinions had no practical re-
sult. The Orthodo.x party did not succeed in hav-
ing the temple closed by the government. Siiortly
after the dedication Gotthold Salomon was called
from Dessau to till the office of preacher in conjunc-
tion with Eduard Klej\ In 1830 the Hamburg re-
formers established a branch synagogue at Leipsic,
where services were conducted during the great
yearly fairs. Merchants from all over Europe gath-
ered at these fairs, and the ideas expressed in ser-
mons preached in the Reform sj'nagogue were spread
through many distant communities, and frequently
became an incentive to work along the lines of Re-
form. I. L. Auerbach of Berlin was the preacher
of this cosmopolitan congregation.

During the third, fourth, and lifth decades of the
nineteenth century many congregations in Germany,
Austria, Hungarj^, France, and Denmark introduced
reforms to a greater or less extent. These reforms
were usually in the direction of greater
The decorum, fewer i)iyyutim, music by

Progress of a regular choir, and sermons in the

Reform, vernaculai'. Such was the so-called
Vienna program, which was adopted
b}' the congregation of the Austrian capital under
the guidance of its preacher, Isaac Noah M.\nn-
IIEIMKH, and its cantor, Solomon Sul/.er. Conkih.ma-
TION was introduced quite generally. A number of
governmental edicts were issued during these years
containing instructions to the heads of the Jewish
communities to remove the abuses which had crept
into the synagogues and to introduce reforms ; among
such edicts maybe mentioned those of Saxe-Weimar
(1823), Anhalt (1835), Hanover (1837), Baden (1838),
Middle Franconia and Saxe-Meiningen (1839).

Abraham Geiger had been elected rabbi of Wies-
baden in 1832 ; in 183o he began the publication of his
" Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fur JiUlische Theo-
logie," through which he exerted great influence as
a leader of Reform ; in 1837 he called a rabbinical
conference, which met at Wiesbaden, but had no
practical result. In 1838 the Jewish community of
Breslau determined to appoint a rabbi who belonged
to the new school as a colleague of S. A. Tiktin,
who had served the community since 1821 and was
a representative of the old school. Abraham Geiger
was appointed, but Tiktin had no sympathy with
the feeling that actuated his congregation, and there-
fore he did all in his power to prevent Geiger's com-
ing to Breslau. A discreditable campaign of abuse
was directed against Geiger by Tiktin's followers.
They hoped to make his acceptance of the position
impossible by inducing the Prussian government to
withhold from him the naturalization pajiers neces-
sary before he could enter upon the position to which
he had been elected. They entered all kinds of accu-
sations against his religious soundness, and he was
compelled to remove to Berlin in order to give his
whole time and attention to the matter. After fifteen
months he succeeded in securing his naturalization

|)apers; he preuclied iiis inaugural sermon as rabbi
of Brcsluu on Jan. 4. 1840. when he used Ihcuo
words: "Judaism is not a flni.shed tale; there is
mu( h in it.s present form that must be changed or
abolished; it can assume a better and hif^her posi-
tion in the world only if it will rejuvenate ilHelf; all
should unite in this work."

Geiger displayed great activity, preaching in the

vernacular, instituting clas.se8 for the young, and

delivering lectures on Jewish history and litemlure,

Tiktin refused to recognize him as a

The colleague. The situation in the com-

Geig'sr- inunity beconnng intoliTabic, it wan
Tiktin suggested tJiat there be a M-paration
Affair. of fimctions, that Tiktin Ih; recognized
as th<; rabi)i, with • ' " M(ju in all
cases which retjuired rabbinical d. and tiiat

Geiger act merely as the preacher. To this Geiger
would not consent. The relations between the two
becjime so strained that the governing board of the
congregation was forced to suspend Tiktin from of-
fice. In order to fortify himself in his position Tik-
tin had addressed various rai)bisof Upper Silesia for
an expression of opinion, all of whom agreed with
him. In June, 1842, he i.ssued a pami)hlet entitled
"Darstellung des Sachverhilltnisses in Seiner Hie-
sigen Rabbinatsangelegenheit," in which lie included
some of the responsa he had received.

This constituted an appeal to the larger Jewish
world and advanced the controversy beyond the local
stage. Tiktin and his colleagues stated their posi-
tion clearly and immistakably. They read Geiger
and all who thought as he did out of Judais?n anti
declared for the inspiration of the Talmud. Ac-
cording to these rabbis, Judaism was a fixed and
practically immutable system. Tiktin accused the
governing board of the congregation of having
"selected a dayj'an who in spoken and written dis-
course denies unreservedly the authoritative validity
of traditional Judaism, and whose call and mission
appear to be to extirpate it root and branch for all
time." This placed the governing board upon the
defensive; it therefore determined to call for the
opinions of well-known rabbis as to the justice of
the claims of the Tiktin party. It received .sev-
enteen replies, which were published in two volumes
under the title "Rabbinische Gutachten nhcr die
Vertrilglichkeit der Freien Forschung mil dem Hab-
bineramte." These rabbis were unanimous in the
opinion that freedom of thought is compatible with
the exercise of rabbinical functions, and they con-
demned Tiktin and his sympathizers for theattitude
they had assumed. The board accordingly d

a letter of confidence to Geiger; but the i . ; : -i-
ings that had been engendered were not removed.
Even the death of Tiktin, in March. 1843. did not
end the conflict. The opposition, being certain that
Geiger would be elected chief rabbi, resolved to
form a new congregation. Affairs were growing
increasingly unpleasant in the connnuuity. and the
government was invited to interfere; a rescript was
issued ordering that Geiger be the chief mbbi. that
a second rabbi be elected, that there lie no split in
the congregation, and that thereafter the govern-
ment be not called upon to settle the internal con-
troversies of the Jewish community. Geiger was

Heform Judaism

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

356

established firmly in his position, and the cause of
Reform had achieved a decided victory.

In 1842 the Hamburg Temple again became the

storm-center. In l839acommittee had been appointed

to revise the prayer-book used by the congregation.

The publication of the revised edition

The in 1841 called forth from Isaac Ber-

Prayer- nays, the ecclesiastical chief of the
Book Con- Orthodo.x comniunit}', a proclamation
troversy. ('moda'ah") warning all Israelites
not to use the book and declaring that
any one doing so would fall short in his duty
as a Jew. This brought forth a counter declaration
from the Temple officers rebuking Bernays for his
presumption. Both these documents were ordered
removed from the synagogues by the senate of the
city. Bernays then issued a caution (''azharah "):
'• It is forbidden to pray the obligatory prayers and
benedictions from the book entitled ' Prayers for
Israelites,' which appeared here during the past
year." This unprecedented action of Bernays caused
such a commotion that the Temple directorate found
it necessary to secure from accredited theological
authorities opinions in regard to the prayer-book.
Twelve rabbis of high standing responded, and their
opinions were published in a volume entitled "' The-
ologische Gutachten ilber das Gebetbuch nach dem
Gebrauche des Neuen Israelitischen Tempclvereins
zu Hamburg." All the writers, from the conserva-
tive Isaac N. ^Vlannheimer to the radical Holdheim,
condemned Bernays' action, and declared that the
prayerrbook was permeated with the spirit af Juda-
ism and that any one who prayed from it performed
Lis full duty as a Jew.

In 1836 several members of the Ancient Synagogue
of Spanish and Portuguese Jews (Be vis Marks) of
London petitioned the Mahamad to introduce into
the service "such alterations and modifications as
■were in the line of the changes introduced in the
Reform synagogue in Hamburg and other places."
This petition caused the elders to take steps to in-
sure greater decorum at the services. This, how-
ever, did not satisfy the reformers.
Reform in They petitioned a second time in 1839;
England, the reforms which they advocated were
a diminution in the length and num-
ber of prayers, a more convenient hour of service on
Sabbaths and holy days, sermons in English, a choir,
and the abolition of the .second days of the holy days.
This petition was disregarded. The reformers then
took a more decided step; not wishing to secede from
the congregation, they requested permission to erect
a branch synagogue in the West End, near their
homes, where they might introduce the desired
clianges while the mother synagogue continued
along traditional lines. Tins was refused on the
ground of an "askama" (ride) of the congregation
forbidding within a radius of four miles of the
synagogue the erection of any house of prayer or
tlie holding of any service not of a domestic nature.
This forced the reformers to organize an independ-
ent congregation, which was done at a meeting held
April 15, 1840. The new congregation was to be
called the West London Synagogue of Britisii Jews.
In a communication addressed by the organizers of
the new congregation to the elders of the Bevis

Marks Synagogue, on Aug. 24, 1841, they announced
their intention of opening a new place of worship
and of introducing changes and innovations in the
ritual. The elders passed a resolution denouncing
the movement as schismatic. The ecclesiastical
chiefs of the Portuguese and German congregations,
II. H. Meldola and Solomon Ilerschel, issued, on Oct.
24, 1841, a warning directed against the new congre-
gation and its prayer-book, "Forms of Prayer Used
in the West London Synagogue of British Jews,"
which had appeared in the jjreceding August. The
warning against the congregation and its jirayer-
book was sent to all the congregations in England :
the London congregations received it favorably ;
the congregations in Liverpool and Manchester dis-
approved of it and returned it; tiie Plymouth con-
gregation burned it.

The new congregation dedicated its synagogue
Jan. 27, 1842, tlie Rev. D. W. .Marks, who had been
elected secretary and minister, preaching. Just be-
fore this event took place the chiefs of the two Or-
thodox communities promulgated an order (not re-
pealed until 1849) which read out of the Jewish
communion the members of the Reform congrega-
tion. These latter then resigned from the Bevis
Marks Synagogue— the break was complete. In the
meantime the reformers had been compelled to ac-
quire a burial-place; for, being excommunicated,
they were not permitted burial with their fathers.
The Board of Deputies.of British Jews likewise took
sides against the reformers, and refused to certify to
the official position of the Rev. D. W. ^farks as the
secretarj- of a congregation. This caused much in-
convenience, notably in the matter of marriages.
The minister of the Reform congregation, not being
a registered official, could not perform the marriage
ceremony legally ; this had to be done by the regis-
trar, after which the minister performed the re-
ligious ceremony. This condition lasted until the
passing of an act of Parliament in 1856 which em-
powered the minister of the West London Syna-
gogue of British Jews to register marriage ceremo-
nies; and this act established the full autonomy of
the congregation and placed it on an equal footing
before the law with the Orthodox congregations.

A feature of the early attempts at the introduc-
tion of reforms was the foundation of Reform societies
by those who were dissatisfied with conditions in the
Synagogue, that they might meet for discussion and
the eventual organization of a congregation. Pos-
sibly the most noted of these societies was the Ve-
rein der Reformfreunde in Frankfort-on-the-Main.
This was an association of radicals who gained much
advertisement because of their extreme views. Tiiis
society was organized in 1842. In Aug., 1843, it
issued a program ending with a " Declaration of Prin-
ciples," as follows: "(1) We recognize
Verein der the pos,sibilit}^ of unlimited develop-

Reform- ment in the Mosaic religion. (2) The
freunde of collection of controversies, disserta-
Frankfort. tions, and prescriptions commonly des-
ignated by the name Talmud po.ssesscs
for us no authority, from eitiier the dogmatic or the
practical standpoint. (3) A ^le.ssiah who is to lead
back the Israelites to the land of Palestine is neither
expected nor desired by us; we know no fatherland

357

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reform Judaiim

except tliat to which we belong h}' l)irtli or citizcii-
shi|)." 'J'his (Icchiration called foilli severe attacks
from all quarters, Orthodox and Reform; men dif-
fcriiii!; as widely in their opinions as David Kinhorn
and Samuel Ilirsch on the one hand, and .Michael
Sachs and Zacharias Franivel on the other, assailed
the destructive tendencies of the society. Einhorn,
the reformer, called its declaration of principles a
"confession of unbelief"; and Fraidiel, the conserv-
ative, wrote: "the society can not be considered
Jewish; it belongs to Judaism as little as to any
other religion." Dr. M. A. Stern defended the soci-
ety in a series of open letters to its critics, letters so
bold, so biting, so unsparing, and so sarcastic that
they constitute one of the most uniiiue jiroductions
of that period of storm and stress in Judaism.

It is unlikely, however, that this Frankfort soci-
ety would have attained such prominence had it not
been for the circumcision controversy associated
with it. The society at one of its meetings had de-
clared against circumcision as a sine qua non for en-
trance into Judaism. Just about this time a number
of cases of circumcision had resulted
The Cir- fatally, and the sanitary bureau of
cumcision Frankfort had commanded that the

Contro- circumcision of Jewish children be

versy. placed under the direct supervision of
the sanitary office; the same measure
ordered that "Israelitish citizens and inhabitants, in
so far as they desired to have their children circum-
cised, should employ only persons who had been ap-
l)()inted especially to perform the rite of circum-
<;isi()n." This was interpreted by some, 'notably
members of the KefDrm society, to .mean that the
circumcision of a child was optional with the father.
Soon a number of instances occurred in which the rite
was dispen.setl with. The aged rabbi of Frankfort,
Solomon Abraham Trier, petitioned the senate of
the city to declare tliat no child of Jewish parentage
could be received into the congregation unless it had
been circumcised; but the senate refused to pass
such a measure. Trier also addressed a coinmuni-
cation to eighty European rabbis asking for opin-
ions on the Reform society and on the significance
of circumcision. Responses were received from
forty-one; twenty-eight were published in a volume
entitled " Rabbinische Gutachtcn liber die Beschnei-
dung." All were strongly in favor of circumcision;
Samuel Hirsch, the reformer, I. N. Mannheimer, the
conservative, and Jacob Aaron Ettlingcr, the ultra-
Orthodox, clasped hands in agreement upon the
point at issue. The result of the agitation was to
leave the matter practicallj' where it had been before.

The Reform society passed out of public notice
soon after the election, in ^larcli, 1844, of Leopold
Stein, a rabbi of Reform tendencies, as associate
to Trier. This appointment was very distasteful
to the older rabbi, who refused to acquiesce in the
choice of an associ.ite of the new school. He pro-
tested to the senate of the cit)' against the election,
and the senate referred him to the directorate of the
congregation. Trier resigned as rabbi (^Nlay, 1844),
and Stein began to introduce moderate reforms.

.\mong the most important incidents in the history
of Reform are the rabbinical conferences held at
Bnmswick, Frankfort on-the-Main, and Breslau, in

1844, lH4r., nnd 1840 (we Cii.vKEUKNCEB, H.\»bin-
ic.\i,). In the winter of 1»44 Dr. SigiHnnind Stern de-
livered before the Culture Society (.f IJ( rlin u course
of eight lectures on tlie Huliject "The MiRhiou of
Judaism and the Jew in tlie Prewnl." In Ihese
lectures he pleaded for some notion timl would Hlem
the tide of indilTeriiicc and bring buck to llic Sytm-
gogue the great number wlio hud drifted uwuy be-
cause its religious pruclises und cereinonicA had
ceused to satisfy them. T! nie

The Berlin of these lectures wuh the f' : ;] of

Reform the Genossenschaft fl\r Reform im
Congrega- Judenthum. On Apiil 2, 184.'., tlio
tion. "A|)peal to Our (iermun Cort-ligioii-

ists" appeared, in which the signers.
members of the Reform as.sociation. called ujion the
Jews of Germany to cooperate with tiiem in tluir
efforts for Reform. The significant point in the ap-
peal lay in the closing words: "Thus our u|)peai
goes forth to you. German coreligioni.sts fur and
near, that you associate yourselves with us in name
and assure us of your support and aid in word and
act, in order that we may convene a synod which
shall renew and establish Judaism in a form in w hicli
it will be capable and worthy of continuing as a
living force for us and our cliildren." Poinding,
however, that the needs of the Berlin community
were such as made it impracticable to wait until a
synod could be convened, the leading spirits of the
new society deternuned to institute a Reform serv-
ice on the holy days in the autumn of 1845. A com-
mittee consisting of S. Stern, A. Rebenstcin, M.
Simion, and L. Los.ser was appoinU-d to prepare a
.serv'ice for the holy days. This committee suggestetl
a number of radical measures which were concurred
in b}' the trustees and carried into effect: scrvicea
almost entirely in the vernacular: worsliip with
uncovered heads; abandonment of the blowing of
the shofar on New-Year's Day; discontinuance of
the use of the tallit; the pronouncing of the priestly
benediction by the preacher nnd the choir instead of
by the so called Aaronides; the religious ecjuality of
woman with man.

The first services were held on New -Year's Day
and the Day of Atonement. 1845; Dr. Ludwig
I'liilippson of Magdeburg preached the sermons. la
the following month, November, it was n-solved by
the association that steps be taken toward hoMing
services regularly twice every week, on Satunlay
and Sunday. On April 2. isifi, the iiouse of wor-
ship was dedicated. Dr. Sanuiel Iloldheim preach-
ing the dedication sermon. Iloldheim was ilected
preacher in the following Sej^tendHT. ;■
later, on Sept. 5. 1M47. was inducted :
which he filled until his death in 1860. The Satur-
day services were discontinued in 1849. since which
date services iiave been contbicled on Sunday oidy.
In April. 1895. on the occa.sion of llie flftielli anni-
versary of the congregation, the prayer book was
revised.

The stirring political events of the year 1^48 j«o
enuMcssed the people that little attention was paid
to anything else; and during the si.vth nnd seventh
decades of the nineteenth century very little active
work was done in the interest of the Reform cause
in Europe. True, reforms of a moderate kind con-

Reform Judaism
Eeg-gio

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

358

tinued to be introduced in many congregations, but
on the whole a reaction set in, and the conservative
temper was much more pronounced than in the
years preceding the revolutions of 1848. The first
sign of reawakening appeared in 1868, when a rabbin-
ical conference took place at Cassel. This confer-
ence, however, accomplished very little; it is notable
only because it was in a measure preparatory to the
convening of the two synods at Leipsic and Augs-
burg in 1869 and 1871 (see Synods. Rabbinic.\l).

The spread of anti-Semitism during the past three
decades seems to have crushed until quite recently
all efforts at religious progress in Judaism in west-
ern Europe; official Judaism still recognizes the
authority of the Shulhan 'Aruk, although the life
of the majority of the people is led in disregard
of its provisions. There still exists the ver}' same
inconsistency between official Judaism and the life of
its professors that in the first half of the nineteenth
century led to the rise of the Reform movement.

Although Reform failed to realize the expecta-
tions of its founders in Europe, it became quite
dominant in the United States during

Sporadic tlie nineteenth century ; but before the

Reform story of its development in the western
Measures, hemisphere is recounted a few words
must be devoted to a number of inde-
pendent movements in Europe. In 18-15 the Breslau
Reform Association was formed along the lines
of the Berlin society; it issued a like appeal, and
engaged the sympathies of Abraham Geiger, the
rabbi of Breslau. Its appeal, however, had no prac-
tical results. The congregations of Kouigsberg
and Offenbach instituted a supplementary Sunday
service in 1847. In 1848 the Reform Society of
Budapest was organized by Ignatz Einhorn and a
number of sympathizers; services, with sermon and
pra3-ers in the vernacular, were held on Sunday. In
1852 David Einhorn was elected rabbi ; but the Or-
thodox part}' prevailed upon the government to
close the temple, and after a few years of enforced
seclusion Einhorn received a call to America. In
1856 the rabbis of France met at the call of M. Ull-
man, the grand rabbi of Paris, and recommended
a number of moderate reforms in the ritual, leav-
ing it, however, to the grand rabbi of each con-
sistory to act upon the recommendation. In Eng-
land two additional Reform congregations were
organized — in ^laiichesler and Bradford. In 1890 a
service marked by certain reforms was instituted at
Hampstead, near London, by the Rev. Morris Jo-
seph; these services were conducted on Sabbath
afternoon and continued for three j'^ears. The Jew-
ish Religious Union was organized in London in
1902, with the view of holding services on Sabbath
afteraoons, with prayers and sermon in the vernacu-
lar; this, too, is an independent movement, launched
by a number of earnest men and women animated
by the same ideas as were the early reformers of
German}'. Finally, attention may be called to the
spirited election of representatives of the Berlin
Jewish communitj' in Nov., 1901, which hinged on
the holding of a service on Sunday. Although the
liberals were defeated, their vote was large enough
to show tiiat a great section of Berlin Jewry was
restive under unsatisfactory religious conditions.

Forty-seven members of the Congregation Beth
Elohim of Charleston, S. C, petitioned the vestry in
1824 to reform the ritual; intlieir petition they urged
the use of the vernacular in the prayers, the preach-
ing of English sermons, and the shortening of the
service. The petition was rejected by
Reform in the vestry without discussion. Anum-
the United ber of the petitioners resigned from

States. the congregation and organized the
Reformed Society of Israelites. The
society adopted practically the ^laimonidean creed,
with the omission of the articles declaring belief in
bodily resurrection and in the coming of the Messiah
to restore the Jewish state and temple. It also re-
formed the traditional service. This societj' existed
only a few years, but the spirit of Reform entered
the mother congregation, which was under the guid-
ance of the Rev. Gustav Poznanski, elected in 1836.
A new sj'nagogue was built and dedicated in 1841;
an organ was placed in the building, and the ob-
servance of the second days of the holy days was
discontinued.

In 1842 the Har Sinai congregation of Baltimore,
and in 1845 the Emanu-El congregation of New
York, were organized by advocates of Reform.
Since then Reform synagogues have sprung up
all over the land, and many congregations that were
founded on traditional lines have adopted the re-
formed ritual under the leadership and influence of
the great early reformers who emigrated from Eu-
rope— Isaac M. Wise, ]\Iax Lilienthal, David Einhorn,
Samuel Adler, and Samuel Hirsch. Their work
has been taken up and is being continued by hun-
dreds of rabbis in all sections of the country. Isaac
M. Wise organized the congregations into a union
for combined work ; this union, known as the Union
of American Hebrew Congregations, was established
in 1873. It is practically an organization of the
Reform congregations of the countrj', although
some conservative congregations are to be found on
its roster. The union founded the Hebrew Union
College, the Reform theological seminary, in 1875,
and iu 1902 it undertook the great task of organ-
izing congregations and religious schools through-
out the country in communities in which the}' did
not already exist.

The Union Prayer-Book, prepared and published
by the Central Conference of American Rabbis, has
been introduced very generally, 183 congregations
having adopted it (1905). The characteristic doc-
trines of the Reform movement which differentiate
it from traditionalism find ronstant expression in the
prayers: the belief in the coming of the Messianic
era instead of a personal Messiah; the universalism
of Israel's mission as the priest-peojile in place of
the nationalism involved in the belief in the return
to Palestine, the establishment of the Jewish state,
and the restoration of tiie Aaronic priesthood; the
repudiation of the belief in a bodily resurrection
and the substitution of the belief in spiritual immor-
tality. Sermons in the vernacular, a mixed choir, the
organ, family pews, imcovered heads during wor-
ship, and a confirmation service for boys and girls
are distinguishing features of public worship in Re-
form congregations in the United States. The ob-
servance of the second days of the holy days has been

359

THE JEWISH ENCYri-nPFPTA

Reform Judaiszn

abolished, as well as of all minor fast- and foast-
daj's except Hanukkah and Piirim. WDinan is ac-
counted of equal importance with man in the relig-
ious life. In a number of congregations she is ad-
mitted to full membership. Gkt and 1I.\i,izaii arc
abolished. In accordance with a decision of the
Central Conference, male proselytes may be received
into the faith without circumcision. Twelve con-
gregations have services on Sunday supplementary
to those on Saturday, and one (the Sinai congre-
gation of Chicago) conducts services on Sunday
only. ^Membership in congregations is voluntary.
The public religious life of Reform congregations is
very active. All have religious schools, and many
conduct Bible classes and post-contirmaliou clas.ses,
besides maintaining women's societies for personal
service, together with clubs of various kinds for
study and jihilanthropic work.

Reform Judaism in the United States has re-
nounced the binding authority of the rabbinical
codes; it stands for the principle of development
and emphasizes the prophetic, universal aspect of
the faith. Its constant effort has been to reconcile
Judaism with life and to fit its eternal principles
into a modern mold ; it may be said that it has veri-
fied the observation of Abraham Geiger: "Judaism
requires merely the liberating breath in order to be-
come rej u venated from within. " See Confekences,
Rahhinical.

Bii!r.iO(!RArnY: IM.JosUCulturgeschichtezurNeuerenGesch.
drr Israeliten lion 1815 his 1SU5, Berlin, 1847; idem, Gexrh.
dcKjiulenthums und Seiner Sehteiu iii. 285-390, Leipsic, IMi) ;
Geiger, Jlldische Gef^ch. mn IHSO l)is zur Gcocnwart (WW),
in Nachgelan^ene Schriften, ii. 2-4G-273; HoUilieiin, Gcsc/i.
der Deiiiner Hefnrmgemeinde, Berlin, 18,57; I. H. Ritter,
Gesch. der Jildii<chen Reformntinn, Berlin, 186.5; S. Stern,
Getsch. des Jitdentliums von Mendchsohn hixaiifdic Nen-
ere Zeit, Berlin, 1870; M. Levin, Die Reform (ff.s Judeii-
thitms, Berlin, 1895; E. Schreilscr, Reform Judaism and Its
Pioneers, Spokane, 1892; S. BernMd.JudenitndJudeuthiun
im Neunzehnten Jahrhundcrt, Berlin, 1898; I. H. Ritter,
DieJUdischeReformuemeiudc zu Btr/ui, Berlin, 1902; D.
Philipson, The lieqinninas of ihe Reform Miweinent i)i Ju-
daism, in J. Q. R. XV. 47.5.521 ; idem, The Reform Moirmeiit
in Judaism, in J. Q. R. xvi. 30-72, 48.5-.52:3; xvii. 3()7-:i53;
idem, Progressof theJewis)i Reform Movement in the Uni-
ted States, in J. Q. B. x. 52-99.
K. D. p.

HEFORM-ZEITUNG. See Periodicai-s.

REFORMATION. See Luther; Reuchlin.

REFUGE, CITIES AND PLACES OF. S( (

AsVMM.

REGENBOGEN, BARTHEL : German meis
tersinger of the latter part of the thirteenth century ;
lived as a smith at ;^Iayence. He was remarkable
for his intense hatred of the Jews, and endeavored
to convert them by interweaving Christian dogmas
in his poetry, atoning for his lack of pei-suasiveness
by scurrility. He often expresses his desire to see
all the Jews exterminated; and one of his songs
ends with the words : " Ich hazze iuch, Juden, sunder
maze " (1 hate you, Jews, beyond all measure).

Bini.ior.nAPHv: V. d. Hupen, Minnesinger, iii. 35 et seq.;
liiidemann, GeseJi. i. 144-145. „

J. s. o.

Rl^GENERATION, LA. Sec Periodicals.

REGENSBURG. See Ratisbon.

REGGIO : 1. Italian city on the Strait of Messina ;
capital of liie province of Reggio di Calabria. The
presence of Jews in Calabria as early as 398 is

attested by an edict of Emperor Ilonorius; but tlicro
is little further information about tliis community
until the reign of Emperor Frederick H. The
ghetto, known in tlie city records us the Struda
Giudi'ca, was in tin; nortinvcsteru part of the city,
and was without nuy communication with the cen-
tral part: the Jews entered und departed through
the Porte Anzana. The Jews of 1; -ome of

wiiom were weaitiiy, followed vuri<' -i. Tiic

most common industry was that of siik-maiiuftictur-
ing. Many were mcrcliants. miited in an in
gild, wliich was tifllliated with gilds in oth
munities of Calabria. Jews were licensed to lend
money at a rate of interest not v\- " • ; ■
cent. Frederick II. tolerated tlieir 1 1 i ,

not ill-treat tiiem, though in 1221 he obliged them to
distinguish tluinselves from Christians by wearing
a badge. Joaiuia II. was very harsh toward tliem.
and threatened them with banishment as a result of
accusations of usury and of lending money to the
citizens of Reggio on products and manufactures.
Perceiving, however, that these accusjilions were
greatly exaggerated, she contented hersflf with
levying a tax upon them of one-third of a scudo
per head.

Until the year 1486 civil and criminal cases among
the Hebrews were tried before a magistrate specially
appointed for this purpo.se;afler that date they were
tried before the ordinary judges. In 1492. aft<'r the
expulsion from Spain, a large number of Spanish
Jews settled in Reggio, much increasing the size
and commercial importance of the community. The
citizens of Reggio were accustomed to sell their silk
to the Jews, who lent them money for the " feeding
of the silkworms," at an interest of 4 tari on every
pound of silk. The Jews thus controlled the silk-
market, or fair, which was held each year at Reggio
from the loth to the 31st of August, and which was
attended by dealers from all parts of the country.
especially from Lucca and Genoa. These mer-
chants, enraged at the monopoly held by the Jews,
.sought to have them banished from this territory;
they succeeded in their efforts in the beginning of
the sixteenth century. During the vice-regency of
Don Raimondo di Cardona the Genoese secretly de-
nounced the Jews to the government of Naples.
which accordingly forwarded an adverse report
in regard to them to the King of Spain, <!
the alleged nefarious proceedings of the Jew. .. ^.. .-.
and urging the necessity of expelling the Jews from
Calabria. On this report the king commanded the
banishment of all Jews from Calabria before July 2.*}.
1511. The unfortunate Jews were compelled lode-
part, and the communities of Reggio, C:i'
Corigliano, Belcastro, Tropea. Castrovillai
monte, Rossano, Montalto, and many others, ceased
toexist. The exiles went first to M. md later

to Rome, Leghorn, and other Italia;.

In the fifteenth century a Hebrew printing press,
the property of Abraham (tarton, e\" ' -
heie was produced the first edition
waslikewise the first dated Hebrew book ever printed.
Sec Incunabula

Bini.IOGRAniV : n. Spano.n..lnnl. .1 rrMrm Slr^ror<r U I^
vincc yapolHauc, vl. :5i5 ct ncu.; uudeuiann. Ot»ch. ll_^-40.

8. ^- ^-

Beprgio

Begg^io, Isaac Samuel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

360

2. Italiau citj', capital of the province of Reggio
neir Emilia. Borso, tirst Duke of Fcrrara. Modeua,
and Reggio, considered the presence of the Jews, who
were residing in Reggio as early as 1445, necessary
to the welfare of liis state, and sought and obtained
from Pope Nicholas V. permission to retain them ;
he secured also a promise that they should conduct
unmolested their banking business and possess their
synagogues in peace. These privileges granted by
Borso were conlirmed and extended by his successor,
Ercole I. (Dec. 16, 1473). But during the latter's
reign his dominions were visited by the preacher
Bernardino da Feltre, a bitter enemy of the Jews.
In 1498 Ercole decreed that every Jew in his terri-
tories sliould wear a yellow cap. Alfonso I. (June
11, 1503) and Ercole II. (Nov. 20, 1534) confirmed the
rights and privileges of the Jews.

In the sixteentii century the community of Reggio
joined with the other communities of Italy — Rome,
Venice, Padua, Ferrara, Mantua, Modena — in the
formation of a Jewish committee for the revision of
Hebrew books, their purpose being to consider
means of avoiding the ecclesiastical censorship.
After the expulsion of the Jews from the duchy of
Milan in 1597 many of the exiles fled to Reggio. In
the beginning of the seventeenth century the Duke
of Modena and Reggio invited a large number of
Portuguese Jews to settle in his territory, promising
them liberal concessions. Modena and Reggio re-
mained under the rule of the house of Este until
they were incorporated in the (Msalpine Republic.
During this period there is no record of the political
status of the Jews. There was a temporary change
for the belter in their condition during the French
Revolution, and until Modena and Reggio were
united to the Cisalpine Republic in 1797; in 1815
tiie duchy of Modeua was formed, under Francesco
IV., and la.sted until 1860, when Modena and Reggio
both became part of the united kingdom of Italy.

The most noted scholars and rabbis of Reggio
were: Isaac Foa, Immanuel Sonino, Obadiah ben
Israel Sforno (16th cent.), Nathan ben Reuben
David Spira (d. Reggio, 1607), Menahem Azariah
Fano, Baruch Abraham ben Elhanan David Foa,
Hezekiah ben Isaac Foa, Isaac ben Vardama Foa,
Israel Nissim Foa, Israel Solomon Longlii (17th
cent.), Isaiah Mordecai ben Israel Hezekiah Bassani,
Israel Benjamin ben Isaiah Bassani, Elhanan David
Carmi, Benjamin beii Eliezer halvohen, Joshua ben
Rapiiael Fermi, Moses Benjamin Foa, Abram Mi-
chael Fontanella, Judah Hayyim Fontanella, Israel
Berechiah Fontanella, Raphael Jehicl Sanguinetti
(18th cent.), Isaac Samson d'Angeli, R. J. Bolognese,
Hananiah F^llianan Hai ha-Kohen, Jacob Levi, Moses
Benjamin Levi, Israel Berechiah Sanguinetti, David
Jacob Maroni, Giuseppe Lattes, Alessaudro da Fano,
and Lazzaro Laide Tedesco (19th cent.).

Bini.ior.iiAPHY : R. E. J. xx. 34 et mi.: Vopelstein and Rle-
ger, Gexrh. der Judeii lu Rom, it. 179; Ciratz, Oesc/i. 2U
ed., Ix. 506 ; Mortara, Indice.

P. r. C.

REGGIO, ABRAHAM (VITA) BEN AZ-
RIEL : Italian labbi and cabalist ; born at Ferrara
in 1755; died at G5ritz Jan. 8, 1842. Reggio studied
underSamuel Lampronti, devoting himself especially
to the study of Hebrew grammar. He gave lessons

in Hebrew to the children of wealthy Jews in sev-
eral villages, and in his spare moments occupied
himself with bookbinding. Occasionally he went to
Gradisca to attend the lectures of Abraham Morpur-
go, whose son-in-law he became. Later Reggio was
appointed teacher in the Talmud Torah of GOritz,
where he studied Talmud under Moses Hefez, rabbi
there. After the latter's d*ath (1798) Reggio was
ordained as his successor by Judah Malavida, rabbi
of Ferrara; he occupied the rabbinate of GOritz un-
til his death.

Reggio was a recognized authority on rabbinical
matters, and many rabbis, among them Mordecai
Benet, appealed to him for decisions. Reggio was
the author of a work entitled " Eshel Abraham "
(still in MS.), a collection of treatises in thirteen
parts on various subjects. He wrote also a pam-
phlet entitled "Tiglahat ha-Ma'amar" (Leghorn,
1844), a refutation of the "Ma'amar ha-Tiglahat " of
his son, Isaac Reggio.

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keneset YinraeU pp. 163-164; Ghi-
rondl, in Mohr's Yenishalayim, 1. 75 etseq.
s. M. Sel.

REGGIO, ISAAC SAMUEL (YaSHaR) :
Austro-Italian scholar and rabbi; born at Goiitz,
Illyria, Aug. 15, 1784; died there Aug. 29, 1855.
Reggio studied He-
brew and rabbinics un-
der his father, Abra-
ham Vita, later rabbi
of G5ritz, acquiring
at the same time in the
gymnasiVim a knowl-
edge of secular science
and languages. Reg-
gio's father, one of the
liberal rabbis who sup-
ported Ilartwig Wes-
sely, paid special at-
tention to the religious
instruction of his son,
who displaj-ed unusual
aptitude in Hebrew,
and at the age of
fourteen wrote a met-
rical dirge on the death
of G5ritz. Besides Italian, liis mother tongue, Reg-
gio knew French, German, and Latin, and he studied

several Semitic languages in addition

His to Hebrew. He possessed a phenom-

Acquire- enally clear, if not profound, intellect,

merits. and as mathematics offered the widest

field for his analytical talent, it was at
first his favorite study. In 1802 he published in tiie
"Neuwieder Zeitung" the solution of a difficult
mathematical problem, which gave him reputation
as a mathematician (comp. "Allg. Zeit. des Jud."
1837, p. 228). He discovered also a new demonstra-
tion of the Pythagorean theorem, which was praised
by Cauchy, the well-known French mathematician.
A year later (1803) Reggio went to Triest, where
for three years he was a tutor in tlie hou.se of a
wealthy family. There he made a friend of Mor-
decai Isaac de Cologna, at whose death (1824) Reg-
gio wrote a funeral oration in Italian. He returned
to G5ritz in 1807, where one year Inter he married

Isaac Samuel Reggio.
of Moses Hefez. rabbi

361

THE JEWISH E^X•YCLOPEDIA

Reffgrio, Isaao Samuel

tlic (laughter of a wealthy man and settled down to
a life of independent study. When the provinee of
Illyiia (1810) became a French dependency, Ueggio
was ai)i)()inted by the Fieneh governor professor
of belles-lettres, geography, and history, and chan-
cellor of the lyceum of G5ritz. But three years
later Illyria became again an Austrian province, and
the Austrian anti-Jewish laws compelled Heggio to
resign. lie then devoted himself exclusively to
Jewish literature and cognate sui)jects; he studied
even the Cabala, but the more he studied it the greater
grew liis aversion to its mystical and illogical doc-
trines. Taking Mendelssohn and Wessely as guides,
he next made his name celebrated in connection with
religious philosophy, and, indeed, became to the
Italian Jews what Mendelssohn was to his German
coreligionists. In 1823 an imperial decree having
been issued that no one might be appointed rabbi
who hud not graduated in philosophy, Reggio ]Mib-
lished at Venice an appeal, in Italian, for the estab-
lishment of a rabbinical seminary.
Founds the arguing that just as ti)e emi>eror did
Rabbinic not desire rabbis devoid of i)hilosopli-
Seminary ical training, neither did the Jews dc-
of Padua, sire rabbis who had had no rabbinical
education. This appeal resulted in
the establishment of a rabbinical college at Padua,
for which Heggio drew up the statutes and the edu-
cational program.

Following the example of Mendelssohn, Reggio
endeavored to extend the knowledge of Hebrew
among the Jewish masses by translating the Bible
into Italian and writing a commentary thereon.
His simple but clear and attractive style made a deep
impression not only on the Italian but even on the
German Jews. Although he believed that in the
main the text of the Bible has been well guarded
against corruption, yet he admitted that involuntary
scribal errors had slipped in and that it would be no
sin to correct them ("Iggerot Yashar," Letter V.).
The reproaches of Meir Randegger (d. 1853) concern-
ing his Biblical corrections Reggio answered by sta-
ting that every one was permitted to interpret the
text according to his understanding, provided such
interpretations were not in opposition to the princi-
ples of the Jewish religion {ib. Letter XXX.).

An opponent of casuistry, Reggio rejected hag-
gadic Biblical interpretations and the pilpulistic
study of the Talmud. He was persecuted by many
German rabbis on account of his liberal views; even
his father did not wholly approve of his metliods.
Nevertheless, in 1846, after his father's death, the
community of Goritz insisted upon his accepting the
rabbinical office; he agreed, but declined to receive
the salary attached to it. After occupying the posi-
tion for ten years he resigned.

Reggio was a voluminous writer. He published :
"Ma'amar Torah min ha-Shamayim " (Vienna,
1818), on the divine authority of the
His Jewish law, an introduction to his

Works. Italian translation of the Pentatcucii;
"Sefer Torat Elohim" {ih. 1821), the
Pentateuch, with an Italian translation and a He-
brew commentary; "Ha-Toruh weha-Pilusutiah "
(ib. 1827); "Behinat ha-Dat 'im Perush we-He'arot"
(ib. 1833), an edition of Elijah Delmedigo's" Behinat

ha-Dut," with a commentary and notes; "Iggerot
Yasiiar" (ib. 1834-3(5), a collection of exegetical.
philosophical, and historical tn-utises in tlie foi in of
letters to a friend; " .Ma'amar ha Tiglal^ut "(lA. 1886),
a decision ("pesal^") permitting the Hliuving of tho
beard on semiiioly days (" hoi ha njo'ed " ; thiii work
called fortli two protests, one by Jacob E/.ekiel lia-
Levi.entitletl "Tisporel Lulyanll." Berlin. 1H8«. and
one by Reggio's father, entitled "Tigluhat im-
Ma'amar," Legiiorn. 1H4-1); ".Mafteah el .Megilhit
Ester" (Vienna. 1841); " Mazkeret Ya.shur " (ib.
1849), a bibliographical sketch (prciicnted to his
friends in his si.xty-tlfth year) in which he enumer-
ates 103 works; "Behinat ha lyabbalah " ((Jftritz,
1852); " Yalkut Yashar" (ib. 1854). collectanea. In-
cluding a defens(i by Reggio f)f the opinion which
attributes Isa. xl.-lxvi. lo an author who lived after
the Captivity. He wrote also a metricul Italian
translation of the Book of Isaiah (I'dine, \KU \, iinrl
translated into Italian prose the books of Jo!,iiua,
Ruth, and Lamentations, the treatise Pirljc Abet,
and Mendelssohn's correspondence with Lavaler on
religion. In the notes to Delmedigo's ** Behinat ha-
Uat" Reggio often supplements or criticizes this
work; he, moreover, refutes Aaron -Cliorin in notes
8, 15-19, and attacks the Cabala in notes 9-13. It
may be noticed that thirteen years previously Moses
Kunitzer printed, in his "Sefer ha-Me/.aref." Reg-
gio's letter in defense of the Cabala.

Reggio was an indefatigable contributor to most
of the Jewish journals of his time and an able apol-
ogist. He was also the editor of "Bikkure 'Ittim
ha-Hadashim," the Hebrew part of Busrh's ".F.dir-
biiciier " (Vienna, 1845), and '' Megcd Geresh Yera-
him," a supplement to the "Central-Organ fnrJn-
dische Interessen " (ib. 1849). It may be added that
Reggio was a painter of considerable ability. There
are more than two hundred drawings and paintings
by him, including portraits of many Jewish celebri-
ties, and a map drawn by him is preserved in the
library of Triest. In 1813 he inscribed the whole
Book of Esther on a small piece of parchment one
and a half handbreadths long. He left als<i a gri-at
number of unpublished writings, among whicb are
sermons and poems in Hebrew and Italian.

Reggio's most important works are " Ha To-
rah weha-Pilusutiah," "Mafteah el Megillat Ester."
and "Behinat ha-Kabbalah." The first, a religious-
philosophical essay in four sections (" ma'amarim ").
was written as an answer to the rabbis
His Philos- of the old school who protested against
ophy. the establishment of the rabl)inical col-
lege at Padua. It should Iw e.\ plained
that Reggio applies the term " philosophy " to all
studies outside the Talmud and mbbinics. Recglo
not only endeavors to reconcile the Jewish <

with modern science, but attempts to prove t;....
are indispensable toeach other. One chapter, entitled
" Ha-()lam weha-Adam." was republished by Marti
net in his "Tif'erct Yismel " (Bamberg. 1837). An
other chapter, in which was discus-sed the question
as to whether the Torah is in oppositioi
Cabala, was stricken out by the cen.snr I. -
chapter was plagiarized by 8. M. Rosenllial. who
published it in FQrsfs edition of I>eon of Modcna's
" Ari Nohem" (pp. \}'i-dl, Leipsic. 1840).

Begrg^io, Isaac Samuel
Heich, Ig-naz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

362

The " 3Iafteah cl Mcgillat Ester "' is an introduc-
tion to the Book of Esther, and deserves special
notice in consideration of its originality. Having
concluded that the Persian king in that book was
Darius Ilystaspes, Reggio shows that the main
object of the writer was to prove that Darius was
the first to establish the post. Analyzing tlie text
carefully, Reggio maintains that Mordecai was by
no means such a great man as the Rabbis declare
him to liave been, but that, on the contrary, he was
an ordinary Jew; for lie not only gave no religious
education to his adopted daughter Esther, but he
even commanded her to deny her race and religion.
His refusal to bow before Ilaman was unnecessary,
as such an act would not have violated any Jewish
religious law. Even when he was informed of the
imminence of the danger to his coreligionists con-
seijucnt upon his senseless refusal, he did not re-
sort to prayer and fasting; it was Esther who did
that. His inhumanity is evidenced by his command
to slaughter women and children (Esth. viii. 11).
Afterward, when Mordecai attained great power, he
did nothing to better the lot of his brethren in Jeru-
salem (comp. Xeh. ix. 36-37). This view of Reg-
gio's provoked a protest from Isaac Bilr Lewinsohn
("Bikkure Ribal," p. 115, Warsaw, 1889), and was
violently criticized by Mendelson ('' Orient, Lit." viii.
SUet seg.).

The •■ Behinat ha-Kabbalah " is an edition of Leon
of Modena's two pamphlets " Kol Sakal " and
"Sha'agat Aryeh " ; these Reggio provided with a
preface, and with one hundred critical notes forming
the second part of the work. In the preface Reggio
outlined Leon of Modena's biography. The notes
are independent treatises reviewing Modena's works
chapter by chapter, now supplementing, now re-
futing his views. Reggio's main point is that most
of the Talmudic ordinances were not intended for
perpetual observance; they were practised only by
the rigorous Pharisees. It was not until much later,
lie declares, that the casuists ("' posekim ") estab-
lished such ordinances as a part of the Law. Conse-
quently, Modena was in many cases wrong in at-
tacking the Talmudists. Reggio's theory has been
refuted by Simon Stern in the preface to his Ger-
man translation of Modena's works published under
the title " Der Kampf des Rabbiners Gegen den Tal-
mud im XVII. Jalnhundert."

BrBLiOfiRAPHY : P. Cahen. In Arch. Iff. xvi. 668; Isaac H.
Castigllonl. In Ozar lin-Sifrut, iv. 83 ct xeq.: J. Derenbourg,
In Gelper's TFi.si. Zeit. Jlul. Theol. ii. 3:51 et seq. ; Fuenn.
Kcnenet I'i.frac/, pp. 659 et kcq.; Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. iii. IS© ct
seq.; fieifjer, Leon da Morleim. pp. 57 et spq.; Goldenthal,
Jn AUa. Zeit. de>t Jnd. 1839, Supplement, No. ij, p. 1.59; N.
Hurwltz. In Hn-Meliz. Iii. 140, I.tH, 174; Jost. A iinalen, 1841,
p.34<); Mazkcret I'n.s/iar; Morals. Eminent Israelites, pp.
2!)6 et i>eq.\ Ozar Nehmad, 1. 5. 11, el paxxim; I. H. Weiss,
Zil<rtm<ttai. pp. 153 et se(/.,War8aw. 1895; ZeltUn, Bihl. Post-
Mctidchi. pp. 296 et seq.
S. M. Sel.

REGGIO, ISSACHAR EZEKIEL : Italian
ral)bi and grammarian; born at Ferrara in 1774:
died in 1837, on the 1st of Elul. He was a pupil of
Graziadio Neppiand Joseph David Bassano, the lat-
ter of whom made him assistant in the Talmud
Torah in Ferrara. When Bassano died Reggio suc-
ceeded him as rabbi, in association with Shabbethai
Eliianan Pcsaro, after whose death he became the
head of the Spanish synagogue. Reggio founded

a number of religious institutions in his com-
munity.

BiBLiOGRAPHY : Nepl-Ghlrondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 153.
s. U. C.

REGGIO, LEONE : Italian rabbi ; born at Fer-
rara in 1808; died there Sept. 23, 1870; son of Zac-
caria Reggio, chief rabbi of Ferrara. At the age of
twenty he became a teacher in the Talmud Torah
there, and at the death of his father succeeded to
the rabbinical chair. He was the author of "Gram-
matica Ragionata della Lingua Ebraica," Leghorn,
1844 ; " Elementi iii Ortologia della Lingua Ebraica,"
ib. 1844; "Sefat Leshon ha-Kodesh." a manual for
the practical study of Hebrew, ib. 1860; and "Dine
Shehitah u-Bcdikah."

Bibliography : Educatore Israelita, 1870, p. 323.

s. U. C.

REHFUSS, CARL: German educationist ; born
in 1792 at Altdorf-im-Breisgau ; died in 1842 at Hei-
delberg. From 1809 to 1816 he occupied the posi-
tion of teacher in schools at Gailingen, on the Lake of
Constance, at Basel, and at Biihl, near Rastadt. In
1819 he was appointed " Israelitischer Oberlehrer und
Prediger " by the Grand Duke of Baden ; and in 1834
he received the degree of Ph.D. from the University
of Heidelberg.

Rehfuss' works include: "Imre Emet," on the
admissibility of contirmation among the Israelites
(Heidelberg, 1830); "Leshon Yehudit," handbook
of Judfeo-German {ib. 1833); "Sefer ha-Hayyim," a
book of devotions for the afflicted (ib. 1839).

Bibliography: A. Friedlander, in AUg. Zeit. de.'f Jud. 1842,
p. 248 ; Zunz. Mnnat-'^tage dea KnUnderjahre.'f, Berlin. 1842;
Sidamith, viii. 98; McClintoek and Strong, Cj/c.
s. S. O.

REHOBOAM.— Biblical Data: Son of Solo-
mon by Naamah the Ammonitess (I Kings xiv. 21),
and his successor on the throne in Jerusalem. Sol-
omon's administrative policy had fostered dangerous
principles. His ambition for the magnificence and
fame of his capital, Jerusalem, had led him to in-
augurate a system of levies and taxes that proved
burdensome and galling to his subjects. His at-
tempt to form domestic alliances with his numerous
neighbors (I Kings xi. 1-4) filled his court with for-
eign customs and religions, and in later generations
produced unfortunate results. Solomon's wisdom
and power were not sufficient to prevent the r('l)el-
lion of several of his border cities. Damascus un-
der Rezon secured its independence of Solomon;
and Jeroboam, a superintendent of works, his ambi-
tion stirred by the words of the prophet Ahijah
(I Kings xi. 29-40), fled to Egypt. Thus before the
death of Solomon the apparently unified kingdom
of David began to disintegrate. With Damascusin-
dependent and a powerful man of Ephraim, the
most prominent of the Ten Tribes, awaiting his op-
portunity, the future of Solomon's kingdom became
dubious.

The assembly for the coronation of Solomon's suc-
cessor, Rehoboam, was called at Shcchem, the one
sacredly historic city within the territory of the
Ten Tribes. The fact that it met here was a recog-
nition of the prominence of those tribes in the gov-
ernment of Israel. It seems that Jeroboam (I Kings

363

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Recf R^io. Isaac Samuel
Beicn, Icnaz

xii. 2, 3, 20) either was present at the assembly or
was in close touch with the leaders. Bel')!!' the cor-
onation took place the assembly re-
Coronation quested certain reforms in the policy
Council. followed by Hehoboam's father, Solo-
mon. Kchoboam was fort j' -one years of
age (I Kings xiv. 21), but he was not ready at once to
modify a policy that had yieUled him and his court
associates such large privileges of luxury and ease.
The reforms requested would materially reduce the
royal exchequerand hence its power to continue the
magnificence of Solomon's court. Kehoboam was
advised by the old men, who had seen the evils of
liis father's course, to yield to the people's reciuest;
but his own companions, accustomed to the pleasures
of the brilliant court of Solomon, advised him rather
to increase his revenues.

This precipitated a rebellion. The Ten Tribes,
never wholly unified with Judah since Saul's reign,
and particularly that of his sou (II Sam. ii. 8-10),
violently withdrew and said, "Now see to thine own
house, David " (I Kings xii. 16). Outraged by this
action, Kehoboam resolved to enforce his rights and
collect his revenues. But the collector. Adoram,
was stoned to death, and the proud would-be king
was compelled to flee to Jerusalem, where without
ceremony he seems to have assumed the crown over
Judah and the few peoples who lived adjacent to
its boundaries. Israel, the Ten Tribes so called,
made Jeroboam its king. Rehoboam's ambition
was not yet subdued, and he collected an immense
army of 180,000 men to put down the revolt. But
before this body of troops could be put in mo-
tion, the prophet Shcmaiah delivered a message of
the Lord, commanding Kehoboam to
Interven- desist from war, " for this thing is of
tion of the me" (I Kings xii. 24). The haughty
Prophet young ruler obeyed. The records (I
Shemaiah. Kings xiv. 22-24) declare that his peo-
ple became infatuated with idolatry,
and that the strange worships introduced under
Solomon's policy took root in the land. Indeed,
so thoroughly did the people become imbued with
lieathen idol-worship that "they did according to all
the abominations of the nations which the Lord
drove out before the children of Israel" (R. V.).

In the fifth year of Hehoboam's reign Shishak,
King of Egypt, went up and pillaged Jerusalem
(see SmsiiAK). The most valuable part of the booty
was the golden shields Solomon had made for the
royal body-guard. Keholioam replaced these with
shields of ])rass. The feeling of enmity and jeal-
ousy between the two kingdoms was bitter all the
days of Rehoboam. Nothing is said of any battles
fought between them during Rehoboam's life, but
the expression "there was war between Rehoboam
and Jeroboam continually " presents the spirit of
retaliation animating both kingdoms. The dis-
ruption was a fact that carried its results through-
out the existence of the kingdoms of Israel, and it
became a frequent theme of prophetic discourse.
Judah henceforth stood practically alone.

E. 0. H. I M. P.

In Rabbinical Literature: Rehoboam was

the son of an Ammonite woman; and when David
praised God because it was permissible to marry

Ammonites and Moabites, he held the child upon
his knees, giving tiuinks for liiinHolf a« well uh for
Rehoboam, since this pernnssion wua uf advantage
to them both (Yeb. 77a). Hehoboum was Blrickcii
with a running sore as a punishment for the curse
which David iiad invoked upon Joab (II Sam. iii.
29) wlien lie prayed llial Joab's house miglil for-
ever be afllicled with leprosy and rutiniiig wires
(Sanh. 48b). All tiic treasures wldeli iKmel hud
brouglit from Egypt were kept until the Egyptian
king Shishak (1 Kings xiv. 25, 26) took them from
Rehoboam (I'cs. 1 l'.»a).

w. n. .]. Z. L.

REHUMAI (I.), RAB: Buby l..niiin iimom of
the fifth generation; pupil of iiaba b. Josepii b.
Hama. He addressed some questions tu Abaye
(Pes. 39a; Nazir 13a). He died on the eve nf a I>fiy
of Atonement, and the manner of his dtalli is told
as follows: He was wont to return home ou the eve
of every Day of Atonement, but on the last occa-
sion he was so engrossed in his studies that the lime
for departure passed and left him still at Mal^oza.
His wife waited for him in vain, and at last gave
expression to her disappointment in tears. As a
punishment for his neglect, so runs the legend, it
was decreed in heaven that he should die. Accord-
ingly, the roof on which he was sittinL' f<-ll in and
he was killed (Ket. 62b).

Binr.iOGRAPHY : HPllprln. Seder tui- If nni, n.-vJ- ; iiiii>'Ny, Do-
rot lin-Iiislioitim, iii. 12.

W. 15. J. Z. I...

REHUMAI II. : Babylonian amora of the sev-
enth generation; pupil of RabinaL.for wliom he
expounded a saying of Iluna b. Tahlifa (Zeb. 77a).
After Rafram 11., Rehumai II. was the head
of the Academy of Pumbedita from 443 to 4.')6.
dying during the persecutions of the Jews under
Yezdegerd II. (Sherira, in Neubauer. "M. J. C." i.
34, where it is said that lie was frequently called
Nahumai; Griitz, "Gesch." iv. 371; Halevy. " Dorot
ha-Rishonim," iii. 12-13).

"w. B. J- Z. L.

REHUMAI III.: One of the early saboraim;
died in 505, in the month of Nis)\n. In 'Er. 11a lie
is mentioned Avith his contemporary R. Jose; each
of them gives a different explanation of an expres-
sion used by an earlier authority (Sherira, in Neu-
bauer, "M. J. C." i. 34. 45; Halevy. "Dorot ha-
Rishonim," iii. 13; Griitz, "Gesch." iv. 877).^

W. K. «J- ^ ''

REICH (RAJK), ALAdAR: Hungarian law-
yer and deputy; born at Baja June 25. 1871; edu-
cated at the gymnasium of his native city and at
the universities of Budapest. Berlin, and Paris.
He was admitted to the bar at Fiaja. which city
returned him to the Hungarian Parliament in tlie
election of 1901. when he defeated Minister of Jus-
tice Plosz. He was reelected in 1905.
BiMi.iOGRAPHY : Sturm. In OrtaaaayUlM Almaitach. lfl^^-«-

s. L. \ .

REICH, IGNAZ (EIZIG): Hungarian tearhcr
and author; born at Z.sambek 1821; died at Buda-
pest April 18. 1887. He receiveil his early instruc-
tion from his father, a Jewish communal notary,
and then studied at the yeshibah <'f Crasswanlein.

Heich, Moritz
Heifmann

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

364:

going thence to Amd, where lie came under the in-
fluence of Aaron Choriu. After graduating from
the gymnasium of Arad he went to Pest in 1842 to
study philosophy, devoting himself at the same
time to literature.

Reich was the prototype of a patriotic Hungarian
Jew, always wearing the Huirgarian • national cos-
tume. For forty }'=i'aTs he was a teacher lit the Jew-
ish communal school and at the state institution
for the blind. He was the first Jew to translate to
his pupils the Bible into Hungarian. He was a con-
tributor to tlie "Magyar Izraelita," edited by Ed.
Horn ; and he translated also the prayer-book and the
Haggadah into Hungarian. Heich published in Ger-
man: "Beth-El "(2 vols., 18o6; 2d ed. 1868), biog-
raphies of eminent Hungarian Jews; and "Beth
Lechem" (Budapest, 1871), an annual for the pro-
motion of agriculture, trade, and industry among
the Jews of Hungary.

Bini-IOGRAPHY : Xeuzeit, 1887, No. 17 ; Vasdrnapi Ujsug, 1865,
Ni). 5.

■^. L. V.

REICH, MORITZ: German writer; born at
Rokitnitz, Bohemia, April 20, 1831; died there
March 26, 1857. The son of an indigent shohet and
hazzan, he attended the gymnasia at Keicheuau and
at Prague, and went in 1853 to Vienna, where he de-
voted himself to literature. His sketches were col-
lected and published in 1858 by his faithful friend,
the celebrated Austrian poet Alfred Meissner, under
the title " An der Grenze. Aus dem Nachlasse des
Moritz Heich."

Bibliography: Brummer, iexi/cou Deutscher Dichtcr und
Truanisten, li. 175.

s. M. K.

REICHENBERG: City of Bohemia. No Jews
were allowed to live there until after the law of Oct.
26, 1860, which repealed the restrictions against
them in Austria. The first Jewish settlers numbered
about thirty families. The need of a united relig-
ious service soon became evident, and on Sept. 4,
1861, on the eve of the New-Year's feast, a syna-
gogue was opened in a rented house; the authorities
of the state and of the town weie present, and the
acting rabbi Avas I. Elbogen, district rabbi of Jung-
Bunzlau. The existence of the congregation was
legalized on Dec. 12, 1863, and the establishment of
a cemetery was permitted two years later, the dead
having been buried hitherto at Turnau, thirty kilo-
meters distant. During the same year a special
registration district was formed, with its capital
at Heichenberg. A hel)ia kaddisha was likewise
founded in 1864, wiiicii, in addition to its special
duties, gave financial aid to destitute sick corelig-
ionists, and paid for the funerals of paupers. A
ladies' club was established for the same jjurpose,
and about the same time was begun the collec-
tion of funds wherewith to build a temple to ac-
commodate the increasing community. Meanwhile
the congregation, which numbered ninety families
in 1869, removed from its former synagogue to
larger quarters. A Talmud Torah which had been
founded was later abandoned, the religious in-
struction being given in the public schools, while,
for the protection of Jewish interests, a Jewish mem-
ber was elected to the district school board. The

new statutes were confirmed in 1877, although they
were at first rejected by the Bohemian provincial
government since they contained no mention of a
ritual hath for women. The ministry, however,
sustained the appeal of the community, which stated
that the establishment of a separate bath for Jewish
women was an antiquated institution.

The fund for the temple, from which property ia
the center of the town had already been purchased,
amounted to 44,000 florins in 1887, and tiie corner-
stone was laid in the autumn of that year, the build-
ing being dedicated Sept. 27, 1889. The .service is
moderately Reform. The first rabbi, Julius Reach
of Prague, ofliciated until 1888, when he was suc-
ceeded by Adolf Posnanski, who was followed ia
1891 by the present (1905) incumbent, Emil Hoff-
mann. The j'early income of the community
amounts to 32,990 kronen, and its expenses to
31,289 kronen. The Jews of Heichenberg to-day
(1905) number 1,395 in a total population of about
40,000.

D A. Ki.

REICHENHEIM, LEONHARD : German
manufacturer and politician; born atBernbnrg May
3, 1814; died at Berlin Jan. 26, 1868. At the age of
fourteen he entered his father's business, which
was located first at Magdeburg and then at Ber-
lin, and which later became very prosperous. In
1846 the firm bought from the Seehandlung the
woolen-mill at Wuestegiersdorf in Silesia, which
soon became one of the leading establishments in the
country, employing 2,500 laborers and maintaining
ntodel itrstittitions for the welfare of the working-
classes, such as a school and an orphan asylum.
The firm had also a branch in England. In 1854
Heichenheim Avas honored with the title of commer-
cial councilor; and in 1855 he received the Order of
the Red Eagle, third class. In 1859 he was elected
a member of the Prussian Diet for the district of
Heichenbach-Waldenburg, and he was returned tO'
every successive legislature until his death. The
same district elected him as its representative to the
first North German Reichstag in 1867. He further
served as a member of the Stadtverordneten, or board
of aldermen, of Berlin from 1864, and was made
a municipal councilor ("Stadtrath") in 1867. He
held oflices also in the Jewish communitj', notably
as director of the Jewish hospital.

In the Diet he distinguished himself as a recog-
nized authority on (juestions of financial and indus-
trial legislation, and during the whole time that he
was a member of the house he served on committees
dealing with such questions. His integrity and
ability often won for him the applause of the con-
servatives in the house, although he was a strong
advocate of the people's rights in the period of the
" Conflict " between Bismarck and the Diet.

Bini.ior.RAPiiv: AUq. Zeit. dcsJiid. 1867, pp. 867-868, 905 908.
925-9-.J8;18(58, pp. 110, 129.

s. D.

REICHER, EMANUEL: Austrian actor;
born July 18, 1849, at Bochnia, Austria. Reicher's
theatrical life is divided into two periods: the first
ending with his separation from and the subsequent
death of his first wife, Hedwig Reicheu-Kinder-

365

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reich, Moritz
Reifmanu

MANN, the singer; the second beginning witii his
inairiugc to Liiia Ilaif, wlio reawakened tlie slum-
bering ainbilion of the disheartened actor. Iteielier's
debut took phice at Tyruau, but for a time he made
little headway in his profession. His home life, a most
unhappy one, prevented him from doing full jus-
tice to himself; and it was not until after his second
marriage that lie rose to the foremost raidi of Ger-
man actors. His first success was a semicaricature
oi Justinian in Sardou's "Theodora," produced at
the Kesidenzlheater, Berlin. Subse(iueiitly he was
I)itted against the great Italian tragedian Ernesto
Rossi, playing logo to liis Othello and emerging tri-
umphantly from the ordeal. He soon realized, how-
ever, that Jiis forte was in the modern drama, and
he devoted all his powers to expositions of roles of
this class. His specialty was and is the portrayal of
Ibsen's characters, although lie swerved once in his
fidelity to the Norwegian dramatist in producing
Goldschmidt's mystic "G A A," a play whose pro-
duction was refused elsewliere in Europe.

Bibliography: Da^Jllngxte Deutschland, 19()0, pp. 114, 118.
IW). Ht(i, 289; (). G. FliigKen. mih)ien-Le.rikon, p. ^51; Das
GciMitic BcrU)i, 1897, p. 425.
s. E. Ms.

REICHER - KINDERMANN, HEDWIG :

German prima donna; born at Munich July 15,
1853: died at Triest June 2, 1883; daughter of the
baritone August Kindermaun. She received her
early instruction on the piano from Jier motlier, and
at the age of fifteen entered the Musijischule of
]\Iunit;h, where she studied voice-culture under her
fatiier. She made her debut at the Hoftheater
of Munich as a chorus-singer, ballet-dancer, and
actress, and after a season at Carlsruhe appeared at
the opera in Munich and in the operetta company at
the Gilrtuerplatz. She was married to the actor
Emanuel Reicher in 1875, and was divorced in 1881.
After acting in Bayreuth in 1876, at Hamburg in
1877 and 1878, and at Vienna, Munich, Monaco, and
Paris, she was called to Leipsic in 1880, where she
became known as an interpreter of Wagner's hero-
ines, appearing in "'Der Ring des Nibelungen " in
Germany, Belgium, Italy, and London (1881-82)
under the direction of Angelo Neumann.

BmLiOGRAPHY : Allg. Deutsche Jiinoraphic ; MeyerK Kon-
rietsatiti)is-Le.rUu>)i : Brackliaus Konversations-LeTilwii ;
Das GoUlenc Buclt der Musik.
6. R. N.

REICHERSON, MOSES HA-KOHEN : He-
brew grammarian; born in Wilna Oct. 5, 1827; died
in New York April 3, 1903. After studying Tal-
mud, Hebrew, and European languages, he became
teacher of Hebrew at AVilna. About 1890 he went
to New York, wliere he became teacher in a Jewish
school.

The literary activity of Reicherson was chiefiy in
the field of Hebrew grammar. He wrote: "Hel-
kat ha-Nikkud," on Hebrew punctuation (Wilna,
1864) ; " Helkat ha-Pe'alim weha-:\Iillot," on Hebrew
verbs and particles (ib. 1873); "Yad la-Nikkud,"
a comjiendium of the rules of Hebrew ]iun('tuation
for beginners (appended to the prayer I)()()k " Hinnuk
TefiUah"; ib. 1880); " Dikduk Haberim," catechism
of the elementary rules of Hebrew grammar (aji-
pended to tlie Siime prayer-book; ib. 1883): " -Ma-
'areket ha-Dikduk," a compendium of Hebrew

grammar (ib. 1883; it was translated into Yiddish
by its author and published in the same your): "Hel-
kat ha Shem." on the Hebrew noun {ib. 1884);
"Tikkun Meshalim," a translation of Hie fablea
of the Russian writer Krylov (ib. 1800); "MIhIiIc
Les.sing we Sippuraw." a translution of IxiMsing'8
fables (New York, 1902).

|{(i(hcrson wrote also " Ile'arot we-Til^ljuniin
la Diwan." notes on the " Diwan " of Jndali lia Ix.-vl
(Lyck, 1860). He left a nundier of works in manu-
script, including: "Dibre Hakamim we-Hidotam,"
on Talmudic haggadot ; commentaries on the Penta-
teuch, on the books of Samuel, Kings, Isaiah,
Ezekiel, the Twelve Prophets. Psalms, Job. and
Proverbs; a prayer book, "Tefillah le Mosheh " ; a
work on Hebrew syntax ; and fables, original as well
as translations from Gellert.

BiBl.lOfjRAPIlY: Sefrr Zikkantu. pp. |ii!i 17:i, V -.);

Zcitlip, //i7//. I'lisl-Mniilih. \>.'M<: Kls<-riMuili. / i ,»I

r<tel hf-Aiiirrika, p. llll, Nt-w Vi.rk, IWil): llitl.- "i r.til.
No. () ; HapKi'oil, The SpirU of the Ohcttn, pp. 44i et ttrti.. New
Vork, liXC.

"• ';• A. 8. w.

REICHSHOCHMEISTER. See Hociimms-

TKU.

REICHSKAMMERKNECHT. See Kam.mkii-

KNF.CIITSCIIAFT.

REIF, ABRAHAM: Galician jioet; born at
Mosciska, Galicia, 1802; died in 1859. He crfme
early under the influence of the school of the Me-
'assefim, but subsequently broke away from the
movement. Tobias Fkdkk, the author of the sar-
castic work "Kol Mehazezim," deeply influenced
his literary work. Alexarrder Langbank (d. 1894 at
Yaroslav, Galicia) introduced Reif to the profane
sciences; and after Reif's death he purcha.se<i from
his widow, Jente, all his posthumous works.

Reif was much feared by the fanatics on account
of his ready wit. As at first he did not display
his liberalism, lie was able to open a sch(X)l for
the study of the Bible and the Hebrew language in
)iis native city. This .school has produced promi-
nent Hebraists. Reif was a poet of refinement and
delicacy, and his language was the pure Biblical
Hebrew. His chief dramas, " Ha-Nidka'im," "Shu-
lammit," and " Ychudit," vividly portray the life of
the Galician Jews. As lie was too poor to publish
his works, he gave manuscript copies of them to his
pupils.

BiBLiOfiRAPiiY: M. Mnrpel. Ahrnh.im Rtif. Sein I^hfti und
Seine U'cr/fc, In i/n-.tt(7(;(/i(/ (Cracow), 1901, Nok. I» :«.
s. M. Mil.

REIFMANN, JACOB : Russian author and
philosopher; born April 7, 1818, at Ijigow, near
Opatow, Russian Polan<l : died at Szczebrszyn On.
13, 1895. I'p to the age of six he received in-
struction in Hebrew from his father, whom circum-
stances had forced to become a "melammed "; after
that age he studied Talimui under difTerent ratilds
of Opatow, to which town his family had removed
from Lagow. The most prominent of Iiis early
teachers was R. :Merr Harif, but the instruction he
received was very unsystematic. Pa.'wages for dis-
cussion were selected at random from different parts
<.f the Talmud, and during tlie nine years of stmly
under tliese rabbis not a single volume was read by

Heifznann
Beinach

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

366

Jacob Reifmann.

him iu its entirety. Wlien he reached the age of
fifteen he commenced to study alone. At that time
his logical tendencies began to assert themselves,
and his studies proceeded in an orderly and well-
arranged manner. He also made groat efforts to fol-
low the satne logical system iu his writings and

speech. From Opatow
Keifmann went to Szczeb-
rzeszyn, where he married
the daughter of Joseph
ilaimon. In his father-in-
law's house he discovered
a veritable treasure of
books, including the "Mo-
reh Nebukim " of Maimon-
ides and the "Cuzari" of
Judah ha-Levi. With in-
describable zeal he began
to read them, and before
long he knew them by
lieart. These, together
with many works of
the German philosophers,
which he read and studied extensively, opened a
new world of ideas to him, supplied him with a
broad field for investigation and study, and af-
forded him the means of exercising his wonderful
faculties to greater advantage. Still, he did not
neglect the Hebrew language, and from time to time
he wrote Hebrew poems in which he displayed won-
derful poetic skill and great depth of feeling. He
also carried on an extensive correspondence with
such scholars as Kapoport, Geiger, Jost, Luzzatto,
Kirchheim, Sachs, Goldberg, and Steinheim. With
the exception of his letters to Steinheim, which dealt
with various philosophical problems, his corre-
spondence was of a critical character, and either
dealt with Biblical exegetical questions or contained
discussions and investigations concerning archeo-
logical subjects.

Of Reifmann's works the following are the most
important:

Tabnit ha-Baylt, six Talmurtic discussions. Zolkiev, 184;^.

Pesher Dabar, twenty-two critical interpretations of Talmudlc
and midrashic passatres. Warsaw, 184.5.

Toledot Rabbenu Zerahya, a biography of Zerahiah ha-Levl,
with a review of his works. Pra(fiie, 18.>i.

Hut ha-Meshullash, consisting of three treatises: (1) on the
knowledge of the Amoraim of the Hebrew, Aratiiaic, Arabic,
Persian, (jreek, and Latin languages; (2) history of the fables
of ^sop among the Jews; (3) notes on the " Mibhar ha-Penl-
nim" (a work written by a non-Jew). Prague, 1859.

Kol Mebasser, an announcement in regard to the edition of
'* Halakot Gedolot " by Simon Kayyara. Prague, 18.59.

Arba'ah Harashim, comprising four treatises: (1) observa-
tions concerning Ben Slrach ; (2) a treatise on the "Sefer Hasi-
dlin" ; (3) six notes on the " Seder ha-TeflUah " ; (4) two notes
on the "She'eltot" of Aha of Shabha.

Mishloah Manot, on Purim gifts— observations, conjectures,
and emendations. Prague, 18»)0.

Mo'ade 'Ereb, notes and studies on the Bible, the Talmud,
and the Mldrash. Wllna, imi.

Te"udat Yisrael, on the destiny of the Jews among the na-
tions. Berlin. 18(58.

Kan Zippor, based upon one of .lEsop's fables. Berlin, 1870.

Imrot Va'akob, the first of eleven books containing discus-
sions on morality. Eydtkuhnen, 1873.

Sedeh Aram, containing a number of Interpretations of the
"Onkelos." Berlin, 187t5.

OrHoker, on the criticism of the Talmud. Berlin. 1879.

Minhat Zikkaron, one hundred passages In the Bible critically
explained. Breslau, 1881.

Hobat ha-Ab li-Beno, a pedagogical treatise on the training of
children. St. Petersburg. 1882.

Ruah Hadashah. treatises on the Talmudlc literature. Pres-
burg, 1884.

Ohel Yissaskar, a biography of Issachar ha-Kohen (Baermann
Ashkenazi). Przemysl, 1887.

Sanhedrin, a study of the origin, signiflcance, personnel, and
power of this highest tribunal of the Jews. St. Petersburg, 1891.

Reifmann also contributed extensively to the peri-
odicals of his time. In 1881 Sir Moses ]\Iontetiore
sent Reifmann a golden loving-cup, on Mhich was
engraved a Hebrew poem.

BinLiOGRAPiiv: Koicxit Yisnul. 1888,111. 174 (an autobiogra-
phv); ytrha-ihCambi, i. 32; Ha-Asif, vi. 200 ; Zeitlin, liibl.
Post-Moidels. p. 300.
II. K. J. Go.

REINACH : German family which emigrated to
France in the first half of the nineteenth century.
As its most eminent niemt)ers may be mentioned:

Jacques Reinach, Baron: French financier;
uncle and father-in-law of Joseph Reinach ; born at
Paris; died there Nov. 20, 1892. He was financially
interested in the second Panama Canal Company,
and was active in obtaining further concessions for
the company from the House of Deputies in 1888. In
Sept., 18J12,' Edouard Drumont, in the "Libre Pa-
role," asked him to account for the 3,000,000 francs
he had received from the company for purposes of
"publicity," and which it was hinted had been used
for bribery and in order to pass the supplementary
law of 1888. Reinach was summoned before a com-
mittee of the House of Deputies Nov. 8, 1892; he
failed to appear, and a warrant for his arrest was
issued Nov. 19. The next day he was discovered
dead in his bed, and was suspected of having com-
mitted suicide. His nephews, it is understood, ac-
counted for the money in question.

BiBLioGR.\PHY : Journal des Dibatx, Nov. 21, 1892; La
Grande Encuclopedie, s.v. Panama.
s. J-

Joseph Reinach : French author and statesman ;
born in Paris Sept. 30, 1856; son of Hermann Josei)h
Reinach and Julie Eliding. He was educated at
the Lycee Condorcet and the Faculte de Droit. He
was admitted to the bar of Paris in 1877. His first
publication was a political and historical work en-
titled " La Serbie et le Montenegro," while his studies
in foreign politics, published in the "Revue Bleue,"
attracted the attention of Leon Gambetta. He was
a contributor to the "Republique Fran^aise" and
the "Dix-Neuvieme Siecle," and was prosecuted by
the government of May 16, 1877, for his pamphlet
" La Republique ou le Gachis." On his return from
a mission in the East he wrote "Voyage en Orient"
(2 vols., Paris, 1879). For a short time in 1881-82
he was the "directeurdu cabinet" of Leon Gam-
betta, president of the council of ministers, and,
after Gambetta's death, as the political editor of the
" Republic] ue Fran(;ai.se " from 1886 to 1893, he ener-
getically opposed the Boulanger movement.

In 1889 Reinach was elected deputy for Digne,
department of the Basses- Alpes, and was reelected
in 1893; but five years later he lost both his seat as
deputy and his rank as captain in the territorial
army on account of liis prominence in the Dreyfus
case (1898). Until 1900, in public meetings as well
as in the columns of the "Siecle," he was one of the
first to advocate a revision of the trial, and conse-

367

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reifmann
Bttiiiach

fiurnlly was constantly attacked by tlie opponouts
of Dreyfus.

Reinach was named chevalier of the Legion of
Honor in 188G. He is the author of minierous
articles in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," the
"Grande Revue," the "Revue Britaunique," an<l
other jicriodicals, and has contributed to the "Niue-
teentii Century " and the " Athenieuni."

Reinach wrote also the following works: "Du
Relablissenient du Scrutin de Liste " (Paris, 1880);
" Les Recidivistes " (1882) ; " Leon Ganibetta " (1884) ;
" Le Ministere Ganibetta, Ilistoire et Doctrine "
(1884); "Le Ministere Clemenceau " (1885); "Les
Lois de la Republique" (1885-86); "Traduction de
la Logique Parlenientaire de Hamilton" (1886);
"Les Petites Catilinaires," a collection of articles
against Boulanger and his policy (3 vols., 1889);
"Essais de Litterature et d'Histoire" (1889); "Lu
Politique Opportuniste " (1890); "La France et
ritalie Devant I'Histoire" (1893); " Mon Comi)te
Rendu " (a collection of his principal speeches, 1898) ;
"Diderot" (1894); "Pages RepublicaineB " (1894);
"L'Eloquence in Franyaise Depuis la Revolution
Franyaise Jusqu'fi Nos Jours" (1894); "Dema-
gogues et Socialistes" (1895); "L'Education Poli-
tiiiue, Ilistoire d'un Ideal" (1896); ":Manuelde I'En-
seigneinent Primaire " and "Essais de Politique et
d'Histoire" (1898).

I lis contributions to the literature of the Dreyfus
case are as follows: "Une Erreur Judiciaire sous
Louis XIV.; Raphael Levy" (1898); "Vers la Jus-
tice par la Verite " (1898) ; " Le Crepuscule des Trai-
trcs" (1899); "Tout le Crime" (1900); "Les Bles
d'lli ver " (1901) ; and " Histoire de I'AlTaire Dreyfus "
(4 vols. ; the fifth in preparation). He edited also
"Les Discours de Gambetta " (11 vols.), "Les Dis-
cours et les Depeches de Gambetta Pendant la Guerre
Franco-AUemande" (2 vols.), and "Les Discours
de Chaliemel-Lacour."

SolomorL Reinach : French philologist and ar-
cheologist; born at St.-Germain-en-Laye Aug. 29,
1858 ; brother of Jo.seph and Theodore Reinach ; edu-
cated at the Lycee Condorcet and at the Ecole Nor-
male Supericure (1876-79). While a member of the
Ecole Franraised'Athenes (1879-82) he made discov-
eries of much interest at Myriua, near Smyrna, in the
Archipelago, and along the coast of Asia Minor. In
1886 he became a member of the staff of the ]\Iu-
seum of National Antiquities at St. -Germain, and
was deputy professor of national archeology at the
Ecole du Louvie from 1890 to 1892 and assistant
curator of the National Museums in the following
year; he was elected titular member of the Acade-
mic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres three years
later. He is an officer of public instruction and an
officer of the Legion of Honor.

Reinach is the author of the following works:
translation of Schopenhauer's "Ueber den Willen
in der Natur" (Paris, 1877); "Manuel de Philologie
Classique" (2 vols., 1883-84); "Traile d'Epigra-
phi(! Grecque" (1885); "Precis de Graimnaire
Latine" (1885); "Recherches Archeologiqucs en
Tunisio en 1883-84" (in collaboration with E. Ba-
belon; 1886); "La Colonne Trajane au Musee de
Saint-Germain" (1886); "Terres Cuites et Autres
Auti(iuites Trouvees dans la Necropole de Myrina"

(1886) and "La Necropole de Myrina" (3 voU..
1887)— both in collaboration with E. Pollier; "Ek
quis.ses Arciieologi(iuoH" (1«K8) ; " Dewription Rui-
soimte duMusecdeSuint-0ermHin"(18H9); "L'His-
toire du Travail en Gaule i\ I" Ex position de 1889"
(1890); "Antiquiles dc la Hussic Mendionuh- " (In
collaboration with Kondakov and ToIhIoI ; IHJil
"Bibliotht'(jue des Monuments Figures" '
1888-95); "Chroni(|ues d'Orient " (3 vols.. : [

"L'Originedcs Arycns" (1H92); " LesCeltcsdaiiH l.-s
Vallees du P6 etdu Danube " (1894) ; " Repertoin-de
la Statuaire Grecque el Romaine" (8 voIk , 1897-
1904); "Repcrtoiif des Vases Grccs et El-

(1899); "Guide Illustredu Musee National .. . ;

Gennain" (1899); "Apollo" (a general hJHtory of
art; 1904); '-Cuites, Mylhes et ]{■ ' (IIKM).

He edited al.soTlssot's " E.xploratii:. . ..:ilique de
la Tunisie, Geographic et Atlas de la Province Ro-
maine d'Afriipie" (2 vols., 1H88).

Reinach's active interest in Judaism is shown by
the fact that he is the vice-president of the central
committee of the Alliance Israelite Univcrscllc and
a shareholder and member of the conunittct- of tlie
Jewish Colonization Association; he has also been
the president of the Societe des Etudes Juives, to
whose review he has contributed a number of arti-
cles on Judaism.

Theodore Reinach: French scholar; born nl
St.-Germain en Lave July 3, 1860; brother of Jo-
seph and Solomon Reinach. He was educated at
the Lycee Condorcet, the Ecole des Hautes Etudes,
and the Ecole des Sciences Politiqucs, and has
taken up, in turn, the study of law, history, and
classical archeologj'. He was a member of tlic bar
of Paris from 1881 to 1886. In 1890 he was sent on
an archeological mission to Constantinople, and from
1894 to 1896 he delivered a course of public lectures
on ancient numismatics under the auspices of the
Faculte des Lettres of Paris. Since 1903 lie lias
been professor at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes
Sociales, where he lectures on the history of relig-
ion. He has been editor of the "Revue des Etiules
Grecques" since 1888. His article "Judai" in the
" Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines"
and his "Juifs" in "La Grande Encyclopedic" de-
serve mention.

Reinach is the author of the following works:
"De la Purge des Hypothc'ques Legahs Non In-
scrites"; " De la Vente des Immeubles du Hailli'
(Paris, 1880): a translation (prose and verse) of
"Handet" (1880); "Histoire des Israelites Depuis
Leur Dispersion Jusqu'il Nos Jours" (1885; 2<l eil.,
1901, 3d ed., 1903); "De lEtat de Siege et Institu-
tions de Salut Public i\ Rome, en France, et ■' •• -
la Legislation Comparee" (1885); "Les Moi
Juives" (1887; English tnmsl. by Hill, 1903); "Tr.-is
lioyaumes de I'Asie Mineure. Cappadocr. Bithynie,
Pont"(1888); "DeArchia Poeta"( 1890): " Mil hridate
Eupator, Roi de Pont" (1890; German tnmsl, 1894):
'•Recueil des Inscriptions Juridiques (Jrecques"
(in collaboration with Daroste and Haus.s<)ulller;
1890-1904); the first French tnuislatlon of Aris-
totle's nu?.treia W^rivtuuv (1891); a transcription
of the Delphic hymn to Apollo discovered by the
Ecole Frant/aised'Athenes: "l*ne ^'
aSidon "nsO^-Or.v " P..emes Choi>;

Beines
Belaud

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

368

(in collaboration with E.cl'Eichthal, 1898): "Tcxtes
d'Auteurs Grecs ct Remains Relatifs au Judaisme "
(1895); a translation and edition (in collaboration
with H. Weil) of Plutarch's " De Musica" (1900);
"L'Histoire par les Monnaies" (1902); "Catalogue
General des ^lonnaies Grecques de I'Asio Mineure,
Commence par Waddiugton " (in collaboration with
E. Babelou; 1st vol.. 1904).

Reinach is the editor of a French translation of
the complete works of Josephus, of which three vol-
umes have appeared (1900-4). He is a member of
the committee of the Jewish schools of Paris, and in
1899 was president of the Societedes Etudes Juives.
He is a chevalier of the Legion of Honor.

Bibliography: La Grande Encuclvpedie; Schwab, Beper-
toirc, lS9i^l9lKJ.
S. J. Ka.

REINES, ISAAC JACOB B. SOLOMON
NAPHTALI : Russian rabbi, and founder of the
"Mizrahi," or Orthodo.x, branch of the Zionist or-
ganization; a descendant of Saul Wahl; born in
Karlin, government of Minsk, Oct. 27, 1839. His
father, a native of Wilna, who lived several years
in Palestine before Isaac was born, gave his son a
thorough rabbinical education. Isaac made rapid
progress in his Talmudical studies, and devoted part
of his time to the study of Hebrew works on logic
and mathematics. He read also the medieval Jewish
philosophers and acquired the Russian and German
languages— an uncommon accomplishment among
Russian rabbis of the older generation.

In 1855 young Reines went to the ye.shibah of
Yolozhin, where he remained about two years.
After spending some time in Eisheshok he returned
home (1857). In 1859 lie married the daughter of
Joseph Reisen, rabbi of Hordok, settled there, and
continued his studies under the roof of his father-
in-law; and when Reisen became rabbi of Telsh
(1862) Reines removed with him to that city. In
1867 Reines became rabbi of Shukian, and in 1869
lie was chosen rabbi of the more important town of
Shwentsian, in the government of Wilna, where he
remained for about si.xteen years.

Reines began to attract attention when lie devel-
oped in his " Hotem Toknit" (Mayence, 1880; vol.
ii., Presburg, 1881) a new plan for a modernized,
logical method of studying the Talmud. Some of
the ultra-Orthodox condemned his plan as a radical
innovation, and only his great learning and piety
saved him from being openly charged with heresy.
He was one of the rabbis and representative Jews
who assembled in St. Petersburg in 1882 to consider
plans for the improvement of the moral and mate-
rial conditirm of the Jews of Russia, and there he
proposed the substitution of his method for the one
prevalent in the yeshibot. His proposition being
rejected, he founded a new yeshibah in wliich his
plans were to be carried out. It provided a ton
years' course, during which the stu-
His dent was to acquire the rabbinical

' ' Hotem knowledge necessary for ordination as

Toknit.'" rabbi, and at the same time secure the
secular education required in a gov-
ernment rabbi. But although the i)lan to supply
Russian-speaking rabbis agreed in principle with the
aims of the Russian government, there was so much

Jewish oppo.sition to his yeshibah that it was closed
by the authorities after an existence of four j-ears;
all further attemptsof Reines to reestablish it failed.

In 1885 Reines became rabbi of Lida, government
of Wilna, of which rabbinate he is still the incum-
bent (1905). Ilis next undertaking was the estab-
lishment of a system popularly known as that of the
Kovno'er Perushim, for the purpose of subsidizing
young married men (" perushim ") studying for the
rabbinate outside of j'eshibot (see Bl.\slk, Isaac b.
Solomon; ''Ozarha-Sifrut,"iii. 21). Later he joined
the Zionist movement, and when, after the fifth
Zionist congress, the Swiss and other students formed
a ladical faction and threatened to turn the move-
ment in a direction Avhich would lead away from
religion, Reines founded the Mizrahi branch, now
probably the strongest branch of the Zionist organ-
ization in Russia. Ilis personal inlluence helped to
give the support of that powerful Orthodox body
to the regular Zionist organization on the question
of the East-African or L'ganda project.

Besides the above-mentioned work Reines pub-
lished : notes on the " 'Edut bi-Yehosef " of his
father-in-law (Wilna, 1866); "'Edut be-Ya'akob,"
on testimony (ib. 1872); "Sha'are Orah," on Ilag-
gadahand Midrash {ib. 1886); "Orim Gedolim," on
Halakah {ib. 1887); "Nod shel Dema'ot." eulogies
or funeral sermons {ib. 1891); "Or Shib'at ha-
Yainim" {ib. 1896); "Orah we-Simhah" (with a
preface explaining Zionism from the Orthodox point
of view ; ib. 1898); "Or Hadash 'al Ziyyon," a refu-
tation of the arguments which are advanced by the
ultra-Orthodox against Zionism (ib. 1902).

Bibliography: Berdyczewski, in Ozar lin-Sifrut, U.22S--23i;
Rubinstein, in Jewish Mornino Journal. Feb. 4 and 5. 1904 ;
Sokolov. Sefer Zikkaron.pp. 108-109, Warsaw, 1890; Zeitlin,
UUjL Post-Mendels. p. 304.
E. C. P. Wl.

REINES, MOSES: Russian scholar and author;
born al Lida (where his father, R. Isaac Jacob Reines,
was rabbi) in 1870 ; died there March 7, 1891. Moses
Reines was the author of: " Ruah ha-Zeman," mate-
rial for the history of Jewish culture in Russia (pub-
lished in "Ozar ha-Sifrut," vol. ii.); "Nezah Yis-
rael," on the persistence of the Jewish people, the
colonization of Palestine, etc. (Cracow, 1890) ; " Ak-
sanj'ut shel Torah," material for a history of the
yeshibot in Russia (e'i. 1890); "Dor wa-Hakamaw,"
part i. , twelve biographies of modern Jewish scholars
{ib. 1890).

Bibliography : Ha-Asif, vi. 143; Zeitlin. BihI. Post Mendels.
p. 304.
u. K. .\ S W.

REINOWITZ, JACOB (REB YANKELE) :
Member of the London bet din ; born at Wilkowisk,
Poland, in 1818; died in London May 17, 1893. At
tweniy-eight years of age he was appointed rabbi
in his native town, and held the office for thirty
years. In 1S76 he accepted the position of preacher
to the Talmud Torah in London; and, attracting the
attention of Chief Rabbi N. M. Adler by his learn-
ing and labors in the East End, he became a mem-
ber of the London bet din.

" Reb Yankcle " is believed to have been the orig-
inal of "Reb Shemuel" in Israel Zangwill's "Chil-
dren of the Ghetto."
Bibliography: Jew. Chron. &nd Jew. World, May 19, 1893.

J. G. L.

369

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reines
Roland

REISCHER, JACOB B. JOSEPH (called als(.
Jacob Back) : Austriuu nibbi ; born at Prague ; died
at Metz Feb. 1733. He was the son of R. Josepli,
author of "Gib'ot '01am," aud a pupii of H. Simon
Spiia of Prague, who gave liim in marriage the
daughter of his son Benjamin Wolf. lieischer was
daj'yan at Prague, whence he was called to the
rabbinate of Kzeszow in Galicia, deriving his name
Heischer from that city, which is known as Keische
among the Jews. He Avas subsequently called to
the rabbinate of Anspach, and then occupi(;d a sim-
ilar position at Worms, from 1713 to 1719, when lie
went to Metz, ofliciating there until his death.

Heischer was the author of the following works:
"3Iinhat Ya'akob " (Prague, 1689 et scq.), conunen-
tary on the "Torat ha-Hattat " of Moses Isserles,
with many refutations and amplifications; "Torat
ha-Shelamim," commentary on the Yoreh De'ah,
Hilkof'Niddali," and
on the " Kontres ha-
Sefekot" of Shabbe-
thai ha-Kolien, with an
appendix containing
eighteen rcsponsa on
various subjects (print-
ed as the second part of
the " Minhat Ya'akob,"
ib. 1689 ci! seq.); " Hok
Ya'akob," commenta-
ry on Orah Hayvim,
Hilkot "Pesah," 'first
printed with the Shul-
han 'Aruk, Orah Hu}'-
yim (Dessau, 169G);
"Soletle-Minhah," sup-
plements to the "Min-
liat Ya'akob " and the
"Torat ha-Shelamim,"
first printed with the
"Hok Ya'akob" {ib.
1696); "'lyyun Ya'a-
kob" (Wilniersdorf,
1729), commentarj^ on
the "'En Ya'akob";
"Shcbut Ya'akob," re-
sponsaand decisions in
three parts: ])art i.
(Halle, 1709), with the

appendix " Pe'er Ya'akob," containing nnvell;e on
the treatises Berakot, Baba Kanuna, and Gittin ; part
ii. (Offenbach, 1719), treatises on the rules "miggo"
and "sefek sefeka"; part iii. (Metz, 1789), contain-
ing also his "Lo Hibbit Aweu be- Ya'akob," a reply
to the attacks of contemporary rabbis \ipon liis
"Minhat Ya'akob" and "Torat ha-Shehimim."

Bini.i()(ii!APiiY: Carinolv, ill Jost's .-in ?/«;<;«, 1840, p. 9(i; Fiirst,
J{|/)/. ./((((. iii. 14S-149; Azulai, .S'k /h /(fi-fyci/od/;). s.v. Jacnh
Back; Steinschneider, Cat. BudL cols. 1248-1250; Fuenu,
Kciictict YisracU I>p. 575-.5Tti.
s. J. Z. L.

REITLINGER, FREDERICK: French ju-
rist; born at Ichenhausen, Bavaria, June 18, 1836.
He attended the Saint Anna College at Augsburg.
After having pursued Talmudical studies under
Abraham Geiger at Breslau, he studied law at the
universities of Munich and Heidelberg, where he
obtained his degrees. For several years Reitliuger
X.— 24

Adrian Reland.

pleaded in ciiiuiual tm»eH, uud acquired great rc-
ntjwn in Gernuiny.

lu 1866 he went to Paris, and, having obtained an
audience with the Freneli emperor. Nupokon III..
was riejuesled l)y him to wiiie a book u|»on riHji>-
erative societies. The book was published the same
year under the title "Les Sorittes Cooperatives eu
Ailemagne et le Projet de lyoi Fruneuis " ; and on
account of that work Napoleon graiiled Hcitlinger
what is called the "grande naturuiisation," wliich
may be obtained, after one year's re.sidencc. in con-
sideration of sonic imi)ortant services rendered to
France. Hcitlinger established liimself it-

torney in Paris in 1H(57, and soon becam< • i.-d

for his remarkable ability. He was chosen by Jules
Favre to be one of his secretaries ; and he stocxl in
high esteem with President Grevy. During the
Franco- Prussian war (1870-71) tiuj Government of

National Defense sent
Heitlinger as special
delegate to England
and Austria; and to
carry out this mission
he lia<i to escajie from
Paris in a balloon. He
wrote a picturesque
narrative ofhis voyage
in a book entitled " L"ne
Mission Diplomatique
en Octobre, 1870"
(Paris. lsy9).

Heitlinger was the
first to make known
in France Sehulze-De-
litzsch's system of self-
help; and liis above-
cited book upon coop-
erative societies is still
authoritative on that
subject. Heitlinger is
an olficer of the Legion
of Honor,
p. S. Max.

RELAND, ADRI-
AN : 1) 11 1 ch Ciirjs-
lian Hebraist and Ori-
entalist ; born at Hyp.
near Alkmaar. Hol-
land, July 17, 1676; died at L'tiecht Feb. 5. 171<J.
He became professoc at llarderwyk in 1699. but re-
signed his ai>pointment in the same year for the
chair of Oriental languages at I'trecht. He studied
Hebrew and rabbinics at Amstenlam.

Heland'spublicationswere: " Aualecta Habbinica"
(Utrecht, 1702) ; " Disserlationes Quiuque de Nnnimls
Veterum Helnu'orum" (ib. 1709); and an intmduc-
tion to Alting's Hebrew grammar, together with an
edition of the Book of Huth with a rabbinical com-
mentary (rt. 1710). In his miscellai!' -'^n
of dissertations lie dealt with many 1 . < r-
est, as the Samaritans. Persian words in the Talmud.
etc. His chief works of Jewish interest, however,
were his "Antiquitates Sacra' Vetenim Hebraorum"
(ib. 1708). wliich went through no less than five edi-
tions, and his "Pahestina e.x Monnmentis Veteribua
Illustrata," which was published in 1714 at L'trccbl.

HelipiSse Wochenschrift
Hembrandt

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

370

with eleven maps, and at Nuremberg in 1716. Both
tliese works were for a long time the staudaril au-
thorities on their respective subjects.
niBi.ior.RAPHY: Di<njraijhic UuivcrgclU-; Herzog-Hauck,

Heal-Encuc.

T. ■* •

RELIGIOSE WOCHENSCHRIFT FXjR
GOTTGLAUBIGE GEMtJTHER. See Peki

onirAi.s.

REMAINDERS AND REVERSIONS : In
AngU)-Anierican law the owner of property (espe-
cially of land) may and often does grant or de%ise it
to one person for years or for life, anil then to other
persons forever, or consecutively to several persons
for life. The estates or interests thus given to take
elTect after the lir.st are known as " remainders " ;
but if the grantor or devisor does not exhaust his
entire estate, the interest not disposed of remains in
him and his heirs, and this is known as a "rever-
sion." These words are unknown to the Jewish
law ; but the estates or interests which they desig-
nate might arise under it to a limited extent.

It has been shown in the article on Alienation
AND Acquisition that "the owner of land may
sell or give it for a term of years [free of rent] or
he may sell or give its produce for a number of
years"; and the difference between the two forms
of grant has also been shown there. There seems to
be no objection to a gift for life, though a sale of a
life-estate might have been drawn into question, as
a chance bargain. Here then is a reversion remain-
ing ill the original owner and his heirs.

Maimniiides ("Yad," Mekirah, x.\iii., based on a
short remark [IJ. B. 14H:i] in the Talmud), shows
how such an estate may be given also in one or more
fruit-trees, or in a dove-cot (tlie grantee for years
having the broods), or in a beehive, or in ewes or cows
(the grantee enjoying the Heeces and the lambs or
calves), notwithslanding the objection that this dis-
position of the unborn fledglings, the unmade honey
or wax, etc., looks like the grant of things not in
existence, which is contrary to Talmudic principles.

Perhaps the reversioner under some circum-
stances— e.g., where, having given away only the
produce, he retains some kind of possession — might
sell his reversion; and it seems that he can always
make a gift thereof " mortis causa " (which is simply
wliat would in modern law be called a bequest by
will); and in tiiis way there might be created a re-
mainder in fee after the particular estate for life or
for years; but certainly there can be no successive
life-estates, no " remainder for life," because to create
this there must be the grant of sometliing not yet in
existence; and this runs counter to first principles.

w. K. L. X. D.

REMAK (MOSES BEN JACOB CORDO-
VERO) : Kaljhiof Sated and cahalist ; horn in ir)22;
died June '2i>, loTO. He belonged to a Spanish fam-
ily, probably of Cordova, whence his name "Cor-
dovero." After having studied rabbinical literature
under the guidance of Joseph Caro, Cordovero at
the age of twenty was iritiated by his brother-in-law
Solomon Alkabiz into the mysteries of the ('abala,
in which he soon became a recognized authority.
A profound thinker, and well versed in Juda-o-
Arabic philosophy, Cordovero devoted his activity

to speculative, strictly metaphysical Cabala (np-p
n'JVy), and kept aloof from the wonder-working or
l)ractical Cabala (n'L"y?2 ^':>2P) wliieh was just then
being propagated at bated by Isaac Luria, in whose
circle of followers he moved.

In a series of works (see below), the most impor-
tant of which is that entitled " Pardes Uimmonim,"
Cordovero endeavored to elucidate all the tenets of
the Cabala, such as the doctrines of tlie sefirot,
emanation, the divine names, the im-
His port and significance of the alphabet.

System. etc. Quite original is Cordovero's
conception of the Deity set fortli by
him in his "Shi'ur Komah." It is surprisingly
identical with that taught later by Spinoza and
there can be no doubt that the Dutch philosopher
alluded to Cordovero when, in answer to the ques-
tion addressed to him by his friend Oldenburg on
the origin of his theory, he referred to an old Jew-
ish philosopher ("Epistola," pp. 21, 22). In descri-
bing the relation of God to His creatures Cordovero
expresses himself in the following terms:

" And the Holy One— blessed be He! -shines In the ten seflrot
of the world of emanation, in the ten seflrot of the world of
creation, and in the ten heavenly .spheres. In invesUputing-
this subject the reader will And : that we all proceed from Him,
and are comprised in Him; that our life is interwoven with
His; that He is the existence of all belnprs; that the inferior
beings, such as vegetiibles and animals, which serve us as nour-
ishment, are not outside of Him ; in short, he will discover that
all is one revolving wheel, which ascends and descends— all Is
one, and nothing is separated from Him" ("Shi'ur Komah," ch.
xxii.).

But what relation can there be between the infi-
nite, eternal, and necessary being and the corporeal,
compounded world ? Then, again, if nothing e.vists
outside of God, how is the existence of the universe
to be explained? Its creation at a cerUiin <l('finite
time presupposes a change of mind on
Relation the part of God; and this is inadmis-
of Finite sible, for it is not possible to ascribe
and to Him any change or alteration.

Infinite. These problems Cordovero endeavors
to solve in the " Pardes Himmonim."
The question how could the finite and corporeal
proceed from God, who is infinite and incorporeal,
is explained by him by the doctrine of concentra-
tion of the divine light, through which the finite,
which has no real existence of itself, appeared
as existent. From the concentration of the divine
light proceeded by a successive emanation the ten
sefirot or the dynamic tools, through which all
change takes place ("Slia'ar 'Azamot we-Kelim,"
iv.). Great development is given in the •* Pardes"
to tiie question of the divine attributes. Cordovero
not only adopts the Aristotelian ]irinciple that in
God tliinker, thinking, and the object thougiit of
are absolutely imited, but he jiosits an es.sential dif-
ference between God's mode of thinking ami that
of man.

" God's knowledge." says Cordovero. " is different from that
of the creature, since in the case of the latter kniwledge and
the thing known are distinct, thus leading to subjects which are
again separate from him. This is described by the three ex-
pressions—cogitation, the cogitator, and th(! subject of cogita-
tion. .Now, the Creator is Himself Knowledge, the Knowcr, and
the object known. His knowledge does not consist in the fact
tliat He din-cts His thoughts to things without Ilim, since in
comprehending and knowing Hiiiis"'lf He comprebenils and
knows everything that exists. There Is nothing which is not

371

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ReliKiose Wochenschrift
Reuibi'undt

united to Hlin, and which He does not find in His own siit)-
st;incc. He is tlic arclictvpe of all existiuKllilnjrs, and all ihintis
are in Him in Ilieir imrest and most perfeet foiiii ; so tliiit tlic
peifection <'f the creatures consists in the support whereby they
are uniteil to the prini;irv source of His existence, and they snik
down and fall from that perfect and lofty position in proportion
to their seijaratiou from Him" (" Pardes Uinunoiiiin," .'j.'ja).

The ■' Parties Riinnioiiim " consists of tliirteen
gales or sections, subdivided into clmpters. It was
tirst pnblislied at Cracow in loOl. A restiine of it
was published, under the title "'Asis Rimnionini,"
by Saintiel Gallieo; and coinnicnlaries on some
parts of it were written by jSIenaliein Azariah da
Fano, ]Slordecai Pis/.ybrani, and Isaiah Horowitz.
The original work was partly translated into Latin
by Bartolocci ("Riblia Hal.-binica," iv. 281 rtxcq.), by
Joseph Ciantes (in " De Sanctissiina Trinitate Con-
tra Jiidteos," Koine, 1G64), by Atliauasius Kircher
(Rome, l(5")~-r)4), and by Knorr von Rosenroth (in
"Kabl)ala Demuliita," Sulzbtich, 1GT7).

Other works of Cordovero arc : " Or Ne'erab " (Ven-
ice, lij8T; Cracow, 1647; Flirth, 1710), an introduc-
tion to the Cabahi; " SeferGenishin " (Venice, 1548),
cabalistic rcHections and coininents on ninety-nine
passages of the Riblc; "Tomer Deborah " (Venice,
1588), an ethical Ircatise; "Zibhe bhelamim " (Lub-
lin. 1618), cabalistic commentary on the prayers for
Rosli ha-Shanah and the " 'Abodah " of the Day of
Atonement; "Tikknii Keri'at Sheina' " (Prague,
1615), on the Shema' ; " Tikkun Lei Shebu'ot we-Ho-
sha'na Rabbah " (n.d.), i)rayers for the nights of Pen-
tecost an<l Hosiia'na Rahijah; " Perush lia-TefiUah "
(n.d., n.p.), cabalistic commentary on the prayers.

The unpublished works of Cordovero are: "Eli-
mah Rabba"; "Shi'ur Komah" (MS. Benzion, No.
18); "Seler Or Yakar"; "Perush Sefer Y^ezirah " ;
"Perush 'al Alegillat Ekah " ; "Perush 'al ha-
Torah"; "Perush 'al Shir ha-Shirim " ; "Be-Saba
Ta'ama"; " Henezu ha-Rimmonim "; "Mebakkesh
Adonai"; and "Tefillah le-Mosheh."

Bibliography: De Rossi, Dizwnario (German transl.), p. 87;
Furst, liitil. Jud. i. 1.S7; Steinschneider, Cat. Bndl. col. 179;i ;
Ginsburf.'. The Kalihnlah, p. 132; Finn. Sephardim, p. 307;
Liodo, The Jexcs in .<p<iin, p. 3;)9 ; Jost, Gesch. des Juden-
thiimsund Seiner Sehten, in. 137 et scq.: Gratz, Gesch. ix.
444: Zunz, Z. G. p. 294 ; idem. Die Manalstaae, p. 35;
David Kahana, in Ha-Sliiloaf.i, 1^97, p. 90.

.1. L Br.

REMAK, ERNST JULIUS : German physi-
cian ; born at Berlin May 26, 1849; son of Robert
Remak. He received his education at the univer-
sities of Breslau, Berlin, Wurzburg, Strasburg, and
Heidelberg, and obtained the degree of M.D. in 1870;
he took jiart in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71.
After serving as assistant in the department for
nervous diseases at the Charite Hospital, Berlin,
from 1873 to 1875 he established himself as a neu-
ropath in the German capital, where he became
privatdocent in 1877, and professor in 1893.

Rcinak has contributed more than fifty essays
to the professional journals, and is the author of:
"Grnndriss dev Elektrodiagnostik und Elektrothe-
rapiefurPrakti.sche Aerzte." Vienna, 1895; "Ncuii-
tis und Polyneuritis," in Nothnagcl's " Handbnch
der Speziellen Pathologic und Therapie," eft. 19U0.
Bibliography : Pagel, Biofif. jLe.r. ^-

REMAK, ROBERT : German physician ; born
at Posen July 26, 1815; died at Kissingen Aug. 29,

IXd'i. He studied medicine at llie liiiversity of
Berlin, graduated in IHJ^H, and sc-tiled in the Prus-
sian capital. From \HA:i he was ussiiitaiit ui the
liathological department of the iiniver>*ijy, and in
1847 received the "venia iegendi " from IiIh ultnu
mater. He was the first Jewjsli privat-<hH-enl in
Prussia. In is.'i!) lie liecaine n ,r.

Remak cnnlributed several ; ; ... iUh lo

medical science, especially on the conm ruction of
nervc-ii.ssue and on the treatment of its diseiux-s.
Among his many es.says on this subject may l>c
mentioned: "Vorlaiifige Mittheilung Miitroslto-
piseher Beobachtungen llbcr ilen Iniuren liaii der
Cerel)rospinalnerv(ii," in .Mlilli-r's "Archiv." 18.'J6;
" Ueber die Zweifelhaftr Flimmerl)ewegung un den
Nerven,"rt. 1H41; " I'elier den Inhalt der Nervcn-
primitivnJiire," rt. 1845; " I'eber E.\ trace 11 u lure
Entstehimg Thierischer Zellen untl Uber die V^er-
mehrung Der.selben Dincli Tlieilung." il>. 1X52;
"Ueber Methodische Elektrisinnig Gemhmter Mus-
keln," Berlin, 1855; "Galvanotlierapie tier Nervcn-
und Muskelkrankheiten," ib. IM.'iS (translated into
French by Morpain, 1860h "Ueber die Embryo-
logische Grundlage der Zelleulehre," in MQller'a
"Archiv," 1862.

Bibliography: Papel, IJiof;. Lrr.

F T H.

REMBRANDT (REMBRANDT HAR-
MENSZOON VAN RYN;: Dutch painirr, born
at Leydeu July 15, 1606 or 1607; died at Amsterdam
Oct. 8, 1669. He was a contemporary of Manas.seh
ben Israel, with whom he was on terms of intimate
friendship and whcse portrait he painted in 1645
and etched in 1654. In 1655 he etched four small
illustrations for Manas-
seh's " Piedro Gloriosa o de
la Estatua de Nebuchad-
nezzar" (Amsterdam,
1655). The plates, which
are preserved in the Brit-
ish Museum, represent
Nebuchadnezzar's dream,
the visions of Ezekiel, Ja-
cob's dream, and the com-
bat between David and
Goliath.

For a long time Rem-
brandt lived in Breedstraat
in Amsterdam, near the
Jewish quarter: and there
he collected the tyi)es and
models which he used for
his paintings of Biblical
subjects and of the Jewish
life of his time. As the

earliest existiAg portraits of Jews und as the work
of one of the greatest portrait-paint. -^
they arc both artistically and anthroj

\ ^

Jewish Betonu*.

(From u >lcklnc b; lUnlnB^l)

!l time
AS im-
portant. Following is a list of Rembnindt s works
of Jewish interest, with the dat. ■ -'>xinialcor
actual) of the paintings and the . or collec-

tions in which they are to be fouml (the works are
enumerated in Biblical-historical sequence):
Old Testamkxt asp apocrvpiial siiukcts.
(1) Abrahatn Entertalnlnp the Anpels il'^.). St. rc(''P>tMirjr.
Hermitage. <2) Abraham Recelrtnif the Anjr<-1» a6a<j, Vienna,

1630 : Charlts T. Yeikes" CuUcctiuu, Ncw Yoii.

1U40 ; Kuyal lialk-ry, UcrUn.

1W;J-15: The HerUiilaKf, St. I'elersburg.

IG^O-JJG: BiK-kinKlii>m Palace, Loudon.

Portraits of Sevk.ntee.nth-Century Jews by Rembrandt.

(R«produccd by permlmon from Bode, " The Complete Works o( Rembrsodt." CopyrlKht by Charles Sedelmeyer, Paris.)

1057: Natioual Gallery, Loodun.

1635 : Duke ut UevuUsliirc's Cullucliou, ChalsWurtU.

1635 : Uampton Court Palace.

1661 : Rudolf Kahn's Collection, Paris.

Portraits of SEVENTEENXH-CENTrRY Jews dv Rembrandt.

(Reproduced by permissi..n from Bode, " The Complete Work« of Rembrandt." Copyright by ChirUtSedelaeyer. P»rl«.)

Sembrandt
Remnant of Israel

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

374

SohOnborn-Buchheim Gallery, {o) Tbe Uisinissal of Hagar
(IWtl), London. Vii-toria aud Albert Museuiri. U) The Uisiiiissal
of Haffar (ItiJO). Enpland. Earl of Dnnbigirs collet-tion, Newn-
ham Paddox. (5) .Abnihaiirs SacriUce (liKlJ), St. Petersburg,
Hennitage. (C) Abr.iham's SacriUie iliJUii), .Muuicli, Pinaco-
thek. (7) Uebekah aud Eliezer (1034), Vienna, Sehonborn-
Buehheim Gallery. (8) Isaac Blessing Jacob (likW), England,
Earl of Brownlow's collection. Bellon House. (Jrantham. (9)
Jacob Wrestling with the Angel (lii27), Berlin. Royal Gallery.
HO) Jacob Seeing Joseph's Bloody ("oat (liiStl). London. Earl of
Derby's collection. (11) Joseph's Two BR>thers Showing the
Bloody Coat to Jacob (ItiSOi. St. Petersburg. Hermitage. (12) Jo-
seph's Dream (1(533). Amsterdam, Six coUeition. (13) Joseph
Accused by Potiphar's Wife ( KW). (14) Joseph Accused by Poti-
phar's Wife (ItxVj). St. Petersburg. Hermitage. (1")) Joseph Ac-
cused by Potiphar's Wife (liiVi). Berlin, Uoyal Gallery. (16) Jacob
Blessing the Sons of Joseph (KiVD. Cassel, Museum. (IT) The
Finding of .Moses (leVJi. Philadelphia, John (f. Johnson's col-
leitlon. (18) .Moses Breaking the Tables of the Law (1&59),
Berlin, Royal Gallery. (19) Samson's Wedding ( 163**), Dresden,
Royal Gallery. CM) Samson and Delilah (16:}t)), Cassel, Mu-
seum. (21) Samson Threatening His Father-in-Law (1630), Ber-

ing His Father'sSight (1636), Brussels, Due d'Aremberg's collec-
tion. (43) Tbe Angel Raphael and Tobias (1637), Paris, Louvre.

SCBJECTS FRO.\I JEWISH LiFK (IX ClIRO.NOLOGICAL SEQUENCK).

(44) Portrait of a Young Jew (1632i, Vanas, Sweden, Coiint
Wachtmeisler's collection. (45) Suppliant Before a Priest (16;}4i,
France, Honnat Museum, Bayonne. (46) Rabbi With a White
Turban (1635), England, Duke of Devonshii-e's collection. Chats-
worth. (471 Rabbi in High Turban(1635), Ltnidon, Earl of Derby's
collection, Derby House. (48) Rabbi in Fur Cloak (16:$,")), London,
King of England, Buckingham Palace. (49» Rabbi in a Wide
Cap (163i5), New York. ( haiies T. Yerkes' collection. (">()) Rabbi
with a Flat Cap (16:15), England, Royal Gallery. Hampton Court
Palace. (51) Rabbi in a Broad Cap (1642), Paris, John Forge's
collection. (52) Rabbi at a Study-Table (1642), Budapest, Na-
tional Gallery. (53) Head of Elderly Jew in Siiir.U Cap (1643),
St. Petersburg, Hermitjjge. (54) Rabbi Seated, with Stick in
Hand (lt)45), St. Petersburg, Hermitage. (55) Rabbi Seated,
with a Gold Chain and Broad-Brimmed Cap (1645), Berlin, Royal
Gallery. (56) Rabbi Seated, with Cane and Gold Chain (1(>45),
Dresden, Royal (iallery. (57) Headof a Jew with Seamy Brown
Beard and a Dark Cap (1645), London, Larl of EUesmere's col-

I.NTEKIOK OF A SYNAGOGUE AT A.MSTEIUJAM.
(From aa etchlug by Rembrandt.)

lin. Royal Gallery. (22) Samson Captured by the Philistines
(1628), Berlin, Emperor of Germany's collection. (23) The
Blinding of Samson (16.35), Vienna, SchOnborn-Buchhelm Gal-
lery. (24) The Sacriflce of Manoah (1641), Dresden, Royal (Jal-
lery. (25) David Playing the Harp Before Saul (16;}0), Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, Stadel Institut. (26) David Playing the Harp
Before Saul (16&")), The Hague, A. Bredius' collection. (27) The
Reconciliation Between David and Absalom (1642), St. Peters-
burg, Hermitage. (28) Buth-sheba at the Bath (16.54), Paris,
Louvre. (29) Bath-sheba After the Bath (1643), The Hague,
Baron Steengracht van Dinvenwoorde's collection. (:$0) Ahasu-
erusiind Hainan at Esther's Fe.xst (166(1), Moscow, RuinlantzoIT
Museum. (31) Hainan Begging for Mercy Before Esther I16a5),
Bucharest, King of Rumania's collection. (:J2) Fall of Haman
(1665). St. Petersburg, Hermitage. (33) Jeremiah Mourning the
Destruction of Jerusalem (li*W), St. Petersburg, Count Sergei
StroganoIT's collection. iZi) Fejistof Belshazzar (16.34), England,
Earl of Di-rby's collection, Knowsley House. (:35) Daniel's Dream
(1650), Berlin, Royal Gallery. CM) Susanna at (he Bath (1647),
Paris, Louvre. (:i7).Susannaatthe Bath (1637), The Hague. Royal
Gallery. Cix) Susanna and the Elders (1647). Berlin, Royal Gal-
lery- (39) The Head of Susanna (1647), Paris. Leon Bonnat's
collection. (40) Tobit and His Wife (lt>50), England, Sir Fred-
erick Cwk'a collection, Richmond. (41) TobIt Discovers His
Wife's Theft (1645>, Berlin, Royal Gallery. (43) Tobia? Restor-

lection, Bridgewaterhouse. (.58) Head of Elderly Jew in a Fur
Cap (1645), Paris, Louvre. (.59) Bust of a Bearded Jew (1646),
England, Earl Cowper's collection. Panshanger. (6()) Mead of
a Young Jew in Skull-Cap (1C)46), Berlin, Royal Gallery. (61)
Jewish Doctor (Ephraim Hezekiah Bueno; see Jew. Encvc.
iil. 422). (62) Head of a Young Jew with a Red Beard (16.55),
Philadelphia, John G. Johnson's collection. (63) Rabbi with
Black Beard (16.57), London, National Gallery. (64) Blind Jew
(ltfc57). Amsterdam, Royal (iallery. (65) Young Kabbi with
Black Skull-Cap (1661), Paris, Rudolf Kahn's collection.

The following subj(^cts painted by Kcnibrandt

are known only in engravings;

(66) Jewish Merchant. (67) Jewish Priest, engraved by Van
Bergen. (68) Rabbi, engraved by (i. F. Schmidt. Reedel, and
Wright. (G9) Rabbi, engraved by W. Baillie. (7(1) Rabbi, en-
graved by Cooper, in the collei'tion of the Duke of Buckingham.
(71) Mana.-iseh ben Israel at the Age of Thirty-live, painted in
1(U.), engraved by J. G. Hert«^(l. (72) Jewish Merchant (a copy
of that in St. Petersburg), the .so-called " Manasseh ben Israel "
in the Schleissheim Gallery, engraved by Kellerhoven. (TH) Jew
(mezzotint), engraved by J. Stolker. (74) Abraham. (75) Lot.
(76) Jacob. (77 and 78) Ellsha.

Well known, also, is a picture called the "Jewish

375

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Kembrandt
Remnaut of Israel

Bride," in tiie Rijksmuseum at Amsterdam, Hol-
land; but this work does not show any Jewish
chiiracteristics. and has received its popular name
without reason. Another pi(;ture (also called by
the same title), in the Lichteusteiu collection at Vi-
enna, is generally accepted as a portrait of Hcni-
brandt's sister (ir)3'2). A portrait of Rembrandt's
father, entitled " Philo, the Jew," is iu the Ferdi-
nandcuni it Innsbruck (1630).

IJrUnSWiCK, lOO.) ; KU-UI, .1 /rt < 1 'Hi fMUl. rrtfii\fitrt il( ffiwi 11 /f 1 1I ,

I'aiis, isitti; Uovinski, i,YKi(i'»T Gravis de RciuhnuKlt. at.
PetiTsbuFfj, llliMt; ('iirh>i>r(li<i nf Paiiitrrs and I'<tiiitiim'<,
New York, 1S!I".J; I.ticicn Wolf, M,)i(issili Inn IsiaeTt^ Mittxioll
to Oliver Cromwell, UmdonA'Ml (in wtiicli botb of Heiii-
brandt's pictures of Maiiusseh are reproduced).

F. T. H.

REMENYI, EDUARD : Hungarian violinist ;
born in Eged. Hungary, 1830; died at New York,
iSIay 15, 1898. He studied under Bohm at the
Vieima Conservatoriiun from 1842 to 18-15. Ban-
ished from Austria for participation in the Hun-
garian Kevolution of 1848, he went to the United
States, where for live years he led the life of an
itinerant player. After his return to Europe in
1853 he sojourned for a time at Weiniar, where he
received the benetit of Liszt's instruction. In 1854
he became solo violinist to Queen Victoria. He ob-
tained his amnesty in 1800 and returned to Hungary,
being soon afterward ajipointed soloist to the em-
peror Francis Joseph. In 1865 he made a brilliant
tour through France, Germany, Belgium, and Hol-
land. From 1871 to 1877 he was in Paris, whence
two years later he jirocecded to London and then
to the United States, Canada, and Mexico. A
concert tour round the world was undertaken by
him in 1886, in the course of which he visited Japan,
China, Cochin-China, and the Cape of Good Hope.

Remenyi made iuunerou.-5 transcriptions of piano-
forte pieces, such as Chopin's waltzes, polonaises,
und mazurkas, and pieces by Bach, Schu])ert, and
others, ail of which were published under the title of
"Nouvelle Ecole du Violon." His best original
composition is his violin concerto.

Bini.iooRAPHY: Baker, Bioff. Diet, of Musicians; Ricmann,
Muxik-Lcxikon; rallas Lexicon.
s. J. So.

REMNANT OF ISRAEL ("she'erit Yisrael"
or "slie'ar"): Concept of fretiuent occurrence in the
utterances of the Prophets, and closely interwoven
in their peculiar construction of Israel's historj^ and
destiny. The idea is indicated in the name of Isa-
iah's son Shear-jashub (Isa. vii. 3). Israel, steeped
in sin and disloyal to Yiiwir, will be severely chas-
tised. The hostile nations, indeed, are the e.xecii-
tioners of a deep, divine plan (comp. Isa. x. 5).
Many, even the greater part, of Israel will fall or be

carried away. The remnaut will be

View saved and will return (Isa. x. 20, 21).

of Isaiah.. In Isaiah's faith the impregnability of

Jerusalem and the indestructibility of
Israel are unshakable and fundamental elements.
His doctrine of the remnant is, in the main.

centered in them (Isa. x. 23, where the better read-
ing would be loy nirr DX; for if, or since, "Yinvii
is with thee, () Israel," as the simd by tiie .sea will
be Shear jashub, the remnant that will repent and
be saved). This ninnanl will no longer lely u|inn
alliances with the suriounding natiuns, but upon
Yiiwn (Isa. x. tiO).

The jirocess by which this remnant is separated is
likened to the gathering of grapes or the shaking of
an olive-tree, the result being that some of the fruit
is left. But though those who survive will Ijc few
in number, they shall be "called holy "(Isa. iv. 3,
xvii. 6).

Isaiah's contemporary Micah (if the pa.ssages
really belong to him; tliey have the a|)iiearance of
being the utterances of later .;pocalyi)lic seers) pro-
claims the same doctrine. Exiled Israel will still
have a remnant free to influence, for good or evil,
its surroiuidings, and this remnant will be gathered
again (Micah ii. 12, v. G, 7).

Zeiihaniah (dining the reign of Josiah) apparently
identities this lemnant with the "meek " of thelantl.
It has found a lefuge ami nuans of escape on the
great and terrible day of judgment, and to it is
promisetl the ruleiship of the Philistine coast-dis-
tricts (Zeph. i'.. 3, 7). This renmant "'of the house of
Judah" will be visited by Yuwh, and their captiv-
ity will return. This ''remnant of Yiiwii's people"
will also despoil discomfited Amnion and ]SI(iab.
In Zeph. ii. 9 this "yhe'erit" interchanges with
" jeter goy " in the second half. Iu the third chap-
ter of Zephaniah, which, however, bears every in-
dication of being post-exilic, the remnant of Israel,
"a poor and needy people" (Ilebr.), isdesciibed as
not committing iniciuity, as speaking only the truth,
and as living in blissful pastoral peace and security.
Jeremiah makes most elaborate use of the theory.
The prophet foresees that Judah is doomed to cap-
tivity ; but he is equallj' certain that a remnant will
survive. This remnant will have to endure much.
It will be gleaned as thoroughly as
Applica- a vine (Jer. vi. 9). It is described
tion by as ''the remnant of my flock," and
Jeremiah, is promised restoration and increase
(Jer. xxiii. 3). This remnant is the
subject of a most fervent, but jubilant, prayer for
succor (Jer. xxxi. 7). The remnant is the people of
God (lb.). Jeremiah employs the plirase also in the
sense of " those that escaped deportation " (Jer. xlii.
15, 19).

Ezekiel is moved by the signs of destruction to
ask whether "the remnant "of Israel will not be
spared (Ezek. ix. 8. xi. 13). The context shows
that for Ezekiel the phrase has the value of a tech-
nical term connoting the congregation of Israel, the
exiles; and in Haggai it has the same force, denoting
the common people, the congregation, as distinct
from the princes and priests (Hag. i. 12, ii. 2).

This congregation, or remnant, of Israel, accord-
ing to the critical school, is identical with the loyal
Hasidim (the "meek." the "poor") so often referred
to in the Psalms, the martyrs during the Maccabejin
rebellion, the "servants of Ynwii," who, when the
Maccabean princes proved false, remained true to
their God. Many of the passages attributed to
Isaiah, Zephaniah, and Micah are a.s.signed by the

Benan
Repentance

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

376

critics to unknown writers of post-exilic and Maccu-
bean times (comp. Dulim, "Jcsaia,' ~M ed., p. 73.
G5ttingeu, iy02).

The phrase ••remnant of Israel" ("she'erit Yis-
rael ") has come to be a favorite name for Jewish
congregations, as in the case of the oldest congre-
gation in Xew York.

J. E. G. H.

REN AN. JOSEPH ERNEST (commonly
known as Ernest Renan) : Frentli Semitic scholar
and thinker; burn at Trcguier Feb. '23, \S2'3; died
at Paris Oct. 2. 1892. Destined for the priesthood,
he felt in 1842, after the study of German philos-
ophy anil Semitic philology, that he was no longer
able to continue his training for that office. His
"Histoire Generale lies Lar.gucs Semitiiiucs,"' pub-
lished in 1855, founded his reputation as an Orien-
talist, and especially attracted attention by his view
that the Semitic peoples have a natural bent toward
monotheism. A voyage to Syria (1861), undertaken
for scientific purposes, prepared the way for his
"Vie de Jesus" (1863), in which, almost for the first
time, a purely historical treatment was applied to
the subject. This led to his suspension and final
rejection from his professorship of Hebrew in the
College de France, in which he was succeeded by S.
Munk.

Kenan's •' Vie de Jesus " was the first volume of a
history of Christianity down to the time of Marcus
Aurelius, which occupied his attention up to 1878.
He had in the meantime been restored (1870) by the
republic to his Hebrew professorship, and lie de-
voted himself for the rest of his life to a history of
the people of Israel in five volumes, the last two,
published posthumously, bringing it down to the
common era and thus connecting it with his other
series. In his history lie adopted Ewald's views of
the sources of the Pentateuch, and regarded the
Prophets somewhat as sublime socialists. In addi-
tion, Renan published translations of Job (1859),
Canticles (1860). and Ecclesiastes (1882). His " Mis-
sion de Phenicie" (1874) is a valuable contribution
to the history of Phenician civilization; and he was
practically the founder of the "Corpus Inscrip-
tionum Semiticarum," for which he edited the first
volume, on Phenician inscriptions. Further, lie
edited the sections on the French rabbis contributed
to the "Histoire Litteraire do la France" (vols.
x.vviii., xxxi.)by A. Neubauer, and made use of the
latter's Talmudic knowledge both in his "Vie de
Jesus" and in the subsequent volumes of his liis-
tory. being the first savant to do so. In 1883 Renan
deliveretl in Paris two discourses, on " Le JudaTsme
Comme Race et Comme Religion " and "Le Juda-
Ysme et le Christianisme " respectively ; he contrib-
uted also to the "Revue des Etudes Juives."

Bibliography : J. Jacobs, in Academu, Or-t. 5. 1S<J2: M. Darni-
stH»-r. Lifenf Ernciit nemni. London. IHOfi ; I.t^vy. Ln Sii'Kt-
fl"(ine ct M. RcJian (a reply lo the Vie de Jems), Lun^vllk-,
1««3.

RENT
Ten A.M.

REPAIRS. See Landlord and

REPENTANCE (Hebr. " teshubah"): The
noun occurs only in post-Biblical literature, but it is

derived from the vocabulary of the Bible. Maimon-
ides" dictum, "All the prophets prciich repentance"
("Yad," Teshubah, vii. 5), echoes the opinion of
Talmudic authority (Ber. 34b).— Biblical Data: In
Biblical as well as post-Biblical literature repentance
is jiostulated as the indispensable condition on
which the salvation and redemjition of the people
of Israel, as well as of every individual man, de-
pend (Gen. iv. 7; Lev. iv., v. ; Dent. iv. 30, xxx. 2;
I Kings viii. 33. 48; Hoseaxiv. 2; Jer. iii. 12, xxxi.
18, xxxvi. 3; Ezek. xviii. 30-32; Isa. liv. 22, Iv.
G-10: Joel ii. 12; Jonah ii. 10).

The full meaning of repentance, according to Jew-
ish doctrine, is clearly iiuiicated in the term "teshu-
bah " (lit. " return "; from the verb
Scope and 2VC')- This implies: (1) All transgres-
Function. sion and sin are the natural and inevi-
table consequence of man's straying
from God and His laws (comp. Dent. xi. 26-28; Isa.
i. 4; Jer. ii. 13, xvi. 11; Ezek. xviii. 30). (2) It is
man's destiny, and therefore his duty, to be with
God as God is with him. (3) It is within the power
of every man to redeem himself from sin by reso-
lutely breaking away from it and turning to God,
whose loving-kindness is ever extended to the re-
turning sinner. "Let the wicked forsake his way,
and the unrighteous man hjs thoughts: and let him
return unto the Lord, and he will have mercy upon
him: and to our God, for he will abundantly par-
don" (Isa. Iv. 7; comp. Jer. iii. 12; Ezek. xviii. 32;
Joel ii. 13). (4) Because "there is not a just man
upon earth, that doeth good, and sinneth not" (Eccl.
vii. 20; I Kings viii. 46), every mortal stands in
need of this insistence on his " return " to God.

The Mosaic legislation distinguishes between of-
fenses against God and offenses against man. In
the first case the manifestation of re-
Manifesta- peutance consists in : (1) Confession of

tions of one's sin before God (Lev. v. 5; Num.

Re- V. 7), the essential part of which, ac-

pentance. cording to rabbinical interpretation

(Vonia 87b; ^laimonides, I.e. i. 1), is

the solemn promise and firm resolve not to commit

the same sin again. (2) The offering of the legally

prescribed sacrifice (Lev. v. 1-20). Offenses against

man require, in addition to confession and sacrifice,

restitution in full of whatever has been wrongfully

obtained or withheld from one's fellow man, with

one-fifth of its value added thereto (Lev. v. 20-26).

If the wronged man has died, restitution must be

made to his iieir; if he has no heir, it must be given

to the ])ricst who officiates at the sacrifice made for

the remission of the sin (Num. v. 7-9).

Other manifestations of repentance mentioned in
the Bible are: pouring out water (I Sam. vii. 6; ac-
cording to the Targum symbolizing the pouring out
of one's heart before God; com]). Yer. Ta"an. 68d ;
Midr. Teh. cxix.; Lam. ii. 19); prayer (II Sam. xii.
16): self-affliction, as fasting, tearing flic upper gar-
ment, and wearing sackcloth; sitting and sleeping
on the ground (I Kings xxi. 27; Joel ii. 13; Jonah
iii. 5; Neh. ix. 1). The Prophets disparaged all
such outer manifestations of repentance, insisting
rather on a complete change of the sinner's mental
and spiritual attitude. They demanded a regenera-
tion of the heart, i.e., a determined turning from sin

377

THE JEWISH EXCYrLOPKDIA

Renan
Repentance

and returning to God by striving after righteousness.
"O Israel, return unto the Lord thy God; for thou
hast fallen by thine iniquity. Take with you words,

and return unto the Lord: .say unto

Prophetic him. Take away all iniquity, and ac-

Con- cept us graciously: so will we render

ception. as bullocks the olferings of our

lips" (IIos. xiv. 1-2, Hebr.). "Rend
your heart, and not your garments, and turn unto
the Lord your God: for he is gracious and full of
compassion, slow to anger and jilenteous in mercy,
and repenteth him of the evil" (Joel ii. 13, K. V.).
" Cast away from you all your transgressions wiiere-
by ye have transgressed; and make you a new lieart
and a new spirit: for why Avill ye die, O liouse of
Israel?" (Ezek. xviii. 31; comp. Ps. li. and Jer.
xxiv. 7),

Rabbinical View : All that the Bible teaches

of repentance has been greatly amplified in rabbin-
ical literature. Repentance is of jiaramount im-
portance to the existence of this world, so that it was
one of the seven provisions which God made before
the Creation (Pes. 54a ; Ned. 39b ; Gen. R. i.). " The
Holy One, blessed be His name, said to Elijah, 'Be-
hold, the precious gift which I have bestowed on
myAvorld: though a man sinneth again and again,
but returneth in penitence, I will receive him' "
(Yer. Sanh. 28b). "Great is repentance: it brings
healing into the world " ; "it reaches to the throne
of God" (comp. Hos. xiv. 2, 5); "it brings redemp-
tion" (comp. Isa. lix. 20); "it prolongs man's life"
(comp. Ezek. xviii. 21; Yoma 86a, b). "Repent-
ance and works of charity are man's intercessors
before God's throne" (Shab. 32a). Sincere repent-
ance is etjuivalent to the rebuilding of the Temple,
the restoration of the altar, and the offering of all
the sacrifices (Pesik., ed. Buber, xxv. 158; Lev. R.
vii. ; Sanh. 43b). Sincere repentance is manifested
when the same temptation to sin, under the same
conditions, is ever after resolutely resisted (Yoma
8Gb ; " Yad," Tcshubah, ii. 1-2). " He that confesses
his sin and still clings to it is likened to a man that
holds in his hand a defiling object; though he bath-
eth in all the waters of the world he is not cleansed ;
but the moment he casteth the defiling object from
him a single bath will cleanse him, as it is said
(Prov. xxviii. 13): ' Whoso confesseth and forsaketh
them [his sins] shall liave mercy'" (Ta'au. IGa;
"Yad," I.e. ii. 3).

Repentance is the prerequisite of all atonement
(Yoma viii. 8; "Yad," I.e. i. 1). The Day of Atone-
ment derives its great significance only from the
fact that it is the culmination of the ten penitential

days with wliich the Jewish religious

Pre- year begins; and tlierefore it is of no

requisite avail without repentance (Yoma viii.

of Atone- 8; Sifra, Emor, xiv.). Though man

ment. ought to be penitent every day (Ab.

ii. 10; Shab. 153a), the first ten days
of every year are the acceptable time announced by
the prophet (Isa. Iv. 6): "Seek ye the Lord while he
may be found, call j-e unon him while he is near "
(R. II. 18a; "Yad," I.e. i'i. 6). Repentance and the
Day of Atoneiuent absolve from sins against God;
from sins against our fellow man they absolve only
when restitution has been made and the pardon of

the offended jiarty lias been obtained (Yoma 87a;
"Yad,"/.r. ii. 9).

No man need despair on account of Ids sins, for
every penitent sinner is graciously received hy his
heavenly Father and forgiven. "The Holy One.
blessed be His name, said to Jeremiah: "Go, tell
Israel tliat they return.' Jeremiah told them. Said
Israel: ' With what countenance sliall we come be-
fore God? Are not these liills and mountains, on
which we served other gods, stamling there? We
are overwhelmed with shame.' Jeremiah brought
back to God what they had sjiid. Again God said
to Jerennah : 'Go, tell them, if ye return to me. do
ye not return to your Father in lieaven? As it is
said, "For I am a father to Israel, and Ephraim is
my first-born "'" (Jer. xxxi. »; Pe.sik., ed. Buher,
xxv. 1G5). Nor is it ever too late, even on the
day of death, to return to God with sincere repent-
ance (Kid. 40b: "Yad," I.e. ii. 1), for "as the sea is
always open for every one who wi.shes to cleanse
himself, so are the gates of repentance always open
to the sinner" (Pesik., ed. Buber, xxv. 157; Deut.
R. ii. ; JNIidr. Teh. Ixiii.), and the hand of God is
continually stretched out to receive Inm (Pes. 119a;
Deut. R. ii.). Nay, the repentant sinner attains a
more exalted spiritual eminence than he wlio lias
never sinned (Ber. 34b; "Yad," I.e. vii. 4). It is
therefore a grievous sin to taunt the repentant sin-
ner by recalling his former sinful ways (B. M. 5Nb;
"Yad," ^.c. vii. 8).

Bibliography : Maimonldes, Yad, Teshuhah ; Hambunrer.
R. B. T. i. 201, ii. tm; Bacher, Ag. Index, ».i-. Busse iRana).
K. M. SCHI-.

In Biblical Hebrew the idea of repentance is rep-
resented by two verbs — "shub" (to return) and
"niham" (to feel sorrow; comp. Job xli". 6, "I . . .
repent in dust and ashes," and Joel ii. 14, "lie will
return and rejient") — but by no substantive. The
underlying idea has been adequately expressed in
Greek by f^trdvoia, a word which denotes "change of
mind and heart." The idea, however, is peculiarly
Jewish, so much so that its ethical force is lost in
the Christian dogma of the atoning Christ (see the
note of Franz Delitzsch quoted by Montefiore in "J.
Q. R." xvi. 212). In fact, where Paulinism speaksof
a "saving grace" of God through Christ (see S.WL
OF Taksus). Judaism emphasizes the redeeming
powerof tcshubah, which is nothingelse than man's
self-redemption from the thraldom of

Powerof .sin. Wisdom sjiys, "Evil puisucfh
Teshubah. sinners" (Prov. xiii. 21); Prophecy
says. "The soul that sinneth, it shall
die" (Ezek. xviii. 20); but the Holy One, blessed be
He, savs, "Let the sinner repent and lie will be par-
doned"" (Yer. Mak. ii. Bid; Pesik. 158a).

The entire history of mankind is accordingly
viewed by the Rabbis in the light of repentance.
"God waits for every sinner, be he as wicked as
Pharaoh, until he repents" (E.\. R. ix. 9. xii. 1); He
waits also for the heathen nations (Cant. R. v. 16:
Weber's " Jlidische Theologie " [\\ 67] misrepresents
the facts). God waited before He destroyed the
generation of the Flood, tlie generation of the build-
ers of the Tower of Babel, the men of Sodom, and the
Eiiyptians, giving them timetorepent(Mek., Bcshal-
lah", Shirah.5; Gen. R. xxxii. 10. xxxviii. 13. xlix. 10-

Hepentance
Bepresentative Themes

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

378

11 ; Wisdom xii. 10-20). So God sent Abraham to
lead the heatken world to repentaBce (Gen. R. xxx.
5); and the Messiah, according to one rabbi, is called
"Hadrak" because lie shall lead all mankind to re-
pent of their sins before God (Cant. vii. 5, with
reference to Zech. ix. 1).

"All the prophets were preachers of repentance''
(comp. Jer. iv. 1 ; Isa. Iv. 6), "but Hosea was most
emphatic and persuasive" (Pesik. H. 44). Noah
preached repentance to the generation of the Flood
(Sanh. 108a), and in the Sibyllines (i. 125-281) he is
especially represented as "the preacher of repent-
ance " (w//jivf fterdvoiai) to the corrupt heathen world.
Po-^silily the Greek and the Latin versions of Ben Sira
(.\li V. 16) have preserved the original form. " Enoch
was a teacher of repentance to the
Preachers heathen" (comp. Wisdom iv. 10), al-
of Re- though Philo ("De Abrahamo," § 3)
pentance. speaks of him as "a type of repent-
ant sinner who changed from a worse
to a better mode of life" (comp. Gen. R. xxv.). A
similar tradition, preserved only in Christianized and
Mohammedanized forms (Vita Adte et Eva?, ii. 15-
22; Koran, surah vii. 57-76), regarded all the pred-
ecessors and successors of Noah as preachers of
repentance to their generations. Moses also preached
repentance, promising the people redemption upon
the condition that they would repent (Philo, " De
Execrationibus,"^§8-9; Pesik. R. 44, with reference
to Deut. xxx. 2-3; comp. Lekah Tob ad loc).

All the great sinners in the Bible are presented in
the Haggadah as types of repentance. Not Adam,
who tried to cover his transgressions
Great (Gen. iii. 12) and did not forthwith re-
Types of pent, but Cain, who confessed and for-
Re- sook his evil way (Gen. iv. 13-16); not

pentance. Saul, who tried to cover his sin (I Sam.
XV. 14), but David, who confessed and
forsook sin (II Sam. xii. 18), obtained mercy (Midr.
Teh. c, with reference to Prov. xxviii. 13). Cain
the transgressor was made "a sign " for repentant
sinners (Gen. R. xxii.), and through him his father,
Adam, learned of the efficient power of repentance
(Midr. Teh. I.e. ; comp. Wisdom x. 1). Thus Adam
is described as a great penitent, devoting himself
for weeks, together with Eve, to fasting and doing
penance in the waters of Gihon, Tigris, or Jordan
(PirkeR.EI. xx. ; Vita Adteet Evje, vii. 6-8). Ishmael
likewise was repentant (B. B. 16b; Gen. R. xxx.).

Other types of repentance for the haggadist were:
Reuben (Pesik. 159b; Gen. R. Ixxxii. 12, Ixxxiv.
18; comp. Shab. 55b; Test. Patr., Reuben, 1); Achan
(Josh. vii. 1-20), who showed repentants the way
by confession (Lev. R., with reference to Ps. 1. 23);
David, who by liis repentance Las become a teacher
and witness to all repentant sinners ('Ah. Zarah 4b-
5a; Midr. Teh. xl. 2, li. 3; Tanna debe Eliyahu R.
ii.). Ahab is a type of repentance (Yer. Sanh. x.
2Hb; Pe.sik. 100b); Manasseh is depicted in the oldest
Midrash as the typical penitent sinner. Especially
significant are his words in the Prayer of Manasses:
"Thou, O Lord, . . . hast promised repentance and
forgiveness to them that have sinned against Thee,
. . . that they may be saved"; not "to the just, as
to Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, which have not
sinned against Thee; but . . . unto methutama

sinner" (Yer. Sanh. I.e. ; Sanh. 103a, b; Pesik. 162a;
see Dtda8C.\li.\; M.\n.\sseh). YokaniaU (Pesik.
162-163; Lev. R. x. 5) and Josiah (Shab. 56b) were
repentant sinners. God endeavored to persuade Jero-
boam I. to repent, but he refused to do so (Sanh.
101a). However, heathen like Balaam repented
(Num. R. XX. 15); Rahab the harlot bi-came a peni-
tent sinner(Tanna debe Eliyahu Zuta xxii.); and the
men of Nineveh became types of repentance (Pesik.
161a). God forgave the jieople of Israel the sin of
the golden calf only that they might teach the
world repentance ('Ab. Zarah 4b).

The tannaitic jieriod also had, in Eleazar ben
Durdaia, the type of a penitent sinner whose sin and
repentance became an object of popular legend
('Ab. Zarah 17b). In the amoraic period such types
were furnished bv Resh Lakish (Pirke I?. El. xliii.),
by Abba, the father of R. Jeremiah b. Abba, and by
the exilarcli 'Ukban b. Nehemiah (Shab. 55b).

All are encouraged by God to repent excepting him
who sins with the intention of repenting afterward
(Yoma viii, 9; comp. Amon), or him who persists in
his wickedness (Yoma 86b; Ex. R. xi. 2-3; Midr.
Teh. i., end) Repentance is especially useless for
him who b)' his teaching and example

Nature of has caused others to sin (Ab. v. 26;
Re- Sanh. 107b); hence the heavenly voice,

pentance. "All ye backsliding children repent,
except Aher " (Elisha b. Abuyah ; Hag.
15a). Geliazi was not allowed to repent (Sotali 47a).
As long as man lives he may repent, but there is
no repentance after death, only submissive accept-
ance of God's punitive justice (Eccl. R. i. 15, vii.
15; Pirke R. El. xliii.; Ruth R. i. 17; Shab. 32a;
'Er. 19a: Yalk.. Isa. xxvi. 2). Wherefore R. Elie-
zer said: "Repent one d'ly before death" (.Vb. ii.
10)— that is, every day (Shab. 153a: Eccl. R. ix. 8,
where the parable of the wise and foolish servants
by R. Johanan b. Zakkai is given in illustration).
The righteous repent for every sin they have com-
mitted (Ex. R. xxiii. 3); the disciple of the wise re-
pents every night for his sin (Ber. 19a; Hag. 75a);
so Israel is expected to repent in time in order
to inherit the future life (Ex. R. xxiii. 11). The
heathen, as a ride, do not repent (Pesik. 156a, b;
comp. 'Ab. Zarah 3a). "As long as the people are
,sin-laden they can not be God's children ; only when
they have repented have they in reality become His
children " (Sifre, Num. 112, with reference to Deut.
xxxiii. 5; comp. Sifre, Deut. 308).

The sinners who have repented are raised and
placed among God's hosts (Yalk., Ps. xlv.). Re-
pentance is notan outward act, as Weber ("Ji'idi-sche
Theologie," p. 261) endeavors to represent it, but an
inner cleansing of the heart (Pesik. 161b). It must
be perfectly sincere, true contrition, coupled with
shame and self-reproach, and confession (Ber. 12b;
Hag. 5a; Sanh. 43; Pesik. R. 83; Yer. Ta'an. ii.
65). A striking picture of such repentance is given
by Eleazar b. Dardai'a ('Ab. Zarah 17a). In the
same sense repentance is described in Psalms of
Solomon, ix. 6-7, and is dwelt upon in Wisdom xi.
23; xii. 10, 19; Book of Jubilees, v. 17. It is well
analyzed by Philo, in " De Execrationibus," § 8, as a
feeling of shame and self-reproach which leads to a
frank and sincere confession and a change of heart

379

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Repentance
Representative Themes

and of conduct. "Through it Israel shall be accepted
by God their Father and be gathered agaiu from all

quarters of the globe, the glory of God niarching be-
fore them" (eomi). iSaiih. 'J7b ; Tobit xiii. (!, xiv. 6).

It is interesting to observe that the call forrepeut-

ance which was manifested in Essene circles by

batliing in water (see Gen. R. ii. T) ;

In Judaic Yer. Ta'an. ii. 65d ; comp. Adam's

Chris- jienitence, mentioned above) is voiced

tianity. in tlie synoptic Gospels and through-
out Judaic Christianity (Matt. iii. 2,
iv. 17; Mark i. 15); in the fourth Gospel and
throughout the Pauline writings repentance is
superseded by rebirth in faith. In the Catholic
Church contrition, confession, and satisfaction be-
come parts of tlie sacramental act of " pcenitentia,"
whereas the Protestant churches follow the Paul-
ine teacliings pure and simple (see Herzog-Hauck,
" Keal-Encyc. " s. i\ " Busse ").

Repentance occupies a very prominent position in

all the ethical writings of the Middle Ages. Bahya

ibn Palunla devotes a special section to it in his

"llobot ha-Lebabot" — the "'seventh gate," called

"Gate of Repentance." Maimonides devotes the

last section of "Sefer ha-Madda' " and the first book

of bis " Yad liaHazakah " to the "Rules of Teshu-

bali." Isaac Aboab, in his "Menorat ha-Ma'or,"

has eighteen chapters concerning repentance. No

less elaborate are the more mystic writers on the

same subject: Eleazar of Worms, in liis " Rokeah ";

Isaiah Ilorwitz, in his "Shene Luhot ha-Berit";

Elijaii de Vidas, in his "Reshit Hokniah " ; and

others. Some of these chapters were frequently if

not regularly read by the pious every year, before

or during the penitential day, to prepare the heart

for the great Atonement Day.

BiBLior.RAPHT: Bousset, Reliainn des Judenthnms, pp.368
et sp.<i.; Claude Monteflore, Rahhinic Conceptions of Re-
pentance, in J. Q. R. xvi. 2()9-:i57 ; Weber, JUdischc Thco-
IdO'c, Index. j^

REPHAIM, VALE OF (D^NSI pOJ?) : Fertile
plain in Judah ; the scene of David's battles with the
Philistines (Isa. xvii. 5; II Sam. v. 18 etseq., xxiii.
13). According to II Samuel (I.e.), it must have
been in the vicinity of ijcth-lehem. The boundary-
line between Judah and Benjamin ran across a hill
at its northern end (Josh. xv. 8, xviii. 16 [R. V.];
hence it must have been situated to the west or
southwest of Jerusalem and in the vicinity of Baal-
perazim (II Sam. v. 20). Eusebius erroneously
places it north of Jerusalem (" Onomasticon." p. 288),
while Josephus more correctly locates it between
Jerusalem and Beth-lehem(" Ant." vii. 12, §4). Since
the sixteenth century the plain Al-Bak'ah, which lies,
southwest of Jerusalem, and the eastern part of
which is crossed by the road leading from Jerusalem
to Beth-lehem, has been identified, with entire |)roba-
bility, with the plain of Rephaim. The eastern
edge of this vale, sloping toward the west, forms
the watershed between the Jordan and the ^lediter-
ranean. It is drained through the Rose Valley
<Wadi al-Ward). It extends southward from the
valley of Ilinnom to the mountain of the monastery
Mar Elyas, a distance of about one hour, and is ap-
proximately half as wide. The German colony
Rephaim is now settled there.

E. G. H. I.. Be.

REPHIDIM : Place on the edge of the desert of
Sin, wiiere the cliildren of Israel encamped alter
crossing that desert. The ix-opicsnlTcred there froni
lack of water; they complained, and Mo.ses smote
water from the rock. Moses named tlie place " Mas-
sah and Meribah" (Ex. xvii. 1-7). In the parallel
account, Num. xxi.. the place where tiiis occurred
is not Re|)hidim, Itut Kadesh. At Re|)hidim Aina-
lek attacked Israel from behind. Modern research
(Ebers, Leprius, antl others) places it in the nortii-
western part of the Wadi Firan. According to
Robin.son ("Researches." i. 179) Rephidim is in the
narrow gorge of Al-Wa^iyyah in the great Wady
al-Shaikh.

.1. S. O.

REPLEVIN. See Ar.iENATioN am> Arqrisi-

TION.

REPRESENTATIVE THEMES: Anticipa-
ting in some mcasuie the modern use of the leitmo-
tif, the cantors of the synagogues, as soon as the
traditional material of their chants was fixed (by tlie
beginning of the sixteenth century), introduced
and extended the practise of turning the attention
of the worshipers to a sentiment connected with an-
other service, to a passage in the ritual of another
day, or to the approach of a sacred occasion, by the
quotation of a snatch of melody from the traditional
music of such occasion. In the Sephardic tiadition
the practise has chiefly proceeded in the direction of
quoting melodies from one service in the course of
another. For example, in the Additional Service of
theNEW-YK.vu the jirayer " ila-Yom Ilarat '01am. "
which is chanted after the brief sounding of the
Shofau has proclaimed the close of each of the tijree
sections of the service, is sung first to the melody
(see NiGGUN) of Siiofet Kol ita-Auez, the spe-
cial hymn in the earlier part of the morning serv-
ice of the day; the second time to the melody of
Adonai Bekol Shokah, which hymn precedes the
sounding of the complete sequence of shofar calls
that follow the reading of the Law; and the third
and last time to the melody of "Leshoni Bnnanta."
the Gesue.m hymn which is to be again heard on the
eighth day of Tabernacles, at the close of the series
of autumn festivals. Other examples of the Sephar-
dic practise of melodic quotation have been noted
in connection with Ado.v 'Oi.am; Ex Kelohe.su;
Kaddish; Odeka; Yicdai..

The use of representative themes by the cantors
of the Ashkenazim is far wider and more varied.
Certain melodies have come to be traditionally re-
garded as typical of days and seasons. Such melo-
dies are substituted for the usual final stniin of a
Kaddish, or are chanted to the words which actually
allude to a coming sjicred celebration, or are substi-
tuted on the Sabbath within a festival for the airs
employed during the course of tlie year or on other
special occasions. The melodies customarily util-
ized by the present generation as representative
themes arc enumerated under IL\li,el and Mi-Ka-
MOKAH, and their use is there explained (comp. also
Geshem and Kaddish). How shorter extracts
from a melody associated with another text are used
to turn the thought to the sentiment of tha't text
has been shown under Az SiiESii Mk'ht and Koi.

NiDKE.

Keptiles
Restraints

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

380

The Polish school of hazzanim has developed a
further useof the leitmotif, more nearly correspond-
ing to its function in the modern orchestra, and
has emphn-ed siiort typical phrases, associated with
the Atonement services especially, in varying com-
bination, particularly with reference to the conclu-
sion of a musical sentence, in order to graduate, with
the progress of tiie fast-day itself, tiie shade of devo-
tional expression between humiliation, resignation,
hope, and contideuce. The transcription of the
shorter hymn-tunes given under Neii.aii will afford
some indication of the manner in which this object is
attained. The general idea is but an application
of that modal feeling underlying syuagogal music
since the days of the Temple, which has consistently
prompted the esthetic association of some definite
species of song with each peculiar occasion (see
Cantillation ; 3Iusic, Syxagogal).

A. r. L. C.

REPTILES ("remes," "sherez "): In the Biblical
account of creation the "creeping things "are di-
vided into the "moving " creatures of the sea (Gen.
i. 20) and "everything that creepeth upon the
ground " (Gen. i. 25). As a group parallel to the
"beasts" and the "fowls of the air" they are indi-
cated by the word "remes" in Gen. vi. 7 and else-
where.

The Talmud uses, for the amphibia and small ani-
mals, the generic terms " rehesh " (moving things),
"sherez" (creeping things), and "shekez" (things
which arouse disgust; Hul. 10a, 126b; Nid. 21a).
But small mammals also, as the weasel, mouse,
hedgehog, and mole, are sometimes comprised under
the word "sherez " (comp. IShab. 107a et seq.). Mai-
monides (" Yad," Ma'akalot Asurot, ii., ^§ 13 et seq.)
makes the foUowingdistinction : " Sherez lia-mayim "
are creatures not belonging to the lish tritie, but yet
living in the water (leeches, seals, etc.); "romes 'al
ha-arez " are the parasitic organisms which arise
from the decomposition of foreign substances (intes-
tinal worms, dung-beetles, etc.); while "shorez 'al
ha-arez " are the creatures produced by the " genera-
tio propagativa." All reptiles are poisonous, but
only the snake is deadly ('Ab. Zarah 31b). A
characteristic common to all creeping things is that
the white and the yolk in their eggs are not sepa-
rated (Hul. 64a). See also Abo .mination ; Cheep-
ing Things.

Bibliography: Tristram. iVaf. Hist. p. 245; Lewysohn, Zoo/o-
f/(€ de8 Talmuds, pp. 4, 218.
E. G. II. I. M. C. .

RESCISSION. See .Jidgment.

RESH (-1) : Twentieth letter of the Hebrew
ali)liiibet, perliaps so called because tlie siiape of tlie
letter in tlie Plieuician alphabet (see Alphabet) re-
sembles the form of a head (Ilebr. "rosh"; Aramaic,
" resh " ). In pronunciatif)n it is a palatal li((uid std)-
stantiallv identical with the English "r." It is al-
lied to p ami J. and sometimes interchanges with
them (thus, in later Old Testament books "Nebu-
chadnezzar" is found instead ot the proper form,
"Nebuchadrezzar"). It is occasionally employed
to form quadriliterals from triliterals; but it has no
f>thcr formative use. In Aramaic it sometimes reji-
resents the resolution of a dagesh forte, as in pB'D^^

for pCtDT With rare exceptions it does not receive
dagesh forte. As a numeral, it has, in later times,
the value 200.
T. I. Br.

RESH GALUTA. See ExiLARcn.

RESH KALLAH : The highest officer, except
the president, in the academies of Sura and Pumbe-
dita. In each of tiie two schools there were seven
"reshe kallah," who sat in the first row (called "da^
rakamma "), facing the gaon. According to the ex-
planation of Nathan ha-Babli, they were called
"reshe kallah " because each of them was set above
ten membei-s of the Great Sanhedrin, which was
modeled on that of Jerusalem. But the term is
really derived from the so-called " kallah " months
(AdartoElul), sinceit was their duty in the first three
weeks of each of these montlis toexplain to the stu-
dents the subjects which the gaon had selected for
his lectures during the following half-year. On the
installation of an exilarch a resh kallah read from
the Bible immediately after a new resh galuta, and
a resh kallah on his cleath was succeeded by his son,
even if the latter was still a minor. In the year 935
a blind resh kallah restored peace between the ex-
ilarcii David b. Zakkai and the gaon Kohen Zedek.
Bar Mar Rab Samuel and ^lar Kab Amram, both
relatives of Sheriia, are given the title of resh kallah.
The liturgical prayer "Yekum Purkan," dating
from that time, mentions these officials. Their
names occur in the beginning of every geonic re-
sponsum, together with those of the "haberim" and
the " allufim. " Rashi explains the word " kallah " in
his commentary on Berakot 6b (comp. Kallah).

Bibliography: Nathan lia-Babli, in Neuliauer, M. J. C. ii. 87;
Weiss, Diir. iv. :!, 12<i, l:!7, ;52S ; (iriitz. drxch. iv. 293, v. 122:
Letter of Sherira, iu Neubauer, Anccduta, i. 40.
W. B. S. O.

RESH LAKISH. See Slmeon ben Lakish.
RESIDENCE, See Domicil.
RESPONSA. See She'elot u-Teshubot.

RESPONSES : The congregational answers to
the utterances of the olliciant. These were origi-
nally what the responses to the benedictions of those
private individuals wiio are called to the reading of
the Law still remain— mere loud acclaims. But
with the introduction of the four-part choir in the
early nineteenth century some set form of response
became necessary. The ".singer" and "bass," who
had previously been employed to accomjiany the
Hazzan with a vocal obligato, had usually re-
peated "Baruk Hu u-Baruk Shemo" (comp. Bakuk
Siie-A.mah) and "Amen" to the melody a moment
before chanted by the soloist, even as they echoed
his song, or imitated it at other intervals, in the
course of the passages which were not benedictions.

Traditional material for these particular responses
was accordingly indicated; but not for others, such
as those in the Kaddish or "Ken Yehi Razon " in
the iiiiestly blessing. In the former ca.se these " me-
shorerim " (vocal accoiupaiiists; see Misic, Svna-
gogal) had also certainly joined in ; but the melo-
dies chanted were by no means so generally adhered
to as those of the prayers which closed with a bene-
diction, the motives of which had been anciently

381

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reptiles
RestraiutB

accepted as traditional by all the congregations
following each rite. Consequently, save only in
ix'sponscs such as the " Yehe Slienieh liahlia " on
the jienitential evenings, when tlic melody ol' the
l)receding prayers was continucil in ilic Kaddish, or
on other such occasions \\ liun the congregants at
large ciianted along with the cantor, as is still .so
tie(iucntly tiie practi.se among the Sepliardim, no
general line for the structure and detail of thcclidral
responses had been intlicated.

It was here that great service was rendered bj-
Sulzer, who set down such responses as tradition
suggested, and tirst adecjuately provided a complete
corpus of choral refrains, by com])osing tiie lacking
numbers himself. The rationale of this corpus has
disappeared in the I?eform .synagogues, w here the
service is no longer entirely intoned by a precentor;
but it still jiermeatcs the devotions of the Conserva-
tive congregations, and its influence is felt even
in the choirless synagogues of small connnuuities.
AVhere, however, of recent years the reaction to-
ward the resuscitation of older and more character-
istic traditional melodies for choral rendering has
been evident, the new responses framed by Sulzer
and his school, which perceptibly exhale the Neo-
Catholic tlavor of much of their music, have often
been replaced by phrases built up, like the old re-
spouses to the benedictions, on the material afforded
by the Hazz.vnut. In this reversion to antique
color, anticipating the more recent corresponding
advocacy of the older music of the Catholic Church
by its ecclesiastical heads, Louis Lewandowski is
a chief figure.

The great collection of responses, given in their
liturgical position, in A. Baer's "Ba'al Tetillah, oder
der Praktische Vorbeter " (GOteborg, 1877, and
Frankfort, 1883), is exhaustive as regards the con-
gregational tradition and its modern practise among
the Ashkenazim. The harmonized choral responses
of the same rite are collected in Cohen and Davis'
" Voice of Prayer and Praise " (London, 1899), w ith
almost equal fulness, in seventy -one numbers, sixty-
one of which are based on ,the traditional intona-
tions of the prechoral period. The responses of the
Sepliardim remain to be published.

A. F. L. C.

RESPONSES TO BENEDICTIONS: Any
portion of the liturgy which begins with the words
" Blessed be Thou, O Lord " (" Baruk attah Adonai "),
or which ends with an abstract of itself introduced
by these words, or which both begins and ends thus,
is known as a benediction (*' berakah "). "When it
is reiid aloud by a leader, for instance, at public serv-
ice at which ten or more men are met, or when grace
is said where three or more men have eaten to-
gether, or even where the master of the Ikuisc pro-
nounces the sanctilication (" Kiddush ") of Sabbath or
of a festival before his wife and children, the congre-
gation or coin])any answers "Amen " at the end of
each benediction. The meaning of this word is
"true" or "truly"; but its use in the Greek of the
New Testament indicates that at this early age it
was deemed to be technical and untranslatable.

The origin of tliis sort of response can be traced
back to the dou])le " Amen " at the end of the first,
second, and third books of Psalms; e.g., "Blessed be

tlie Lord forever, Amen and Amen." The Mislmah
(Ber. viii. 8) fully recognizes an established custom
when it warns the faithful liiat while they may
boldly .say " Amen," thus giving assent to any bera-
kah pronounced by an Israelite, they must not so
resjiond to tiie benediction of a Samaritan unless they
have heard every word of it. A Baliyloniaii leaclier
(Ber. 45a) warns those wlio respond not to cry out
"Amen" louder than tiie leader has recited the
benediction; for the Psalmist says (.\x.\jv. 4 [A. V.
3J). "iMagiiify the Lord with nie>'

After the third benediction in grace after nieu),
tlie word "Amen" is spoken by those who recite
the benediction along with it (Shulhan 'Aruk, Orul>
Hayyini, 188, 1). This custom originated as a hint
to working men eating at tlie master's Uible, that
they might leave without staying for the lcs» obli-
gator}' fourth benediction (see Ber. 46u). In the
Temple, however, when a benediction was pro-
nounced, the response, on the authority, it is claimed,
of Nell. ix. 5, was "Blessed be the name of His
glorious kingdom forever and ever," as related
in Yer. Ber. ix. 5, and repeated thence in Berti-
noro's commentary.

It is the iiresent usage (though one unsupported
by anything in the Talmud or the codes, or in any
of the older works on the liturgy), when tiie leader
has pronounced the words "Blessed be Thou, O
Lord," for the bystanders to chime in with "Blessed
be lie and blessed be His name " (" Baruk hu ubaruk
shemo "). Sulzer and other masters of modern .syn-
agogal music have jihrased this response for their
choirs. The advocates of this custom base its prac-
tise on Deut. xxxii. 3 — "When I call on the name
of the Lord, ascribe ye greatness to our God";
the ^xivG {(id loc.) makes this verse the authority
for other well-known responses, but not for this.
The opiionents of the custom point out that its
origin is not only cabalistic, but that it was de-
vised by the followers of Shabbethai Zebi in his
honor, the letters of the words in question having
the same numerical value (814) as the name of the
false Messiah. See Amen.

A. L. N. D.

RESTRAINT OF PERSONS. S, e Diiucss.

RESTRAINTS ON ALIENATION : Re-
straints on the power to .';ell or encundxr land are
known to many systems of jurisprudence. The in-
stitution of the year of jubilee (see Sabbatical
Yeah), as set forth in Lev. xxv. 8-28, is the most
rigid restraint upon the free disposition of land. It
ajiplied to the Holy Land only, and in its full force
to farming and grazing land .solely ; for houses within
a walled city, if sold by the owner, could be redeemed
only within a year. After the lapse of a yeartlie saXe
became ab.solute. Houses in the open country or in
villages were redeemable forever, and reverted in
the year of jubilee to the former owner. The houses
in the cities allotted to the Levites and priests were
also inalienable, as they were the only lieriUige of
the Levites.

The weighty sentence in the above-cited pa.<«age
is: "The land shall not be sold in perpetuity: for
the land is mine " (verse 23). However, the Talmud
in one place surmises that a sale of land for a term

Resurrection

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

382

of sixty years would have been valid even while the
iiistitution of the jubilee was still in force (B. M.
7'Ja); but this is ouly a surmise, as the jubilee had
not been observed at any time during the second
commonwealth. Indeed, to sell for a term reaching
for ever so short a time beyond the next year of ju-
bilee is as much a violation of the letter of the law
as an absolute sale.

According to the Talmud, the institution fell into
disuse many years before the destruction of the
First Temple, though instances of the purchase of
land by the nearest agnate of the inheriting owner
are certainlj- found as late as Jereniiaii (Jer. xxxii.
6-25), in full accord with the rules laid down in Lev.

XXV.

Land, either in Palestine or elsewhere, may be
freely sold by the owner without any regartl to the
law in Leviticus; only persons less than twenty
years old are not competent to sell inherited land
(Git. 65a) nor make a gift "mortis causa" of such
lands (see Ixf.\ncy). But restraints upon aliena-
tion such as are so often contrived by English and
American conveyancers in wills and marriage settle-
ments for the purpose of tying up an estate in the
donor's or testator's family aie wlioliy imknown to
the Talmud jurisprudence. As has been shown
under ALrEX.\Tiox, a convej'ancc can restrict the
title only so far as to give a life-estate to the first
taker, but can not create after such life-estate either
a vested ora contingent remainder. Moreover, after
the life of the taker the estate must revert to the
grantor and his heirs.

K. c. L. N. D.

RESURRECTION.— Biblical Data : Like all
ancient peoples, the early Hebrews believed that the
dead go down into the underworld and live there a
colorless existence (comp. Isa. xiv. 15-19; Ezek.
xxxii. 21-30). Only an occasional person, and he
an especially fortunate one, like Enoch or Elijah,
could escape from Sheol, and these were taken to
heaven to the abode of Yiiwn, where they became
angels (comp. Slavonic Enoch, xxii.). In the Book
of Job first the longing for a resurrection is ex-
pressed (xiv. 13-15), and then, if the Masoretic
text may be trusted, a passing conviction that
such a resurrection will occur (xix. 25, 26). The
older Hebrew conception of life regarded the nation
80 entirely as a unit that no individual mortality or
immortality was considered. Jereiniah (xxxi. 29)
and Ezekiel (xviii.) had contended that the individ-
ual was the moral unit, and Job's hopes are based
on this idea.

A different view, which made a resurrection un-
necessary, was held by the authors of Ps. xlix. and
Ixxiii., who believed that at death only the wicked
went to Sheol and that the souls of the righteous
went directly to God. This, too, seems based on
views analogous to those of Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
and probably was not widely held. In the long run
the old national point of view asserted itself in the
form of Messianic hopes. These gave rise to a be-
lief in a resurrection in order tliat more might share
in the glory of the Messianic kingdom. This hope
first finrls expression in I.sa. xxvi. 19, a passage
which ("heyne dates about 334 B.C. Tlie hope was
cherished for faithful Israelites. In Dan. xii. 1-4

(about 165 B.C.) a resurrection of "many . . . that
sleep in the dust" is looked forward to. This res-
urrection included both righteous and wicked, for
some will awake to everlasting life, others to
"shame and everlasting contempt."

In Extra-Canonical Apocalypses : In the

earliest part of the Elliiopic Book of Enoch (i.-
xxxvi.) there is a great advance on the conceptions
of Daniel, although the book is of earlier date. Ch.
xxii. contains an elaborate description of Sheol,
telling how it is divided into four parts, tsvo of
which receive two classes of rigiiteous; tlie others,
two classes of wicked. Of these, three classes are
to experience a resurrection. One class of the wicked
has been already judged and has received its pun-
ishment. In II .Maccabees the belief that all Israel-
ites will be resurrected finds expression (comp. vi. 26,
vii. 9-36, and xiv. 46). In the next Enoch apocalypse
(Ethiopic Enoch, Ixxxiii.-xc), composed a few years
after Daniel, it was thought that only the righteous
Israelites would experience a resurrection. That
was to be a bodily resurrection, and the body was to
be subsequently transformed. This writer realized
that the earth was not a fit place for Yhwii's perma-
nent kingdom, and so the conception of a heavenly
Jerusalem appears, of which the earthly Jerusalem
city is the protot3'pe.

Against these views some of the later psalmists
uttered a protest, declaring that a resurrection was
impossible (comp. Ps. Ixxxviii. 10, cxv. 17). In
spite of this protest, however, the idea persisted.
The next Enoch apocalypse (Ethiopic Enoch, xci.-
civ.) looked for a resurrection of the righteous, but
as spirits only, without a body (con) p. ciii. 3, 4). A
later Enoch apocalypse (Ethiopic Enoch, xxxvii.-
Ixx.) expresses the conviction that both the right-
eous and the wicked will be raised (comp. li 1, 2;
Ixii. 15, 16). and that the spirits of the righteous will
be clothed in a body of glory and light.

The author of the Slavonic Book of Enoch (Book
of the Secrets of Enoch, xxii. 8-10) believed in a
resurrection of spirits, without a body. He never-
theless believed in a spiritual body, for he describes
the righteous as clothed in the glory of God. The
authors of the Book of Jubilees and the Assumptio
Mosis believed in a resurrection of the spirit only,
without a body (comp. Jubilees, xxiii. 31 etal., and
Assuinptio Mosis, x. 9).

All these believed that the soul would sleep in
Sheol till the judgment, but several Alexandrian
writers about the beginning of the common era
held, like Ps. xlix. antl Ixxiii., that the spirits of the
righteous entered on a blessed immortality immedi-
ately at death. This was the view of the author of
the Wisdom of Solomon (iii. 1-4; iv. 7, 10, et al.), of
Philo, and of IV Maccabees. Finally, the scope of
the resurrection, which in previous writers had been
limited to Israel, was extended in the Apocalypse
of Baruch and in H Esdras to include all mankind
(comp. Baruch, xlix.-li. 4; II Esd. vii. 32-37).

BiBLtooRAPHY : Charles, A Critical History nf the Doctrine
of a Future Life in Israel, in Judavsm, and in ChriMian-
ity. Ix)nUon, 1899.

E. c. G. A. B.

Resurrection is asserted in all the Apocryphal
writings of Pharisaic origin (comp. II Mace. vii. 9-

383

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Resurrection

36, xii. 43-44), -whert' arguinciits iiiraiiist Siuldiiccan
Israel arc presented (Book of Jubilees, xxiii. 30;
Test. Patr., Jiulali, 25; Zebiilun, 10; Benjamin, 10;
Vita Ad;u et Ev;e, xiii. ; Sibyllines, ii. 80; Eiiocli,
11. 1-2; Apoc. Barucli, xxx. 1-5, l.-li.; II Esd. vii.
32; Psalms of Solomon, iii. 16, xiv. 13), and in tlie
Hellenistic writings (see Wi-sdom iii. 1-9, iv. 7, v.
16, vi. 20; IV Mace. ix. 8; xiii. 10; xv. 2; xvii. .'>,
18: xviii. 23). Immortality of the soul takes the
place of bodily resurrection. Kabhinical arguments
in favor of resurrection are given in Sanh. yOb-y2)),
from promises made to the dead (Ex. iv. 4; Deut.
xi. 9 [eomp. ISIark xii. 18J ; Num. xviii. 28; Deut.
iv. 4, xxxi. 16, xxxii. 39), and from similar expres-
sions in which the future tense is applied to the
future life (Ex. xv. 1; Deut. xxxiii. 6; Josh. viii.
30; Ps. Ixxxiv. 5 [A. V. 4] ; Isa. Iii. 8); also in Hul.
142a, from i>romised rewards (Deut. v. 16, xxii. 17).
which so frequently are not fulfilled during this life
(Ber. 16b; Gen. K. xx. 26). Arguments are drawn
from the grain of wheat (Sanh. 90b; comji. I Cor.
XV. 3o-38), from historical parallels — the miracles
of revival wrought by Elijah, Elisha, and Ezekiel
(Lev. R. XX vii. 4) — and from a necessary conception
of divine justice, body and soul not being in a position
to be held to account for their doings in life mdess,
like the blind and the lame man in the parable, they
are again brought together as they were before
(Sifre, Deut. 106; Sanh. 91a, with reference to Ps.
1. 4).

The Sadducees denied the resurrection (Josephus,
"Ant." xviii. 1, § 4; idem, " B. J." ii. 8, ^ 14; Acts
xxiii. 8; Sanh, 90b: Ab. R. N. v.). All' the more
emphatically did the Pharisees enunciate in the lit-
urgy (Shemoneh 'Esreh. 2d benediction; Ber. v. 2)
their belief in resurrection as one of their funda-
mental convictions (Sanh. x. 1; comp. Abot iv. 22;
Sotah ix. 15).

Both the Pharisees and the Es.senes believed in
the resurrection of the body, Josephus' philosophical
construction of their belief to suit the taste of his
Roman readers notwithstanding (see " B. J." ii. 8,
§ 11; "Ant." xviii. 1, ^ 5; compare these with the
genuine source of Josephus, in Hippolytus' " Refu-
tatio ll;eresium," ed. Duncker Schneidewin, ix. 27,
29, where the original ai-affrrta/f [= "resurrection "]
casts a strange light upon Josephus' mode of han-
dling texts). According to the Rabbis, Job and Esau
denied resurrection (B. B. 16a, b). Whosoever de-
nies resurrection will have no share in it (Sanh. 90b).
The resurrection will be achieved by God, who alone
holds the key to it (Ta'an. 2a; Sanh. 113a). At the
same time the elect ones, among these first of all the
Messiah and Elijah, but also the righteous in gen-
eral, shall aid in raising the dead (Pirke R. El.
xxxii. ; Sotah ix. 15; Shir lia-Shirim Zuta, vii. ; Pes.
68a: comp. "Bundahis," xxx. 17).

By means of the " dew of resurrection " (see Dew)

the dead will be aroused from their sleep (Yer. Ber.

V. 9b; Ta'an. i. 63d, with reference to

Universal Isa. xxvi. 19 ; Hag. 12b, with reference

or Na- to Ps. Ixviii. 10 [A. V. 9]). As to the

tional. question. Who will be raised from

death ? the answers given vary greatly

in rabbinical literature. According to R. Simai (Sifre,

Deut. 306) and R. Hiyya bar Abba (Gen. R. xiii. 4;

comp. Lev. R. xiii. 3), resurrectioii awaits only the
Israelites; according to R. Abbaiui. only the just
(Taan. 7a); some mention especially the martyrs
(Yalk. ii. 431. after Tanhuma). R. Al)balui and"R.
Elea/ar couline resurrection to those that die in the
Holy Land; others extend it to siicli as die outside
of Palestine (Ket. Ilia). According to R. Jonathan
(I'irke R. El. xxxiv,), (lie resurreclion will be uni-
versal, but after judgment the wicked will die a
second death and forever, whereas the just will be
granted life everlasting (comp. Yalk. ii. 42m, 49IJ).
The same dilTerence of view jjrevaiis also anmug the
New Testament writers; at times only "the resur-
rection of the just " is spoken of (Luke; xiv. 14, xx.
35); at other times "the resurrection of the dead "
in general is mentioned (John v. 29; Acts xxiv. 15;
Rev. XX. 45).

As a matter of fact, resurrection formed part of
the Messianic hope (Isa. xxiv. 19; Dan. xii. 2;
Enoch, XXV. 5, Ii. 1, xc. 33; Jubilees,
Part of the xxiii. 30). Especially were those thai
Messianic died as martyrs in the cau.se of the
Hope. Law expected to share in the future
glory of Israel (II Mace. vii. 6, 9. 23;
Yalk. to Isa. xxvi. 19; Midr. Teh. xvii. 14; Sil)yl-
lines, ii. 85). The very term used to express the
idea of sharing in the future life is "to inherit the
land" (Kid. i. 10: Matt. v. 5, after Ps. xxxvii. 11;
Sanh. xi. 1, with reference to Isa. Ix. 21). The res-
urrection, therefore, was believed to take place
solely in the Holy Land (Pesik. R. i., after Ps.
cxvi. 9 ["the land of the living," that is, "the land
where the dead live again"]; or Gen. R. Ixxiv. ;
Yer. Ket. xii. 35b, with reference to Isa. xiii. 5
["He giveth breath to the people upon it," that
is, upon the Holy Land only]). Jerusalem alone is
the city of winch the dead shall blossom foith like
grass (Ket. 111b, after Ps. Ixxii. 16). Those that arc
buried elsewhere will therefore be compelled to
creep through cavities in the earth imtil they reach
the Holy Land (Pesik. R. I.e., with reference to
Ezek. xxxvii. 13; Ket. Ilia).

The trumpet blown to gather the tribes of Israel
(Isa. XX vii. 13) will also rouse the dead (Rer. 151);
Targ. Yer. to Ex. xx. 15; II Esd. iv.
Day of 23; comp. I Cor. xv. 52; I Thess. iv.
Judgment 16; see Enoch, x. 12 et seq., xxv. Art
Precedes seq., xiv. 2, xc. 25. xci. 11, xcviii. 12;
Messianic Test. Patr., Simeon, 61; Judah, 25;
Era. Zebulun, 10; Benjamin, 10). The na-

tions, together with their guanlian
angels and stars, shall be cast into Gehenna (Enoch,
xc. 24-25). According to R. Eleazur of Modi'im,
to the angelic princes of the seventy-two nations
who will protest because, though it has sinned
like the rest, God favors Israel. God will answer.
"Let each nation go through the fire together with
its guardian deity"; then all the nations will be
consumed in common with their deities, who can
not shield them, but Israel will be saved by its G(k1
(Cant. R. ii. 1: coniji. Tan., Shofetim, ed. Ruber,
end, after Isa. Ixvi. 14, Ps. xxiii. 4, and Micah iv.
5). Another view is that the glare of the sun will
test the heathen's loyalty to the Law they promised
to observe, and they will be cast into the eternal fire
('Ab. Zarah).

Resurrection
Retaliation

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

384

The conception of God entering Hades to save
Israel from Gehenna gave rise to the Christian con-
ception of tlie Messiah descending into Hades to
reclaim his own among those who are imjHisoned
there (Test. Patr.. Benjamin; Sibvilines, i. 377, viii.
310; Yalk. ii. 3.J9; JcUinek, " B. H." ii. 50 [comp.
I Peter iii. 19]; Asceusio Isaia', iv. 21. Avith refer-
ence to Isa. ix. IG, Iii. -Mil. ; see Epstein, " Bereshit
Kabbati," 1888, p. 31). The sole end of the judg-
nient of the heathen is, according to U. Eleazar of
Modiim (.Mek., Beshallah. 'Anialek), the establish-
ment of the kingdom of God. " When tlie Messiah
appearsontheroof of I he Temple announcing Israel's
redemption, the light emanating from him shall
cause the nations to fall jirostrate before him; and
Satan himself will shudder, for the Messiah will
cast him into Gehenna, and death and sorrow shall
flee forever"' (Pesik. H. 36; SibyHines, ii. 107, iii.
46-72).

As in the course of time tiie national hope with
its national resurrection and tinal day of judgment
no longer satisfied the iulellecl and
Resurrec- human sentiment, the resurrection as-
tion Uni- sumed a more universal and cosmic
versal. character. It was declared to be solelj-
the act of God, Avho alone possesses
the ke\- that will unlock the tombs (Bcr. 151)). "As
all men are born and die, so will thej' rise again,"
says Eleazar ha-Ivappar (Abot iv. 22). It was be-
lieved that resurrection would occur at the close of
tiie Messianic era (Enoch, xcviii. 10, ciii. 8, civ. 5).
This is particularly emphasized in II Esd. vii. 26-
36: "Death will befall the Messiah, after his 400
years' reign, and all mankind and the world will
lapse into primeval silence for seven days, after
whicii the renewed earth will give forth its dead,
and God will judge the world and assign the evil-
doers to the fire of hell and the righteous to para-
dise, which is on the oppo.site side." Also, accord-
ing to Syriac Apoc. Baruch (.\xx. 1-5; l.-lii. ; cxxxv.
15). the resurrection will take place after the Messiah
has "returned to heaven " and will include all men.
the righteous to meet their reward, and the wicked
to meet their eternal doom. This lasting doom is
called "second death " (Targ. Deut. xxxiii. 6; Targ.
Isa. xiv. 19; xxii. 14; Ixv. C, 15, 19; Jer. Ii. 39;
liev. XX. 6, 14).

Nor is the wrath of the last judgment believed
any longer to be brought upon the heathen solely
as such. All evil-doers who have bias-
Not the ]»iiemed God and His Law. or acted
Heathen, unrighteously, will meet with tlieir
but the punishment (Tos. Sanh. xiii. ; Midr.
"Wicked Teh. vi. 1, ix. 15). It became a mat-
Perish, ter of dispute between the older school,
represented by theSliammaite K. Elie-
zer, and the Ilillelites, represented by K. Joshua,
whether or not the righteous among the heathen
have a share in the future world, the former inter-
preting the ver.se, "The wicked shall return to Slieol,
even all the Gentiles that forget God" (Ps. ix. 18
[H. V. 17] ), as condemning as wicked among the Jews
and the Gentiles such as have forgotten God; the
latter interpreting the ver.se as consigning to Sheol
only sucli Gentiles as have actually forgotten God
(Tos. Sanh. xiii. 2). The doctrine "All Israelites

have a share in the world to come " (Sauh. xi. 1),
based upon Isa. Ix. 21 (Hebr.). "Thy i)eople all of
them righteous shall inherit the land," is therefore
identical with the Pharisaic teaching as stated by
Josephus ("Ant." xviii. 1. § 3; "B. J." ii. 8, ^ 14),
tiiat the righteous will rise to share in the eternal
bliss. It is as deniers of the fundamentals of relig-
ion thai heathen, Samaritans, and heretics are ex-
cluded from future salvation (Tos. Sanh. xiii. ; Pirke
U. El. xxxviii. ; Midr. Teh. xi. 5). Regarding the
plurality of opinions in favor of the salvation of
righteous non-Jews, and the opinions of those who
adhere to the national view, see Zunz, "Z. G." jip.
371-389. Related to the older, exclusive view also
is the idea thai the Abrahamic covenant releases
the Israelites from the tire of Gehenna (Gen. H.
xlviii. ; Midr. Teh. vii. 1; 'Er. 19a).

At tirst, it seems, resurrection was regarded as a
miraculous boon granted only to the righteous (see
Test. Patr., Simeon, 6; Levi." 18; Judah, 25; Zebu-
lun, 10; Vita Ad;e el Eva\ 13; comp. Luke xiv. 14,
XX. 36). Afterward it came to be regarded as an
act of God connected with the last judgment, and
therefore universal resurrection of the dead became
a doctrine, as expressed in the second benediction of
the Shemoneh 'Esreh (DTIDH JT^nn ; Sifre, Deut.
329; Sanh. 92b).

In Syriac Apoc. Baruch. xli\.-li. a description is
given of the manner in which liie righteous at the
resurrection are transtonned into angels shining like
the stars, who behold the beaut}' of the heavenly
" hayyoi " beneath God's throne, whereas the wickeil
assume the horrible asjiect of the \nt of torture be-
low. Whether or not the body at the resurrection
undergoes the same process of growth as in the
woml) at the time of birth is a matter of dispute be-
tween the Ilillelites and the Shanunaites (Gen. K.
xiv. ; Lev. H. xiv.).

In regard to the state of the soul sejxarated from
the body by death, Avhether it is supposed to dwrll
in heaven, or in some sort of dove-cot or a colum-
barium (= "guf ") in Hades (Syriac Apoc. Baruch,
XXX. 2; II Esd. iv. 35, 41; vii. "32, 80, 101), .see Im-

.M01{T.\LITY OF TIIE SoUL.

The belief in resurrection is expressed on all occa-
.sions in the Jewish liturgy; e.f/., in the morning
prayer Elohai Neshamah, in the Shemoneh 'Esreh,
and in the funeral services. 3Iaimonides made it the
last of his thirteen articles of belief: "I firmly be-
lieve thai there will take place a revival of the dead
at a time which will please the Creator,
Jewish blessed be His name." Saadiaalso, in
Creed or his "Enuuiot we-De'ot" (following
Not? Sanh. x. 1), declared the belief in res-
urrection to be fundamental. Hasdai
Crescas, on the other hand, declared it to be a spe-
cific doctrine of Judaism, but not one of the funda-
mental teachings, which view is taken also by Josejih
Albo in his "'Ikkarim" (i., iv. 35-41, xxiii.). The
chief difticidty, as pointed out by the latter author,
is to find out what the resurrection belief actually
implied or comprised, since the ancient rabbis them-
selves differed as to whether resurrection was to be
universal, or the privilege of the Jewish people
only, or of the righteous only. This again depends
on the question whether it was to form part of the

385

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Resurrection
Retaliation

Messianic redemption of Israel, or wlictlier it was to
uslier in tlie lust judgineut. Siiadia sees in the be-
lief in resurreetion a national hope, and endeavors to
reconcile it with reason by coniparini^ it with other
miraculous events in nature and history recorded in
the IJible. I\Iainionides and Albo in tiieir coiunien-
tary on Sanh. x. 1, Kind.ii in his conunentary on
I*s. i. ;-), Isaac Aboab in his " Menorat ha-Ma'or"
<iii. 4, 1), and Bahya ben Asher in his comnientary
on Cfcn. xxiii. extend resurrection to the righteous
oidy. On the other hand, Isaac Abravanel in his
"Ma'yene Yeshu'ah " (ii. 9) concedes it to all Israel;
Manasseii ben Israel, in his "Nishinat l.Iayyini" (i.
2, 8), and others, to all men. Maimonides, however
(see liis conunentary, I.e., and "Yad," Teshubah,
viii.), took the resurrection tiguratively, and sidjsti-
tuted for it immortality of the soul, as lie stated at
length in his " ^la'amar Tehiyyat iia-Metim " ; Judali
ha-Levi also, in his "Cuzuri," took resurrection fig-
uratively (i. 11 T), iii. 20-t?l).

Tiie belief in resurrection is ])eautifully exjiressed
in tiie old ]\Iorning Benediction, taken from lier.
60b: "O God, the soul which Thou hast set within
me is pure. Thou liast fashioned it; Thou hast
breathed it into me, and Thou dost keej) it within
me and wilt take it from me and restore it to me in
time to come. As long as it is within me I will give
homage to Thee, O divine Master, Lord of all spirits,
who givest back the soul to dead bodies." This
benediction, f(n' which the simpler form is given in
Yer. Ber. iv. 7d, Pesik. K. 40, and .Alidr. Teh. xvii. :
'■ Blessed be Thou who revivest the dead " — re-
cited after awakening from the night's sleep — throws
light upon the whole conception of resiu'rection.
Just as the soul was believed to leave the body in
sleep and return at the reawakening, so was the
soul, after luiving left the body in death, to return
to " those that sleep in the dust " at the time of the
great rcawakeuiug.

In modern times the belief in resurrection lias
been greatly shaken by natural jiliilosophy, and the
question has been raised by the Keforin rabbis and
in rabbinical conferences (see Geiger, "Jiid. Zeit."
vii. 246) whether the old liturgical formulas ex press-
ing the belief in rcsiuTection should not be so
changed as to give clear expression to the liope of
immortality of the soul instead. This was done in
all the American Reform prayer-books. At the rab-
binical conference held at Pliiladelphia it was ex-
pressly declared that the belief in resurrection of the
body has no foundation in Judaism, and that the
belief in the immortality of the soul should take its
place in the liturgy. See Conferences, Rabbin-
ical; Pkayer-Books; Reform Judaism.

Bibliography: Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Auferstehuna ini<^
^yic(Jerbehl)U)ig dei- Todten ; ib. s.v. Belchuim dcr Todten;
Soliiirer, f»('sr?i. ii. 8, 547-5.51 ; \ci\7., Jlidmhc Eschatolof/ic ;
Weber, JUdischc Thcologie, Index.
E. c. K.

RETALIATION, or LEX TALIONIS : In

the early period of all S3'Stems of law tiie redress of
wrongs takes precedence over the enforcement of
contract rights, and a rough sense of justice de-
mands the infliction of the same loss and ])aiii on the
aggressor as lie has inflicted on his victim. Hence
the prominence of the "lex talionis" in ancient law.
The law of Israel is no exception: in its oldest form
X.— 25

it inciiKled the '"lex talionis," the hiw of "measure
for measure" (this is only the lileial translation
of "inidduh ke-neged middaii"); and the pcjpular
thought, as reflected in Talinudic sayings, imagined
that (lod punishes nations and men witli sullerings
nearly identical with tliose whicii lliey have Riiifiilly
inflicted u|)on others (Sanh. 9Uuj. The principle
that "with what measure ye mete it shall be
measured unto you " is .solemnly a.s.serted to under-
lie the divine law (see Sotali i. 7, where it is applied
to all the details of the ordeal of the stispected
wife).

The Pentateuch does not ciuilain the olde.st sys-
tem of Semitic laws, which is found in the jurispru-
dence of Babylon, mainly as laid down in the Cexie
of Hammurabi. The instances given in this code
of the rule of "measure for measure" go far lieyoud
the "eye for an eye " of the Mosaic code, even wlien
the latter is taken in its most literal sense. Thus,
where a man strikes a pregnant free-born woman so
as to cause herdeath through miscarriage (comp. the
case i)Ut in Ex. xxi. 22-2;i;, under that old Baby-
lonian code (§ 210) the daughter of the as.sailant
should be put to death. Again, when through the
carelessness of the builder a house falls and the
owner s son is struck and killed in the ruins, the
builder's son should be put to death. This extniva-
gant ai)plication of the "measure for measure" law
is made impossible in Israel by Deut. xxiv. Ifi —
"Fathers shall not be put to death for the children,
neither shall the children be i)Ut to death for the
fathers."

According to Ex. xxi., the owner of an ox mat
gores a " son " or a " daughter " (i.e., a freeman or a
freewoman), provided it has previously been shown
to him that the ox was "wont to push with his
horns in time past," .should be put to death, though
he may save himself by paying a ransom: this is
a clear survival of the old idea of retaliation. A
dim memory of the extravagances of the "lex
talionis" in the old common law of the Semites
seems to have long survived in the Jewi.sh mind.
Hence the rather humorous story told by an aniora
(Sanh. 109b) about the gross perversion of justice
on the part of four wicked judges of Sodom
shortly before its destruction by fire from heaven,
whicli story Chamisso has rendered freely into Ger-
man verse in his "Urtheil des Schemjaka," trans-
planting it from the cit}' on the Dead Sea to the
steppes of ]\Iuscovy. Under the head of Assatlt
.VND Battery it has been shown that the mean-
ing given by the Jewish sages (B. K. viii. 1) to
the Scriptural "eye for an eye" is not necessarily
a latter-day modification of the savagery of the
Mosaic text; for wergild was known among all
nations at a very early stage of culture, and the
verj^ prohibition of Scripture, "ye shall not take a
ransom for the soul of the murderer," is a clear in-
timation that a ]iayment in money was the ordinary
redress for bodily injuries, and that this kind of re-
dress was considered appropriate for all injuries not
resulting in death.

It does not appear that in this matter the Sad-
ducees adhered to the letter of the Law. for among
the many disputes recorded in the Mishnali be-
tween Pharisees and Sadducees, such as that in

B6thy

Eeuben ben Hayyim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

386

Yad. iv. 6, no allusion is found to such a broad dif-
ference in the form of reiiress allowed for bodily in-
juries, a matter of much importance and of fre-
quent occurrence. There is a vague report that the
followers of lioethus, a sect going beyond the Sad-
ducees in their divergence from the traditions,
taught a literal enforcement of the rule, "an eye for
an eye, a tooth for a tooth," but it does not appear
that this sect was ever in power and able to give
effect to its theories. On the other hand, while a
ransom in money in place of the " eye " or " tooth "
of the assiiiluut is quite compatible with the Scrip-
tural law of assiiult and battery, taken as a whole,
it is not so clear that the natural construction of this
law would not demand the bodily infliction of the
penalty, according to the written words, whenever
the guilty party is unable or unwilling to pay the
ransom. In one case the law requites " measure for
measure " — not according to wliat has been actual-
ly done, but according to what was intended, or
" plotted " (see Alidi for the law of retaliation iu the
case of "plotting witnesses''). The rabbinical tra-
dition narrows very much the Scriptural law as
found in Deuteronomy; but this, in its turn, falls
very far short of the severity and wide scope of the
Babylonian law. The latter not only visits with
death as a malignant slanderer one who wilfully,
though unsuccessfully, accuses another of sorcery,
or of any other capital crime, but even one who
claims goods as having been stolen from him with-
out being able to produce witnesses to his ownership
(Code of Hammurabi, §§ 1-3, 11).

E. c. L. N. D.

RETHY, MORIZ : Hungarian mathematician ;
born at Nagy-K0r5s Nov. 3, 1846; educated at
Budapest and Vienna, and at the universities of
GSttingen and Heidelberg. He was professor of
mathematics and theoretic physics at the University
of Klausenburg from 1874 to 1886, when he was
called to the School of Technology in Budapest.
Since 1891 he has lectured there on analytic me-
chanics.

In 1878 Rethy became a member of the Hun-
garian Academy of Sciences, which commissioned
him to edit Bolyai's "Tentamen " (1897). He has
also contributed a number of articles to the tech-
nical periodicals.

Bibliography : Pallas Lex.

B. L. V.

REUBEN.— Biblical Data : Eldest son of Ja-
cob (Gen. xlvi. 8, xlix. 9) by Leah {ib. xxix. 32), to
whom he once carried mandrakes which he had
found in a tield during the wheat harvest (ib. xxx.
14). He wronged his father by his conduct with the
latter's concubine Biliiah (ib. xxxv. 22), and in pun-
ishment his rights as first-born (ib. xlix. 3) were
transferred to the children of Joseph (I Chron. v. 1).
When his other brothers planned to kill Joseph,
Reuben tried to save him : secretly intending to
rescue Joseph later and to restore him to his father,
he advised his brothers to throw him into a pit in-
stead of putting him to death outright. They acted
on Reuben's suggestion, and the latter was therefore
much distressed, when he came to the pit, to find that
the boy was not there (Gen. xxxvii. 19-22, 29-30).

Upon Jacob's refusal to allow Benjamin to go to
Egypt with his brothers, Reuben offered two of his
own four sous (j'i. xlvi. 9; Ex. vi. 14) as a pledge,
agreeing that they should be killed if he did not
bring Benjamin back (Gen. xlii. 37).

K. c. J. Z. L.

In Rabbinical and Apocryphal Literature :

Reuben was born on the fourteenth day of the ninth
month (Ivislew) in the year 2122 after the Creation
(Book of Jubilees, xxviii. 11; Midr. Tadshe viii., iu
Epstein, "Mi-Kadmoniyyot ha-Yehudim," p. xxii.,
Vienna, 1887). His name was interpreted to mean
"behold the splendid son! " (p \ii1), since Leah re-
ferred to him with these words (Gen. R. Ixxi. 4), al-
thougli, according to another interpretation, she
thus implied a distinction between her first-born and
Esau, the eldest son of her father-in-law (Ber. 7b).
The mandrakes which Reuben brought home at the
time of the wheat harvest (see above) were Hef-
KEiJ ; otherwise he would not liave taken them
(Sanh. 99b). He carried them to his mother with-
out tasting them, because of his reverence for her
(Gen. R. Ixxii. 2). While some scholars interpreted
the passage Gen. xxxv. 22 literally (Shab. 55b; Gen.
R. xcviii. 7; comj). Test. Pair., Reuben, 3), others
endeavored to explain away the wrong which Reu-
ben committed against his father, by saying that he
did not dishonor Bilhah, but that he merely es-
poused his mother's cause (Shab. 55b), since after
Rachel's death Jacob sought to give the precedence
to the handmaid Bilhah, as he had formerly pre-
ferred her mistress. Reuben, who woidd not coun-
tenance this, removed Bilhah's bed from the place
where Jacob wished to have it (Gen. R. I.e.). In
consequence of this sin Reuben lost both his birth-
right and his claims to the priesthood and the crown,
since the birthright would have given his children
the prospect of becoming priests and kings (Gen. R.
xcviii. 5, xcix. 6). He lamented his act, however,
and showed contrition immediately. Thus he was
the first penitent (Gen. R. Ixxxii. 12, Ixxxiv. 18);
and in consideration of his remorse he became
the ancestor of the prophet Hosea, who exhorted
Israel to turn to the Lord (Hos. xiv. 2; Gen. R.
Ixxxiv. 18).

Reuben did penance in secret meditation, and he
chastened himself by frequent abstinence from meat
and wine (Test. Patr., Reuben, end; comp. Gen. R.
I.e.). When, however, Judah confessed his sin and
justified Tamar (Gen. xxxviii. 26), Reuben publicly
acknowledged his own fault (Tan., Wayesheb, ed.
Buber, p. 94b), lest his other brothers might be sus-
pected (Sotah 7b). In reward for this penitence and
voluntary confession he was granted life in the fu-
ture world.

The first cities of refuge were located in the ter-
ritory of Reuben's descendants, since he had taken
the first steps in saving Joseph by counseling his
brothers not to kill him (Mak. 10a; Gen. R. I.e.).
Reuben was not present when his brothers took
Joseph out of the pit and sold him, because he had
to serve his father on that day, and could not leave
the house, of which he was obliged to take charge
(Gen. R. Ixxxiv. 14). When his work was finished,
however, he hastened to the pasture, and was very
angry when he did not find Joseph ; for as the eld-

387

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rfethy

Reuben ben Hayyim

est of the brotliOrs lie felt himself responsible for his
safety (ib.). In Egypt Reuben was the patriarch
of the brothers, this right of rulership being trans-
ferred after his death to Simon and then to Levi
(Num. K. xiii. lU). lie died at the age of 125 years
(Midr. Tadshe I.e.; "Sefer ha-Yashar," section
"Shemot,"e(i. princeps, p. 121a; Test. Patr., Reu-
ben, 1, beginning), and his body was put into a cof-
fin and given to his children, who carried it with
them in the exodus from Egypt and interred it in
Palestine ("Sefer ha-Yashar," I.e. ; Test. Patr., Ren-
ben, 7, end).

w. H. J. Z. L.

REUBEN, TRIBE OF: Tribe of Israel, de-
scended from Reuben, Jacob's first-born son, through
Reuben's four sons, Hanoch, Phallu or Pallu, Ilez-
ron, and Carmi (Gen. xlvi. 9 and elsewhere), fathers
of the four clans of the tribe. At the time of the
Exodus the tribe counted 46, 500 males above twenty
years of age (Num. i. 20-21, ii. 11), which number
was reduced to 43,780 by the plague with which the
Israelites were punished for their worship of Baal-
peor (ib. xxvi. 7). During the wanderings of the
Israelites in the wilderness, the position of the Rcu-
bcnites was on the south side of the Tabernacle.
The tribe, headed by its prince Elizur ben Shedeur
and having on either side the tribes of Simeon and
Gad, was the chief of the whole southern camp, so
that the latter was called "the camp of Reuben" (ib.
ii. 10). At the time of marching, the host of the
Reubenites was required to start second, after that
of the Judahites (ib. ii. 16). At the dedication of the
altar the prince of the Reubenites brought his offer-
ing on the fourth day (ib. vii. 30 et f<eg.).

A noteworthy event with regard to the Reuben-
ites was the connection of certain members of that
tribe, namely, Dathan and Abirara of the family of
Pallu and of On, the son of Peleth, with Korah in his
rebellion against Moses (ib. xvi. 1 et passim). The
Reubenites are recorded as the possessors of a large
quantity of cattle, on account of which they asked
Moses to station them on the east of the Jordan,
where was ample pasturage. Moses granted their
request after having obtained their promise that
they -would help the other tribes in the conquest of
the land west of the Jordan (ib. xxxii. 1 et seq.).

As to their territory, two main accounts are given:
(1) in Num. xxxii. 37-38 it is stated that the Reu-
benites "built Heshbon, Elealeh, Kir-
Their jathaim, Nebo, Baal-meon, and Shib-
Territory, mah," the names of which cities were
changed ; while (2) a fuller account is
given in Josh. xiii. 15 et se*?., according to which the
border of Reuben's territory was "from Aroer that
is on the bank of the River Arnon . . . and all the
plain of Medeba." In this second list of cities Ele-
aleh and Nebo are omitted, but a great number of ad-
ditional cities is mentioned, among which are Dibon
and Bamoth-baal. It is further stated that their ter-
ritory included all the cities of the plain and all the
kingdom of Sihon, king of the Amorites. Orr the
west side, the Jordan was the boundary of tlieir ter-
ritory. There is a discrepancy between these two
accounts, inasmuch as in the first (Num. xxxii. 34)
Dibon is said to have been built by the Gadites.
Besides, Aroer also was a Gadite city (,ib.), which

shows that the territory of the Reubenites was en-
closed in that of the Gadites.

In I Chron. v. 8 it is stated that Reubenites of the
Joel family lived at Aroer in the time of Jotham,
King of Jiidiili, l)Ut in verse 12 of the same chapter
a Gadite family named Joel is mentioned. The
Reubenites as well as their neighbors, the ciiildn-n
of Gad and the lialf-trilie of Manusseh, fullilled their
promise to help the other tribes in the

Help to coiHiuest of the land west of the Jor-

Build dan (Josh. iv. 12, x.vii. 1 etseq). Tiie

the Great Reubenites participatA'd in building

Altar. the " gieat altar to see to " (ib. xxii. 10

etsefj.). After tlie concjuest the tril)e

of Reuben is generally associated with that of Gad,

which was more important.

During the period of the Judges the tribe of Reu-
ben is not represented by any judge. It is blamed
by Deborah for having abstained from taking part
in the war with Sisera (Judges v. 15-16). On the
other hand, it is indirectly indicated as having par-
ticipated in the war with the Benjaniites (ib. xix. 29
et aeq.). In the time of Saul the Reubenites are sta-
ted to have made war with the Ilagarites, who fell
by their hand (I Chron. v. 10). In verses 18 et seq. of
the same chapter, however, the war with and the
victory over the Hagarites are ascribed to Reuben
and his neighbors. After the assassination of Ish-
bosheth the Reubenites joined all the other tribes
in proclaiming David king of all Israel. The num-
ber of the armed men sent jointly by the eastern two
and one-half tribes to Hebron on this occasion is stated
to have been 120,000 (rt. xii. 37). Afterward David
appointed 2,700 Levites of the Hebron family as
ecclesiastical and civil chiefs over the same tribes
(ib. xxvi. 31-32). The prince of the Reubenites in his
reign wasEliezer, sonof Zikri(/6. xxvii. 16). Among
David's mighty men was a Reubenite, Adina, son
of Shiza, chief of thirty warriors (ib. xi. 42).

Later the Reubenites are mentioned only twice —
in II Kings x. 33, where their countr}' is said toliave
been ravaged by Hazael, King of Syria; and in I
Chron. v. 6, 18-22, where it is recorded that they,
like their neighbors, dwelt east of the Jordan till
they were carried away into captivity by Tiglath-
pileser, their chief at that time being Beerah, son of
Baal of the Joel family.

E. c. M Ski..

REUBEN DAVID TEBELE BEN EZE-
EIEL : Polish Talmudist and printer of the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries. His name is gen-
erally followed by the word NEXID ("Troppau "?).
In 1608 he edited at Lublin the "Yen ha-Rekah"
of Eleazar of AVorms, to which he added notes of
his own. The name "Reuben" is missing in his
signature. From 1626 to 1628 he worked as cor-
rector of the Hanau edition of Joseph Cam's Sluil-
han 'Aruk. He was the author of "Shib'im Tenia-
rim " (Cracow, 1626), a seventy-fold interpretation
of Prov. xiv. 23.

Bini.iOGRAPiiY : Steinschnelder, Cat. DmU. col. 2139.
J M. Sel.

REUBEN BEN HAYYIM: Provcn(;al Tal-
mudist ; fiuurished about the middle of the thirteenth
century ; brother of the liturgical poet Abmham ben

Reuben ben Hoshke
Reuchlin

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

388

Hayyim. Reuben, who lived at Narbonne, was a
pupil of Isaac ha-Kolicn of that city, and teaclicr of
Menahem Me'iri. Tlie latter praises him as a great
Talmudist; and Isaac of Lattes calls him "a trained
philosophical thinker." His nephew Levi of Viile-
franche quotes in his name some philosopiiieal ex-
planations of the Haggadah that are mentioned also
in Azariah dei Rossi's "Me'or •Enayim " (Geiger, in
" He-Haluz," ii. 14). Reuben was the author of the
"Seferha-Tamid."

Bibliography: Azulal, Sthem ha-Gednliw. ii. 1.55; Michael.
Or )ia-Ha)niinK No. 57J: Renan-Neubauer, Lai Rabbins
fVaKfaij-, p. 029; Gross, Gallia Jmiaica, p. 431.
K. C. A. Pe.

REUBEN BEN HOSHKE. See Hoshke.

REUBEN HA-SEFARDI: Reputed author of

"Keliminiit ha-Goyini, " a work which attacks Chris-
tianity, probably written by Protiat Duran (Efodi)
in 1349. The assumption is that the " Kelimmat ha-
Goyim" is the same as the "Sefer ha-Kelimniah "
mentioned by Joseph b. Shem-Tob, and that tliis is
identical with the '' Sefer ha-Kelimmaii " b}' Reuben
La-Sefardi mentioned in Moses Botarel's commentary
on "Sefer Yezirah " (end of mishnah 2, ch. i.); but
there is no doubt of the correctness of Zunz's view
that "Reuben ha-Sefardi " and his "Sefer ha-Kelim-
mah " as well as the other work ascribed to him,
"Sefer haShulhan," are all fictitious names, in-
vented like many others by Botarel.

BiBLiOGRAPnv: Fiirst, Bibl. Jitd. lii. 179; Ozernt Hai/yim
MS. No. 341. and p. ;{46, note: Zunz, G. V. p. 408 : Neubauer.
Cat. liodl. Hibr. M.-iS. Nos. 21M 21.55; Geiger, Kobez Wik.
hnhiin, pp. 4, C, 22, Breslau, 1844 ; Benjacob, Ozar }ia-Sef(t-
riiiK p. 241.
E. c. P. Wl.

REUBEN BEN STROBILUS : Jew of tlie
second century c.e. ; eminent both as a scholar and
for the part he took in the affairs of his time. From
references to the religious jiersecutions which he
endeavored to terminate it would appear that he be-
came prominent during tiie time of Hadrian, when
the government had forbidden the observance of the
Sabbath and of circumcision as well as the u.se of
■women's baths (Me' i. 17a). Reuben ben Strobilus
apparently- went to Rome and associated with the
Romans, wearing his hair in their fashion tliat he
might not be recognized as a Jew. He craftily
represented that to permit the Jews to live in con-
formitj' with their own laws was the best way to re-
duce their numbers, since they became poortiirough
not working on the Sabbath, weakened themselves
by circumcision, and impaired their fertility by
avoiding their wives at certain times. The.se results
being desired by the authorities, the prohibitions
were repealed, but when it became known that tlie
adviser was a Jew the restrictions were reenforced
(Me'i. 17a).

At another time Reuben is found in conversation
with a philosopher at Tiberias on a certain Sabbath,
when Reuben expressed tlie opinion that the most
despicable man on eartii is he who denies his Creator,
and tiiatthe moral laws of tlie Decalogue are trans-
gressed only by one who denies their Author (Tosef.,
Shebu. iii. 6). Another saying of his concerns the
nature of sin (M. K. 18b; Ah. R. N., text B, xxxv.).

Two of the sons of Reuben ben Strobilus were
pupils of R. Judali the Patriarch; they were con-
demned to death, perhaps at the command of the

government, and R. Judah advised them to flee to
the south ( Yer. Kil. 3'2c). One of his sons may have
been the Eutolemis b. Reuben who is described as
being in favor with the government (Sotah 49b; B.
K. 83a).

BiBi.iOGRAPMV : KraiiSs, Lrtt)nrr)rti-r. ii. 121 (concerninp the
name "'Stroliilus"') ; lirati;, GV.-e/i. 3d eU., iv. I'.U ; Bai-her.
Ag. Tatt. li. '3&i.
S. S. Kli.

REUBENI, DAVID: Arab adventurer; born
about 1490 in central Arabia, in Khaibar, as he him-
self stated; died in Llerena, Spain, after l.")35. He
left Khaibar Dec. 8, lo22, and Avent to Nubia in
Egypt, where he claimed to be a descendant of Mo-
hammed, while to the Jews he spoke of large Jew-
ish kingdoms in the East, po.ssibly referring to the
so-called " Jewish realm " at Cociiix, which had just
attracted attention owing to the Portuguese con-
quest of Goa. He traveled in Palestine in the spring
of 1.523, and went to Venice, by waj' of Alexandria,
in Feb., 1.524. Here he claimed to have amission
from the Jews of the East to the pope, and inter-
ested a Jewish painter named Moses, and Felice, a
Jewish merchant; they jirovided him with means to
travel to Rome, which he reached in the same month,
entering the city on a white horse. He obtained
an audience with Cardinal Giulio and Pope Clement
VII. To the latter he told a tale of a Jewish king-
dom ruled over by his brother Joseph in Arabia,
where the sons of ]\Ioses dwelt near the fabled Sam-
bation River. He brought letters from Portuguese
captains contirming his statements, and the Portu-
guese minister. Miguel da Silva, reported to his
court the possible utility of Reubeni's mission in
obtaining allies in the struggle of the Portuguese
against Salim I., who had seized Eg.vpt in 1.521 and
diverted the spice-trade. Reubeni was provided by
Benvenida Abravanel, wife of Samuel Abravanel,
and the heirs of Jehiel of Pisa with means forgoing
to Almeiria, the residence of King John III. of
Portugal, which he reached Nov., 1.52.5, who at first
promised him a force of eight ships and 4,000 cannon.
But the king, who was at that time engaged in perse-
cuting the Neo-Christians, found it diflicult to enter
into an alliance with the Jewish king, though lor a
time during the negotiations he refrained from inter-
fering with the ^Maranos.

Reubeni's striking appearance — a swarthy dwarf
in Oriental costume — and ^lessianic predictions at-
tracted the attention of Diego Pires, a Marano youth
of noble birth, who took the name of Solomon
MoLKO. Jewish ambassadors from the Barbary
States visited Reubeni at tiie Portuguese court, and
much excitement followed among the Maranos, some
of whom even ventured to rise in arms near Bada-
joz. This appears to have opened the eyes of the
Portuguese authorities to the dangers inherent in
Reubeni's mission. Reubeni then went to Avignon
to bring his cause before the papal court, and af-
terward to Milan, where he again met Molko, who
had meanwhile traveled to the East and had made
Messianic claims. In Milan tlie two adventurers
quarreled, Reubeni going to Venice, where the Senate
appointed a commission to inquire whether his proj-
ect for obtaining assistance from the Jews in the
East in its plans of conquest were practicable. He

389

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Henben ben Hoahke
Beuohlln

received, liowever, u hint to leave Venice, aiid, join-
ing once more with Solomon Molko, traveled with
streaming banner to Bologna and Katisbon (Regens-
Ijiiry) to meet the Emperor Charles V. and to olTer
him the alliance of the .Jews of tlie East against the
Turks. In Katisbon they met Josel of Hosheim,
who warned them against arousing the suspicions
of the emperor and raising the .Jewish question
in the empire. They nevertheless persisted, and
were put in chains and taken by the emperor to
Mantua, where both ^lolkoand Heubeni were exam-
ined and the former was condemned to death by
burning, Dec, ir);53. Keubeni was carried to Spain
and placed in tiie Inquisition at Llercna, wliere
probably he died, as nothing more is heard of liim,
though "a Jew who came from India to Portugal "
is reported by Ilerculano to have been burned at an
autoda fe at Evora, lo41 (see Jew. Encyc. vi. 5y.sb,
s.r. Inquisition, also Evora). His diary still exists
in the Bodleian Library, Oxford (a copy at Breslau
also) ; partsof it have been published by Griitz in the
third edition of his "Geschiclite der Juden" (vol.
ix.), and the whole by Neubauer, in "M. J. C." ii.
Bibliography: Griitz, Gesch. ix. 238, 250, 255, 533-548. j

REUCHLIN, JOHANN VON (Grecized as
Capnio) : German humanist ; born Feb. 23, 1455,
at Pforzheim; died June 80, 1523, at Liebenzell,
near Hirschau, Wiirttemberg. He studied at the uni-
versities of Freiburg, Paris, and Basel (1475-78).
After having served the Duke of Wiirttemberg as
companion, judge, and ambassador (1481-96) he was
appointed councilor by the Duke of Baden (1496-99),
and, returning to Wiirttemberg in 1499, he again be-
came judge at Tubingen, which position he resigned
in 1513. From 1519 to 1521 lie was professor of
Greek and Hebrew at the University at Ingolstadt;
and from 1531 till his death he held a similar chair
at the University of Tubingen.

Keuchlin, who was one of the leaders of the Ger-
man humanists, introduced the study of Greek and
especially of Hebrew into western Europe, and was
with Luther, Melanchthon, Erasmus, and Huttcn
among the promoters of the Reformation, although
he declared himself against the movement in 1520.

During his second visit to Rome (1490) Reuchlin
became acquainted with Pico di Mirandola at Flor-
ence, and, learning from him about the Cabala, he
became interested in Hebrew; but not till 1493 could
he find an opportunity to learn that
Studies language; liis teacher was the em-
Hebrew, iieror's i)h3-sician, Jacob Loans. From
that time he became an ardent student
of Hebrew, having for a second teacher Obadiah of
Sfonio, during his third stay in Rome (1497-99).
His researches into the language of the Bible led
Reuchlin to study the Talmud and the Cabala also.
Pfekfp:hk()I{N, a baptized Jew from Cologne and
a follower of the Dominican friars, Iiad succeeded in
1509 in obtaining from the emperor Maximilian of
Germany an order for the destruction of all Hebrew
books found in the possession of the Jews of Co-
logne and Frankfort. The Jews appealed, and
Reuchlin was asked in 1510 to give his opinion upon
the case. Reuchlin's report was favorable to the
Jews. He divided the Jewish literature into seven

classes, in one of them being the Old Testament;
and, judging these classes singly, he arrived at tlie
conclusi(m that tiie Talmud, Die Calmlistic book the
Zohar, tiie commentaries of Jiasiii, the Kimhig. Ibu
Iv/.vii, Ger.sonides, Nahmunides, etc., should not be
burned, as they were useful for theology and science,
and no heresy was contained in them; but books
which contained blasphemies against Jesus, such us
the •• Toledot Yeshu," he considered ought to be des-
troyed. Furthermore, the Jews, being us such un-
der the protection of the German empire, could not
be accused of heresy against Christianity. The em-
peror rescinded his edict of destruction on May 23,
1510. The rescission Ijeing tnaiidy a result of Reuch-
lin's report, a prolonged coutlict between him and
the Dominicans followed, into which the whole
scientitic world of Euroi>e was drawn.

Dispute The humanists were on tlie side of
with Pfef- Reuchlin, while theclericals.espr-cially

ferkorn. the universities of Louvain, Cologne,

Erfurt, Mayence, and Paris, were with

the Dominicans. PfelTerkorn published in 1511 liis

"Handspiegel," attacking Reuchlin, who answered

it with his "Augenspiegel" (Pforzheim, 1511).

The University of Cologne, under the influence
of the Dominican prior Jacob van H(j()fiSTU.\TKX,
published in 1513 in Cologne "Articuli sive Propnsi-
tiones de Judaico Favore." Reuchlin accepted the
challenge from the university and wrote " Defensio
Reuchlini Contra Calumniatores Suos Colonienses"
(Tubingen, 1513); he was answered in turn by the
professor of clas.sical literature of the University of
Cologne, (~)rtuin de Graes (Gratius), in "Pra-nota-
meuta Contra Omnem Malevoleutiam " (n.d. ), and re-
plied in another work, entitled "Clarorum Virorum
EpistohB Latinsp, GractB et Hebraice Variis Tem-
poribus Missa; ad J. Reuchlinum " (Tubingen, 1514 ;
2 vols., Hagenau, 1519). Following the example of
the German university, the Sorbonne also condemned
the "Augenspiegel." The subject was brought be-
fore the Paris university by the confessor of King
Louis XH., Petit GuillaumeHaguinet, the same cleric
who in 1520 created at the Sorbonne a chair for He-
brew, to be held by Christian scholars.

The prior Hoogstraten ordered Reuchlin to ap-
pear before the Dominican courtat Mayence in 1513
to defend himself against the accusation of heresy,
based upon the "Augenspiegel" ; but the hearing
was suspended by order of Archbishop Uriel von
Gemmingen of Cologne, who in 1509 had been ap-
pointed by ^laximilian acommissioner to investigate
PfelTerkorn 's accusation. The controversy came, !ty
order of the pope, before the Bishop of Speyer, who
in 1514 decided in favor of Ik-uchlin. The Domini-
cans appealed to Pope Leo X.. and for six years the
case remained undecided. In the meantime the
"EpistoliB Obscurorum Virorum ad Ortuinum Gra-
tium " ajipeared anonymously in Ha-
The genau (?) in 1515 and 1516, and in

"Augen- Basel 1517, Reuchlin disclaiming the

Spiegel" authorship. The matter was brotiglit
Con- before the Latenin Council at its 8<'S-

demned. sion of 1516, which dccideil in favor of

Reuchlin. But the decision was again

set aside, and tinally. in 1520, the matter was decided

against Reuchlin by Leo X., who cnndemned the

Heuel
Revelation

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

390

" Augenspiegel." This decision was influenced by
political reasons, the King of France and Em-
peror Charles IV. of Germany siding with the Do-
minicans against the spread of the Reformation in
Germany.

Reuchlin was the first scholar to introduce Hebrew
into the curriculum of the university. He taught
it before he became professor at Iiigolstadt and Tu-
bingen. Among his pupils may be mentioned:
Melanchthon, Christopher Schilling of Lucerne, John
Oecolampadius, John Cellarius, and Bartholomaus
Ca?sar.

Reuchlin "s works on subjects of specifically Jew-
ish interest are: (1) " De Verbo Mirifico" (Basel,
1494), upon the Cabala. Baruchias, a Jewish sage;
Capnion, a Christian scholar; and a Greek philoso-
pher have a discussion, the outcome of which is a
declaration of the supremacy of Jewish wisdom and
of the Hebrew language. (2) " Rudimenta Ilobra-
ica " (Pforzheim, 1506). As the first Hebrew gram-
mar written by a Christian its many faults may well
be overlooked. It gives only the rudiments of He-
brew pronunciation and a very imperfect vocabulary.
(3) " De Arte Cabalistica " (Hagenau, 1517). (4) " De
Accentibus et Orthographia Hebneorum Libri Tres "
{ib. 15iy). This grammar is far superior to the one
which appeared in 1506, and shows the result of the
thorough studies of the author.

See also Gkaes, Ortuin de; Hoogstraten,
Jacob van; Humanists; Httten, Ulrich von;
Loans, Jacob b. Jehiel; Pfefferkorn, Johann.

BiBi.iOGRAPHT : Gratz, Gesch. vol. Ix., pasxim : L. Geiger, Jo-
hann Re\ichUn, Leipslc, 1871 : Horowitz. Zur }Siographie
und Korrespnndenz J. lieuchlin's, Vienna, 1«77 ; Schaff-
Herzog, Encyc.
D. F. T. II.

HEUEL, See Jethro.

REUSS, EDUARD "WILHELM: Protestant
theologian; born in Strasburg- July 18, 1804; died
there April 15, 1891. He studied Oriental languages
with Gesenius at Halle, and with Silvestre de Sacy
at Paris; and became professor at his native city in
1834. He claimed that in his opening lectures on the
Old Testament he put forward the hypothesis, later
advocated by Graf and Wellhausen, that the Priestly
Code and the second Elohist were the latest strata in
the Pentateuch. He published a complete French
translation of the Bible (1874-88) in sixteen volumes,
with an elaborate introduction and notes (after his
death published in German), and composed a "Ge-
schichte der Heiligen Schriften des Alten Testa-
ments" (1881), which for some time was the best
work on the subject.

Bibliography : La Grande Enryclopidie.

T. J.

REVAI, MOR : Hungarian deputy; born at
Eperies in 1860; educated at the universities of
Budapest and Leipsic. In 1880 he entered tiie pub-
lishing-house which his father had founded in 1869
under the firm name of Revai Brothers; and since
that time he has rendered great service to popular
education in Hungary. From 1880 to 1885 he edited
the periodical " Regeny viliig " (World of Romance);
and it was largely through his efforts that " Die
Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Monarchic in Wort und
Bild " was published in 1885 under the patronage

of the crown prince Rudolph. Revai introduced
book-canvassing into Hungary, and was instrumen-
tal in securing 20,000 subscribers to the great Hun-
garian "Pallas Nagy Lexicon." An edition of the
collected works of IMoritz Jokai in 100 volumes, one
of the finest products of his press, gained the " Grand
Prix " at the Paris Exposition of 1900. In 1901 Revai
was returned to the Hungarian Parliament by the
district of Szek.

Bibliography: Pallas Le.r.; Sturm, OrszdgoilUle«i Alma-
nack, 1901-t).
s. L. Y.

REVELATION (BOOK OF) : The last book
in the New Te.stameut canon, yet in fact one of the
oldest; probably the only Judajo-Christian work
which has survived the Paulinian transformation of
the Church. The introductory verse belraj's the
complicated character of the whole work. It pre-
sents the book as a " Revelation which God gave
... to show unto his servants things which must
shortly come to pass," and at the .same time as a
revelation of Jesus Christ to "his servant John."
According to recent investigations, the latter part
was interpolated by the compiler, who worked the
two sections of the book — the main apocalypse (ch.
iv.-xxi. 6) and the letters to the "seven churches"
(i.-iii. and close of xxii.) — into one so as to make
the whole appear as emanating from John, the seer
of the isle of Patmos in Asia Minor (see i. 9, xxii.
8), known otherwise as John the Presbyter. The
anti-Paulinian character of the letters to the seven
churches and the anti-Roman character of the apoc-
alyptic section have been a source of great embar-
rassment, especially to Protestant the-

Jewish ologians, ever since the da_vs of Luther ;

Origin. but the apocalj'pse has become espe-
cially important to Jewish students
since it has been discovered by Vischer (see bibli-
ography) that the main apocalypse actually belongs
to Jewish apocalyptic literature.

The Letters to the Seven Churches : The
first part (i. 4-iii. 22) contains a vision by John,
who is told by Jesus to send a letter to the seven
angels of the seven churches in Asia (founded by
Paul and his associates), rebuking them for the lib-
ertinism that has taken hold of many " who pass as
Jews, but show by their blasphemy and licentious-
ness that they are of the synagogue of Satan " (ii. 9,
iii. 9, Greek). These seven churches were those of
Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardis, Phil-
adelphia, and Laodicea. Owing to their heathen
associations many of their members had lapsed
into pagan or seniipagan views and practises, under
the influence of heretic leaders. Of these one is
singled out b}- the name of Nicolaites (ii. 6, 15;
comp. Acts vi. 5), called also Balaam (ii. 14, DJ? vSs
=:"Nicolaos"), because, like Balaam, he seduced the
people to idolatry and fornication by his false proph-
ecies and witchcraft (Num. xxv. 1; xxxi. 8, 16).
Another singled out was a woman, probably a
prophetess, called Jezebel (ii. 20) on account of
her idolatrous practises (I Kings xviii. 19, xxi. 25).
Evidently the seed sown by Paul and his associates,
who in their antinomian Gnosticism boasted of hav-
ing penetrated "the deep things of God " (I Cor. ii.
10), had borne evil fruit, so that the seer of Patmos

391

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Reuel
Revelation

calls these lieretics "false apostles and liars" (ii. 2),
and their teachings "the depths of Satan " (ii. 24).

How much local cults, as that of Esculapius in
Perganios ("Satan's seat"; ii. 13), had to do with
these heresies it is diOicult to say ; certain it is that
many were "polluted" bj- pagan practises (ii. 13,
2G; iii. 4). All the more severel}' does the seer con-
demn the Pauline teaching as "the teaching of Ba-
laam" (comp. II Peter ii. 15; .Tude 11; Sanh. 10(51);
Git. 57a; see Balaam). Ou the other liand, Jesus,
through John, promi-ses to the poor, the meek, and
the patient toilers of the churches who refuse to
partake of the meals of the pagans that "they shall
cat of the tree of life " in paradise (ii. 2, 7) ; to those
who are to sufl'er from the jiagan powers that they
shall, as true "athletes" of this world, be given the
"crown of life". (ii. 10); to him "that overcometh "
in the contest (comp. the ral)l)inical term, "zokeh ")
will be given a lot or mark (" goral") bearing the
Inefl'able Name, and he shall "eat of the hidden
manna "(ii. 17; comp. Tan., Beshallah, cd. Buber,
p. 21; Hag. 12b; Apoc. Baruch, xxix. 8; Sibyl-
lines, ii. 348); or, like the Messiah, he will "rule
them [the heathen] with a rod of iron" and be given
the crown of glorj' (ii. 26-28; the "morning star,"
taken from xxii. 16, if it is not the error of a
copyist); those Avho "have not defiled their gar-
ments" "shall be clothed in white raiment," and
their names shall be written in the book of life and
proclaimed before God and His angels (iii. 4-5) ; while
those who stand the test of Satan's trials shall
be spared in the great Messianic time of trial and
become pillars in the temple of the "new Jerusa-
lem" (iii. 10-13, Greek), or shall partake of the Mes-
sianic banquet, sitting by (scarcely "in ") the seat of
Jesus (iii. 21).

Obviously, the writer of these visionary letters to
the seven churches of Asia was in his own estima-
tion a Jew, while believing in Jesus as the risen
Messiah. He beheld him in his vision

Jewish as "the faithful witness" (martyr)

Point of who is next to God, " who is, was, and
"View will be" ("come" is the emendation
of Writer, of the late compiler), his seven angelic
spirits standing " before his throne " (i.
4-5); "the Son of man" grasping seven stars in his
right hand, while out of his mouth came a sharj)
two-edged sword (i. 13-16; ii. 1, 12 [taken from the
apocalypse, xiv. 14]; iii. 1); who "holds the keys
of hell and of death " (i. 18); who is "the holy and
true one" that "holds the key of David" (iii. 7,
with reference to Isa. xxii. 22); who is called also
" the beginning of the creation of God " (iii. 14).
However, Ihe identification of "him who was dead
and became alive again " with God, who is the First
and the Last, the ever-living Almighty (i. 17; comp.
i. 8 and ii. 8), is the work of the late compiler. The
close of the visionary letters is found at xxii. 16,
where Jesus is represented as saying, " I am the root
and the offspring of David" (comp. Isa. xi. 1, 10),
"the bright and morning star" (after Num. xxiv.
17 and [probably] Ps. ex. 3 ; comp. LXX.). To find
in these chapters traces of a persecution of the early
Christians by the Jews, as do most modern exegetes,
is absurdly illogical. On the contrary, the writer
condemns the anti-Jewish attitude of the Pauline

churches; tlie document is tlierefore of great iiis-
torical value. It is important in this connection to
note the Hebraisms of the whole of this part of the
book, which prov(! that the writer or— if lie himself
originally wrote Hebrew or AruiMaic— the translator
could neither write nor speak Greek correctly. As
to the relation of this to the apocalypse which
follows see below.

The Main Apocalypse : The succeeding part
(iv.-xx. 8) contains several Jewish apocalypses
worked into one, so altered, iuterpoluted, and re-
modeled as to impress the reader as tiie work of the
author of the letters to the seven churches. In the
following the attempt is made to acquaint the reader
with the contents of the two original Jewish upoca
lyp.ses, as far as they can be restored, tiie Christian
interpolations and alterations being put aside.

First Jewish Apocalypse : After the intmductory
verses, i)art ol i. 1, 8 ("I am Alpha and (Jmega, the
beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which
is, and which was and will be ["will come" is a
Christian alteration], the Almighty ") and part of i.
12-19, the apocalyptic seer describes (iv. 1 et teq.)
how he was carried up by the spirit (with the an-
gel's word, "Come down hither," compare the ex-
pression " Yorede Merkabah "), and how he saw "a
throne set in heaven and One sitting on the throne."
after the manner of Ezek. i. 26-28. "Bound about
the throne were twenty-four seats, &nd upon these
I saw twenty-four elders sitting, clothed in white
raiment, and they had golden crowns on their
heads": obviously heavenly representations of the
twent\'-four classes of priests serving in the Temple
(Ta'au. iv. 2; I Chron. xxiv. 7-18; Joscphus,
"Ant." vii. 14, § 7; comp., however, Gunkel,
"SchOpfung und Chaos," pp. 302-308, and I.sa.
xxiv. 23 [Bousset]). After a descriiition of the
four "hayyot," taken from Ezek. i. 5-10, 18 and
combined with that of the seraphim in Isa. vi. 2-3,
the text continues, "They rest not day and night,
saying. Hoi}', holy, holy, is the Lord Go<l of hosts
[iravTOKpnTui), translated "Almighty" in A. V. ;
comp. Amos iv. 13], who was, is, and shall be"
(Greek text, "is to come"). And when the hayyot
give glory and honor and jiraise to Him who sits on
the throne. Him who lives forever and ever ("he
ha-'olamin "), the twenty-four elders prostrate them-
selves and, laying down their crowns, say, "Thou
art worthy, O Lord, to receive glory and honor and
power, for Thou hast created all things, and by
Thy will they have been created."

Ch. v. : The seer then describes how he saw at the
right hand of God a scroll written within and with-
out and sealed with seven seals (it was customary
for the last will to be sealed with seven seals and
opened by seven witnesses; see Huschke. "Das
Buch mit den Sieben Siegeln." 1860; Zahn. "YAn-
leitung in das Neue Testament," ii. 591), which none
in heaven, on earth, or beneath the earth was found
worthy to open until one of the twenty-four elders
pointed out that "the lion of the tribe of Judali.
the root of David, had merited to open the book and
loose its seven seals." Then the lion (the Christian
reviser rather awkwardly substituted "the slain
lamb") suddenly appeared, with seven horns and
seven eyes, standing between the throne and the

Sevelation

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

392

four hayyot and the twenty-four elders; and he
stepped forth and took the scroll while the hayyot
and the elders prostrated themselves before him,
saying, "Thou art worthy to take tiie book and open
the seals thereof; for ..." The remainder has
been worked over b}- the Christian reviser.

Ch. vi. 1-12: At the opening of the tirst seal by
the Messiah the seer hears the thuuder-call of one of
the four hayyot, and seesa wliite horse appear, with
a rider holding a bow (representing, probabl}', Pes-
tilence) ; at the opening of the second seal, a red
horse, with a rider armed with a great sword (repre-
senting War); at the opening of the third seal, a
black horse, with a rider holding a pair of balances
to weigh flour, bread having become scarce (signi-
fying Famine); at the opening of the fourth seal, a
"pale " horse, the ridir thereof being Deatli. These
four are to destroy the fourth part of the earth by
the sword, famine, pestilence, and wild beasts.
Wliat plague is ushered in at the opening of the
fifth seal is no longer stated ; apparently it is perse-
cution of the saints, as tlie te.xt continues: "I saw
under the altar the souls of them that were slain for
the word of God, and for the testimony they gave"
(as martyrs; see Kiddusii ha-Siiem). "And they
cried with a loud voice, saying, How long, O Lord,
holy and true, dost Thou not judge and avenge our
blood on them that dwell on the earth." And white
robes were given them, and they were told to rest
for a while until the number of the martyrs was
full (comp. Apocalypse of Baruch, x.xx. 2; IV Esd.
iv. 36).

After this the seer beholds a great multitude of
people of every land and language, both Jews and
proselytes, also arrayed in white robes, standing be-
fore the throne; and he is told that, "having under-
gone great tribulation, they have made their robes
white by the blood of the martyrs" (of course, not
"of the lamb," as the Christian reviser has it); and
that now they serve God in the heavenly temple
day and night, and the Shekinah dwells with them
(vii. 9-17, which part is misplaced).

Ch. vi. 12-17: At the opening of the si.xth seal
"the birth-throes of the Messianic time" appear, as
depicted in Joel iii. 3-4; Isa. ii. 10, x.xiv., xxxiv. 4;
and Hosea x. 8. Fear of the great day of God's
wrath (Mai. iii. 2) and of the wrath of His anointed
(Ps. ii. 12) seizes tlie whole world.

Ch. viii. 1-13: The opening of the seventh .seal

forms the climax. The awful catastrophe is marked

by "silence in heaven about the space

Opening of of Jjalf an hour." The four angels

the that hold the winds at the four cor-

Seventh ners of the earth are told to ciieck the
Seal. blowing of the winds on land, on

sea, and on the trees until an angel
has sealed upon the forehead, with the seal of the
living God, the 144,000 servants of God, that is,
12,000 of each of the twelve trH)e3 of Israel (Dan as
idolater is excluded, and Levi takes his place along
with the two sons of Joseph), in order to guard them
against the impending destruction (vii. 1-8). The
seven trumpets of the .seven angels before God usher
in .seven great calamities: the first four involve a
world conflagration ("mal)bul shel esh ") that burns
up the third part of the land and dries up a third

part of the sea and the rivers, and an eclipse of sun,
moon, and stars (viii. 2-12; comp. Sibyllines, iii.
80-90, 540) ; the remaining three, who are an-
nounced by an angel flying through the midst of
heaven (viii. 13), bring even greater woes; first the
torment of locusts, described in all its fierceness in
theapocal^'ptic chapters of Joil (i. 6, ii. 2-9), coming
forth from the abyss over wiiieh the angel Abaddon
(Destruction; comp. Job xxviii. 22; comp. "Zefoni,"
Joel, ii. 20: Suk. o2a) alone has power (ix. 1-12);
secondly, the letting loose from tlie banks of the Eu-
phrates of the four kings (Q'370; not "angels,"
DOXPD), with numberless hosts of wild Parthian
horsemen wearing breastplates of fire and brimstone,
and riding on horses that have heads of lions and
tails of serpents, and out of whose mouths come
fire, smoke, and brimstone (comp. Nalium ii. 4-5,
iii. 3). As with the former plagues, a third part of
mankind is killed; they were prepared for this task
from the beginning of the world. "And yet,"
closes the seer, " the rest of the men which were not
killed repented not,-- but continued to worship
demons, idols of gold and silver, bronze, stone, and
wood, practise witchcraft, and commit murders, for-
nications, and thefts" (ix. 13-21; see Sibyllines, ii.
255-262, iv. 31-34; and compare the four kings of
the mighty hosts upon the banks of the Euphrates
in the Midrash of Simeon ben Yohai, in Jellinek,
"B. II." iii. 81).

The third and last wo, announced in \i. 14 (x.-xi.
13 interrupts the connection), is no longer given
in what follows xi. 15a; for the Christian reviser
changed the text which originally described the last
judgment passed upon the non-repentant people,
"the kingdoms of this world," and iusteail si)eaUs
of their having "become kingdoms of Christ." Only
verse 18, telling of "the wrath of God that has
come upon the nations that shall be destroyed as
they have destro3'ed the land," contains traces of
the former contents of the chapter; although pos-
sibly part of xiv. 1-5, referring to the 144,000
of Israel who had been saved, and the proclama-
tion to all the nations to " fear God and worship
Him who made heaven, earth, sea, and the fountains
of water," "for the hour of His judgment has
come" (xiv. 6-7.>, formed part of the original Jew-
ish apocalypse; also xi. 10-18, the song of praise by
the twenty-four elders before God and the vision of
the reappearance of the Ark of the Covenant (xi.
19; comp. Yomu 581), 54a).

In all probability this apocalj'pse was written be-
fore the destruction of Jerusalem, at a time of per-
secution, when many Jews died as martyrs, though
many others yielded ; hence only 12,UU0 ol each tribe
are to be selected.

The Second Jewish Apocalypse : Far more power-
ful, and (.'xprcssix (■ of intense hatred of Home, the
Babel-like destroyer of Judea, is the second Jewish
apocalypse, or .series of apocalypses, written during
the siege and after the destruction of Jerusalem, and
contained in ch. x. 2-xi. 13, xii. 1-xiii. 18, and xiv.
G-xxii. 6. After the manner of Ezek. ii 8-iii. 3, the
writer represents his vision as having been received
in the form of a book, which he is to eat with its
bitter contents. In imitation of Ezek. xl. 3 and
Zech. ii. 5-6, the angel gives him a measuring-rod

393

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Hevelation

tliiit lie msiy measure the site of the Temple and
tlie altar, which is to remain ■ intact, while the rest
of the Holy City is doomed to be troddeu under
foot by the Gentiles (the Roman soldiers) for forty-
two mnntlis (Dan. vii. 25, viii. 14, xii. 7). Ilcisthen
told that during this time there shall be two propiicts,
witnesses of the Lord (Moses and Elijah), who shall
again manifest their ])owerof restraiiung the heavens
from giving rain (I Kings xvii. 1), of turning the water
into blood, and of striking the laud with plagues
(Ex. vii.-x.); and whosoever shall attempt to hurt
them will be devoured by tire from their mouths (II
Kings i. 10). But they will linally fall victims to the
beast that ascends out of the abyss to make war
upon them. After their deail bodies have been lying
for three and a half days in the streets of the Holy
City, wiiich shall have become a Sodom and Gomor-
rah, and the people of all tongues and of all nations
have looked upon them and rejoiced at the deatii
of the prophets that had chastised them (by their
preaching of repentance), refusing to
Moses give them burial, God's spirit will
and again imbue them with life, and tliey

Elijah. will, to the astonishment of the j)eo-
ple, rise and ascend to heaven ; and in
the same hour a great earthquake will cause the
death of 7,000 people (xi. 1-lB). Of this cschatolog-
ical feature no trace is found in rabbinical sources,
except the appearance of Moses and the Messiah dur-
ing the war of Gog and Magog (Targ. Yer. Ex. xii.
42). Possibly this is the older form of the legend of
the Messiah ben Ephraim or ben Joseph being slain
by Gog and Magog, based on Zech. xii. 10-11 (comp.
Jellinek, " B. ll.""iii. 80).

Then follows (xiii. 1, 12a, 5b, 10) the description
of the beast (after Dan. vii. 4-7; comp. vii. 8, xi.
3G). It bears (in "Augustus Divus") the name of
blasphemy, and its mouth speaks blasphemy against
God and llisSliekinahon earth and in heaven (i. 5-6,
misunderstood by the Christian translator). It has
power over all nations and tongues, and over all
those whose names are not written in the book of
life (the awkward addition "of the lamb" betrays
the Christian hand) from the foundation of tlie
world, and it makes war upon the "saints" (the
Jewish people, as in Daniel). For forty-two months
(the three and a half years of Daniel) will its power
last, trying the patience of the saints.

But then (xiv. 6-7) an angel in the midst of heaven
announces good tidings to the people on the earth,
saying, " Fear God, and give glory to Ilim ; for the
hour of His judgment is come: and wonship Him
that made heaven, and earth, and the sea." Here
follows (xv. 5-xvi. 21) the vision of the seven angels
coming out of the Temple with "seven golden vials
full of the wrath of God who liveth for ever ami
ever." The first angel pours out his vial upon the
earth ami there falls an evil and grievous sore
(comp. Ex. ix. 8) upon the men who

Vision of bear the mark of the beast and wor-
the Seven ship his image (an allusion to the cult

Plagues, of the eniperors and to the Koman

coin.s). The second angel pours out

his vial (comp. Ex. vii. 19) on the sea, which turns

into blood, so that all living things therein die. The

third pours out his vial upon the rivers, and they

become blood, tlie angel of tlie waters praising the
justice of GodC'/.idduk ha din"), which makitj those
drink blood wIkj have shed that of the saints and
prophets. The fourth pours out his vial upon the
sun, whieii becomes a lire to scorch the people who
blaspiieine and repent not. The liflh pours out Iiis
viul upon the seat of the beast (Home), and its em-
pire becomes full of darkness; yet the people repent
not. The sixth pours out his vial upon the great
Euphrates (comp. Sanli. 98a). and it is drietl up. bo
as to prejiare tlu; way for liie kings of the East (the
Parthians) to gather in Armageddon (Tr .Magdiel,
symbolic name for Rome; xvi. 13-15 is an interpola-
tion; sec Targ. Yer. to G(!n. xxxvi. 43; Pirke 1{. El.
xxxviii.; Gen. R. Ixxxiii.). The seventh pours out
his vial into the air and causes an earthquake which
splits the great city (Rome) into three parts, and the
cities of tlie nations fall, and islands and mountains
are removed, and Babylon (Rome) takes from the
hand of God the cup of the wine of His fierce wrath
(com I). Jer. xxv. 15).

In ch. xvii.-xix., in imitation of Isaiah's and Eze-

kiel's vision of Tyre (Isa. xxiii. 17; Ezek. xxvii.-

xxviii.), the apocalyptic writer then proceeds to

(Iwell on the judgment held over the

Rome great harlot that sits upon the many

the Great waters, with whom the kings of the

Harlot. earth have committed fornication, and
with the wine of whose fornication
the inhabitants of the earth have been made drunk.
He then sees in the wilderness "a woman sitting
upon a scarlet-colored beast full of names of blas-
phemy [idolatry] and having [seven heads and] ten
horns [comp. Dan. vii. 7], herself arrayed in purple
and scarlet and decked with gold and precious
stones, and holding in her hand a golden cup full
of the filthiness of her fornication" (the picture is
taken probably from the Syrian representations of
Astarte riding on a lion with a cup of destiny in lier
hand). Greatly astonished at this sight, he let'rns
from the interpreting angel (verses 5-14 and 10 are
later insertions which anticipate the interpretation)
that " the many waters " are the many nations given
into the power of the beast, and that the woman is
the great city (of Rotne) which reigneth over the
kings of the earth.

Then he beholds (xviii. 1-8) one of the glorious
angels descending from heaven, and crying out (in
the words of the ancient .seers— Isa. xxi. 9, xxiv. 11-
13), "Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great, and has
become the habitation of demons." for all the na-
tions have drunk of the glowing wine of her forni-
cation, and the kings of the earth have committe«l
fornication with her (Isa. xxiii. 17; Jer. xxv. 15.
27). "Go out of her, my people, that yc be not
partakers of her sins and receive not of hor |)lagues"
(Jer. li. 6, 9) ; " for her sins have reached unto lieaven.
and God hath rememliered her inicjuities" (Ps.
cxxxvii. 8; Jer. 1. 15, 29). In rhythmic sentences,
taken from the Bible, the voice is heard .saying:
"Fill her cu]! double of what she ofTcred you. and
give her as much torment and grief as she has had
glory and pleasure." -VII that is sjiid of Babel (Isa.
xlvii. 7-9: Jer. 1. 32-34) is applied to lior; and K/e-
kiels lamentation over the fall of Tyre (xxvi. 16-
xxvii. 36) is repeated by the kings of the earth over

Sevelation

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

394

the fall of Babylon (Rome). "Alas, alas. Babjion
the great, mighty city I in one hour is thy judgment
come! " is the refrain (xviii. 10, 19). The rhythmic
form in which the whole is composed indicates a
Hebrew author, whereas the Christian interpolations
always spoil both context and rhythm.

Finally (xviii. 21-24), an angel casts a large stone
into the sea (comp. Jer. li. 63-64), saying, "Thus
shall Babylon be cast down forever and no longer
be found " ; her musicians shall no longer be heard
in her (comp. Ezek. xxvi. 14); nor shall any crafts-
man be seen; nor shall "the sound of a millstone"
or " the voice of bridegroom and bride be perceived " ;
nor shall " the light of a candle " shine in her (comp.
Jer. XXV. 10).

In order to understand the relation between the

prophecy concerning the beast and Rome and the

visions of the dragon and the Messiah

The Beast, (the Christian "lamb ") which precede

the and follow, it is necessary to bear in

Dragon, mind that since the days of Pompej'

and the Rome was in the eyes of the Jewish
Messiah, apocalyptic writers the fourth beast
in the Daniel apocalypse (see Dan. vii.
7), the last" wicked kingdom " whose end is to usher
in the Messianic kingdom (Cant. R. ii. 12; Gen. R.
xliv. 20; Lev. R. xiii. ; Midr. Teh. Ps. Ixxx. 14; sec
RoMCLUS). Rome was found to be alluded to in
Ps. Ixxx. 14 (A. V. 13), in the words nyo T'TH
(" the boar out of the wood "), the letter y being
written above the others so as to make the word
^D1 (" Rome ") stand out in transposed order (comp.
Enoch, Ixxxix. 12, where Esau is spoken of as "the
black wild boar ").

The identification of Rome with Babylon is found
also in the Jewish Sibyllines, v. 159, and the identifi-
cation with Tyre in Ex. R. ix. 13— facts which indi-
cate the lines of Jewish apocalyptic tradition. " The
wild beast of the reeds" (Ps. Ixviii. 31 [R. V. 30])
has also been identified with Rome (see Midr. Teh.
Ps. Ixviii. [ed. Buber, p. 15]). But in order to ac-
count for the delay of the Messiah, who was to "slay
the wicked by the breath of his mouth " (Isa. xi. 4),
a cosmic power in the shape of an Ahrimanic animal,
the dragon, was introduced as the arch-enemy plot-
ting the destruction of the Messiah, the Aktichiust
who with his hosts hinders the redemption (" me'ak-
keb et ha-ge'ullah "; Sauh. 97b; Nid. 13b; comp.
II Thess. ii. 6-7). To this end the author used a
mythological story (xiii. 1-6), borrowed from Baby-
lonia, as Gunkel {I.e. pp. 379-398) claims, from the
Apollonic myth, as Dieterich ("Abraxas," 1891, pp.
117-122) thinks, or from Egypt, as Bousset suggests.
He sees (xii. 1-6) Zion in the garb of "a woman
clothed with the sun, the moon beneath her feet, and
twelve stars on the crown of her head," while about
to give birth to a child destined to "rule all nations
with a rod of iron " (Ps. ii. 9), pursued by a seven-
lieaded dragon ; the child (the future Messiah) is car-
ried up to the throne of God (that is, he is hidden),
and she flees to the wilderness, where a place is pre-
pared for her by God to be nourished in for 1,260
days (three and a half years; comp. xi. 3, xiii. 5,
and Dan. vii. 8, xi. 25). Compare with this the Tal-
mudic legend of the Messiah babe carried off by the
storm (Yer. Ber. ii. 5a). Here follows a similar story

from another hand (xii. 7-15), telling of a battle
raging in heaven between Michael, the"Synegor"
(= " pleading angel ") of Israel (Midr. Teh. Ps. xx.),
and Satan, the "Kategor" (= "Accuser"), which
ends in the casting down of the old serpent with
his hosts — a victory brought about by the merit of
the Jewish martyrs, which silenced the Accuser.

It was thereafter, says the second version, that
the woman (Israel) was pursued by the serpent;
but she was carried by a great eagle into a safe place
in the wilderness, where she was nourished for "a
time, two times, and a half time " (three and a half
years; comp. Dan. vii. 25); "and when the dragon
cast forth a flood of water to drown her, the earth
opened her mouth to swallow the water." Finally,
unable to slay the woman with her Messiah babe,
the dragon made war with the remnant of her seed,
the pious ones " who observe the commandments of
God."

The prophecy concerning Rome seems to have

received many interpolations and alterations at the

hands of Jewish and Christian compilers. Both

"the second beast, the false prophet who aids in

the worship of the image of the emperor (xiii. 11-

17), and the interpretation of the seven

Interpola- heads (xvii. 8-11) are later insertions.

tions. The number 666 ("i Dp |nj: xiii. 18),

also, is scarcely genuine, inasmuch as

the number 256 represents both the beast and the

man (*Dn and Y\^) as stated in the apocalypse. For

the second beast, called Beliar, comp. Sibyllines, ii.

167, 210; ili. 63-90.

The story of the Messiah hidden with God in
heaven is continued in xiv. 6-20, a passage which
has but few traces of the Christian compiler's hand.
Announcement (not of "good tidings") is made to
the nations : " Fear God the Creator, for the hour of
His judgment is come" (xiv. 6-7). Then "the Son
of man coming on the cloud " (comp. Dan. vii. 13)
appears, a golden crown on his head and a sharp
sickle in his hand, and a voice calling forth from
within the Temple, " Thrust in thy sickle and reap,
for the harvest of the earth is come " ; " Tread ye the
clusters of the vine of the earth, for the grapes are
ripe" (comp. Joel iv. 13); and he "thrust the sickle,
and gathered the clusters of the vine of the earth
and cast them into the wine-press of the wrath of
God" (comp. Isa. Ixiii. 1-6); and as the wine-press
was trodden, outside the city (comp. Zech. xiv. 4),
there came blood out of the wine-press, reaching
even to the bridles of the horses, for the space of
1,600 furlongs (comp. Enoch, xciv. 9, xcix. 6, c. 3).

The same scene is depicted in ch. xix. 11, 16
(also altered by the Christian compiler), where the
seer beholds " upon a white horse " him who is " to
judge and to make war " ; his eyes are a flame of fire,
and on his (triple ?) crown the Ineffable Name is
written ; he is clothed with a vesture dipped in
blood (Isa. Ixiii. 3), and his name is. . . . Heavenly
hosts follow him on white horses, and out of his
mouth goes a sharp sword with which he shall
smite the nations. He shall rule them with a rod of
iron (comp. Ps. ii. 9) and tread the wine-press of the
wrath of the Lord of Hosts (Isa. Ixxili. 6); and on
his vesture and thigh is written, " King of Kings
and Lord of Lords." The closing scene is described

395

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Revelation

in xix. 17-18, 21 : A voice ("of an angel standing in
the sun " — certainly not genuine) calls, in the words
of Ezek. xxxix. 17-20, all the fowls and l)easts to-
gether for the great sacrifice ("supper") of God, at
which they are to eat "the ilesh of kings, of cap-
tains, and mighty men, of horses and of those who
ride on them, and the flesh of all men both free and
bond, small and great, . . . and the fowls were
tilled with their flesh."

Then the writer dwells, in eli. xx. 1-5, on the
judgment passed in heaven upon the dragon, Satan,
the primeval serpent, who is, like Azazel in Enoch,
bound and cast into the abyss, there to be shut up
for a thousand years, the seventh millennium which
the Messiah shall pass together with the elect ones.
Here the original apocalypse probably told of the
resurrection of the "saints who had died in the
Lord" (xiv. 13), and of the triumphal song they
sang at the union of the Messiah, the bridegroom,
and the daughter of Zion, the bride (xv. 2-4, xix.
1-8).

After the lapse of the seventh millennium (comp.
"Bundahis," xxix. 8) the old serpent is again let
loose to deceive the nations of the
Gog and earth, and the numberless hosts of
Magog. Gog and Magog beleaguer the Holy
City. Then Satan is cast forever into
Gehenna (comp. ib.), and "seats of judgment"
(Dan. vii.) are set for all the dead who rise to be
judged (xx. 7-15). Then all whose names are not
written in the book of life are cast into the lake of
fire. "All the cowardly and faithless ones who
yield to abominable rites, murderers, whoremongers,
sorcerers, idolaters, and liars, shall meet the second
death" (comp. Targ. Yer. to Deut. xxxiii. 6) "and
be cast into the lake which burneth with fire and
brimstone " (xxi. 8). There shall be "a new heaven
and a new earth " (Isa. Ixv. 17) ; the old ones shall
disappear, and God's Shekinah shall be with men:
they shall be God's people, and "He shall wipe
away all tears from their eyes, and there shall be
no more sorrow or pain" (comp. Enoch, xc. 29; IV
Esd. vii. 26; Apoc. Baruch, iv. 3, xxxii. 2; Hag.
12b; Ta'an. 5a).

Then (xxi. 9-27) in place of the old the seer be-
holds the new Jerusalem come down from heaven,
prepared "as a bride adorned for her husband " (Isa.
Ixi. 10), in all the glory and splendor described in
Isa. liv. 11-12, Ixii. 6, with the twelve gates men-
tioned by Ezek. xlviii. 31-35, for the twelve tribes
of Israel. The twelve foundation-stones (the twelve
names of the Apostles merely betray the Christian
reviser's hand) are to be of precious stones, corre-
sponding to the twelve on the high priest's breast-
plate (comp. Ezek. xxxix. 10), the twelve gates,
of twelve pearls; and the city with its streets, of
pure gold, transparent as crystal (the same dreams
of a golden Jerusalem with gates of pearls and
precious stones are indulged in by the Habbis; see
B. B. 75a). No temple shall be there, as the Lord
of Hosts will be its temple (comp. Ezek. xl. 35).
The words "and the Lamb" (xxi. 22), "and the
Lamb is the light thereof" (xxi. 23; comp. xxii. 5,
taken from Isa. Ix. 19) are Christian interpolations.
Verses 24-27 are taken from Isa. Ix. 2, 11; lii. 1
(comp. Ezek. xliv. 9), only so modified as to avoid

the mention of "the night," wliile. instead of the
pas.sage concerning " the uncircumcised," it is said
that " whosoever worketii abomination and falsehood
may not enter; only they wlio are written in tlie
book of life."

FinaMy, tlie seer beholds (xxii. 1-5) a crystal-like
river of water flow forth from tiie throne of God
(comp. Ezek. xlvii. 12 and Sanh. 100a,
The where tiie river is said to issue from

Throne of the Holy of Holies). Jewi.sli Gnostics
God. (Hag. 141)) also spoke of the white mar-

ble throne and the " waters " surround-
ing it, exactly as " the .sea of glass " near " llie white
throne" is described in Rev. iv.6, xx. 11. On either
side of the river he .sees the tree of life (Enoch, xxv.
4-6) "bearing twelve kinds of fruit, yielding its
fruit every month, and its leaves are for the healinf?
of the nations." "There sliall be no more curse"
(comp. Zed), xiv. 11, Q-in). for the servants of
the Lord "shall see His face" (comp. !.<». xl. 5),
and they shall reign forever and ever" (comp. Dan.
vii. 27).

The whole apocalypse, of which xxii. 10-15 is the
conclusion, is, like tlie shorter one which precedes
it, in every part and feature (except where altered
by the Christian compiler) thoroughly Jewish in
spirit and conception, as was fully recognized by
Mommsen ("ROmische Gesch." v. .520-523). It pre-
sents the development of the whole cschatological
drama according to the Jewish view. It is Hebrew
in composition and style, and bears traces of having
originally been written in Hebrew, as is shown by
the words (tk;/v;/ (tabernacle; xxi. 3) for T\y2V\
D'3XPD (angels) mistaken for D'opo (Kings; ix.
14); hiKT/aev (lias conquered) for n3T (is w'orthy);
and others. The two apocalypses appear to
have been, like that in Matt, xxi v., or like the
Epistle of James and the Testament of the
Twelve Patriarchs, in the possession of Esscnes
who joined the Judfeo-Christian Church after the
destruction of the Temple (comp. Rev. xxi. 22,
showing that the autlx^r did not believe in the fu-
ture restoration of the Temple). Hence it was easy
for a member of the early Church to adapt the whole
to the Christian view by substituting or inserting
frequently, but not always skilfully and consist-
ently, "the Lamb" for "the Messiah," and by occa-
sionally changing or adding entire paragraphs (v.
9-14; vii. 9-10; xi. 82; xiv. 2-5; xvi. 15; xix. 7-10;
XX. 6; xxi. 2; xxii. 7-10, 16-17. 20).

Possibly the seer of Patmos when writing the let-
ters to the seven churches, or one of his disciples
when sending them out, had these apocalypses be-
fore him and incorporated them into his work. This
fact would account for the striking similarities in
expression between the first three chapters and the
remainder. Attention luvs been called also to the
fact that the name "The Word of God" given to
the Messiah by the Christian writer in Rev. xix.
13 corresponds exactly to the "Logos" of the Gospel
of John i. 1 and " theLamb " of John i. 29. To this
may be added the conception of the Antichrist,
dwelt upon alike in Revelation and in I John ii. 18,
iv. 3, and II John 7. Owing to these and other
similarities John tiie Presbyter, author of the let-
ters to the seven churches and perhaps of the Sec-

Bevelation

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

396

ond and Third Epistles of John (see introductory
verses), was identified with Jolin the Apostle, the
assumed autlior of the Fourth Gospel. Under his
name these books passed iuto the canon, notwith-
standing the fact that the views held by the writer
of the Book of Revelation dilTered wiilily from
those expressed in the Gospel and in the Epistles.
The Epistles are, like the Gospel, Pauline in spirit
and written for Pauline churches; the Book of Rev-
elaliDH remains, under its Christian cloak, a Jewish
document.

BiBLiOGR.^PHY : Boiisset. Die Ofctiharuiia JnhaiDiis, OOt-
tintren, IHVtti (writtea from an apolo^'etic poiut of view and
without faniiliaritv witli the rabbiniail sources); H. (iunkel,
Schriiifuim utul Chaos, 1895, pp. 3:t>-;fi)8; P. Schmidt. .-1 ii-
mcrkuimeu iUier di( K<iniposUion dcr Offcnbiiniitu Julian-
uis: E. Vischer, L>iV Offttiljaj-iuni Juliainiis, Leipsic, isxti;
Fr. Spitia, Die OffctibannitJ de^ JoUauiii.-<, Halle, 18}<9 ;
Weiss, Die Off'euharung des Jahatinis, eiit Jicitiau zur
Literatur- uml Helioion.tgei-ch. Gottingen, IWM ; J. Well-
hauseQ, Skizzcn und Vorarbeiten, 1899, iv. 215- 2W.
T. K.

REVELATION : Term used in two senses in
Jewish theology; it either denotes (1) what in rab-
binical language is called "Gilluy Shekinah," a
manifestation of God by some wondrous act of Ilis
which overawes man and impresses him with what
he sees, hears, or otherwise perceives of His glorious
presence ; or it denotes (2) a manifestation of His will
through oracular words, signs, statutes, or law s.

1. The original Biblical terms used for the former
were " mar 'eh " (= " sight" ; see Geiger, " Urschrift,"
p. 340), and "mahazeh" (Gen. xv. 1.; Num. xxiv.
4). " hazon," or " hizzayon " (= " vision "). The fact,
that God revealed Himself to I7ian is given in the
Bible as a simple, indisputable fact ; only occasion-
ally is the state of mind of the persons seeing or
hearing Him described. He speaks
Mani- with Adam and Eve in Eden (Gen. iii.
festations 9-19); with Cain (iv. 9-15) ; with Noah

of God. (vi. 13, vii. 1, viii. 15) and his sous
(ix. 1, 8); with Abraham (xii. 1; xvL
4, 7, 13; xvii. 1, 3, 15), to whom He appears in com-
pany with manlike angels (xviii. 1). He appears
in a dream to Abimelech, speaking to him on behalf
of Abraham (xx. 3, 6); to Isaac (xxiv. 24); to Laban
on account of Jacob (xxxi. 24) ; to Jacob (xxviii. 13,
XXX. 11, xlvi. 2) "in visions of the night."

The first revelation Moses had of God at the burn-
ing bush was "a great sight"; "he was afraid to
look "at Him (Ex. iii. 3, 6); so the first revelation
Samuel had in a dream is called "the vi.sion " ; after-
ward God was frequently ".seen" at Shiloh (I Sam.
iii. 15, 21, Hebr.). Isaiah's first revelation was also
a sight of God (Isa. vi. 1-5); Amos had his visions
(Amos vii. 1,4; viii. 1 ; ix. 1); and so with Jeremiah
(Jer. i. 11, 13), Ezekiel (Ezek. i. 1 et seq., viii. 1-3),
and Zechariah (Zech. i., vi.), and, in fact, with all
".seers," as they called themselves. The heathen
Balaam also boasted of being one who saw " the
vision of the Almighty" (Num. xxiv. 4). Most
vividly does Elipliuz describe such a revelation:
"In thoughts from the vision of the night, when
deep sleep falleth on men, fear came upon me,
and trembling ... a spirit passed before my face;
the hair of my flesh stood up. He stood still, but
I could not di.scern his appearance; a figure was
before "mine eyes, a whispering vpice I heard"

(Job iv. 13-16, Hebr.). The Pentateuch, however,
laj-s special stress on the fact that, while to other
prophets God made Himself known in a vision,
speaking to them in a dream, He spoke with Mo-
ses "mouth to mouth," "as a man would speak
with his neighbor," in clear sight and not in rid-
dles (Num. xii. 6-8; comp. Ex. xxxiii, 11; Deut.
xxxiv. 10). It was owing to this close and con-
stant communion with God (Ex. xxiv. 15-18;
xxxiii. 8-11, 28-35) that Moses became for all time
His " faithful servant " and mouthpiece, though once
Aaron and his sons and the seventy elders also be-
held God (Ex. xxiv. 10-11).

Still .some more wondrous and imiKXsing act of
revelation was deemed necessary by God "to make
Israel believe in Moses" for all time; therefore all
the people were assembled aroiiml Blount Sinai "to
hear the Ten Words spoken by Him from heaven,"
while at the same time His presence
The was manifested to them in a sight

Revelation which made them tremble in awe be-
on Sinai, fore Him (Ex. xix. 9-xx. 22; Deut. iv.
10-v. 23, Hebr.). Through the Sinai
assembly ("ma'amad har Sinai") the whole people
became witnesses to the divine revelation, and at the
same time w'ere pledged to observe all the laws
which God afterward gave them through Moses.
This accounts for the prominence given in Scrip-
ture (Neh. ix. 13) and in the liturgy (Tamid v. 1,
and the New-Year's musaf, " Sliofarot ") to the Sinai
revelation.

Judah ha-Levi, accordingly, is in full accord with
the spirit of Judaism when he declares the revela-
tion on Sinai to be the great historical fact upon
which the Jewish faith, as far as it is a truth re-
vealed, rests ("Cuzari,"i. 25, 87, 97; iv. 11); and
this is also the rabbinical view. "The Lord ap-
peared to the people of Israel on Sinai face to face
in order to pledge them for all generations to come
to remain true to Him and worship no other God."
The Lord spoke with eveiy single Israelite on Sinai,
so that eacli heard Him say, "I am the Lord thy
God " ; as it is said, " the Lord spoke with you face
to face in the mount out of the midst of the fire"
(Deut. V. 4). He appeared to them in dilTeriug
aspects ("panim" = "countenance") — now with a
stern and now with a mild face, corresponding to the
varying relations and altitudes of men and times
(Pesik. R. 20-21; Mek., Beshallah, Shirah, 3). As
a matter of fact and in contrast to all other de-
scriptions of God's appearances to man, which at a
later stage were taken figuratively (Mek., Yitro, 3-4)
or which called for soferic alterations (Geiger, "Ur-
schrift," PI). 337-342), or in whicii "the glory of
God" was substituted for His presence (Ex. xl. 34;
Lev. ix. 23; Num. xiv. 21), the actuality of the the-
opliany at Sinai was always accentuated, even by
Maimonides ("Moreh," ii. 33).

The essential feature of revelation accordingly
consists, exactly as in prophec}', in the fact that it is
not a merely psychological process in
Nature of which the human imagination or men-
Revelation, tal faculty constitutes the main factor,
but that man is but the instrument
upon which a superhuman force exerts its power,
and the more lucidly this superhuman force enters

397

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Revelation

liiinmn consciousness as an active personality, lliat
is, the more of itself the divine mind imparts to the
susceptible human mind, the hiixhcr will he the de-
gvvv of the revealed truth. As all the hegiimings
of religion point back to the child-age of man, when
the imaginative and emotional powers predominate
over reason, so revi'lation comes to man like a Mash
fiom a higher woild, taking hold of him witli an
overwhelnung foice, so as not merely to make him
the recipient of some new truth that stirs his lieart
to the core, but to make him, with his childlike per-
ception, see the power that imparts the ti'uth to
him. How the finite soul can come into touch with
the Infinite Mind, or, vice versa, liow Deity can
readi the chosen individual, remains a mystery, as
in every realm of human endeavor the work of
genius is a mystery for whicli the vestiges of
Divine Providence in history offer jiarallels but no
explanation.

At any rate, the Scriptural records and the results
of the study of comparative religion alike testify to
tlie gradual unfolding of the divine powers in man
by means of revelation; j-et of all nations the Jew-
ish alone rose with the claim of having received the
words of the living God and Kuler of the Universe
as a revelation for all times and all generations of
men. Just as there are different degrees of proph-
ecy among individuals, the liighest degree having
been attained by Moses (Maimonides, "Yad," Ye-
sode ha-Torah, vii. 2-6; idem, "Moreh," ii. 45), so
there have been different degrees of prophetic capaci-
ties making for a divine revelation among the vari-
ous races and nations. The Jewish race, which has
given ri.se to succes.sive generations of prophets as
no other people in the world has done, luis l)ecn en-
dowed with peculiar religious powers that fitted it
for the divine revelation.

With reference to Judah ha-Levi, wlio declares
Israel to be "the heart among the nations" ("'Cu-
zari," ii. 36), Geiger declares ("Jiid. Zeit." ii. 193)
revelation to be "an illumination of the Jewish
genius by the Divine Mind, which caused the whole
people to come nearer to the everlasting truth than
any other. Judaism is not a religion given by one
man: Israel's God is not called the God of Moses,
or of I.saiah, but of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, that
is, of the fathers of the nation, who imparted the
deep powers of religious intuition and inspiration to
all the seers, singers, and teachers, the framersof the
Jewish religion."

The Kabbis say that imtil the erection of the
Tabernacle in the wilderness all nations had pro-
])hetic revelations from God; but from that time
forward Israel alone was the privileged recipient of
the divine trutli; only exceptionally did heatlien
seers like Balaam attain prophetic ])owers, and at best
they had only iiroj)hetic dreams (Lev. K. i. 12-13).
According to R. Eliezer, each person among the
Israelites, including even the least intelligent bond-
woman, saw God's glory at the Red Sea in clearer
form than did, afterward, prophets of the stamp of
Ezekiel ; wherefore they burst forth into the song,
"This is my God " (Mek., l.r., with reference to Ex.
XV. 2). When asked by a Samaritan to explain how
the words of God " Do not I fill heaven and earth? "
(Jer. xxiii. 2-i) coulii be reconcileil with the words

spoken i(j Moses. "I will meet with thee, and
commune witli tiiee . . . from between the two
cherubims" (Ex. xxv. 22). H. Melr made his inter-
locutor look into two mirrors of different .shapes and
sizes, saying, "Ik-hold, your own figure apjuars
differently becau.se the mirrors reflect it differently;
how mucli more must the glory of God be mirrored
differently by different liuman minds?" (Geu. R.
iv. 3). The <iilTerence between Moses' capacity of
iieholding God and that of other prophets is slated
in the following manner: the former saw a« in a
clear cut and iranslucenl nurror; the «>tliers as in a
complex mirror ("seven times r(;flected ") or dark
glass (Lev. R. i. 14; cf)mp. Suk. 451» ("The riglit-
cousin the future world see through a translucent
mirror") and I Cor. xiii. 12; II Cor. iii. ]H).

2. Revelation, in the sense of a manifestation of
the will of the Deity, is identical with "debar
Yiiwii" (the word of the Lord) or "Torah" (the
Law or the Teaching). This, liowever, denotea
a psychological process of a sf>me\vhat different
order, as it points back to the ])rimitive belief in
oracles, signs, and dreams (see Uni.M and Tih.mmim)
which waited for the interpretation of either priest
or seer (comp. I Sam. xxv. 6. LXX., and II Sam.
xvi. 23: "The Lord did not answer liim [Saul]
either by dreams or by urim and thummim "). How
far this mode of ascertaining the will

Torah as of God was originally identical with
Revelation, the "torah " of the priest (see Smend,
" Lehrbuchder Alttestamenllichen Re-
ligionsgeschichte," 1893. p. 35, with especial refer-
ence to Dent, xxxiii. 8-10) can not be discussed
here.

The Deuteronomic law still recognizes as legiti-
mate the use of dreams and signs for the ascertain-
ing of the divine will, but makes it dependent upon
its monotheistic character (Dent. xiii. 2-6; comp.
Jer. xxxiii. 28). In the course of time the various
"torot"{" divine instructions." the ordinances given
by God to Moses and those given at times also to
Aaron, the latter forming parts of the so-called
Priestly Code) were united in the " Book of the
Law " (" Sefer ha-Torah "). From the time of Ezra
both the written Law and its extensive interpreta-
tion, which, while being developed in the course of
time, was, as traditional oral Law, ascribed to Moses
as having been receiveil by him from God on Mount
Sinai, were regarded by the Pharisees as divine
revelation ("Torat Elohim " = " the Law (.f God";
Neh. viii. 8; Meg. 3a). The rabbinical view that
every letter of the whole Pentateuch was written by
Moses at the dictation of God. and that the rules of
interpretation of the Law, at hast as far as it has
practical (halakic) aiiplication to life, were received
by him directly from God on Sinai, became a fixed
dogmatic belief, upon the acceptance of which de-
pended future life (Sanh. 99a. based upon Num. xv.
31; Sifre, Num. 112). This is expressed (Sanh. x.
1) by the rabbinical idirase "Torah min ha-slia-
mayim " (the Torah is from heaven). Whether " To-
rah " has not frequently a far broader and deeper
meaning in the prophetic and other inspired hooks-
denoting rather the universjjl law of human conduct,
the law of God as far as it is written upon the lieart
of man in order to render him a true son of God — is

Revenge
Hbeinbold

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

398

a question at issue between Orthodoxy and Reform
(see Reform Judaism; Torah). Regarding the
divine character of inspired writers not belonging to
the house of Israel see Insi'iration.

BiBLlOGRAPHT : Ffiediander. The Jewish Relioinu. pp. 46-49,
194-201. London. 1«»1 : Geiper. JU*/. ZtiMi. 185; Hamburger.
R. D. T. s.v. Ufcnbarum;; Pblllppw.>n, Die Israelii if>c)iC
helioioii-dihrc, i. 39-95.

K.
REVENGE. See Vengeance.

REVERE, GIUSEPPE : Italian dramatist and
humorist; born at Tiiest in 1!^12; died Nov. 22,
1889. He was destined by his parents for a com-
mercial career, but soon abandoned it to pursue lit-
erary and philosophical studies at Milan. He stud-
ied German, Greek, and Hebrew also. Revere
wrote several historical plays, among which were
"Lorenziuo de' Medici" (1839); " Piagnoni e Ar-
rabbiati " ; " Sampiero di Bastelica " ; and " Marchese
di Rcdmar." In 1848 he took part in a conspiracy
of the followers of Mazzini at Venice, and in con-
sequence was banished by the dictator Manin.
Subsequently he joined the forces defending Rome,
and later went to Piedmont. He formed a clo.se
friendship with many noted patriots, and took an
active part in their political efforts. He contrib-
uted a number of articles, patriotic in tone, to
"La Concordia." Suspected of conspiring with
the republicans, he was again banished to Susa, by
Azeglio, a minister who afterward became his friencl.
At Susa he wrote the " Bozzetti Alpini," published
in the "Rivista Contemporanea." Then he went to
Genoa on business, and while there wrote his work
"Marine e Paesi," in prose. He was also the author
of: "Narrazioni Storiche"; "Sdegni ed Affetti,"
poems (written 1845); "Nuovi Sonetti" (1846);
"Marengo" (1847); and several other volumes of
poems, as follows: "Nemesii" (1851); "In Morte
di Giuseppe Lyons" (1853); "Persone ed Ombre"
(1862); "Osiride" (1879); "Sgoccioli" (1881);
"Trucioli" (1884). He was at one time editor of
the " Bolletino Consolare " at Rome.

Bibliography: Gubematis, Dizionario Biograficn, s.v .; JVi/-
ova Anlolnyia, 1899, vol. 81, p. 33.
6. U. C.

REVERTS, ADMISSION OF : The rabbin-
ical law takes notice of apostates ("' mumarim " ; the
popular name "meshummadim " is of somewhat
modern origin) ; and apostasy is treated as the sum
of all iniquities. But the person guilty of apostasy
does not cease to be an Israelite. He may repent
and return to his former good standing; "for there
is a place where the repentant sinner stands, which
the perfectly righteous can not reach."

On this subject Maimonides ("' Yad," Teshubah,
iii.)is quite explicit. He enumerates twenty-four
classes of grave sinners, among them those who
deny the divine source of the Torah ; those who,
like Zadok (the supposed first head of the Sadducees)
and Boethus, deny the oral law ; those who, like the
Christian and the Moslem, assert that God has abro-
gated the Torah and has established anotlier re-
ligion ; and finally those wlio act as informers against
Israelites and deliver them oyer to the Gentiles for
spoliation and deatli. But he concludes with the
words: " Any one of all these, should he die without

repentance, has no share in the world to come; but
if he has turned away from his wickedness, and dies
while repentant, then he is among the inheritors of
the world to come; for nothing can stand before the
force of repentance. Even one who has for all his
days denieil the fundamentals, but turns at the last,
lias his si)are in the world to come." He quotes the
Scripture (Isji. Ivii. 19. Hebr.): "Peace, peace to the
near and to the far, .saith the Lord; and I will heal
him." "Hence," he says, "'we should receive all
the wicked, even apostates and the like, who turn
back in repentance, whether openly or secretly";
quoting Jer. iii. 14, Hebr. : " Return, return, ye back-
sliding sons."

The question whether an apostate returning se-
cretly to the old faitli is to be received, dates back to
a dispute among the early sages, those of the gen-
eration of R. Meir ('Ab. Zarah 7a, b; Bek. 31a).
Meir would not receive them back at all ; another
disputant, only upon a public recantation; while
two others held that even he who returns in secret
should be received ; and this most liberal view is
approved by the amoraim who pass upon this dis-
pute in the two Talmudic passages of the Talmud
which have been cited above.

The manner of accepting the penitent back into
the fold is not discussed by Maimonides, nor by the
Shulhan 'Aruk. The reason is plain: both Chris-
tians and Mohammedans, especially the former,
dealt very harshly with relapse into Judaism, pun-
i.shing it with death as a matter of course. Hence
a secret return was generally deemed most prudent ;
and the reception of the "revert " could not be very
formal.

w. a. L. N. D.

REVISED VERSION. See Bible Transla-
tion.

REVISTA ISRAELITA. See Periodicals.

REVUE DES ETUDES JUIVES : French
quarterly, founded July, 1880, at Paris by the Soci-
ete des Etudes Juives, and published under the edi-
torship of Isidore Loeb and after his death (June
3, 1892)^undcr that of Israel Levi. Like the "Jew-
ish Quarterly Review," this periodical is devoted to
scientific research and to the printing of unpub-
lished texts concerning Judaism, among others doc-
uments relative to the history of the French Jews.
Nearly every number contains also a special bibli-
ographical section devoted to reviews of current
works on Judaism.

The " Revue " is arranged in volumes, two of
which contain the records for the year. Each t)f these
volumes consists of two numbers. Among the con-
tributors to the "Revue des Etudes Juives" may be
mentioned: AV. Bacher, Arsene and James Darme-
steter, Joseph and Hartwig Derenbourg, Joseph
Halevy, Israel Levi, Isidore Loeb, Zadoc Kahn, M.
Kayserling, D. Kaufmann, N. Porges, S. Poznan-
ski, and MoTse Schwab. The most prolific contrib-
utor was Isidore Loeb himself, who, besides his bibli-
ographical reviews, enriched this periodical with a
great many articles of varied contents. Of partic
ular interest are a series of articles by Joseph Deren-
botirg on Biblical studies and another series of rab-
binical miscellanies, among them the glosses of Abu

399

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Revenue
Bbelubold

Zakariya ibn Bal'ain on Isaiali (Arabic text and
French trauslaliou). Of no less interest are J. Ila-
levy's"Keclierclies Bibliqiies,"a series of articles on
Biblical archeology containing also the Assyrian
texts of the correspondence between the Asiatic
rulers and the Egyptian kings Ainenophis III. and
Amenophis IV. Among Israel Levi's articles si)e-
cial mention may be made of those on Jewish legends
found in Talmudic literature, with references to non-
Jewish sources. Finally, JMoise Schwab published
many Hebrew inscriptions and documents relative
to the history of the French Jews.
8- 31. Sei,.

REVUE ISRAl^LITE. See Peuiodicals.

REVUE ORIENTALE : A periodical issued in
Brussels at irregular intervals. It was published in
the French language and was devoted to Jewish
science. It was founded and edited by Eliakim
Cak.moly, who was also the author of most of the
articles which appeared in its three volumes (vol. i.,
Brussels, 1841; vol. ii., ih. 1842; vol. iii., ih. 1843-
1844). A prospectus of the " Kevue " is printed at the
beginning of the last volume; it states that the suc-
cess of the publication exceeded all expectations,
and that almost all the articles that appeared in
the preceding two volumes were reproduced in
German, English, Dutch, and other languages, not
only in journals, but also in books. Several of Car-
moly 's works, like his " Histoire des Mcdecins Juifs "
and his " Vocabulaire de la Geographic Rabbinique
en France," first appeared in the " Revue Orientale,"
where there appeared also liis essays on the history
of the Jews in Belgium, in Italy, and in Poland, and
numerous biographies of eminent Jews.

Bibliography: Furst, Bihl. Jud. 1. 144-145; Jew. E.vcyc
lit. 580.

ir. K.

P. Wi.

REWBELL, JEAN FRANgOIS : Alsatian
deputy of the French National Assembly from 1789
to 1791, and its president in the latter year; born
at Colmar Oct. 8, 1747; died there Nov. 23, 1807.
When the question of the emancipation of the Jews
was discussed (Dec. 23-24, 1789), Rewbell, although
a republican of the most advanced type, opposed
conjointly with Abbe Maury, Bishop La Fare of
Nancy, and the Bishop of Clermont the motion in
favor of emancipation offered by Clermont-Tonnerre
and supported by Robespierre, Duport, Barnave,
and Mirabeau. He spoke against the Jews, main-
taining that it would be dangerous to grant com-
plete rights of citizenship to those residing in Alsace,
against whom there was such a deep-rooted hatred
among the population. He again in vain opposed
the motion made by Duport; and on Sept. 27, 1791,
the Assembly declared the Jews to be citizens of
France.

RewbcU's character was not above reproach,
and he was once indicted for obtaining money by
exactions. He remained a steadfast republican,
retiring from political life after the coup d'etat of
1799.

Bibliography: Gratz, Gesch.xl. 209,220, Leipsic. 1870; Kahn,
ies Juifs de Paris, 1., ch. ill., v., passim, Paris, 1898.

»• S. Man.

REZIN: Last king of tiie Damascene dynasty-
slain in 732 li.c. With Pekah, King of IsVael. he
planned a campaign against Ahaz, King of Juilah
(734; II Kings xvi. r, , Isji. vii. l-«). The two kings
feared Tigiatli-pileser, King of Assyria; but jjeforo
attacking him they endeavored to win Ahaz over to
their .side, and on his rcfnsid to join them, they at-
tempted to force him into the coalition. Ahaz ap-
l)ealed to Tiglatli-pilescr for aid. accompanying his
appeal with rich [.resents (H Chron. xxv'iii. Hi et
mi.; II Kings xvi. 7-9). The Assyrian king, who
was then in the northern part of Jiis kingdom, im-
mediately marched to the assistance of Ahaz. wliile
Rezin of Damascus and Pekah of Israel withdrew
to their fortresses. Tiglatli-pileser captured Damas-
cus, conquered sixteen districts with 591 towns, and
finally took the city, wliich became part of a Syrian
province ; Heziii himself was killed (II Kings xvi. 9).

According to modern investigations, the Damas-
cene dynasty, Avhich was in contact with Isniel and
Judah during the entire time of its exi.stcnce, was
as follows:

(1) Razon (c. 950 B.C.). the founder of the dynasty,
son of Eliadah, and contemporary of Solomon (f
Kings xi. 23); (2) Ben-hadad I. (= Bir-'idiri ; 88.'}-
844), contemporary of Ahab of Israel and Asa of
Judah (I Kings xx. ; II Kings viii. 7-9); (3) Hazael
(844-804), contemporary of Joram of Israel and
Ahaziah of Judah (II Kings viii. 28); (4) Ben-hadad
II. (= Mali; 804?-744?), contemporary of Joash
of Israel and Amaziah of Judah (II Kings \iii 24)-

(5) Tab-el? (?-743?), father of Rezin (Winckler,'
"Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen," pp. 74-75);

(6) Rezin (743?- 732), contemporary of Pekah of
Israel and Ahaz of Judah (II Kings xvi. 5-6, 9).

The sons of Rezin are mentioned among the
Nethinim in Ezra ii. 48 and Neh. vii. 50. See Ben-
Hadad; Hazael,

^135'283''^>6r''t/'^^'^*''*''^' ^' '^' ^' ^^' ^' ^ '^ Kq.,5&,Sa,
E.'g. ii. S. O.

RHEINHOLD, HUGO: German sculptor;
born March 20, 1853, at Oberlahnstein, Prussia;
died at Berlin Oct. 2, 1900. At the age of sixteen,
after having passed through the gymnasium at Co-
blenz, he entered upon a mercantile career. A resi-
dence of four years in San P^rancisco, U. S. A., quali-
fied him to establish in Hamburg an exporting and
importing business. After the death of his wife
(1882) he retired to Berlin, where lie devoted himself
to scientific and philosophical studies at the univer-
sity. In 1886 he entered the atelier of the sculptor
Kru.se; in 1888 he became a pupil at the Berlin
Academy of Arts.

Rheiuhohl's tirst production as a sculptor, ex-
hibited at the Berlin Art Exhibition of 1895, at-
tracted general attention l)y its originality. A chim-
panzee holds in one hand a human skull, which he
contemplates with droll pensiveness. His other
hand supports his chin, while with one of his feet lie
holds a compass. Many copies in bronze of this
work were made. But the work which permanently
established his reputation as an artist was the figuro
"Am Wege" (1896), representing an unfortunate
young woman with a child at her breast. His next
undertaking was the Alfred Nobel monument.

Rhinoceros
Hibkas

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

400

The feeling aroused in his mind by the venomous
attacks of anti-Semitism are expressed in his "Die
Kampfer." Among his hiter productions are tiie
"Schnitterin," and a bust of his mother, of Prof. B.
Frankel, of Ludwig Bamberger, and of Col. M. von
Egidy.

Rheinhold was for man}* years one of the leading
spirits of the Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeindebund,
of which he acted as treasurer.

Bibliography: Mittheihiuqen vom Dcutsch-Tsi-aelitischcii
(ifineinilebiiiide. No. 54 ; Wiltielin Korsier. (ieiliiclitniiisrede ;
Allg. Zeit. dtsJud. Uiv., No. 41 (Supplement).

s. S. Man.

RHINOCEROS. See Unicouk.

RHODE ISLAND : One of the original thirteen
states of the American Union. The settlement
of Jews in the state dates back to 1658 (see New-
port). In addition to the community in Newport,
the state has a growing community in Providence,
with four congregations, an Associated Hebrew
Charities (which includes twenty-six societies), a
Hebrew Educational Alliance, a Young Men's He-
brew Association, and other organizations. "Woon-
socket ha^ a congregation, founded in 1892, and
various philanthropic societies, and Pawtucket also
lias a Jewish congregation. The Jewish jiopulation
of Rliode Island, including Newport, is estimated at
3,500, the total population of the state being428,556.

RHODES : Turkish island in the .Egean Sea,
and tlie largest in the Sporades group. This island
has successively borne different names, finally pre-
serving that of 'P66ov. The Bible knew it under the
name pi"). In Gen. x. 4 the word D'JTn occurs, in
I Chron. i. 7 n'JTl") (see "Encyc. Bibl." and Has-
tings, "Diet. Bible," «.t). "Dodauim"). To-day
Rhodes, its capital cit\', is the chief place in the vi-
layet of the islands of the Ottoman Archipelago.
The island has a total population of 30,000, and of
these there are about 4,000 Jews in the town and
some in the neighboring villages.

Gedaliah ibn Yahya states that Rhodes was built
by a king of Argolis in the time of the patriarch
Jacob (•' Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah," p. 77a). In 656 a
Jew of Emesa, a Syrian city (modern Iloins), bought
the debris of the famous Colossus of Rhodes, which
had been destroyed by an earthquake in 282 b.c.
He conveyed this debris to Loryma, now Marma-
ritza, twenty-seven miles from Rhodes.

The Jews were established in Rhodes in remotest
times. They are mentioned in I ]Macc. x. 15, 23 as
dwelling tliere in 140 li.c. Benjamin of Tudela re-
lates that lie found 500 of them tiiere, and Rottiers
says that the Jews who (led from Spain on account of
persecution left Tarragona in 1280 and established
themselves in Rhodes, which tiien was held by the
Saracens (" Inscriptions et Monuments de Rhodes,"
Brussels, 1830).

At ^lalona, a village seven miles from the capital,
there exists to-da}' a street named "Evriaki," whicli
is so called from a Jewi.sh settlement there. This
settlement was established before the Knights of St.
John arrived at Rliodes (1309), when tlie Jews occu-
pied tiie same district in which they live to-day.

When the walls of the city were repaired b}' the
Knights of St. John, they gave the name "Jews'
Wall " to that part which encircled the Jewish quar-
ter. Under the knights' rule the Jews
Under the were not always fortunate. Accord-
Knights ingto Laeroix, D'Aubussou, the grand
Hos- master of the island, ortlered tlie Jews'

pitalers. houses to be razed that the material of
which they had been built might be
used for the reconstruction of the Jews' Wall, wliich
later was bombarded by Messih Pasha, the Ottoman
commander. Elijah Capsali, in his chronicle (ed.
Lattes, Padua, 1869), says that after defeating the
Turks D'Aubusson ordered tlie Jews to embrace
Christianity. Some accepted baptism, others pre-
ferred death, while still others consented to be sold
into slavery and were released only after the con-
quest of tlie island by Siilaiman. On Jan. 9, 1502,
D'Aubusson decreed tlie expulsion of tiie Jews
from Rhodes, under the pretext that they were cor-
rupting tiie morals of tlie young, but owing to tiie
death of the grand master the decree was not com-
pletely enforced; nevertheless the Jews of Cos were
exiled to Nice. Under the grand master Frederic
Caretto, Salim I. sent to Rhodes a Jewish ph^'sician,
Libertus Cominto, to obtain a map of the island.
The physician is said to have succeeded in his task,
but he was caugiit and executed. Some iiistorians
claim that he was a convert to Christianity. Under
tiie last grand master, Williers, of the island of
Adam, the Jews were allowed to live in peace. On
several occasions he visited the Jewish houses and
synagogues.

According to Rottiers, some Jews who were exiled
under D'Aubusson accompanied as sutlers the Turk-
ish army whicii besieged the city and captured the
island. According to a tradition related as fact by
certain historians, especially Baiuliu, tiie Jews took
part in the war against the Turks. Under the lead-
ership of Simeon Granada, a battalion of 250 Jews
was formed, and became known as the "Jewish
plialanx." Bilioti, referring to the part taken by
the Jews in the struggle against the Turks, says that
the Jews were those that had been converted in the
time of D'Aubusson and had displayed great valor
in the Italian bastion. Florentin Bernard Carli, who
witnessed tlie siege, says that under Turkish order
from two to tiiree thousand Jews filled up witli sand-
bags tiie ditch before the Italian position. Wlien
the Turks occupied Rhodes the converted Jews ab-
jured the Christian religion and returned to their
ancient belief. Probably Florentin here refers to
the Jewish sutlers who accompanied the Turkish
army, for the Jews wlio were within tiie castle could
not have held any communication with tiie enem}-.
While some historians claim tiiat the fall of
Rhodes was due to tiie treachery of Libertus Co-
minto, others affirm that the real traitor was Knight
d'Amaral, whose treason had been di.scovercd by the
Jewess Rachel, wife of Simeon Granada.

Some historians claim also that the Jews, afraid of
Turkisli rule, left tlie island and went to Italy.
Others assert that they preferred to remain on the
island and enjoy the bounty of the sultan. Tliis
statement may be true in so far as it concerns the
Jews who had fought on tiie side of the Christians,

401

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rhinoceros
Ribkas

■\vliereas the former stuteincnt in:iy refer to the Jews
Avho accomptuiieii tlie Turkish uiiii}'. ]Jeuj;miiii
Poutremoli rehites that Sidaimau kuew tlie vitility of
the Jews and hroualil athizeii families fromSaloiiiea.
He granted thema lirman guaranteeing freedom from
taxation for twenty years, and decreeing tliat each
family be ])rovided witii a house free ctf expense.
Under tins lirman they were also permitted to mine
sidtur, to traverse Mohammedan territory with their
dead, to wail as they traveled along the road, and
lo purchase at ordinary prices food killed according
to llie litual law.

From this date until 1075 there are no data of the
]iiililieal history of the Jews of Kliodes, but fiom
KJT.j they are repeatedly mentioned in government
ordinances.

In lb37a fearful pestilence spread over the island,
and, acting on llie advice of the grand rabbi, part of
the inhabitants lied to the village Can-
In the dilli, which thenceforward became a
Nineteenth Jewish settlement. Among the vic-
Century. tims of the scourge there were only
ten Jews. In 1840 an accusation of
ritual murder was made against the Jews of Rhodes.
On the eve of Purim the governor, Yusuf Pasha,
at the instigation of the Greek clergy and the Euro-
IH'an consuls, blockaded the Jewish (juarter, ar-
rested the chief rabbi, Jacob Israel, and the chief
men, and imprisoned them. But on Nov. 6, owing
to the efforts of Count Camondo, Cremieux, and
Monteliore, a firman was obtained from the sultan
whit'h declared all accusations of ritual murder null
and void. It should be mentioned that three Jews
and three Christians were taken from Rhodes to
Constantinople for trial, and that there the inno-
cence of the Jews was established.

In 1851 much suffering was caused by an earth-
quake. The community sent Rabbi Rahanum
Franco to Egj'pt and to Europe to receive funds for
relief, and he collected more than 40,000 francs
(about §8,000). In 1855 a part of the Jewish quarter
suffered damage through the explosion of gunpow-
ik'r, and in 18(53 a tire which destroyed the market
paralyzed the trade of the Jews. In 1880, while
some Jewish merchants who traded in the island of
Cassos were returning to Rhodes to celebrate Pass-
over, the vessel b}' Avhicli they were being conveyed
was captured by ]nrates, and the Jews Avere despoiled
and held as guides; but subsequent]}', at the in-
stance of the governor of Rhodes, they were rescued
and the pirates were seized.

The Jews of Rhodes support two large syna-
gogues, the Great Synagogue, which was destroyed
by artillery in 1440, rebuilt by permission of Pope
Sixtus IV. in recognition of Jewish services during
the siege of the city, destroyed again during a later
siege, and rebuilt by Rabbi Sanuiel Amato; and
Shalom Synagogue, built in 1593 by Rajihael Mar-
gola. Tiiere are also two smaller synagogues — the
Synagogue Camondo, so called in honor of Count
Abraham de Camondo, who built it; and the Tikkuu
Hazot — and two batte midrashot. The commerce
of the island is controlled by the Jews, among whom
there are also many boatmen and porters. The Jews
are on good terms with their neighbors.
There are two schools, one for boys and one for
X.— 26

girls. als(j several Taluuid Toruhs. There is a
steaily migration to Asia.

Among liie rabbis of Rhodes may be mentioned:
Hayyim ben Menahem Algazi, in tlie seven-
li-eniii century; Moses Israel, auilmr of " Mus'ut
Mosiieh " (C(jnstantinople, 17H4); Ezra Malki;
Moses ben Elijah Israel, author of '•.Mcsluli
^Cdablicr" (Constantinople, 1827); und Jedidiah
ben Samuel Turski, in tlic eighteenth century.
In the nineteenlii century three rabbis of tlie Nia<l
family distinguislu-d themselves as authors: Judah
b. Moses b, Elijah, and Jacob and Rahamim
Judah ( ls-,M-!»l). 'J'iie present rabbi (1<J05) is Mo-
ses Judah Franco. Pronnnent in pul)lic life is
especially the ]\Ienasche family, one of wliose niem-
l)ers, Boaz .Menasche Efl'endi, is a judge of tlie court
of appeals.

Bnii.KKUiA PHY : ShaMidcl hn-Kahlmlah, pp. 77. 7H : Ilarkavy.
yni(Utf[iefn)iilciie Hilnilisiln- miiillitniilKrliriricii. si. |»e-
tiTsluirt', pp. 24, -'ri-;.'7 ; Uotilci-s, //(.scri>fi/i»ix if MoiiuiiitiilB
<lr lilKiilc^, Brussels, IH;t(i: l,ii.T<.|.v. Lts Ilts ilc Ui (jnn, pp.
17:3, :;07: Bonliours, L'Hixloiic ilc Piene tVAuhtuwnn. pp.
2i*) rt sell.: Itiiii'ntirc il'itn ("licvalicr dc St. Jfui lU J,iu-
anient d liliodcg, pp. 100-107.
1^- A. Ga.

M. See Isaac b. Samcel.

RIBA. See Isaac ben Asheu ha-Levi.

RIBASH. See Isaac ben Siiesiiet Raufat.

RIBEAUVILLE. See RArpoi-TSWEii.Eii.

RIBEIRO, JOAO PINTO : Portuguese schol-
ar; curator of the royal arciiivesin Torredo Tombe,
at Lisbon; died in that city Aug. 11, 1649. He
was the author of a work defending the Maranos,
entitled "Discurso si es Util. y Justo, Desterrar de
los Reinos de Portugal a los Christiauos-Nuevos,
Convencidos do Juilaismo por el Tribunal de S. Odi-
cio, y Reconciliados por el con Sus Familias, y
Aquellos Contra losQuales ay Prueba Bastantc ]>ara
Destierro." It is still in manuscript.

Bibliography : Barliosa Maoliado, Tiihlinthica LuKitaiia. IL
7~'~'. iv. 189; KayserliiiB. Bilil. EgiJ.-Port.-Jud. )>. 117.
J. .M. K.

RIBKAS or RIBKES (="son of Rebekah").
MOSES BEN ZEBI NAPHTALI HIRSCH
SOFER : Russian Talmudisi ; died at Wiinain 1671
or 1673. He was a meinlter of a Prague family, but
settled early in life at AVilna. In 1605, in conse-
quence of the war between Poland and Russia. lie
was compelled to flee from the city, leaving all his
property behind. He then settled at Atnsterdain,
and owing to his great Talmudical knowledge was
befriended l)y Saul Morteira and Isaac Aboab. On
the reestablishment of peace between Poland and
Russia, l^ibkas returned to Wilna, where his utTaiiH
seem to have prospered. Athisdealh hebequeatlied
a great jmrt of his fortune to charitable institutions
which are still administered by liis descendants.

While at Amsterdam Ribkaswas charged with the
revision of the juoofs of a new edition of the Slml-
han 'Aruk, which was being jirepared in the print-
ing oflice of Proops. This new edition (Amsterdam.
1661-67) was provided by Ribkas witli marginal
notesof hisown, entitled " Re"<Tha-Golah." in which
he gives the soiirces of the halakof. besides sliort
comments. In adilition to this work, which has al-
ways been reprinted in the margins of the Shulhan

Biblah
Kicchi

THE JEWISH E>X'YCLOPEDIA

402

'Aruk, Ribkas left in manuscript " Kelale ha-

Hora'ah," giving the final decisions iu regard to

halakot, and "Keli ba-Golah," a commentary on the

Mishnali.

BiBi.iOfiRAPHY: Stelnschnelder. Cnr Bndl. col. 19W; Fuenn.
I^iruah JVc'tmana/i. p. 91: Gabriel Polak, in Ha-Karnicl,
vll. 15. _ „

BIBLAH (n^3-^) : Town in the country of Ha-
math. It is now an insignificant hamlet, known as
Ribiah. in the Bakaah, the broad valley between
the two ranges of Lebanon and Hermon, and on the
eastern shore of Nahr el-'Asi (Orontes). thirty-five
miles northeast of Biuilbek. Its position on the
banks of a mountain stream, in the center of a vast
and fertile plain, and close to the road leading from
Egypt and Palestine to Babylon, rendered it a fre-
quents resting-place for the armies of the Egyp-
tian and Babylonian kings. It was at Ribiah that
Plmiaoh-nechoh, after having defeated Josiah at
Megiddo, put the latters successor, Jchoahaz, in
"bands" that he might not reign in Jerusalem (II
Kings xxiii. 33). It was at Riblaii also that Nebu-
chadnezzar established his headquarters when his
army besieged Jerusalem (586 B.C.), and it was here
that' Zedekiah was brought before him for judg-
ment (II Kings xxv. 6 c<Sfy., 20-21; Jer. xxxix. 5-6;
Hi. 9et8eq., 26-27).

Most modern expounders (Ewald, Smend, Cornill,
and others) read "Ribiah " instead of the Masoretic
" Diblatah " (the accusative of "Diblah") in Ezek.
vi. 14. The location of Diblah is unknown. In
Num. xxxiv. 11 a place named " Ha-Riblah " (with
the article) is mentioned among the villages form-
ing the borders of the Promised Land. But as this
Ribiah is situated on the eastern boundary it can
not be identical with Ribiah iu Hamath. It is dif-
ficult to determine the location of the Ribiah nuii-
tioned in this passage.

J. J. Z. L.

HICABDO, DAVID : English political econo-
mist and publicist; born in London April 19, 1772;

died Sept. 11, 1823.
Tiie Ricardo family
removed from Italy
to Holland in the be-
ginning of tiie eight-
eenth century or, per-
haps, earlier, and its
members appear to
have become digni-
fied and substantial
members of the Jew-
ish communit}' of Am-
sterdam. Two gener-
ations later, with the
drift of trade and
finance from Holland
to Englantl, a branch
(jf the family went
from Amsterdam to
London. Of David
Ricardo's father, Abraham Ricardo, it is said
tliat he went on a visit to England when young,
and, preferring it to his own country, became natu-
ralized and settled there. He entered the stock ex-

David lUcardo.

change, amassed a fortune, and acquired considerable
influence both as a man of affairs and as a member
of the Anglo-Jewish community. He married and
became the father of a large family, of which David
was the third child.

David's early education was sound and practical.
His father, from the outset, designed him for a finan-
cial career. As a young boy David was sent to a
school in Holland, where he remained for two years.
Upon returning to England he continued to enjoy
tiie benefit of a common-school educa-
Early tiou until the age of fourteen, when his
Training, father began to employ him in stock -
exchange business. As a youth he
appears to have given evidence of those mental
qualities which in fruition distinguished his later
intellectual life— a taste for abstract and general
reasoning, an insistence upon final analysis, an in-
dependence and vigor of thought, ahd a firm ad-
herence to positive opinions combined with a sin-
gular candor and openness to conviction.

Soon after the attainment of his majority young
Ricardo married Priscilla Anne Wilkinson, a non-
Jewess, and whether in consequence of this step or
in general reaction against the rigid orthodoxy of
his father's religious belief and practise, a rupture
occurred between father and son extending even to
business alfairs. McCulloch states tiiat young Ri-
cardo actually seceded from the Jewish faith, but
tiiere is no evidenoc of anj' formal apostasy, and
it is more reasonable to hold that virtual alienation
resulted from marriage outside of the Jewish faith
and tiiat the severance of family tics followed. Ri-
cardo must, however, as a member of Parliament,
have taken the oath of allegiance on the true faith
of a Christian.

Thrown in tiie main upon his own resources, Ri-
caiilo soon displayed exceptional capacity in i)racti-
cal finance. In a few years he had establishetl him-
self securely, and he rose steadily thereafter no less in
wealth than in the estimation of his associates and
in commanding influence iu financial affairs. In so
far as urgent business affairs afforded leisure, Ri-
cardo's interest seems at first to have been held by
mathematics, chemistry, geology, and mineralogy.
He was one of the original members of the Geolog-
ical Society, and fitted up a laboratory and made a
collection of minerals. But McCulloch (lec:lares that
he never entered warmly into the study of these
sciences, and that he abandoned them entirely as
soon as his attention was directed to the more con-
genial study of political economy.

Although the sensational events wiiich led up lo
and followed the bank restriction of 1797, as well as
the ordinary transactions of his every -day life on the
stock exchange, can not have failed to interest
Ricardo in general financial principles, yet the de-
termining impulse to economic speculation is said to
have come from acquaintance with Adam Smith's
" Wealtli of Nations " in 1799. From the time when
this work began to exert an influence upon him eco-
nomic inquiries became the avocation of his life.

Ricardo's debut as an economic writer took the
modest form of an unsigned paper, on the bullion
controversy, contributed to the " Morning Chronicle"
in 1809 and soon thereafter expanded into a clear

403

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Riblab
Blcchi

and forcible pamphlet. It k-d to iiitiiiiacy with
James Mill and to friendship with Maltlius ami IJcn-
tham, and upon the incorporation of its substance
into the Bullion Report of 1810 established Hicardo
as an authoritative and convincing exponent of
monetary principles.

The corn-law controversies of 1813-15 ])rought
Ricaido again conspicuously to the fore, lirst as a
pamphleteer advocate of free-trade principles, in
opposition to the protectionist leanings of Maltlius,
and thereafter as an exponent of asysteniatie tiieory
of economic distribution and liseal in-

"Princi- cidence. Closer intimacy with James
pies of Mill, active disciissions with Maithus

Political and Trovver, and retirement from the
Economy." stock exchange to the tranquil ease
of a Gloucestershire countrj^-place in
1814, all tended to broaden the range of his economic
thought, and culminated logically in the publication
of his " Principles of Political Economy and Taxa-
tion " in 1817. Thenceforth tintil his death in 1823
Ricardo remained the dominant figure in English
economic circles. As early as 1821 McCulloch
could declare that the Ricardian theories — "the new
political economy " as Maithus termed them — were
assented to by "all the best economists in the
country."

In 1819 Ricardo entered the House of Commons as
member for Portarlington, an Irish pocket borough,
and thereafter parliamentary issues shared with
economic studies the prime interests of his public
life. In the House his activities, both on the floor
and in committee, were important as well as charac-
teristic. Formal parliamentary duties were supple-
mented by participation in current affairs, such as
Robert Owen's schemes, and contemporary propo-
sals for savings-banks and old-age pensions. In all
of these Ricardo's sole concern was the public wel-
fare. Professor Ritchie has said that perhaps no
modern writer or speaker engaged in so many po-
lemics and discussions as Ricardo, and j'et so com-
pletely eliminated theelement of self. Ricardo was
cut oil in his prime, after a short illness, on Sept. 11,
1823. He is buried by the little chapel in Harden-
huish Park, near Chippenham, in Wiltshire. An
engraving from a portrait which was painted by J.
Phillips was published in quarto size and is prefixed
in retluced size to McCulloch's edition of Ricardo's
works.

However friends and critics may differ as to the
validity of Ricardo's specific doctrines, there is little
doubt as to his service in establishing the concept
of political economy as a body of abstract inuform-
ities dealing with the phenomena of wealth. His
data may have been inadequate, his method in i)art
defective, and his conclusions sometimes misleading;
but his inestimable service was in definitively con-
verting economic speculation from detached inciuiry
or specific theorization to an organically related
body of general principles. So far
Founder of Ricardo is to be regarded as the true
Economic founder of the science of political econ-

Science. omy. "With respect to particular prin-
ciples— the theory of met^illic money,
the laws of fiscal incidence, the scheme of economic
distribution — Ricardo's contributions were impor-

tant and in many respects enduring, but it is in the
larger inlluence of concept and purpose lliat the
clearest explanation of Jiis intellectual dominance is
to be found.

Then- is no evidence in Iticardo's life of any par-
ticular interest in Jewish religious or coinnMiiial af-
fairs. He maintaineff cordiiil rehitions with the
younger members ol Ids family— some of wjujin also
seceded from the Jewisli faith— and wlien on a pleas-
ure visit to Amslerdam in 1822 he sought out wmie
of his Dutch kinsfolk, including the poet J. da Costu.
While a member of the House of Commons lie lost
no occasion to si)eak in favor of religifxas toleration,
and when in 182;i Isaac Lyon Goldsnnd wrote thunk-
ing him for such an expression, he wrote in reply:
"It appears to me a disgrace to the age we live in,
that many of the iidiabitants of this country are still
suffering under disabilities, imposed on them in less
enlightened times. The Jews have most rea.son (o
complain, for they are freciuently reproached with
following callings which are the natural effecU of
the political degradation in which they are kept. I
can not help thinking that the time is approaching
when these ill-founded prejudices against men on
account of their religious opinions will disappear,
and I should be liappy if I could be an humble in-
strument in accelerating their fall."

Bibliography: Ricanlo's principal writinps w.tc rdiii-rtwl
and edited, with a biocniphical sketch, l>y .Mi-(ul|iK-h In IH48,
and have sini-e l)een reprinifd. The I'li'm iiilm >■' i:^i.t,.,,i
Ecimomu (uul Ta.ratuni wiisTPprinU'il and cart' i

by Prof. E. C. K. Gonner In 1H91, with a UM-ful hu v.

The Letters to the Moniiim Chriniirtf hm Hi, " Hmh I'lxce
of Gold" were reprinted by J. H. Hollander In IWH. His
Letters tn Malttms were bniiiprhl to liRhtaiid edited tiv J.
Bonarin 18S7, the Lctttrs tn MrCulUwIt by J. H. Hollnnder
in 1895, and the Letters tn Ilntrhc.t Trnirer bv J. Honiir
and J. H. Hollander In 1H99. The memoir in the Anuual
BUnirapliy <""' Otiitnam fur IS^U and the skeU'li pp'llxed to
Mcculloch's Wnrhs are the only Important contemporary
accounts ol Iticardo's life. I^slie Stephen conirlbuttMl a
clear and Intelllcent sketch to the Dirt. Snt. Jii'iii. (vol.
xlviil.). Profes.sor Ritchie has a brief account In I'aJirmve's
DictiiDiary of Pi}litir(il Keniinmii. wUh a pnrtlciilMrlv wn--
iceable list of Hlcardo's writinirs. 1'nifes.sor (ionniT <-«.n-
tributed to the same work a lucid expu^ltion of itirardo's
thou^^ht aud intluence.
J. .T II Ho

RICCHI (RAPHAEL), IMMANUEL HAY
BEN ABRAHAM : Italian rabbi, cabali.st, and
poet; born at Feriara 1688 (1G93, according to Jelli-
nek in "Orient, Lit." vii. 232); killed near Cei.to
Feb. 2o, 1743. About two years after Riechi's birth
his father removed to Rovigo, where he died four
years later. Ricchi. thus left an tirphan. was brought
up by his luaternal uncle Jedidiah Rabbino, and
later by his cousin and brother-in-law, the son of
the latter. After having stutlied Talmud under
Nathan Pinkerle, rabbi of Ales.sandria della Paglia,
Ricchi became tutor in the houses of sevenil wealthy
Jews. He was thus successively employed at GO-
ritz, Fiorenzuola. Finale in Modena, and Venire;
in the last-named place he opened a scIkk)!. He
then went to Triest, where he was ordained rabbi in
1717 by Hillel Ashkena/i, mbbi of Canen. after
which he was invited to the rabbinate of G<\rz.

Owing to his great love for calwlistic studies and
to his asretic tendencies, Ricchi resolved to settle
in Palestine. He arrived at Safed in 1718. and dur-
ing his stay there of two years lie occupie<l himself
wiih the studv of the works of Isjiac Liiria and Uny-
vim Vital. He ^^as also reordained nibbi by Hay-

Ricchi
Bice

THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA

404

vim Abiilafirt. In 1720 an epidemic broke out in

Palestine, ami Riccbi was compelled to return to

Europe. On the voyage be and all bis

Settles k'llow passengers were cajitured by
in pirates and brought to Tripolitza,

Palestine, whence, through the efforts of Abra-
ham HaltDn. Hicthiand his family were
allowed to retinu to Italy. He then occupied the
rabbinate of Florence till 172^, in which year he re-
moved to Leghorn, where for twelve years he en-
gaged in business as a merchant. He spent twenty-
months in travel, visiting Smyrna, Salonica, Con-
stantinople, Amsterdam, and London, and in 1735
set out again for Palestine, spending two years at
Aleppo and three at Jerusalem. In 1741 he re-
turned to Leghorn, and in 1743. while traveling in
Italy for the purpose of selling his works, he was
killed by robbers, who buried his body liy the shore
of the Reno. Si.\ days later some Modena Jews dis-
covered the remains and brought them to Cento for
burial.

Ilicchi was the author of the following works
(enumerated here in the chronological order of their
composition): (I) "Ma'aseh Hosheb " (Venice, 171C),
a treatise on the construction of the Tabernacle and
its ves-sels, in the form of a compendium of the an-
cient texts on the same subiect, together with his
commentary. The work is followed by a Hebrew
poem on the letters 1 ynnx. (2) "lion 'Ashir"
(.\msterdam, 1731), a coinmeutary on the Misiinah,
followed by a poem, set to music, on Sabbath, cir-
cumcision, and phylacteries. (3) "Hoshel) ^laha-
sliabol " (ill. 1732), haggadic novclhe on the Bible and
Talmud, together with treatises on the measure-
juentsof the ^IiKwr.ii and on other geometrical sub-
jects. (4) "Mislinat Hasidim " {ib. 1727; see below).
(5) " Yosher Lebab " (ib. 1737). cabalis-
His tic iMter])r:'tations of Biblical and Tal-

Works. mudic jnissages. (G) " Ilazeh Ziyyon "
(Leghorn, 1742». cabalistic conniien-
tary on the Psalms. (7) "Achleret Eliyahu " {I'b.
1742), commentary on the dilliciilt passages and ex-
pressions of the >Iishnah and Gemara, in two parts,
the second of which is entitled "Me Niddah," and
deals solely with the treatise Xiddah. This treatise
is followeil by: (") twenty-four responsa; ('/) "Sofe
"Anabim," iiovL'll;e; and (r) " Perpeia'ut la-Hok-
inah," riddles and ])oems, among the latter being
si.K religious hymns, comjioscd for diflerent occa-
sions. A responsum of Kicchi's fin the modidation
of the priests" blessing is to be found in Xehemiah
b. Baruchs " Meziz u-Meliz " (Venice. 1715). His
"Makkat Bakkuiot." strictures on Phinehas Hai
Piatelli's '" Tosefet Bikkuie Kazir," is as vet unpulj-
lished.

Bicchi's most important work is the above-cited
'■ Mishnat Hasidim.'" a caljalistie work l)eguii in 172G
at Leghorn. Like the Mislmah, it is arranged in
orders ("se<laiim "). which arc divided into tre.iti.ses
( ■ massektot '") and siilidivided iiitn ( li;ii)tcrs (•' pera-
kim"), the names of the si.\ .Misjnudi orders being
taken in a cabalistic sense. But th<' chief divisions
of the work are three, termed "maftelmt." besides
the introrluction entitled " Olam Katoii "' (= " micro-
cosmos''), ii*. which IJicchi end'avors to po|Milarize
the C<d)ala. The lirst main division is the '"^Laf-

teah ha-'Olamot."" in which the worlds are tieated.
It contains: (1) the order of Zera'im, treating of

the cabalistic cosmology ami of meta-

His jihysics, and divided into seven mas-

" Mishnat sektot and eighteen cha]ners; (2) the

Hasidim." order Kodashim, treating of the realm

of emanation ("'olam ha-azilut"),
which is styled "the holy of holies," and contain-
ing twenty massektot and seventy-eight chapters;
(3) the order Tohorot, treating of the three other
realms, namely, tho.se of creative ideas (" beri'ah "),
creative formations ("yezirah'"), and creative matter
(""asiyah"), and divided into nine massektot and
twenty -seven chapters; and (4) the order Nezikin,
treating of the demons and "kelifot." and divided
into si.\ massektot and seventeen chapters. The
second main division, entitled " Mafteah ha-Xesha-
mot," contains the order Xashim, treating of
souls, in twelve massektot and forty-eight chapters.
The third main division, entitled "3Iafleah ha-
Ivawwanot," contains the order Moed, divided
into fifty eight massektot and 371 chapters, and
treating of tiie K.\\vw.\n-\h. It will be seen that
the number of massektot in this work is 112, corre-
sponding to the numerical value of the sacred name
p3'; and the number of cha])ters 547, ecpial to the
numerical value of Ricchi's name, 'p'l TI 7S13lDy.
plus twelve, the number of its letters. The sources
for this wf)rk besides the Zohar are mostly Isaac
Luria's and Hayyim Vital's writings, of which the
" Sefer ha-Gilgulini."' " Kanfe Yonali/' and " Shulhan
'Aruk" may be particularly mentioned. Ricchi
drew also from other cabalists. The "'Olam Ka-
tou " was separately edited by Eliezer b. Moses,
with a Cfjmmenturv of his own, entitled "Derek ha-
Melek" (Dyhernfurth, 1753).

BiiH,ionR.\PHV: Furst, Bil'I. Jnil. n\. 136 ct sc(i.: JelliiK-k. in
i)rii)it. Lit. vu.:t.\2: lA\iu\^h\\th.'Aiuiuwlf hn-'Ahmlnli.pp.
;nti-.M)i: l,('\viiis(i|in. in Hn-KdiDnl. iii. ;!7ii. :J7s: .\e|ii-(ilii-
riiiiili. rii/iY/i)^ (iiiliiti- Yisniil. p. L',-<9; SteinsctiiK'ider. * Vi^
liixU.cols. l(i.')")-l(io"i ; F. H. Wetstein, in Hd-.Mtiiiijiil. >x.\iii..
No. 19; WiiniliTliar. in (nitiit. Lit. viii. 193 ct .m'/.; J. M.
Znnz. in Hn-Xislicr. \i. 71, 74, 78.
i;. c. :\r. Ski..

RICCIO, PAtTLO (Latin. Paulus Ricius):
Jewish coiiveit to Christianity in the lirst half of
the si.xteenth century. He Avas a native of Ger-
many, and after his conversion became professor of
lihildsophy in the University of Pavia: sul)se-
(luentlyhe was i)hysician to I^mperor Maximilian I.
Riccio was inclined to astrology and the Cabala, and
had a controversy witli Joliann Eck about the exist-
ence of life on the stellar Ixulies. f^rasmus thotight
very highly of Riccio. who defended him ami his
followers against the attacksof Stephen the Presby-
ter. Like most converts from Judaism, Riccio at-
tempted to convince the Jews of the truth of the
Giisiiels. He. moreover, advised the Chiistian na-
tions to unite against tiie Turks, who were at that
time the terror of Eur<i])e.

Riccio was a jjroliiic writer and, as Gratz says,
"turned to good account the small amount of Jew-
ish knowledire which he brought with him to Ciiiis-
tianity." His best-known work is his "fie Porta
Liicis R. Jose|)hi (Jecatilia " (Augsburg. 1510). which
is a free tianslaiion of a part of the cabalistic work
'"Sha'are Orali'" by Joseph GiKATri,i,.\. Jerome
Riccio (Hieronymus Ricius), Paido's son, sent a

405

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ricchi
Rice

copy of tliisAvork to IJcuclilin, who utilized it in tlic
conipositioii ol' liis " Dc Arte Ciil)l)alistica."

Hiccio relates that lie was ordered by Emperor
Maximilian to prepare a Latin translation of the
Talmud. All that has come down of it are the
translations of the tractates IJerakot, Saidiedrin, and
.Makkot (Augsburg, 1519), which are the earliest
Latin renderings of the Mishnah known to bibliog-
raphers. The most important of his other works is
'■ l)e Cadesti Agricultm'a," a large religio-pliilo.soiih-
ical work in four parts, dedicatecl to Emperor Chailes
V. and to his brother Ferdinand (Augsburg, 1541 ;
2d ed., Basel, 1597). His "(Jpuscula Varia," -which
contains a treatise on the ()13 commandments, a
religio-]ihilosophical and controversial work aiming
to demonstrate to the Jews the truths of Christian-
ity, and an introduction to the Cabala followed by
a compilation of its rulesand dogmas, went tlirougli
foiu' editions (Pavia, 1510; Augsburg, 1515; ib.
1541 ; antl Basel, 1597). Kiccio wrote besides these
works about ten others, all in Latin, on various re-
ligious, philosophical, and cabalistic subjects, which
appeared in Augsburg in 1546 and were reprinted
in Basel in 1597.

Bibi.io(;rapiiv: Ailams, Hixtnrn of the Jrirx. p. 2S(), London,
IS-iii; r.iscliiiiT, Kritisrlit: (Itacliirlitr ilir 'Hinlinud-Vihir-
itf'tzKiii.iiii. pp. ;i4, i'-i, a, Frankf(iri-oti-the-Miiin. L'^il'.t; Fiirst,
Hihl. .iml. u. i\. iii. l.")o; Ginsburpr, .Un.s.soctf lia-Miisi<i)rct.
p. it, I.(inil<in, 1)^)7: Griitz, Gr^ch. \x. 172 ct srq.; Mictielsen,
Istnil uiul (tic Klrchc. pp. 87 ct i<cq., Hamburg, 1869.

K. P. Wl.

RICE, ABRAHAM: American Talmudist and
rabl)i; born 1800 at Gagsheim, near Wlir/burg,
Bavaria; died in Baltimore, Md.,Oct. 29, 1862. As
a young student lie was placed in the care of Rabbi
Abraham Bing cf Wiirzburg, by whom he was or-
dained rabbi ; he after-
ward studied under
Rabbi Wolf Hambur-
ger. In 1840 he emi-
grated to America, and
was called as the first
rabbi of Congregation
Nidche I.sracl at Balti-
more. He held this
position until 1849,
when he resigned and
became a merchant.
About this time he
founded a small con-
gregation, of which he
otliciatetl gratuitously
as rabbi and rcailer of
the Torah. He lived
in retirement until
18G2, when he was again induced to accept the posi-
tion of rabbi to the Baltimore Hebrew Congrega-
tion; but he tilled the position for a short time
only, his death occurring in the fall of the same
year.

Rice usually delivered his sermons in German,
later occasionally in English also. He was a rabbi
of the old school, known thioughout the United
States and Germany as a learned Talmudist, and was
recognized as an authority in ritual matters. He
was an uncomj^roniising o])]ioiK'nt of Reform.
In 1845 he established a Hebrew school, cue of

Abraham Rice.

the earliest in the I'liited Stales, and in the same year
he o|)pose(l the retention of piyyiitimin tiie prayers.
About this time he urged "upon the Jews of the
Unil((l States tiie great import<uice of selecting a
spiritual chief or bet din, lor the imrpose of regu-
lating all our spiritual allairs, etc. ; ... it is surely
necessary to jireveiit the uninitiated from giving
their crude decisions, which are but too well calcu-
lated to do ])ermanent injury to our faith" (letter
in "Occident," ii. 599). A few of Rice's sermons
were published in the "Occident." and a large num-
ber remain in manuscript. He had a groat and last-
ing intliieiice on the Jewish community of Balti-
more; and it was to his teaching and his life that
the Baltimore Jewry owes its reputation for Ortho-
doxy. See Jew. Encvc. ii. 479b, 8.c. Bai-ti.vokk.

Bibliography: Occident, xx. M'2. 424: Guttiiiariicr, //iVfuri/
"/ the Baltimore Hebrew Conorcuatiou, p. tiO.

A. II. Vn.

RICE, ISAAC LEOPOLD : American lawyer,
author, and chess-player; bdrii Feb. 22. ls50, at
Wachenheim in the Rlienish Palatinate. When six
years of age he was taken by his mother to the
United States. Rice Avas educated at the ("entral
Iligli School in Pliiladelphia, and from 1H6G to 1809
studied literature and music in Paris. While there
he acted as correspondent for the Philadelphia
"Evening Bulletin." On his return to America he
settled ill New York, where he acquired consider-
able fame as a music teacher. In 1880 he graduated
(LL.B.) from the law school of Columbia College.
Later, at the .same college, he became lecturer in the
school of jiolitical science (1882-83) and instructor in
the law school (1885-80). He practis.'<l law until 1889.

From 1884 to 1898 Rice was active iu railway mat-
ters, either as counsel or as director, and for a time
was foreign representative in London of the Phila-
delphia and Reading Railroad. In 1885 he founded
the " Forum " magazine, becoming the first president
of the Forum Publishing Company, which position
he still (1905) occupies. In 1893 he interested him-
self in electrical matters and became connected with
the Electric Storage Battery Company, of which,
in 1897, he was chosen president. Rice was also the
founder of the electric-automobile and electric-boat
(including the submarine boat) industries in Amer-
ica; and he organized on a large scale the casein
business of the United States. In 1902 Bates Col-
lege conferred on him the honorary degree of
LL.D.

Rice is a prominent figure in the American chess
world. He has l)eeu i)re.sident of the Manhattan
Chess Clul), and has presented for competition sev-
eral trophies, including the one that is competed for
annually by cable by the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge, representing England, and those of
Harvard," Yale, Princeton, and Columbia, in the
Unitcil States. In 1895 he discovered a variation of
the Kieseritzky gambit, whieh h:is been named the
" Rice Gambit "" (see Jew. Encvc. iv. 201). #.r. CiiKss).

The books imblished by Rice include: "What Is
Music?" (New York. 1875). which was snpple-
menteil by " How the Geometrical Lines Have Their
Counterparts in Music " {ih. 1880). The latter work
was subsequently made part of the "Humboldt Li-

Rice

Hichmond

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

406

brary of Science." Ik' has also contributed a large
number of articles to the "Century," "Foruui," and
"North American Review."

BiBLiOGRAPHV: ir/ioV TT'Jio iti America, 1903-5.

A. A. p.

RICE, JOSEPH MAYER : Anurican physi-
cian and editor; biuii May 27, 1857, at Pliiladelphia,
Pa. He was educated at the public schools of Phila-
delphia and New York, at the College of the City
of New York, and at the College of Physicians and
Surgeons, New York (M.I). 1881). From 1881 to
1883 he was resident physician at Mount Sinai Hos-
pital, New York, and from 188o to 1886 liouse phy-
sician at the Monteliore Homo in the same city.

In 1888 Rice abandoned the practise of medicine
to devote himself to the study and working out of
some practical problems in education, especially
with regard to his original idea that a system of
education might be based on the inductive principle.
To this end he studied psychology and pedagogics
in the universities of Jena and Leipsic, and on his
return to the United States personally examined
about 125,000 children in schools of all kinds. He
is still continuing his researches. The results of his
investigations appeared in the " Forum " (Dec, 1896;
Jan., Fel).. April, and June, 1897), of which maga-
zine Rice has been the editor since May, 1897. He
is the autijor of "'The Public School System of the
United Stales" (New York, 1893) and "The Ra-
tional Spelling-Book " {ib. 1898) as well as of many
articles on educational subjects in various journals.

Bibliography: H'/k/s ir/iy in America, l^Oi; Xatinnal
Cl/c. (if BiograijUji.
A. A. P.

RICHARDSON, SIR BENJAMIN WARD :

English physician and friend of the Jews; l)orn at
Somersby 1828; died in London Nov. 21, 1896. He
received bis degree of M.D. in 1854, and became an
active member of the British ^ledical Association.
He was knighted in 1893.

Partly by descent and partly by intellectual sym-
pathy and early Biblical training, Richardson was
connected with Jewish interests, and was imbued
with Jewish ideals which found their expression in
various ways. In his historical romance "'The Son
of a Star" (1888), based on the life of Bar Kokba, he
evinced an extensive knowledge of Jewish history
and literature of the second century. His admira-
tion for Maimonides led him to base his last work
on the life of therab))i-pliysician. But it was chiefly
as a medical author that he lai)ored to promote Jew-
ish ideals. In particular lie recognized and advo-
cated the sanitary value of the dietary laws. He
seized every public opportunity of defending the
practises and ideals of the Jews; and was a fre-
quent lecturer before Jewish literary societies.

Bini.iofJRAPriv : Jew. Chrnn. Nov. 27, IHOO; T)ie Timex (Din-
don). Nov. Zl, 189C ; Diet. y<itio)nU liiimraiihi). Supplement.

J. G. L.

RICHETTI, JOSEPH SHALIT BEN ELI-
EZER: Hal.lii of the .s(-C(jii(l liuH of the sevcn-
teentli century; born in Safed, whence he removed
to Italy. He was the author of "Sefer Hokmat ha-
Mishkan," or " Iggeret Meleket ha-Mishkan," on the

purposes of the Tabernacle (published with his edi-
tion of "Iggeret Mesapperet Yihusta de-Zaddike
de-'Ar'a de-Yisrael," on the sacred cities of Pal-
estine; Mantua, 1676). He edited "Hibbur ha-
Maasiyyot weha-Mitlrashot weha-Haggadot," a
collection of tales and legends from the Talmud
and the Midrash (Verona, 1647), and "Seder Mish-
meret ha-Hodesh," a ritual for the day of new moon
(Venice, 1661 ).

s. U. C.

RICHMAN, JULIA: American educator; born
in New York city Oct. 12, 1855. She was educated
in the public schools of New York and at the Nor-
mal College, and did postgraduate work at New
York University. From 1884 to 1903 she was prin-
cipal of public school No. 77, and in the latter year
was appointed a district superintendent of schools,
being the first woman to be chosen to such an of-
fice in New Y'ork city. She was a pioneer in man}'
school-reform movements, particularly in regard to
special training for mentally enfeebled children;
and has written on educational subjects in the
"Educational Review," "School Journal," "School
Work," etc.

Julia Richman has held many positions in the
Jewish community, having been president of the
Young Ladies' Charitable Union (1876-81). first
woman director of the Hebrew Free School Associa-
tion (1885-1900), first president of the Young Wom-
en's Hebrew Association (1887-90), director of the
Educational Alliance (since 1893), chairman of the
committee on religious school-work of the Council
of Jewish Women (1893-99), member of the educa-
tional council of the Jewish Chautaufiua Society
(1889-98), and founder and editor of "Helpful
Thoughts." An article by her on the Jewish Sun-
day-school in the United States appeared in the
"Jewish Quarterly Review" for Julv. 1900.

RICHMOND : Capital of Virginia, and, during
the Civil war, of the Confederate Statesof America.
By 1785 it had a Jewish community of over a
dozen families, of Spanish-Portuguese descent. In
1791 a Sephardic congregation was organized, called
K. K. Beth Shalome. Its roster contained the names
of twentv-nine heads of families, prominent among
which were the Isaacs, Cohens, Mordecais, Levvs,
and Judahs. This congregation re-
Beth mained the representative Jewish or-

Shalome. ganization till the outbreak of the
t'ivil war. After the war it became
weakened by deaths and removals. In 1898, after
one hundred and seven years of corporate existence,
its few surviving members joined the Congregation
Beth Ahabah in a body, and Beth Shalome ceased to
exist. The first jdace of worship the Congregation
Beth Shalome had was a room in a house owned by
one of its members, on Nineteenth street. It then
built a small l)rick synagogue on the corner of Nine-
teenth and Main streets, and later a handsome struc-
ture on Mayo street, where it worshiped for over
three-quarters of a century. Its pulpit had been
occupied successively by Isaac H. Judah, Jacques
J. Lyons, Isaac Leeser, Isaac Mendes de Sola, Henry
S. Jacobs, and George Jacobs.

407

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rice
Richmond

At the very beginning of the nineteentli century

German Jews began to arrive in l^icliiiiond, singly

or in small groups. They afliliated

Beth for a while with K. K. Beth Shalome.

Ahabah. But in 1839 tliey organized a hebra —
the Hebra Aliabat Yisrael, which, two
years later, was changed into the Congregation
K. K. Beth Ahabah. Tliis congregation lirst wor-
shiped in a room on Marshall street, between Fifth
and Sixth streets, which was consecrated May lo,
1841. The first minister, called to its pulpit in 1846,
was the Rev. M. J. Michelbacher of Philadelphia.
In 1848 the congregation built its first synagogue, on
Eleventh street, between Marshall and Clay streets,
and this was followed by a second ])uilding, on tlie
same site, dedicated Sept., 1880. The growth of the
congregation necessitating a larger synagogue, a
new one was dedicated in 1904, in West Franklin
street, between Lombardy and Harrison streets.
The ministers of Beth Aliabah liave been M. J.
Michelbacher (1846 - 67), J. Wech.sler (1867-69),
A. S. Bettellieim
<1869-75), A.
HofTman (1876-
1878), A. Harris
(1878-91), and
the present
<1905) incum-
bent, Edward
N. Calisch (since
1891 ; born at
Toledo, Ohio,
June 23, 1865;
B.A., Univer-
sity of Cincin-
nati; rabbinical
diploma, He-
brew Union Col-
lege; M. A., Uni-
versity of Vir-
ginia), who has
published a
"Child's Bible"
and a " Book of
Prayer," as well as some essays and poems, and lias
been prominently identified with the cinuiit-ijreach-
ing work of the Union of American Hebrew Con-
gregations.

At the close of the Civil war, owing to differences

arising in the readjustment of the congregation's

affairs, a number of members seceded

Beth El from Beth Ahabah, formed a new
and Kene- congregation, and called it Beth El.
seth Israel. From 1867 to 1871 Dr. A. L. IMayer
occupied its puljnt. Upon his depar-
ture the differences were adjusted, the members re-
turned to Betli Ahabah, and Beth El ceased to exist.

In 1856 an Orthodox Polish congregation, Kene-
setli Israel, was organized. It built, and still wor-
ships in, a synagogue in Mayo street. It has con-
sistently maintained its Orthodox standard, and its
spiritual guides have been "hazzanim," and not
preachers. Among them were N. Brinn, L. Jacobi,
J. Berg, A. N. Coleman, H. Block, M. J. Brill, L.
Harfield, J. Sapir, I. Koplowitz, E. Phillips; the
present incumbent is J. Lesser.

Synujjogue at Richmond, Va.

(From a photograph.)

The wave of Russian immigration, wliicli began
in 18H1, reached Richmond, ami in 1886 a RiLssian
congregation was organized and called the Sir Moses
Montctiore congregation. It first worshiped in a
room in East Main street, but in 1887 obtained pos-
session of the synagogue of K. K. Beth Shalome. on
Mayo street, where it now worships. Among its
leaders have been Rabbis Alpcrin. Gordon, Newel.
NutokofT, Jaeger. Grufman. and (.'ohen. In addition
to the foregoing congregations tin ic are a few "min-
yanim," which meet only during the chief holy days.
The Hebrew Home lor the Aged and Infirm, char-
tered in 1891, has at the imsent time six beneficia-
ries, who are mainUxined in tliL- homes (jf private fam-
ilies. The Ladies' Hebrew Benevolent
Other Society was reorganize<l in 1806. The
Organiza- Ladies' Hebrew Memorial A.s.socialion,
tions. organized in 1866, for the care of the
graves of Jewish soldiers, holds a
memorial service annually on the third Wednesday in
May. The Jefferson Club (social and literary ) is the

result of the con-
solidation in
1892 of the .Mer-
cantile Club and
the Jefferson
Literary and So-
cial Circle.

The first Jew-
ish cemetery in
Richmond was a
l)lot of ground
on East Frank-
lin street, be-
tween Nine-
teenth and
T w e n t i e t h
streets, deeded
by Isaiah Isaac,
in 1791, to the
Jews of Ricli-
mond. In 1816
B e n j a m i n
Wolfe, a nicm-
from the city a
Hill, on the

ber of the city council,, secured
grant of land known as Shockhoe
northern etlge of the city. This land was given
to K. K. Beth Shalome, and was used jointly
by it and Beth Ahabah. It is now the sole pos-
session of Beth Ahabah. Some of the bodies in
the old cemetery in East Franklin street were re-
interred in the new one. A handsome mortuary
chapel was built in the cemetery in 1898. in which
all funeral services are conducted. Congregation
Keneseth Israel has a section adjoining the genenil
Oakwood Cemetery and known as Oakwood He-
brew Cemetery. ]t was purchased in 1866. The Sir
Moses Montefiore congregation has a plot of ground
four miles east of the city, on the National Road.

The Jews of Richmond have been

Jews prominent in public service both in

in Public war and in peace. Many of them

Service. fought in the Civil war. In civic life

also they have served with credi t. Beu-

jannn Wolfe was a member of the city council in

1816; Jacob Ezekiel served in the council prioi

Ricius
Hies

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

408

to 1860. Other members of the city council liave
beeu: M. L. Straus, Julius Straus, Josej>h Waller-
steiu, Marx Gunst, S. L. Bloomberg (president of
the council), and ClilTord "Weil. Marx Gunst is at
present (1905) vice-president of the board of alder-
men and Charles Hutzler of the School Board.
Isaac Held is dejiuty treasurer of the city. William
Loveustein served twelve years as state senator.
L. Z. Morris was one of the most efficient presidents
the chamber (jf conunerce has had.

The public-school system was established in Rich-
mond in 1870. Before that time each congregation
had its own parochial school, that of Beth Ahabah
being a particularly excellent institution, attended
b}' Christian children as well as Jewish. When the
school system was about to be established, Beth
Ahabah volunteered to discontinue its school and
place its sdioolrooms, rent free, at the disposal of
thecity until proper school buildings could l)e built.
The olTer was accepted, and the tirst public scliool
of Richmond was conducted in the rooms of a Jew-
ish synagogue.

In commercial life the Jews are engaged in manu-
facture and in the jobbing and retail trades, being
especially prominent in the shoe and in the dry-
goods business. The Jewish population of Rich-
mond approximates 2,500, the total population be-
ing 85,050.

BiBLinr.RAPHv: Pulilicntinna Am. Jeiv. Hist. Sac. No. 4. pp.
22-:i4 : Hist. ><( Coni^irrijation Beth Ahabah (published on
its sixticili anniversary, liKlli.

RICIUS, AUGUSTINUS : Jewish convert to

Cliristianity and ustronoiiicTof the fifteenth century.

He was a disciple of Abraham Zacuto, and wrote a

work on the motion of the eighth sphere, a Latin

translation of which appeared at Paris in 15'21. He

quotes Ibn Ezra, Abraham ben Hiyya, and other

Jewish authors, and mentions the epoch 1477.

BiBLiOGRAPiiv: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 214-3 214.5.

J.
RIDBAZ (WILLOWSKI), JACOB DAVID
B. ZEEB (k.n(jwn uls(^ as the Slutsker Rav) :
Russian rabbi and commentator ; born Feb. 7, 1845,
in Kobrin, government of Grodno, Russia. He was
successively rabbi at Izballin (18G8), Bobruisk (1876),
Wilna (1881), Polotsk (1883), Vilkomir (1887), and
Slutsk (1890-1900). In tiie last-mentioned place
he organized a yeshibah, in 1806, over which he
to<jk general supervision, appointing R. Isaac Zal-
nion Meltzer as principal. Ridbaz is the author
of "Migdal Dawiti," Tahnudic novella;. Babli and
Yerusiialmi (Wilna, 1874); " Hanah Dawid," novel-
Ifc on the treatise Hallah (/A. 1876); and"Teshubot
liaRidbaz " {ih. 1881). But his i)rincii)al work is em-
bodied in his commentaries on the Talmud Yeru-
siialmi, entitled •'Hidduslie Ridbaz "and "Tosat'ot
ba-Rid " (I'iotrkow, 1899-1900). The former is a sim-
ple commentiiry on passages not satisfactorily ex-
plained by other commentators; the latter is more
critical, and is written in the style of the Tosafot.
Ridbaz freely used a copy of the Jerusalem Talmud
which the Wilna Gaon had annotated. After study-
ing the Jerusalem Talmud for thirty years and work-
ing steadily on his commentaries for seventeen years,
Ridbaz began the publication of an edition of the

Yerushalnii which included, besides his own, all the
commentaries incorporated in former editions. The
subscription fund being exhausted before the fourth
section, Nezikiu, was completed, Ridbaz was per-
suaded to go to America (1900), whei-e he succeeded
in securing subscriptions for many sets of the work.
Returning to Russia, he dedicated the section Xezi-
kin to his American patrons. The second time Rid-
baz went to America he dropped his former name
of Willowski and assumed the name of Ridbaz
(= "Rabbi Jacob David ben Zeeb ").

The United Orthodox Rabbis of America, at their
annual meeting in Philadelphia, Aug. 1()-19, 19(13,
elected ]{idbaz as the "zekan ha-rabbanim " (elder
rabbi), and on Sept. 8, 1903, he was elected chief
rabbi of the Russian- American congregations in
Chicago. lie endeavored to introduce order into
the religious services of his congregations, but met
obstruction and opposition on the part of a former
rabbi, Zebi Simon Album, and his followers; not
being able to withstand the persistent opposition,
Ridbaz resigned his j^osition ten months later. He
next published "Nimmuke Ridbaz," a homiletical
commentary on Genesis and Exodus (Chicago, 1904).
This caused Rabbi Album to rejoin with " Debar
Emet" {ib. 1904), in rebuttal of the allegations by
Ridbaz. Album was in turn attacked by P. Ge-
wirtzman in a pamphlet entitled "Aken Noda' ha-
Dabar," in defense of Ridbaz.

After resigning his rabbinate Ridbaz traveled
extensively through the L'nited States, lecturing and
preaching. On returning to New York he endeav-
ored to establish a yeshibah on the European model,
but found little encouragement. In 1905 Ridbaz
left America for the Holy Land, where he intends
to spend the remainder of his life.

Bini.ior.RAPnY: Hchrexv Statularcl. Dec. 14. liXK); Kisenstadt.
Halane Yisrnrl tie-Amcrikn. pp. 3.S-4(l, New Vnrk, ISitH;
Amirican Jcivish Year Bonk, 56(w (1905), p. 222; Zeeb
Kaplan, 'Edut be-Ya'akob, Warsaw, 1904.
A. J. D. E.

RIDDLE : Among the ancients, as witness the
story of Oedipus and the Sphinx, a riddle was a
more serious matter than in modern times, more in
the nature of a wager than of an amusement. Sam-
sou's riddle to the Philistines (Judges xiv. 14) was
of this kind, though it has been suggested that his
own name is a key to the thing which brings forth
sweetness out of the lion. It woidd appear that
some of the proverbs in which sets of three and of
four objects are mentioned {e.f/., xxx. 15 et seq.) were
originally in the form of riddles. In Ezekiel (xvii.
1-10) there is actually a symbolic riddle, in which
the King of Babylon is compared to an eagle.

Riddles appear to have been a favorite table amuse-
ment with the early Hebrew, Sirach referring to them
as such. Many of them centered around the visit of
the Queen of Slieba to Solomon, whose wisdom
she tested chietly by propounding riddles. Three
of these are recorded in the second Targum to Esther
(i. 2), and no less than ninetcenan' given in a Yemen
manuscript published by S. SchechLerin "Folklore"
(i. 349-358). Most of these riddles are simply Biitle
(piestions, some not of a very edifying character.
The two that are genuine riddles are: "Without
movement while living, it moves when its head is
cut off," and "Produced from the ground, man pro-

409

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Ricius
Hies

duces it, wliilc its food is tiie fruit of tiic ground."
The auswer to the former is, "a tree, whicli, when
its top is removed, can be made into a moving ship " ;
the answer to tiie latter is, "a wick."

In the Talmud itself riddles frecjuently occur;
take as an instance the one from Kinnim (end):
"What animal lias one voice living
Talmudic and seven voices dead? " The answer
Riddles, is, " the ibis, from whose carcass sev-
en (lifTi'rcnt musical instruments are
made." The Talmud contains even a poetical rid-
dle, the answer to which has never been definitely
settled. It is as follows:

" Hiffli from heav'n her eye looljs down,
("(instant strife e.xcites her frown ;
Wnis'e<l beings shun her siplit,
Slie puts the youth to instant llif^'ht.
The aged, too, her looks do scout ;
Oh I oh ! the fugitive cries out.
And by lier snares wlioe'er is hired
(.an never of his sin be cured " (Yer. M. K. iii. 1).

One of the stories relating to the connection of Ju-
dah the Patriarch with Marcus Aurelius is an enacted
riddle. The emperor sent a messenger to ask the
sage how he should till liis empty treasury. Judah
simply Avent into his garden, uprootetl the old
plants, and planted young ones in their stead. The
emperor luiderstood, and dismissed his old councilors
and apjiointed more youthful ones, who, it is to be
sui)iiose(l, paid him for the api)oiutments (Gen. R.
l.wii,). "Two are better than tliree, for the one
disajipears never to return " (Shab. lo2a). In other
words, "Two legs are better than two with a staff,
foryoutli never returns." This is another form of the
celebrated riddle of tlie Sphin.x. It is again utilized
in an enigmatic excuse made by Simeou ben Halafta
for not calling upon Rabbi: "Rocks become high
[he was becoming old] ; the near areata distance [his
eyes had grown dim] ; two are turned into three [he
needed a staflf to walk] " (Shab. lo2b).

Similarly, a request for a couple of chickens for
breakfast was put in the following form: "Give the
coals an orange color, let the glimmer of gold appear
like an expanse of heaven, and prepare me two her-
alds of the darkness" ('Er. 53b).

In medieval times many of the poets, those of
Sp:nn in particular, wrote riddles in verse. Thus
'Moses ibn Ezra asked, " What is the sister of the
sun, though made for the night? The fire causes
her tears to fall, and when she is near dying the}'
cut olf her head." The answer is, "a
The taper." Abraham ibn Ezra wrote rid-

Medieval dies on grammatical formulas, cspe-

Poets. cially on the vocalic consonants, and

one on the letters "mem " and "nun."

Judah ha-Levi wrote several riddles, of which that

of the needle may serve as an example:

" What is it that's blind with an eye in its head.
lUit the race of mankind its use can not spare ;
Spencis all its life in clothing the dead.
But always itself is naked and bare ? "

Al-Harizi has a most elaborate riddle on the ant
and the tlea, while Emanutl of Rome gives in his
poem a pedantic riddle, the answer to which is
" matter. " The curious riddle given at the end of the
H.\GG.\D.\n is an additional instance of the popu-
larity of this form of amusement among Jews. It

has never been determined whether this riddle was
originally Jewisli or German.

niMi.iOfjK.vPiiv: A. Wiln.sche, Jtir lifllhstlw, Mttil tut ilrn
llihnlnn. Leip.slc, 1hk{; AUruUutm.Ji ii ikIi Lilt hi Dn Miit-
illi- .l(/<>. pp. :{S4 ;iWi; I.r.w, /;i< Lilimsnllir in ,li r Jtl-
ilisihin Li7. r<ih<r, pp. :utl-:i4'.); several riUUIeij collected In
(Jalicla and glM-ii In .l;/i I'lyudl, vol. vl.

RIEGER, PAUL: German rabbi and liistorian ;
born at Dresden July 4, 1«70. He was etlucated at
Dresden aiui at the uinversilies of JJreslau (Pli.D.
.1894) and Berlin. At Rreslau he stu<licd al.so at tlic
Jewish Theological Seminary and at IJerliii at the
Lehranstalt flir ilie Wissenschaft des Judentiiums.
His graduating thesis, at IJreslau, was enlilk-d " Ver-
sucli einer Technologic und Terniinologic dcr Haiid-
werke in der Mischnah." Rieger was rabl)i at I'ols-
dam from 1896 to 1902, when he was called to the
rabbinate of the Israelitische Tenipeigemeinde at
Hamburg. In association with H. Vogelstein lie
wrote "(Jeschichte der Juden in Rom" (2 vol.*;.,
Berlin, 1890-9G). He wrote also, besides contribu-
tions to various journals, a small pamphlet entitled
"Hillel und Jesus" (Hamburtr, 1904j.

s. ^ H. V.

RIEMANN, SOLOMON : Traveler of the
nineteenth century ; died at Vienna about 1873. He
was for a time a rich merchant, having made large
investments in Siam; but during the war of the Eng-
lish in that country all his property was seized by
the Britisii government, and he became financially
ruined. He tiien traveled through Asia, Africa, and
the greater part of Europe, until he finally settled
in Vienna, where, receiving financial aid from Adolf
Jellinek, he was enabled to devote his time to re-
cording the experiences of his travels. He died
suddenh' before finishing the work. As Riemann
wrote without system and in an almost unintelligi-
ble style, his manuscript was rearranged, indeed
completely rewritten, by the traveler and Hebrew
writer Wolf Schur, who published it with many ad-
ditions of his own under the title "Mas'ot Shelo-
moh," Vienna, 1884.

BiBLiOfiRAPHY : Winter and Wunsche, Die JUdixchc Littcra-

fwr, iii. 858; Schur, Mas'ot Shelomoh.p.S.

S. I. WaH.

RIES, ELIAS ELKAN : American electrical
engineer; born at Raiulegg, Baden, Germany, Jan.
16, 1862. When only three years of age he was
taken by his parents to America. He received liis
education at the public schools of Baltimore and
New York, attending also lectures at Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore. In 1876 he became a tele-
graph-operator and removed to New York, being
employed by the Edison Company and otlier elec-
trical concerns. Returning to Baltimore in 1SS4, lie
developed some of his own inventions in electrical
signaling, and organized (1891) the Ries Electric
Specialty Company. Since 1896 he has resided in
New York city.

Ries has invented improvements in the telephone,
the telegraph, and in other electric apparatus, such
as electric lamps, track-rail welding machinery,
motor controllers, etc., for which inventions he has
secured about l.jO patents. He has also contributed
articles to the scientific and technical jnurnal.-;.
Bibliography: American Jewish Year Iin<ik. lixvi. *.r.

A. F. T. H.

Hiesser
Bieti

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

410

BIESSER, GABRIEL : German advocate of
the euiancipiitiou of the Jews; born at Hamburg
April 2, 18U6; died there April 22. 18(53; youngest
son of Lazarus Jacob Riesser. For a few years
Riesser's family lived in Llibeck, but it returned to
Hamburg in 1816. Educated at the Johanneum of
his native city and at the universities of Kiel and
Heidelberg, where he studied law, Riesser sought to
become privat-docent at the latter university, but,
being a Jew, was refused the " venia legendi " by
the government. He then lived in Fraukfort-on-
the-Main, Heidelberg, and other cities of southern
Germany, and returned to ILiinburg in 1830. There
he was refused, as a Jew, admittance to the bar.

Riesser now became the leading advocate of the
emancipation of tiie Jews in Germany. In 1830 ap-
peared in Altona his " Ueber die Stellungder Bekeii-
ner dss Mosaischeu Glaubens in Deutschland " (2d
ed., 1831). Although the
same subject had been
thoroughly discussed
shortly before by Twes-
ten and by BOrne, Ries-
ser's essaiy was well re-
ceived. He did not speak
of the oppression of Jews
alone, but compared it
with the oppression of
the burghers by the no-
bility, of the negroes by
the whites, etc., and asked
f(ir full emancipation.
In his introduction to
the book he declares it
to be "an effort to induce
important men — social
and spiritual leaders — to
l)ay more attention to this
undertaking, to rouse la-
tent forces for it, to stim-
ulate those who should
be interested in it. to stir
up philanthropists of all
confessions and beliefs,
and finally to demonstrate
the necessity for the good-
will and the power of
single individuals to be

united for a common purpose." Tiie Protestant
theologian Paulus in Heidelberg answered him
in his "Die JiUlische Nationalabsonderung nach
Ursprung, Folgen oder Besserungsmitteln " (Heidel-
berg. 1830), and propo.sed that the Jews, to become
good German citizens, should be baptized. Riesser
defended his position in his " Vertheidigung der
Biirgcrliclien Gleichstellung der Juden Gegen die
Einwnrfe des Herrn Dr. Paulus," Altona, 1831.
The pamphlet was the work of a few days, written
under the direct influence of Paulus' essay, and
gives in an ai)pendi.\ the most important answers
which Napoleon had received in regard to the ques-
tions put to the Saniiedrin convoked in 1806. In
his "Bijrne und die Juden " (Altenburg. 1832) Ries-
ser did "not intend to defend Biirue against the ac-
cusations of Dr. Eduard Meyer, but the Jews against
Meyer's insinuations."

(iabriel Riesser,

The July Revolution in France in 1830 found an
echo in Germany, and Riesser established in 1832 in
Altona his journal "Der Jude, Periodische Blatter
filr Religion und Gewissensfreiiieit," in which he
again fought for emancipation. The announcement
said: "A time which is full of events, fuller of
hopes, needs alert organs for the quickly changing
contents; and such organs are found
His "Der in the periodical press." Manyexcel-
Jude." lent essays were written for this peri-
odical by the leading men of the time;
but the best came from the pen of its editor. Some
of them were printed separately, e.[/., " Kritische Be-
leuchtung der Neuesten Stiindischen Verhandlungcn
iiber die Emancipation der Juden." Altona, 1832.
While Bavaria. Hanover, and Hesse had passed, or
intended to pass, favorable laws relating to the
Jews, Baden had refused to do so; and Riesser at-
tacked the Landtag of Ba-
den lor t ids attitude. The
" Denkschrift an die Hohe
Badische Slilndeversamm-
lung, Eiugereicht von
Badischen Biirgern Israe-
litischer Religion zur Be-
grlindung Hirer Petition
um Vollige Bijrgerliche
Gleichstellung, vom 30
Juli, 1833," written by
Riesser, was published in
Heidelberg in 1833; and
" Betrachtungen liber die
VerhaltnissederJiidischen
T.'ntcrthanen in der Prcus-
sischen Monarchic," a re-
jMiiit from his paper, ap-
l)e;ued at Altona in 1834.

In the same year a pe-
tition, drafted by Riesser,
was presented to the Sen-
ate of Hamburg, asking
for the Jews of that city
the riirhts of citizenship;
huttlie populace strongl}''
opposed the proposed re-
form. This ]ietition also
njipeared sejiuiutely as
"Denkschrift i'lber die
Bnrgerlichen VeihJlltnisse der Hamburgischen Is-
raeliten" (Hamburg, 1«34). An important essay
bearing on this subject was Riesser's "Die Verhand-
lungen des Englischen Parlaments im Jahre 1833
ijber die Emancipation der Juden," Altona, 1834.

Th(! title of Riesser's journal was changed in 1835
to "Der Jude, ein Journal fiir Gewissensfreiiieit."
From this change it is evident that Riesser had given
up the theological .section; indeed, he says in his
announcement: "The ' Israelitische Predigt- und
Schulmagaziii ' of Dr. Ludwig Philippson and the
' Wissenschiiftliche Zeitschrifl fi'ir Jildische Theo-
logie ' of Abraham Geiger have made part of my
journal unnecessary. "Der Jude" appeared for
only two more years.

In 1834 Riesser received from the "Israelitische
Blirger Badens," in acknowledgment of the inter-
est he had taken in emancipation, a painting, by

411

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Blasaar
Bleti

Oppenbeim of Frankfoit-ou-tlic-Main, representing
the return from the German War of Liberation of a
Jewish soldier, whose faee is seamed with scars, and
wlio wears the decorations received for service. In
1836 liiesser left his native town and settled in IJocU-
eulieim, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, where he pub-
lished his "Jndische Briefe," Berlin, 1840-42. In
1843 he returned to Hamburg and was admitted t(j
the bar there.

Tiie year 1848 brouglit changes in Germany,

among them greater liberty for the Jews. Kiesser

was elected to the German Parliament

Member of (" Vor-Parlament ") of Frankfort, from

tho the district of Laueuburg. He be-

German longed to the liberals, and was one of
Par- the vice-presidents of tiie assembly.

liament. On every possible occasion he spoke
for his coreligionists. He was a
member of the deputation sent by the Parliament
to offer the crown of Germany to Frederick William
IV. In 1850 he was elected to the German Parlia-
ment sitting at Erfurt, this time from Hamburg.
When the body was dissolved, in 1850, Riesser re-
turned to Hamburg. During the following years he
traveled, spending much time in the United States;
and he published his views and impressions of the
country in the "Preussische Jahrblicher." In 1850
a new upper court was established in Hamburg, and
Kie.sser was appointed one of its judges ("Ober-
gerichtsrath "). which position he held until liis
death. From 1860 to 1863 he was vice-president of
the Burger.scliaft.

Bibliography : N. Frankfurter, Denkrede auf Dr. Gabriel
Riex/fcr. Hamburg, 186J ; Berthold Auerbach, Beim Tndc
Rie)iser''ii, in Deutsche BUitter, 1863, No. 18; idem, in Gnlli:^
vie der Ausijczeichnetsten Inraeliten Aller Jalirhnndertc.
part hi., p. 5, Stuttgart, 1884 ; Alio. Zeit. des Jiid. ]8«3, pp.
Ji99-30-t et passim; 1864. p. 465; 1867, pp. 346-;J65; Isler, Oa-
hriel Riesser's Lehen, in vol. i. of Gcsammeltc Schriften,
2d ed., Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1871.
s. F. T. H.

RIESSER, LAZARUS JACOB: German
rabbi; born 1763 in the valley of Ricss (hence the
name "Riesser"); died March 7, 1828, at Hamburg;
father of Gabriel Riesser. In tiie "Zeker Zaddik "
Riesser calls himself "Eliezer, son of Jacob Katzen-
ellenbogen," rabbi of Ottingen-Wallerstein. Owing
to his great erudition as a Talmudist and his keen
intellect Riesser was chosen as son-in-law by Raphael
b. Jekutliiel Siisskiud ha-Kohen, the incumbent of
the rabbinate of Altona-Hamburg-Wandsbcck. He
resided in Altona, where he held the office of secre-
tary to the bet din. His Hebrew style may be des-
ignated as classic.

When, owing to disagreements with the Danish
government, Kolien resigned his post (1799), Riesser
lost his office and went with his father-in-law to
Hamburg. There he entered business life, meeting
with little success. In his leisure hours he wrote
the biography of his father-in-law in elegant He-
brew, under the title "Ma'alele Ish " ; this, together
with two sermons by Raphael Kolien, was pulilishcd
under the title "Zeker Zaddik" (Altona, 1805).
When, in 1813, Hamburg was blockaded by the
Russians Riesser removed to Liibeck. Riesser went
back to Hamburg in 1816.

Riesser 's correspondence with his son Gabriel,
comprising twenty letters covering the period from

May 7, 1824, to Feb. 22. 1828, have been publisiied

by isler in " Gabriel liiesser's Leben." i. 36-61. Tlie

Heimann I. Michael (•olleclion, now in tlie liixileiau

Library, O.xfonl, contains some iiiauuscripts by

Riesser.

HinLiooKAi'HY : Isler, Gabriel Rletwrr'g Leben. In vol. I. of Ge-
siimmcltr Schrilttii, U-l\>Mc and Kruiikforl-<jri-llie-.Maln,
tiL'lKtT's JUd.Zed. vll. Zti; Xehtr ^uWi/ffc. Altona,

iHu:
im:,.

E. 8cnR,

RIETI : Italian family, deriving its name from
the city of I{ieli in tlie I'ontiflcal States. Members
of it are found at Rieti as early as the end of the
fourteenth century : then in Itome. Sienna, litjJogna,
Mantua, and many other Italian cities. The oldest
members known are Isaac Rieti or Maestrr) Gaio.
father of Mcjses ]{ikti, and Abraham ben Isaac
Rieti (1415; Magazin, i. 37). Michael ben Judah
di Rieti, a physician, lived at Terni between 1469
and 1473, and Solomon ben Moses di Rieti, an-
other physician, at Rome in lolU. Still ahdiln-r
physician, a member of this family, Asahel Ra-
phael Rieti, a grandson of Moses, is known to
have lived in Bologna in 1556. with his three sons,
Elia, Isaac, and Hananiah Eliakim Rietf. Ish-
mael Rieti, a relative of Jehiel of Pi.sa, resided in
Sienna, where he extended hospitality to the false
Messiah, David Reubeni, although without display-
ing the singular enthusiasm shown in his cause by all
the other members of Jehiel 's family. He refused
Reubeni any considerable financial assistance, and
on this account was bitterly censured in the latter 's
diary. He, however, was teacher of the nephews of
Immanuel ben Isaac de Lattes, who held him in great
veneration. At Sienna Ishmael was the host also of
Johanan ben Joseph Treves. He devoted himself
to works of piety, in which he was followed by his
son Moses Rieti. On the occasion of a movement
inimical to the Jews of Emjioli, Tuscany, when the
monks in their sermons forbade the Chri.stians to
have any intercourse with the Jews or to render
them any service on their Sabbath, Moses ben Ish-
mael provided the necessary funds to send a dele-
gate to Rome to obtain a papal decree in favor of
his Empoli coreligionists.

Rabbi Simon da Rieti of Rome was one of the
Hebrew deputies who attended one of the meet-
ings of the Index Commission convened by Cardi-
nal Delia Rovere, Aug. 7, 1590, when the censoisiiip
of the Talmud was discussed. In the bcLMniiim: of
the seventeenth century Joseph ben Shabbethai
Elha,nan Rieti, a nephew of Ishmael. was rabbi
of Sienna. He is known as the copyist of a manu-
script in 1603, and as one of the indorsers of a d<ci-
sion of the Roman rabbi Elic/cr Ma/li:ih ben Abra-
ham di Viterbo (1605-6). Eliezer ben Isaac Rieti
is known as the author of two works, " Luah .Ma-
mare 'En Yisrael " (Venice. 1612; Amsterdam. 16x4 ».
an alphaiietical index to the ""En Yisrael" of Jacob
Habil), and "Kelale ha-Talmud," which remains
iiniMil)lislicd (MS Micliarb. His contemporary
Hezekiah ben Gabriel ben Samuel Rieti pub-
lished in the "Tuscan " (Italian) language a trans-
lation of Proverbs, w itli a Hebrew te.xt. and a dedica-
tory letter addressed to Is;iiah Massanini; it bears
the title of "Mishle Siielomoh iin Ha'atnkat I^lkit "
(Venice, 1617). A certain Isaac ben Moses Rieti

Rieti
Riga.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

412

is mentioned iu the " Luah lui-Payyetanini " by S.
D. Luzzalto.

Herewith is given the genealogical tree of those
members of tlic Rieti family whose relationship
may be traced acconliiig to Vogelstein and liieger,
"Gesch. dtr JikIlmi in Koni," ii. 74:

EUa

Isaac

I
Moses

I
Isaac

I
Asatael Raphael

I
Isaac
(13ST)

Jehiel

Hananiah Eliakim
(1594-1629)

Elhanan Jedidiah
11612)

Ismael
(1559)

David Napbtall
(1648)

Mi>ses

Elhanan Jedidiah

Sbabbethai Elbanan

Joseph
(160:i-6)

Bezaleel Isaac Menahem Jacob Raruk

(b. lOU) (b. 161ti) (b. 1620)

DiBLiOGRAPHT: Isaac dc Lattes. Rcsponsrt, p. 123 ; Kaufmann,
in Ii. E. J. xxvi. 9«HU ; Mortara, Catnhiui). p. 4^! ; irtein, lu-
dice, p. .>4; itlem. in Steinschneider, Jh'lir. Bi''/.v. 98; Mast;
V. 2:il : Nepi-(ihirondi, Tnlednl (ieditlc Yi^^rad. p. 4(5 ; Maxh-
hit MiU.utiiuit, p. 92a, Venice, ItKie ; Steinsclineider, ("nt. lindl.
cols. 96."^iH>4 ; idem, Jcicit'h Literature, pp. 219-22:3; idem,
Helir. liilil. v. 21. xix. 14; Vogelstein and Rieper, (jcsch. dcr
Jitdcn in Rmn, ii. 70 (note 2), 74, i;i'), IJJO, lf>(), 2(54.

Hananiah Eliakim Rieti: Italian rabbi;
boin al Bologna about 156U; died in ^lantua be-
fore 1626. lie lived some time in Mantua, and iu
1604 settled at Luzzara. He wrote "Mekiz Redu-
raim" (^lantua, 1648), religious songs and poems,
especially for the morning of IIo.sha'ana Rabbah,
which were published by his son David Naph-
tali Rieti, with a preface by the author, and " Min-
hat llaiianyah," ])ooms for all feast- and fast-days
(MS. Micliael, now in Oxford). Some of these
poems were printed in tiic " Ayyelot ha-Shahar"of
Mordecai .Tare (Mantua, 1612). Other, uiipublislied
writings of Rieti are: novellaj to some Talmudical
treatises; "Sedeli Lebanon," responsa; "Scdoh Tap-
puhim," miscellaneous writings; "Teiillah Keza-
rali," a short prayer.

BlBLKifiRAPiiv : Landshuth, "Ammiidr hn-''Ahf>da}u p. fi-'> ;
Steinschneider, .7f(Ci.'</i LUerainrr. pp. 242 et sei/.: Vopelstein
and Rieger, OeKclt. dcr Jiiden in l{<nn, il. 74 ; Zuiiz, Z.O..
p.42:t.

Moses ben Isaac (Maestro Gaio) da Rieti :
Italian ruhlii, physician, and piut; born at Rieti
in July, 1388. He lost his fatiier at an early age,
and later left his native place, resirling success-
ively in difTcrent cities of tlie Pontitical States.
In 1436 he was in Perugia. Some time afterward
lie founded a school at Narni. During the pontifi-
cate of Eug(.'nius IV. he removed to Rome, and was
appointed chief rabbi of the Jewish community of
that city. Pius II. gave him leave to practise

medicine even among Christians, and appointed
him his body-physician. Rieti successfully main-
tained a religious controversy iu Rome with a
Cliristian theologian who has been identified with
both Robertoof Lecceand the Florentine Grannozzo
Manetii. He is believed to have died at Rome some
time after 1460. He certainly outlived his wife. who
died at the age of seventy and to whom he had been
married fifty-two years.

From his youth Rieti devoted liimself to the study
of the Talmud and of Hebrew literature in general.
He was also an earnest student of medicine, natural
science, and philosophy, and a connoisseur of Italian
literature. The fame acquired by Dante through
the "Divina Commedia" led Rieti to enrich Hebrew
literature with a similar work. He conceived the
idea of so doing as early as 1409; but it was not
until seven years later that he began the work, to
which he gave the title "Mikdash ]\ie'at" (see Ezek.
xi. 16), and which was in two parts. Part i., en-
titled "Ulam," is divided into five cantos, the first
of which begins wilhan invocation to the Almighty
and unfolds the plan, contents, and divisions of the
work. The remainder of this jiart of the work is
devoted to an exposition of the religious and i)hilo-
sophical opinions of the author, and treats of the
thirteen articles of faith, of Cabala, physics, and
mathematics, the written and the oral law, the indi-
vidual branches of science and of their scope and
usefulness, also of Aristotle and his writings, of the
" Isagoge " of Porphyry, and, finally, of the " Catego-
ries " of Aristotle.

In the second part of the " Mikdash " the author de-
scribes a symbolical journey through the realm of
blessed spirits. Passing through the celestial syna-
gogue, he arrives at the temple of prayer, and thence
reaches the city of God, symbolizing the Scriptures,
and the ships of the soul, the Mishnahand Talnuid.
He i^asses in review the teachers of the Talmud, the
Geouim, and the later great luminaries of Hebrew
learning. To this last part Rieti appends numerous
historical and literary notes, which often have scien-
tific value.

Rieti endeavors iu this work to give a resume
of science and philosophy, of Judaism and all its
literary history; but, lacking sullicient jiower and
lofty inspiration, his production has little artistic
merit. He fre(iuently discusses dry and heavy
jioints of doctrine, or loses himself in useless pueril-
ity. He seldom rises to the truly artistic conception
of his design, or exj^resses it in a maimer which can
merit the term poetic. What he hicks in inspira-
tion however, is partly compensated by his en-
thusiasm and love for the subject which lie treats.
Tliis, together with the beauty and grace of liis dic-
tion and the flowing harmony of the hendecasyl-
labic verse in which it is written, combined with the
merit of having iiitiodueed Dante's terza-rima to
replace the long and tedious single rime of Hebrew-
Siianish poetry, secures to Rieti's work a permanent
l)()sitinn in Ilebicw literature.

"]Mik(lash Me'at" is incomplete; but it seems that
only a small jiart of it is missing. The work exists
in a large numlier of manuscripts, the first comi)lete
edition of wliich was that by Jacob Goldentlial of
Vienna (1851), printed at the expense of tlie Vienna

413

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rieti
Riga

Academy of Science. At first only a part was pub-
lished (purt ii., canto ii., "Me'on lia-Sho'alini."
\\iiicli lius been introduced into tlie liturgy). Of lliis
part the following Italian translations exist: (1) by
Eliczer Mazliah b. Abraham Coiien, Venice, c. 1585;
(0) by Deborah Ascarelli, tb. IGOl ; (3) by Samuel di
Castelnuovo, if). 1G09; (4 and 5) in Oxford MSS.
lyyHa and 2578, 10. There is also one Italian transla-
tion of the " Ulam " in the Munich MS. 5r)G.

Kieli was the author also of : " Iggeret Ya'ar Leba-
non," a reiigio-philo.sophical reflection, in the antique
form of the" melizah,"on the importance of the or-
namentation and furnishings of theTemjile. Tliis
work may liave been written prior to the"Mikdash
Jle'at"; indeed, if one excepts an elegy on the
death of his wife, it is safe to state that in the sec-
ond half of his life he abandoned poetry and de-
Aotcd himself entirely to philosophy and apologetics.
In these fields he jiroduced the following works: (1)
notes to the commeutar}' of Averroes (Ibn Koshd)
on the "Isagoge ad Logicam " by Porphyry, trans-
lated by Anatoli; (2) commentary on the "Apho-
risms" of Hippocrates; (3) marginal notes to the
conunentary of Moses Narboni on the " Kawwanot
ha Filusutim" of Al-Gluizali; (4) philos()i)]ncal and
])liysi(al aphorisms; (5) answers to questions per-
taining to logic; (6) a religio-philosophical work,
written in Italian with Hebrew characters, and par-
tially jireserved in a Jjcydeu manuscript (Scaliger
MS. 10, 1); of an apologetic tendency, it was perhaps
written after the controversy which Rieti had sus-
taiueil in Rome, and is in three parts: (1) popular
exposition of natural philosophy, according to Aris-
totle; (2) of God, and liow the human soul places
itself at His disposition; (3) history of the Jews
till tile writer's own time.

r.iRi.iociRAPHV : Berliner, (Jcsc?i.f7rr Ju/hn} in 7fom. ii. part i.,
I:.'! ; Carmolv, in (jricnt, 18-tl, p. -':>'): idnn. m.]osVii An iialoi,
i. "i.j. (>:! : Di'l Halzo, Pin-:<ic di MiUe A ulmi Intitrno a Dtiiitc,
iii. 4i:i 4-4 ; Dclitzsdi, Zur (i<:sv)i. dcr J!idifi'lit:>i i'ofM'c, pp.
;V), U-') ; Dukes, in Kobalc's J('.Nc//w)0(,ii. ')!•: (iedaliah ilni Yah-
va, Slialxlu:lct ha-Katihalali. p. 49a ; (ioUienthal, Die Nmer-
hrdilniicn Hdudt'clniftUcInn Hihriiisciicu irc?-frf, pp. 37-
-Ifi, Vienna, 1.S51 : idem. II Dante Ehreo, Vienna, 1S51 : (iriitz,
Gcticli. ~d ed., viii. 143 et sea.; Lasinio, in Etntria, lSn2, pp.
(•'> et seij.: Karpples, Get<eh. der JIhliseheii Liferatur, pp.
745 et .sci;.; Reggio, in Bihkure Jia-'Ittiw. ix. 14 : Stf iti.sctinci-
<ler, Jciri.vT) Literature, p. M9; idem, in BwnKtmtti, 1S70,
pp. 117 et seq.: idem, in VirctiowVs Arehiv, xl. 9.5 c? ,•■■(■</.: Vo-
Kelstein and Kieger. Geseti. der Juilen i)i Rom. ii. l"/i. Hi, (J8
( t >■(■(/.. 2(i4-2t)r) ; Ziiiiz, LiterattuvrseJi. pp. 5~4 ct seQ.; idem,
in (ifiger's Zeit.^eltrift, ii. 3:.'l et xeq.
s. U. C.

RIF. See Alf.vsi, Isaac bex Jacgij.

RIGA: Capital of the government of Livonia,
Russia; situated on the River Diina, about G miles
from its moutli.

Jews are first mentioned in the public dociunents
of Livonia of 15G0. In the negotiations between the
city and King Sigismund August of Poland in that
year it was stipulated that lie should jirovido his
sohliers with abundant supplies, with the under-
standing, however, tliat in the provisioning of the
troops "the malicious Jewish people " sliould be
entirely precluded from contracting (Hienemann,
"Hriefe und L'rkunden," iv. 123). In the negotia-
tions of the following year concerning the annexa-
tion of Riga to Poland the wish was expressed that
Jews should not be admitted into Livonia as into the
other lu-ovinees under the Polish ciown, "so that
they may not besmirch or injure tlie citizens with

their uncliristiun usury and business transactions,
and that they may not estublish customs duties ami
other i)urdens" (iO. v. 88). As u result of Uiis ex-
pressed wish, the treaty of annexation of Hov. 28,
15G1, contained a paragiaiih excluding Jews from
trading and from lensing customs duties in Livonia.
This treat}', however, did not specifically ]iroliiijit
Jews from residing in Riga, so tiiat tliey continued
to dwell there, as elsewhere in Livonia, in consider-
able numbers.

The annexation of Riga to Poland was accom-
plished in the year 1581 ; and there dale from this jie-
riod numerous complaints made by the Christian in-
habitants of Riga to the Polish crown concerning the
in juriouscommercial activity of the Jews. An entire
.series of enactments was passed in the reign of Sig-
ismund HI. (1587-1632), aiming at the exclusion of
the Jews, the Dutch, the Scotch, the English, etc.,
from the whole of Livonia. An act of 3Iay 31,
1593, states: "we also desire that our city of
Riga shall, as heretofore and also for all time to
come, be exempt from the sojourn or residence of
Jews." On the failure of this decree to produce the
desired results, further representations were made;
and finally, in 3Iay, 1596, the citj' of Riga secured
a royal decree wlierein all officials, chiefs, and rural
nobility were forbidden to trade with the Jews and
other foreigners. This decree also luoviug iuelTec-
tual, the town council of Riga found itself obliged to
send (Jan. 25, 1597) a special commissioner to War-
saw to make vigorous representations at court con-
cerning the subject. A further enactment of exclu-
sion followed, Jan. 7, 1598; but it likewise remained
ineffective, and a more stringent decree was issued
]\Iarch 26, 1599. The war and the troublous times
which now ensued distracted attention from the
Jews; but when conditions became soinewhat more
trancjuil the complaints against them weie renewed,
and it appears therefrom that during the war the
Jews had managed better than formerly to advance
their interests.

In the instructions of the city council of Riga to its
delegates at Warsaw (1611). the latter were told to
advocate the enactment of legislation aiming at the
exclusion of Jewish and Scotch pedlers from the
country districts. In 1612 the King of Poland is-
sued an order which actually led to the arrest of
some Jews and provoked the complaints of Prince
Radziwill. The latter in 1611 had reciuested the
city council of Riga to exempt the Jews of Birzhi
from the poll-tax imposed on every Jewish arrival
in Riga. The council replied, through its delegates
at Warsaw, that the collection of this tax was an
ancient practise. Notwithstanding various restrict-
ive ordinances, the Jews were permitted to remain
in the city, at least temporarily. The name of the
Jewish merchant AlTras Rachmaelovieh (.\|>hras-
chus Rachmailowicz) occurs in the municipal rec-
ords of 1595-97, where he is mentioned together with
other Jews in connection with the trade in potash
and other forest juoducts.

In the treaty wliich was made with Sweden in 1621,
Gustavus Adoliihus ronfirmeil the rights of the cit-
izens of Riga, inserting in tiiai ilocument the words
"and no Jews or strangers shall be allowed to
sojourn in the country to the detriment of the

Bi^a

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

414

burghers." During the Swedish period (1621-1710)
the intolerant attitude of tiie Protestant Church
held out no encouragement to Jewish settlers.

The Jewish physician and philosopher Joseph
Solomon Delmedigo of Crete, on his way to Lithu-
ania, where he was to become private physician to
Prince Radziwili, remained for some time in Livo-
nia, and wrote in 1623 to a learned friend in Troki
that he was " in a country cut oflf from Jewisii learn-
ing." Jews continued to sojourn in Livonia, de-
scending tlie DUna in barks and returning when their
commercial undertakings had been completed. The
records covering the period of Polish domination
were destroyed in tlie fire at Riga in 1674, and little
information is accessible concerning this jieriod. In
1645 twenty Jews were arrested on tiie charge of
having illegally bought furs directly from Musco-
vite merchants, but the accusation was proved to be
false, and they were released.

In order to control the movements of the Jewish

traders, the city council decided to establish for

the accommodation of Jews a separate inn, the first

mention of which occurs in 1645. In 1662Jurgen

8utter petitioned for the assignment

Jewish to him of a site for a Jewish inn, the
Inns. old one having been pulled down in
order to make room for the city walls.
In 1666 an ordinance was passed by the city of Riga
wherein Jews were prohibited to lodge anywhere
save at the Jewish inn ; and all Jewish traders were
required to submit to the city officials a list of their
merchandise. It was the duty of the innkeeper to
see that the Jews remained in the inn at night, and
to notify the burgomaster if any of them failed to
do so. The price of rooms was set at 10 marks per
week. The inn served also as a storage warehouse
for liquors brought to the city by Jewish and Russian
merchants; and excise payments were made there.
Tliis would seem to indicate that tiie Riga import
trade in liquors was largely in the hands of the
Jews. This regulation was undoubtedly a source
of much annoyance to the Jewish traders. In 1667
they petitioned for permission to lodge near the
cit}-, and to remain in it overnight in case of neces-
sity. The city council was apparently inclined to
make some concessions, as it offered to remove the
inn nearer to the cit^', and it even overlooked an
occasional sojourn overnight in Riga. The Jews,
however, still made complaints concerning the un-
satisfactory lodging, as well as concerning the iim-
keeper's liigh-hAnded treatment, e.g., in 1671 and
1678 against Jiirgen Greve. In 1685 the inn was
again removed, its site being needed for new fortifi-
cations. During tiie war in 1700 and 1701 the suburb
in which the Jewish inn had stood was destroyed in
the siege and the operations that marked the begin-
ning of a period of more tiian twenty years during
wiiich the Jews were not compelled to live in a
specifically Jewish inn.

In the preparation for the siege in 1709 the vice-
governor ordered that "Jews and other suspicious
people should Ite ad vised to leave in good time." In
the middle of September of that year the govern-
ment ordered that no Jew sliould be permitted to
enter the city, still less to stay there overnight. Ex-
ception was made in favor of David Isaakovich, who

was involved in an imjjortant lawsuit; yet even
he was not permitted to spend the night in the
city.

Notwithstanding the prohibitive decree of 1709 a
number of Jews besides David Isaakovich are met
with in Riga about this time. Thus on Sept. 12,
1710, Naphtali llirsch Israel made an application to
the city council for permission to reside in Riga
with his family, in order to collect his debts, and
also because of his inability to return to his birth-
place, Wilna, where he would be subject to perse-
cution b}' the local clergy on account of a law-
suit. The council permitted him to
Under dwell in the city for a considerable
Russian length of time; and in 1715 a patent
Rule. was granted to liim by Field-Marshal
Mensiiikov, in recognition of his serv-
ices asagent of the czar, conferring on him, together
with his family and dependents, the right of resi-
dence in Riga. In 1719 Naphtali llirsch Israel acted
as bondsman for a coreligionist, who was thus en-
abled to leave the prison for the holy days. This fact
indicates that theie was some sort of a religious or-
ganization among the Jews of Riga.

In 1722 the merchants of the great gild complained
that the Jews, who had recently increased in
number, were engaging in trade to the injury of the
citizens; and, in order to be rid of them, they pro-
posed that a special quarter should be assigned to
them in the suburbs. In 1723 the butchers' gild
complained of the competition of the Jews. These
complaints finally led the courts to decree the re-
establishment of the Jewisli inn. The site of the
former one had been utilized by the Russian govern-
ment for a shipyard; the privilege of establishing
a new inn was given to a noble named Schroder and
his heirs for a term of fifty years; and on Nov. 17,
1724, on the completion of the building, the city
council ordered all the Jews to take up their quar-
ters there within four weeks from that date. This
enactment involved arbitrary measures by the city
authorities; for instance, Ztmdel, son of the above-
mentioned Naphtali llirsch Israel, attenijUed to
evade the compidsory measure, basing his claims
on the special privileges which had been accorded
to his deceased father. The council did not, how-
ever, accept his i)lea. Owing to the machinations
of Schroder, even those Jews who remained in their
boats or rafts were made to pay a half-gulden Albert
to the "Jews' host" (ordinances of Nov. 19 and
Dec. 15, 1725).

Only a Hamburg Jew, Isaac ]Marcus Solomon,
was permitted to dwell outside the inn. This per-
mission was due to his position as jeweler to the
Duke of Ilolstein, son-in-law of the czar, and to the
fact that he was a favorite of the unperial vice-
chancellor Baron Ostermann. From the records of
a lawsuit with other jewelers of Riga, who wished
to expel him from the city, it appears that Solo-
mon's grandfather had established the business in
Riga; this shows that even under
Isaac Swedish rule Jews had possessed the
Solomon, right to engage in the jewelry trade.
Solomon succeeded in maintaining his
right to remain in Riga; and Ostermann is said to
have remarked that all the other jewelers of Rigf.

416

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Biffa

together did not pay in a yearas much customs duty
as did this Jew. In 1729 and 17:^1 the jewelers of
Riga made further attempts to have Solomon ex-
pelled, but without success.

The ukase of April 26, 1727, expelling the Jews
from tlie Ukraine and various Ru.ssian cities, rendered
more acute the position of the Riga Jews also. In
consctiuence of this decree the governor of Livo-
nia ordered all Jews residing in Riga, including
Isaac Marcus Solomon of Hamburg, Zundel Ilirsch
Israel of Wilna, and Solomon Samson of Holland, to
leave the city within a few days. The latter three,
however, through powerful inlluences, established
their right to remain in Riga. In Dec, 1728, there
were only nineteen Jewish families in the city.
The number was largely augmented in the months
of May and June by Jews who descended the Diiua
in boats and on rafts.

The position of the Jews of Riga became worse in
the reign of Empress Elizabeth and with the fall of
their protector Ostermann; and the rigorous meas-
ures directed against them ceased only with the ac-
cession to the throne of Catherine II. Extant docu-
ments prove, however, that the Jews were granted
a burial-plot in 1725, and that religious services
were lield in the Jewish inn. The legal status of
the Jews of Riga at the beginning of Elizabeth Is-
reign is defined in the following communication
made by the council of Riga to the magistracy of
KOnigsberg at the latter's request:

" Jewish families are not permitted to reside in Riga perma-
nently ; and there are no regular ' protected ' Jews ["Schutz-
juden"]. KxceptioQ is occasionally made in the case of those
in whose behalf intercession is made, e.g., in that of Marcus
Solomon, who. however, resides in the suburbs, and must make
arrangements accordingly with the Jews' host. All Jews com-
ing here for business must take up their abode in the ' Juden-
herberge,' and have not the right to reside within the city wall.
The Jews may sell their goods only to citizens of Riga, and must
also make their purchases from the latter. General trading is
permitted to them only during fairs. The right of sojourn in
Riga is limited according to conditions. In accordance with an
old custom all Jews entering Riga must pay the burgomaster
for safe-conduct " (see Leibzoll).

Curiously enough, after the ukase of Elizabeth
of Doc. 2, 1742, was promulgated, the city council
of Riga, in its session of Jan. 6, 1743, expressed the
fear that if thisdecree were rigidly enforced the com-
merce of Riga with Poland would be seriously in-
jured. It was therefore resolved to make represent-
ations in the matter to Lacy, the governor-general
(see Fkikdrichstadt).

It is amusing to note how, when their trade inter-
ests were imperiled, the Jew-baiters of Riga quickly
found it exfiedient to beg for the re-
Importance turnof the Jews. Special agents were
of Jewish sent to St. Petersburg with instruc-
Trade. tions to recommend that the Jews be
allowed to visit Riga with their boats,
since they had otherwise threatened to conduct their
export trade through other channels. In fact, they
had already established a new trade route by way
of Borisov to Memel and Konigsberg. The fear was
expressed that the entire timber trade would be under-
mined, and that the imperial customs would be very
seriously affected. The efforts of the Riga burgh-
ers, however, were not crowned with success. Their
representations elicited the famous reply ascribed to

Elizabetli : " I desire no material gain from the ene-
mies of Christ."

On .March 30, 1748, eighteen Jews were expelled
from Dorpat, Livonia. Nevertheless, Isaac Marcus
Solomon is met with in Ri^u in 1744. wiicn the gov-
ernor-general granted him permi.ssion to remain in
the city for a further period of eight days. When,
in Feb., 1744, the children and servant of tiie Jew
David were expelled from the town, tlie only Jew
left in Riga was Mo.se8 Meyer, who was allowed to
remain because of his connection with a case before
the Senate. For the fr)llowing twenty years there is
no record of Jews in the city.

In 17C4 Alderman Schick was .'^ent to St. Peters-
burg to apply for the abrogation of the decree pro-
hibiting Jews from residing in Riga. He stated in
his application that the trade f>f Riga with Poland
had declined year by year, while that of the ports
of Courland, Windau, and Lihau and of the Prussian
ports of Memel and Konigsberg had increased very
considerably. He therefore asked that Jews be al-
lowed to visit Riga for trading purposes, since there
was no danger of their securing permanent residence
there owing to the rights granted to

Right of the city in 1593, 1597. and 1621. After
Residence an interval of twenty-four years, with

Granted the secesston to the Itrroue of Cath-
1764. erine II., who favored the importa-
tion of colonists, especially to South
Russia, Jewish merchants were again permitted to
live in Riga (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 625b, «.r. Catheu-
INR II.).

The privilege of erecting another inn for Jews
was awarded by the city council (Dec. 15. 1764) to
one Bencken, a Christian citizen; and an order was
issued to the inhabitants (Jan. 14, 1765) forbidding
them to allow Jews to lodge in their houses. The
complaints of the Jews concerning this restriction
were of no avail. Exception was made by Gov-
ernor-General Browne only in favor of the privileged
Jews David Bamberger, Moses Aaron, and Levi
Wolf, whose respective households consisted of
thirteen, six, and seventeen persons. Another Jew
mentioned at this time was Benjamin Baelir. agent
of the Polish-Lithuanian and Courland Jews, in
whose behalf he petitioned the empress, complain-
ing of their maltreatment by the Riga authorities.
The petition was successful only to the extent that
the empress ordered the abolition of the safe-conduct
tax (June 3, 1765). Under the new imperial policy
Jews were now permitted to visit Riga and the rest
of Livonia for business purposes, and to remain for
a continuous iK-riod of six weeks, so that the Riga
authorities couKl no longer expel them at pleasure.
In tlie sununer of 1770, when the plague broke out
in Podolia. the Jews were summarily expelled from
Riga on three days' notice, and were not allowed to
return until the following year. Exceptions M'cre
again made, however, in the case of the privileged
New-Russian Jews.

It was not until 1780 that Governor-General Browne
addressed a commiuiication to the oftice of the gov-
ernor general of New Russia incpiiring wlielher llic
New-Russian Jews Levi Wolf, David liamberger.
Moses Aaron. Zundel Hirsh, Aaron Noah. Aaron
Hirsh. Levin Moses, and Jacob Gabriel were wanted

Rig-a

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

416

there, and whether the}' should be seut thither, as
they were witiiout purpose in liiga, and did not
pay any crown taxes." The reply, dateil Aug., 1780,
stated that as they diil not belong to the merchant
gild of New Russia, they were not wauteil there.
Thereupon the govern(U-general sent to the city
council a list of forty-three Jews who were to be
deported across the frontier within fourteen days.
As regards the other privileged Jews, whose names
did not appear on the list, he made representations
in their behalf to the Senate. The privileged Jews
must have remained in Riga ; for there is a record of
a quarrel at that time between David Levi Bam-
berger and Aaron Ilirsh concerning their relation to
the Jewish community and the synagogue.

In Oct., 1788, another quarrel broke out concern-
ing the appointment of syuagogal officers. The
representiitives of the privileged community of the
protected Jews were at that time Samuel Salomon
and Jacob Wolff. The New -Russian and I'olish
Jews doing business in Riga applied to the governor-
general for the removal of these representatives be-
cause of their alleged inexperience in religious prac-
tise. The complaints against them were that they
opened the synagogue too late in the

Internal day; that the}- had monopolized the
Dis- suitply of "etrogim" (paradise-ap-

sensions. pies) ; that they did not permit singers
from other cities to sing in the syna-
gogue; that the person charged with watching over
kasher matters drank non-kashcr wine; and tliat
those charged with the maintenance of order came
drunk to the synagogue, etc. The court decided
(Oct. 31, 1783) that the two parties sliould choose
one president for the entire community. The jew-
eler Salomon Pasakh, a privileged Jew, was ac-
cordingly elected on Nov. 20, and his election
was contirmed by the district court. He, with the
aid of two learned Jews, was given the right to ad-
judge all minor matters, more serious affairs being
referred to the district court. The disputes between
the two parties did not, however, cease.

By a treaty concluded between Russia and Cour-
innd May 10, 1783, the district of Schlock, with
Dubbeln and Mayorenhoff, was annexed to Livonia.
Catherine II., by a idcase of Feb. 4, 178.J, converted
the villageof Sclilock into atown; aiul to encourage
commerce, permission was given to all free Russians
and foreigners, without distinction of race or religion,
to settle there and to register as burghers or mer-
chants. Although the Jews were not specifically
mentioned in this manifesto, it is known that Cath-
erine wished especially to find a jilace for the Jews
of Courland (see Russi.x). In consequence many
Jew3 settled in Schlock, which was near Riga, and
many of the protected Jews in Riga thus became
citizens of Schlock. All other Jews were ordered to
leave Riga within six months.

]}}• an ordinance of July 5, 1788, ami in accord
ance with a special imperial order, fifteen Jewish
families were allowed to reside in Riga. ^lost of
them were the descendants of the privileged Jews
who were living in Riga in 1701, Owing to the
abuse of the privilege allowing each family to em-
ploy one tutor, it was ordered that only one
teacher be retained for the entire commuuitv, and

that the others be expelled. Schlock Jews who had
establisJied themselves in Riga permanently were
ordered to remain in the city not more than eight
days at a time.

From a census made by the city council on April
2.'), 1811, it appears that the Jews in Riga at that
time were the following: 1 privileged Jew; 35
Schlock merchants ; 3*J4 Schlock burghers ; 123 Cour-
land Jews; 145 Lithuanian Jews; 13 foreigners ; 2G
of unknown origin; in all, 736. From that year
until 1827 there was a constant struggle on the part
of the Riga Jews, especially those from Schlock, to
secure more privileges for themselves, while the
city council on the other hand aimed to reduce their
number. When a committee of ministers, in response
to an application by the city council, considered the
question of the reduction, the decision was reached
on the opinion of Marcjuis Paulucci, then governor-
general of the city, that the old regulations were
suflicient for the purpose.

The ordinance of AjmiI 13, 1835, changed the
status of the Jews of Riga. Up to that time the
Jews residing in Riga and Schlock, like those of
Courland, were permitted to remain therewith their
families. The local administration, not being in
sympathy with the new regulations, deferred the
publication of them until Nov. 15, and was rebuked
for the delay ])y the Senate. An imperial ordinance
of Dec. 17, 1841, defined the status of Jews domiciled
in Riga as follows:

1. Jews who have praptioally secured permanent alwrie in

Ilisra are to be allowed to repister in that city
Ordinance and to reside tliere, without acquirinjr. how-
of 1841. ever, burgher rights or the right to possess
real property.

2. Henceforth Jews from other governments and from the
town of Schlock are prohibited from moving to Riga and resi-
ding there.

3. Jews remaining in Riga in accordance with this ordinance
are to wear the German dress.

4. The question of the rights of the Jews to engage in trade
is to be included in the general consideration of the commercial
life of Riga.

Under the provi-sions of this law 517 persons (256
males and 261 females) Avere transferivd from
Schlock to Riga. They included Ezekicl Berko-
witz, a merchant of the second gild, ami Natiian
Abraham Scheinessohn, Phoebus Ilyisch. and Elias
(Eduanl) Nachmann, tince merchants of the tliird
gild. The city council of Riga petitioned for the
withdrawal of the jnivilege of residing in the city
from ail except tiie fifteen familiesof pi'otected Jews
and their descendants. The Senate replied (Nov. 27,
1845) that the matter had been determined by the
law of Dec. 17, 1841 ; the right of permanent resi-
dence was to be granted to those Jews
Restricted wlio hatl lived in Riga since 1834.
Right of .Vccording to the census of Schlock
Permanent for 1834 there were in all 409 such
Residence. Jews. By the law of 1841 the rights
(I) to purchase real estate and (2) to
become burghers of Riga were, as shown above,
withheld fi'om the Jews. The former was granted
by adecisionof tlie imperial council of May 12, 1858;
the latter right is still denied them.

The tradition concerning the ancient discriminations
against the Jews made it difficult for the Christians
of Riga to leconcile themselves to the broader rights

417

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ritfa

granted to the former. In various ways the Jewish
arrivals continued to sutler from the almost liered-
itary prejudices; and tiiey owed much in regard to
the amelioration of their condition to Prince Alex-
ander ISuvorov, who was governor-general of Kigu
from 1848 until 1861. Notwithstanding the opposi-
tion of the burghers, the Jews with Suvorov's sup-
port succeeded, in 1850, in securing permission to
build a synagogue in the part of the city called
"Moscow"' sul)urbs. The oidinance prohil)iting
Jews from living within the city walls became in-
operative with the removal of the walls themselves
in 1858. In 1808 tiie Jewish conununity laid the

In 18G4 a Jewish school was establislieU by Wolf
ha-Kohen K.vim.an, who was instrumental in se-
(tiring better treulment for the I.ilhuaiiian Jews
residing in Riga. In 1K7:J A. Pumpyauski became
rai)bi of Higa; an<l in 1870 Adolph EiiHi.ini was
appointed luincipal of the Jewish school, remaining
in that ]iosition until 18!)G.

Higa, being situalt-d outside tlic Pale of Set lie-
ment, possesses special laws concerning its Jewish
inhabitants. Thus, according to the Russian code
of laws (Mysh, " Rukovodstvo," etc.. p. 2H:i). the
Jews of Higa may own real estate in the city, al-
tiiough they do not enjoy the right of citizenship.

SYXAGOGLK at lilGA, Ulssia.
(From a pholocraph.)

corner-stone of the new synagogue on Bahnholf-
strasse, and the l)uildingAvas dedicated in Aug., 1871.
Since 1875 the Jews of Higa have come under the
influences making for the Hussitication of the Baltic
jirovinces; and many of them have learned to speak
Hussian. Throughout the latter half of the nine-
teentli century they made liberal provisions with re-
gard to the education of tlieir children.
Lilienthal Hal)l)i ^lax Limknthai- came to the
at Rig-a. city in 1839 as principal of the newly
established Jewish school, which was
opened Jan. 15, 1840. On Lilienthal's removal to
St. Petersburg, his position as principal was taken
by Hubcn Wuiiderbar. In 1848 Alu-aham Nhcm.xnn
succeeded jjilienthal in the labbinate, olliciating for
more tiian twenty years, and contributing much to
the spread of culture among the Jews of the city.
X— 27

The older Jewish families of Higa. the so-called
privileged '•citizens of Schlock," who once were
active in conununal affairs, are now in the Iwick-

ground. The more intelligent ]>ortion

Special of the conununity is made up of ('nur-

Leg-islative land Jews, who began to .set lb- in Higa

Position, in great numbers in the.serontl half of

the ninete<'nth century. Tln-y have
been successful in conuncrcial undertakings. an<l.
like the German Jews, are well educated. Tliey ore
the leaders in the Jewish community. A third class
comprises the Lithuanian an<l Whitc-Hu.ssian set-
tlers, mostly merchants and artisans. The Wliite-
Hussian Jews are fur the most part Hasidim. and arc
prominent in the lumber and export tnules. They
live in accordance with their own Hasidic traditions.
and have (heir own synagogues.

Hig-a

Eight and Left

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

418

With the aboliiiou of the Kahal (1893) the con-
trol of the affairs of the comniuuity was transferred
to the city administration. The latter manages the
Jewish mbbinic schoolsand fiscal affairs, and only in
special cases are experts from among the Jews con-
sulted. Thus the Jewish community of Riga is
governed by a city council wliich has not a single
Jew among its aldermen. Among the charitable in-
stitutions may be mentioned the society for the
prevention of pauperism known as Friends of the
Poor; a burial society, free kitciieu, free library, etc.

Among the first Orthodox rabbis of the community

was Aaron ben Elhanan (r. 1840). He was succeeded

by his son-in-law Jacob Elias Rivlin. The present

incumbent is Moses Shapiro, son-in-law of Isaac of

Slonim. Besides Lilienthal, the rabbis

Rabbis and and preachers who were recognized

Prominent by the government have been Abra-

Men. ham Neumann (1843-63), Reichman

(1869-73), A. Pumpyanski (1873-93),

S. Pucher (1893-98), and the present incumbent. Dr.

Michelsohn. Teachers: Max Lilienthal (1839-41), R.

Wunderbar (1841-50), Lipmau Hiirwitz (1843-48),

Wolf Kaplan (1852-88), A. Luria (1884-89), H.

Mendelsohn (1836-63 and 187G-y2), Adolph Ehrlich

(1876-96). Wheu l^aul I. established in Riga the

censorship of Hebrew books (1799) J. L. Elkan was

appointed the first censor. He was followed in

the office by Moses Hezekiel and E. D. Lewy.

Among the prominent members of the kahal of
Riga may be mentioned : N. H. Scheinessohn (1837) ;
Benjamin Nachman (1837); M. H. Tietzner; P. M.
Berkosvitz: S. B. Bloch(186o); P. Keilman (b. 1829;
graduated from the University of Dorpat iu 1854
and served in the militiiry hospitals during the
Crimean war, and from 1861 to 1881 as factory phy-
sician ; received from the government the title of
councilor of state, and was appointed adviser on
Jewish affairs by the governor-general of Riga;
died 1903); Moses Hir.sh Brainin (1823-64; was made
an honorary citizen of Riga; died in St. Petersburg
1870); his grandson S. Bkainin (1889-93); and Da-
vid Stern (1892).

Prominent as bankers or merchants have been
Robert Hirschfeld (1842), Dr. Nachman, Phoebus II-
yisch, Joseph Mayer, I. Eliasberg. M. Kalmeyer,
Itzig Birkhahn, Leon Schalit, David Schwartzbort,
Wolf Luntz, and Loeb LipschiUz. Among men of
letters are found Robert Ilyisch, for many years
feuilletonist of the "St. Petersburger Herold " ; L.
Bkunsta.m.m, the sculptor; S. Freidus, of the New
York Public Librarj' ; the physician Jacob Brainin,
a graduate of the University of Kharkof who has
practised in Riga since 1894; Sosnitz, who lived there
from 1857 to 1885; and the Hebrew writer Tavyev,
from 1894 to 1905, now residing at Wilna.

A branch of the Society for the Promotion of Cul-
ture Among the Jews of Russia was established in
Riga in 1900. In the society's report for 1903 it is
stated that the amount spent in Riga in that year
ff)r educational purposes was 66,000 rubles. Part of
this sum was divided among the Jewish elementary
school for boys, the night-school for artisans, the
model hadarim, and the Sabbath reading-school for
artisans. Other portions of the fund were employed
to aid Jewish students at high and professional

schools, and in support of the Jewish agricultural
colony near Riga.

The following table gives the vital statistics of
the Jewish community of Riga for 1882 and from
1892 to 1903 inclusive:

Births.

Mar-
riages.

Deaths.

Jews.

Total.

Jews.

Total.

Year.

■3

is
•->

■5

a)
F.

■3

1.58

18*<2...

498

381

3,283

2,995

142

1,429

203

2.676

2.313

1892...

3a5

306

3,054

2,661

114

1,471

181

153

2..523

2.187

189:3...

323

292

3.104

2,957

1.672

175

128

2.829

2..511

1894...

288

265

3,066

2,981

1.837

140

128

2.334

2.136

189'>...

276

287

3,289

3.192

114

2,144

164

126

2.710

2..5(«3

1896...

296

256

3,798

3,714

114

2.280

200

1.52

3.4.59

3.074

1897...

:!62

290

4,;«i5

4.043

174

2..588

181

131

3.404

2,964

1898...

345

310

4,736

4,379

165

2.803

162

121

3.226

2,654

1899...

;393

309

5,077

4.707

192

3,109

183

132

3.882

3.248

19U<)...

367

314

5,215

4.924

195

3.112

168

142

3,972

3.284

19(11...

374

5,399

5.000

180

3,134

172

173

3.953

3.613

19()2...

:37.')

372

.5,368

5,060

193

3.116

168

142

3.497

2.951

1903...

365

352

5,104

5,024

161

3,044

175

125

3,659

3.2.56

In 1897 the Jews of Riga numbered about 30,700
in a total population of about 256,197.

Bibliography: Buchholtz. Gench. der Juden in Riga. Riga,
1899; yiysh, Rukovndstvo K Rtisskim Zakonam o Yevre-
lyrtfc/i. St. Petersburg. 1898: Wunderbar. Gesch. der Juden
in Liv-, Est-, und Kurland, Mitau. 18.53; ro.sA/iod, 1885,
passim ; Chteniva v Ohschestcue IMorii i Drevnostei Roxxi-
ttkikh. 1866. i. i:}:i; Adolph Ehrlich. Enttvickelunasgcxchicfde
der Israelitischen Gemeiudegchule zu Riya, St. Petersburg,
1894.
n. n. J. G. L.

RIGHT OF EMINENT DOMAIN : The in-
herent power of the sovereign or state to take pri-
vate property, generally laud, for public use, espe-
cially for a highway, with or without compensation.
The Mishnah says of the king in mentioning his pow -
ers: " He leads the army in a voluntary war decreed
by the Court of Seventy-one, and strikes out to make
a highway for himself; and they do not hinder him ;
and the king's highway has no limit; and all the
people take booty," etc. (Sanh. ii. 3). The refer-
ence in these last words to the incidents of war
shows that only military roads were meant, not roads
leading to the king's palace or garden. Maimon-
ides (" Yad," Melakim, v. 3) adds after "no limit"
the words "but according to what is needful, and
he does not alter the direction of his lines to avoid
this man's field, or that man's vineyard, but goes
straight ahead."

As siiown under Rkuit ok Way, a baraita fixes
the width of highways between city and city, etc.,
as varying from eight to thirty-two cubits. The im-
plication is that to obtain these; highways the pub-
lic has a right to condemn for the purpose strips of
privately owned land. But the mode of procedure
is not indicated in the Talnuid; and later authori-
ties, of course, do not discuss it, as the laying out
of roads had then passed beyond the power and ju-
ris<lietion of the Jews.

It is not likely that the custom of allowing the
state or a city community to condemn land for any
other purpose than that of a highway ever prevailed
in Israel — e.ff., for public buildings, for King David
set the precedent against such an action when he

419

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

-Riga.

Biffht and Left

bouglit by private airangemont tlie tlimsliinp-floor
of Aravuali the Jebusite as a building plot for the
Tabernacle; or for the palace or pleasure-grounds
of the king, for Elijah's stern rebuke against King
Ahab for tlie hitter's method of accjuiring Naboth's
vineyard stood out too strongly in men's memory
as the highest testimony to the saerodness of private
property in land. In short, the right of eminent do-
main was verj' closely limited.

E. r. L. N. D.

RIGHT AND LEFT.— Biblical Data: The
right side of things is recognized in many ways as
better than the left. The soutii and north sides of
the earth are distinguished as "yamin" (right) and
"sem'ol" (left; Job xxiii. 9), the right being the
sunnier, brighter side, and the left the bleak and
dark side, ill-omened and unlucky, where evil gen-
erates. "Out of the north an evil shall -Ijreak forth
upon all the inhabitants of the land " (Jer. i. 14).
The right side, or right limb, of a person receives
special prominence; the place of honor is at his
right. " Upon thy right hand did stand the queen "
(Ps. xlv. 9). Solomon placed a seat of honor for his
mother, the queen, on his right side (1 Kings ii. 19).
The right eye was the most important and most vital
member of the body. Nahash the Ammonite, as a
reproach upon all Israel, purposed putting out
the right eye of all men in Jabesh-gilead (I Sam.
xi. 2). The prophet predicted, "Wo to the idol
shepherd that leaveth the Hock! . . . his right eye
shall be utterly darkened " (Zech. xi. 17). The priest
in purifying the leper put some of the blood of the
sacritice on the tip of his right ear, the tluuub of his
right hand, and the great toe of his right foot;
he also used ins right finger to sprinkle the oil
before the altar (Lev. xiv. 14, 16), and received as
his share of the peace-offering the right shoulder
(Lev. vii. 32).

Jacob showed tlie signiticance of using the right

hand in blessing by placing it on the head of Ephra-

im, whose tribe was thereby destined

In Jacob's to become the greater nation, though

Blessing. Manasseh was older in years (Gen.
xlviii. 17-19). "Right " is a synonym
for "goodness" and "brightness," and "left" for
" badness, " " awkwardness, " and " clumsiness. " " A
wise man's heart is at his right hand; but a fool's
heart at his left" (Eccl. x. 2). The right hand is
associated with the idea of majesty: "Thy riglit
hand, O Lord, is become glorious in power" (Ex.
XV. 6). Numerous other Biblical passages may be
cited in illustration of this idea. The right hand
was raised when an oath was administered or taken
(Isa. Ixii. 8), and sometimes both right and left hands
(Dan. xii. 7). The signet was worn on the right hand
(Jer. xxii. 24). Ezekiel, to expiate the sins of
Israel, lay on his left side 390 days, and at the expi-
ration of that term he lay fortj' days on his right side
in penance for the sins of Judah ; each day repre-
senting one year of their wickedness (Ezek. iv. 4-6).
Rashi explains that Israel, or the Ten Tribes, were
situated to the left of Judah, their capital city being
Samaria: "Thine elder sister is Samaria, she and
her daughters that dwell at thy left hand " (Ezek.
xvi. 46).

The warrior held the bow in his left hand and the

arrows in his right (Ezek. xxxix. 3). Ehud, the
Benjamite judge, used his left hand to thrust the dag-
ger into the body of Eglon, King of Moab, tlierel)y
avoiding suspicion and rendering parrying dilli-
cult (Judges iii. 10-21). Tiie Henjaniites were ail
excellent marksmen — "left-handed; every one could
sling stones at an hair's breadth and not miss." The
name "Ben Yamin " (= "son of the right hand ") is
probably a euphemism. Targum Jonathan, how-
ever, translates "it^er yad ycniin " (left-handed) as
"open-handed," that is, ambidextrous, as it is evi-
dent that the Benjamites were armed with bows
and could use both the right hand and the left liand
in shooting arrows from a bow (I Chron. xii. 2).
Cant. ii. 6 refers to the lover: "His left hand is
under my head, and his right hand doth embrace
me."

" Yad " means the right hand and " zeroa' " the left
hand when both terms occur in the saiue sentence
in the Bible (Naz. 3b, and see Rashi ad loc).

In Rabbinical Literature : In performing

the Temple ceiemonies the general rule is that
" every turn must be made to the right of the way "
(Yomal5b). One of the priestly disqualifications is
left-haudedness (Maimonides, "Yad," Bi'at lia-Mik-
dash, ix. 5). The officiating priest who is required
to take a liandful of flour in connection with the
meal-ofl'ering or frankincense does it with his right
hand (Zeb. i. 2). The table was put on the north
.side of the Tabernacle, or the Temple, and the can-
dlestick on the south side, opposite the table, the
table being thus to the right and the menorah to
the left of the Shekiuah, which rested on the west
side; just as people usually place the lamp at the
left to give free play to the riglit hand (Cant. R. ii.
17, with reference to Ex. xxvi. 35).

Haliz.\ii is performed with the right hand on the
right foot (Yeb. xii. 2), while some authorities in
the case of a left-footed person require a separate
halizah for the left foot (Shulhan 'Aruk, Eben
ha-'Ezer, 169, 25). The test of left-
In Ceremo- footedness is made by commanding
nial. the person to walk straight ahead
and noting which foot lie starts with
("Ginnat Weradim," responsum No. 9). The phy-
lactery is placed on the left arm so that the riglit
hand may wind the leather straps ("rezu'ah "). R.
Ashi says that in Ex. xiii. 16, the word "yadekah"
(thy hand), witli the superfluous "he," means "yad
kehah" (the weak [i.e., left] hand; Men. 37a). Ac-
cording to the cabalists, the reason for placing the
phylacteries on the left arm is that it is nearer to the
heart, which is bound to the service of God. A
person Avho is left-handed may wear the phylactery
on his right arm; but if ambidextrous, he must
place it on the left {ib.).

The LuLAB is held in the right hand and the
Etrog in the left. A curious error appears to have
been made regarding the supposed reference in the
Midrash to the custom of holding the lulab in the
right hand. Citing Ps. xvi. 11, "At thy right hand
there are pleasures forevermore " ("nezah " = "tri-
umph," "victory"), R. Abbahu explains that the
lulab is referred to (Yalk.. Ps. 670; comp. Ex. R.
xviii. 5; Kohut, "Aruch Complctum." i. 242. ii. 57).
Nevertheless the custom might be explained by sup-

Right and Left

Eight and Righteousness

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

420

posing that the luhib is lield in the right hand be-
cause it is more important than the etrog.

Commenting on the passage "I saw the Lord
sitting on his tljrone. and all the host of heaven
standing bv him on his riirlil hand and on his left "
(I Kings xxii. 19). the Midrash asks, "Is there a
right and left above? " and answers, " But there were
defenders on the right and accusers on the left"
(Tan., Ex. xvii.).

The angel Michael, on the riglit, is more in favor
of Israel than Gabriel, who is on the left. Samael
(from "sem'ol'" = "left") is ou the left, outsiile. as
the antagonist of Israel (see Kohut,
In Angel- " I'eljerdie Jlulische Angelologie," pp.
ology. 30,57). The "yezer-tob" (angel whose
intluence is toward the good) is on the
right side, and the "yezer ha-ra' " (angel whose in-
fluence is toward wickedness) is on the left of every
person.

Etiquette commands that the most prominent
person sit or walk in the center, tiie next in rank at
his right hand, and the third in rank on the left
("Er. 54b). The bride is placed on the rigiit side of
the groom, under the canopy. In the lavatory the
left hand is used to keep the right free from un-
clcanness (Ber. 49a).

In tiiC Cabala right and loft fill important sym-
bolic roles, as the "sitra (!i-yemina " (right side) and
"sitra di-sem'ala "(left side). According to the Zo-
har, Eve represented the left side of Adam and
she was bound up in the flame of the Law (see Firk).
TlieTorah istherigiiland the oral law the left(Zohar,
Bercshit, p. 48b). Tiiis world is the right, and the
world to come the left. It is curious that in Cabala
the left side represents a higher and more developed
state. It is said that Alexander the Great found a
country where all the inhabitants were left-handed,
and that they endeavored to convince him that
greater honor is due to the left hand because it is
nearer the heart ; hence in greeting they shook hands
with the left hand (" Erke ha-Kinnuyim," s. v. ^a^'^*).

Isaac Baer Levinsohn translated into classical He-
brew Benjamin Franklin's " A Petition from the Left
Hand," complaining of discrimination on the part
of the teachers and claiming equal rights with his
sister, the right hand ("Shorashe Lebanon," pp.
257-258, Wilna. 1841).

J. J. D. E.

RIGHT AND RIGHTEOUSNESS : Pender-
ings given in the English versions of the Hebrew
root "zadak " and itsderivatives" zadiiik," "zedek."
"zedakah." The use of "righteous" as a transla-
tion for "yashar" ( = " upright") is less frequent.
"Just." "justice," "justify" also occur as equiva-
lents for the.se Hebrew terms.

The original implications of the root "zadak" are
involved in doubt. To l)e "hard," "even," and
"straight" (said of roads, for instance) has been
suggested as the primitive physical idea. More ac-
ceptable is the explanation that the

Original root-notion conveyed is that a thing,

Significa- man, or even God, is wliat it, or he,

tion. should be, that is, "normal," "fit."

That conception may, without mudi

difficulty, be recovered from some of the applications

of the terms in the Bible. Weislitsand measures

are called " zedek " ("just " or " right " ; Deut. xxv.
15; Lev. xix. 36; Job xx.xi. 6; Ezck. xlv. 10).
Paths are "zedek." that is, as they should be, easy
to travel (Ps. x.xiii. 3). So with offerings, when
brought in the proper manner and at the ri^'ht time
(Deut. xxxiii. 19; Ps. iv. 6 [A. V. 5]. li. 21 [A. V.
19]). When a king or juilge is as he sliouUl be he
is "just" (Lev, xix. 15; Deut. i. 16; Prov. xxxi. 9).
When speech is as it should be it i-; "truthful"
(comp. Ps. Hi.). The outcome of the battle being
favorable, it is called "zedakah" (=" victory ";
Judges v. 11). To justify oneself, or another, is
also expressed by the root, as it really means to
prove oneself, or another, to be innocent of a charge,
or in the right (that is, as one should be; Job ix. 15,
20; xi. 2; xiii. 18; Isa. xliii. 9; Ps. cxliii. 2). In
many of the passages in which the root has this
physical implication an ethical element niay be dis-
covered. " Right " weights may be also " righteous "
weights. The battle may be looked upon as a sort
of divine ordeal, and hence the issue may be said to
be " righteous " (= " zedakah " ; see Schwally. " Der
Heilige Ivrieg im Alten Israel," p. 8). In the Song
of Deborah — one of the oldest literary compositions
— this implication is not absent from the word, em-
ployed in tlie jjlural in connection with Yhwh
(Judges v. 11). So in its earliest use, among He-
brews, the term "righteousness" seems to have had
a moral intention.

In the collection of legal decisions (" mishpatim ")
constituting the Book of the Covenant, "zaddik"
appears as a juridical, technical term (= "the jiarty
[to a suit] that is in the right"; Ex. xxiii. 7). It is
noteworthy that the feminine of "zaddik" is not
found, the verb being used to express the idea in the
case of the woman being in the right (Gen. xxxviii.
261; the "hif'il" is used to declareone "not guilty,"
or as having substantiated his claim (Ex. xxiii. 7;
II Sam. XV. 4). The man wiio makes such a right-
ful plea is "zaddik" (Isa. v. 23; Prov. xvii. 15; et
al.). In this use, too, a clear ethical note may be
detected. To declare him "right" who is in the
right is certainly a moral act; the judge who decides
in favor of the right is righteous. Even the relig-
ious element underlies this use. God is the judge.
To have a suit is to seek out ("darash") Yiiwii
{i.e., to inquire of Ynwii). The judgment is an
ordeal. The winner of the suit, the man found in-
nocent, is by the verdict proved to be righteous in
the sight of Yiiwu.

But it is in the early prophecies that the ethical

aspect of righteousness is forcibly- accentuated.

Used by Amos in the forensic sense, " righteousness "

and "justice" are urged as higher and

Use by the nobler and more pleasing in the sight

Prophets, of Yiiwii than ritual religiousness (ii.

6; V. 12,23). "Social rightCMHisness"

alone will save Israel. The fate of the personally

guilty and the personally innocent alike is involved

in tiiat of th(^ whole ])e()ple. This social rightef)us-

iiess, then, may be said tn be in the eyes of this

jHophet a religious service.

Hosea marks another step in the evolution of the
concept fif righteousness. Hi- would have right-
eousness potentialized by "hesed " (love, or mercy).
Social justice as a matter mereh' of outward con

421

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Right and Left

Big^bt and Riffbteousness

duct, and manifest only in i)iil)lic; ad juslnicnts of
institutions and conditions, ■will not bring about the
rejuveuescence of the nation. Inner repentance,
spiritual consideration of one's neii^dibor and brother,
yielding love, not mechanical justice alone, are tlie
components of righteousness (vi. 1-4, x. 12).

Isuiali i)roceeds along the lines indicated by his
predecessors. "Justice, "or " righteousness," is solic-
itude for the weak and helpless (i. IQetseg., 27; x.
2). This righteousness is true religion; Israel is
expected to be devoted to it. The moral order of
the world is founded in sucii righteousness, which
metes out strict justice (v. 7, xxviii. 17, xxix. 13).
This justice, iniieicnt in God's supreme jirovidence,
will bring about the salvation of the Remnant of
IsKAKL (vii. 9^. Isaiah looks forwanl to the coming
of a time when Jerusalem, no longer enslaved to
mere ritual piety while steeped in injustice, will be
called "the fortress of righteousness " (i. 26, Hebr.).
Jeremiah's tuiderstandingof righteousnessis virtu-
ally the same as Isaiah's (see Jer. xxii. 3, which seems
to embody liis ideas of what it embraces, though
the term is not used). He looks forward to the re-
establishing of the Davidic kingdom under "a right-
eous branch," a ruler who will do justice and who
will deserve the name " Ynwii our Righteousness"
(\.\iii. 5 ct seq., Hebr.). Jeremiah's faith in the
righteous character of God's government was sorely
put to the test both by his own personal exi)erience
and by the conditions prevailing in his own day.
Yet he acknowledges that Yiiwii is in the right
("zaddik"), though he can not forego asking why
the wicked prosper (xii. 1). Ynwii is a "righteous
judge," jirobing the motives of liuman conduct
(xi. 20). In Dent. xvi. 20 the pursuit of righteous-
ness is solemnly inculcatcii. "Right-

" Right- eous"in these prophetic passages is

ecus" s3'nonymous with "moral." He de-

Syn- serves the designation who not only

onynious refrains from wrong-doing but is
with strenuous in his efforts to establish

"Moral." right. To suffer wrong to be done to
another is almost equivalent to doing
it. Hence the righteous endeavor to see that the
weak, the poor, the orphaned, and the widowed
.secure their rights. The conception that the right-
eousness of God also involves positive activity in be-
half of right, i.ot mere abstinence from wrong-doing,
is accentuated. The moral law is so administered
that justice will be done.

In the lives of the "righteous" -whose names and
characters both have been preserved in the national
history these qualities were dominant. Noah was " a
righteous" man in his generation. He was spared
while tlu! wicked jjcrished (Gen. vi. 9, vii. 1). If
tlieie had been righteous ones in Sodom they would
not have siiared the fate of the city. Abraham was
warned of the im])('niling catastrophe because it was
ct'rtain that he would teach his descendants " to do
judgment and righteousness "(Gen. xviii. 19, 23-25).
Abraham's trust in Yiiwii is reckoned unto him "for
righteousness" ((}en. \v. 6; a statement which, how-
ever ol)scure, certaiidy does not bear out the con-
struction put on it by Christian theologians, from St.
Paul to the present, as little as does Hab. ii. 4 — "the
righteous shall live by his faith" [Hebr.]).

In llabakkuk "the rigliteous" has tiikcu ou an
entirely new meaning. It stands for Israel as repre-
sented by the "pious." tiie "meek." the "poor," the
"remnant." Israel will not be disturbed by the
seeming fal.sification of its trust and confidence in-
volved in the actual conditions of tlieday. For the
moment Biibyloii, the "unrighteous," may be victo-
rious; but ultinuitely the righteousness of God's
government will be manifest in the victory of the
"righteous." This application of "righteous" is
common in exilic and post-exilic writiiig.s (coujp.
Isa. XX vi. 10). In (Deutern) Isa. xlii. 6 the ".servant
of Ynwn " (Hel)r.) is this righteous one; indeed, the
"righteousness" of God is manifested in the advent
of Cyrus (Isa. xliv. 28). God supports Ills mes.scn-
gers " with the right hand " of His " righteousness "
(Isa. xli. 10)— that is, He will insure their triumph.
This "righteousness," which is llie victorious pur-
pose of God's providence, is not conditioned or ex-
pressed by ritual practises. The contrary is the
case. The people who believe that they have done
right (Isa. Iviii. 2) are toKl that fasting is inopera-
tive, that justice and love are the contents of right-
eousness. Righteousness in this sense is the recur-
ring refrain of the second Isaiah's preaching. The
remnant of Isiael, having suffered, has been puritied
and purged of its sins. Its triunii)h, therefore, will
establish God's righteousness, for the triumph of the
wicked {i.e., Babylon) is unthinkable in view of the
moral order of things (Isa. xlvii. (i, li. 1-7, lii. 3-5).
With the Exile the individualization of right-
eousness begins to be recognizable in
Individu- Hebrew thought. The accounUibility
alization of man for his conduct is phrased most
of Rig-ht- strongly by writersof this period (Jer.
eousness xxxi. 29-30; Ezek. xviii. 2-4). In
After Ezekiel, a few instances excepted (xvi.
the Exile. 52, xxiii. 45, xlv. 9-10), "righteous"
and " righteousness " express the relig-
ious relation of individuals to God (xiii. 22, xiv. 14,
xviii. 5 et seq.). The plural of "zedakah" (if the
text is correct) connotes good deeds proceeding from
one's religious character (iii. 20, xviii. 24, xxxiii. 13).
The content of this righteousness is prepondemtingly
ethical, not ritual. The Book of Job approaches the
problem of God's righteousness from a new point of
view. The suffering of the righteous is its theme
as it is that of other Biblical passages (Mai. iii. bV
18; Ps. xxxvii., xxxix., xlix., l.wiii.). That sin
and suffering are corresponding terms of one equa-
tion is the thesis defended by Job's fricniJs; but
Job will not accept it; conscious of his rectitude,
he rebels againstMt. He challenges the Almighty to
meet him in a regidar judicial proceeding. The
l)ook states the problem, but furnishes no answer
(see Job, Book ok; OrriMisM and Pkssimism). It
must, liowevcr, be noted that the terms for right-
eousness .are often used in the Book of Jol) in a
technical, juridical .sen.se. namely, for " being riglit "
(in reference to a pleadei). In the other Wisdom
books (Proverbs and Ecclesiastes) the " rigliteous."
contrasted with the "wicked," arc ethically normn!
individuals. Righteousnes-s is the supreme moral
category. On the whole, tiio conU-ntion of these
books is that the righteous are sure to reap rownnis
while the wicked are as certain to be punished.

TLight and Bi^hteousness

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

422

tliougli Ecclesiastes is not consistent in the exposi-
tion of the doctrine of retribution.

In the Book of Psalms "the righteous" more fre-
quently represents a party than individuals — "the
meek," "the lowly"; that is, the faithful who, in
spite of persecution, cling to God's law. In the
Maccabean age these became the "Assidaioi" (the
Hasidim). Their triumphs are sung and their vir-
tues and faith are extolled. Their righteousness is
both social and personal (comp. Ps. vii.. xviii., xxv.,
xxxii., xxxiii., xxxvii., xli., Ixiv., xcvii., cvi., cix. ;
see Godliness).

But as the Pharisaic synagogue grew in influence,
and legalism struck deeper roots, the righteous came
to be identified not with the ideal citizen of Zion pic-
tured in Ps. XV., but with him whose "delight is in
the law," described in the prologue to the book — Ps.
i. The Law and its observance became an integral
part of Jewish righteousness, though by no means
to the degree and in the soulless manner assumed
by non-Jewish writers, who delight to describe how
ritualism and literalism first outweighed mere moral
considerations and then ignored them altogether.
See NcMiSM.

In the Apocrypha righteousness is ascribed to God
as a quality of Ilis judgments and as manifesting
itself in the course of human history (II Mace. i..
24-25). As the Righteous Judge He grants victor}'
to the faithful and courageous, whose faith in God's
righteousness, in fact, inspires their courage (II
Mace. viii. 13). God, as the Righteous
In the Judge, metes out condign punishment

Apocry- to evil-doers (Azariah's prayer, add.
pha. to Dan. i.). As evidences of human
righteousness the virtues of loyalty to
truth and one's oath are adduced (I Mace. vii. 18).
The Patriarchs, as sinless, are held to have been per-
fectly righteous (see Prayer of Manasses). Idolatry
and righteousness are represented as incompatible
(Ep. Jer. verse 72). In the Wisdom of Solomon (ii.)
the skeptics are unmasked as the " unrighteous " ; and
unrighteousness leads to death (i. 16), while right-
eousness leads to life. In Ecclus. (Sirach) xxxi. 8 the
rich man who has resisted the temptations which
beset the getting of wealth is characterized as right-
eous. It is plain that the man whom Sirach regards
as deserving to be called "riglitcous" is one whose
moralitj' is above reproach, whatever may be his
loyalty to ritual observances (see rt. vi., vii.); and
as for the self-righteousness which is imputed to
Judaism it is sufficient to refer to vii. 5 of the same
book, where the Hebrew text preserves the tech-
nical word "hiztaddek" (to brazenly proclaim one-
self as a righteous man).

In the Psalms of Solomon righteousness designates
fidelity to the Law (xiv. 2). But this Law demands
obedience to the fundamental principles of morality
as strenuously as compliance with ritual precepts.
The Sadducees are inveighed against as unrighteous.
From the vehemence of tiie denunciations the con-
clusion has been drawn that in the minds of the
Pharisaic authors laxity in ritual piety constituted
the essence of wickedness; but the Sadducees' anti-
national concessions to Rome were much more pro-
vocative than their indifference to the ritual. More-
over, it must be remembered that the P.salms of

Solomon, like the Gospels, are partizan pamphlets,
in which the shortcomings of opponents are exag-
gerated. Righteousness as interpreted by the Phari-
saic synagogue embraced moral considerations as
well as ritualistic.

This appears also from the rabbinical sources.

Rabbinical theology is never systematic. This must

be kept in mind, as well as the fact

Rabbinical that many of the rabbinical conclu-

View. sions are mere homiletic applications

of texts, illustrating the exegetical

dexterity of their authors rather than a fixed dogma

of the Synagogue. This is true of the rabbinical

observation that alany given period never less than

thirty righteous are found in the world, for whose

sake the world escapes destruction (Tan., Wayera,

13, where tiiis conclusion is derived from the gema-
tria of ^^^'[=30]). Another passage has it that
one righteous man insures the preservation of the
world (Yoma 38b). The righteous are regarded as
being inspired b}' the "holy spirit" (Tan., Wa)'ehi,

14, where the context clearly shows that the state-
ment is not dogmatic, but homiletic). The Sheki-
nah rests upon them (Gen. R. Ixxxvi.). In fact,
before sin entered into the world the Shekinah was
permanently dwelling on earth. When Adam lapsed
it rose, and it continued to rise to ever greater
distances, proportionate always to the increase of
sin among men. But it was gradually brought
back to earth by the righteousness of Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, Levi, Kehath. Amram, and Moses
(Cant. R. iii. 11). The Patriarchs and the great
heroes of Bible days are considered to have been
perfectly righteous (Sifre 72b; Talk. i. 94; Gen. R.
Ixiii., xc. ; Meg. 13b; Sanh. 107a; Shab. 56a; et al.).

Righteousness is dependent upon man's free
choice. All its future conditions are predetermined
by God at the very conception of the child, its
character alone excepted (Tan., Pekude). The con-
quest of the "yezer ha-ra' " (i.e., of the inclination
toward immorality) marks the lighteous (Eccl.
R. iv. 15; Gen. R. Ixvii. ; comp. Yoma 39a). In
this contention the ethical implications of the rab-
binical interpretation of righteousness are patent.
The righteous man is godlike (see Godliness); that
is, he is desirous of reflecting the attributes of God
(Sotah 14a; Pesik. 57a). The state of sin is not in-
herited. Men might live in perfect righteousness
without "tasting sin " (Eccl. R. i. 8; Shab. 55b).
Children are born sinless (Eccl. R. iii. 2; Lev. R.
vii.). Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Yalk. i. 36, 106),
and Elijah (Lev. R. xxvii.), among others, are men-
tioned as having gone through life without yielding
to the yezer ha-ra'.

Still, most men are not so strong. Hence the race
is divided into three categories: (1) "zaddikim"
(the righteous); (2) "benunim" (the indifferent);
and (3) " resha'im " (evil-doers). The first and third
groups again are divided into " perfect " and " ordi-
nary " righteous and evil-doers ("zad-
Three dikimgemurim," " resha'im gemurim,"
Classes of and mere "zaddikim " or "resha'im ";
Men. Ber. 61b). Thefirstareunderthedomin-
iou of the "yezer ha-tob " (the inclina-
tion to do good), the third under that of the yezer ha-
ra'. C^lass two is now in the first group and anon

423

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ri^ht and Rishteousneas

in the third group. But finixUy only the first and
the third condition are recf)gniz('d. After deatli
men are judged either as "zaddikini " or as "resha-
Mm." The ungodly are not buried with the right-
eous (Sanh. 47a). The benunlin are respited from
Rosli ha-Shauah to Yom ha-Kippurini. If they do a
good deed in the meantime, they are ranged with the
righteous; if they commit an evil deed, they are
raidu'd as ungodly (K. H. 16a). They are like trees
that bear no fruit (Tan., Emor, 17).

The "zaddik gamur" is he who, like Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Samuel, fulfils the whole Torali
from alef to taw (Shab. 55a; comp. Alpha .\M)
O.mega). Of this order were Michael, Azariah, and
Hananiah (Ta'an. 18b). It is not necessarily to be
assumed that such truly righteous ones were alto-
gether without blame. They may have conunitted
minor transgressions (" 'aberot kallot " ; Sifre 133a).
These are written in the Book of Life on Rosh lia-
Shanah (R. H. 16b). They behold the Shekinah in
a clear mirror (Suk. 45b). They do not change,
while the ordinary zaddikim are exposed to lapses.

The utterly unrighteous, or the "heavily" un-
righteous ("rasha' hamur"), are distinct from the
"slightly " unrighteous ("rasha' kal " ; Sanh. 47a).
The former receive recompense at once for whatever
slight good they may do, but are destined to ever-
lasting perdition. Esau is an example (Gen. R.
Ixxxii.), as are Balaam (Tan., Balak,
The Un- 10), those symbolized by the bad figs
righteous, in Jeremiah's basket (Jer. xxiv. ; 'Er.
21b), and others. Yet even a rasha'
gamur may repent and appear before his death as
a zaddik gamur (Ezek. xxxiii. 12; Num. R. x. ; Ex.
R. XV.).

Man is judged according to the dominant charac-
ter of his intentions and deeds (Kid. 40b). If the
majority of them are righteous he is accounted a
zaddik ; but if they are otherwise, or if even a few
partake of the nature of gross crimes and immorali-
ties, he is adjudged a rasha' (see Sifre 51b). Far
from encouraging self-righteousness, rabbinical
theology warns each to regard himself as part good
and part bad, and then to determine his own rank by
adding to his good deeds (Kid. 40a). Intention and
the underlying motive are decisive for the quality
of an act in a good man, while a good deed done
by an ungodly man is reckoned in his favor, what-
ever may have been its motive (Kid. 39b). Yet it
is certainly unwarrantable to twist these largely ex-
egetical fancies of the Rabbis into proofs of rigid dog-
matic positions. The good act isconsidercd a " miz-
wah," a divine command; but still the spiritual ele-
ment of righteousness is not ignored. Calculations
of reward and penalty are declared to be contrary
to God's intentions (Deut. R. vi.). The Rabbis as-
sume that reward will be a necessary conseciuence
of a good deed, and punishment that of an evil
deed. Yet this causal relation is apprehended as
being involved in God's grace (Tan., Ethannen, 3);
even Abraham could not do without God's grace
(Gen. R. Ix.).

This thought underlies also the Talmudic-rabbin-
ical concept of "zekut." "Zakai,"a term designa-
ting the innocent, or guiltless, the contrary of "hay-
yab," the guilty party in a suit, gradually assumed

the meaning of ":faddik." The zekut, tlierefore,
primarily, is one's righleousness. But the "right-
eousness of the fatliers" ("zekut
Idea of abot "),orof a" ^igilte(>uslnan,"isered-
" Zekut." ited Willi the effect of helping others
and their descendantH, tliougli those
so benefited have no claim, thniugh theirown merit,
to the benefit. In strict justice, each .should be
judged according to Ins merits. But God's mercy
permits man to be judged by the sum total of all
the goodness which exists in the world in an age, iu
a family. As, owing to the righteous, the sum of
goodness is suflicient, the less good is granted more
than his due. The technical term used in this ciin-
ncction is " ma'aleh 'al " (hif'i lof " 'alah "), meaning
"to tax in favor of" (see Weber, "Jl'idische Tlieolo-
gie," pp. 290 et seq.; Weber, however, misappre-
hends the whole matter and twists it into a theolog-
ical system with a strong note of Patdine dogmatics).
The solidarity of the race is ba.sic to the notion, not
the idea of God's justice as exacting, measuring,
calculating; for God's grace and mercy are involved
in the conception ("middat ha-rahamim ").

As human righteousness is a reflection of God's,
it includes necessarily love for others. This con-
sideration has .so strongly influenced the Jewish nund
that the word "zedakah" (righteousnejw) lius as-
sumed the meaning of "alms," "char-
Identified ity." "Gemilut hasadim " (philau-
with thropy in its widest sense) is another
Charity, expression of the righteous man's inner
life (Tan., Mishpatim, 9; Lev. R.
xxvii.; Tan., Emor, 5 [illustrated by Moses]; Tan.,
KiTabo,!; comp. Eccl. R. vi. 0; Tan., AVayakhel, 1).
Why the righteous suffer is one of the problems
the Rabbis attempt to solve. The perfectly right-
eous do not suffer; the less perfect do (Ber. 7a).
Under the law of solidarity the latter often suffer
for the sinsof others, and therefore save others from
suffering (Ex. R. xliii. ; Pesik. 154a). Where the
nature of suffering is individual, it is assumed to be
a punishment for some slight transgression with a
view to insure to the righteous a fuller rewartl in
the world to come (Pesik. 161a; Hor. 10b). Or it
may be proI)ationary, and as such a signal manifes-
tation of divine fiivor (Sanh. 101b; Shab. HSb;
Ta'an. 11a; Gen. R. xxxiii.). The death of the
righteous works atonement for their people (Tan..
Ahare Mot, 7; M. K. 28a). God allows the right-
eous man time to repent and to attain his full meas-
ure of good deeds before He sends death (Eecl. U.
v. 11). The most truly righteous either escape
death altogether («.i?., Eluah; Enoch), or it meets
them as a kiss imprinted on their lips by Givl. as
with Abraham, Isaac, Jacob. Moses, Aaron, Miriam
(B. B. 17a; Yalk. i. 42). Death for the righteous is
also a release from the struggle with the inclination
to do wrong (Gen. R. ix.). Dead, they still live
(Ber. 18a). They are like pearls, which retain their
preciousness wherever they are (Meg. 15a).

The coming of the righteous into the world i.s a
boon to it ; their departure therefrom a loss (Sanh.
113a). The unsodlv are sentenced to stay in Ge-
heima twelve months; then they are released at
the intercession of the righteous (Yalk Shim'oni.
to Mai 593). In Gan Eden. G.«l will dance with

Right of Way
Hime

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

424

the righteous (Ta'an. 31a); there they will sing God's
praise (Ex. R. vii.). Resurrection is reserved for
the righteous alone (Gen. R. xiii. ; Tiian. 7a), In
" the world to be "' the righteous sit with crowns on
their heads and delight in the radiancy of the Sluki-
nah (Ber. 17a). They partake of LEViATn.\N (Pesik.
18sb; B. B. 74b). Their crowns are
Fate of the tiiose that weie worn at Sinai (Sanh.
Righteous. 111b; Shab. 88a). The mnoiT yab*
of Ps. xvi. 11 is read Dino:;' y3tJ'
("seven "), and is taken to refer to the seven classes
of righteous that enjoy God's glory (rfifre 67a).

Tlie "righteous" are often identified with Israel,
and the "ungodly " with the heathen, non-Israelites
(Tan., Beinidbar, 19; Lev. R. xiii. 1). But this
should not be taken as a general rule. The non-
Israelites of whom the Rabbis had knowledge were
Romans, whose cruelty and profligacy made "non-
Israelite" and "ungodly" exchangeable terms.
Still, righteous ones are found among "the nations"
{e.g., Noah, Jethro; see Puoselyte), and these
righteous Avill have a share in the kingdom to come
(Tos. Sanh. xiii.).

Thus righteousness was not a privilege of the
Jew ; it was rather an obligation. As JudaLsm does
not -teach original sin its views on righteousness
have no relation to tlie doctrine of justification (see
Ato.nemknt). The Jewish prayer-book, the depos-
itory of the faith of Israel, contains as a part of the
morning liturgy : " Lord of all the worlds, not in
reliance upon our righteous deeds do we lav our
supplications before Thee, but trusting in Thy mani-
fold mercies," This summarizes the doctrine of
the Synagogue upon the subject. Righteousness is
a du(y which brings no privileges. Self-righteous-
ness is not the key-note of Israel's confession. Sim-
ply as descendantsof Abraham is it incumbent upon
Israel to proclaim the Shema'. The modern Jewish
connotation of righteousness carries an ethical (both
personal and social), not a liturgical emphasis

E. G. II.
RIGHT OF WAY : The law in general distin-
guishes between the right of private wav (that is,
A's light to pass over a certain strip of B'.s" land) and
that of public way (the right of everybody to pass
over a strip of land which mayor may not be pri-
vate property otherwi.sej; and the "llebrew law
recognizes a third and broader right of way, that
referring to the king's highway or to the way to the
grave.

Under Sale of Land cases are stated in which
the sale of part of the vendor's land does or does not
confer on the purchaser a right of way over the
residue. But the law recognizes generally the
"right of way from neces.sity"; that is, where one
man's property is surrounded by that of another,
the former is entitled to means of access and egress.
As.suniing this principle, the Mishnah (B. B." i. .5,
6) says:

" Hm who owns a fistem Insldeof another man's house, should
po in anri pome out Ht the u.-^ual hour when men com^ iinrt po •
heran not brinp his hetu-t.s in and wat.-r them at the cistern, but
he must draw the water and give them .Irink outside tlie house ■
and eaeh of the two owners must rnnke for him.seif a kev [to tlie
elstem] He who has a garden within that of another should
go in and come out at the usual hour when men oome and go ;
ne h::s no right to bring produce-buyers Inside, nor to pass over

Into another field [butonly to the highway]. The outside owner
may sow the path [so as to have marks of ownership]. If the
outside owner has by agreement given [to tlie insider] a path
on the side, the inside owner may pass in and out when he
ch(K>.ses, and may lake merchants in to buy: yet he may not
pa.ss from his garden to another field ; and neither party may
put seed in the path."

In the absence of an agreement to the contrary
the width of a piivate way is four cubits {ib. 7), this
width being deemed sufficient for an ass with his
load (B. B. 100a).

A public way is acquiied by usage. Meie walk-
ing forward and backward across the strip is not
enough: there must be some occu-
Public pancy by " the many " (" ha-rabbim "),
Way, such as treading the soil down into a
hard road, or artificially leveling it.
No particular lengtli of time is mentioned for ma-
turing the public right. Where the owner of vine-
yards leaves a vacant strip between fences, he gives
an implied permission to walk on it, and as soon as
tlie public begins to do so the strip stands dedi-
cated as a highway. When a highway is once ac-
quired by the public, tiie owner can not resume ex-
clusive rights; hence should he, with the intention
of retaking a public way running over the middle
of his field, dedicate a strip on one side of it, the
public will have a right to tlie use of both ways.

Accoi-ding to the Mishnah {I.e.), a public way
should be sixteen cubits iu width ; but a baraita dis-
tinguishes thiis: a way from one city to another
should be eight cubits in width ; a way for the many
(probably, one on wliich people from several cities
meet, a trunk-road) should have a width of sixteen
cubits; and the road running to the cities of refuge
thirty-two ciibits (see Deut. xix. 3). Tlie streets of
a city are public highways and as such a part of the
public domain (.see Domaix, Pibi.ic).

The king's highway, that is, the way which he
has the right to lay out for the use of his armv, is
not limited in width ("has no measure"; B. B. vY 7;
Sanh. ii. 4), and lie may, to open the road, tear down
fences and other obstructions.

The way to the grave also "has no measure " (B.
B. vi. 7); that is, those who carry or follow the bier
may, when they find it necessary, go to the right or
left, so as to reach the place for burial without need-
less delay. But while they have not, like the com-
mander of troops in the field, the right to tear down
fences (they must climb over them), they may tread
on fields and meadows.

No one should throw stones from his private land

into the highway, nor should any one tunnel or dig

cisterns or cellars under it; luit one

Mis- may, for the benefit of the ijublic, dig

cellaneous a cistern in the highway.

Corollaries, One whoso house or other building

abuts on the higlnvay may not erect

over it balconies or projecting stories, unless they

be higli enough to allow a camel with its rider to

pass below; nor of such a size as to darken the

highway. Where one buys a court of which the

balconies or i)rojecting stories are by prescription

("hazakah") over the public way, ha may rebuild

them when they fall down. Where a tree leans over

the highway the owner must trim it, to leave room

for a camel and rider to pass under its branches.

425

THE JEVVltiU ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rifirht of Way
Rime

It is unlaw ful lo leave wetted clay for any lengtli
of time on the lii_i,^li\vay, or to make bricks on it;
but mortar for building a house may be left by th(!
side of it. Where one ijrejiares stones for a build-
ing, he may not let them lie on the highway for an
indelinite lime, but should use them at once.
AV'hoever acts against these rules is liable for
the full damage arising from his act (the words
rendered " highway " are "reshut Iia-rabbim," i'.f.,
" pul)lic douKiin "). See B. K. 50b ; B. B. ii. 13 ; iii.
8, 6()a; also Sliulhan 'Aruk, Iloshen Mishpat, § 417.

The Talmud does not indicate any procedure by
which the commonwealth may expropriate the
owners of land in order to acquire public highways;
nor does it prescribe any form of dedication for
roads and streets.

B:ni,i()f;R.\PiiY : Muiinoiiidcs, I'fi'f. .Vc/.i'm/i, cli. i., .\xi.; Shiil-
hiin 'Aruk, Hot^lun Miiihjiat, 192.
K. c. ■ ■ L. X. D.

RIGOTZ, MOSES. See Concoudance, T.\i.-

.MriUCAl,.

RIME : The early Hebrews have been credited
with the knowledge and use of rime. Judali Pro-
vencal, according to Azariah dei Rossi (".Me'or
'Enayim," v.), considered Hebrew poetry the mother
of all other poetries, so that in adopting the poetic
forms of other peoples the Jews received back from
them what they had given long before. Samuel
Arelievolti (" 'Arugat ha-Boscm," x.xxii. 112, Ven-
ice, 1(J0'2) argues that rime and meter existed in the
Old Testament, but were not fully developed; while
Moses ibn Habib assumes their use in c.xtra-Biblical
Hebrew poetry contemporaneous with the Bible,
basing this view upon the rimed epitaph of the al-
leged general of King Amaziah, for which see Jew.
Encvc. 1. 487b. Of modern writers who attribute
an important part to rime in the composition of the
Old Testament maybe mentioned E. Beuss ("'Die
Gesch. der Heiligeu Schrifien des Alten Testaments, "
§ 12o, Brunswick, 1881 ; comp. also Herzog-Plitt,
•' Real-Encyc." v. 678 ; and E. Kautzscli, " Die Poesie
und Poetischen Blicherdes Alten Testaments," p. 8,
Tubingen and Leipsic, 1902).

It is, however, generally agreed that rime, i.e.,
the correspondence in sound of word-endings, did
not attain in the Old Testament the
In the Old inijiortance of a formal principle of
Testament, poetry, or of a device of style in gen-
eral. The agreement in terminal
sounds of parallel lines (as in Gen. iv. 23; Ex. xv. 2;
Dent, xxxii. 2, 6; Judges xiv. 18, xvi. 24; I Sam.
xviii. 7; Isa. xxvi. 21; Ps. ii. 3, vi. 2, viii. 5; Prov.
v. 1"); Job X. 10, 17) can not be considered as an or-
ganic element of comjiosition, as it is the result of
grammatical conuruence and, besides, through any
lenirthy poem llui assonances are not introduced
with consistency (not e\en in Lam. v.). Cases in
wliich tli(! rime exliMids to stem-syllables (as Gen.
i. 2; Josh. viii. 12; II Sam. xxii. 8; Isa. xxiv. 4) are
few and far between and, with rare exce]itions (Ps.
Iv. 8; Prov. iv. (!, xxii. 10; Job xxviii. 16), do not
stand at the end of corresponding lines.

I>ut those rimes that arc; found in the Old Testa-
ment show the adaptability of Hebrew to this
device; and the ]^arallelism of clauses in Old Testa-
ment elevated diction must have suggested the use

of parallelism of sound, or rime, wlienoncc had been
awakened through contact with otiier lileralures the
sense(if the la-auty and necessily uf e.vternully
marking oil thongLt-comple.ves into syminetrical
groups.

AVhat has been .said of the Old Testumenl is in
substance applicalile to the ciMMpositions <if tlie Tal-
mudic period also. The few rimed
In Tal- rules, proverJiial plira.ses. and incanta

mudic and lions scattered Hire. ugh the Talmud
Post- (Ber. 44b. Ola. 62a: Ket. 62b; Pes.

Talmudic 114a; etc.) do not justify the supposi-
Times. lion of intentional um- of the rim.- (IL
Hrody, in his edition of Immaiiuel
Francis' "Metek Sefatayim," i>. 33, Cracow, 1892).
None of tlie portions of the liturgy quoted or irali-
catcd in the Tahnud (Ber. 4b, lib! "28b. 29a, 591); U.
II. 32a; Yoma 87b; Pes. 116a, b; etc), nor any of
the few lyric pieces preserved in it (Suk. 51b, 53a;
M. K. 2.")li; Ta'au. 31a; Ket. 104a), lias even the
fleclional rime.

The sphere in which rime first appears as an es-
sential element is that of the liturgical productions
of the geonic period. As inauguratorsof il are gen-
erally considered Yannai and especially his disciple
Elcazarha-Kalir (comp. S. I). Luzzalto in his "Mobe
le-Mahzor kc-Minhag Bene Roma," p. 8, Leghorn,
1856; Graetz, "Hist, of the Jews," iii. 116, Phila-
delphia, 1902). In Babylonia the first to employ
rime were Saadia Gaon (892-942), in his poem on
the letters of the Torali, and his Azii.\kot and
agenda, and Ilai Gar)n (939-1038), in his "Musar
Ilaskel." In Italy the new form of poetry was first
adopted by Shabbeihai ben Abraham Donnolo
(913-982) in the prologue to his "Tahkemoni."
and by Nathan ben Jehiel. author of the '"Aruk"
(lltU cent.). Of the Africans may be mentioned
Dunash b. Labrat (lOth cent.) and Rabbenu Nissim
(11th cent.). In Spain Samuel ha-Nagid (993-
1055) introduced rime into non-liturgical poetry' also,
as in his "Ben Mishle." In the Franco-German
school Gershon, the "Light of the Captivity"
(960-1040), and Rashi (1040-1104) sanctioned it by
use. Owing to the intluence of Arabic poetry and
the weight fif Ixalir's cxam])le, and facilitated by
the identity of the suffixes in Hebrew, the use of
rime spread rajiidly, extending even to titles and
prefacesof books; audit has remained the dominant
form of Hebrew poetry to the present day. Rime-le.\-
iconswere compiled for the benefit of verse-makers,
examples of which are: "Sharshot Gablut " by Sol-
omon di Oliveira (Amsterdam. 1665); "Sefer Yad
Haruzim " by Gerson Ilefez (Venice, 17<>5); "Imre
Xo'ash " by Solomon b. Meshullam Datisa; and
"Clavis Poeseos Sacrie," etc., by Hieronynuis Avia-
nus (Leipsic, 1627).

The Hebrew term for rime is "haruz" (properly.

"string" of pearls [Cant. i. 10) or of other things

[Hid. 95b]; in a tmnsferred scu.sc,

Prosody of Yer. Hag. ii. H; Li-v. K. xvi. 4; elc).

the Rime. It is first used in this .sense by Gal)irol

(1021-58). Abraham ibn Ezra (1(»93-

1167) applies it to the entire vei-sc (comp. D. Rosin.

" Reime und (Jedichte des .Muaham ibn Esra."i. 13,

Breslau, 1887-89). and Dunash (in his "U-Dorcsli

ha Hokmoi") to poetry as opposed to prose. As

Sime
Sindfleisch

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

426

the rime is ratber for the ear than for the eye, — ;-
rimes with -^, —with — , ^ with"—; and so
also of consonants, D «ith L"; the former k'tter,
liowever, does not rime with V or t^'. nor does 3 with
n and 3, or 3 with p, etc. Ibn Ezra, in his com-
mentary on Eccl. V. 1, censures Kaiir among other
reasons for riming K with y, 3 with V " "osher" with
""asser," etc. (comp. also "Bikkure ha-'Ittim," pp.
97. 105, 119, Vienna, 1829).

The rime is called: (1) " 'Ober," that is, "passable,"
'"admissible," when only the vowels and final letters
of the riming words are identical : ^^3 with TDnj ;
nion with li:^. This, as also the flectioual rime, is
found in proverbs and rules, in prayers, and in other
rimed prose. Thus Ibn Ezra has the epigram:

<2) " Ra'uy " = " correct, " " perfect, " when the initial
consonants also of the last syllables are identical :
TOX with ipjj'. This is the most usual form of

rime, especially in the piyyutim. (3) " Mesliubbah, "
when the initial consonants of the penult also aie
identical: D'"I3J with Dn3t>. Judah al-Harizi some-
times has a perfect assonance of the riming words:
*-J-, |*3"1D^ witii }*3t:'ni, etc. Tiie rime is faulty where
one of the riming words has the accent
Classifica- on the last syllable ("mi-lera' "), the
tion. other on the penult (" mi-le'el "): Q^D

with D'^n. If both words are accented
on the penult the rime must extend to both of the
last vowels.

The repetition of the whole word was admi.ssible
only at the end of strophes, chiefly in Biblical
phrases. It is also found in the piyyutim of the
Franco-German school, which was in general far be-
hind the Spanish in the use of rime. So in the
piyyut "Melek ba-Mishpat" for Rosh lia-Shanah,
"Akashtah Kesel " for Shemini Azeret, " Az Rob
Nissim," ascribed to Yannai, in the Seder, etc.

A poem is called "kashur" = "bound," when the
rime occurs only at the close of the verse-lines (the
"soger"); "hazuy " = "halved," when also the hemi-
stichs rime; and " mehullak " = "divided," "cut
up," when each line rimes in itself and with its paral-
lel line, as in the following example from Gabirol:

Cognate to this latter inner rime is the so-called
echo rime, in which the terminal rimes reecho, as it
were, the preceding word (a kind of epanastrophe).
It was favored in the elegy, e.f/., in tiiat of Joseph
b. Solomon ibn Yahya on Solomon b. Adret (begin-
ning of the 14th cent.):

0'"<'3 a'"t"M TB* pnr^ •iB'in etc

It was also affected b\' the great Palestinian payyc-
tan Samuel Nagara (16th cent.).

The employment of a play upon words is found
in the homonynious poems, called by the Arabic
name "tajnis," in Hebrew "shir nizmad " (Al-

Harizi, "Tahkemoni," 33), or, more appropriately,
"shir shittufe ha-millot." The lines close with

words identical in sound, but of differ-

Play upon, eul, sometimes opposite, meaning.

Words. Moses ibn Ezra (1070-1138) especially

developed this device in his "Sefer
'Anak," or "Tarshish" (comp. Tobias Lewenstein,
"Prolegomena zu Moses ibn Esra's ' Buch des Taj-
nis.'" Halle, 1893):

n'rr Y^ty-'^: *^-; N-\pi n.-^ri jni: ''-13-1 n^iy

" When the voice of the turtle, O friend, Is heard then the vlo-
tape season is arrived.
Leave off quarreling ! Drink and cry, ' Down with every ty-
rant ! ' " —Lewenstein, ib. p. 71.

The correspondence of the rimes within the
strophe is as varied in Hebrew as in other languages.
The scheme "aa," "bb," etc. ("haruzim mehub-
barim "), is the simplest one. In the liturgical poems
the rime usually changes after four lines. But
sometimes one and the same rime runs through a
whole poem, as in some of the "liosha'not," "kinot,"
etc. In the azharot a single rime is cairied on
through hundreds of lines. Thus the azharot of the
Karaite Judah b. Elijah (16tii cent.) consists of 612
lines, all ending in "-rim," and Judah Gibbor's
poem "Minhat Yehudah " (16th cent.) is composed
of 1,612 verses with the same termination. In the
non-liturgical poetry such rime is illustrated in the
diwans of Al-Harizi and Immanuel the Roman
(1270-1330: comp. also "J. Q. R." x. 431). Alter-
nate rimes ("haruzin^ meshullabim "), "abab," etc.,
unknown in the European literatures before the
twelfth century, were used in Hebrew poetry as
early as the ninth. Rime enclosed within another
("haruzim nifradim"), "abba," and many other ar-
rangements are employed by one and the same poet.

What may be termed a poem with composite
strophes is one in which the first three lines of each
strophe have a common rime, while the fourth
lines, consisting usually of Biblical phrases, have a
different rime; this is exemplified in the poem of
twelve strophes by Abraham ibn Ezra, of which the
first two are as follows:

'jN-13 "n ^N

■ T T :

."HI B-isn

T T T T T

nODn3 '^O N"(3

nprcpi nxv?

Bini.iOGRAPitY : In addition to the works referred to In the ar-
ticle, J. L. Henzi-b, Talnuul La.slion '//jm, S37S; I. M. Ca.sa-
iiowicz. PatDnomasia in (he Old Tej^tamrnt, pp. 8, ;J3, Bos-
ton, 1H94 ; Ananla Coen, Scfer Ruah Hadashah. pp. 1-21.
Reggio. 1822; Franz Delitzsrh, Zur GeKch. dcr Jildiitrhen
PocKie, mm Ai>'<v)dusx der llciligen Schriftni Alien linn-
des t)is auf die Xexicste Zcit, pp. 8, 126. 132, 137. Leipsic, 1830 ;
L. Dukes, Xnhnl Keduinim. p. 11 ; idem, in iJer Orient, iv.,
cols. ;{.■)."). .5I9;'vll.,' col. 460: S. L. Gordon, Tnrat ha-Safr-ut,
p. 117, Warsaw, 1902: David Kaufmann, In Zeit. fUr jjclrr.
liifd. i. 22. Heriin. 189t) : Kd. Konig, Stilisdk. lihetnrih, Pi>-
etik in liezno auf die liitilisrhe Litteratur Kompara-
iiviKch DarprnteUt, pp. 286, 329,3.5.5. Lcipslo. 1900: A. Neu-
bauer, Melehet hn-Sfiir. pp. 6, 18 ; Poznanski, Beitrflge zur
Geach. der Helir. SprnchviKsenschaft. 1894, i. Xt; J. G.
Sommer, Jiihiisehe Ahhandlungen, p. R5, Bonn, 1846: Stein-
schnelder, JUdi«c/iei,i((era(wr. In Lrsch and G ruber, Envye.

427

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rime
Riudfleisoh

section ii., part 27, p. 422 (EiiRllsh transl., Jewixh LUeratxire
from the Stii to the ISth Centuru. p. 1'>1, Loiiddu, lK')ti; He-
brew, Safriit i'usrael p. 219, Warsaw, IH'JT); J. (i. Wenrlcli,
De Piiexeos Hebraicce Atinu A rahic(C Indole Coin mcntalU),
D 242, Lelpsle, 1843 ; Zuiiz. ^•. /'. p. 80. Berlin, 18.55.
-1.. I. M. C.

BIMINI : Italian town situated on the Adriatic,
about 28 Miiles cast-soutlieast of Forli. It is noted
us tlie place where Gershoii Soiicino produced a
number of works in the period 1521 to 1526. Here
he printed the third and rarest edition of the " Sid-
dur Komagna" (1521), Joseph Albo's '"Ikkarini"
<1522), Bahya on the Pentateuch (1524-26), and
Uashi's commentary (1526) as well as the " Agur "
of Jacob b. Judah Landau (for a complete list see

SONCINO).

Bibliography : Stelnschnelder, Cat. BoilL col. 3055.

RIMMON (pD-| = " pomegranate "): 1. Town of
the tribe of Zebulun, on the northeast frontier (Josh.
xix. 13, K. v.); the Septuagint renders it, more cor-
rectly, " Rimonah." Probably itisidentical with the
Levi'le city of Rimmon (R. V. " Rimmono " ; I Chron.
vi. 77), which Avas given to the children of Merari,
and which, misspelled "Dimnah," is probably re-
ferred to in Josh. xxi. 35. It would, in the latter
case, correspond to the present Al-Rummanah, on
the southern edge of the plain of Al-Battof, about
10 kilometers north of Nazareth, where traces of old
buildings are found.

2. Sela' ha-Rimmon : Place, in the desert east
of the territory of Benjamin, where 600 defeated Ben-
jamites found refuge (" the rock Rimmon " ; Judges
XX. 47, xxi. 13). It corresponds, perhaps, to the
present village of Rimman, mentioned by Eusebius,
and lying 18 kilometers northeast of Jerusalem.

3. En-rimmon: City of Judah, referred to in
Nell. xi. 29. It is mentioned also in Josh. xv. 32, xix.
7 (R. V. ), and I Chron. i v. 32, as is shown by the Sep-
tuagint readings "Eromoth" and "Eremmon" and
by the " Erembon " of the " Onomasticon " of Euse-
bius, although in these passages the Hebrew text
mentions Ain and Rimmon separately. According
to Josh. XV. 32. the city was included in the terri-
tory of Judah, although Josh. xix. 7 places it in that
of Simeon. In Zech. xiv. 10 it is designated, under
the name of "Rimmon," as the southern limit of the
mountain district. According to Eusebius, the city
lay sixteen Roman miles south of Eleutheropolis
<Baet Jibrin); it is represented, therefore, by the
modern Al-Ramamin, 27 kilometers southeast of Baet
Jibrin.

4. Rimmon-parez : One of the encampments of
the Israelites during the journey in the desert (Num.
xxxiii. 19 et seq.).

K. 0. n. I- Be.

RIMOS (REMOS), MOSES : Phy.sician, poet,
and martvr; born at Palma, Majorca, about 1400;
died at Palermo 1430. He was a relative of tlie
IMoses Rimos who was known by the name "El Per-
gaminero" = "the parchment manufacturer." and
who, in 1391, was baptized in Palma, assuming the
name "Raimund Bartholomeu." According to
Zuuz, Moses Rimos was also a grandson of the Moses
Rimos who, as is authoritatively known, was at
Rome in 1371, where he purchased manuscripts from
the Zarfati family and others. It can not be accu-

lately determined wIiiIIh r llie grandfather or the
grandson wrote the undated letler and laudatory
poem sent to Benjamin ben Mordecai in Rome, in
which the author, wlio was living at Trrracina as a
private tutor, wilii a salary of sixty ducala a year,
at great length displayed his knowledge of philoso-
piiy and exjircssed iiis longing for home.

The Moses Kimosof tiic present article was famil-
iar witli pliilo.sopliical writings, and mastered sev-
eral languages. He left his home while still young;
went to Italy, where, presumably for tin- wjke of his
education, he lived at Home; and linally settled In
Palermo, where he practised medicine. Accu.sc-d of
having poisoned a Christian patient, he was impris-
oned and sentenced to death. He preferred to die at
the hand of the hangman rather than submit to
baptism, which had been offered him as a means of
saving his life. He was buried by the city walls of
Palermo. Shortly before his deatli he wrote a met-
rical poem which shows great similarity to the
laudatory poem written to Benjamin ben Mordecai.
In it he enumerates all his attainments, literary and
otherwise. He wrote also an epithalamium and a
liturgical poem.

Bibliography: D. Kaufmann, Dast Seiulschrrihen (Uf M<>*e»
liiinox, in Steinschneider FcMxchrift. pp. 227 ft ««•<;.. Hebrnw
section, pp. 113 et xeq.; Stelnschnelder. In Hf-Halui, Iv. tw ft
seq.; VoRelsteln and Rleger, (iesch. derJuilen iu /{om, I. 4-'i3
et seq.; Zuiiz, Literaturiie^ch. p. 523, and Supplement, p. 46;
KayserliuK, Uesch. der Juden in Spanien, 1. Itffl.
s. M. K.

RINDFLEISCH : German nobleman of ROtting-
en, Franconia; persecutor of the Jews in the thir-
teenth century. During the civil war waged be-
tween Adolph of Nassau and Albrecht of Austria,
claimants for the imperial crown of Germany,
bloody persecutions of the Jews broke out. A re-
port was spread that the Jewish inhabitants of the
little town of RiMtingen had desecrated a host.
Rindfleisch, a nobleman of that place, pretending
to have received a mission from heaven to avenge
tins desecration and to exterminate " the accursed
race of the Jews," gathered a mob around him and
burned the Jews of ROttingen at the stake (April
20, 1298). Under his leadership the mob went from
town to town, killing all the Jews that fell into their
power, save those who accepted Christianity. The
great community of WOrzburg was entirely annihi-
lated (July 24). " .

The Jews of Nuremberg .sought refuge in the
fortress. Being attacked, they defended themselves,
but, although as.sisteil by humane Christian citizens,
they were overpowered and butchered (Aug. 1).
Among the victims was Mordecai ben Hillel. n
pupil of Jehiel ben Asher. with his wife and chil-
dren. In Bavaria the congregations of Ratishon
and Augsburg — and they alone — escaped the
slaughter, owing to the protection granted them by
the magistrates.

The persectitions spread from Franconia and lia-
varia to Austria, and within six mcmths about 120
congregations, numbering 100. 0<W Jews, were swept
away. The end of the civil war. f.illowing the death
of Adolph of Nassau, terminated these persecutions
and delivered the Jews from further fear.
Bibi.iograpmy: (Jriltz. rjrsrh vll. 2,W W sf.,.. U.lp»lc. 1873.

Jost. Oe.sch. vll. 25.5. Berlin. 1827. g ^^^^

Bing-
Rings

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

428

RING, MAX: Gc-nnan novelist, lyric poet, and
(iraiiialist; horn Aug. 4, 1817. at Zaiulitz, Silesia;
died Marcii 28. 1901. at Berlin. He first attended
the Jewish parochial school at Gleiwitz, and at the
age of eiglit revealed his superior poetic gifts in the
poem entitled " Der Judenkirchhof."

King next attended the gymnasium at Oppeln.
Silesia, and later the universities of Breslau and
Berlin. Graduating as M. U. in 1840, he began the
practise of medicine at Gleiwitz. Upon the o\itbreak
of an epidemic of typhoid in Upper Silesia, King
found an opportunity not only to e.vercise his skill as
a physician, but also to describe effectively in verse
the unspeakable suffering and misery prevailing
at that time among the people of the province.
Although most of his writings were suppressed by
the censor, the poem addressed to the king in behalf
of the sufferers was afterward publisiied.

In 1848 Ring removed to Breslau, and thenceforth
devoted himself assiduously to literature also. At
the request of the publisher J. U. Kern, he wrote
his lirst novel, "Breslau und Berlin," which became
the inspiration of Gutzkow's masterpiece, "Die
Ritter vom Geiste," and brought the author into
contact with such literary celebrities as Berthold
Auerbach, Robert Giseke, and Theodor Mundt.

Ring achieved his first success as a dramatist in
the comedy " Uusere Freunde, " and his second, in
tlie drama " Eiu Deutsches Konigshaus." He was
also a very active contributor to the " Garteulaube,"
and. from 1863 to 1865, when that publication was
prohibited in Prussia, lie conducted a separate
edition of it in Berlin, under the title "Der Volks-
garten." In 1856 he married Elvira Ileymanu,
daughter of the publisher Karl Heymann, and in
1862 discontinued his medical practise in order to
devote himself to literature e.xclusivel}'.

The following are a few of the principal novels
and romances written by Ring in the course of a
literary activity' extending over fifty years: "Die
Kinder Gottes," Breslau, 1852; " Der Grosse Kurfuist
und der Schoppenmeister," t6. 1852; " Verirrt und
Erlost," 2 vols., Gotha, 1855; " Rosenkreuzer und
Illuminaten," 4 vols., Berlin, 1861; "Das Ilaus
Ilillel," 1879; "Berliner Kinder," 3 vols., Berlin,
188:j. In addition to these he wrote many miscella-
neous works, including: "John Milton und Seine
Zeit," Frankfort-on-the-.Main, 1857; " Berliner Le-
ben, Kulturstudien," Leipsic, 1882; "Die Deutsche
Kaiserstadt Berlin," 2 vols.. Leipsic, 1882-84; "Das
Buch der Hohenzollern," ih. 1888; besides a book of
poems, some of which are on Jewish subjects.

Bini.ioc.RAPitv: Me\icrit Konvermfiniix-Lerihntr, lirnckhnus
K'lHvermtinfis-Lexiknii ; Xcw Yorker Revue, April. liMJl.

s. J. So.

RINGS : Finger-rings, like rings for the ears and
the nose, were used as ornaments l)y the Jews as
early as the Biblical period (Ex. xxxv. 22. etc.),
while seal-rings (Gen. xxxviii. 18, 25, etc.) and
rings as signs of the highest dignity were likewise
known at that time (//a xli. 42, etc.). Neillier the
Biijle nor tlie Talmud. lK)wever, speaks of the ring
as symbolic of marriage. In the Talnnidic periixl
the formalities of betrothal, whicli ceremony was
regarded as tlie beginning of marriage, resembled
those of the first i)art of the modern engagement.

old Betrothal Ring.

the bridegroom giving the bride money, some article
of value, or a document, saying at the time: "Be
thou hallowed unto me through. ..." About the
seventh or eighth century, however, when two of
the three mishnaic methods of obtaining a wife had
become obsolete, the use of a ring as a symbol of
marriage began to be frequent, probably earlier in
Palestine than in Babylonia on account of the Roman
influence exerted in the former. The betrothal was
then differentiated from
the wedding ; and the
ceremonies constituting
marriage, which had
hitherto been performed
at two different times,
were now celebrated on
the wedding-day, some
time after tlie betrothal.
The chief ceremony of
marriage was tlie pla-
cing by the bridegroom of a ring on the middle'
finger of the right hand of the bride, the accom-
panying invocation being "Be thou hallowed [be-
trothed] to me through this ring, ac-
Ring as cording to the laws of Moses and Is-
Symbol of rael." The fact that the Jews (like
Marriage the Romans) did not exchange rings,
by and that one was given only by the

Purchase, bridegroom to the bride, is explained
by the circumstance that the ring was-
u.sed as a symbol for the marriage by purchase, which
was doubtless once customary among all races.

Tiie wedding-ring, according to R. Tam, was a
simple golden circlet without stones, although rings
of silver or of cheaper metal were permissible if the
bride was informed of the fact. In spoiadic in-
stances, however, mention is made of a wedding-
ring of gold with pearls and even of one with false
stones (Vogelstein and Rieger, "Gesch. der Juden in
Rom," ii. 304 et serj.). Jewish women were not ia
the habit of wearing their wedding-
rings, most of which w-ere of an
enormous size, while a few were un-
usually small (see fig. 1); in either
ca.se the size, as well as the orna-
mentation, which was usually very
prominent, prevented them from be-
ing worn. The rings even served
occasionally as bouquet -holders, my rile -branches
being inserted in them at weddings.

A large number of such wedding rings have been
preserved ("Cat. Anglo-Jew. Hist. Exh." No.s. 1822-
1831, 1949-1963), although only a very
tew are older than the sixteenth cen-
tury, and not one can be assigned to
a date earlier than the thirteenth cen-
tury. In the earliest examples the
hoop is fre(iuently formed of two
cherubim and is crowned by a model of the Temple
at Jerusalem, resembling that on the forged coin
of Solomon (see fig. above). In other cases this
representation assumes rather the shape of a syna-
gogue with a small tower (see figs. 6, 9, 14, 19),
on which sometimes is perched a weathercock.
Others, again, display only a hoop more or less richly
decorated with rosettes, lion-heads, and the like (see

So-Called Coin of
Solomon.

Examples

of
Wedding-
Rings.

ijg — r

rM.

JK.WISH niNGS.

1, 5, 10-13, 15 18. 20-25, 28, in the Victoria and Albert Museum. London. 2-4. 0 9. 2fj. 27. in the collerllon of .\IUTt Woif. Dreaden.

14. from Riicklin. "Schmuclibuch." 19. from Luthnier. "Gold und Sllber."

Biva di Trento

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

430

figs. 1, 8, 12, 22), occasionally, however, bearing a
small shield at the top. Especiallj" costly specimens
show a party-colored enamel decoration. The rings
bear, almost without exception, an inscription, either
engraved or in relief, around the hoop (see tig. 24),
reading aii 2M22 (see tig. 6) on the earliest speci-
mens, but on the later ones 2M2 ?TO or too. an ex-
pression of felicitation which liid not come into use
until the tifteenth century (Berliner, "Aus dem
Leben der Deutschen Juden im Mittelalter," p. 49).
Most of these wedding-rings were made at Venice
(RQcklin, "Schmuckbuch ") and hence were proba-
bly produced by Jews, since, according to Leckj-
("Rationalism in Europe," ii. 237, note 2), many of
the Venetian goldsmiths who practised tiie art of
carving were of that race.

Although Jewish women might not adorn them-
selves with their wedding-rings, they were recom-
pensed on the Purim following the marriage, when
their friends presented them with rings, clothes,
and money; and, according to Leon of Modena, it
occasionally happened that later in the marriage
ceremony itself the bridegroom put a ring on the
britle's finger, while he pronounced a formula of be-
trothal. The bridegroom frequently received gifts
also; and in Germany it was customary for the pro-
spective father-in-law to present him with a ring
shortly before the wedding.

Other specifically Jewish rings are those intended
for seals, which represent the seven-branched candle-
stick engraved in stone and which
Other bear the inscription by' 13 iT^THP

Rings. niE^- These rings, which were to re-
mind the women of one of their chief
duties, the lighting of the Sabbath lamps, were in
use early in the ^liddle Ages, as is shown by the
fact that such a ring was found in Mecklenburg to-
gether with Anglo-Sa.xon coins and Arabic dirhems
(Donath, "Gesch. der Juden in Mecklenburg," p.
78). In Poland, where the Christian inhabitants laid
great stress on the wearing of rings, it was not until
the reign of Sigismund Augustus (150G-48) that the
Jews, after long debates in the Reichstag, were al-
lowed to wear such adornments. These had to be
inscribed with the words "Sabbalion" or ''Jerusa-
lem," which, according to Lelewel, was intended
to remind the Jews of the wrath of God and of the
punishment for their sins (Sternberg, "Gesch. der
Juden in Polen," p. 146).

At a later period rings bearing the name of God
were used as amulets. When a fondness for wear-
ing rings became too pronounced, the rabbis or con-
gregations interfered. Tlius, for example, the rab-
binical convention at Bologna in 1416 decreed that
no man might wear more than one and no woman
more than three rings ( V'ogelstein and Rieger, I.e. i.
337), while the Frankfort sumptuary regulation of
171.5 enacted that "young girls may wear no rings
whatever "(Schudt, " Judische Merckwurdigkeilen,"
iv. 3. 99).

Bibliography: Abrahams, JewMi Life in (he Middle AgeK,
London. 189« ; Hambureer, /Mi. T. 111.; Hofmann, L'«/;crcic)i
Verlobungs- und Traurinu.
A. A. W.

RINTEL, MOSES: Australian rabbi; born
in Edinburgh 1823; died at Melbourne, Victoria,

1880; son of Myer Rintel, Hebraist and Talmud-
ical scholar. For some years Moses Rintel acted
as reader to the Brighton synagogue; in 1844 he
went to Sydne}'; and in 1849 he was elected min-
ister of the East Melbourne Congregation. In Syd-
ney he established the Sydney Hebrew Academy,
founded in 18.56 the United Jew-ish Friends' Benefit
Society, and helped to establish a duly constituted
bet din. In 1857 Rintel resigned his ofiice in Mel-
bourne, and another jilace of worship was established
under the title of "Mikveh Israel Melbourne Syna-
gogue." This synagogue was opened in 1860; and
Rintel officiated at tlie new place of worship for
some time without remuneration. He acted also,
on the nomination of Chief Rabbi N. M. Adier, as
chief of the bet din. He was a steadfast upholder of
Orthodox Judaism and was widely esteemed in the
Australian colonies. He published two sermons,
one on Yom Kippur (Melbourne, 1850), which are
among the earliest Jewish publications in the Aus-
tralian colonies.

Bibliography : Jew. Chrnn. ,Tiily 9 and 30. 1880; Heaton, Aus-
tralian Diet, of Dates ; Brit. yius. Cat. s.v.
J. G. L.

RIPARIAN OWNERS : There being but little
river navigation in the Holy Land, the Mishnah says,
nothing as to the rights and duties of landowners
along the river-bank, except in reference to irriga-
tion. It teaches (Git. v. 8) that for the sake of
peace the upper riparian owners are allowed to draw
water from such canals before those who have their
lands lower down. The principle is formulated
again in a slightly different form in the Babylonian
Gemara (B. M. 108a) in connection with rules govern-
ing the dwellers on the Euphratesand its tributaries.
In that country there was much river navigation ; the
boats being generally drawn by men walking along
the shore and dragging the craft by means of long
ropes (B. M. 107b, 108a). A law was laid down by the
Rabbis for the Jews along the river, most probably
in conformity with the Persian law of the Sassanid
dynasty, to this eifect: On both banks of the river,
in the interest of navigation, all trees were to be cut
down, with or without the owner's consent, and if
needs be without notice to him, over a strip suffi-
ciently wide to make room for the "shoulders" of
the boatmen who dragged at the ropes. No mention
is made of draft-animals, though such may have
been employed at times.

Bibliography: Slndhan ''Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 110, 2;
417, 4. ■ ■

E. c. L. N. D.

RiaUETTI, JOSEPH SHALLIT BEN ELI-
EZER : Scliolar of the seventeenth century. He
spent his youth atSafed, and subsequently settled at
V^erona. Therein 1646 he published Gerondi's book
"Yihus ha-Zaddikim." He then published at Am-
sterdam a map of Palestine under tlie title "Hokmat
ha-Mishkan" or "Iggeret Meleket ha-^Iishkan."
In 1676 he went to Mantua, where he was busy with
a second edition of his "Yihus," which was subse-
quently published in that city.

Bihliography : Ziinz, In Itine.raru nf R. Benjamin of Tn-
dda, Ii. :.'8(1. 8 1()9, x.r., London, 1841; Stelnschneider, Cat.
Bodl. p. 15:^0 ; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 190.
8. ■ S. O.

431

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

RinR8

Biva di Trento

RISHONIM (lit. "the first," or "the elders"):
Name appiicil to the authorities who lived before
the one who quotes them. The designation is found
in the Talmud, where it is generally used in the
sense of " predecessor," or "ancestor" (Hhab. H2b;
Ber. 20a; Tamid 28a). In later rabbinical literature
the name is ajiplied only to tin; rabbinical authori-
ties preceding the Shulhan 'Aruk, wliile all the au-
thorities since and including the Shulhan 'Aruk are
called "aharonim " (later ones). See Aii.vkonim.

p, J. Z. L.

RITES. See Custom.

RITTANGEL, JOHANN STEPHANUS :

German controversial writer; born at Forscheim,
near Bamberg; died at KOnigsberg 1652. It is
stated tliat he was born a Jew, became converted to
Roman Catholicism, then became a Calvinist, and
lastly joined the Lutheran Church. He became pro-
fessor of Oriental languages at Konigsberg, and
issued a number of translations of Hebrew works:
one of the " Sefer Yezirah," 1642; one of the Passover
Haggadiih, 1644, publi-shed also in his "Libra Veri-
tatis " (Franeker, 1698); and one of the earliest trans-
lations of Jewish prayers, under the title "Iloch-
feyerliche Sollcnnitaeten, Gebethe und Coilecten
Anstatt der Opfer, Nebst Andern Ceremonien so von
der Judisciien Kirchen am Ersten Neuen-Jahrs-Tag
Gebetet imd Abgehandelt Werdcn ]\Iusscn," Konigs-
berg, 1652. His posthumous work "Bilibra Verita-
tis" was written to substantiate the claim that the
Targums prove the doctrine of the Trinity. This
is also the subject of his " Veritas Religionis Chris-
tiana; " (Franeker, 1699).

BlBLioORAPUY: Rose, Bingraphical Dictionary, 1850, s.v.;
Steinschneider, Cat. Budl. cols. 2146-2148.
T. J-

RITTER, IMMANUEL HEINRICH : Ger-
man rabbi; born March 13, 1825, in Katibor,
Prussian Silesia ; died July 9, 1890, in Johannisbad,
Bohemia. While studying at the gymnasium of his
native town he received his Talmudic instruction
under Babbi Loewe. At the University of Breslau
classical jihilology and history formed iiis special
studies (Ph.D. 1849). During an audience with the
Cultusiuinister von Raumer in 1851, the latter gave
the young candidate to understand that only bap-
tism could entitle him to an appointment as lu-o-
fessor at a college. Ritter thereupon accepted a
position as teacher of religion and reader at the Ber-
lin Reform congregation, becoming later assistant to
the senior preacher of the temple, Samuel Holdheim.
His first ten sermons were published as "Kanzel-
vortrage aus dem Gotteshause der Judischen Rc-
formgemeinde" (Berlin, 1856), which placed him at
once among the foremost Jewish preachers of his
time. In 1859 his "Beleuchtung der Wagner'schen
Schrift," published against "Das Judenthum und
der Staat" by Wagner, member of the Prussian
Diet, created a stir. Bitter's principal work was his
"Geschichte der Judischen Reform," in four parts
(Berlin, 1858-1902): I. "Mendelssohn und Lessing."
II. " David Friedlandcr." III. "Samuel Holdheim."
IV. "Die Judische Reformgemeinde in Berlin" (ed-
ited by S. Samuel, rabbi in Ussen). In the first part
Ritter demonstrates that Moses Mendelssohn's lack

of understanding of liisutricnl erilicisni concerning
Judaism was one of tiie main reasons why liis own
children und many of liis friends became uposlatoH
from the religion of their fatiuis. He further kIiowb
that Le.ssing had a better conception of Judaism
than Mendelssohn. Men(ielH.sohn'8 fidse view of
revelation, a view whicii identifies Juclaism willi
legalism, makes him a representulive of conserv-
atism and even of retrogression.

In 1858 a rupture between Ritter and the a<]min-
istration of the ( ongregation occurred, when lie und
his colleague Dr. Gustav Gottiieil sent in their
resignations, because the oflicers of tlie congregation
interfeied with the freedom of the pulpit. But the
storm passed away, and after Holdheim's death
(1860) Ritter was cho.sen his succe.s.sor.

Ritter's collection of " Weihe Reden und Pre-
digten " (Berlin, 1875) is chiefiy devoted to tiie Jew-
ish festivals. He also edited a volume of Holdiieim's
posthumous sermons, "Fest- und Gelegcnlwits-
reden " (Berlin, 1869), and translated for Kirclunan'a
historical-political library Thomas Buckle's " History
of Civilization in England" (Berlin) and Lecky's
"History of Rationalism in Europe" (2d ed., Hei-
delberg, 1885) into German. Ritter was one of the
leading spirits in the Society for the Freedom of
the School, which was formed in 1869.

BIBI.IOGRAPHV : M. Levin, VfM»c}irift zxnn .W. Jfihriw n He-
stchcu (Icr Jildiachcn UifiniiHicinciiiile in /ifi/Oi, Berlin,
189."); S. Samuel, Die Jildischc RcJom\{jemcimlc in licrtin,
Berlin, 1902.

s. E. Sciin.

RITTER, JULIUS: German physician and au-
thor; born in Berlin Oct. 4, 1862; son of Lnmaniiel
H. Ritter. He received his degree of M.D. from the
University of Berlin in 1887, and is at present (1905)
chief physician at the Institute for Invalid Children
and at the Bacteriological Laboratory in that city.
In 1892 Ritter announced his discovery of the bacil-
lus of whooping-cough, and in 1893 and 1HW6 pub-
lished the results of his continued investigations and
the detailed confirmation of his original discovery.
His second important group of articles dealt with
diphtheria and the therapeutics of the curative
serum, and was i)receded in 1893 by the extensive
work " Aetiologie und Behandlung der Diplitherie."
Finally he published articles on scrofula and the
treatment of scrofulous children, and an address be-
fore the Congress for Internal Medicine, held at Ber-
lin in June, 1897. S-

RITUAL. See Ckremonies and tiik Ckhk-
MONiAt, Law; LiTi'iioY.

RITUAL MURDER. SeeBLOon Accrs.vTi<».

RIVA DI TRENTO : Small town on the I^ke
of Guarda, iiiuKr llie jurisdictiim of the Bisiiop of
Trent. Christoforo Madruz, Cardinal nf Trent and
Arclibishop of Brixen, granted in 15.58 the privilege
of printing Ileiirew books t<» Joseph Oltolengo. a
German rabbi and school -director, tlicn living at
Cremona. The actual printer was Jacob Marcaria. a
local physician. After his death in 1.562 the activity
of the press of Riva di Trento ceased. Altogether
thirty four works were published in the period 1.5.58
to 1.562. most of them bearing tlie coat of arms of
Cardinal Madruz. The first Hebrew book printe<l
at Riva was the "Halakot" of Alfasi in three folio

Hivera
Sivkin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

432

volumes; and the general tendency of the press was
to i)roduce halakic works, as the " Mordekai," the
novelhe of Rabbi Nissini, and two editions of the
^lishnah. Besides these, two editions of the Penta-
teuch were issued, one with the Five Megillot and
the other with the Targum and Kashi. The print
was of an exceptionally clear type; and the fact
that all the books were produced under the patron-
age of a cardinal of the Church is very significant.

BiBi.ior.RAPHY : E. Cannoly. -4ii»ia/>»i dfr HthraiM-hen T\i-
pu>iraphic ill liii'adi Jrt »U«, 2cl eil., Franktori-on-tlie-Maiu,

isti».

RIVERA : Spanish Jewish family that appears
in American history at an earl}- date. The fanuly
seems to have come from Seville, Spain, though
some members of it have been traced to Portugal;
many were settled in Mexico before the middle of
the seventeenth century. In connection with the
trial of Gabriel de Granada by the Inquisition in
Mexico (1643-4o) there appear, as "accomi)lices" in
the t)bservanceof the law of Moses and as Juduizing
lieretics, Dona Maria, Dona Cataliua, Clara, Mar-
garita, Isabel, and Dona Blanca de Rivera, all of
whom seem to have been natives of Seville. An-
other person mentioned in the same connection is
Diego Lopez Rivera, a native of Portugal. The
name is fnqucutly wiittcn "Rilxra."

Abraham Rodrigues de Rivera: The first
bearer of the name " Rivera " in that region of North
America now known as the L'uited States; born in
Spain; died in Newport, R. I., 1765. His family,
even while still resident in Europe, was closely
related to the Lopez family, afterward intimately
associated with the history of Newport. In fact,
he was a brother - in - law of Diego Jose Lopez
of Lisbon, the father of Aaron Lopez ; and Moses
Lopez, a son of Diego, married Abraham's daugh-
ter Rebecca. Abraham Rivera was twice mar-
ried in Europe; by his tirst wife he had a son,
by the second a son and a daughter. With his
family lie went to America early in the eighteenth
century, settling at New York. According to Ma-
rano custom, a remarriage took place in that city,
and the first names of the entire family were
changed. The original names are unknown, but
those assumed were Abraham (l)y the father), Isaac
and Jacob (by the sons), and Rebecca (by the
daughter).

As early as 1726 Abraham Rodrigues was enrolled
as a freeman of the city of New York, being desig-
nated as a merchant. He took an interest also in
the congregation of that city, his nameapi)earing in
the minutes of 1729. He was naturalized in 1740.
After the death of his second wife he married a lady
named Lucena. After her death he and his entire
family rcniovcd from Nfw Vork to Newport.

Jacob Rodrigues Rivera: Merchant; born
about 1717; died at Newport Feb. 18, 1789; son of
Abraham Rodrigues. HeaeconipaniiMl his father to
New York when a mere child. Entering upon a
mercantile career, lie went to Curac;ao, where lie
married into the Pimentel family. With his wife
he iPtunieil tf) New York, where was born his
daughter Sarah, who subsequently married Aaron
Lopez. Rivera was naturalize«l in New York in

1746, removing to Newport about 1748, where he
soon became one of the leading merchants. He in-
troduced the sperm-oil industry in America, which
soon became one of the principal sources of New-
port's prosperity. Jacob owned extensive sper-
maceti factories, and was a large importer of manu-
factured goods. He was a public-spirited citizen,
and his name figures in connection with the Red-
wood Library as earl}' as 1758 ; he appears as one
of the organizers of a Hebrew club at Newport in
1761. An t)bservant Jew, he was one of the three
who, in 17r>9, purchased the land upon which the
Newport synagogue was erected.

Owing to reverses, he was obliged to com])romise
with his creditors so as to obtain a release from his
debts. Later on, however, he again prospered, and
a storj' is told of his inviting his creditors to dine
with him, when each creditor found under his plate
the amount of his claim, with interest. In 1773 he
was named one of the trustees of the Jewish ceme-
tery at Savannah, Ga. Both he and his wife ajqiear
in the diary of Ezra Stiles. When the Revolution
broke out, Rivera espoused the Colonial cau.se, and
was among those who, in 1777, removed to Leices-
ter, Mass., where he remained until 1782. His sta}'
there is referred to by Emory Washburn in his his-
tory of the place. He finally returned to Newport,
where his integrity and benevolence were univer-
sally esteemed. Jacob's fortune at the time of his
death exceeded $100,000. The monument over his
grave in the old cemetery at Newport may still be
seen. His son Abraham died in New York, leav-
ing an only son, named Aaron Rivera, who settled
in Wilmington.

IJinLiOGRAPliv: Trial of Ga7>rir1 fTc Grnnnda. in P\ih\. Am.
Jew. Hist. Soc. vii.; Ma.x .1. Koliler, ih. ii. KW-KKJ: vi. 7:.'-
74, Wi: A. W Mendes. in lilKntr Maud JliMnriciit liriiistn;
Oct., 1H8.5, p. SI ; {}. C. Masdii, Iiciniiii.'<ceiiccs of yniiimt . p.
58; Emory \Va.shl)iirn, HiMoru of Leicester, pp. I:i5-l:J4, Bos-
ton. ISiiO; Daly, Settlement uf the Jews iit Aurth Americn,
pp. 7l)-7'.l, New Yorii, 1S93 ; .Markeus, Tlic Hebrews in Amer-
ica, pp. 36-37, New York, 1886.
.\. L. UU-.

RIVISTA ISRAELITICA. Sec Pi-.kiodicals.

RIVKIN, MIRON DAVIDOVICH : Russian
writer; born in Vitebsk in 1869. His father, who
was emiiloycd as clerk in the jiolice department,
was a Talmudist of no mean ability. Rivkin ob-
tained his early education in the lieder, where he
showed marked ability in acquiring a knowledge of
the Old Testament and of the Talmud. In 18SI he
entei'ed the government Jewish school in \'i]ija, and
in 1884 the Jewish Teachers' Institute in Wilna. In
the institute he ledastudious life and became famil-
iar with Russian history and literature. Graduating
in 1889, he was api)ointed instructor in the govern-
ment Jewish school atVolozhin, and was transferred
in 1891 to Molodejno and in 189.1 to Minsk. In 1897
he left the government service and accepted the
position of instructor in the Jewish schools of St.
Petersburg.

Rivkin's first literary elTorts date from hisstuilcnt
days in AVilna. Wiiile in the institute he wrote a long
poem entitled " Dorothea ^Mendelssohn," and also a
historical i)lay in ver.se entitled "John Ilyrcanus."
His sketches, "Poslyedniye Gody Volozhinskavo
Yeshibota," appeared in the " Voskhod" in 1895, and

n3i

♦mro

♦VDO

i>S • »P'io5frj' 13306 3>»IO<'30i(Sjl' ip.-)D IPlO; 3'i IJ3.'0P^'»'' OS'^' J'&i" 3'^'''" ' (3''^ r" •'"^'''•i pl P''J ^'^ '^'W &'3J JC ^ ^•

i,'i'lP)TP)PCT9' '' , ' ■ 1 . •: •

: o;p^e{^3^n3ntt'1D^•^■^2

DiSx2VDM :wMSx2"i;nM

*imt:ou''D'v.«:»Dnm23 i3n'i
):n';i.r-»;,p«>rnn map 2 v;d^}

»{jf*

.<i<

pn 3n6x «f
•inj M -'

p "30^ piBin

p'Oil)' Pint,

II ppiJJP'nni

• p'nm pijian

cnf" i*^ ■'If*
• ')3S\5jwJ'PPn

J'l onfr 'T i»»

(•j'jwjjrtoip" _ '■'•■'

o»i^3)3 }''33T fe «''3P)r)^&}Dir5*'i3P'n3i»pw3'j»i3piSfipm»fr-BS5p.Ti)"np'n-)inpp3M?pnr3»&Pf-)^fr'»j«— 71

iP(^/?r3)j?['-ro53S

: ncma-

-r
^

'>>,

jipi pp'D rV"

/>>

ribT"

P^ ri>

rin:;t

St<ir»

V"JK

13T|

•)7fr

Plli'

a:irj3

pnn 63^

r-»3 "jp

|i 3TPP

O'ptio f)6

3nj9 e»

Sn,

I y

JO o»

■3

■J

PAGE FROM HKBRKW V.\XM.V. I'RINTKI. AT UlVA PI TRKNTO. 1.-.01.

(Fron. theSulz.,.r..r,nll.clinn in ,h. J.wi.l, Th^.m^oal S.n.in.ry of An„ri.., N.w York.)

X.— 28

Sizba
Sobbery

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

434

a series of feuillctons signed " Makar " were contrib-
uted by him in 1897 to the same journal. In 1898
he pnblislied in " Ruskoe Bogatslvo " the sketch
"Nad Sahioi Svyechkoi "; and in 1900 he published
a collection of sketches entitled "V Dukhotye."
He is at present (1905) a contributor to the "Bu-
dushchnost."

n. u. J. G. L.

RIZPAH : Daughter of Aiah and concubine of
Saul. After Saul's death Hizpah, with the other
women of his harem (comp. II Sam. iii. 13), re-
mained with his son and successor, Ish-bosheth, but
Abner, the general of Saul, took possession of Riz-
pah, thus indicating his intention of seizing the
throne (comp. II Sam. .\ii. 11, xvi. 22; I Kings ii.
22). The account as given in II Sam. iii. 7 et seq.
implies the same purpose on the part of Abner by
assigning his conduct as the reason for his breach
with Ish-bosheth, while his act was construed "by
David as overt rebellion. Rizpah is again men-
tioned in the account of the revenge taken by the
Gibeonites on Saul. David had delivered to them
Armoni and ^lephibosheth, the two sons whom Riz-
pah had borne to Saul, together with live of Saul's
grandsons, all of whom the Gibeonites killed and
left unburied as a prey to the wild beasts. Rizpah
thereupon spread sackcloth upon a rock, and kept
watch over the bodies, keeping away tlie birds and
beasts of prey. David was so touched by this display
of maternal love that he had their remains buried to-
gether in the family sepulcher (II Sam. x.\i. 8-14).

E. r,. n. I. Be.

ROADS : In primitive times the ciiief use of
roads in Palestine was to afford communicatic|n
with markets. Later on roads were used for military
purposes, for the movement of troops and commis-
sariat. Of the three great trading countries of the
Biblical world — Egypt, Babylonia, and Arabia — Pal-
estine had on the whole least relations with Arabia,
though its frankincense was doubtless brought to
the central shrines from time to time by the great
caravan route, which still passes from Damascus to
the holy places of Arabia, and which is known in
modern times as the "Pilgrim Road." Owing, how-
ever, to the Arabian desert, which could be trav-
ersed only by this route, Palestine was a necessary
link between the two great powers of the Biblical
world — Egypt and Assyria— but because of the un-
settled state of the country and the more fortu-
nate location of Damascus, this city, rather than
Jeru.salem or Samaria, was the central mart toward
which traffic tended. In the world of the Old Tes-
tament it may fairly have been said, "All roads lead
to Damascus." The four chief roads to Damascus
which led through the Holy Land were:

(1) The coast route, known as "the way of the
land of the Philistines" (E.\. xiii. 17), rimning
through Gaza, Ashdod, Dor, Accho, and Tyre. At
the last-named city this road took a sharp curve
inland to Dan and thence ran to Damascus.

(2) The route which branched off from the first
at Ashdod and, skirting the foot of the Shefelah,
went to Antipatris and Accho, while a branch line
from Cijesarea crossed it and ran to Cana, Tiberias,
and thence to Damascus.

(3) The route from Beersheba to Damascus. This
route went through Hebron, Jei usaleni, Beth-el, and
Shechem, and, crossing the Jordan at Bethshean,
followed the river to the Sea of Galilee, thence run-
ning northeastward to Damascus.

(4) Finally, the route from Arabia, which touched
Kir Moab, Ataroth, Heshbon, and Rabbath Am-
nion, and afterward traversed the plain of Gilead
until it joined the Shechem-Bethshean route (see
No. 3).

Of these four great roads of the Palestine of the
Bible, the one most used was that along the sea-
shore, by which Sargon marched to attack Egypt
and Sennacherib to attack Judea.

These roads were connected by crossroads, run-
ning mostl}' east and west. First there was the
Gaza-Sheba-Kir Moab road, skirting the southern
shore of the Dead Sea. Gaza was connected with
Jerusalem through Eleutheropolis, from which a
branch led through Hebron to £n-gedi. At Jeru-
.salem there was a junction of several roads. The
chief road to the seashore was through Emmaus,
Modin, Lydda, and Joppa. From Joppa a cross-
country route led through Lydda, Modin, Beth-
el, and Jericho to Heshbon, while a similar road
much farther north went from Accho to Sepphoris,
crossing the Jordan near Gadara, and connecting
two eastern highways (beyond Palestine) that led to
Damascus. Similarly, a road from Shechem led
through Samaria into the second road north.

These are the main highways and cro.ssroads of
Palestine, though there are innumerable paths.
How far these were made roads and how far they
were merely natural paths, resorted to for their com-
parative easiness of access, it is somewhat difficult
to say. The regular Hebrew name for road, "derek,"
implies merely a trodden path through suitable
passes in the hills or along level valleys. Yet
Mesha, the King of ^loab, speaks of making roads.
Mention is made of leveling and of removing stones
from the road (Isa. xliii. 19), filling holes, and re-
ducing declivities (Isa. Ivii. 10, Ixii. 10). No bridges
are mentioned, the rapid and narrow streams of the
Holy Land being easily fordable. Josephus de-
clares that Solomon paid attention to road-making
("Ant." iii. 7, t^ 3). There may be some truth in
this, as he was the first to introduce chariots, wJiich
could not use the ordinary roads. Reference is made
to a tax for keeping roads in repair in Persian times
(Ezra iv. 13-20, vii. 24). The value of roads was
early recognized ; they were an evidence of civili-
zation (Ps. cvii. 4-7; Jer. ii. 6). The "road" or
" way " or " path of life " was a common simile among
Israel's teachers, and the great catechism of later Ju-
daism was called the "Two Paths" (see Did.vche).

Bibliography : Buhl, In HMtlngs. Diet. Bible (supplementary
vol.); Guthe, In Kurzes BibclwOrterbuch, s.v. Tf ege.
E. C. J.

ROBBERY (^n or nbu) • In law the taking of
tlie movable property of another under constraint of
force or fear; in the Bible the word is sometimes ap
plied to the forcible taking of land or of slaves. From
the penalty for rol)bery (at least under certain condi-
tions), as prescribed in Lev. v. 20, 26 (A. V. vi. 1-7),
the punishment of stripes is excluded. In this pas-
sage, as interpreted by the sages, an oath is imposed

Robbery
Bobbio

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

436

upon one charged with tliut of robbery or certain
oilier offenses against property, and a penalty for per-
jury is added to that for robbery if he afterward con-
fesses. Yet the peualt}- seems wholly inadequate:
the guilty party shall restore that which he took by
robbery, and add the fifth part to it; moreover, he
shall bring his guilt-olTeriug of a ram without blem-
ish; and then he shall be forgiven. Oppression
(•' 'oshek ") is both here and in Lev. xi.v. 13 named
together with robbery; this is committed where
one who has lawfully come into possession of his
neighbor's goods withholds them unlawfully from
the rightful owner.

The Mishnah and the Gemara deal with the rob-
ber even less severely than Scripture, the reason
probably being that, when speaking
In the of the robber, the sages had not in

Talmud, mind the avowed bandit, but rather
tiie piiblican or some other tool of the
Romans, who by abusing his power stripped his
fellow Israelites of their goods. It was the policy
of the sages not to drive such men, when they hap-
pened to submit to their judgment, into open hos-
tility, nor to discourage their return to a more patri-
otic course of life (B. K. 04a). Among robbers was
reckoned (at least in so far as he was compelled
to restore possession before he could enforce his
claims) one who without judicial sanction seized the
goods of a debtor (Shebu. vii. 2); also one who cut
fruits or plants from land which was unlawfully in
his possession (Suk. 30a). Leniency toward the rob-
ber was especial)}' marked in tlie days of Judah the
Patriarch, it being declared: "When a robber re-
pents and voluntarily offers to pay for the things
that he has taken, and which he can not restore in
kind, it is better not to accept the money from him "
(B. K. I.e.). However, some of the medieval stand-
ards regard this practise as only temporary, not as
an institution (see Joseph Caro, Commentary on
Maimonides' "Yad," Gezelah, i. 13; idem, Shulhan
'Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat). It is curious how Mai-
monides him.self {I.e. V. 9)couples tribute-takers and
bandits (D'tOD/') as men who are presumed to have
acquired all their means by robbery, that is, by ta-
king things milawfully.

The sages introduced into the question of robbery
an element which greatly modifies the rights and
duties of those claiming goods taken, namely, the
despair ("yi'ush") of the owner; i.e., his giving up
the hope of recovering his own. What constitutes
such despair or abandonment is rather vaguely de-
fined; at any rate the burden of proof is on him
who alleges such "yi'ush." Another element is
change in the form of the article taken so that it
loses its name or identity (B. K. ix. 1), as in the
case of wood made into implements, or wool into
garments.

The laws of robbery are set forth (aside from

those already mentioned) by .Maimonides (l.r. i.-v.)

substantially as follows: Robbery, that is, taking

by force, is forbidden by the Torah, no

In matter what the value of the object,

the Codes, and wiiother it belongs to an Lsraelite

or to an idolater. The robber is bound

to return the object itself (Lev. v. 23). When it is

changed or lost, he pays the price, whether he con-

fesses or is condemned upon the evidence of wit-
nesses. Where one has taken a beam and built it
into a house, he siiould, according to the letter of
the Torah, tear down the whole structure, if neces-
sary ; but the sages have ordained that, to avoid
such a great loss, he may i>ay the price of the beam.
If, however, the beam iias been made part of a
"sukkah " (booth for the Feast of Sukkot), it should
be returned after the feast; and .so in like cases.
Though to take a tiling worth less than a jxTUtaii (f
cent) is sinful, the law of restoration can not be ap-
plied in such a case. Where one has taken a thing
1)}' force in a settled country, he may not, unless
with the consent of the owner, return it in the desert ;
it remains at the robber's risk till he brings it to a
settled region. Wliere one has taken money, but
has repaid it in his account with the person robbed,
or has put it into the hitter's purse (containing other
money) even without the latter's knowledge, he has
cleared himself of guilt.

When an object forcibly taken has not been
changed in form, though tlie owner may have de-
spaired of its return, after the robber's death his
sons must return it. But if changed, though the
owner has not despaired, it is acquired by the rob-
ber, and tiie latter pays the amount at which it was
valued at the time of the robbery; for the text says
"he shall return the thing which he has robbed,"
which means " the thing in the state in which it was
when taken." The sages, to encourage repentance,
have ordained that if the tiling taken increases in
value after being despaired of by the owner, the rob-
ber is entitled to the increase, which must be paid
to him when he returns the object. This refers to a
sheep covered with a new fleece of wool, or to a
cow becoming big with calf, or tlie like, but not to
an increase in the market price. But if the cow has
calved, or the sheep has been shorn before the owner
despaired, then, according to the prevailing opinion
(B. K. 95), the calf or fleece, though it was an accre-
tion after the robbery, must be restored to the owner,
or its value paid to him. On the other hand, where
the increase in value arises through the work and
outlay of the robber, e.g., where he has fattened an
animal, the robbed partj-, on restoration, must reim-
burse him for tiie increase in value.

According to some authorities, the despair of the
owner, or the sale or gift by the robber to a third
party, confers ownership on the last-named, and the
owner can then demand only compensation in money
from the robber; but this ruling is disputed.

What constitutes a change? When one takes a

bar o' metal and coins it no change is involved ; for

the coin may be melted into a bar again. But if

coins or vessels are taken and melted

Change in into bars, this is a change; for if the

the Object bars are minted or wrought again into

Taken. coins or vessels, such coins or vessels
would be new ones. If boards are
taken and framed into a box, which ran be reduced
to boards by withdrawing the nails or screws,
there is no change; but if a tree or logs be cut up
into planks or boards, there is a change. So also
a change results from the sawing of a plank into
boards, or from taking wool and dyeing or carding
and bleaching it, or from taking cloth and cutting

437

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Robbery
Robbio

it, up and sewing it into garments; for in each case
tlie ohjecl is iviunvn by a new name.

Wliere forcible possession is Uikcn of a piece of
land the disseizor can give no better title than he
lias himself; an(i though the land has been sold "a
thousand times" it goes back to the true owner
without outlay on his part even for impr(jvements
(B. K. I.e.), tlie last holder having no recourse ex-
cept on the; warranty of his vendor.

According to Maimonides, one who buys stolen
goods from a man known to be a tliief is bound to
restore them to tlie true owner in like manner as
hind. When a lamb grows into a ram, or a calf into
an ox, the robber pays only its value at the time of
taking, and this though the owner had not aban-
doned the hope of recovery. Where an implement
is broken wliile with the robber, he should pay the
value of the implement at the time when he took it;
but the owner may, if he chooses, claim the broken
pieces and the dilference in money.

As a rule, in all cases in which the article can not

be returned the robber pays the value which it bore

at the time of the robbery (B. K. ix.

Value Re- 1). If, however, the market value of

turnable. the article has risen, and tlie robber

wilfully destroys or consumes or sells

it, he must pay the increased value, as, save for his

new wrongful act, he might have restored it; this

is not the case, however, if the object was lost or

destroyed by accident. If the article has diminished

in market value, the robber must pay the tirst and

higher price, whether it was lost through his fault

or not.

Where a number of small articles have been taken,
only the price at which the whole lot might be
bought need be paid as compensation, not the retail
price obtainable by selling each article by itself;
and this rule applies as against all damage-feasors.

Where a work-animal in the hands of the robber
becomes worthless through age or through an incur-
able disease, or where wine has turned into vinegar,
or fruits have altogether rotted, lie must pay the
original value, as for a broken vessel; but when
animals are affected with a curable disease, or fruits
are only slightly touched by rot, or coins are de-
clared not current in one country but are still good
elsewhere, the robber may return them as they are.

If a man lias wrongfully taken hold of a work-
animal, and has ridden or put a burden on it, or has
plowed or thrashed with it, and then returns it with-
out damage to the owner, though his act is sinful
and forbidden, he is not bound to pay anything.
If, however, a man makes a habit of thus obtaining
the use of other men's bea.sts, he is mulcto<l, even
outside the Holy Land, and made to pay the injured
party for the benefit he has derived or for the hire
of the beast. Where one takes hold of his neigh-
bor's bondman and employs him. but without pre-
venting him from doing all of his master's work, he
is not liable for compensation. Where one takes
possession of another's boat and uses it on a trip,
the wear and tear, if the boat is not kept for hire,
is assessed against him who takes it; but if it is kept
for hire the owner has the option between the regu-
lar hire and the charge for wear and tear. Where one
takes up his abode in the court of his neighbor with-

out tlie hitter's consent he can not be diargcd with
rent if the court is not kept for renting; but if it
is, he must pay rent. The di.scussion of sucli wroug-
tloiiigs in connection with robbery recalls the "fur-
tum usus " of the Itoman law.

Maimonides takes advantage of the law of robbery
to make some nice distinctions between tiie lawful
and thearbitraiy acts of a king. Liv-
Robbery ing in Mohammedan countries, he
by Kings, knew no king wlio.se lawmaking power
was t!ircumscribed by the necessary
consent of a parliament; yet he (listingiiishes be-
tween acts done under the geneial laws by which
the king (meaning a Gentile ruler) imposes taxes, or
thicatcns confiscation, and edicts by which he takes
the property of one man or of a number of men at
his mere whim or pleasure. A forcible taking under
the law and in conformity with it chaMg<'S the title
to land ; and the Jewisii court must respect Uie new
ownership. But a taking under a tyrannical com-
mand is no better than robbery ; and so, a fortiori, is
the taking without the king's authority i)y a royal
officer. But the same author makes one allowance
in favor of absolutism: when the king disgraces a
courtier ("servant ") and takes his proi)erty from
him. even without any pretense at legality, the act is
binding; for such, he says, is the custom of all
kings.

When the robber dies, and the object of the rob-
bery is not available, either because he has given it
to liis sons for consumption after abandonment (if
before they would be liable for consuming it), or
because he has lost or .sold it, the sons are liable
only as for a debt of the father; that is, under the
old law, if the father has left assets in land, and,
under the later law, if he has left either real or per-
sonal assets.

The Biblical provision that when a robber has
under oath denied taking an object, and afterward re-
pents and confesses, he must return to the owner the
thing taken with one-fifth in value added before he
can receive divine forgiveness, may, as later inter-
preted, become a serious, though only a self-imposed,
punishment for an act of robbery; for this return
must, as the jMi.shnali declares, be made to the owner
in person, no matter at whatdistance — "even though
the thing be only worth a perutah, and the owner be
in Media" (B. K. ix. 5). But in an ordinary case,
where the court adjudges a return, a delivery to the
proper oflicer of the court is sufiicient.

According to the maxim, well known to the com-
mon law, " Omnia pra?sumuntur contra spoliatorem."
the Talmudic law gives certain advantages, mainly
in the admission to the decisory oath, to the original
owner as opposed to any party against whom wit-
nesses are found to testify that he has seized goods
without the owner's consent, or that he lias entered
thelatter's house without his knowledge in order to
make a seizure. The rules as to this point are stated
concisely in PuocKDruK in Civil C.msks.
BiBLiOORAPiiv: Shuthau 'Anih, Hw/if« .VisJijxrf. 35»-3T7.

E. C. "■

ROBBIO, MORDECAI : Talmudist of the sev-
enteenth century; lived probably in uorthirn Italy.
Under the title " Sliemen ha-Mor " lie wrote responsa

Kobert
Roder

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

438

to tlic four ritual codices, ^^ ith an appendix consist-
inir of "exhortations" to his son (Leghorn, 1793).

nini.ior.RAPiiv : Zedner. Cat. Hehr. Bonks Brit. Mus. p. a>S ;
Benjacob, Oz<ir h<i-Si/arim, p. 5lt-).
E. C. S. O.

ROBERT OF BURY ST. EDMUNDS: Al-

k'irt'd inartvrof a lilood accusation at IJuiy St. Ed-
munds, SufTolk, England, in 1181. No details are
known of tlie circumstances under which he was
created a martyr; but the expulsion of the Jews
from IJury St. Edmunds ten years later was doubt-
less connected with the accusation.

Biui.io(iR.vpnv: Jacobs, Jews <>f Anacviit Eimlattd, p. 7-">.

ROBERT. RAHEL. See Li:viN, R.viiEl..

ROBLES. ANTONIO RODRIQUES DA :

Eiiglisli Maiuiio merchant and shipper; born at
Fundao, Portugal, about 1620. It is probable tliat
he was one of the Neo-Christians who attempted to
reestablish the Spanish dominion in 1641 (Kayser-
ling, "Geschichte der Juden in Portugal," p. 307).
He settled in London and was connected with the
"West Indian trade. In 1656, during the war between
England and Spain, two of his ships, "The Two
Brothers" and "The Tobias," were seized and he
himself was arrested on the gromul that he was a
Spaniard. On the advice of his coreligionists in
Loudon, Robles boldly claimed indemnity on the
plea that he was not of the Spanish but of "the
Jewish nation," and that he had come to England to
shelter himself from the tyranny of Spain. He,
however, admitted having attended mass in Lon-
don ; and the couunissioners, on inquiring into tlie
case, were doubtful as to his nation or religion, but
declared that the balance of testimony was in favor
of the fact that he was a Jew born in Portugal.
The Privy Council ordered his release; and thence-
forth there was no reason for any Jew in England
to deny his race or religion.

Bibmocrapuy: L. Wolf, in Tr. Jew. Hist. Soc. Eug. I. 60-66.
77-86.

ROCAMORA, ISAAC (VICENTE) DE :

Spanish monk, physician, and poet; born about
1600 of Marano parents at Valencia; died April 8,
1684, at Amsterdam. Educated for tlie Cliurch, he
became a Dominican monk (assuming the name
" Vicente do Kocamora ") and confessor to the In-
fanta ]\Iaria of Spain, subsequently Empress of
Austria, who honored him greatly. In 1643 he
openly adopted Judaism, taking the name of Isaac.
He studied medicine, and then settled in Amsterdam,
where he engaged in the active practise of his pro-
fession. He became phj'sician to and director of
several i)hilanthropic societies in that cit}', among
them the Maskil el Dal and Abi Yetomim.

Rocamora was one of the judges of the academy
of poetry, Los Sitibundos, founded by Manuel de
Belmonte; but none of his poetical works, either in
Spanish or in Latin, has been preserved. His son
Solomon de Rocamora also was a physician in
Amsterdam.

nint.iofirtAPHY: rx^ Barrios. Rrlncinn de hm Poetnx, p. 00;
Kayserllng. .^ejihardim, pp. 291 et Kcq.: Idem, Bibl. Exp.-
Pnrt.-Jtul. p. 04 ; Gratz, Gesch. x. 195.
8. M. K.

BOCHESTEB : Capital of Monroe county, and
the third city in size in the state of New York.
A-rording to" the latest census (IDOO) it has 162,608
inhabitants, among whom, it is estimated, the Jews
number about 5,000.

Although a few Jews lived in Rochester as early
as 1840, the history of the Jewish community d<jes
not begin until 1848. In that year twelve young
men, all natives of Oermany, most of them still un-
married, united to hold services on the high festi-
vals, and for this purpo.se met at tlie residence of
one of them, at the corner of Clinton street and
Clinton jjlace. Their names were Joseph AVile,
Samuel Marks, Joseph Katz, Gabriel Wile, Meyer
Rothschild, Henry Levi, Jacob Altman, Joseph
Altman, A. Adler, Elias Wolff, Abram Wein-
berg, and Jacob Gans. On Oct. 8, 1848, the day
after the Day of Atonement, they met at the same
place and formed the Congregation Berith Kodesh.
For six months services were held at the same resi-
dence, until in Aiiril, 1849, a hall was rented for the
purpose of divine woiship. This hall was situated
on the third Hoor of 2 Front street, corner of Main
street. In the year 1856 a building formerly a Bap-
tist church was purchased on St. Paul street. This
building was adapted to the needs of the congrega-
tion and used until the year 1894. In the meantime
the congregation had grown very rapidly, and
had long felt the want of a more spacious edifice.
Accordingly in 1893 tlie jtrescnt magnificent temple
was erected, and was dedicated June 1, 1894; it was
designed b}' Leon Stern, a member of the congrega-
tion, and built on the corner of Gibbs and Grove
streets, at a cost of 8130,000. It is one of the finest
of the buildings devoted to public worship in the
city.

The first rabbi of Berith Kodesh congregation was
^Marcus Tuska. He was succeeded by Dr. Isaac

Mayer ( from 1 856 to 1 859). Dr. Aaron
Rabbis. Giiisburg served from 1863 to 1868.

After an intermission of two years and
six months the present rabbi. Dr. Max Landsberg,
was elected on Dec. 26. 1870. He entered upon his
functions in March, 1871, and has filled the position
ever since.

Until 1881 Berith Kodesh was the only Jewish
congregation in Rochester, with the exception of
Ez Raanon. founded in 1870 by a few members who
had seceded from the older congregation on account
of its introduction of family pews. But they all
returned, and Ez Raanon was dissolved in 1883
and its building on Hyde Park sold for the erection
of '■esidences. Since then a number of Russian con-
gregations have been organized under the names
of Bet Yisrael. Bet ha-Keneset lie-Hadash, Bene
Dawid, Wa'ad ha-Kolel, and the Congregation of
Tailors.

The Men's Benevolent Society, connected with
Congregation Beritli Kodesh, was forme<l in 1850,

and the Jewish Women's Aid Society

Philan- in 1865. In 1882, in consequence of

thropic In- the influx of ]?ussian Jews driven by

stitutions. persecution from their native land, the

relief societies were combined into the
United Jewish Charities, which are conducted on
modern scientific principles.

439

THE JEWISH ENQYCLOPEDIA

Bobert
B6der

The Jewisli Orplian Asylum Society of Hoclicslcr
was fouiidi'd in 1S77, iuul in the ^car 1879, tofictlicr
with similar societies in BnlTalo and Syracuse, oi-
gainzed the Jewish Orphan Asylum Association of
Western New York. Tiiis associati<in, which iiiim-
hers 560 members, maintains an orjihan asylum for
tJie three cities; it is located on St. Paul street,
Pochester. The building and grounds are valued
at §15,000, and the siid<ing-fund of the association
amounts to about $()(), 000. At i)resent (1905) there
are twenty-four children in the asylum.

A Social Settlement was founded in Rochester in
1900. and it owns a building on Baden street. While
it is almost entirely maintained by the Jewish resi-
dents, its work for the neighborhood is entirely non-
sectarian, and its benefits are appreciated by all,
irrespective of creed or race.

The orders of B'nai B'ritli, Free Sons of Lsrael,
Kesher shel Burzel, and Sons of Israel liave one
lodge each, and the order of B'rlth Abraham lias
two lodges.

The Jews of Rochester have filled many ])ublic
positions of trust. Among them Simon Hays has
been president of the Common Council, and ]\Iarcus
Michaels and Isaac Wile have served as school com-
missioners.

A. M. Lan.

RODELHEIM: Prussian town near Frankfort-
on-the-Main. A Jewisli comnumity existed there
probably as early as the middle of the thirteenth
century, for it appears from the municipal archives
that the legal status of the Jews was determined as
early as the year 1290. The town is especially note-
worthy lor its Jewish printing-presses. Carl Reich
owned a press in the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury-, publishing among other works Y. Zamosc's
" Hedwat Ya'akob " (1751), Samuel Friedberg's " Bir-
kat ha-Hodesh" (1753). and Meir Levi of Zolkiev's
"Miksheh Zahab " (1757). Moses b. Jacob Levi was
a typesetter there. At the beginning of the nine-
teenth century the city became still more noteworthy^
through the Orientalische und Occidentalische Buch-
druckerei established by Wolf Heidenheim and Ba-
ruch Bashwitz. The most important works printed
by them were: " Sefer ha-Kcrobot " (1800); ".Alebo
ha-Lashan" (1806); "Mishpete ha-Tamim " (1808);
fiveeditionsof the Pentateuch (1818-21); and "Seder
Tish'ah be-Ab, Yeme ha-Purim," together with the
Haggadah (1822-26).

The town hasa total population of 6,492, of whom
130 are Jews (1905). The Jewish institutions in-
clude the May 'sche Hospital, for all confessions, and
a hospital for Jews who are bachelors or widowers.

BiBLiCMiRAPHY: StHnsphnoidpr and Cassel. Jndixrhr T]ipo-
(/ni/i/uc, ill F.rscli and (iniber, Knciic. section ii., part 2H,
p. 81, and notes 97, 98,99; Carinolv^ in Milt)ieHrnt(ie)i dis
Vcrci)is fUr (iexch. und Altrrthnm in Frankfnrt-an\-
Mni)i, ii. Mtict seq.; Stali«ti)<clus Jahrbuch, 1903.
J. S. O.

RODENBERG, JULIUS : German poet and
author; born at Rodenberg, Hesse, June 26, 1831.
He studied law at the universities of Heidelberg,
Gottingen, Berlin, and Marburg, but soon abandoned
jurisjirudence for literature. In 1851 appeared in
Bremen his first poem, " DornrOschen," which was
soon followed by many others. From 1855 to 1862
he traveled, visiting Great Britain, Belgium, Hol-

land, Denmark, Italy, and Switzerland, In 1859
he settled in Jierlin, where he still (1905) resides.

From 1867 to 1874 he was coeditor with Dolim of the
"Salon fl\r Litteralur, Kunst und rieselisehaft" ; and
in the latter year he founded the " Deutsche Rund-
schau." In 1897 lie received the title " Professor."
Rodenberg is a jtrolific writer. Of liis works may
be mentioned: "Lieder,"
Hanover, 1854; " Pariser
Bilderbuch," Brunswick,
1856; "Kleine Wander-
chroiiik," Hanover, 1858;
"Ein Herbst in Wales,"
ih. 1857; "Die In.sel der
Seligen," Berlin, I860;
" Alltagsleben in London,"
ih. 1860; "Die Ilarfe von
Erin," i/j. 1861; "Tag und
Nacht in London," ih. 1862 ;
" Lieder und Gedichte,"i7A
1863 (6th ed., 1901); "Stu-
dieureisen in Englanil,"

'//'

Julius Uodi'nbenf.

Leipsic, 1872; "Belgien

und die Belgier," Berlin,

1881; "Bilder aus dem

Berliner Leben," ih. 1885 (8d ed., 1891); " L'uter

den Linden," ih. 1888; "Franz Dingelstedt," ib.

1891; and "Erinnerungen aus der Jugendzeit," i'6.

1899.

His novels include: "Die Stras-sensUngerin von
London," Berlin, 1863; "Die Neue Siindtiut," i/y.
1865; " Von Gottes Gnaden," ib. 1870; " Die Gramli-
diers," Stuttgart, 1879 (2d ed., 1881), a story of the
Franco-Prussian war; "Herrn Schellbogens Aben-
teuer," Berlin, 1890; " Klostermanus Grundstttck,"
ib. 1890 (2d ed., 1892).

Binr.iooRAPHY : Mej/ers Konver<>ntii)n>i-Lrrihi>u ; Brnrkhatu
Ki)ncc)sati<»w-Lexihon ; Regina Nels.ser, in Ally. Zcil. dcs
Jud. 19U1, pp. -^6 ct seq.
s. F. T. II

RODER, ANTON. See Rado, Anton.

RODER, MARTIN: German composer and
conductor; born in Berlin April 7,1851; died ut
Boston, Mass., June 7, 1895; studied at the K5nig-
liche Hochschule fi^r Musik in his native city. Fron;
1873 to 1880 Roder was chorus-masler at the Teatro
dal Verme, Milan, and in 1875 founded the Societi
del Quartetto Corale. He also conducted openi at
various jtlaces, as Bologna and Turin, ami even in
the Azores. From 1880 to 1887 he taugiit singing
in Berlin, for a jiart of the time at tiie Scharwenka
Conservatorium ; for thene.xl five years he was pro-
fessor at the Royal Academy of Music in Dublin:
and in 1892 he went to America to take charge of tlie
vocal department in the New England Conservatory
at Boston.

Reader was a very scholarly nmsician. and his
comjiositions evidence both versatility and marked
ability. Among them are: tliree operas, one of
which, entitle<l "Vera," was performed at the Ham-
burg Stadttheater in 1881; two symphonic poems.
" Azorenfahrt " and "Leonore": the overture " A.t-
tila"; and a trio in F minor. His writings include:
" L'eber den Stand der Oeffentlichen Musikpflege in
Italien " (in "Sammlung Musikalischer VortrAge"),
Leipsic, 1881; "Studi Critici Raccolti," Milan, 1881;

Rodkinson

Koedelsheim

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

440

ami " Dal Taccuino di im Dircttorc cli Orchestra,"

iSttl (German cd., " Aus dciu Tagebuch cines Wau-

derndc-n Kapellmeisters," Leipsic, 18b2). Roderalso

CDDtributed articles to the "Gazzetia Musicale "

under the pseudonym "Raro Miedtner."

DiBLiotjRAPUY : Riemann. .ViwiTc-Lexi/foii, 1900; Baker, Diny.
Jjiit . ..r" Miisiilitii.-i.

s. A. P.

RODKINSON. MICHAEL LEVI. SeeFuuM-

KIN. I-l;Ai.I. !>ii|; (BaK).

RODOSTO (Turkish, Tekfur-Dag ; formerly
called Bisanthe and Rhcedestus): Port of Tur-
key in Europe on the Sea of Marmora, 78 miles west
of Constantinople. The city had a Jewish commu-
nity as early as the twelfth century; for in 1173
Benjamin of Tudela found 400 Jews there, among
whom were the noted rabbis Moses, Aliijah, and
Jacob. The community has remained undisturbed
for centuries, but it has not attained anj' great
importance. In the seventeenth centurj^ Rodosto
possessed a celebrated thaumaturge, R. Isaac ben
Sahl, author of a curious manuscript in Juda^o-
Spanish entitled " Sefer Segullot," which treats of
divination, chiromancy, suggestion, and similar top-
ics; and another native of Rodosto, Judah Grazi-
ani (1838-93), carried on the work of his predeces-
sor, the belief in demons and malevolent spirits still
being a characteristic of the people. Epitaphs in
the local cemetery mark the tombs of the chief rabbis
Xissim Moses Finzi (1736) and Zebi Nathan, while
in the same cemetery are the graves of the chief
rabbis of the nineteenth century, Rahamim Graziani,
Hayyim Elijah Finzi, and Jacob Finzi.

The Jews of Rodosto to-day (1905) number about
2,800 in a total population of 35,000. They possess
a .synagogue (rabbi, Yom-Tob Cordova), an oratory,
a school for boys with an attendance of 150, and an
apprenticeship committee supported by the Alliance
Israelite Universelle. The community is badly or-
ganized, however, and is considerably in debt as
compared with the other Jewish settlements in
Turkey.

Bibliography : Benjamin of Tudela. Itinerani : Franco, Lcs
Scieticcji Mystiques chcz lex Juifs (VOrient, i'aris. 19()(i.
D. .M, Yn.

RODRIGO DE CASTEL-BRANCO, JTJAN.
SeeJiA.v Hooi'.nio dk C.\sti-.i.-Bk.vn'c.v.

RODRIGUES, HIPPOLYTE : French banker
and writer; born at Bordeaux in 1812; died at Paris
1898. He was a son of Isaac Rodrigues-Hen-
riques, head of agreat banking-liouse in Bordeaux.
In his "Papiers de Famille," published in 1893,
Rodrigues relates the following family tradition :
The families of Gradis and Rodrigues emigrated
from Palestine at the time of the insurrection of Bar
Kokba, settled in Portugal, and later in Spain,'
under the dominion of the Moors. After being
driven from their homes by the Inquisition they
took refuge in Bordeaux. Members of the Gradis
family p?rformed such signal services in the navy
under Louis XV. and XVI. that the patent of noliil-
ity was olTered to them by Louis XVI. This, how-
ever, was refused, as they declined to take an oath
upon the Gospel as the statutes prescribed.

Rodrigues was educated in Paris, and early
showed a marked taste for literature. At the age

of eighteen he began writing a romance entitled
"Christiern," the subject of which embraces the en-
tire history of tiie French Revolution. In 1840 he
became a stock-broker on the Paris Bourse, but after
a brilliant career retired in 1855, and gave his undi-
vided attention to study antl literary work. He
was a member of the Societu des Gens de Lettres
and of the Societe des Compositeurs.

Rodrigues was a jjiolitic writer. The following
is a partial list of his works: "' Les Trois Filles de la
Bible" (1865-67); " Les Origines du Sermon de la
Montague" (1867); "La Justice de Dicu " (18G8);
" Ilistoire des Premiers Chretiens: Le Roi des Juifs"
(1869) ; '• Saint-Pierre " (1871) ; " David Rizzio "(grand
opera, words and music, 1873-77) ; " Ilistoire des Se-
conds Chretiens: Saint-Paul" (1875); "Apologues
du Talmud" (in verse, 1879-83); "Romances sans
Paroles " (for the piano. 1889) ; " Papiers de Famille "
(1893); "Histoire du Peche Origincl" (1896); "Les
Origines du Peche Originel" (1897).

BiBLiooRAPiiv : HippolyteRodriRues, Papiers de Famille, 1893.
s. J. Ka.

RODRIGUES, OLINDE: French economist
and reformer; born at Bordeaux Oct. 16, 1794; died
at Paris Dec. 26, 1850. He was a pupil of the Ecole
Normale Superieure, where he made a specialty of
mathematical studies; later he became assistant pro-
fessor at the Ecole Poly technique. In 1823 he made
the ac(iuaint,anceof Saint-Simon, who con verted him
to his doctrines. On the day of his leader's funeral
Rodrigues assembled the former's disciples to con-
sider the project of founding a journal to be based
on Saint-Simon's principles. The publication Avas
launched under the title "Le Producteur," and Ro-
drigues was its editor during 1825-26. In 1829
he succeeded, with the assistance of his brother
Eugene, in turning the followers of Saint-Simon's
principles into a sect, but in the same year he sur-
rendered the leadership to Bazard and Enfantin.
About the close of 1831 Rodrigues had a rupture with
Enfantin, on account of certain theories held by the
latter on the propriety of the familv having pub-
lished two volumes of the works of Saint-Simon. In
1832 Rodrigues engaged in banking and brokerage.
He was also concerned in the building of the Saint-
Germain and Orleans Railroad, the first railroad put
in active operation in France.

In 1841 he puJjlished the "Poesies Sociales des
Ouvriers," to show the middle classes the liberality
of ideas of the proletariat. In 1848 he supported
the republic, and strongly advocated the rights of
the working men. His later years were occupied in
consolidating the mutual-aid societies, and in pre-
paring the material for a biography of Saint-Simon,
which Avas edited and published by Hubbard in
1857. A pamphlet entitled "]\Iaria Stella." directed
against Louis Philippe, has been attributed to Ro-
drigues, but without foundation. He was the author
of "Opinions Litteraires, Philosophiques, et Poli-
tifpies de Saint-Simon " (1825). He published also,
as "Paroles d'un Mort," a parable by Saint-Simon.
Georges Weill, UEcole Saint-Stmonieniie,

J. Ka.

RODRIGUEZ : In the. so venteenth.ind eighteenth
centuries many persons bearing the surname Rodri-

BIHMOGRAPIIV
1H96.
s.

441

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rodkinson
Roedelsheim

giiez Aveie condemned by tlie Imiiiisition to death at
tlie stake or to lifelonjjr inipiisonnicnt on the ground
tliat they were "Judiiizaiitcs " or secret confessors of
Jiiduisni. Mig-uel Rodriguez and his wife, Isabel
Nunez Alvarez, the owners of a synagogue situated
in theC;alh'(h' loslnfaiiles, Madrid, in wiiicii Ihcsceret
Jews held their services, togcthiM' witii Leonor Ro-
driguez and her husband, Hernan Baez (Vaez),
weie i)ublieiy burned in Madrid July 4, 1G32.
At the great auto da'fe lielil in ]\Iadrid June 30,
1680,- Catalina Rodriguez, called "la Paciuina,"
who had died in tlu; prison of the Inquisition at S.
Jago de ("oinpostella at tiie age of seventy', was
burned in etligy; and on Nov. 30, 1721, Maria
Rodriguez, ninety years old, and herdaughter, l)oth
of Granada, were led to the stake in that city. In
Cuenca a whole family named Rodriguez, husband,
wife, and several sons and daughters, were con-
demned to lifelong imprisonment, June 2!t, 1722.
Tlie same fate befell the following: a Julian Rodri-
guez in Cuenca on Nov. 22, 1722; another Julian Ro-
driguez, likewise of Cuenca, who was a book-dealer
of Madrid, on Feb. 20,1724, in Madrid; Gabriel
Rodriguez and his wife, also of Cuenca, on .March
13, 1724, in Valladolid; Juan or Samuel Ro-
driguez of Bordeaux, aged fifty-one, who was
a writing-teacher in Hornachos, Estremadura, im-
prisoned in 1723; Juan Rodriguez of Bayonne,
resident in Antequera, in 1725; and the business
woman Isabel Rodriguez of Constautine, in 1726;
and many others.

BiBMOfiKAPMY: Inquisition documents; Kayserlinp. Sephar-
diiiu pp. ;iO;J ct xcq.; idem, KinFeicrtaa i)i Madrid, p. ;J4.

Abraham Hayyim Rodriguez : Kabbi in Leg-
horn about 1750. He was the teacher of Malachi
ha-Kohen, and was highly praised by Azulai and
honored as a cabalist by J. Paeitico in an elegy.
Rodriguez left many legal decisions, forty-seven of
which, dealing with subjects of the four ritual
codes, were publi-shed after his death by his daugh-
ter (the widow of the learned Hayyim Hezekiah
Fernandez Africano) under the title "Orah la-Zad-
dik " (Leghorn, 1780). The fir.st decision, entitled
"Orah ^Mishor," based upon the ritual code.x Yoreh
De'ah, called forth the "Sifte Dal" of an anony-
mous writer, in response to which Rodriguez wrote
fifty-eight coimter-observations entitled "Te-slnibot
Hen Hen." These are printed together with the
above-mentioned "Orah la-Zaddik."

Bibliography: Nepi-(;hirondi, Tn'.rdot Gcdnle FisrnW.p. 10;
lioest, (at. Rosenthal. Bibl. Supplement, p. 376, No. U)-£i;
Fursl, Bibl. Jud. iii. 163.

Alonso Rodriguez : Spani.sh physician of tlie
fifteenth century; born in Seville. He lived at Sa-
ragossa, where, together with Alonso de Rivera of
Cordova, also a physician in Saragossa, he was
burned at the stake March 12, 1488.
Bibliograpiit: Rios, Hi.sf. iii. 610.

David Cohen Rodriguez: Hakam in Amster-
dam; author of a sermon in Spanish, "Sermon
Moral, Pregado Neste K. K. de Talmud Tomb 27
Menahem, 5480 "(= Sept. 1, 1720), Amsterdam, 1720.
BiBLiocRAPiiY: li. fj. J. xxvii. 131.

Henrico Rodriguez : Portuguese pliy.sician and
Marano; friend of Rodrigo de Castro. He settled in

Hamburg helore ir.lM, and left it ;i few years later
on account of the plague.

BinMor.runi V : Kayserllnir. Oeoeh.drr Juilen In Portuanl. p.

~'.it; (.runwiild. l'.,rtuui<Kiinin-ll,n:\,. 131.

Manuel Rodriguez : Maranoand poet. At first
lie was an Aiigustiuian monk, and later he iR-eaine
a tulf)r at Antwerp. H.- was the autlior of tlie
drama " Herodes Saevicns" (Antwerp, 1020) and of
a Latin ode on the physician Emanuel Gomez in
Antwerp {i//. 1G43).

BinuofJUAPiiv: Barlwaii .Maclmdn. fiil-Uoteca Liutitun., m
.Iw; Kayserllnp, .SVp/i<n</im, p. 3nu.

Raphael Rodriguez : Hakam in Amslcrdain;
son of Judah Rodriguez. Jle was the autlu.rof a
funeral dissertation, "Sermflo Funeral a.s Deplora-
veis Memorias de Benjamin Levi de Viltoria" (Am-
sterdam, 17IU).

Bibliograpmy: KayserlinR, Bilil. Enp.-Port.-Juil. p. W.

Samuel Levi Rodriguez : Spanish poet in Leg-
horn ; died 1083. Daniel Levi de Barrios gives srjmc
of his poems and bemoans his death.

Bibliography: D. L. de Barrios. Tnmh Or, p. 47: idem. Au-
moiiij dc Israel, p. 2(J ; Kayseillng. Scphardini, p. 3«3.

■f >I. K.

ROE : Rendering in the Authorized Version of
the Hebrew ""av, which is sometimes translated also
"roebuck " and " wild roe," and occasionally in the
Revised Version "gazel." The roe is mentioned
as an animal permitted as food (Deut. xiv. 5); and
it was furnished for Solomon's tabled Kings iv.
23). Its swiftness, gentleness, and grace are often
alluded to (II Sam. ii. 18; Prov. vi. 5; Cant. ii. 9, v.
17). The feminine form "zibyah" (Aramaic. " ta
bita") Avas used as a proper name (II Kings
xii. 2, "Zibiah"; Acts xi. 3C, "Tabitha"). The
Authorized Version renders "ya'alah " (Prov. v. 19)
also by "roe." and "'ofer" (Cant. iv. 5, vii. 3) by
"young roe." Of the Cerridiv the GuzeUa dorcas is
the most abundant of all large game in Palestine.

In the Talmud the Hebrew " zebi " and "ayyal"

are the generic terms for all species of Ctrn'da. so

that it is impossible to determine which is meant in

each case. In some passages, however, the roe

seems specifically intended : e.g., Hul. 132a. where

reference is made to the mating of the goat with

the zebi ; ib. 59b, a reference to the zebi with un-

branched horns, the roe having as a rule only one

branch on its antler, and sometimes none at all ; Kil.

i. 6, where the similarities between the goat and the

zebi are enumerated. In the same pass;ige the

"ya'el" is said to resemble the hart. The An ft loj^

(forrti.<> is perhaps mentioned under the name {<py

DniD = "goat of Kerkus" (Hul. 591)). See Go.vT;

1 1. Mil; Unicokn.

Bibliography : Tristram. ,Y(i(. Ili.-<t. p. 137 : I.ewvsohn. Z. T.
p[i. 11:5. 13(i.

s I M. C.

ROEBUCK. R..> TImit: l?oi-

ROEDELSHEIM, ELEAZAR SUSSMANN
B. ISAAC : Dutch scholar, probably of German
descent ; lived in the first half of the eighfeentli
century. He was theautiiorof tlie following works:
■'Mohar Yisrael." comprising a Hebrew gntmmar
and a Dutch-Hebrew and Hebrew-Dutch dictionary,
with an Aramaic-Dutch dictionary as an appendix,

Hoest
Romaner

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

442

Amsterdam, 1741, 1744; "Mairgislio Miiil.iali" (1728-
1729), a GcTinau translation of the Bible; ".Mikra
jSIefoi-aslj " (1749), a German translation of ihe Penta-
teuch, lie edited " Niz/.ahon," a Hebrew translation
of " Der Jiidische Tlieriak " of Solomon Zebi Hirsch
of Aiifhausen(a polemical tract directed against the
auti-Jewish convert Biucnz).

BiDLior.RAPHY : Stt'inschneider. Cat. /iix/Z. cdI. 958: Benjacob,
Ozitrhii-Sifariin, pp. :W), ;WS; Fiieiiii. A'OJfcset I'isra*/, s.v.;
FOist, Hitd. Jwl. iii. 4'>.
T. S. O.

ROEST, MEYER (MARCUS): Dutch bibli-
Ograijher; bum al Ainslerdiun 1>'':21; died there iy90.
Becoming connected with a firm of booksellers, lie
acquired a taste for bibliographical studies, and as
a result published in IS'u "Catalogue de Livres
Orientau.x." Roest's best-kuown work is the " Cata-
log der Hebraiea und Judaica aus der L. Ro.senthal-
'schen Bibliothek " (2 vols., Amsterdam, 187o).
After Baron Rosenthal presented his collection to
the Amsterdam Library, Roest was appointed cus-
todian of it. He contributed to various Jewish
periodicals, such as the Dutch "Spectator" and the
"Taalkindig Magazin." and edited the " Israelitisclie
Letterbode " for several years.

BlBLlOORAPllY: Jew. Cliron. Jan. 3, 1891, p. 14.

ROFE, DANIEL B. SAMUEL B. DANIEL
HA-DAYYAN : Italian physician of the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries; lived at Pisa and
Perugia. He devoted much time to the study of
the Arabic writers on medicine, especially Ibn Sina.
His " Eben Piunah " ( Paris MSS. No. 307) was copied
for him l)y Abraham ibn Karshef, who refers at the
end to the merits of Daniel Rofe and his father.

BiBr.ior.KAPMV : Carmoly, Jf/.-i^ ilea Mi'decins Jui/s', p. 1:53,
Brussels, 1K44 : Murtara, /(iiiice, p. 19; yioae, Anti)l<niia h-
raelilica, iii. -4; Fuenn. Kene^et Yisrael, p. 265.
S. S. O.

ROFE, DANIEL B. SOLOMON : Italian phy-
sician and scholar of the fifteenth century ; born at
Fano. References to him occur under date of 1430,
1448, and 1470. He was the author of: a super-
commentary on Ibn Ezra, which work was formerly
in the possession of S. D. Luzzatto; marginal glosses
on Kimhi's commentaries on Amos, Micah, and
Isaiaii. formerly in the possession of De Rossi ; a sup-
plement to Solomon b. Moses' "Apology"; a syn-
opsis of Ibn Ezra's commentary on Genesis, with
notes, under the title " Ha-Gersa ha-Aheret " ; and
an account of his journey to Crete in 1473.

Bibi.I0(;raphv: Luzzatto. In Kerrm Ifcmrd. iii. 174. iv. i;>2;
Cannolv, Hixt. fie« Mi'ileciiin Juifx. iip. i:^2-i:{:{. Brusst'ls,
]K44; Zunz, (V.S. 1. 176, 8 61; Fueiiii, Kenaiet I'lsroc?, p. :it)5.
8. S. O.

ROHLING, AUGUST: Catholic thef)logian
and anti-Semitic autlior; born in 1839 at Neuen-
kirchen, province of Hanover, Prussia. He studied
at Miinster and Paris, und became professor suc-
cessively at Minister, Milwaukee(\Vis.), and Prague,
retiring in 1901. He is still (1905) canon of the
Cathedral of Prague. Not prominent as a scholar
in his specialty, which is Hebrew archeology, lie
has distinguished himself in an unenviable way by
his polemics against Protestantism and Judaism.
Of bis anti-Jewish works "Der Talmudjude"

(Miinster, 1871. and often reprinted) has become a
stiindard work for anti-Semitic authors anil jour-
nalists, although it is merely an abstract of the
"Enldecktes Judentluun" of lOisKN.MKNtiKK, and
even as such very faulty. The book first appeared,
at the time when Bismarck inaugurated his anti-
Catholic legislation, as a retort to the attacks made
by the liberal journals on the dogma of infallibility
and on the Jesuitic te.\t-books of morals, it being
usual for the anti-liberals to pretend that all liberal
newspapers were controlled by Jews. The book was
very extensively (piotedby theCatholic jiressandcre-
ated quitea literature, but it did not become a jiolitical
force until the appearance of anti-Semitism, and es-
pecially until the Tisza-Eszlar trial in 1883, Avhen
Franz Dki.itzscii defended Jutiaism against the at-
tacks f)f Rohling. At the same time Jo.sef S. Bloch
wrote articles in which he accused Roiiiing of igno-
rance and of forgery of the te.xts. Rohling sued
Bloch for libel, but withdrew the suit at the last
monienl. Later on he greeted the ap])earance
of Zionism as the solution of the Jewish ques-
tion, and lately he has written a pamphlet against
Giidemann's "Das Judenthum in Seinen Grund-
ziigen," etc.

Those of Rohling's works which concern the Jews
are, in addition to " Der Talmudjude " : " Ivatechis-
mus des 19. Jahrliunderts fur Juden und Protestan-
ten," Mayence, 1878; "Franz Delitzsch und die Ju-
denfrage," Prague, 1881; "Fiinf Briefe iiber den
Talmudismus und das Blutritual der Juden,"
ib. 1881 ; " Die Polemik und das Menscheuopfer
des Rabbinismus," Paderborn, 1883; "Die Ehre
Israels: Neue Briefe an die Juden," Prague, 1889;
"Auf nach Zion," ih. 1901; and "Das Judenthum
nach Neurabbinischer Darstellung der Hochfinanz
Israels," Munich, 1903.

Of the very large polemical literature against
Rohling the oldest work is Kroner's " Entstelltes,
Unwahres und Erfundenes in liem Talmudjuden
Professor Dr. August Rohling's," Mi\nster, 1871.
Distinguished by sound scholarship and by a digni-
fied tone are the two ivimphlets of Delitzsch, "Roh-
ling's Talmudjude Beleuchtet" (Leipsic, 1881) and
"Schachmattden Blutlilgnern Rohling und Justus"
(2d (d., Erlangen, 1883).

Bini.ioGRAPHY : Ottuv S>lovmk yriucnn. xxi. 89.% Prague, 1904;
Oisterreicliixclic n'ochcitxclirift. passim ; Mitllicilundcii ilea
Vereini' zur Hrli(lmpf}iiiiiil(v A iitisciiiitisiinii<. passim. The
oriRin of Der Tdliniidjuile is narrated in AlUl- 'AcU.iUxJud.
1S71, p. 674; ami valual)le material on tlie lawsiUts in wliich
KolilinK lierame involved by his poletiiioal writinps is found
in ,Ioseph Kopp, 'Anr . Juden frugc nncli den Ahteii dcti Pru-
zeimeiii Uiildimi-lihieli, Leipsic, 1886, and in the JUdi^rhe
Presse, 190:^. No. 46.

s. D.

RO'IM. See Pastoureaux.

ROMAN, JACOB BEN ISAAC IBN BA-
EODA : Ijil)li()grai)lier and wiiter, of S|)ai)ish de-
scent; born at Constantinople about l.')70; died at
Jerusalem in lO.W. He was po.ssessed of great
knowledge; according to Conforte he knew the
whole of the INIi-shnali by heart, and he was well
acquainted with the rest of Jewish literature; he
furthermore could speak Arabic, and understood
Turkish and Latin. The anonymous author of
"Horbot Yerushalayim" (Venice, ir)36) reports (p.
5b) that Roman when on his way to Jerusalem in

443

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Roest
Komaner

1625 was made prisoner, together witlj other Jews,

by AIohainiiicHl ibii Fanikii and was sidjsc(iiiciitly
jaDsoined ; hut it is not cLTtuiu tiiat lie was on his
way to Jurusaieni at tliat date.

Througli ins friend tiie physician Leon Aryeli Ju-
tlaii Siaa, Roman hccanu' acipiaintcil with Anton
Leger (wiio was horn in Piechnont, and was for some
time ciiaplaiu of the Diitcli embassy at Constunti-
nopli', and afterward j)rof('Ssorof Oriental hmguages
at Geneva) and by liim was recommended to Johan-
nes IJuxtorf tlie younger in Basel. Buxtorf made use
of l{oman's bil)li()graphical l<nowledg(^ and owed to
liim tiie wliole appendi.\ to his fatlier's "Bibiiotheea
Kabbinica," which he edited. He entered into cor-
rcsjiondence witii Uoman, which, iiowevcr, soon
came to an end; the two letters of Roman which
have been preserved were published in full in the
" Revue des Etudes Juives" (viii. S7-94).

For several decades the need of a Hebrew printing-
press had been felt in the Orient. At Constantino-
jile, in the last years of the si.xteenth century, tlieie
was no Jewish press; nor was tiiere one in Salonica
in the first half of the seventeenth century. Roman,
as he wrote to Buxtorf on June 20, 1034, conceived
the j)lan of reestublisliing a Hebrew press in Con-
stantinople. He wished then to print Maimonides'
" .Moreh Nebukini " in three languages, the Arabic
text with Hebrew letters — the Turks woidd not al-
low Arabic type to be used — and the Hebrew and
Latin translations, all arranged in three colunms. He
intended also to publisli tiie "Cuzari" ami Bahya's
" Hobot ha-Lebabot," with a Latin translation bj"^ liis
friend Leon Siaa. The project of tiie Hebrew print-
ing-jtress was never realized, nor did Roman itublisii
any of tlie mentioned works; even the translation of
Buxtorf 's "Tiberias, " which he began, and of wliicli
he had already sent a specimen to Buxtorf, was not
printed, if, indeed, it was ever finished.

Roman compo.sed a Hebrew prosody, entitled
"Mozene Mishkal," in wliich he tried to give exam-
ples of 1,348 meters; also an Arabic-TurkisJi and an
Arabic-Hebrew dictionary, the latter of which was
finished Oct. 11, 1629 (the autograph copy is in tlie
Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris). He translated va-
rious works of Jonah ibn Janidi from Arabic into
Hebrew. None of his works appeared in print.
Roman owned many manuscripts which were bought
by Buxtorf for the agent of Cardinal Richelieu.
Most of the manuscripts which Roman mentioned
in his letters to the professor at Basel are now in the
Bibliotht^que Nationale, Paris. On several of them
it is expressly stated that they were in the posses-
sion of Jacob Roman.

BinLior.RAPiiY: Conforte, Knre ha-Dornt p. 49a; Carmoly,
RcvHf (nicutale, ii. 347 : Zunz, Z. G. pp. 2;« el xeo. : Stein-
schneider. Cat. Bodl. p. 12j4, No. .50(IS: idem. Z. D. .V. (i. i.x.
810; Idem, llehr. Vel)cr». p. 377, where KiiU slioiild be read
instead of 1643; R. E. J. viii. 8o et set/.; Cat. I'arix, Nos. 749,
893, 910 et seq., 1277 et seq.
I). M. K.

ROMANELLI, SAMUEL AARON: Neo-
Hebrew poet; born at ]\Iantua Sept. I'J, 1757; died
at Casalc IMonferrato Oct. 17, 1814. A man of great
gifts but unsteady in his habits, Romanelli began to
travel early in life. He went first to Morocco,
where he spent four years. He has described his
experiences there in a work which has become very

popular (see Ix low;. Returning to Europe, he lived
successively in Berlin (1791), Vienna (17'Ja). London
(1799), and Lille (France), going buck U) his iiulive
country uix.ut I8U0. The lust years of his life were
spent in Cusule, wjiere lie dieil suddenlv of apo-
plexy.

Romanelli supported himself by leaching and by
writing Hebrew and Italian poems for weddings,
patriotic feasts, und sindlur occasions; but. being
erratic and a scolTer of religion, he made very
many enemies, und always lived in great poverty.
Besides his Hebrew poems, he wrote trunslutions,
especially of the prayer-book, from Hebrew into
Italian and from Italian into Hebrew. Notuble
among his translations from Itnlian are those of
Metasla.sio's nRlodrama "Themistwcles " and Muf-
fei's tragedy " ^lerope " ; the latter bus been edited
by Weikeri, a Beneilictine monk (Itome, l!Kj:{, 2<1 ed.
1904), while the former is still in munu.scripi. For
the names in the original Romanelli gives Hebrew
substitutes, as JA'/y//> for Menqic, I'alti for lUi/i/nU.
etc. The Hebrew version, while not literally fol-
lowing the original, is not only poetical, but also a
faithful rendering.

Of Ronianelli's works maybe mentioned: " Ha-
Kolot Yehdalun" or "Mishpat Shalom" (Berlin.
1791), a Hebrew melodrama in honor of a wedding;
"Massa' ba-'Arab " (rt. 1792;. a descrii)lion of liis
travels in the Barbary States, several times reprinted,
and translated into English by Schiller Szinessy
(Cambridge, 1887); "Ruah Nakon " (Berlin, 1792). a
philo.sophic poem; "'Alot lia-Minhab" or " Heber
ha-Me'ushshar " (Vienna, 1793), a poem in honor of
the wedding of L. Hertz and Charlotte Arnstein, in
Italian and Hebrew; "Grammatica Ragionata Itali-
anaed Ebraica," Tricst, 1799: an Italian translation
of parts of the Sephardic ritual (n.p., 1802); "Zim-
rat 'Arizim " (Mantua, 1807), hymns in honor of Na-
poleon; " Mahazeh Shaddai " (ih. 1808), Hebrew and
Italian poems; a poetical translation of that part of
the Yom Kippur service which describes the office
of the high priest on the Day of Atonement (Ales-
sandria, 1808); "Tappuah Zaliab " (Vienna, <•. 1810),
an epos from Greek mythology ; a Hebrew hymn on
Emperor Francis of Austria and his brother Arch-
duke Carl (n.d., n.p.). A great number of poems,
a Hebrew grannnar, a textbook on "shehitah." and
translations from the English and other languages
are still in manu.script. Ludwig Geiger believes
Romanelli to be the Italian Jew highly spoken of as a
translator of German classics iutt) Italian and rec-
ommended by F. L. W. Meyer to Wieland; but this
is not at all" probable (" Allg. Zeit. des Jud." 1908.
pp. 9-11, 132).

Bini.ionRAPnv: Delia Torre, In nrn Chnnanja, v. 3B-2S: //
IV-tfi//.! IxmrUticn. 187S. pp. 1.5, l.'il-l.'ia. nnd 1S«. p. 8X:
Stelnsclineider. Die Jtalirtiixche Litemtui ilirJuilfii. Index,
Fnmkfcirt-on-tlif-Maln, l!»l)l : Welkert. pn-fare to hW e<llilon
of Komanellls Menili; Winter and WOiiwbe, LXf J(l'/i*f/ie
Lilteratur. lii. 403.
s. ' '•

ROMANER, BENJAMIN ZEEB WOLF
BEN SAMUEL : Rabbi and preaciier in the siv-
enteenth and eighteenth centtiries. He otViciated as
darshan in Semigrod, and later in Dessau, and in bis
old age lived at Metz.

Romaner was the author of "Ir Binyamin," a

Romanin
Borne

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

444

work in two parts on the haggadot of the two Tal-

niudim (part i., Fniukfort-ou-the-Oder, 1698; part

ii.. Flirth, 1722).

BiBLior.RAPHY : Stelnschneider, Cat. Bndl. col. 793; Azulai.
>7i<)/i lia-GcdoUin, s.v.; .Midiae). Or /ifi-//(((/)/i»t. No. -Tt>;
Benjaoob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. ■»40, Nus. ;Ut) :U7.

s. ' J. Z. L.

ROMANIN, SAMUEL: Italian historian ; born
at Triist in 180b; died ai Venice Sept. 9, 18G1.
Having at an early age lost his parents, who died
in poor circumstances. Ronianiu found himself iiead
of tiie family, with which in 1821 he removed to
Venice, where he secured a position as tutor of
French and German in a private family. His first
literary attempt was a translation into Italian of the
well-known historical works of Joseph von Ham-
mer-Purgstall, under the titles " Impero Osmano "
and " Deir Origine, Potenza e Caduta degli Assas-
sini " ; the latter was published in 1828. This was
soon followed by a rendering into prose of the
German poem " Tunisiade " by Archbishop Ladis-
laus Pyrker (formerly Patriarcii of Venice).

From 1842 to 1844 Romanin 's first great original
work was published in three volumes under the title
of " La Storia dei Popoli Europei dopo la Decadenza
deir Impero Romano. " In 1847 Romanin, who mean-
while had become professor of history iu one of the
colleges of Venice, began his history of Venice, of
which the first volume appeared in 1853. At the
time of his death the whole work was completed
in manuscript; the third part of the ninth volume
brings the history down to the year 1789.

Romanin was a thorough master of the German
and French languages and literatures. He was also
an accomplished Hebrew and Aramaic scholar, and
many Talmudic legends were translated by him into
the Italian.

Bibliography: La Grande Eticijclopedie,v. 28; Archivio
Storicu Italiano, vol. xiv., 2d series.
8. J. Go.

ROMANO ELIANO, SALOMO. See Bap-

TI^lA, (iloVANM SaI.OMO RoMA.NCi El.lAN'O.

ROMANO, LEONE (JXJDAH B. MOSES B.
DANIEL B. MOSES B. JEKUTHIEL or R.
YEHUDAH HA-FILOSOF): Italian scholar;
born at liuine 1292: died there after 1850. Romano
was a friend of the naturalist Benjamin b. Judah,
together with whom he was the center of learn-
ing of the Roman community. He was a gifted
thinker, a fine Latinist, and well versed in scholastic
philosophy. By liis writings and his translations of
philo.sophical works he sought to make Christian
scientific literature accessible to the Jews; he was
also an energetic teacher. "He had many pupils:
he drained the sea of ignorance, and illuminated the
darkness of exile," says his cousin Immanuel b.
Solomon, who, although many j'cars older, had be-
come his assiduous pupil.

Romano set himself to translate the more impor-
tant philosophical works of medieval literature. By
1328 he had completed the "Liber de Causis,"
ascribed to Aristotle, and Thomas Aquinas' " Trea-
tise on Ideas." He then translated A verroes' com-
mentary on Aristotle, and works by Albertus Mag-
nus, /Egidius of Colonna, and Angelo da Camerino.
He apparently translated passages that appealed to

him, and from these compiled a book, with notes.
He wrote also a Hebrew-Italian glossary of philo-
sophical terms, with philosophical comments, ex-
plaining in this way the most important piaj'crs,
and passages from the Bible, especially the story of
the Creation. He wrote, besides, a commentary
on Maimonides' " Sefer ha-Madda'."' uniler tiie title
"Ben Porat," and a work on the theory of prophecy.
Romano's works were frequently transcribed, and
many copies are still e.xtant.

He was Jiighly esteemed by Christians, and is
f[Uoted by them as "Leone de Sere Daniel." King
Robert of Naples called him to his court, and him-
self studied under the Italian scholar.

Bibliography: Stelnschneider, Giuda linmano, Rome, 1870;
idem, Hehr. Uehem. §§ 300 et seq.: Vopelstein and Kieper,
Gesch. der Juden in Rom. i. iH): Gudetnann, Gcsch. ii. 128.

G. I. E.

ROMBERG, MORITZ HEINRICH : German

physician; born at Meiniugen, Saxony, Nov. 11,
1795; died in Berlin June 16, 1873. He graduated
as doctor of medicine from the University of Berlin
in 1817, and after a short stay in Vienna settled in
the German capital in the following j-ear. In 1820
he was appointed physician to the poor, and in 1830
was admitted to tlie university as privat-docent in
medicine, lecturing on special pathology and thera-
peutics. During the cholera epidemics of 1831 and
1837 he w^as in charge of one of the hospitals in
Berlin. The subjects of his lectures included, after
1834, examinations of the heart and lungs. In 1838
he became assistant professor, and in 1840 took
charge of the university dispeusaiy. In 1845 he
was elected professor, and resigned his position
as physician to the ])onr. In 1851 he received the
title "Geheime Medizinalrath " ; and in 1867, after
celebrating his jubilee as doctor, he retired into pri-
vate life.

Romberg published many essays, especially in
Caspar's " Wochenschrift " (of which journal he was
one of the editors from 1833), in Rust's "Ilandbucli
der Chirurgie," in Schmidt's "Jahrbuch fiir Prak-
tische Medizin," in Horn's " Archiv," etc.

He was the translator of Bell's work on physiol-
ogy under the title " Physiologische und Patholo-
gische Untersuchungen des Nervensj stems," Berlin,
1832 (2d ed., ib. 1836), and author of " Lehrbuch der
Nervenkrankheiten," il>. 1840-46 (3(1 ed. 1853-55;
of the 4th edition only vol. i. was published, in
1857). In 1820 he translated Marshal's "The Mor-
bid Anatomy of the Brain," and in 1828 Albertini's
"Opuscula."

Romberg's specialty was neuropathv. In tliis
field he dicl much to advance the knowledge of dis-
eases and their treatment. His "Lehrbuch der
Nervenkrankheiten " gave for the first time a sys-
tematic review of nervous maladies.

Bibliography : Hirsch, Biog. Lex.; Pagel, Bioa. Le.r.
s. F. T. II.

ROME : Capital in ancient times of the Roman
republic and empire; in modern times, of the papal
dominions and of the kingdom of Italy. Jews have
lived in Rome for over 2,000 years, longer than in
any other P^uropean city. They originally went there
from Alexandria, drawn by the lively commercial in-
tercourse between those two cities. They may even

445

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Romanln
Kome

have ostablislit'd a coninuinity there as early as the
second pre-Christian centnr}-, for intlieyear I'M ii.e.
the pretor Ilispanus issued a decree expelling all

Jews who were not Italian citizens.

Early During the last decades of the second

Settlement century u.c, after the war between

in Rome, the Ilasnionean brothers on one side

and Ca'sar and J'oinpey on the other,
the Jewish community in Kome grew very rapidly.
The Jews who were taken to Kome as prisoners were
either rau.sonied b}' their coreligionists or set free by
their Koman masters, who found their peculiar cus-
tom obnoxious. They settled as traders on the right
bank of the Tiber, and thus originated the Jewish
quarter in Kome.

The Jews identified themselves with Koman poli-
tics and exerted at times some influence at public
meetings (Cicero, "Pro Flacco." ch. Ixvi.). They
maintained constant conmiercial relations with Pal-
estine and paid the Temple tax in Jeru,salem ; for
this reason they were greatly interested in the pro-
ceedings of Flaccus (see Di.vspoka; Fisccs Juda-
icus). Caesar, on account of the assistance which
the Jews had rendered him in his war with Pompey,
showed his gratitude toward the Koman Jews by
permitting them to hold public devotional exercises,
otherwise not allowed in the city. Synagogues ex-
isted in Kome as early as the time of Augustus, as
is evidenced by an enactment declaring their invio-
lability. The Jews were further favored in connec-
tion with the distribution of grain, for when the ap-
portionment occurred on the Sabbath their share was
reserved for them until the day following.

The Jewish deputation which petitioned for the
deposition of the royal house of the Idumeans was
joined by 8,000 Jewish residents of Kome. Sev-
eral Komans adopted Jewish customs, and some, as
the rhetor Cilicius of Kalakte, a friend of Dionysius
of Halicarnassus, even embraced Judaism (Mi'iller,
"Fragmenta Ilistoricorum Gra;corum," iii. 831).
The reign of Tiberius (until the removal of his min-
ister Sejanus) was fraught with misfortune for the
Jews. When the cult of Isis was driven out of
Kome (19 c.e.) the Jews also were expelled, because

a Koman lady who inclined toward

Expelled Judaism had been deceived by Jewish

Under swindlers. The synagogues were

Tiberius, closed, the vessels burned, and 4,000

Jewish youths were sent upon mili-
tary service to Sardinia. After the death of Sejanus
(31) the empeior allowed the Jews to return.

The emperor Claudius was not unfavorably dis-
posed toward the Roman Jews in the beginning of
his reign, but in 49-50, in consequence of dissensions
among tliem regarding the advent of the Messiah,
they were forbidden to hold religious services. The
leaders in the controversy, and many others of the
Jewish citizens, left the citj'. A considerable num-
ber of Koman Jews who had become Christians
received the apostle Paul in Puteoli (G1) and
Kome with due formalities (with regard, however,
to Peter's sojourn in Kome, compare Jellinek, " B.
H." iii. 60 et seq., and GiUlemann, "Gesch." ii. 44 et
seq.). Under Nero the Jews of Kome had a compar-
atively peaceful time, owing to the favorable atti-
tude nf the empress Popp:T?a Sabina : but this was fol-

lowed by the lerrilile wars and the C(in(|uest of Judeu
under the eujperors Vespasian and Titus. Judaism
at Kome was now put on the footing of a privileged
religion, instead of its adherents being treated as u
separate nation, and the Jiscus Judaicus was now
levied for the hene/itof llie temple of Jupiter Capito-
linus. A "i)ro(iiralor ad capilularia JiKheonim "
was empowered to collect this tax. and only tho.se wlio
had abandoned Judaism were exempt from paying it.

After the war the Jewish community in Kome in-
creased rapidly ; among the promiMent Jews resident
there at that time, besides Josephus, King Agrippa.
and his sister Herenice. are .said to lia vr- been members
of the four families from which the De Knssi, the I)e-
gli Adolescentoli, the De Pomis.and the
Prominent Degli Piatelli families are descended.
Families. The pressure of taxation lendeicd ijie
condition of the Jews very unfavora-
ble under Vespasian and Titus; and it grew wors4'
through the increasing number of those who aban-
doned, or professed to abandon, Judaism to escape
the payment of taxes. These defections at last Iw-
canie sonumerous that the emperor Domilian, in the
beginning of the tenth decade, found it necessary to
adopt stringent measures. Every suspect was exam-
ined individually, and if the suspicions entertained
were confirmed he was severely punished (Dio Ca-s-
sius, Ixxvii. 2). Among those sentenced to death
or banishment for various reasons were tlie empe-
ror's nephew Flavins Clemens and his wife Domi-
tilla. Kabbis Gamaliel, Joshua, P'.leazar, and Akibn
preached in the synagogues in Rome during their
brief stay, and engaged in disputes with the Judieo-
Christians.

The Jews do not appear to have been affected by
the severe decrees issued by Hadrian after tiie Jewish
uprising. At this time there lived in Kome Theudas.
who assisted in maintaining the teachers in Palestine
and reintroduced the preparation of the paschal
lamb among the Jewish communities of Koine.
During a diplomatic visit which R. Simeon ben
Yohai and K. Eleazar b. Jose made to Rome in the
second century they preached in the synagogues
upon halakic subjects, and they maintained intimate
relations with K. IMattithiah ben Ilcresli. the founder
of the Jewish seminary in Kome, himself from Pales-
tine. Until the death of the last of the Antoninus.
Commodus, the JewssulTeied as much from the mis-
fortunes that befell Kome as formerly they liad bene-
fited by its growth ; especially severe in their effects
upon the Jews were the fanune, the llooil. and the
conflagration under Antoninus Pius and Marcus
Aurelius. Under Commodus they sutTered the con-
sequences of a fire caused by an earthquake.

In 204 Septimius Severus issued an order against
conversion either to Judaism or to Christianity. On
the other hand, theeiiictsof Severus and ("anicalla
confirmed all native-born Jews in their rights; lliey
might even fill government offices while adhering
to their faith. Judaism became a privileged relig-
ion ("religio licita"). Tlie condition of the Jews
lemained much the same under Elagabalus; Alex-
ander Severus treated them so favorably that he was
called derisively "archisynagogu.s."

Anew era began with the reign of Consiimtiiie
(312). This emperor, as soon as lie had defeated his

Borne

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

449

adversary Maxcntius. openly embraced Christian-
ity. Tlic iustitiuious of tiie Roniau Jews were not
molested, but they were thenceforth regarded as citi-
zens of the second class, as were the pagans. Of
greater importance, however, was

Under the the prohibition against circumcising
Christian slaves. Constautine issued a decree

Emperors, forbidding marriage between Jews
and Christians and making the viola-
tion of this order punishable with death. In the
edicts issued by him the Jews are for the tirst time
referred to as a "shameful " or "bestial" sect, "con-
temptible and perverse" ("secta nefaria" or "fera-
lia" ; " turpes " ; " perversi "). Another turning-point
in the history of the Roman Jewry came when the
emperor Julian (the Apostate) ascended the throne.
Though not inclining toward Judaism, he regarded
it as superior to Christianity, and one of his tirst
acts was to abolish the tiscus Judaicus, which liad
then existed for 300 years, thereby placing the Jews
on an equal footing with other citizens. Julian's

were obliged to submit their case to a Roman court ;
and Jews were not allowed to enter the state church
merely to escape material liabilities. On April 22,
404, Ilonorius issued an edict in which he declared
Jews and Samaritans unlit for military service; at
the same time, at the request of the Roman Jews,
he revoked the order forbidding the collection of
money for the support of the patriarchal house.

The bishops in Rome in the meanwhile betrayed
little anti-Jewish feeling. In the fifth century Pope
Gelasius especially evinced a very unprejudiced
spirit toward the Jews; among his immeiliate asso-
ciates was Telesinus, the first Jew mentioned in a
papal document, who. together with his family, was
greatly favored by the bishop.

Theodoric the Great (493-526) showed himself very
j ust toward the Jews. It is true that the former edicts
against them remained in force and that they were
not allowetl to build au}- new .synagogues in Rome;
yet he held to the principle that no man ouglit to be
forced to accept another religion against his convic-

tMii.^.NLt TO A.NXIKXT JEWISH CaTACOMUS AT RO.ME.
(From an old drawing.)

successor, Valeutinian, freed the synagogues from the
obligation of quartering soldiers; this, however, re-
suited in Bishop Pliilaster visiting Rome during
his aimual tour of inspection (middle of 4th cent.),
when he preached in public and won several converts
to the Clirislian faith. Emperor Gratian revoked
(382) the decree releasing the Jews from filling the
office of decurion (sec I)iaspoi{.\).

During the reign of Maxiinus (383-88), who
courted the favor of tlie Christians, a tumult broke
out against the Jew.s, one of their synagogues being
totally destroy erl (387). Maximus ordered the syna-
gogue rebuilt at the expense of the state, but he
was defeated and slain by Tlieodosius before his'
order could be carried out. The rule of Tlieodosius
was not an unfavorable one for the Jews, inasmuch
as they were placed under the protection of the civil
law, and the poorer ones among them were ex-
empted from service among the " navicularii," a
body on which devolved the provisioning of the capi-
tal. On the other hand, two laws were enacted by
Honorius which made it compidsory for the Jews to
fill commimul offices. In civil cases in which the
Jewish disputants failed to reach an agreement they

tion. In the same spirit he granted to the Jews cer-
tain privileges which placed them on an equal foot-
ing with the Romans and the Goths. During Theo-
doric's reign a terrible uprising took place in Rome,
when some slaves who had murdered their Jewish
masters, and who had been punished by the author-
ities, gained the sympathy of the mob, v.hich at-
tacked the Jews and set fire to a synagogue. The
leaders of the disturbance were severely pimished at-
the order of the emperor. There are also re|)orts
about a dissension between the Samaritans and the
Christians, the former claiming a house which be-
longed to the latter. After the death of Theodoric
war broke out anew in which the Jews sided with
the Goths, who, however, were defeated.

From the latter part of the sixth century the
popes were the real lords of Rome, and the Jews in

the eity, as well as in the whole coun-

Under try, were dependent on tlieir attitude.

the Early Gregory I. (590-604) showed himself

Popes. very just and mild toward them; he

forbade t!ie enactnietit of any unjust
laws against them and decidedly opposed compul-
sory baptism. The following words appear for the

Home

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

448

first time iu a letter written by him: "Just as tlie
Jews iu their commuuities may uot be allowed auy
liberties beyond the mcasuie allotted them by law,
so must they, on the other hand, suffer no violation
of their rights" ("S. Gregorii Epistula." viii. 25, ed.
Migne). These words afterward beeame the Magna
Cliarta of tiie Jews (see IVipes). In spite of the se-
verity with which tiie pope proceeded against tiie
slave-trade of the Jews — he even ordered that the
slaves be taken from them by force — he was un-
able to abolish it. This was dm- to tiie fact that
sevend of the Roman Jews who tratlicked in slaves
managed to evade the edicts by bribes and pre-
tended baptism. During the reign of tliis pope the
Roman Jews especially did much to assist their
coreligionists in soutiicrn France and in Greece.

The centuries immcdiatoly following were dark
and troublous ones for the Jews of Rome. The em-
peror Ludwig II. (855-75) is said to have issued an
edict in 855 ordering all Italian Jews to leave the

currcd, which some Greeks maintained was caused
by a desecration of a picture of Jesus by the Jews
iu their synagogue. For that reason Benedict VIII.
sentenced to death some Jews who had been pointed
out as tiie chief offenders.

At this time the Pierleoni famii}', the founder of

which was a Jew, began to come into prominence ; iu

the war between pope ami emperor it sided with tlie

former, and for a short time a member

The of the family held the papal office. Of

Pierleoni the po])esof the eleventh century spe-

Family. cial mention should be made of Nich-
olas II., Avho condeunied the perse-
cutions of the Jews, and who on several occasions
expressed himself against compulsory baptism. Ac-
cording to a ceremonial instituted by Otto III., Jews
and Christians were obliged to attend the entry into
the city of a pope or an emperor, singing laudatory
hymns; it is known that Pope Paschal II., Eniiieror
Henrv V.,and Cali.xtusII. were thus received in Rome

TUE I'LATEA jLDiEA OF THE OLD GHETTO AT RO.ME.
(From a photograph.)

country before the 1st of October in that year.
Tills order, however, was not carried into effect.
A decade later the Bishop of Orta attempted to in-
troduce a special Jewish dress, which, however, was
forbidden by Pope Nicholas I. As to the reign of
Pope John XII., sometimes called Octavian (955-
964), and the coronation of Otto the Great see " Yo-
sippon," ed. Breithaupt, vi. 30.

During the following tliree hundred years the
prosperity of the Roman Jews greatly increased, and
is especially conspiouous when compared with the
experiences of their coreligionists throughout the
world during the same jjeriod. From the Crescen-
tians and Tusculans on the throne of St. Peter they
suffered comparatively little. In 1007 Jacob ben
Jekuthiel went to Rome from Lorraine; he men-
tions a " bet din " which he found there, the presi-
dent of which bore the title of "nasi." About
fifteen years later (1021) a Jewish persecution took
place in Rome. A violent earthquake had oc-

by them. The last-named issued a bull promising
protection for the Jews, and this bull began witli
the introductory words of the edict issued by Greg-
ory I., "Sicut Juda;is non."

Of the rabbis and teachers of the Roman commu-
nity there exists only an incomplete list. Among
the latter the most famous was Nathan ben Jehiel,
who in 1088 established a ritual bath in Rome, and
who, with his brother Abraham, erected a syna-
gogue, which M'as completed in 1101.
Internal As the importance of the popes in the
Affairs ; Christian world had increased with the
Visit of growth of German influence, the Ro-
Abraham man congregation had come to occupy
ibn Ezra, an honored ])o.sition in the Jewish,
world, and questions were addressed
to it even from Paris (Luzzatto, "Bet ha-Ozar," i. 57
etHeq.). After thedeathof Honorius II., Cardinal
Pierleoni ascended the papal tlirone as Anacletus II.
In the struggle which ensued between him and his ri-

449

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rome

val Innocent II., the Jews of Rome sided witli Anarle-
tiis. Bernard of Cluirvaux urged against I'ierleoni liis
Jewish descent; the pope was accused also of having
been assisted by the Jews in robbing tiie Churcli and
in realizing the value of the stolen goods. His suc-
cessor, Inuocentll., did not renew the protective bull
of Calixtus II., nor did he curtail the rights of the
Jews. It was during his reign and during tiic
reigns of his immediate successors that Abraham
ibn Ezra sojourned in Rome (until 1144); his ])res-
ence in the city gave a new inii)etus to study, and
the foremost men of the city, as Joab ben Solomon
and Menahem ben Moses, attached themselves to
liim, the group thus formed being termed by con-
temporary schol-
ars "the wise
men of Rome "
(" Sefer ha-Ya-
shar," p. 549;
"Or Zarua',"ii.
52; Zunz, " Li-
teraturgesch. "
p. 163).

Alexander III.
occupied a pe-
culiar position
t o w a r (1 t h c
Jews. W h e n
pressed for mon-
ey he was very
favorably dis-
posed toward
them, and Ben-
jamin of Tudela
tells how con-
tented the Jews
were under him.
He had even a
Jewi-sli financial
agent (a descend-
ant of Jacob Je-
hiel), who filled
his office very
satisfactorily ; to
him was proba-
bly due the fact
that the protect-
ive bidl was re-
newed. But the

pope showed himself in a different light at the
Third Lateran Council, in 1179. He denounced es-
pecially, though in vain, the employment by Jews
of Christian servants, and he prescribed severe sen-
tences for nurses who entered the service of Jews.
It ■syas not allowed to repair the synagogues as long
as they were not actually in danger of collapsing.
Converts to Christianity might not be disinherited.
To the most prominent representatives of the Roman
Jewry at this period belonged, besides Jehiel, his
cousins Daniel Joab and Menahem ben Judah; with
the latter the Frenchman Joseph ben Pilat main-
tained a correspondence. At the head of the com-
munity stood Judah ben Closes.

Innocent III., at the Fourth Lateran Council, in
1215, enacted that Jews and Mohammedans should
wear Badges, that they should not be permitted to
X.— 29

hold pul)li(' ollices, and tliat tiiey should sign a qint-
< laim foi the interest on the loans furnished the Cru-
.saders. Innocent's successor, Honorius III. (1216-
1227), tore down the new synagogues
i Innocent in Rome. 'I'he pontiticale of (Jreg<jry
I III. and IX. greatly affected the Jewish com-
I Gregory nuinily. His early decisions gave evi-
IX. dence of a deep hatred of the Jews;

l)ut he was reminded by u Jewish am-
l)assador from France that there were Clirislians in
I heathen countries, and it was this consideration, per-
haps, that led him to issue (April 4, 1233) a bull pro-
tecting the Jews. It seems that about this time a
fast-day was instituted in Rome, for which occasion

Be jam in ben
Abraham Anam
and .Moses
ben Aiiraham
wrote SI line ele-
gies (" Kobe?, 'ttl
Yad," iv. «, 17).
A Jewish
source ("Codex
.\ngelinus,''p.7)
relates that in
the reign of In-
nocent IV. the
Jews, in conse-
quence of a
drought which
affected the
whole district of
Rome, were com-
pelled to use im-
ported tomatoes
onSukkot. Dur-
ing the nign of
Alexander IV.
(12.^4-61) Jew-
ish names again
appear in offi-
cial documents,
after an interval
of 750 years.
On Feb. 1. 1255,
a papal order
was issued
granting certain
commercial
privileges to a Jewish merchant nannd Sabbatinus
Museus Salanmn, who is mentioned as the business
associate of several Romans, and who stood in
commercial relations with the Vatican; the priv-
ileges pertained to trading in the Papal States
and in Sicily. The period following the death of
Frederick II., when Oernumy was without an em-
peror, saw the rise of the Flagellants, who.se activity
was not without its influence on Judaism, especially
upon the community of Rome, which thought that
the Messianic time was at hand (" Monats.schrift,"
xxxix. 239). These ideas gathered strength (luring
the disturbances which attended the senatorial elec-
tions in Rome, in consequence of which Pope Alex-
ander III. had been forced to leave the city forever.
A fire that broke out in the Jewish (juarter, the
Trasteverc, on Sept. 26, 126^1, destroyed one of the

Arch of Octavian. the Kntrance to the Old Ghetto at Rome. Church of St. AnRelo,
Where Jews Were Compelled to Attend Baptismal Sermons (in background).

(From a photograph.)

Home

THE JEWISH ENXYCLOPEDIA

450

oldest syuagogucs and twenty-one Torah scrolls.
On account of the large sinus of mouej' the Jews
had loaueil hiiu, Charles of Anjou felt himself under
obligation tt> protect the Jews from tiie injustice done
them by Urban IV'., Alexander s successor, who had
issued (July 20, 12G7) a bull. "Turbato Corde," ex-
tending the i)owers of the Inquisition. About this
time, it appears, a tumult occurred in Rome which
resulted in the destruction of the entire Jewish cem-
etery, and which has been recorded by Benjamin
ben Abraham in his elegy -\ZT> 'mJ '3 '^ n'lN
(•• Kobe? al Yad," iv. 24). In 1272 Gregory X. con-
firmed the bull granting protection to the Jews, to
which was added the clause that Christians should
not be allowed to give testimony in Jewish law-
suits. It also insisted on the absurdity of the blood
accusation. Pope Nicholas III., in a bull issued
Jlay 7, 1278, encouraged the Inquisition to proceed
against converts. During the reign of this pope,
Bonjudah (Bongoda or Biongoda) of Montpellier
stayed for some time at Rome as special ambassador
(Zunz, "Z. G." pp. 461, 405, 519; Neubauer, in " U.
E. J.'' i.x. 56); singularly enough, the date of his
death, Aug. 22, 1280, is mentioned in the Zohar (Jel-
linek, "B. II."' iii. 27 et seq.). Tlie
Jewish presence of the impostor Abraham
Visitors to l)en Samuel Abulafia, whom the pope
Rome. endeavored to convert, had no influ-
ence upon the Roman Jews. A deci-
sion with regard to a ritual question, the only one
made in Rome in this early period and handed down,
was rendered during the reign of this pope (Ber-
liner, "Pelctat Soferim," p. 9).

The pontilicate of Nicholas IV. was of great im-
portance to the Jews of Rome. AVhen he found,
through his physician Isaac ben Mordecai (Maestro
G.\.io), that the clergy of Rome treated tiie Jews
with cruelty, violated their rights, and deprived
them of their property, he interfered. The position
which this physician occupied secured him great
respect within his own community, and lie used his
influence to introduce the study of Maimonides in
Rome. When the Maimonidean controversy broke
out in France, the Roman community took such a
lively interest in it that they sent R. Simhah to
France to procure a copy of Maimonides' commen-
tary on the Mishnah. When Maimonides' grandson
died, in 1299, the communit}' sent a letter of condo-
lence to Maimonides' .son Abraham.

In the meantime Boniface VIII. had been elected
pope (1294) ; and at the very outset of his pontificate
lie showed the scorn with which he regarded the Jews.
When the latter appeared to do him homage they
presented him with a scroll of the Torah as a mark
of honor; but the pope immediately
Boniface handed it back to them with e.xpres-
VIII. sions. of aversion to the Jewish relig-
ion. This was the first sign of a reign
of terror. Informers were encouraged, and great
numbers of Jews were denounced to the Inquisition
by unknown accusers. In one instance the rabbi
of the community was burned at the stake under an
accusation which would have involved the whole
commiinity had he not taken it entirely upon him-
self. Two elegies by unknown authors commemo-
rate this martyr ("Kobez 'al Yad," iv. 30 et seq.).

During the pontificate of Boniface VIII. the Jews
were placed under the jurisdiction of the merchant
gilds. Boniface was succeeded by Benedict XI.
(1303) and Clement V. (loOo); the last-named trans-
ferred his residence to France.

The bulls issued in 1:509, 1345, and 1402 (April 15)
iuilicale in which parts of the city the Jews lived
at these dates. Their quarter extended from the Pi-
azza Giudea to the Piazza dei Savelli, and included
the entire Vuga Judieorum (Jews' street) and tjie
Platea JudiX'orum (Jews' square) as far as the Platea
in Templo Juda'orum (Jewish Temple Place), from
which their street ran as far as the
The Roman palace of Lucretius Cecchus de lo j\Ias-
Ghetto. fro. Some resided in that part of Rome
known as the Regio Ri[)a, but the
greater number lived in the district of Trastevere,
with the Porta Juda'orum. The whole district inhab-
ited by then) was called the " Convicinuni."' The
principal synagogue was situated in the neighbor-
hood of the Church of St. Thomas, while most of the
Jewish physicians lived in the Trastevere district,
where the public medical and grammar schools were
situated. On Feb. 8. 1310, the Senate granted the
Jews a special privilege, whose provisions, however,
are not known.

About two years later, on ^Nlay 7, 1312, the em-
peror Henry VII., hailed by all as the deliverer of
Italy, made his entry into Rome. Illustrations de-
picting his reception by the Jews are preserved in
the"Code.x Balduini Trevirensis" (published by the
Konigliche Preussische Staatsarchiv, with text by
Irmer, pp. ^Qetseq., Berlin, 1881). On Henry's re-
turn from his coronation in the Lat-
Receive the eran Basilica, on June 29, he was pre-
Emperor Rented with a scroll of the Law by a
Henry VII. delegation of Jews Avliich had gone to
meet liim. Before his departure the
emperor imposed a "coronation-tax " upon the whole
city, but it was paid only by the Jews. The Jews
of Rome were so wealthy that the financiers Benia-
mino Diodati and Abraham and Allencio ]\Ioyse,
with their associates, were able to furnish 15,000
florins to the town of ]\Ioutefiascone, which had to
pay this sum to thecity of Orvieto. In consideration
of this, Orvietoadmitted the Jews as full citizens and
as representatives of the professions and the arts.

The important events of the years 1320-21 are
narrated in three Jewish sources (see "Shebet Yehu-
dah," xiv. 37; Steinschneider, " Ilebr. Bibl." vii.
115; Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." 448, 1
[Todros ben Isaac's novclhc on Nazir]). According
to all three sources a persecution took place in the
simimer of 1321, during the pontificate of John
XXII., who ruled in Avignon. According to the
first source it was in.stigated by Sanga, the pope's
sister; she maj\ however, be identical with Sanctia,
the wife of Robert of Naples. On June 18. 1321,
the Jews sent a delegation to the pope, and on the
same day a general fast was ordered. In Avignon
the head of the delegation (possibly a descendant of
the Bet-El family, and probably identical with the
poet Joab) denied the charges that were made;
yet the pope ordered the burning of the Talmud,
in Rome. The nK)st influential and wealthy mem-
bers of the community endeavored to prevent the

451

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rome

execution of this order, but witliout avail ; ilu; I'ul-
iiiutl was publicly burned on the Feast of tihabu'ot,
1322. Not satistied witii this, the mob began a ri(}t,
during which K. Samuel (the father-in-law of tiie
poet Innuanuel of Home) and others were luurdered ;
the scenes enacted have been recorded l)y Inuiianuel
in one of his poems (see "Mouatsschrift," 1872, j)p.
37G et seq.).

The entry into Rome on Jan. 7, 1328, of Louis
the Bavarian preceded a levy on the city of a con-
tribution of 30,000 gold llorins, one-third of which
was i)aid by tlie Jews.

In the fourteenth and the lirst lialf of the fifteenth
century poetry and philosopliy tlourislied in the
community. Intercourse between Jewish and Chris-
tian scholars was, as a rule, unrestricted, and the
Jews were gen-
erally protected
t h r o u g h 0 u t
R o m a n t e r r i -
tory. This, how-
ever, did not i^re-
vcnt bitter re-
ligious (lisputa-
ions from taking
place, which
tended to e.xcite
nuilual animos-
ity. A Jewish
source relates
tiiat an earth-
quake and a
famine occurred
in 1328C'Code.\
Breslauer Semi-
nal', " 1 X V i i .
390b). In 1345
tlie principal
Jewish (juai'ter
was visite(i by
a disastrous
Hood.

The Jews had
hitherto taken
little part in gov-
ernmental affairs, Ijut with the appearance of Cola
Rienzi their attitude changed. Rienzi, the son of
the mistress of an inn, had been born
Connection in the part of the city behind the syna-
with Cola gogue near the Cliurch of St. Tlionias.

Rienzi. and had succeeded in raising himself
to the dignity of senator. When he
found that he could no longer withstand theattacks of
Colonna, he confiscated the property of the wealthy
Romans, as well as that of the Jews. On this ac-
count, and because the Jews were left out of con-
sideration when civic rights were granted to the Ital-
ians, part of liis Jewisli adherents left him. When
Rienzi was hard ))ressed by liis adversary Count Pi-
pino, it was a Jew who rang the alarm-bell to sum-
mon aid for him. The Jews played no part in Ri-
enzi's subsequent reelection as senator and tribune,
nor did they have anytliing to do with his death;
they were, however, compelled publicly to burn his
corpse.

At the time of the Black Death in 1349, the Jews of

The "Five Synagogues"

(From

Rome were spared tlie ravages of the plague. About
this tinu- city statutes were establi.shed which regu-
lated tlie Jewish taxes us well as prescribed the cos-
tume which the Jews might wear; protection was
granted them against extortions on the part of
city odicials and tiie heads of the gilds. Duruigtlie
brief pontificate of Gregory XL. wlio made Rome
again the seat of papal adndnislration, tiie city was
visited by a plague, wiiich formed tlie Bul)ject of a
piyyut by R. Solomon ("Codex Breslauer Seminar,"
Ixvii. 3H()b). Boniface IX., who was elected in
1389, appointed two Jews, Angelo and Salomone <le
Sabalduchio, as his bodyidiysicians. On April Ifl,
1402, he issued a bull which reduced to a miiiiiiium
the power of the Iiupiisition. The favors thus
shown the Roman community tempted thitlier many

of the Jews ex-
iled from France
in 1394. The
willof Menahem
ben Nathan of
Rimini, wjioleft
five old Bologna
reals for the im-
provement of
the coast at Ri-
mini and for the
restoration of
the walls of
Rome, evidences
the attachment
of the Jews of
Rome to their
city (Berliner,
" Ila- M e d ab-
ber," 1881, p.
47). When the
succeeding
pope, Innocent
VII., on liis en-
try into Rome,
w a s g i v e n a
scroll of the
Law by a Jew-
ish deputation
he returned it over liis left shoulder as a formal
expression of scorn; and this custom, derived pcr-
liaps from Boniface, became theuce-
Return of forth part of the ceremony of liomage.
the Scroll Innocent VII. confirmed the physician
at the Elijah Sabbati, however, in liis rights
Pope's Re- of Roman citizenship, granting him
ception. and his relatives exemption from all
taxation and releasing them from the
obligation of wearing the badge.

During the stay of Ladislaus, King of Naples
(1375-1414), in Rome, after thedeath of Gregory XIL.
a Jewish physician named Moses was murdered.
Another Jewish physician by the name of Ilelia was
accused of the murder, and convicted and punished.
The subsequent floods and famines resulted in a meet-
ing at Bologna of the most prominent Je>vish leaders
of Italy, who there resolved tocollect money asan in-
surance against f urtlier disasters and in order to send
a delegation to the new pope, Martin V. Among the
signatures to this resolution appear the names of

of the U.-i
photoffraph.)

Home

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

452

Menahem ben Meshullam Rofe and Benjamin ben
Moses, the leaders of the Jewish community in Rome.
Soon after his accession Martin V. coutirmed the
Roman Jews in all the privileges and liberties
given by the charter of Calixtus II., "Sicut Judieis
non," taking the Jews under his t)wn fatherly pro-
tection. He also abolished compulsory baptism and
forbade the desecration of synagogues. Personally,
he was on friendly terms with the Jews, and he al-
lowed the scholar Aaron ben Gershon Abulrabi to
lecture in the Vatican on the cherubim. Another
scholar, Eliah Giudea, was appointed physician to
the pope, remaining in that position until the lat-
ter's death. The Roman Jews in' this reign sent
Rabbi Elijah, accompanied l)y the young scholar
Elhauan, to Jerusalem to secure* further information
of a reported ri-
sing of the Ten
Tribes ("J. Q.
R."iv. 505). Es-
pecially note-
■worthj- is the
bull of Feb. 14,
1429, by which
Pope Martin
placed the Jews
under the juris-
diction of the
civil law, al-
lowed them to
f r e ci u e n t the
public schools,
and exempted
Jewish trades-
men from wear-
ing the badge.

Martin's suc-
cessor, Eugenius
IV. (1431-47).
bad a different
inHuence on the
history of the
Roman Jews.
His first bull, is-
sued Feb. 8 ,
1433, forbids the
beating of the
Jews on their
holy days, levy-
ing of special taxes, disinterment of Jewish corpses,
resort to violence at the collecting of ta.xes, and unau-
thorized killing of Jews ; but his bull of the latter part
of 1442, which probably he was led to issue by the
Council of Basel, stands in strong contrast to this. In

the bull of 1442, which comprises forty-
Bull of two articles, he forbids tlie Jews to
Eugeaius study civil law or to engage in handi-
IV., 1442. crafts; healsoorderstheaboiitionofthe

Jewish courts. This bull was enforced
with such rigor that several Jews left the Roman
territory and settled in Mantua, by permission of
Franf:isco Gonzaga. However, th(! leaders of sev-
eral Roman congregations met in Tivoli and in Ra-
venna, and by the speedy collection of enormous
sums of money they succeeded in having this bidl
withdrawn, though the clau.se which taxed the

The Two Arks of the Law ui ihe Castilian Synagogue at Rome.

(From a photograph.)

Roman community to the amount of 1,000 scudi re-
mained in force. But the community was so im-
poverished that, at the instance of Moses ben Isaac,
later i)liysician to Pius II., petitions for monetary
assistance were sent to other Italian communities.
The stringent measures adopted by this pojie would
have been modified by his successor, JSicliolas V.,
whose disposition was milder, had it not been for
the inciting speeches of John Capistrano, which
createil such a state of unrest in Rome that the Jews
were compelled to barricade themselves in their
houses. A disputation between John Capistrano
and one Gamaliel (probably identical with Gamaliel
ben Moses, who sold books in Rome in 1433) led to
the bajUizing of the latter with forty other Jews.
When in 1452 a money crisis occurred in Rome, old,

forgotten law-
suits were resur-
rected, and the
Jews were ob-
liged to appeal
for assistance to
the pope, who
canceled all pro-
ceedings.

The anti-Jew-
ish bidls of Ca-
lixtus IV. and
the generosity of
Pius II. failed
to affect the
Jews to any
great extent, be-
cause both
these popes
were too com-
pletely preoccu-
pied in watching
the progress of
the Turks. For
the amusement
of the people
Paul II. intro-
duced foot-races
during the car-
n i V a 1 w e e k ,
with costly man-
tles as prizes; on
one day the Jews
were compelled to join in the sport, arrayed in their
red cloaks. They appear to have enjoyed taking
part in the games, although they had
The to pay a "race-tax " of 1,100 fiorins;

Carnival the sports, however, were probably
Races. abolished shortly after, for in 1408 a
plague that carried olT fifty victims a
day raged in Rome, and two years later a flood
brought new disaster upon the city. Sixtus IV. did
not altogether support the hujuisition, which a
neophyte, Guilielmus Siculus of Rome, had stirred
to action against the Jews because the latter were
said to maintain constant and intitiiate comnuinica-
tion Willi the Maranos. When the pope had ordered
the collection of the .so-called "twentieths," a tax
which had been laid upon the Jews, he permitted
the latter to continue the lending of money at the

463

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Borne

usual rate of interest. During tlie reign of tiiis jiopc
the city was again visited by a Hood, wliieli was
followed by an epidemic of a disease for wliicli a
Jew of Regno discovered a remedy.

Tiie Jews had hitherto paid liomage to tiie popes at
Monte Giordano, but on the accession of Innocent
VIII. a new place was selected for them near Engels-
burg, because; the Roman populace had come to
regard the occasion as an opportunity to insult and
deride the Jews. Innocent VIII. issued (July, 1487)
a severe bull against tiie Maranos, not only against
those in Spain, but also, and especially,

Action against those who had removed to

Against Itome; and shortly after llie issuance
Maranos. of this bull eight Maranos were im-
prisoned in Rome b}' the pope. Tlie
manner of the Roman Jews toward the Maranos
was reserved ; the latter considered themselves su-
perior to the Roman Jews, who, on their part, re-
sented the comiK-tition of the newcomers; in addi-
tion, the papal bull had tilled the Roman Jews with
apprehensions. The deatli of this pope is connected
with the legend that a Jewi.sh physician (the quack
in Lenau's "Savanarola") had drawn blood from
three ten-year-old children for injection into the
veins of the ]>oiie; the bleeding was said to have
caused the death of the children, but failed to save
the pope's life (Infessura [Eccard II. 2005, Tom-
masiiii, pp. 21^ et seq.]).

The expulsion of the Jews from Spain took place
during the pontificate of Alexander VI., and was
the indirect cause of a change in the old Jewish
community in Rome. Tlie Roman Jews appealed
to the pope witli a gift of 1,000 ducats, requesting
him to refuse the fugitives admission into Roman
territory. This so incensed the pope that he fined
them 200 ducats. The inflow of fugitives increased
until it became necessary to erect a new synagogue
(the fourth), which, after a short time, became the
leading synagogue in Roman Jewry. Its first rabbi
was an exile from Provence, the physician Bonet
de Lattes (Jacob ben Immanuel Proven(;'al). The
treatment of the Maranos by Pope Alexander was
highly praiseworthy; although a Spanisli delegation
recjuested their expulsion, and in spite of the fact
tliat they sufl'ered from an infectious disease, he
permitted them to live peacefully outside the Porta
Oppia; and wiien a delegation of Portuguese Mara-
nos arrived at Rome to complain of the Portuguese
government, although the pope ordered 280 Ma
ranos to be imprisoned, he did not proceed against
them with much severit}^

Three floods about this time, following one another
in close succession, brouglit great sufTering upon the
community; this was augmented by the entrj- into
Rome of Charles VIII., whose soldiers committed
such terrible excesses in the Jewish quarter that
Cliarles at length found it necessary as a warning
to erect a gallows in the Platea Judreorum. By
order of Charles the Jews wore for their protection
white crosses sewed on the shoulders of tlieir man-
tles. The games introduced by Paid II. were re-
instituted under Alexander VI. Anotlier, not unim-
portant addition to the Roman conunmiity was
caused by the inflow of exiles from Naples and of
ransomed Jewish prisoners from the Barbary States,

wjio jiad obtained permission from Julius II. (1503-
1513) to settle in Rome. Several of these took part
in the foot-races lield in Rome u few days before the
death of Julius. A description of tliesc games is
given in a poem by Jacol) de I'omis.

During tlie reign of Julius II. 's successor, Leo X.
(15115-22), the Roman Jews enjoyed uninlerru))ted
quiet, so much so tiiat they incjuired in Jeru.salein if
the advent of the Messiali were not drawing near.
Es))ecially noteworthy is the fact that I.co gave the
Jews permission to establish a printing-ollice. It
was opened in the house of Joan Giacomo Fagiotde
Montecchio, but it existed only three mnnllis.
Leo al.so requested the Jews to furnisii him with a
copy of the Talmud. During tlie next pontificate,
that of Hadrian VI. (1522-23), the city was vi.sited
by a pestilence which carried off 2H,000 victims; an
anti-Jewish riot also occurred during his reign, four
Jews being murdered on the Piazza Giudea.

Clement VII. (152;J-34), whom Jo.seph ben David
Yehaf, in his commentary on the Five Megillot (p.
41b, Bologna, 1538), calls "the favorer of Israel,"
disjdayed particular interest in the internal affairs
of the Jewish community, wliich had been divided
into contending parties. Within the community
there existed no authority that could settle these
quarrels, and an invitation to goto Rome was tJicre-
fore issued to Daniel ben Isaac of Pisa, wlio was
highly esteemed by the pope. With twenty of the
wealthiest members of the community, Daniel ben
Isaac began the work of reform. A new Jewisli
organization was established, governed by a board
of sixty directors (this organization existed up to
the nineteenth century). In a docu-
The Com- ment dated Dec. 12, 1524, the pope

naunity signified his approval of this arrange-
Organized ment. The old law governing the
1524. slaughtering of animals for food had
JK-en revived in 1523; according to it
the Jews were allowed to sell only live cattle, they
were not permitted to slaughter in the Christian
abattoirs or in the presence of Christians, nor were
Christians permitted to purchase sJaiighiered cut-
tle from Jews. When David Reubeui and Ids fol-
lower Solomon Molko came to Rome, Clement VII.
not only offered them protection, but provided
them with letters of recommendation. While in
Rome Rcubcni lived in the houses of Cardinal
.iEgidius, R. Joseph Ashkenazi and R. Raphael.
Joseph Zarfati, the physician Moses Abudarliam.
and Isaac Abudarliam. After his successful audi-
ence with the pope the Jewish community hailed
him with great enthu.siasm. and Yom-Tob ha- Levi
assigned him a new residence. Reubeni. however.
aroused some suspicion among various meniliersof
the comnnmify. resulting in the formation of two
parties which .remained at variance with each other
until David left the city, in Mardi. 1.525; at his de-
parture he was escorted by thirty of the most prom-
inent Jews in Rome.

This era of i)rosperity was broken by severe trials.
In 1527 the Spanish-German army of Charles IV.
advanced against Rome, and on May 6 entered the
city. Then began a butchery which lasted for three
weeks, when it was succeeded l»y a pestilence which
in the course of two or three months removed lOO.tKK)

Home

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

454

people. During tlic- pillage Elijah ben Aslier Levita,
"the German/' and Cardinal .Egiiliode Viterbo lost
their libraries, the books being used by the sokliery
as fuel. Although the Jews were accusul of having
purchased at ridiculously low piices the costliest
plunder, they were obliged to borrow money at the
ne.\t levy of ta.xes. In the course of the following
years some members of the Jewish conununity of
Rome became prominent in connection with the
■wrangles which Henry VIII. of England had with
Rome aboiit his divorce from Catherine of Aragon.
Among these
were Rabbi and
"Magister arti-
umelmedicina'"
Ilelias (Halfon),
the convert Dom
jVIarco Raphael,
and Jacob ^lan-
tino, who had
been inthiential
in crushing Solo-
mo n 31 o L K o .
The attitude of
Clement toward
the last-named,
as well as toward
the other Mara-
nos, was very
friendly, and it
was due to his
mildness that the
Jewish commu-
nity of Rome
only four years
later had almost
quite recovered
from the effects
of the disaster.
Still more fa-
vored were the
Jews by Paul
III. (1034-50),
who for that
reason had to en-
dure such op-
probrious epi-
thets as " Sado-
let " and " Lelio
secundo Curio,"
applied to him
by Alexander
Farnese. Paul
permitted all the
Jews who had

been banished from Naples, as well as those coining
from Palestine and Africa, to settle in Rome. He
abolished the pa.ssion - plays in the Colo.sseum, at
which Jews had often been murdered, and he granted
permission (1545) to Antonio Bladao, Isaac ben Im-
manuel de Lattes, and Benjamin ben Joseph Arig-
nano to establish a Hebrew printing-press in Rome.
On the other hand, the pope was compelled to sanc-
tion (1543) the establishment by Johannes Calvus of
the monte di i)ieta, which, the papal l)ull declared,
was instituted in order to make the Jewish usureis

Ark o£ the Law In the Synagopa dos Templos at Uouie.

(From a phoU>',;ra|>h.)

take up handicrafts. This event marked the be-
ginning of an era of reaction for the Roman Jews,
which sec in luider the jiajiacy of Julius III. (1550-
1555), wlio, however, imposed a ta.\ of no more
tiian ten gold ducats on each of the 115 synagogues
in the Papal Stales. This tax was to be applie<l
toward the maintenance of the Casa dei Neotiti in
Rome.

During Julius' reign the monk Cornelio of 3Ion-
talcino, who had become a convert to Judaism, was
bvirncd at the stake (Sept. 4, 1550). Three years later

a quarrel broke
out between the
two Hebrew
printing-houses
in Venice, those
of Bragadiuiaud
Giustiniani; the
wrangle went .so
far that both
parties c o m -
plained to the
pope and de-
nounced the Tal-
mud. The Sa-
c r e (1 C o 1 1 e g e
declared against
the Talmud, and
as a result it was
jiubiicly burned
by i)apal edict
of Aug. 13, 1553;
the burning took
place on the day
of the Jewish
New -Year festi-
val, in the month
following, on
the Campo di
Fiore. Siiortly
afterward other
Hebrew books
w e r,e con-
demned, but
were saved by
the intercession
of R. .Michael
ben Isaac, Jo-
seph ben (Jbadi-
ah di Arignano
and R. Joseph de
Arli. On June
21, 1554, four-
teen rabbis met
i n F K 11 u \ R \
and adopted resolutions concerning the printing of
books and on other matters.

The reign of the succeeding pope, Marcellus II.
(1555), although of only twenty days' duration, is
of importance for the history of the Jews of Rome.
A Spaniard, Sulim. had murdered his ward .so that
he might inherit the child's fortune, nailed the
corpse to a cro.ss, and left it in the Campo Santo.
Suspicion at once fell upon the Jews, and the ]^)pe
and people were enraged. Cardinal Aie.xander Far-
nese then spread the report that the child had been

455

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rome

canonized, whereupon tlie people tlocked to see it,
and a pliysician recognized il. "J'iie result was that
Sulini was convicted and hanged. In spile of this
the convert llananeel <li Foligno incited the mob
against the Jews; he was, however, challenged to a
ilisputation with the rabbis and defeated (Joseph
J)a-Kolu'n, " 'Eniek ha-Baka," ed. Letteris, pp. 114
W .vY/. : "K. E. J.'' iv. 88). Willi the accession of
Paul IV. (1555-59) to the papal throne, favorable
conditions for the l{onian Jews came to an end.

Pope Paul provideil their ghello with
Paul IV. entrance and exit, ordered them to

wear the jellow cap and hood, for-
bade trading in rags, and prohibited also the eni-
liloyment by Christians of Jewisii physicians. Dur-
ing his rigorous reign, David Ascoli, tiie author of
a. Latin apology', was imprisoned, and the Jews'
offer of 40,000 scudi for the revocation of lliis order
was rejected. This pnpc linally abolished the cus-
tom of the Jews paying homage to the popes. On
July 2G, 1555, all the Jews were herded into one
street; and two mouths later this street was encloseil
by walls, for which the Jews were compelled to
pa}' 100 scudi (Oct. 3). All synagogues, except
two, were condenuied, and the Jews were forced to
sell all their jiroperty that was situated outside the
walls. In sjiite of the low jirices ]iaid, this sale
brouglit 500,000 crowns. On March 23, 155(1 the
pope issued an edict according to which the Jews
■were refpni-ed to pay ta.xcs for the synagogues that
had been closed. Borne relief came, however, when
the Jews (Aug. 22, 1556) were permitted to engage
in all handicrafts, with the (exception of those con-
nected with the tine arts.

Soon a great calamity befell the city, when Duke
Alva of Spain, at the head of a powerful army,
marclied against the Paiial States. No one was
permitted to leave the city, and the Jews were put
to work on the fortifications. To this were added
the inrtammatory speeches of the apostate Vittorio
Elliano, Joseph IVToroand the Jew Josuedei Cantori,
which resulted in the confiscation, on May 1, 1557,
of all Hebrew books. The apostate Andrea del
Monte found in the Ashkenazic synagogue a com-
mentary by Ibn Ezra, whereupon the synagogue
was closed and the congregation sentenced to pay
a fine of 1,000 scudi. The synagogue remained
closed for nine months, and this proved the death-
blow of the German congregations. On Sept. 15,
1557, a flood placed the entire ghetto under water.
Paul IV. was exceedingly harsh in his treatment of
the Maranos, whom he, on April 30, 1556, ordered
to be burned at the stake in Ancona. As soon as
Paul was dead his monument was torn down, the
jialace attacked, the ofhcials maltreated, and the
gates of tlie ghetto battered doAvn; a Jew, to the
delight of the populace, placed his own yellow
cap on the top of the shattered monument. Jewish
history likens this pope to Haman (iJ^DS'tO = pH :
Josepli ha-Kohen, I.e. p. 117).

Paul's successor, Pius IV. (1559-66), was the very
antithesis of liim. His first act was to see to it that
the waters of the Tiber were diverted ; for this tlie
Jews were especially thankful, as the ghetto was
most exposed to floods. In a bull issued Aug. 8, 1561.
he revoked almost all his predecessor's enactments;

llie dwciiiiigs of tlic Jews were restricted to the
ghetto, but not their places of business, which they
might establish in any jiarl of the city. They were
allowed also to associate with Christians. Accord-
ing to the decision of the consistory of Treves, of
Murch 24, 1564, the Talmud might again be iirinled,
although under a flilTereiit name. Pope I'ius V.

(1566-72) not only renewed the bulls
Pius V. of Pius IV,, but expelled the Jews

from the Papal States, with the e.\-
ceplion of those of Home and Ancona. In spite of
his hatred of the Jews he allowed them to engage
in the jeweler's trade; he also enlarged the giielto
by tearing down two churches, but in order that
they ndglit not be profaned by their Jewish sur-
roundings.

The accession of Gregory XIII. (1572-85) was cel-
ebrated in a poem by Judah Salteinos; Gregory
luoved iiimself more friendly toward the Jews. The
whole of the year 1573 was spent in the mustering
of troops. The ghetto was attacked during tlie
Passover festival by the troops assembled in l{ome,
who, however, were repulsed by the Jews. The
pope therefore ordered the soldiers to leave the
city. In spite of this the Jews found it necessary
to establish a patrol (Sept. 21, 1573) to guard the
ghetto against the mob. The hatred of the mob is
shown b}' the fact that tluring the carnival, when
Jews were compelled to run naked for a prize, they
were bespattered with mud. On Jan. 10, 1577,
the pope approved the organization establislied by
Clement VII., and the community was ta.xcd ac-
cording to the incomes of its members (" per aes et
libium "). On Sept. 1, 1577, the pope issued a de-
cree that on every Sabbath the Jews should attend
conver.sionist sermons. The first lueacher was Jose-
plius Florenlia; tiie second, and more imiiortant.
was the apostate Joseph Zarfati of Fez, who.se ser-
mons were made famous by his thorough knowl-
edge of rabbinical literature (see Z.\i{f.\ti). A sec-
ond bull, Sept. 1, 1584, ordered that these sermons
should be attended by at least 100 men and 50 wom-
en. The result of these sermons was that several
Jews submitted to baptism, among them being a
wealthy Jew named Samuel Corcos. The sermons
of Domenico Gerosolomitano, who succeeded Joseph
Zarfati. are extant in Hebrew and Italian.

The first bull which actually affected the inner
affairs of the ghetto was issued June 1, 1681; it
granted to the Inquisition the right to proceed
against the Jews in cases of blasphemy, demon-
worship, and heresy ; and as a result Joseph Sanalbo.
a convert to Judaism, was burned at the stake in
1583 (27th of Shebat). Abtalion ben Mordecai of
Modcna held, in 1581. at Pome, a disput^Uion id
Latin in the presence of the pope, the result of
which was that the law regarding the confiscation
of the Talmud was repealed. Under the next pope.
Sixtus V. (1585-90). the Jews enjoyed comparative
immunity from injustice. The onler was given that

they were in no way to be molested,
Sixtus V. and on sevenil occasions the pope

ordered the whipping of Christians
who had insulted the Jews during the carnival.
In this pontificate the Severus arch-candlesticks
were discovered. The bull of Dec. 18, 1585, had for

Some

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

456

Rome the especial provision that the tax of a twen-
tieth vigesima should be abolished, and a poll-tax of
twelve ginli be levied instead. The objectionable
customs of the carnival were also done away with.
In 1587, under the leadership of the treasurer Isaac
ben Solomon Corcos, walls were erected about the
Jewish cemetery. At this time the business of the
ghetto prospered as it had never done before, espe-

Rabbi's Chair in the Synapopa dos Templos at Home.

(From a pfaoU'graph.)

cially after the silk industry was introduced into the
Papal States by the advice of Ma.triiio di Gabriele of
Venice, to whom tiie pope for tliis reason granted
several privileges. The ghetto itself was enlarged
in 15H8 in consequence of the steady influx of Jews;
and on Sept. 4, 1589, separate pri.sons for Jews and
priests were erected.

In order to enable the Jews to pay their communal
debt, which hail increased to 18.000 scudi, Clement
VIII. n592-1605) granted them 214 shares of 100
scudi each in the montedi pietA; in return the Jews
made the pope a present of 3,075 scudi. In his bull
of Feb. 28, 1392, Clement was especially strict in
prohibiting the Jews from as.sociating or doing busi-
ness with Christians and converts. Another bull
of Feb. 25, 1593, ordered the expulsion of the Jews
from the entire papal territory, with the exception

of Rome, Ancona, and Avignon ; and on March 3
following all Talnnuiic works were given over to
the Inquisition to be burned; the destruction took
place on the Piazza San Pietro Jan. 14, 1601. On
l)ec. 18, 1599, the pope i-ssueil a brief admonishing
the chamberlain to take measures against any in-
crease in the size of the Jewish community. When,
in the jubilee year 1600, the Jews were ordered to
give up their beds for the use of the pilgrims, it was
found that there were only eighty blankets in the
ghetto; consequently the Jews had to pay 317 scudi
instead.

Of special importance to the community was
the ghetto regulation of June 18, 1603, wliich gave
precise instructions as to when the gates of the
ghetto might be opened and how long they might
be kept open. Exceptions were, however, made to
meet extraortlinary and imforcseen circumstances.
An order of Jan. 4, 1604, prescribed that the Jews
should pay a yearly tax of 800 scudi for those who
had been expelled. Among the many oppressive acts
of the Inquisition was the seizure of R. Joshua As-
caredi, his wife, and four children ; the children were
baptized, and the rabbi and his wife were set free
after having been imprisoned for forty-three days.

Pope Paul V. renewed all the anti-Jewish bulls

issued by his predecessors. lie dealt a death-blow

to Jewish civil jurisdiction by ordering

Paul V. that henceforth Jewish lawsuits might
be brought onlj' before the governor.
Paul established a well on the Piazza del Tempio
and permitted the Jews to lead water from this
well into the ghetto. On Aug. 13, 1620, the Jews,
through R. Hezekiah Manoah Corcos, petitioned the
pope to issue an order that Jews who had been im-
prisoned for debt by Cliristians should be careil for
at the expense of the latter. On Jan. 11, 1621, the
rota i.ssued a proclamation, consisting of thirty-nine
articles, favorable to the Jew.s.

The condition of the Jews improved neither under
Gregory XV. nor under Urban VIII. The latter
ordered the community to pay to Leonardo Masse-
rauo, a convert to Cliristianity who had written a
book against Judaisni, annually for five years, until
1034, tiie sum of 1,200 scudi. "When Odvardo of
Parma, on Oct. 13, 1641, invaded the Papal States,
the Jewish taxes were increased to 150,000 scudi, and
this sum was never refunded to the conununity.
Compulsory baptisms also became more frecjuent;
thus the pope had the two children of the Jew Fullo
Serotino .seized and baptized; on account of this a
revolt broke out in the ghetto, and precautionary
measures had to be taken (May 28, 1639).

The pontificate of Iimocent X. (1644-55) would
have been more tolerable had it not been for a terri-
ble famine, which lasted for years and made it nec-
essary for the Jews to borrow 160,000 scudi from
the monte di pietii, for which they paid 4^ per cent
interest. An account of the pestilence during the
reign of Alexander VII. (1655-67) has been given by
the Roman autlior Jacob Zahalon, in his ''Ozar ha-
Ilayyim " (Venice, 1683). The spread of the disease
through Jewish jiedlers was generally feared, for
which rea.son the ghetto was closed. Nevertheless,
the first case within the ghetto occurred three months
after the first appearance of the plague, in the latter

457

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rome

part of October, 1656, and it ended tliere earlier tlian
elsewhere (Aug. 28, 1657). Within the ghetto the
pestilence claimed 800 victims. Two cardinals vis-
ited the ghetto twice daily to sec to the needs of the
community and to the isolation of the sick. Lazaret-
tos were established; they were divided into three
departments, in charge of the physicians Haiianiah
de Modigliano, Gabriel Lariccia, and Isaac Zahalon.
The last-named, as well as other rabbis, preached
every 8al)bath from an open window, because the
prayer-houses were closed. Thirty of the sixty
c<imnnuial leaders were selected to keep up comnui-
nication with the outer world. These thirty sur-
vived the plague, and a yearly service was lield in
the synagogue on the Ilanukkah festival to com-
memorate their good fortune. The expenditures of
the community during the plague amounted to 40,-
000 scudi, and therefore the pope lowered to 4 per
cent the rate of interest on the Jewish loan from the
monte di pieta. The sufferings caused by the
plague, and by the famine which raged from 165C
to 1G57, have been narrated by Elijah Hecanati (Zunz,
"S. P." p. 440). On account of an overflow of the
Tiber, on Nov. 5, 1060, by which part of the ghetto
was destroyed, the pope permitted the erection of
an additional gate opposite the Cluci Palace. In
the same year the sixty leaders drafted a set of reg-
ulations in regard to the passion for finery, and pub-
lished them on the gates of the ghetto. The same
body issued, in ]\Iay, 1667, an edict regulating the
property assessment of the individual members of
the community.

The compulsory participation of the Jews in the
foot-races was abolished by Clement IX. (May,
1668), but the Jews were required to pay an annual
tax of 300 scudi instead. In addition, the leader of
the Jewish community, on the day of the carnival,
gave the commander of the Caporiones a present.
The Shabbethaian Nathan Ghazali, who arrived in
Rome in 1608, was expelled at the request of the com-
munity. During the reign of Innocent XI. an ofli-

cial armed w ith a staff attended the

Con- conversionist sermons to compel the

versionist audience to listen. Clement forbade

Sermons, the establishment in Rome of Jewish

banking-houses. Compulsory bap-
tisms took place under Innoc^'cnt XI. (1676-89), not-
withstanding his emphatically expressed belief that
"one might lead, but not drag, a man into the house
of God." Under Innocent's successors the JcAvish
community again attained to some degree of pros-
perity, especially under Innocent XII. (1691-1700)
and Clement XI. (1700-20). Nevertheless, many
compulsory baptisms took place tinder the last-
named pope, and a blood accusation was made. The
accusation was disproved by R. Tranguiko Vita
Corcos in a book written in Italian and translated
into Juda?o-German ; the translation appeared in
Furth in 1706 (Roest, "Cat. Rosenthal, Bibl." i. 55).
Clement put an end to the carnival processions, a
feature of which had been the presence of 100 Jews
mounted on donkeys, with the rabl)i at the head of
the procession and facing tailward.

Under Innocent XIII. (1720-24) and Benedict
XIII. (1724-30), who renewed all the anti-Jewish
bulls issued by Paul IV. and Pius V., the Jews were

assisted by tlie Incjuisition, whicli did not permit any
interference in their business affairs. Of tiie many
interdictions which were issued by Clement XII.
(1730-40) special mention siiould 1)0 made of the
repetition of an order forbidding Jews to inscribe
any ejiitaphs on their tombs. This order had orig
iiialcd as early as the time of Pius V. On May 28,
1731, all Hebrew books found in the Pajml States
were confiscated. On Oct. 24, 1736, the death i)eii-
alty was inllicted on two Jews who had been caught
breaking into Jionses in the glietto. Baptisms of
Jews took i)lace in Rome Jan. 18. 1732; Oct. 19,
1737; and Oct. 25, 1737.

A period of comparative peace for the commu-

Rabbl's Chair of the Slxteenlh Century In a Synagogue at R. imo.

(From a pholoeriph.)

nity began under Benedict XIV. (1740-58). who is-
sued three bulls regulating the cjuestion of compul-
sory baptism. When the rumor was
In the spread that prohibited books were
Eighteenth iuing smuggled into Rome liidden in
Century, bundles of chith t-ic pope ordered
(.Vpril, 1753) a confiscation of books,
which was carried out. During the reign of this
poiK' a delegate from the Jewish community in Po-
land, Eliakim ben Asher Sclig, journeyed to Rome

Some

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

458

iu order to refute a blood accusation ; tlie decision
of the pope was in favor of the Jews.

As soon as Gauganelii had ascended tlie papal
throne as Clement XIV. he diss<ilved the order of
the Jesuits and freed tiie Jewish coniinunity from
external jurisdiction and from the control of the In-
quisition, lie, as well as his successor Pius YI.
(ITT.VISOO), endeavored to promote Jewish trade
antl industry, until a reaction set in when the rest
of the world adopted a policy of liberalism. The
Jews were again forbidden to leave their ghetto,
and were even prohibited from erecting monuments
on their graves. In 1784 three Jews were murdered
in tiip public streets, and two Jewisli children Avere
forcibly baptized. The Koman cumnumity tiierc-

Chair of Elijah in a SynaRogue at Rome.

(Jroin a phuto;p-aph.)

fore found it necessary to confer with the other
European communities regarding methods of pre-
venting such forcible conversions.

Toward the end of tiie eighteenth centur}' the
Italian and Roman rabbis were accused of having
made various religious changes, whereupon R. Judah
Leon of Rome, in the names of his brother rabbis,
published an apology entitled "Miktebe ha-Rab-
baiiim Asher be-'Are Italya "( Carmoly, in "Revue
Orieutaie," iii. 171). The condition of the Roman
Jews changed suddenly when General Berthier en-
tered Rome on Feb. 15, 1798. Five
Entry of days later the pope left Rome, and
the French, the Jews were declared free citizens;
they at once laid aside the Jewish garb,
and, to the accompaniment of music, j)lanted a "tree
of liberty " in front of the synagogue. Several arti-
cles taken from the Vatican were purchased by the
Jews, but were at once destroyed. When the Xa-

tional Guard was established (Maich 14) the Jews
were at lirst prevented from joining it ; but shortly
afterward the Jew RarafTael was appointed a umjor
and several other Jews were enrolled in the ranks.
On one occasion the Jews had to pay, at a few hours'
notice, 150,000 scudi in coin, and 150,000 in bank-
notes, besides delivering great quantities of various
articles. On July IG, in the same year, the Jew
E/.ekiel ]\Iorpurgo was appointed a .senator. When
the Xeapolitans invaded Rome, they Jjut an end to
the French government, and imposed new taxes ou
the Jews.

The mantle of the pontificate fell next upon Pius
YII. (1800-2;3), who iu every ]5ossible way endeav-
ored to improve the reduced tiuancial conditi<m of
the Jews. On June 10, 1809, the pope was compelled
to leave Rome for live years; the Jews were again
proclaimed Roman citizens, and the ghetto was al-
lowed to remain open. On Jime 4, 1811, the first
Roman consistory was constituted under the regime
of Napoleon; its leaders were R. Leone di Leone,
Giuseppe Samuel Benigno, and the citizens Vitale de
Tivoli, Abram Vita Modiglani, and Sabbato Alatri.
Shortly afterward, however, with the fall of Xapo-
leon, the Castle of Saint Augelo was returned to the
pope, and the gates of the ghetto were closed. The
Incpiisition was reintroduced, Jewish trading privi-
leges were limited to the ghetto, and the Jews'
franchise was revoked. Conditions became still
worse under Leo XII. (1823-29) and

In the Pius VIII. (1829-31), when all the me-
Nineteenth dicval edicts and bulls were renewed.

Century. After the death of Leo XII. the Jews,

mad with rage, tore down the ghetto

gates; this, however, did not tend to improve their

condition; they were even compelled to listen again

to conversiouist sermons.

Although Gregory XVI. (1831-40) was greatly in-
debted to the Jewish house of Rothschild, and in
spite of the intercession of the Austrian government,
the ghetto gates Avere reerccted during his reign.
This pope demanded also of the connnunit}' a copy
of the Torah in evidence of allegiance ; the commu-
nity gave him instead a different scroll written in
Hebrew and ornamented with costly pictures, for
which they had paid 10,000 francs.

The epidemic of cholera which raged in Rome
in 1837 inHicte<l comparatively little loss upon the
Jews. In 1839 the pope, at the request of Baron
Jamesde Rothschild, presented the community with
a building to be used as a trade-school for boys. The
election of Pius IX. to the papal throne in 1846 was
an auspicious event for the Jews. Upon his acces-
sion he distributed 300 scudi among tlie poor of the
ghetto, and he showed his humane feelings during
the Tiber floods of Dec. 10 and 12, 1846, when he
sent relief to the Jewish quarter first of all. On Oct.
1, 1847, the carnival festival was finally aboli.shed,
and in May of the .same year the Jews were granted
permission to live outside the ghetto. The conver-
sionist sermons were discontinued.

A complete reconciliation between the general
populace and the Jews was, however, first effected
on July 15, 1847, through the eloquence of Ciceru-
accliio. On April 17, 1848, the work of removing
the ghetto walls began, by the order of the pope.

459

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rome

Sliordy after a mob acain rose airainst tlic Jews,
wliii, liowcver, successful 1\' deleiuled llieinsclves.
The icv(iliitii)ii of 1848 jirogresseil so rapidly that liy
lliceml of that year the pojie \vascon)pclle(l to leave
Konic. On Fcl). 9, 1S4'.), tlio '• Asscmblea " pro-
<'laiiiied llie full civic equality of the Jews. The
new g()\-erniiieiit did not endure very Ion;;, liowever,
for on June 80 the city was retaken; and the pope
hail hardly reached ]{onie before tJie old regime was
resioied. In Oct., 1849, the liouses of all Homan
Jews were searched because their owners were siis-
l)ected of having Church ])roperty in tiieir posses-
sion. Ornaments which bore no satisfactory maiks
of ownershiji, including even such as belonged to
the synagogue, "svcre not returned to them. Com-
]udsory bajttisms took place, as in Sinigaglia and
Ancona. The ]\Iout.\k.v C.vsh aroused attention in
is,")!). Tiie financial ditliculties of tlic Homan com-
munity became so desperate that it had to ajiply for
aid to other European communities (" Allg. Zeit. dcs
Jud." 1800, 1870; "Wertheimer, "Jahrbuch," 1860-
1801). Even in the si.xties coercive baptisms oc-
curred in huge numbers. In 1806 the final revolu-
tion broke out; Garibalili Avas soon defeated, but in
1870 tlic victorious Victor Emanuel entered Rome,
and the definitive overthrow of the secular power
of the ])apacy was effected.

Until the lirst century en;, the Jewish settlement
in Kome occupied the Trastevere section of the city ;
and the part before the Porta Portese was known up
to the seventeenth centiny as the "Jews' field."
During the reign of Domitian a new
The Jewish Jewish quarter was e.stal)lished on tlie

Q,uarter Via Ap])ia, outside the Porta Capena,
and Syna- and this soon became the most densely

g-ogues. inliabited Jewish district in Pome; a
reasonable estimate of the number of
Jews in Pome during the empire would give at least
40,000. This large population rendered several syn-
agogues necessary which were called -fmaevxy. Ten
of these old congregations are known as those rc-
speclivel}^ of Augustus, Agrippa, Campus Martins,
tiie Subura, the Carcaresisuis, the Hebrews, the
Pliodians, the Ela?auians, Volumuius, and Scverus.
The two first-named date from the reign of Au-
gustus. The iPianagement of the separate congre-
gations was in the hands of archons, whose duty
it was to see to all the details of administration.
The "gerusiarch" presided over the college of ar-
chons; independent of this college stood the arclii-
synagogue, who was the highest official, and one of
wlio.se chief duties was to preach in the synagogue
on Sabbaths. A subordinate office was that of the
v-rjphtjq (riDJDn Jtn), who had charge of juridical
alTairs. In time these minor offices became heredi-
tary, thereby assuming an aristocratic tendency.
Higher ]Kisitions within the community were occu-
]iie(l by the pa,^.3iv6g (possibly identical with 1J3"l\
the /i(iftr/r7/g aocjiuv {= Q^n T'ObO). fH5<l fbe yfmfiftanic
(="1D1D). The exact locations of only three syna-
gogues are known: the oldest synagogue, situated
in the Trastevere quarter, near the present Church
of St. ('ecilia : the synagogue of the Subura, situated
in the neighborhood of the Esipiiline, outside the
Pomerium; and a synagogue outside the Porta Ca-
pena, near the sacred grove of Egeria. A seminary

also existed as early as the first preCliristiaii cen-
tury (IMiilo. "De Virtulilnis it F.cgalio ad Caiiiin."
ed. Mangey, ii. .168).

There were at that linn- a Jewish court of jiiK-
tice, a ritual balh, and calacumhs. One; of tliese
catacombs was discovered by IJosio in 1(102. but ull
knowledge of this has Ixeii siM<e losl. I'p to the
present time, liowever, four others jiave lieen dis-
covered, all of which are situated on the Via Appiu.
The.se catacombs each contain two culiicula. deco-
rated with aiiistic paintings. The oldest inscripiioii
met with in the catacomiis is of the second pre-Chris-
tian century. Besides individmd tombs tliere were
family vaults, and the great age of these may be
surmised from the family names wjiicji appear on
them, as Julii, Claudii, Flavii. To a ciriaiu <\tcnt
the inscriptions uveal tlie callings

Jewish which the Jews pursued. Tiiegreuler
Catacombs. ]>art wereengage<l in business; sevenil
were money-brokers; tiie handicrafts
were well represented, and there appear to have
been many artists and mechanics among llieni.
There were also Jewish actors, of whom Aiityros,
during the reign of Nero, and Faustiiiii, in tlie time
of ]\Iarcus Anrelius, are known, as well as several
contemporaries of Martial. The number of Jewisli
slaves was very considerable. Tiie Jews distin-
guished themselves by their devotion to their homes
and families, their industry, and tiieir frugality. An
exception to this is furnished by the sons of Herod
and their descendants, who are known to have been
spendthrifts. The women occu|>ied a very honora-
ble position ; young girls were married between
thirteen and fifteen years of age. Ueligious cere-
monials, the Sabbaths, the feasts and fast -days, and
the dietary laws were strictly observed.

The only custom which was in opposition to an-
cient Jewish ideas was the nse on tombstones of ani-
mal and Jiuman figures. The language in ordinary
U.SC was at first Greek and later Latin, these lan-
guages being used also in the Sabbath services.
Whether the Jews really were zealous in making
proselytes can not be ascertained, but it is known
that many Komans, often large numbers together,
embraced Judaism, which generally resulted in per-
secutions. Those whoenibraced Judaism wereeilher
semi-convcrls {-iyL"ri '13 = ■&toae,ie}^ or ae.i6firfoi)
or proselytes (pnViT "'"IJ>- Not even the downfall of
the Jewish state diminished the number of conver-
sions that were made; still only the names of a few
converts have been ])rescrved. These include
Fulvia, the wife of Saturninus. senator during the
reign of Tiberius; Poppaea, Nero's wife, who was a
^Foae,3J/; Pomiionia Gra^cina. who was accused (58)
of practising religious ceremonies unauthorized by
the state; IJeturia Paulina, converted at the age of
seventy (perhaps identical with the Talmudic Bekii-
rit or Berusia; GrJUz. "Gcsch." iv. 102); and Cliry-
sis (3d cent.). Among the male converts the most
noteworthy were Agrippa. son <! Fii.<;(usof Plienon.
and .Emilius Valensins.

The Christians at this time constituted mereiv .-x
sect of Judaism, and the comjilete separation of tiie
two creeds occurred at a much later period. Not
until the second century did the Christians visit the
synagogue with the purpose of holding disputa-

Home

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

460

tions with the Jews after service. Otherwise, Jew-
ish customs and ceremonies were unknown to the
Romans, and not a single one among their most
famous authors has given even an approximately
correct representation of Jutiaism. Of fantastic

accounts the following may be men-
Notice tioned: Justinus (" Epitoma," xxxvi.
by Pagan 2). Tacitus ("Hist." v. 2-5). Plutarcli
Authors. ("De Iside," xxxi.), Strabo ("Geo-

graphia." xvi. 235 ei seg.). Cicero ("De
Provinciis," v. 10; "Pro Flacco,"' Ix. et seg.). See
Classic.\l "Writers. Jewish hatred of Rome dates
from the de-
struction of Je-
rusalem. Rome
was regarded as
" t h e f o u r t h
beast " in Dan-
iel's vision, and
was given the
name of " Ha-
zir " (the swine;
Zunz. "G. S."
iii. 221 ; Bacher,
in " M o u a t s -
schrift,"1871. p.
226). The " uni-
corns " of Isa.
xxxi v. 7) are re-
ferred to the Ro-
mans (D'DXI =
D'^OTI). and the
"Dnmah"of Isa.
xxi. 11 is applied
to Rome (XCJ'D

KOn; cp. Yer.
Ta'an.lxiv. 10a).
Mention must
also be made of
the legend con-
cerning TiTLS.

W i t h the
downfall of pa-
ganism and the
growth of the
Christian relig-
ion the status of
the Roman Jews
underwent a
change. They
began to leave
the Traste-
vere quarter and
to settle on the

left bank of the Tiber, and the Pons Fabricius at
last came to be known as tiie Pons Judaorum. The
Jewisli population df'crea.sed in tiie same proportion
as the general population. The organization of the
community riianged but little. At ils head stood
the ril^in 'J'N"!, t') whom were inferior in rank tlie
riDJDn 'J^'KI. the latter being known also as "patri-
archs" and " presbyters" (□'jpf). Tiicse officiated
also as "didasfali " (D'J3"1). In the Justinian no-
velise they are called also xpiD 'JJ''"), while the sem-
inary is called nyin n'3- Ou account of the gen-

A Nook in the Old Ghetto at Rome.

(From L&nciani. " N'ew Tales of Ancieut Rome.")

eral lack of knowledge of Hebrew the office of
prayer-leader (HDJ^n pn) gradually increased in im-
l)ortance. The ni?3 'li""! or n3'L'" "l^'HTt
Justinian rendered decisions in all religious mat-
Con- ters.
stitution. The Jews were no longer citizens, but
constituted, in common with Saxons,
Franks, and Friesians, a "schola peregrinorum " or
"society of foreigners." They enjoyed full relig-
ious liberty, in return for which they assumed all a
citizen's duties toward the state; minor offices also
were open to them. Only the synagogues were ex-
empt from the
duty of quarter-
ing soldiers.
The trade in
slaves consti-
tuted the main
source of liveli-
hood for the
Roman Jews,
and decrees
against this traf-
fic were issued
in 335, 336, 339,
384, 415, 417,
423, 438, and 743.
Education was
mainly religious
in character,
most stress be-
ing laid upon
a knowledge of
the Bible. The
liturgy under-
went practically
no changes. In
case of a death
in the commu-
nity the mourn-
ers' tirst meal
consisted of len-
tils ; at such
religious cere-
monies as cir-
cumcision and
betrothal, ten
witnesses were
required. The
term Di:p-n:"ID
:= (T I ' f 7 f K r o f ,

meaning "god-
father," origina-
ted probably in
Rome, and the
idea associating the life beyond with a heavenly
feast, in which all the virtuous share, found its
origin there also (sec Jellinek, "B. 11." v. 45 ct xcg.).
The same may be said concerning the legend of the
^Messianic war.

The lionian Jews were scorned and insulted by
both pagans and Christians, and Claudius Rutiiius
Numantius calls them "a people winch performs
shameful operations on new-born children." Chris-
tianity strictly forbade compulsory baptisms, but it
inflicted the severest punishments upon those who

461

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rome

foil away from tlio Cliurcli after they had been Imp-
tizeil. In si)ilc' of tliis llic rchitions belwccu Chris-
tiaus and Jews in Home seems to have been in-
timate, and until the latter jtart of t lie eighth rcntury
many of the former observed the Jewisli Sabbatli.
Gradually, Christianity began to assail .ludaism;
this tendency became esjieeially manifest in disimta-
tioiis. The first of these disputations is said to liave
been held in Koine between ]*ope Sylvester (314-

Rome become more abun<lanl. IJusinessnnd indus-
try were zealously pursued, and the prosperity of the
rommunity increased upace, liut its members num-
bered only one tiiousand. The Jews still inhabited
in part the Trastevere quarter, u tir(r which des-
troyed twenty-one Torali scrolls being reported as
having taken place in the synagogue iheie in V2iW.
Another group of Jews lived in the iiorlheasicrn
part of the city, where u "Mons Judii-orum" still

RUA Via, Home. (The Largk Door to the Kight Led to the Old Talmid Torah.)

(From a photograph.)

336) and the Jew Noah; another is known to have
taken place between Theophilus and a Jew named
Simon. The famous legend concerning Peter, which
attributes to him the authorship of the Sabbath-
prayer ("Nishmat ") and of the prayer for the Day
of Atonement ("Etan Tehillah"), originated in
Rome.

From the eleventh century till into the fourteenth,
the sources for the internal historv of the Jews of

existed in the thirteenth century. Ik-sidcs the old
synagogue in the Trastevere tliere were several
others: that in the Riolle della Regola: thaterecU-d
in 1101 by Nathan ben Jchiel and his brother
Abraham; the Bozecchi Synagogue, which w&c
built in the thirteenth century : the synagogue of R.
Joab, built in the fourteenth century; an<i the Gul-
lican synagogue, probably built by French Jews.
Verv little is known concerning the organization

Borne

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

462

At the head of

(pni; another offi-

of the community at this period,
jurisprudence stood the "judex
cial was the "strator," who possiblj' was identical
with the DiTD- Tiie prayer-leader was called |tn-
The Jews were free from taxation, but wlieiiever
the pope entered tlie city tliey were recjuired to do
him homage and present him with two pounds of
cinnamon and one pound of pepper. The antago-
nism between Jews and Christians was not very deep,
and altiiough few intermarriages occurred, the popes
often complained of sexual intercourse between
them. Disputations were often held, but these led to
no definite results; and they were generally brought
about by the Jews
themselves. A com-
parison between po-
lemical writings of
this period — as, for
example, ijctween
those of Solomon ben
I^Ioses and those of
the Dominicans — at
once shows the su-
periority of the Jew-
ish disputants.

The educational
system of tliis period
was higldy devel-
oped ; the knowledge
of Talmud, Bible,
and religious practise
had attained a high
degree of excellence;
grammar, however,
appears to have been
somewhat neglected,
^lathematics and
philosophy were as-
siduously cultivated,
and the study of med-
icine was greatly fa-
vored. A more fre-
quent interchange of
correspondence tooiv
place between the
scholars of Rome and
of other European
cities. It appears
that tlie Jews were
well represented in
mercantile and finan-
cial circles also. Their export trade was verj- con-
siderable, while the clothing and dyeing industries
were equally flourishing; a number of Jews were
engaged also in agricultural pursuits. The wealth-
iest among the Jews imitated the Italian nobility,
not merely with regard to tlieir mode of living, but
also by adopting the roles of Mtecenates, thereby
stimulating scientific pursuits among Jews.

Among tlie prominent Jewish physicians of tlie
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the following
may be mentioned : Benjamin and Abraham ben
Jehiel An.\w and their descendants, who bore the
additional name Ila-Kofe; Maestro Gajo; Zeraiiiah
ben Isaac ; Moses ben Benjamin ; Menahem Anaw ;
Nathan of Cento, his son Selome, and his nephew

Au Entrance to the Ghetto at, Rome, .\bout 1850.

(From a drawing by L. Hughe.)

Samuel; Immanuel ben Solomon; Judah ben Ben-
jamin.

Among the foremost writers of this period were:
Kalonyiuus ben Jckuthiel ben Levi Zarfati (1230);
Judah ben Benjamin Anaw (1247); Benjamin ben
Abraham Anaw (12U0); Jehiel ben Daniel (1265);
Solomon Jedidiah ben Closes (1278) ; Jcliiel ben Jcku-
thiel l)en Benjamin Rofe (1284); Abraham ben Joab
and Benjamin ben Joab (1284); Sabbai ben Matti-
thiah(1285); Solomon ben ZedeUiah (1288) ; Yom-
Tob ha-Kohen (129(t) ; Solomon ben Jeliiel ben Abra-
I'lam (1292); :\loses ha-Rofe ben Benjamin (1292);
Jonathan ben Abiezer (1294); Mishael (1299) ; Moses

ben Joseph (1302);
Moses ben Ilayyim
(1304); and Paola, the
daughter of Abraham
ben Joab (1288).

It was considered
fashionable to write
verses, and the art
of poetry, therefore,
found followers also
among the Roman
Jews ("Mah beret,"
xiii. 101a). The
Jews' mode of living
was in keeping with
the prosperity of
their affairs, and their
city dwellings were
comfortable and
roomy. The attire of
the men consisted of
k u e e - ]) a n t a 1 o o n s
(□"DJ^D), stockings
reaching to the knee
'D^pi::' 'n3), a laced
girdle (0J3S with
D^!?'n£), a tunic-like
coat (nilD) thrown
over the shoulders,
shoes of leather or
cloth (ni'^''DJX). and
a broad-brinnned hat

(yan. ns:;'); in cold

weather gloves were
worn ("OJXIIJ). The
color of the dress was
either gray or yellow.
The women wore as
an outer garment tiie DJin^, made from cloth of
variegated colors, provided with a long train, and
held together with a girdle; on the street they
wore a veil. The wealthy wore diamonds in the
hair.

The popular games or amusements included:
"even and uneven," nine[)ins, ball, marbles, dice,
and cliess. The Purim festival was celebrated by
the binning of an elligy representing Ilaman. The
Rejoicing of tiie Law was observed witii festivities,
and the bridegroom of the Law expended large sums
of money for social ptirjioses. Weddings and circum-
cisions took place in the synagogue, the former even
on Sabbaths. Tiie dead were arrayed in linen gar-
ments and buried on tiie day of death; the tomb-

463

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Home

stones were iiiscrlbt'd only with tlie name of the de-
ceased and I lie date of death.

Keligious life centered in the synagogue; tiic haz-
zan was the piayer-leaderand was hii^hly respected.
German piayer-leaders often ollieiated in Homan
synagogues and weie known as "nit;'D. Regarding
the sermons jireaclied in the synagogue nothing
furtiier is known than that those on the Sabhalh
befcM'c Easter were protracted for hours, sometimes
lasting until late in the afternoon. On the Ninth of
Al) the Torah was not i)laced upon the table, but
was taken to the farthest corner of the synagogue
by one who hold it in his hands and read aloud from
it standing. The liturgy had not reached its linal
form at this period, and disputes often took place
within the conimunitj' concerning the admission of
various prayers.

The legends that originated at this period liad
reference not only to ancient places and palaces,
but al.so to the Jewish pope; several of these are
e.xtant in various versions, and all are
Legends indicative of the longing of the Jews
and for full liberty, and of their sorrow

Traditions, over their sad condition. !Many fam-
ilies trace their genealogy back to
tliese early times. Tlie most proininent of these
are: Degli Mansi, Piatelli, or Umani (D^UJ?); Fauci-
relli (Dnyj); De Rossi (D'^OHN); De Pomis (p
n'mcnn); De Ceprano {CJIlOV); De Buscchio
Cp^^'U); De Cento (^nSCn). Mention should be
made also of that branch of the Anaw family called

ba JT'a or riDJ^n p.

The iiistory of the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
tiuies gives evidence of a still more progressive civ-
ilization. With regard to the educational system,
the child, as soon as it left the elementary school,
devoted its time either to learning a trade or to the
study of science. The latter study embraced four
branches: natural .science, medicine, philosophy, and
poetry. The study of the sciences was, liowever,
oversliadowed by the rise of mysticism in the foiu--
teenth century. Nevertheless, the "songs of the
scholars of Kome " are often mentioned. The chief
industries of the Jews were the manufacture of silk
andclotliing; but their most important occupation
was the management of financial transactions. Tlie
ever-increasing percentage of usury charged for
loans tended still further to estrange the Jews from
the Christians. The former were, however, gener-
ally protected, and even foreign Jews who went to
Kome on business were given safe-conducts. Men-
tion should also be made of the butcher's calling.
The Jewish .shambles were at that time situated on
the Piazza Macello. Roman Jews, when traveling
abroad, were granted ten days' exemption from the
wearing of the Jewish dress, and Jew-
Authors of ish physicianswerelikewisee.xempted.
the Of famous authors who flourished at

Fourteenth Rome in this period the following are

Century, worthy of special mention: Moses ben

Hayyim; judah; Menahem Zemah

ben Abraham Rofe ; Jehiel ben Solomon ben Joab :

Joseph ben David of Rome; andseverai members of

the Bethel family.

The dress worn by the Roman Jews resembled
that worn by the Germans of the same period. As

a distinguishing feature all male Jews were oliliged
to wear a red domino, and all wonien the so-called
"(luarueJli." In spite of llii.s, a tendency to lu.xury
in dress, as well as extravagance at entrrUiinmetitH
and religious ceremonies, developed in Rome to such
an extent that a rabbinical conference in Bologna
found it necessary to adopt stringent measures
against it; these inea.sure8 have special reference to
bridal processions. Besides the games already men-
tioned the" mx^3t3 Cy pinV. a kind of backgam-
mon, ami card playing were known in Rome al this
time; the last-named, however, was i)ermitted ordy
when visiting the sick. Music was not cidlivated at
all, and Christian musicians were employed ; even at
mourning festivals it was necessary to hire Clirtslian
female mourners. The language in common use was
Italian; fragments of llebrew-ltulian dictionaries of
this period have been found not only of the Bible and
the Proi)hets, but even of the "Moreh Ncbukim.''

The enjoyment of comparative peace and the
study of philo.sophy and the natural sciences re-
sulted in some neglect in visiting the syi
At the same time there was a decided iie . f
superstition. Transgressions of the laws were of
daily occurrence ; in order to cheek these, D'J^QO were
appointed, with authority to intlict .severe iiunisii-
ment on any law-breaker whom they seized. At the
head of the commimity stood a committee (Dni33).
consisting of ten nKinber.s. There were. besi<les. cer-
tain Jewish police ofiicers, po.ssibly identical with the
above-mentioned CJTOD. These officers were en-
trusted with the task of collecting the taxes of the
Roman Church. All administrative officials were
exempted from wearing the Jewish mantle. 'J'lie two
main synagogues were known by the names nDi3
' n riNT find ^D'nn nOJS- The official taxes were as
follows: (1) l.iyo gulden as a contril)ution to the
games; (2) 10 gulden (gold) to the "consul merni-
torum"; (3) the "decima" (tithes) tribute levied by
the pope — H ducats per thousand for incomes larger
than 1.000 ducats; 1 ducat per thousand for incomes
between 500 and 100 ducats; and A ducat per thou-
sand on incomes below 100 ducats.

The Jews of Rome were full citizens and were
under the jurisdiction of the Capitoline Curia. Offi-
cials were severely punished for insulting the Jews
or for bringing siiits against them on Sabbaths or
festivals. Severe punishment was also jirescribed
for any one who molested the Jews on jniblic high-
ways or waterways. But how far the laws were
carried out it is difficult to say.

The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were the
period of decline in Jewish learning. Only phi-
losophy and medicine were diligently studieil. The
following Jewish jihysiciaus of this period are
known: Jacob Mantino (who was docent ot the
medical college); R. Judnli di .\srola
Physicians (1524); Elijah ben Abraham (ir»86);
of the Fif- Judah ben Jehiel and Solomon ben
teenth and Jehiel (1530); Zerahin ben Matii
Sixteenth thiah and Moses ha-Levi ibn Abi
Centuries. n^L** (1588); Joseph ben Abraham;
Samuel ben Abraham ; Jekuthiel Ix-n
Isaac and Moses ben I.saac (1539): Joseph ben Abni-
ham (1540-50); Eliezer and Menahem ben Shabbo-
thai de Nola, and Moses ben Obadiah (1543); Mor-

Some

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

464

decai ben Michael (1544); Maestro David (lo45);
Baruch ben Judah aud Meshuliam ben Abraham
(1549); Judah ben Isaac; Moses; Jehiel ben Solo-
mon ; Moses bar Joseph de Monte Porzin ; Meshul-
iam ben Abraham and Josepii ben Abraham (1550).
The famous writers of this period include: Moses
Rieti; Elijah Levita; the physician Judah ben Ben-
jamin; Astruc Crescas Kalonymus; Daniel ben
Abraliam de Castro ; Closes benEliakim; Menahem
ben Mordecai; Zemah ben David; Abraham bar
Mordecai ; Hayyim ben Samuel ; and Joseph ben
Elijah Hakim. The converts Franciscus Parnas,
Paulus Evulius, and Fabius Ramugi attained fame
in this period as copyists of Hebrew manuscripts.
Later, Rome, in common with other Italian cities,
had its own Hebrew printing'icstablishments, but
none of these en-
joyed any very
long existence.
A Hebrew print-
ing-press was es-
tablished in 1518
by the sons of
Abigdorha-Levi

Leniatori(3Vpn).
but neither this
nor one estab-
lished in 1545 by
Antonio Bladao
and Isaac ben
Immanuel de
Lattes existed
for any length
of time. A third
one was founded
later (1578) by
Francesco Za-
netti. The busi-
ness of money-
lending in-
creased during
this period ;
Rome had thirty
Jewish bankers.
Not until the es-
tablishment of
the monte di
pieti were they

confronted with any competition. The tailoring
trade employed a very large number of Jews, who
were especially famous for making the so-called
" Romanesque " garments. The trade in drugs like-
wise was increasing among them.

In this period Jewish musicians appeared, for the
first time in Roman history; Juan Maria and Jacomo
Sansecondo were especially famous. The singer
Abramo dell 'Arpa and the dancing-master Gugli-
elmo Ebreo Pesarese also established reputations in
Rome as artists of merit. In spite of the many
papal decrees and edicts, relations between Jews
and Christians remained friendly, and the social
position of the Jewish community was made easier
by the appointment of a cardinal-viear as supervisor
of communal affairs in i)lace of a clerical magistrate.
Every male Jew over five had to wear a yellow
badge on his breast, and every Jewess, two blue

Nuw SynaRogue at Rome, Erected oa the Site of the Old Ghetto.

(From s photocraph.)

Stripes in her veil. Pope Alexander VI. substituted
for the yellow badge a disk made of cord, and Leo
X. introduced a badge made from red cloth. In
addition to his red mantle, every Jew had to wear a
straw-colored biretta. Besides the "decin)a "-tax
aud the contribution to the games, a
Taxation. " vigesima"-tax of 1,000 scudi annu-
ally was levied; in 1533 it was, how-
ever, reduced to 300 scudi. Of tlie income of 2,100
scudi which the Jews derived from their slaughter-
house they were recjuired to pay the sum of 700
scudi into the papal treasury.

With regard to the internal affairs of the commu-
nity, the Roman Jews were divided into Italians and
Ultramontanes; and of the sixty members of the
"Congrega," or representative body of the commu-
nity thirty -five
were Italians
and twenty-five
Ultramontanes.
The authority of
these representa-
tives within the
community was
most extensive,
and their de-
cisions, when
api^roved by the
cardinal - vicar,
had the force
of law. At their
head stood the
two camerlingi
(CnatJ), one an
Italian aud the
other an Ultra-
montane, aud
tinder these
were the two
collectors of
alms (D'D:-|S),
one Italian and
one Ultramon-
tane. To see
that decrees
were properly
obeyed, five
"difensori dei

of whom were
The protocols

capitoli " were appointed, three
Italians and two Ultramontanes.
of the proceedings were kept by the second rabbi
and signed by the communal secretary ("iQID
NDD)- The oldest extant records of this kind date
from the }-ear 1536. The number of synagogues at
this period was eleven, of which only ten are known
by name: (1) Keneset Yir'at Adonai; (2) Keneset
ha-IIekal ; (3) Keneset Arba'ah Rashim ; (4) Kene-
set ha-Sha'ar; (5) Keneset Katalani; (6) Keneset
Kastiliani ; (7) Keneset Aragonim ; (8) Keneset Zi-
ziliani; (9) Keneset Zarfatiyim; (10) Keneset Ash-
kenazim. Divine services in Rome were held ac-
cording to four different rituals — Spanish, Italian,
French, and German. Tiie sermons were i)reached
from the tribune (riD'3) in Italian, which language
was used also for the prayers. Of tombstones da-
ting from this period, only one (of 1543) has been

465

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rome

pn-scTvcd. Jewish religious ceremonies were not
strictly observed, uiui the moral standard was low.
Thus, during Alexander's reigu fifty Jewesses were
burned at the stake for leading inunoral lives.

With the walling-in of the ghetto under Paul IV.,
in the sixteenth century, the status of the Jewi.sh
coninuinity underwent a sad change. The original
uanie of the ghetto was Serraglio delli Hebrei; this
iu 15G3 was changed to Ohectus. At first it had
five gates, to which three more were added later.
The number of hou.ses in the ghetto in the seven-
teenth century was 130, divided between two large
and six small streets. Opjxjsite the main gate was
erected a tall cross bearing in Hebrew characters tiie
inscription: "I have spread out my liands ail the

the child was sent to the elementary school, unti
tiiereafter it frequented the Talmud Tomh. where
extracts from Maimouides" "Mishueh
Inner Life Torah "constituted the best ediiculiou-
in the Six- al material. As regariJs social matters,
teenth and strict rules were laid ilown as to the
Seven- gifts that might be exchangi-d at
teenth Can- festivals, anil as to those that might
turies. be presented to a bride by the bride-
groom, by friends, and by relatives.
At a festival the nuisic had to l)e provided i)y Jews,
and only biscuits, bread, and wine miglit be served
as refreshments. No one might give his daughter In
marriage to a stranger without the exi)ress i)ermis-
sion of the rabbi and the congregation. The cus-

INTKRIOR OK THK NEW SYXAGOGLE AT ROME.
(From a photo^aph.)

day unto a rebellious people" (Isa. Ixv. 2). As the
ghetto covered a space of only one square kilometer
and was inhabited by at least 10,000 people, its at-
mosphere was always unwholesome. The commu-
nity looked after the cleaning of the streets and
often levied high taxes for that purpose, but fre-
(;uent overflowings of the Tiber would deposit the
river's tilth in the streets and prevent their being
kept clean. Of the original eleven synagogues only
five remained. In addition to the old cemetery in
the Truslevere the comnlunity had two others on the
northern slope of Mons Aventinus. On account of
frequent violations of the tombstones, it became
customary to keep them in the dwellings.

During this period but little attention was paid
to educational matters.
X.— 30

When five years of age

torn of taking a second wife in addition to the first
when the latter was childless was permitted up to
the eighteenth century. In spite of the jirohibitions
of the congregation tlie luxury displayed in dress
was very great; the women even wore rings on
all their fingers. Coffee, tea, and lybaeco were
soon introduced into the ghetto, and it was even
found necessary to discuss whether grace should be
said over any of thc-ie articles (N. Segre. iu " Paliad
Yizhak," p. C2a). There were also strict rules with
reference to funeral ceremonies, and the coflin of a
prominent man was deconited difTerenily from th'it
of an ordinary person. Religious superstition in-
creased, anil so did the literature of the ritual;
"ma'amadot " and "a.shmorot ha-boker" were com-
posed and were recited daily before sunrise in the

Rome
Kona

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

466

synagogues, wLere they were listened to with great
devoutness. A sermon was preached either every
Sabbath or every second Sabbath. Each sermon con-
sisted of a Biblical text and its exposition ; otherwisre
it was generally shallow and related chietly to mor-
als. ,The Sabbath was celebrated in a strict and
austere manner.

The administration of the affairs of the commu-
nity was in the hands of the " fattori del ghetto " ;
their ollice was a very ungrateful one, as its holders
were liable to be called to account and punished
severely for acts which they had no authority to
prevent. Seventy-tive of these ollicials who held
office between 1551 and 1005 are' enumerated by
Vogelstein and liieger ("Gesch. der Juden in Rom,"
ii. 312-313). In addition to other duties the fattori
were required to revise and print the "Capitoli-
Ordini " every five years. All elections for ottices of
honor within the community were held on the ITtii
of Tammuz, and persons who were elected were in-
stalled in office on the Sabbath following the Ninth
of Ab.

The more the community suffered under papal
oppression the more its tendency to charity increased,
and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there
were in Home forty-four charitable societies (see
Vogelstein and Rieger, ib. ii. 315-318, where they are
enumerated). Jewish converts were made, as a rule,
not among the members of the congregations, but
rather among the rabble which at all times infests
the capital of the world. The conversionist sermons,
which were Jield first in the Church of S. Trinita
degli Pelligrini, and later in that of S. Sabiua, on the
whole produced no results.

The main Jewish industries at this period were
tailoring, retail trading, the goldsmith industry, sad-
dlery, carpentering, and fishing. The trade in sec-
ond-hand clothing was particularly active, while
the money-lending business died out completely,
and the community became greatly impoverished.
The study of medicine also decreased, although the
names of si.xteen Jewish physicians and surgeons
of this period are known (Vogelstein and Rieger, ib.
ii. 326). The Jews were under the jurisdiction of
the cardinal- vicar: in civil cases, under the court of
the vicarate; in criminal cases, under the Sacra
Consulta ; and in commercial cases, under the mer-
cantile court. Unjust taxation contributed more
than anything else to the stagnation and impoverish-
ment of the community; new taxes were added al-
most daily, and tliey grew to such an extent that in
1G82 the total debt of the community amounted to
261,036.72 scudi.

Following are lists of the known rabbis, scholars,
ami poets of Rome:

Rabbis : Moses Nasi, Abraham ben Shabbethal, Shabbethal
ben Mo.ses Mlth chiii.).

Solomon ben Abraham, Ezra ben Mattlthlah, Menahem ben
JuUah (12th cent.).

Leonte (.ludah) ben Moses. Abraham ben Jeliiel Anaw, Shab-
bethal ben Solomon, Meir ben Moses, Jiidah ben Benjamin n^y>,
Benjamin ben Abraham Anaw, Zedekiah ben Abraham Anaw
(i:«h rent.).

Azrlel ben Hayylm Trabotta, Pethahlah .tare hen Barucb,
Joseph ha-Levl. Solomon de Treves Zarfatl (15th cent.).

Israel ben Jehlel Ashkenazl. Shabbethal ben Mordecal, Maz-
lialj ben Joseph, Michael ben Shabbethal, Abraham ben Aaron
de Scazzoccho. Solomon ben David Corcos, Isaac ben Immanuel
de Lattes. Solrtmon ben Shemalah, David Falkon, Shabbethal

ben Joseph Calabrese, Isaac ben Solomon, Shabbethal ben
Joseph, Michael ben Isiiac, Joseph ben (Jbadiah, Klijah ben
Joseph di Nola, Hariu'h U-n Joab di Fes Fiori, Isaac ha-Kohen
ben Abraham, Kliezer .Mazlial.i ha-Kohen, Isaac ben Jiidah, Moses
hen Immanuel Lattes, Isaac ha-KoUen ben .\braham Ashkenazl,
Haiiiiil Kliezer .Mazliah ben Abraham Uiilh cent.).

Samuel ben Moses de Cartel .Nuovo, Ilanaiieel Sforno, Abra-
ham de C'ammeo, Raphael Hezekiah Manoali Corcos, Shab-
bethal b. Miirdecai Paiizieri, Judah ben Isaac Menaghen, Vito
(Hayylm) Menajrhen, Uaphael de Lattes (17th cent.)

Jacob Jeshurun Lopez, Shabbethal ben David de Sepni, .\bra-
ham ben Jacob Anaw, Mazliah di Castro, Mahallaiel .Modifrliaiio
(ISth cent.).

Judah Leon di Leone, Jacob Fasanl, Israel Moses ben Ellezer
Kazan, Samuel Toscano(M.U.), Laudadio Coen, Abraiuo Tos-
cano (.M.D.I, Sabatino Scazzocliio (19th cent.).

Vittoie Castitrlione VMlh cent.).

Scholars : Cieciliusof Calacte (1st cent. B.C.).

Flavins Josepluis (1st cent. C.K.).

Theudas, I'elatiim, Matthias ben Heresh (2d cent.).

Hiyya bar Abba CW cent.).

Abba bar Zemena (4th cent.).

Yiram of Mafrdiel C.lth cent.).

Jehiel ben Abraham, Joab Anaw (11th cent.).

Nathan ben Jehlel, Moses ben Menahem, Benjamin ben Joab
(12th cent.).

Solomon ben Shabbethal, Benjamin ben Moses, Mordecal ben
Benjamin, Daniel (father of Jehiel Sofer), Joab ((jrandfather of
Paola), Isaac of (.'amerino, .Nathan ben Menahem. Mattathiah
ben Shabbethal, Benjamin ben Solomon, Jehiel ben Benjamin
Anaw, Zedekiah ben Benjamin Anaw, Lewi, Slmhah, David,
Moses ben David, Moses ben Abraham, Benjamin ben Judah,
Benjamin ben Joab Nakdan, Joab ben Suloiiion, Jeknihiel ben
Jehiel Uofe, Moses ben Hayylm. Moses Rofe ben Benjamin.
Benjamin ben Judah, Judah Leone Romano, Nathan ben Ellezer
(1279-8;j), Zerahiah ben Isaac Gracian, Solomon ben Moses de
Rossi (13th cent.).

Mo.ses ben Judah de Fanciulle, Moses ben Shabbethal, Moses
ben Jekuthiel (Uthcent.).

Moses ben Isaac de Rleti, Flavins (Raimiindus) Mlthrldates
(15th cent.).

Obadiah ben Jacob Sfoini, Mordecal ben Moses Galante,
Elijali ben Asher ha-Levi, Isaac ha-Kohen bed Hayylm, Jacob
Mantino of Tortosa, Amatus Lusitanus, David de Pomis, Jehiel
ha-Kohen ben Moses (KJlh cent.).

Tranquillo Vila Corcos, Shabbethal Ambron (17th cent.).

Poets : Rome was for a time a "nest of sinking birds"';
among the best known were: Solomon ben Judah CJth cent.).

Shabbethal ben Moses, Mo.ses ben Shabbethal, Kalonynms ben
Shabbethal (11th cent.).

Daniel ben Jehlel, Abraham ben Jehiel, Judah ben Menahem,
Leonte ben Abraham, Benjamin ben Abraham, Nathan ben
Zedekiah (12th cent.).

Moses ha-Sofer ben Benjamin, Moses ben Abraham Anaw,
Jehiel ben Jekuthiel, Moses ben Joseph, Solomon ben Moses
Jedidiah, Solomon ben Moses ben Joseph, Abraham ben Joab,
Solomon ben Moses (13th cent.).

Immanuel ben Solomon, Judah Slcillano, Solomon (14th
cent.).

Joab ben Nathan. Daniel ben Judah (15th cent.).

Deborah Ascarelli (Kith cent.).

A new era dawned for the Jews of Rome when
Vict(jr Immanuel ascended the throne of Italy, and
the secular power of the papacy came to an end.
At the close of the seventies the ghetto began to
fall, but the poorer among its inhabitants left it re-
luctantly, because tlie rents were too high in other
parts of the city. To ameliorate this poverty the
Societa di Fratellana per il Progresso degli Israelii i

Poveri was formed; its first president

Recent was M. Rava (1876-79), who was suc-

Condition. ceeded by M. Alatri. The latter held

the office until 1883, when he was suc-
ceeded by Tranquillo Ascarelli. In 1881 the com-
munity was reorganized, although it took two years
before the statutes were enacted and duly sanctioned
by the king. Two years later the ghetto was alto-
getlier in ruins. The Talmud Torah also was reor-
ganized, Dr. Ehrenreich being appointed its princi-

467

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Borne
B6iia

pal. After liis d.-atli (1890) Angclo Formui became
his successor. Vittore Casliglione, formerly of
Triest, has beeu chief rabbi since 19U-1. CasUglioue
is a prolific writer both in Italian aiul in Hebrew ;
he has recently begun to publish an Italian transla-
tion of the iMishnah.

Besides the live okl congregations, which are uni-
ted under one roof, and in which boih the Italian and
the Spanish rituals aie followed, the conununity has
aniagniticcnttempleon the Esquiline (built in 1889),
and The " New Temple," erected in 1901. liome has
(lOO.")) a total population of 4(5^,000, of whom more
tlian 7,000 are Jews.

liuiLioiiRAPMY : Grh\x, Oexrh. p;issim ; Mommsen, Rflnii.sc/ir
Gcfcliicltti. \i->l. i., passim; Sfliinvr, (Usili. \u\. ii.; \iclor
Scliulze, i'litciyiniij (Its (i)i)'cliisrlt-Whiii.'«'luil Ilcidoi-
lliuma, Joim. 1SS7: Winter, Stellitim dcr tidavcn hci den
Jtt(h)i, llallf, lt*,Sti; Mansi, VnnrilHt. viii., ix., x.; Giide-
iiuinn, (it sell. vol. ii.; (Jrefrorius, Ocscli. ilcr Stadt Rtnii iin
Mitirldltrr; Stern, Urkihtdliclic Uvilrd{ic zur StcUium
(hr I'iljisti- zu dot Judor, Berliner, (icsdi. der Judctt in
Uti))i, lierlin, 1^'9;5; Ndgelstein and Hieser, Gcach. dcr Judcn
i)i lioin : lierliner. Ansdru Lrtztni To^oi dis Roinischcn
Ghetto, Berlin, ISSS; Statitti dcW ruicersitd hraditica di
Rdina. 1S.S"); Hiulson, .4 Histinii of titr .Tni>< i)i Rome, Lon-
(liin, 1SS4 ; // rcxxi/.'o Isvdilitico, .\lvi. .")()-")l ; Jr.ivMi Coni-
tmi'it, (Kt., ISKll ; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, 1895.

J. s- o.

-Typography: A number of Inxunaiu'la,

Nos. 12-22 and 24, not dated, but probably printed
before 1480, have never had their locality determined ;
but, considering tliat Home was tlie first place in
Italy where any printing was done, it has beeu con-
jectured that these works were all published at
Kome and that possibly they may be earlier than the
Kashi, the first dated Hebrew print. One of the
printers' names was Benjamin of Rome, which seems
to confirm this suggestion. Among the books thus
printed was the "Aruk, the greatest Hebrew work
produced at Rome.

The earliest prints with the locality Rome a(!tually
determined are of 1518, when Elijah Levita's "Sefer
ha-Bahur " and " Sefer ha-Harkabah " were published
by Faccioti de Montetchio, the Hebrew printing
being done by three brothers, Isaac, Yom-Tob, and
Jacob ben Abigdor. Six years later a Hebrew book
was printed by one Antonio Bladao, who later, in
the forties of the same century, printed three rab-
binical works. In 1578 Francesco Zauetti, of the
Venetian family of that name, printed various parts
of the Bible at Home. Lastly, the Congregation de
Propaganda Fide published at Rome in 1683 the
"Derek Emunah" of Julio Morossini, a conversion-
ist work.

Bibliography: Stelnsclineicier, JlufiscJic Tiipogrnphie, in
Krsch and (iriiber, Kiifj/c. section ii., part 28, pp. 43-«3;
idem. Cat. Hodl. col. 3103.

J .

ROMI, DANIEL B. JEHIEL : Scholar and
poet of the tenth and eleventh centuries; probably
it brother of R. Nathan, author of the "'Aruk."
He wrote a commentary on the treatise Zera'ini and
a "yozer" in twenty-two verses for the Sabbath
Hanukkah, in which he recotmts the Antiochus story
(MS. De Rossi No. 959). The forms he uses are
those of the old i)ayyetanim. See Hanukk.\ii.

Biiti.ror.RAPiiY : Zunz, Z. G. pp. Iti;?, Mit; Rapoport, Toledot dc-
R. Xatan, betrinninR and note 2; I.andstiuth, 'Ammude ha-
'Ahndah, p. 61, Berlin, 18.57; Fuenn, Kcneset YttfiacU PP-
-'t)4-2a"..

S. O.

ROMI, JOSEPH: Name by which Joseph b.

Judaii llaiiii/., u pupil of Leon of Modenu, is erro-
neously known, lie was ll»eautlior(jf " Bi iil Hami/. "
(see Isa. x.\x. 24), for whicii Modena claims he wrote
an introduction; the workisnotolherwi.se kncjwu.
Perhaps he was the author al.so of " Yodee Uinuh,"
a work which A/.ulai mentirjns having seen in a
partly burned and illegible condition. Ronii wrote
a commentary to Zohar Genesis, which was con-
tinued by Moses Zacuto. In 10(53 he edited at
Venice the Zohar Hadash.

Bini.lOfiRAPHY: StelnsfhneldiT. Cat. Jiitdl. coIb. H.'jI-.IL'; Heg-
gli), Bchinat ha-t^alilxdnli, p. xll., diirliz, li<i2; Vogelstfln-
Kiei'er, Gcsch. dcr Judcn in Rom, il. 2iK).

I). I. E.

ROMM : Family of printers ami publishers of
Hebrew books in Wilna. The family formerly lived
in (Jiodno, wIumv the book dealer Baruch b. Jo-
seph Romtu established a i)rintiug-ollice in 1789.
The Romm Hebrew printing-ollice was the first in
Lithuania, and its authorization by King Stanislaus
August was considered an important event. In 1799
Baruch removed to Wilua, where he died Aiiril 29,
1S03. The business was iidieritcd by his .son Men-
ahem Man Romm, who in 1835 began, in pai tncr-
ship with Simhah Zimel of Grodno, the crowning
effort of a Jewish printei 's career — the jmblication
of a new edition of the Talmud. The first volumes
of thatedition bear the imprinf Wilna and Grodno";
the later voliunes have that of Wilna only; but tlie
work was really done in Ozar, near Grodno.

Menahem Romm died Oct. 13, 1841, and was suc-
ceeded by his only son, Joseph Reuben Romm,
under whom the printing house was formally es-
tablished in Wilna in 1847, although the re|)ort of a
conflagration ("Allg. Zeit. des Jud." 1840, No. 20)
pro ves that it had even previously been of considerable
size and importance. He died Feb. 28, 1858, and
left three sons, David, Hayyim Jacob (d. Aug.
30, 1869), and Menahem Gabriel. David, who
was the head of the firm, died suddenly March 9.
1860, while on his way from St. Petersburg, where
he had obtained a practical monopoly of the Hebrew
printing and publishing business in Russia. After
his death the monopoly was broken, and numerous
printing establishments sprang up in various parts
of the empire. In 1863 the present firm name,
" Witwe und Briider Romm," was adopted ; and tlie
house has maintained its position as the foremost
Jewish publishing concern in Ru.ssia, if not in tlic
world. Deborah Romm, Davids widow, took an
active interest in the firms alTaii-s until lier death on
Dec. 3, 1903. Three of her sons reside in New York.

The Russian Hebraist Mordecai (Marcus) Plungian

was corrector in Romm's printing-office from 1869

to 1873.

BiiuiocRAPHY: Steinsclineider. Ifrhr. Bil'l. II. .V: 111.22: Iv.
.5(1 r>.i ]">:! iBenjaccli's lisii; Ahnrit Italxu. tn^te iit the end
of'thetreutlsf .Vi''<((i/( of lUe latest edition of the Babylonian
Talmud, Wilna, 18".)7.

I 1 . \ 1 I •

RONA, JOSEPH: Hungarian sculptor; bom
at Lovas BerCuy Feb. 1. 1861. He was destined by
his parents for a mercantile career, and studied at
Kecskemet and BmUipest; but he soon became a
jnipil in the studio of a sculptor, where he was
obliged to do the most mcnitil work, althougli he

Bona
Root

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

468

was able to speutl his uights copying sculptures.
Iteceiviug a state scholarship, Roua went to Vieuua,
where he studied for three years with Prof. Helmer;
and in 1882 he entered the school of Zumbusch as
royal stipendiary. In 1885 he gained the Koniau
prize at Berlin with his " St. Sebastian " and " Olym-
pic Victory." After working for a time in Pome
he went to Paris, and in 1886 he settled in Bu-
dapest.

liona's most noteworthy works arc: the statue
commemorative of tiie ^Var of Independence, at
Ofeu; the busts on the Lustspieltheater, Budapest;
the mausoleum of Gen. Klapka; the equestrian
statue of Piince Eugene of Savoy, in front of the
castle of Ofen; and the statues of Louis Kossuth at
Miskolcz, and Nikolaus Zrinyi at Budapest.
Bibliography : PaUas Lix.

s. L. V.

RONA, SAMUEL : Hungarian dermatologist :
born at H ilas April 1, 18.37; educateii at Budapest.
He was appointed assistant to Prof. Kaposi at
Vienna in 1881, and was assistant at the Puk6sHo.s-
pital, Bu(lai)est, from 1882 to 1885. In tiie follow-
ing year he with several associates founded a public
dispensary for the sick, reserving for himself the
section for syphilitic diseases. He then traveled
through Europe, studyingatthe principal clinics, and
in 1889 was appointed lecturer and in 1893 depart-
mental physician at the city hospital of Budapest,
being made professor six years later.

Rona's principal works are: "Adat a Korpazo
HOrglob Tanahoz " (1883), on pityriasis rubra ; " Der-
matitis E.xfoliativa " (1886); " Lichen Planus" (1888) ;
"Lichen Scrophulosorum Infantum" (1888); "A
Prurigo Lenyege es Gyogyitusa" (1892), on the
nature and cure of prurigo.

P'BLiOGR.APiiv: Pallas Lex.

s. L. V.

RONSBURG, BEZALEL B. JOEL: Bohe-
mian 'J'alinudist and rabbi; born 17GU; died Sept.
25, 1820, in I'rague. where he was dayyan and head
of the yeshibah. Zacharias Frankel was one of his
pupils.

Honsburg was the author of " Horah Gaber "
(Prague, 1802), commentary on the treatise Hora-
yot, and " Ma'aseh Rab " (ih. 182B), marginal notes on
the Talmud, reprinted in the Prague (1830-32) edi-
tion of the Talmud and in several later ones. Under
the title "Sedeh Zolim," in the Prague (1839-46)
edition of the Talmud, are printed Ronsburg's notes
to the " Halakot " of Asher b. Jehiel ; and tlie same
are reprinted in Romm's Wibia edition. The fol-
lowing works i)y Ri)iisburg remain in manuscript:
"Pithe Niddah," novellae, and "Sihat Hullin."

At tin; ofticial naming of the Jews, Ronsburg (the
n:ime is derived from Ronsperg, a city in Bohemia,
and is pronounced "Ronshborg") took the name
Daniel Bezaleel Rosenbaum, the initials " 2"-\
standing for ixitli surnaines; he c(jntinued to be
known, iiowcver, as Ronsburg.

Bini.iofjRAPHY : Ki.sfti. In MunatuKrlirift, xlv. ZX); Zedner,
Cat. Urhr. limtUx Tirit. Sliis. under the erroneous spelling
lienihfliurtj; Furst. liilil. Jiid. Hi. 129, s.v. liimnchhuiy.
E. C. L. G.

ROOT : Th(," fundamental or elementary part of
a word. • So far as is known no Hebrew ecpiivalent

of the term "root" was used with a philological ap-
plication by the teachers of the Talmud. It is true
that they disputed about the radical meaning of
"shahat." dividing it into the eU-ments "shah" and
"hat," and that they even played upon the word
"ikker" (Gen. xli.x. 6; see Hul. 27a; and comp. A.
Berliner. " Beilriige zur Hebrilisclieii Grammatik in
Talmud," etc., 1879, p. 31, and especially Zemah
Rabbiner, " BeitrUge zur Hebraischen Synonymik in
Talmud," 1899, pp. i.\. ett<if/.); but a clear concep-
tion of '"ikkar," the Aramaic synonym of " shoresh "
(root), as denoting the fundamental element of other
linguistic forms, was by no means shown. Menahem
ben Saruk, however, spoke of "letters which be-
long to the fundamental form [ 'yesod "]," and Hay-
yuj had a conception of root-letters when he argued
against Menahem's opinion that the "asl" of the
form "wa-tofebu" (I Sam. xxviii. 24) is the letter
D(seeM. Jastrow, Jr. 's, ed. of Hayyuj's Arabic trea-
tise "The Weak and Genninative Verbs in Hebrew
. . . by Hayyug," p. 2, Leyden, 1897).

3Iore important is the question in what the oldest
scholars considered the Hebrew roots to consist.
Menahem found them in those letters of a verb
which are preserved in all its modifications; but
Hayyuj opposed to this the important theory that
no Hebrew verb consists of less than three letters (B.
Drachman, "Die Stellung inid jjcdeutung des Je-
huda Chajjug in der Geschichte der Hebraischen
Grammatik," p. 44, Breslau, 1885), and this trilit-
eral form was called "root" until modern times.

Investigation did not end here, however. For

various reasons it began to be recognized that trilit-

eralism did not represent the original

Biliteral state of the Hebrew language. For

Roots. example, forms were found like "gal-
gal " (to roll, revolve; Jer. li. 25;
comp. Ed. Konig, "Coini)arativ-Historisches Lehr-
gebaude der Hebraischen iSprache," i. 350, 372, 378),
sliowing that the biliteral fjj was an adequate sub-
stitute in the language for the triiiterai ^^J. The
same is tiie case with f)t3^D (="hurr'; Isa. xxii.
17), which is related to ^10 (see Konig, I.e. i. 500).
Furthermore the relationship in meaning among
many triiiterai verbs could not long remain un-
noticed. Traces of tiie consciousness of this rela-
tionship possibly occur even in the Old Testament
itself, as is shown by the fact that the name " Noah,"
which conies from the root mj, is explained by
"yenahamenu," a form of the root Dnj (Gen. v. 29).
This is so remarkable that it w'as commented upon
even in Bereshit Rabbali, ad he. (A. Berliner, I.e.
p. 32). The same consciousness lay behind the
connection of words related in meaning, like "ya-
dush," "adosh,"etc. (Lsa. xxviii. 28; comp. Jer. viii.
13, xlviii. 9a; Zeph. i. 2), or "te'or" and " 'eryah "
(Hab. iii. 9). That such relationship exists in the
case of many triiiterai verbs can be plainly seen in
a conqiarison of the following groups of examples:
DJOn and DH'' (Gen. xxx. 39,41; xxxi. 10; Ps. li. 7),
l)oth denoting originally "to be warm"; ]]]} and
tyi (com]). Tyi3, Isa. xxxiii. 19), "to be strong";
li'^a (lsa. xlvi. 8), 'C'N (Jer. 1. 15), and '>ty\ or orig-
inally 't^, "supi)ort," as is shown by the words
"yesh" and "tusluyyah"; Xli'J tmd the Ethiopic
"wase"a," "to lift up"; ^D' (originally HDD and

469

THE JEWISH EXrYC'LCJPEDIA

Rona
Boot

TID. whose fundamental meaning is "to sit" (comp.
:;n"' and ti'll); DHJ. "to groan," and nOH, "to roar";
p|1-| (from wJiicli is derived "terufali," denoting
■• iiealing") and NQ")- Tlie natural conelusion from
a comparison of such grmips of roots is tliat tiicir
logical relationship rests upon the two consonants
winch are conmiou to all.

But verbs in whicli no weak letter occurs also
show that two of their consonants are fundamen-
tal ones; and a proof of this is the variable posi-
tion of the third consonant, as is seen from a com-
parison of "iTJ (Arabic, "jazar") and flJ (Arabic,
"jaraz"), whose radical meaning is "to cut." The
Arabic "katt" = "cut" and the Assyrian "kitti"
tiiid their common elements in t3p (Ezek. xvi. 47)
= "section, small (piautity," in the accusative, "for
a small thing." t3p is found also in 2t3p = "fut
down, root out," in P]Op ^ " iduck olf," in pep
= "cut down, kill," and in jop, in which last the
meaning "cut off, shortened" has been developed
into the conception "small." These i)roofs have
been developed by Hebrew grammarians with vary-
ing degrees of distinctness, Gesenius having ex-
pressed them with exceptional clearness in his
"Lehrgebaude." 1817, pp. 183-185.

Tlie linguistic forms, then, which, as the first ex-
pressions of conceptions, contain the rudiments of
the more developed forms, are called " roots " ; and
it is not too great an a.ssumption to say that such
roots form the basis of all real words in the Hebiew
language. One can neither speak with Friedrich
Delit/.sch of triliteral roots in the Semitic languages,
nor doubt with Kautzsch (" Grammatik," 27th ed.,
1902, § 30g) that all Hebrew verbs can be traced
back to the bi literal form, i.e., roots.

That biliteral verbs, however, were ever really
in use is not probable, assuredly not certain. The
above-mentioned fact that ~ij, for example, was re-
duplicated to form ~iJ7J doesnot prove
Triliteral that the biliteral 7J was ever actually
Roots. in use, as Philippi believed ("Morgen-
landische Forschungen," etc., p. 96).
The two con.sonants j and ? were, it is true, suffi-
cient to express the idea of "to roll "when the3^
formed part of a certain combination; but it does
not follow that they expre.s.sed such an idea when
they stood alone. Moreover, it is found that all
the verbal and nominal forms of the Hebrew lan-
guage are biult up on a triliteral foundation. This
triliteral basis is shown, for example, even in such
forms as !|3D ( ~ "they surrounded ") ; for if the 3 of
this fornr were not doubled in pronunciation the
preceding "a" would have been lengthened. Fur-
thermore, nouns like 3K ("father") show in their in-
flection, as in the status construct us '3X, that they
correspond to a triliteral verb. That tlie expression
of verbal concepts by three consonants was a very
old characteristic of Semitic languages has been re-
cently affirmed by the Egyptologist Erman in the
following words: "Triliterali.sm was already well
developed when the Egyptian scjiarated from the
Semitic languages "("Sitzungsberichte der Berliner
Academic. " 1900, pp. 323, 350).

The triliteral cmboiliment of a verbal concept is
called "stem" or, more exactly, "basal stem." to

distinguish it from other verb-stems (as "niph-
al," etc.) which arc built upon it. Moreover.
David Kimhi at the i)eginning of his "Miklol"
designated the three consonants of the verl)al stem
"kal " as "the fundamental letters."

The third consonant, wiiicli lengthens the bilit-
eral form into the basal stem, may best be calhd
" rootz-dcterminalive," in imitation of a term used in
Indo-Germanic granunar. It may be cither a repe-
tition of the second consonant (<".,(■/.. in 33D). or one
of tiie sounds artic'idatcd in an adjoining part of the
vocal cavity ((■./•/., in " nahan "' and " iakah "), or a
sound which is half vowel and half consonant (ejj.,
iu 3^1 = 3:;'V Dip: I^J - "fjj), oran nnstaidespirilus
lenis (<'..(/., in N^'D), or, finally, a sound which is
weak only in comparison with the otiier two conso-
nants, as is seen in the above-mentioned verbs 3t3p.
C)*jp, etc. As to the position of the root-dcterinina-
tive, it may stand in the first, second, or third place,
as the examples already given show. Ncvertlitless
its po.sition is not wholly independent of certain
laws. The first or second consonant of the stem
may not be a repetition of one of the two root
sounds. Exceptions, as in 'nxti'f (Kzek. x.xxix.
2), etc., are secondary formations; the form cited,
for example, has come from Xl"XK'(an the examples
may be found in Konig, I.e. ii. 403). Identity of
the first and third consonants of tlie stem, however.
has not been so carefully avoided (comp. pj. L*'^jj';
Konig, I.e.), because this indirect recurrence of the
same sound was less difficult for the articulatory
organs. ]\roieover, the three stem consonants show
an interesting mutual relation in respect to quality.
When, for example, t3Dp. nns. 'M\A "VM are consid-
ered it is seen that the three sotmds in eacli stem
agree in degree of strength : all three are either em-
phatic, surd, or sonant. All sounds which can stand
together in the root-stem of a Semitic verb are called
compatible.

Quadriliteral stems originate in the following
ways: (c/) The ordinary doubling of the middle con-
sonant to express a greater degree of in-
Gluadrilit- tensity in the acticm in question (comp.
eral Roots. "kittel,"etc.) is often replaced by the
insertion of a vowel (com|i. 331D) or
of a liquid consonant (DD1DV Ps. Ixxx. 14; i^3"i3D.
I Chron. XV. 27; etc.). {h) For a similar purpose the
following consonants of the stem may be rejieated:
the third (comp. DDIp, pyi). thefirst and third (^ji):.
ipip, etc), the .sec-ondand third (O'SVXV = "descend-
ants," derived from NVV etc.), or the first after the
second (Cj'pT, etc. ; see the list of rarer intensive
stems in Konig, le. i. G83; ii. 379, 399 it ii,n.\ (r)
Other quadriliteral stems, to express the cau.-e of an
action, were formed by prefixing one of the follow-
ing four related sounds: n ('ni'J^n. Hos. xi. 8);
D (Dy^'D. Lev. xi. 22); the spiritus asjier (^'Dpn.
etc.); or the spiritus lenis (D'3L"N. Jer. xxv. 8;
comp. Kiuiig, I.e. ii. 380, 401 it sa/.). (d) Quadri-
literal stems formeil by prefixing a 3 or n (comp.
ijDpJ and ^t^pnn) have a reflexive meaning, tlie J
probably being conn<'CIed with the " n " of "anokl,"
etc.. thus expressing the rcllex elTect of tlic action
on the subject. The same object was gained in oilier
forms by prefixing n. which recalls the n of nnX,

Eoquemartine
Rose

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

470

etc. (Konig, /.<•. ii. 383). It is, moreover, an iuterest-
ing fact that the Semitic languages vary in regard
to the number of their pluriliterals anil tiiat the
formation of suchstems hasincreasetl in tlie younger
branches of the family. The old Hebrew shows
comparatively few pluriliterals, while the post-
Biblical Hebrew presents a large number of newly
created examples (Hillel. " Die Xominalbildung in
der Mischna-Sprache," 1!?91, p. 36). Old byriac has
a considerable number; but modern Syriac far sur-
passes it in this regard (Noldelic, "Gramniatik der
Neusyrischen Sprache," pp. 100 etsetj., 256 et seq.).

BiBi.ioGR.\Piiv : Fricdrich Pliilippi, Der (inni<lstamiu rics
Starkiii Wrlnims iin Sfinitifuhtn uitil Sfin Veiluiltiiisszur
M'urzi:!. in Mnriicnlawlischc Fii/'>T//in/i/t)i, IST.i, pp. ti'J-lUC;
Friedrich Dt'litzstli. StuiUtn llhcr [iHii>(iirin<iiti-'<ch-Scini-
tmlic ^^^ur^llvfrw(llnit.■<chaft. 1S7^; .). MdTth. Die Xomi-
wilhilihtiiu ill lien Seniitixclieii Siimclicii, 1S91, pp. 1 ct .sfr/.
Other references and aririiinenl.s may be found in E. Kiiniiir,
Comijarativ-IIiMiitisrlici Lcliroeljiiudc der Hthnli^clioi
Sprache, Hm, ii. 309-374, 4(>i.
T. E. K.

ROaXJEMARTINE, DAVID : French schol-
ar; a native of Hoquemartine; llourished in the
fouiteenth centurv. He was the author of "Zekut
Adam," giving an allegorical interpretation of the
Biblical narrative of the sin of Adam, which, accord-
ing to the author, is not to be understood literally.
A part of this work, which is still extant in manu-
script (Xeubauer, "Cat. Bodl. Ilebr. MSS." No.
2232, 2c, GlUizburg collection), was published in
"Yen Lebanon" (Paris, 18G6) by Jeiiiel Brill, with
notes by Senior Sachs, who shows that the "Zekut
Adam " was used by Isaac Abravanel in his com-
mentary. Roquemartine was the author of two
other works which also are extant in manuscript:
(1) a commentary on Isa. liii., and (2) a commentary
on Hag. ii. (Neubauer, I.e. No. 2232, 2a, b).

BiBLinr.RAPHY: Carmoly, in Ha-Lchaiioiu i.. No. 9; Gross,
Oitllia Judaicu, p. Si-^; Fiienii, Kenesct Vi,srae(, p. 'Z'u.

E. c. I. Br.

ROSALES, JACOB HEBRiEUS (IMMAN-
UEL BOCARRO FRANCES Y ROSALES) :

Physician, mathematician, astrologer, and poet;
born in 1588 or, according to some, in 1593, at Lis-
bon; died either at Florence or at Leghorn in lfi62
or 1668; son of the Marano physician Fernando Bo-
carro. On completing his medical and mathemat-
ical studies at the University of Montpellier, he re-
turned to his native country, where he soon acquired
a reputation asajjliysician, among his patients being
the Duke of Bragan(;a and the Arcl)l)isliop of
Braga. In 1625 he went to Rome, where he devoted
himself to mathematics and astrology, and entered
into frienilly relations with Galileo Galilei, who en-
couraged the "learned astrologer," as he stjied Ro-
sales, to imdertake a work on astrology. Rosales
then lived for some time at Amsterdam, where he
openly avowed Judaism, taking the name of Jacob.
Some time before 1032 he went to Haml)\irg. In
July, 1647. he was ajipointcd "Comes Palatiinis" by
Emperor PVrdinan<l HI. He then returned to Am-
sterdam, and subsequently went to Italv, where he
died.

Rosales published the following works: "Tratado
das Comctas Que AparecerAo em Novembro pas. de
1618" (Lisbon. 1619); "Status A.strologicus sive
AnacepJiaheosis da .Monarchia Lnsitana." a Portu-

guese poem in 131 (133) octaves, dedicated to King
Philip III. of Spain and other princes (ih. 1624; 2d
ed., with Latin translation. Hamburg, 1644); " Luz
Petpiena Lunar: Exi)li(ur;l() dc Primeiio Anacepha-
Ueosis, Impr. em Lisboa 1624 " (Rome, 1626) ; " Pocu-
lum Poeticum," in praise of his friend Zacuto. printed
in tiie lalter's " De Medicorum Principuni Historia"
(Amsterdam, 1629 et «<<?.); "Brindis Nupcial e Eg-
loga Panegyrica Representada dos Senhores Isach
e Sara Abas" (Hamburg, 1632); " Regnum Astrorum
Reformatum" {ib. 1644), on astronomy; "Foetus
Astrologici Libri Tres" (ii. 1644), Latin poem in
170 hexameteis, a]ipended to the "Status Astrolo-
gicus"; "Armatura Medica, sive Modus Addis-
cendi Medicinani," in vol. ii. of Zacnto's collected
works (Lyons, 1644). Rosales wrote also " ETOf
'Sm/rtK<)i> sive Carmen Intellectuale," in Latin iu
nine .sections, and "Panegyricus in Laudem E.\-
imii . . . Viri Menasseh ben Israel" (Amsterdam,
1639), inhonor of Manasseh b. Israel's " De Termiuo
Vita;"; and an ode and epigram (Hamburg, 1633)
in Portuguese in praise of Moses Abudiente's
grammar. A work by Rosales entitled " Verdadera
Composicion del Muudo Mathematico e Philoso-
l)hico " is said to be extant in manuscript.

GiHMOr.RAPiiV: Wolf, mrtl. Hehr. iii. 52.S. 878; Iv. 872, 047;
,Barbosii Ma<-hiido, liihliothcca Lusitiina, i. 6'Jl, Iii. ]1)(5: Fel-
Vrenhauer, /{"/iHJi Xiineiuw. p. 91 ; Manasseh I). Isniel. ed.
Wolf, p. lxx.\.: De Uossi-HamberKer, Hint. W/'irterb. pp. 279
et scq.; Carmoly, Les Medcciiis Jnifs, p. 177; U. Landau,
Geiteh.derJlhli.'<rhen Aertztc.p.Wi, Berlin. 1895; Kayserlintr,
Sephardim, pp. 209 rt ser/. (where Uosales is in some refer-
ences confounded with Immanuel Frances, iis also in Fiirst,
Bilil. Jiid. iii. Ititi); idem, (Je^ch. der Juden in I'lirtunal,
pp. 299 et aai.; idem, Bilil. Esp.-Port.-Jnd. pp. 9.') et seq.; R.
Finkenstein, Didder und Aerzte, p. 88, Berlin, 1864.
,7. M. K.

ROSANES : Family, originally from Rosas, a
Spanish seaport. Members of it emigrated to Por-
tugal at the end of the fifteenth century, and others
settled later in Turkey, Austria, and Russia. It
may be that "Rosales," the name of a family of
which Immanuel Frances y Rosales (see Ros.\t.f,s,
J.vcoi!) was a member, is merely a corruption of " Ro-
sanes. " The fainily has produced prominent rabbis ;
and the best-known meml)ers are the following:

Abraham Rosanes I. (culled also Abraham
the Elder) : Turkish Talmtidist; lived at Constan-
tinople in the seventeenth century. He had a liter-
uiy controversy with Moses b. Nissim Ijcnveiiiste;
and some of his responsa are to be found in Samuel
Primo's " Kchunnat 'Olam." Acording to Azulai,
he wrote strictures on Abraham Picc(j's "Giddule
Terumah."

Abraham Rosanes II. : Chief labbi of Con-
stantinople about the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury; died at Jerusalem at an advanced age. A re-
sponsutn of his is to be found in Isaac Rapoport's
" Batte Keliunnah" (i.), and he wrote also prefaces
to several labbinical works.

Abraham Abele ben Zebi Hirsch Rosanes :
Pi'cacher of Minsk, Russia;' died theic Dec. 23, 1H27.
He was a preacher of gi-eat oratorical talent, and was
the author of "Zikron Abraham," a commentary on
the Pesah Ilairiratlah (published with the text,
Wilna, 1859), and of " Mahazeh Abraham " (ib. 1862),
a work on ethics. According to the jireface to the
former work, Abraham Abele left five other works.
None of these has been i)ublished.

471

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Roquemartine
Bose

Abraham ben Israel Rosanes : I?ulgaiiaii

schiihir; born at Kustchuk l^i;{.S; dii-d then; 1H7SJ.
lu lyGT lie made a voyage to I'ak'Stine; and liis ac-
count of that country, written in Judieo-Spanisii,
was translated into Hebrew by Menaheni Failii and
I)ul)lislie(l in " Ha-Maggid" (xi., No. 38-xii., No. Hi)
under the title "Masot liaAbbir." Rosaues was
the founder of a Jewish school in his native place,
\v]ii( li he endowed with a valuable libiary.

Judah Rosanes: Rabbi of Constantinople ; died
there at an advanced age April 13, 1727; son-in-law
of Abraham Rosanes I. His teachers in Talmud
and rabbinics were Samuel ha-Levi and Josejjli di
Trani. On account of his knowledge of Arabic and
Turkish he was appointed by the government, chief
rabbi ("hakam bashi ") of the Ottoman empire.

Judah took a very active part in coudemniug and
denouncing the Shabbethaians; and he was one of
the signers of an appeal to the German communi-
ties to oppose the movement (comp. Jacob Emdeu,
"Torat ha-Kena'ot," Lemberg, 1870). He wrote:
(1) "Parashat Derakim" (Constantinople, 1727), a
work containing twenty-six homiletic treatises on
various subjects. It is followed by a pamphlet en-
titled (2) " Derek Mizwoteka," a treatise on the 013
conunandments, based on the treatises on the same
subject by Maimonides and others. (3) "Mishneh
la-Melek" (ih. 1731), glosses and comments on Mai-
monides' •' Yad ha-Hazakah"; later it was printed
together with the "Yad" (Jessnitz, 1739-40). Sev-
eial works bear approbations ("haskamot") by
Judah Rosanes, among others Joseph Almosuino"s
"'Edut bi-Yehosef."

Zebi Hirsch Rosanes ben Issachar Berush :
Galician rabbi; born in 1733; diedat Lemberg Nov.
9, 1804; grandson of Jacob Joshua, author of "Peue
Yehoshua'." Zebi Hirsch was first rabbi at Bol-
chow, a small town near Lemberg; and in 1787 he
was appointed chief rabbi of the latter place, where
his wife, Judith, managed a ))rinting establishment,
lie wrote "Tesha' Shittot" (Lemberg, 1800), novelke
and dissertations on nine Talmudic subjects, to-
gether with some novellas by his father. Some of
his own novellic are to be found also in the marginal
notes to the Talmud entitled "Pilpula Harifta."
He gave approbations for a great number of rabbin-
ical works.

Bibliography: .Aziilal, .'^/irm lia-(ii(h)lim, i., s.v. Ahraliam
I{(>x(r)irs ixnti Jitilah Rusams; Bulier, Anslie. Sliiin, p. 198;
Eisenstadt. Unhhaiic Mitixk, p. :J(i, Wilna, 1890 ; Fuenn, Kau-
sct l'(S/(U7, pp. («, 291, 4»'(): Fiirst, Bilil. Jwl. hi. 107-108.

s. M. Sel.

ROSANES, JACOB: German mathematician;
born Aug. Ui, 1842, at IJrodj'. Galicia. He received
a common-school education in his native town and
became a clerk in a mercantile house in Hreslau,
whither he had removed in 1858. Preparing him-
self for the university, he commenced the study of
chemistry in 1860, and mathematics and physics in
1862. After receiving his Ph.D. degree from Rrcs-
lau University in 1865, he continued his studies
in Berlin, and returned to Breslau, where he became
privat-docent in mathematics in 1870, assistant pro-
fessor in 1873, and professor in 1876. In 1897 he
received the title "Geheimc Regierungsrat," and in
1903 was elected "rector maguiticus" of his alma
mater.

Among Rosanes' many cfsays may be nientionod:
" Das eineni KeLa-lschnitl I'mschriebenc iind einem
Andcrn Kingcschriebene I'olygon.'' in Crelles" Jour-
nal fnr die Reine uiid Angewandte Mall)einuiik"
(IJerliii), l\iv.; " Drciccke in P<'rspecliver Jjiige," in
" Malhcmali.sche Aniuilcn," ii. ; "System von Ke
gelschnittcn," i7». vi. ; "Ein Princip dcr Zu«)nlnung
A IgebrilischerFormen," in Crelle's" Journal, "i.x.wi. ;
'■ IJnearabliiingige l^inktsysteme," ///. Ix.xxviii. ;
"Abhilngige Puukt.systeme und Reciproke Ver-
wandtschaften Zweier Ebenen." il>. .xcv. He is, be-
sides, the author <jf "Die Neuesten Untersuclningen
in Betrelf Unseier Anschauiuigeu vom Raunie,"
Breslau, 1871.

Bini.iOfiRAPiiv : rogBcndorlT. liiiiiirdiJliinih-LiteriiilMrhft
HaHiiworlerlnu)!, Hi. a. Lelpslc, 1898.

s. F. T. H.

ROSE : This flower is not mentioned in the Bible,
and the earliest reference to it occurs in Ecclus.
(Sirach) xxiv. 14. It is mentioned in the Mishnnh
and the later Apocrypha, while in the Targum and
with many subseciuent exegetes it tidies the place of
the Lii.Y in Canticles. The ro.se is apparently men-
tioned also in Ecclus. (Sirach) xxxix. 13 and 1. 8,
although the presumi)tive llebrev.' read proliably
JC'IEJ' (lily) in both passages. In Wisdom ii. 8, on
the other hand, there is an unmistakable allusioD to
ro.ses; and in III .Mace. vii. 17 the Egyptian city of
Ptolemais is described as " rose- bearing," while the
phrase " red as the rose " occurs in Enoch, Ixxxii. 10;
cvi. 2, 10; and the Cliristian passage II Esd. ii. 19
mentions the rose and the lily together.

The rose grows wild in Palestine and Syria, its
principal varieties being Jtos/t jJuniin'n. Boiss. ; Rom
cnninn, Linn, (throughout tlie mountains), and its
variety Rosa collina, Boiss. ; Rosa glutiuosn, S. and
Sm., Rosa (hnnetorum, Thuill., Rosa Thfireti, Burnat
and Grendi (these in Lebanon and the last-named
also in Hermon) ; Rosa lutea. Mill. (Amanus); Rosa
dumelorum, var. Scherrjinnn, Boiss. (Antilebaiion);
and Rosa arabica, Crep. (Sinai) ; while the ciiief culti-
vated variety is Rosa sulphurea, Ait. (Post, "Flora
of Syria, Palestine, and Sinai," p. 308; Bornml\ller,
"Zur Kenntnisder Flora von Syrien und Palilstiua,"
1898, p. 46).

According to an old mislmaic tradition, there was
at Jerusalem, where no otlier gartlen is said to have
been allowed, a rose-bed dating from the time of the
ancient prophets (Ma'as. ii. 5; Neg. vi. 625, 15; B.
K. 82b), but it is signiticant that the rose is not men-
tioned among the perfumes which were imported
from India at a very early time. The rose, like the
myrtle, however, formed jiart of the bridegroom's
garland (Yer. Sotah xv. 322, 5). The Mi^lmah con
tains, furthermore, halakic regidations concerning
the rose (Sheb. vii. 6; Yer. 371)) and the oil whicli
was extracted from the jucserved flower (Sheb. vii.
7). The oil was used by the upper classes instead
of common oil (Shab. xiv. 4), and was no rarity at
Sura (Shab. lllb). It is mentioned in a haggadah,
which says that as a.sses' fut in oil of roses receives
perfume but loses it again, so Hagar and Ishniael
became renegades after they left the presence of
Abraham ("Agadat Bi-reshit," cil. Bvdier. ]>. 74).
The Talmudic "inishhali kcbishali " consisted, ac-
cording to a geonic traditi(<n, of roses an 1 violets

Kose
Hoseubacber

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

472

preserved iu sesanieoil: ami a number of ether cos-
metic aud medicinal prepamtious and confections of
roses are mentioned, includint; rose-water, the favor-
ite perfume of the East, and comfits of roses and
honey or sugar.

There was no special eulogy for the rose; and it
became a moot question whether it should be con-
sidered a perfumed wood or a perfumed fruit. Hai
Gaon, Maimonides. and others inclined to the for-
mer view, while many of the casuists held the
latter.

In post-Biblical Hebrew poetry and in tlie Hagga-

dah the rose is .scarcely mentioned, although there is

a haggadic reminiscence in the Syriac statement that

roses had no thorns before the fall of man ("Book

of the Bee." xviii. 8). Proverbs men-

In tioning this tlower also are conipara-

Rabbinical tively rare; but it is said that "youth

Literature, is a garland of roses, but age a crown

of thorns " ( Dukes, " liabbinische Blu-

menlese," No. 323), while an erroneous variant of

a well-known apothegm declares that "Poverty

becomes Israel as a red rose does a white iiorse "

(Hag. 9b). In a tigurative sense "rose " is used in

tlie Talmud of the membrane of the lungs or their

medial lobes.

Medicinal powers were long ascribed to this
flower. Maimonides frequently used rose-water and
other rose preparations in his dietetics; and similar
use of the rose was made by Meir Aldabi and Men-
aliem ibn Zerah in the foiuteenth century. Tobias
Cohen includes in his pharmacopcvia (148c, 153b)
red, white, and yellow roses, and the dog-rose.

Syntbolically the rose is associated with paradise;
for the dawn is the reflection of the roses of heaven,
as the sunset glow reflects the flames of hell (B.
B. 84a). Flight hundred of these flowers adorn the
tent of each pious man in heaven ("Gan 'Eden,"
p. 25, in " B. II." V. 42). A Persian satrap to whom
Haba brought a gift sat up to his neck in roses (or,
according to Rashi, in a bath of rose-water), attended
by odalisks, and asked, "Have ye aught like this
in paradise?" ('Ab. Zarali fi5a). According to a
medieval legend, finally, K. Low, a famous cahalist
of Prague and a favorite of the emperor Rudolph
II., died of the jjerfume of a rose, which form Death
had assumed, since he could not gain access to the
sage in any other way.

The " rose of Jericho " is not a rose, but the crucifcr
Annstatim Ilifrochnntina, Linn., or the composite
(Jdontogpermvm jryfimfpum (DC), Benth. and Hook.
{Antei'iscua pyr/mcEus, Coss. and Dur).

J. I. LO.

ROSij, ARNOLD JOSEF : Rumanian violin-
ist; liorn at Jassy <Jcl. 24, 1863. He began his
nuisical studies at the age of seven, and at ten en-
tered the first class in violin at the Vienna Conserva-
torium, receiving instruction from Karl Ileissler. In
1881 he made Ills first appearance, at a concert of the
Vieiuia Piiilharmfjiiic Society, in Goldniark's vio-
lin concerto, and shortly thereafter received an en-
gagement as solo violinist and leader of the orches-
tra at the Hoftlieater. In the following year he
founded the now famous Rose Quartet, which has
played in nearly every important city of Austria
and Geroianj'. In 1888 Rose made successful tours

through Rumania and Germany, and in tho same
year was appointed concert-master at the Bayreuth
festivals.

Bini.iOGRAPHV: Ehrlich. Cffeftratcd Violinists, pp. 180, ISl ;
Riemanu. Musih-Lcxikun.
s. J. So.

ROSEBERY, HANNAH, COUNTESS OF:

English social leader and philanthropist; born in
London July 27, 1851; died at Dalineny Park, Scot-
land, Nov. 19, 1890; only daughter and heiress of
Baron ]Meyer de Rothschild. Like her mother.
Baroness Juliana de Rothschild, she was very active
in philanthropic undertakings. In 1878 she married
the Earl of Rosebery, but, notwithstanding this
union, remained a Jewess, was a member of the
Central Synagogue, London, and took a deep inter-
est in the concerns of the community. She made
Lansdowne House the focus of social Liberalism,
and was an important element in the organization
of the Liberal party.

Lady Rosebery was especially attached to the In-
stitution for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and
Dumb, and also associated herself with the move-
ment for promoting a better system of nursing.
She was appointed by the queen president for Scot-
land of tlie Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for
Nurses, and was also resident of the Scottish Home
Industries Association. She took much interest in
the condition of working girls and founded the
Club for Jewish Working Girls in Whitechapel.
She left two sons and two daughters; she was
buried in the Willesden Jewish Cemetery.

Bibliography: Jew. Citron. Nov. 21 and 28, 1S90; London
newspapers of Nov. 80, 1890.
J. G. L.

ROSELLO (RUSCELLI), MORDECAI RA-
PHAEL BEN JACOB : Scholar and liturgical
poet of the first half of the si.xteenth century ; born
in Barcelona, where his family occupied a promi-
nent position. In the course of his travels he reached
Naples, and when in 1541 the Jews were expelled
from that citj-, he went to Avignon. He subse-
quently stayed for some years in Rome, where in
1549 he finished a work, still extant in manuscript,
entitled "Sha'are Hayyim," treating of the Tea
Sefirot. In 1550 he was at Ferrara. He wrote an
elegy ("kiiiah") on the martyrdom of the priest
Eleazar in the days of the Maccabees; the elegy has-
been included in the ritual of Carpentras.

BmLioGRAPnv : Vojrelstein and nieger, Gei'ch.der Juden in
Rom, ii. 102; Zunz, IVaclitrdu zur Litcraturac-'<ch.D. 49.
S. J. Z. L.

ROSEN, JOSEPH B. ISAAC : Ab bet din and,
subse(iueiitiy, rabbi in Rus.sia; born in the fir.st
half of the nineteenth century at Horodok, near
Pinsk : died Jan. 12, 1885 (Tebet 25). His father des-
tined him for a commercial career, but the youth
preferred to study, and, although obliged to pursue
his researches by himself, he made such rapid prog-
ress that at an early age he was appointed ab bet din
in his native city. This office he continued to fill
down to 1864. He was acting rabbi at Telz from
1864 to 1873, when he was called to the rabbinate
of Sloiiim, where he remained till his death. He
published two large works, " 'Edut bi-Yehosef,"*

473

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rose
Rosenbacber

ndvellifon tiic Sluill.ian 'Aruk, Yoreh Do'ali (Wilna),
and "Porat YoseC," .scniioiis for the Sabhatli (ih.).

Bibliography: Ha-Aaif, 1885, il. 7C1; Walden, S/icm ha-Gc-
dnlim he-Hadash, 11. 58a.
E. C. S. ().

ROSEN, MATHIAS: Polish banker and mem-
ber of tlie couiieil of state; boiii at Warsaw 1804;
died tlieri' 1SG5. In 1846 he succeetied to his father's
banking business. On account of his eminent serv
ices to tlie community, he was elected in 1SG2 mem-
ber of the council of state of Warsaw, and was
entrusted in the following year by Grand DukeCon-
stantine with a commission to study the moral, in-
dustrial, and agricultural conditions of the Alsatian
Jews.

BinLiofJUAPiiY: Orpolbrand, Enci/hJopnlja Pdir.'^zrclnm .\iil
ai. Wai>avv, 1902; Arch. Isr. 1863, p. 87; The hraelite'imii.
ix.. No. 38.

"■ «• A. S. W.

ROSENAU, MILTON JOSEPH: American
physician; born at Philadelphia Jan. 1, ISfi'J; edu-
cated at the University of Pcunsylvania(il.I). 1889).
For more than a year he acted a.s intern at Blockley
Hospital, and then entered the IMarine Hospital Serv-
ice. In 1893 he attended courses at Berlin and Vi-
enna, and in 1893 was made, on account of a cholera
epidemic in Eurf)pe, sanitary attache to the United
States consulates at Hamburg and Antwerp. Re-
turning to the United States, he served as quarantine
oflicer at the port of San Francisco from ISQo to
1898, and in 1899 established upon original lines
quarantine regulations for the island of Cuba. In
1900 he was appointed director of the hygienic labo-
ratory of the Marine Hospital Service "at Washing-
ton, D. C, in which capacity he is still (1905) serv-
ing. In 1900 he was a delegate to the Thirteenth
International Congress of Medicine and Surgery at
Paris, and in the same year he attended courses
in that city and in Vienna. In 1901 he was aj)-
pointed sanitary expert to the Second Pan-Amer-
ican Congress, held in the City of Mexico; and in
the same year he became professor of bacteriology at
the Washington Postgraduate Medical School.

Rosenau has written, aniong Mher worts, the fol-
lowing: -'Formalin Disinfection of Baggage With-
out Apparatus," Washington, D. C, 1900; "Vitabil-
ity of the Bacillus Pestis," ib. 1901; "Course in
Pathology and Bacteriology," i^». 1903; "Disinfec-
tions and Disinfectants," Philadelphia, 1903; (with
E. Francis) "Experimental Studies in Yellow Fever
and Malaria," Washington, 1904.

-^- F. T. H.

ROSENAU, WILLIAM: American rabbi;
born at Wollsteiii, Germany, May 30, 1865. He at-
tended successively the gymnasium of Hirschberg
(Silesia), the public schools of Philadelphia, the Uni-
versity of Cincinnati (B.A. 1888), Hebrew Union
College (rabbinical diiiloma, 1889), and Johns Hop-
kins University (Ph.D. 1900). Rosenau was rabbi
of Temple Israel, Omaha, Neb., from 1889 to 189-2,
when he became rabbi of Congregation Ohcb Sha-
lom, Baltimore, IVId. In 1896 and 1897 he was sec-
ond vice-president of the Central Conference of
American Rabbis; and since 1903 he has been corre-
sponding secretary of that body. Rosenau has been
attached to the faculty of Johns Hoiikins University

as instructor in rabbinica (1898-1903). as fellow in
the department of Semitics , TJuu 3), and (sine- 1903)
as associate in nibbinica. From lyou U) 1903 he was
a member of the Baltimore board of education.

Bosenau has contributed to the American Jewish
press, and was for four years associate editor of
"The Jewish Comment." Heisllieautliorof : "Sem-
itic Studies in Colleges " (189(ii; "Hebraisms in the
Authorized Version of the Bible " (1903j; and "Jew-
ish Ceremoidal Institutions and Customs" (Balti-
more, 1903).

RlBLiOGRAPUV. Aincriraii JciiMi Year n<i<,k. IWH.

^- I. O. D.

ROSENBACH, HYMAN POLLOCK: Amer-
ican journulisi; jjorn at Pliiladelphia Sept. 16, 18.18;
died there .March 4, 189'2. He was coruiectcd with
the " Public Ledger" and other pai)cr8. In 1883 he
published a work entitled "The Jews of Philadel-
phia Prior to 1800," one of the earliest contril)utions
to American Jewish history (H. S. Morais. "The
Jews of Philadelphia," jip. 842-343). A.

ROSENBACH, OTTOMAR ERNST FE-
LIX: German physician; Ijoin .Ian. 4, ISol. at
Krappitz, Silesia, where Ins father, Samuel Rosen-
bach, practised medicine. He received his education
at the universities of Berlin and Breslaii (M.D. 1874).
His studies were interrupted by the Franco-Prus-
sian war, in which he took an active part as a vol-
unteer. From 1874 to ls77 he was assistant at the
medical hospital and dispensary of the University of
Jena; in 1878 he was appointed assistant at the Al-
lerheiligen-Hospital at Breslau. and became privat-
docent at the university of that city ; in 1887 he be-
came chief of the medical departmentof the hospital,
which position he resigned in 1893; and in 1S88 he
was appointed assistant professor. In 1896 he re-
signed his profes-sorship and removed to Berlin.
where he has since practised.

Rosenbach has written many essays for the med-
ical journals, and is one of the collaborators on
Eulenburg's " Realencyclopiidie der Gesjunmtcn
Heilkunde" (all three eilitions) and on Nothnagel's
" Spezielle Pathologic und Therapie." Of Ins works
may be mentioned: "Studien liber den Xcrvus
Vagus," Berlin, 1877; "Grundlagen, Aufgaben und
Grenzen der Therapie," Vienna, 1891; "Die Ent-
stehung und Hygienisclie Behandlung der Bleich-
sucht," Leipsic."l893; "Die Grundlagerr der LHire
vom Kreislauf," Vienna, 1894; "Die S<'ekrankheit
als Typus der Kinetosen," ib. 1896; "Die Krank-
heiten des Ilerzens und Hire Behandlung." Berlin
and Leipsic, 1897; "Grundriss der Pathologic und
Therapie der Herzkrankheitcn." Berlin. 1899; and
"Arzt Contra Bactcriologe." Vienna, 19tV2 (trans-
lated into English bv Acliill<> Rose. New York.
1904).

BinuoGRAPiiv: PajTi'l, Rioff. Ler.

F. T. H.

ROSENBACHER, ARNOLD : Austrian law-
yer and communal worker; born in Prjigue April 4,
1840; educated at the gymnasium and the university
of his native city (LL.D.. July. 1863). While at the
university he continued his study of the Bible and
rabbinical literature. Since 1873 he has been active

Rosenbaum
Kosenfeld

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

474

in tlie adniiuistralion of the Je\vi>^li comimiuity of
Prague, being iimde a trustee in that year, viee-pres-
iilcnt in ISS"). and i)iesiileiit in 1887. In 1807 he was
made president of the Union of IJoiieniian Jewisli
Congregations, and in 18'.I8 vice-presitlent of tiie
Union of Austrian Jews. In 1861 he began a contest
for the degree of doctor of canon law, wliich tlien
was denieil to Jews in Austria. While not success-
ful in his own case, his ellorts led to the removal of
the restrictions in 1870. In 180:3 lie entered the law
department of tiie treasury as " Finanz-Piocuratur,"
being thelirst Jew in Austria to hold a position in that
department. He resigned in 18fi0 to devote himself
to the practise of the law, in which he is still (1905)
engaged. Ixosenbacher is likewise a Hebrew scholar,
s. ^ D.

ROSENBAUM, DANIEL BEZALEL. See

RiiNsni i;r.. Ui./.Ai 11, i; .Ii>i;i..

ROSENBERG, ABRAHAM HAYYIM: Rus-
sian American writer; liorii ut Piusk, Russia, Oct.
17. 1838 : a descendant of the Jaffe family. Educated
at home and at the rabbinical seminary of Jitomir,
Ru.ssia, he became in 1872 chief rabbi of the district
of Pinsk, and was called in 1888 to till a similar
position in the district of Nikolaief. At the same
time he taught Jewish history and religion to the
Jewish pupils at the gymnasium of Nikolaief. In
1891 he emigrated to the United States and settled
in the city of New York.

Rosenberg is the autiior of: " Ge Hizzayon," in
"Ha-Meliz," 1867-68, and the translator of "Tii-
denski Evrei," a novel by (). Derry wliich appeared
inthe"EvreiskiyaZai)iski," 1881; "Ilatuii Damim,"
in -'Ha-'Ibri," New York, 1892, a novel of Russian
Jewish life; and a cyclopedia of the Bible, of whicli
two volumes have appeared under the title " Ozar
ha-Shemot. "

BiBLKXiRAPHV : Hnktnc yisracIhe-Amcrika,19Ki; American
Jiwish yc(trli<)(ih. '*>>)'>.
A. F. T. II.

ROSENBERG, ALBERT: German physician;
born Sept. 17. 1S.")<I. at Scliloppe, West Prussia;
educated at the University of Berlin (M.D. 1880).
Of his essays may be mentioned; "Die Behand-
lung der Kehlko])ftul)eI•kul().'^e " ; "Die Intuba-
tion des Kehlkopfes"; " Ueber Verengerungen des
Kehlkopfes und der Luftrohre "; " Die Geschwulste
des Zuiigengniiidcs"; " Ueber Mandel^teine "; " Der
Wert der X Strahlen fiir die Laryngologie " ; and
"Ueber Nasenbluten." Ke has summed up most
of the results of iiis practise in ins manual " Die
Krankheiten der Mundhohle, des Rachens, und des
Kehlkoiifcs," Berlin. 1893 (2d ed.. 1S99). S.

ROSENBERG, JULIUS. Hungarian deputy;
born at Kis-( 'zcll Sept. 12, 1806; educated at Stein-
amangcr and Raal). later studying law at Buda-
pest (LL.D. 1877), where he was admitted to the bar
in 1880. Recognized, even before his graduation,
as an authority on maritime law, he was elected
a member of ihe board of directors of the Adria
Steamship Company, contriliuting much in this posi-
tion to the industrial develoimicnt of the country.
In 1892 he was returned by the district of Neniet-
Ujvar tothe Hungarian Parliament, where, both as a
member, and as secretary of tlw committee on polit-

ical economy, he took an active part in framing the
laws which were drafted by that committee, besides
reporting on commercial treaties with foreign na-
tions.

Rosenberg fought a duel with Count Stepiian
Batthyanyi in 1885 and killed his opjionent. His
wife is a daughter of Consul Don Teixeirade Mattos.

BinLiOGRAriiv : Sturm, Ornzuaautth'si Ahnaiicuh, 1S07.
s. L. V.

ROSENBERG, MORITZ. SccRott, Moritz.

ROSENBLATT, JOSEF MICHEL : Austrian

barrister; born .March 20, 1853. at Cracow, Galicia,
in which city he received his education, graduating
from the university in 1876. After having passed
his state e.xamin.ition in 1880, he settled in his native
city as a counselor at law. In 1877 he became lec-
turer in jurisprudence at the university; in 1884,
assistant professor of that subject ; and in 1893,
professor. He is al.^o a member of the board (jf ex-
aminers ir. jurisprudence.

Rosenblatt has taken an active part in Jewish af-
fairs, having be( n president of the Cracow conmiu-
nity and of the Austrian branch of the Alliance Israel-
ite Universelle, and a member of the Baron Hirsch
Fund for Galicia. He is also an alderman of the
city of Cracow.

He is the authorof: "OUdziale w Przestepstwie,"
Warsaw, 1874; "Ueber Stratenconcuireiiz," Teseh-
en, 1877; " Ueber Hexenprocesse in Polen," Warsaw,
1882: "Wykhi'l Proeesu Karnego," Cracow, 1883,
a handbook of procedure in criminal cases; and
"Ueber die Revision im Strafprocessc," Cracow,
1903.

s. F. T. H.

ROSENBLATT, MORDECAI BEN MEN-
AHEM (known also as Der Butener Zaddik) :

Russian rabbi; boin at Autoiioli, goveniiiii iit of
Grodno, on the 3d of lyyar, 1837. After iiaviiig stud-
ied under Isaac Hirsch, rabbi of Semyatich, lie mar-
ried, at the age of fourteen, a girl from his native
town. In 1850 Ro-senblatt went to Pinsk, where he
studied rabbinics, and four j-ears later he returned
to his native town. There he was aitpointed a.ssist-
ant to Phinehas Michael, and both of tliein devoted
themselves to the study of Cabala and to i)raetical
Hasidi.sm. In 1870 Rosenblatt becair.e rabbi of
Buten, government of Grodno, where, by his ascetic
life, he ac(iuired renown as a zaddik and miracle-
worker. People Hocked to him Irom near and
from far — Jews and even Christian noblemen — to
ask his advice and secure liis blessing. In 1887 he
was iiiviteil to the rabbinate of Korelitz, govern-
ment of Minsk, and four jears later to that of Osh-
myani, government of Wilna. Since 1904 he lias
odiciated as rabbi of Slonini. Rosenlilatt is the au-
thor of "lladrat Mordekai " (Wilna, 1S99), a work
containing responsa, pilpuliiii, and homiiies. Some
of his responsa are to be found in Jo.sepii Rosen's
" Porat Yo.sef," and many of his works are still un-
published,
s. B. Ei.

ROSENDALE, SIMON W. : Anieriean law-
yer; lioni at .Vllianv. N. V.. June 23, 1S42; gradu-
ated from Bane Academ}', Vermont. He was ad-

475

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rosenbaum
RoBenfeld

niittcd to tlie biir in 1863, aiul shortly tlu'rraflcr
bccuinc assi.staul(U.stiict iittonioy of Albany county.
In 1868 lie was elected recorder of Albany, which
judicial position he held foi- four years. In IMSl he
entered into inutnership witii Kufus W. I'eckluiin
(later associate justice of the United States Supreme
Court), and when the latter was elected to the .state
bench, Hosendale continued hi.s law practise with
Albert Hcssberg. For several terms lioseiulale was
corporation counsel of Albany; and in ISO'2 he was
elected attorney-general of New York state. Theo-
dore Roosevelt, when governor of that slate, ap-
pointed him (lH99)a state commissioner of charities,
in which iionorary position he has since served, de-
votiiig much time to its duties.

Hosendak' litis always manifested a keen interest
in Jewish matters, not only in the community in
wliieli he has lived, but throughout the country.
II(! was active for a long time in the affairs of the
Order of B'nai B'rilh, and for ten years was presi-
dent of its court of appeals. He was for a number
of }'ears a member of the executive board of the
Union of American Hebrew Congregations, and fre-
quently attended its conventions as a delegate.
He has likewise been a trustee of the Albany con-
gregation. He acted as chairman of the conven-
tion called in Philadelphia in 1888, at which the
Jewish Publication Society of America was organ-
ized, and has served as a vice-president of the latter
and of the American Jewish Historical Society.
He is, besides, president of the board of trustees of
Union University, president of the Albany Medi-
cal College, a director of the National Commercial
Bank of Albany, a trustee of the National Savings
Bank (of which institution he has been president),
and a director of the Commerce Fire Insurance
Company. He has been governor of the Albany
City Hospital, and is connected with many other
charitable and business organizations.

Hosendale is the author of "The Involution of
Wampum as Currency."

A. Cx. II. C.

ROSENFELD, JACOB: Russian journalist
and publisher; boj-n in Austria 1889 ; died in Minsk,
Russia, 1885. His parents emigrated to Russia,
where lie received his education at the gymnasium,
and he afterward attended the law department of the
University of Kiev, from which he was graduated as
attorney at law. He practised in St. Petersburg,
and wrote articles for 1he"St. Petersburgskiya Vye-
doinosti " and for other Russian jiapeis. The ex-
cesses against Jews in South Rus.sia in 1881 made
a strong impression upon Rosenfeld, as upon many
other educated Ru.ssian Jews. From that time he
was an ardent nationalist. In the same year he
imrchased the " Razsvyet,". a Jewish jieriodical in
the Russian language, of which he had been coed-
itor together with G. T. Bogrow. This paper then
became the organ of nationalism and of the Palestin-
ian movement ; but it could not exist long, for in
1883 Rosenfeld was compelled by material ditlicul-
ties to sto]i the ]-.ublishing of his ]iaper. lb' set-
tled in Minsk, wlure he returned to the practi.se
of law.

11. u. S. III-.

ROSE'NFELD, LEOPOLD: Danish composer;
born ill (.'tijienhagen July Ul, IS-IU. He was origi-
nally destined for a mercantile career, and spent si.x
years in a counting house: liiit his love for music
manifested itself so markedly that his falherallowcd
him to follow his natural bent. He studied at
the Copenhagen Conservatory of Music for tiiree
years (1872 to IHToj, where he devoted himself espe-
cially to composition. In 1881 lie obtained a Bcliol-
arship which enabled hirn to travel abroad: and in
1889 he received the title of professor.

Rosenfeld has composed many pieces for the
piano, and more than thirty booklets of songs with
Danish and (Jerman texts. Of his compositions for
orchestra " Ilenrikog Else" (Copenliagen, 1885) was
received with great favor. He has written an ai<l
to instruction in singing, entitled "Om Textsjing"
(lb. 1887), and has contributed a number of articles
to Danish, German, and English musical journals.

BIULIOGUAI'HY: C. F. nrlclia, Dansk lUitymntk Lericmi.
s. F. C

ROSENFELD, MORDECAI JONAH: Ga-

lician author of Helnew books; born at Dynow,
near Przemysl, Galicia. Oct. 21, 1797; died at Sos-
nica June 5, 1885. When but seven years old he
went to Przemysl and thence to Brody. where he
studied the Talmud and Hebrew and German.
About the year 1830 he became sliohet at Sosnica,
and remained there for the rest of his life. Ro.senfdd
was the author of : " 'En Bolien " (Przemysl, 1872).
a commentary on "Beliinat 'Olam"; "Or Karob"
(i'l. 1873), a commentary on "Or ha-Hayyim" by J.
Yabez, with an appendix on the origin of the Cab-
ala; "Job," with commentary ("Kenaf Renanim ")
and philological notes ("Hokah Millim"; Lemberg,
1875). In addition to these works he contributed
articles to such periodicals as " Ha-Maggid " and
"Ha-'Ibri." The most important of these was"Neti-
nali la Kolien," strictures on "Netinali la-Gcr" by
N. Adler.

nini,iofiP..\piiv : Ozar hn->^ifnit. i. 121 cl xcq.; Zeitlin. Hi'M.
lltin: J), -.m : Lip'pc. Andf hn-Mdzliir, I. 400. Vlt-nim, IH^l.
II. I!. A. S. W.

ROSENFELD, MORRIS : Yiddish poet ; born
at Bokslia, government of Suwalki, UiLSsian Poland,
Dec. 28, 1862; educated at Boksha, Suwalki, and
Warsaw. He worked as a tailor in New York and
London and as a diamond-cutter in Amsterdam, and
settled in New York in 1886. since which year he lias
been connected with the editorial staffs of several
leading Jewish papers. At present (10(»5) he is edi-
tor of the " New Yorker Morirenblalt." In 1901 he
published a wiekly entitled " Der Ashmedai." He
was also the pulilisher and editor of a quarterly
journal of literature (|iriiited in Yiddish) entitled
"Jewish Annals." He was a delegate to the Fourtli
Zionist Congress at London in 1900. ami gave read-
ings at Harvartl University in 1><9>1. Chicago Uni-
versitvin 1900. and Wellesley and RadclifTc ci»lleges
in 1902.

Rosenfeld is the author of "Die Glocke " (New
York. 1^^88), poems of a revolutionary character;
later the author bought and destroyed all obtainal>le
copies of this book. He wrote also " Die Bliimen-
kette" (i/j. 1890) and "Das Lieder Buch " («/.. 1897;

Rosenfeld
Rosenthal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

476

English tnuisl. by Leo Wiener, "Songs from the
Ghetto," Boston, 1899; German transl. by Berthokl
Feivel. Berlin, aud by E. A. Fisliin, Milwaukee,
Wis., 1899; Rumanian transl. by M. Rusu, Jassy,
1899; Polish transl. by J. Feklman. Vienna, 1903;
Hungarian transl. by A. Kiss, Budapest; Bohemian
transl. by J. Dchlicky, Prague). His poems wer«
published, under the title "Gesammelte Lieder," in
New York in 1904.

Bibliography: American Jiuish !'< or Boo/f, 1904-5.
A. F. T. H.

ROSENFELD, SAMSON WOLF: German
rabbi; born at .Markt Ulilfeld. Bavaria. Jan. 4. ITHQ;
died at Bamberg May 12. 1862. At the age of thir-
teen lie entered the yeshibah at Flirth, and for si.\
years he studied rabbinics there. In 1808 he was
elected rabbi of Uhlfeld. He accepted no salary or
emoluments. For many years he held also the post
of president of the congregation. He introduced
reforms in house aud synagogue, and established a
school in which he shared the labor of the teachers.
In 1819 a beautiful synagogue was dedicated con-
cerning which he published a pamphlet, "Dielsrael-
itische Tempelhalle, oder die Neue Synagoge in
Uhlfeld, Hire Eutstehung, Einrichtuug uiul Einwei-
hung, Xebstden Drei Dabei Gehaltenen lieden." He
preached in German at a time when other Bavarian
rabbis could neither read nor write the vernacular.

In consequence of the law of June 10, 1813, which
made the "Schutzjuden" citizens of Bavaria, and
which demanded that the rabbi should have a uni-
versity training, Rosenfeld submitted to a new ex-
amination. In 1826 he was elected rabbi of Bam-
berg, which post he held until his death. He took
an active part in the work for the emancipation of
the Bavarian Jews, and wrote a number of pam-
phlets on this subject (see Jew. Enxyc. ii. 604b).

Rosenfeld edited "Stunden der Andacht fiir Is-
raeliten"(4vols., Dinkelsbidd, 1834; 2d ed.,3 vols.,
lb. 1838). Selections therefrom in Hebrew by M.
Bendelsohn of Grodno appeared at Wilna in ISM
under the title " Hegyon ha-'Ittim." In 1835 and
1836 Rosenfeld published the weekly "Das Full-
horn."

Bibliography: I. Klein, in MonaL-ixrhrift, 1863. pp. 201-214 ;
S. Kramer, In Achawa, 1866, pp. 1.5-S!; Fiirst, liihl. Jud. iii.
169.
P. S. Man.

ROSENFELD, SYDNEY : American dram-
atist; born in Richmond, Va., Oct. 26, 1855; edu-
cated in the public schools of Richmoml and New
York.

When the publication of "Puck" was decided on,
Rosenfeld was appointed its editor, but he eventually
turned his attention to dramatic work. Among the
plays lie has produced the following deserve men-
tion: "A Possible Case"; "Imagination"; "Tlie
Club Friend " ; " The Politician " ; " A Man of Ideas" ;
"A House of Cards." Rosenfeld was joint author
of " The Senator." He has also created several oper-
ettas and musical extravaganzas, of wliicii the fol-
lowing are the most nf)teworlhv : "Tlie Lady or
the Tiger"; -'The Mocking-Bird " ; -'The Passing
Show"; "The Giddy Throng"; "The King's Car-
nival "; and "The Hall of Fame."

As an atlapter Rosenfeld has produced a number

of plays, the phief among them being "The White
Horse Tavern," "The Black Hussar," "The Twa
Escutcheons," "Prince Methusalem," and "Nauon."

As secretary of the National Art Theatre Societ}-,
Rosenfeld was one of the leailers iu an effort to se-
cure an American national theater. In this work he
was ably assisted by his wife (nee Genie Holtz-
meyer Johnson), who organized and presided over
the Woman's Auxiliary, which was one of the most
important factors of the National Art Theatre Soci-
ety. At present (1905) Rosenfeld is president and
managing director of the Century Theatre Company.

A. * F. H. V.

ROSENHAIN, GEORGE: German mathema-
tician; born June 10, 1816, at Konigsberg, Prussia;
died there May 14, 18S7. He was i)rivat-docent at
the University of Breslau from 1844 to 1848, and
then at that of Vienna, where he began to lecture
in 1851 ; and in 1857 he was appointed associate
professor at Konigsberg. He won fame for himself
by his work "Sur les Fonctions de Deux Variable*
et a Quatie Periodes. Qui Sont les Inverses des In-
tegrales Ultraelliptiques de la Premiere Classe,"
which was awarded the chief prize for mathematics
at the Paris Academy in 1846 (" Memoires des Sa-
vants," etc., 1851, ix.). He proved the existence of
the Abel functions defined by Jacobi (GOpel succeed-
ing independently in the same operation). This
step from the Jacobi functions of one variable to
those of two variables was most important for the
development of mathematics.

s. S. G.

ROSENHAIN, JAKOB (JACQUES): Ger-
man jjianist; born at Mannheim Dec. 27, 1813; died
at Baden-Baden March 21, 1894. A one-act piece of
his entitled " Der Besuch im Irrenhauses " was very
successfully produced at Frankfort-on-theMain,
Dec. 29, 1834, and was frequently repeated, notably
at Weimar under the leadership of Hummel. His
second opera, "Liswenna," was less fortunate. In
1837 Rosenhain went to Loudon. On his return he
settled in Paris, where, in conjunction with J. B.
Cramer, he established a school of piauoforte-iday-
ing. Upon the completion of his third opera, " Vo-
lage et Jaloux," which was produced at Baden,
Aug. 3, 1863, Rosenhain permanently retired from
the operatic stage in order to devote himself more
exclusively to instrumental music.

Among his principal compositions in this field may
be mentioned: symphony iu G minor; symphony
in F minor; symphony, " Im FrUhling." His
brother Eduard (German pianist and teacher; born
at Maiuihciin Nov. 18, 1818; died at Frankfort-on-
tiie-Main Sept. 6, 1861) published a serenade for cello
and piano.

Biiii.ioORAiMiY : Grove, Diet, of Muxic and 3/u.si(i(ni.« ; Sehll-
linp. i'vicerml Lexiknti der Timkunst ; Mendel, Miwifco-
Uxchex Convcrsatioiis-LcTikon.
s. J. So.

ROSENHAUPT, MORITZ : German cantor;
born at Ollenbac h on the (ilan, Rhenish Prussia,
]SIarch 14, 1841, where his father was rabbi and
teacher; died at Nuremberg Nov. 16, 1900. Rosen-
haupt commenced his studies under Cantor L5we
at Strasburg, and continued them under Salomon
Sulzer in Vienna. He then became cantor and

477

Till: JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rosenfeld
Rosenthal

tcuclicr iit Koclicm on tlic ]\Iosol, and in 1804 was
Ciilletl to ii .viniilar i)osition at Speycr, wlicro two
well-known nuisicians bocunie liis tcaclicrs — Pro-
fessor AViss and the clioir-ieadcr Binz, who taught
him theory and counterpoint. In IBfSl lie succeeded
.losef Singer (who hail been called to Vienna) as
cantor at Nuremberg.

Kosenhaupt is the author of "Shire Ohel Yaa-
kob," synagogal songs (part i.. Speyer; parts ii.
and iii., Nuremberg). He set the Forty-second
Psalm to mu.sic as a concerto, wrote a number of
Hebrew .songs, and compo.sed various secular pieces,
overtures, serenades for orchestra, etc.

s. J. F.

ROSENMULLER, ERNST FRIEDRICH
KARL : Chiistian Orientalist and theologian; boiii
Dec. 10, 1708, at Hesselberg; died at Lcipsic Sept.
17, 1835. He studied at Erlangen, Giessen, and
Leipsi(; Tinder his father, and became assistant pro-
fessor of Arabic at tlie university of the last-named
city in 1796. He devoted a laigc jiart of his life to
his " Scholia in Vetus Testamentum," in twenty-four
parts (Leipsic, 1788-183.')), which formed the basis
of most of the e.xegetical work on the Old Testa-
ment in the nineteenth century. He ])ub]ished in
live i)arts an abridgment of this colossal collection
{ih. 1835). Besides this his " Bibliographi.sches
Ilandbuch," in four parts (Gottingen, 1800), was one
of the earliest introductions to the Old Testament ;
and his "Haudbuch der Biblischen Alterthums-
kuudt' " (Leipsic, 1831) was a systematic summary of
the material contained in his " Scholia." Further, lie
published editiousof Bochart's " Ilierozoicon " (1796),
with notes by liim.self, and of Lowth's "Pnelec-
tiones" (Leipsic, 1815), and brought out u pocket
edition of the Hebrew Bible (Halle, 1822), besides
writing a preface to Hahn's edition of 1830.

Bibliography: ntnyraphie Universelle ; Herzog-PIitt, ReaJ-

T. J.

ROSENROTH, BARON VON (CHRISTIAN
KNORR) : Christian Hebraist ; l)orn at Alt-Handen,
in Silesia, July 15, 1631. After having conijileted
his studies in the universities of Wittenberg and
Leipsic, he traveled through Holland, France, and
England. On his return he settled at Sulzbach and
devoted liim.self to the study of Oriental languages,
especially Hebrew, the rudiments of which lie had
acquired while abroad. Later he became a diligent
student of the Cabala, in which he believed to find
proofs of the doctrines of Christianity. In liis
opinion the " Adam Kadinon " of the cabali.sts is
Jesus, and the three highest sefirot represent the
Trinity. Rosenrotli intended to make a Latin trans-
lation of the Zoliar and the "Tikkunim," and he
published as preliminary studies the first two vol-
umes of his " Kabbala Denudata, sive Doctrina He-
brtporum Transcendentalis et ISIetaphysica At(|ue
Thcologia" (Sulzbach, 1677-78). They contain a
cabalistic nomiMiclature. the "Idra Kabbah " and
"Idra Zuta" and the "Sifra di-Zeni'uta," cabalistic
essays of Xaplitali Herz and Jacob Elliaiian, etc. l{o-
senroth published two other volumes under the title
" Kabbala Denudata " (Fraukfort-on-the-Main, 1684),
containing the "Sha'ar ha-Shamayim " (^f Abraham

Colien dc Hcricra and several of tlie writings (if
Isaac Luria.

niiiMOdnAi'MV: Wolf, nil.l. If,},r. HI. 1)79; FDrst, IWil. Jud
II. 1.0; (iriliz, fV(w/i. X. :.'«:.

I).

I. Bu,

ROSENSOHN, MOSES: Bussi;,n Hebraist;
l>i>Mi in liic liisi (|uail.r(.f ihc jiincteenth ccniury
at Wilna, where he lived all liis life in amuent cir-
cum.stance.s. He died there in 1896. IJoscnsohn
wrote a number of works, of which the following
may be mentioned: " 'Ezah woTiishiyali." sug-
gestions for reforms in Judaism (Wilna, 1870):
"Sheloni Ahim," cosmopolitanism and nnivcrsidism
of tiie Mosaic religion (Wilna, 1870); "Dibre Sha-
lom," a defense of the Caiiala (in three volumes;
Wilna, 1880, 1882. 1883). Kosensohn was suspected
of strong leanings toward Christianity, and was
therefore shunned by the Orthodo.v Bussian Jews.

BinLionuAPnv: Lill('nl)lum, in Zeflcrlmiim's Knlnlrt Rt Pe-
tersburg, 1888; Zeilllu. Jlilil. J I, hi:: I'liiH-niil, In Un-'\icUz

lSiK», No. m. *'

"• J{ 1. AVah.

ROSENSTEIN, SAMUEL SIEGMUND :

German i)liysi(ian; liorn at Berlin J''i i). 20, l.sy2;
son of Babbi Elhanan Rosenstein, and grand.son of
Kabbi Rosenstein of Bonn. He studied iihilo.sophy,
and, later, medicine at the University of Berlin. grad-
uating as J\I.I). in 1854. From 1856 to 1858 he was
assistant at the general hosjiiial at Danzig. He es-
tablished himself as a physician in I'rrlin in 1858,
and received from the university there thc"veuia
legendi " in 1864. In 1866 he was elected juofcssor
of medicine at the University of Groningen, and in
1873 at that of Leyden, which latter position lie still
(1905) holds. In' 1898 he received the degree of
LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh.

Rosenstein is tiie author of "Die Pathologic und
Therapie der Nierenkrankheiten," Berlin. 1863 (4th
ed. 1894), and has contributed to Ziemssen's " Iland-
buch der Allgemeinen Therapie " the section on dis-
eases of the heart.

niHLIO(iI!APHV : llirscli, Tliiuj. T.rr.: Tafil. Tiioii. Lrr.

s. F. T. H

ROSENTHAL : One of several families of that
name tlourishiiig in Russia. The ancestor of this
l)articular I'amily was Solomon of Wirballen (a town
on the Prussian frontier), who came from Skud and
was surnamed "Skudski." He was prominent as a
financier, and he is recorded to have been one of the
court Jews of Frederick the Great of Prussia. His
.son David of Yashinovka married a si.ster of Leiser
(Eliezer) Rosenthal of Yashinovka. antl, in accord-
ance with the practise common at the time, assumed
her family name. Their issue was: Moses, the father
of Leon, Schemariah, Solomon, Wolf, and Yote;
I.oeb, the father of Solomon (d. Krementchug. 1885).
^Marcus (d. there 1896). Anna, wife of Herman Ho-
SENTH.vT.. and Fanny, wife of L. Jacobovich ; Abra-
ham of Pinsk; and Gedali:di of Grodno (d. 1H93).
One of Schemariah Rosenthal's daughters married
Albert Soloweilschik, formerly director of the Sibe-
rian Bank of St. Petersburg; the other (huigliter is
marrird to Dr. S. Bu.mmn of New York.

Leiser Rosenthal was the father of Simeon Rosen-
thal, who died in Berlin, and of Nisseu Ro.seiithal.

Sosentbal

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

478

who was a prominent citizen of Wilna in tlie tirst
half of the nineteenth century (see Lilienthul. "My
Travels in liussiu," in "The Israelite." vol. ii., No.
17, p. 138).

Abelman, Zikmii Yihiulah. p. i.\., Wilna,

P. Wl.

Bibliography

If'JO.
II. K.

ROSENTHAL, DAVID : Polish physician ;
born 1>US at Tainogrml, Lublin; died I8b9. His
father was district physician of Zamoisk and on the
staff of the Polish army. David studied medicine
at Vienna, and in 1831 was sent to Hungary and
Transylvania, where the cholera was raging. In 1834
he received the degree of ^I.D., and in 1836 became
physician in ordinary at the Jewish hospital, War-
saw} where he afterward held the post of chief phy-
sician (1844-79). Simultaneously (1849-6'2) he was
th<^ students' physician at the Institution of Agricul-
ture and Forestry in Marymont, a suburb of War-
saw, and from 1859 professor of hygiene at the same
institution.

Rosenthal published a description of the species
of typhus which prevailed in 1847 and which was
later known as " recuiTent fever " ; lie wrote also " O
Nosaciznie u Ludzi " (on glanders), Warsaw, 1849.

BiBi.ior.R.vPHV: S. Orgelbrand, Etwyklopcdja Pownzeclina,
.xiii. 30-31.
II. n. M. Pv.

ROSENTHAL, DAVID AUGUSTUS: (kr-
man pliysician and author; born at Neisse, in Silesia,
iu the year 1812; died at Brcslau March 29, 1870.
He was educated at the University of Breslau, Avhence
he was graduated M.D. In 1851 he embraced Ro-
man Catholicism, and set about to improve the tone
of the Catholic press and the condition of the Cath-
olics of Silesia. Rosenthal distinguished himself
also as an author. He began his literary career in
1862 by editing the poetical works of the Catholic
mystic " Angelus Silesius," better known as Johanu
Scheftler. Between the years 1869 and 1872 he pub-
lished his "Convertitenbilder aus dem Neunzehnten
Jahrhundert" (4 vols., Schaffhausen), or biograph-
ical sketches of Jews and Protestants who had em-
braced the Roman Catholic faith during the nine-
teenth century. This work was arranged according
to countries. A supplement of the entire work
is found in the last voluine. The "Convertiten-
bilder," which went through several editions, is a
very important contribution to the history of the
Church in the nineteenth century, and supplements
Do le Roi's work, "Geschichte der Evangelischen
Juden-Mission," which treats only of the Jews who
joined the Protestant Church.

BiBLiooRArHV : Litcrarixehcr HnvdweiKcr ftlr das Knthn.
lixr.hc JuulKchlmid.'Munslnr. 1878, p. l-..'0 ; Pick, In McClin-
UK;k and Stronp, Cyc s.v.
s. B. P.

ROSENTHAL, EDUARD : German jurist;
born Sept. f), 18.-)3, at ^Vu^7.1)u^g. He studied at
AV'iirzburg, Heidelberg, anil Berlin (LL.I)., Wurz-
burg, 1878). In 1880 he established him.self as
privat-docent at the University of Jena, where he
was appointed assistant professor in 1883, and full
professf)r of public law and the history of German
law in 1896. His works include: " Die Rechtsfolgen
des Ehebruchs nach Canonischem nnd Deutschem

Recht," 1880; •' Beitriige zur Deutschen Stadtrechts-
geschichte," 1883. Nos. i., ii. ; " Die Behc^rilenorgani-
sation Kaiser Ferdinands I." 1887; '"Geschichte des
Gerichtswesens und der Verwaltung.sorganisation
Baierus," 1889, vol. i. ; "Internationales Eisenbahu-
frachtrecht," 1894. He has also contributed vari-
ous articles to Conrad's "Haudworterbuch der
Staatswissenschafteii." S.

ROSENTHAL, ELIEZER (LAZAK): Ger-
man bibliograplier and owner of a famous collection
of books at Hanover; born April 13, 1794, at Na-
sielsk, in the government of Plock, RusMa; died
Aug. 7, 1868, at Hanover. His library became
known in Germany as early as the tirst half of the
nineteentii century, and was considered to be the
largest Hebrew library iu that country. He com-
posed a bibliographical work, entitled " Yodea'
Sefer," which comprises 2,530 numbers, and deals
with works which appeared not later than 1857. M.
Roest, Avho took the library to Amsterdam, was
commissioned by Rosentlud's son to catalogue the
Hebrew part. This catalogue appeared in two vol-
umes (Amsterdam, 1875); in the .second volume
Rosenthal's work mentioned above is printed com-
l)Iete as an appendi.\. The librar)' now forms a
part of the Amsterdam University Library.

Bini.iooRAPnv: M. Roest, in the preface to Cat. RnKcnthal.
liihi.; Zuiiz, Z. O. p. :M4.
s S. O.

ROSENTHAL, FERDINAND : German

labbi; born at Kenese, lluugaiy, Nov. 10, 1839;
educated at several Talmud Torahs, the gymnasium
at Vienna, and the universities of Leipsicand Berlin
(Ph.D. and Rabbi 1866). In 1867 he became rabbi
at Beuthen, Upper Silesia, whence he was called to
Breslau in 1887, where he is still (1905) ofliciating.

Rosenthal, besides contributing to the periodical
press, istheauthor of: "DasErste MakUabiierbuch,"
Leipsic, 1867; " Die Erlasse Ca-sars luid die Senatus-
consulte in Josephus," etc., Bre.slau, 1879; "Vier
Apokryphische Blicher aus der Zeit und Schule R.
Akiba's," Leipsic, 1883,

s. F T. II.

ROSENTHAL, HARRY LOUIS : English ex-
egete; born about 1860 at Vladislavov (Neustadt-
Schirwindt), Poland. In 1869 he accompanied his
mother and sisters to ]VIanchester, England, where
he was educated. Returning to Vladislavov iu
1878, he studied Hebrew, and then entered upon a
business career. He is the author of " Sod Kedo-
shim," commentary on the prophecies of Daniel
(Manchester, 1895).' J.

ROSENTHAL, HERMAN: American author,
editor, and lihrarian ; born at Friedrichstadt, i)rov-
ince of Courland, Russia, Oct. 6, 1843; educated at
Bauskc and Jacobstiidt, graduating in 1859. In this
year he translated into German several of Nekras-
sov's poems. In 1809 he engaged in the printing
trade at Krementchug, and in 1870 he published a
collection of poems, "Gedichtc." In the Russo-
Turkish war he served in the Russian Red Cross
Society and received the society's medal for dis-
tinguished service (1877-78). Returning to liis
craft as master-printer, he pursued it in Smyela,

479

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

RoBentbal

government of Kiev, and in tlie city of Kiev un-
til 1881. He produced u humorous story, "Die
W'umlerliclie Kur, " in 1872, and later assisted in
the founding of "Zarya" (Dawn), a daily paper,
the first number of which appeared at Kiev in
1878. At thi.s time Rosenthal was elected- corre-
sponding member of the St. Petersburg Society
for the Promotion of Culture Among the Russian
.lews.

Interested in the condition of his oppressed core-
ligionists, Rosenthal sailed for the United States in
1881 for th(; purpose of founding there agricultural
colonies to be settled by Russian Jewish immigrants.
During 1881-82 he succeeded in establishing colo-
nies in Louisiana and South Dakota. He also took
a prominent part in the administration of the Wood-
bine (N. J.) colony in 1891. During 1887 and 1888
Rosenthal engaged in the book-trade, but gave up
this occupation on being appointed chief statistician
of the Edison General Electric Company, a jiost that
he lield for three years. In 1893 he went to the Far
East, whither lie was sent by the Great Northern
Railroad Company to investigate the economic con-
ditions and trade of China, Korea, and Japan, on
which he published a report (St. Paul, 1893). On
his return he was elected secretary of the German-
American Reform Union, New York city, and a
member of the prci^s bureau of the Committee of
Seventy. In 1894 he was appointed chief of the
discharging department of the Immigration Bu-
reau, Ellis Island, New York, an office he occupied
two years; and in 1898 he accepted the post of chief
of the Slavonic department, New York Public Li-
brary (Astor branch), a position he still (1905) re-
tains. He joined the editorial board of Tin; Jewish
Encyclopedia as chief of the Russian department
in Dec., 1900.

Rosenthal has been proluinently connected witli
Hebrew literature and with the development of the
Haskalah movement in Russia. He contributed
(1859-67) to "lla-Meliz" and other Hebrew peri-
odicals, and corresponded Avith lieifmann, Leon
Gordon, Zweifel, Zederbaum, Fuenn, and other He-
brew scholars. In the United States he edited
and piiblished, together with A. Rosenberg, the He-
brew monthly "Ha-Modia' le-Hodashim"(1901). In
1H9-1 Rosenthal founded the society " Ohole Shein,"
of which he is still president.

Rosenthal translated into German verse "Eccle-
siastes" (" Worte des Sammlers"), New York. 1885,
2d ed. 1893, and the "Song of Songs" ("Lied der
Lieder"), 1893, and, into English, a work by Hugo
Ganz, "The Land of Riddles," New York, 1905.'

His eldest son, Max Rosenthal, born at Kre-
mentchug, government of Poltava, Russia, June 6,
1S(;5, was educated for the medical profession at the
imiversities of Bern, Berlin, and Leipsic(M.D. 1887).
In 1888 he became iiouse surgeon at St. 3Iark's Hos-
l)ital, New York city, and for two years he was
senior resident physician at the Montefiore Home.
At present (1905) he is gynecologist at tiie German
Dispensary and attending gynecologist at the Syden-
ham Hospital. His other son, George D. Rosen-
thal, born 1869, is manager of the Edison General
Electric Company, at St. Louis.

A. ■ F. II, V.

Bmi.ioGUAriiv
Jiiof). Lex.

ROSENTHAL, ISIDOR : German physiolo-
gist; bnru at Laliisciiiu, ii<iir BrDniiicig, Posen, Jidy
16, 1836; died in 190J. (Jradualingas M.D. from the
University of Berlin in 1859, he became as-sistant in
the physiological institute and received the " venia
Icgendi" in 18U\J. In 1807 lie was appointed assist-
ant professor, and in 1872 was elected professor, of
physiology in the University of Erlangen.

Rosenthal wrote many es.says, and was the au-
thfirof: "Die Athcmbewegungen und Hire Bezie-
hungen zum Nervus Vagus," Berlin. lH(i2 ; "Elek-
tricitatslehre fur Medieiner," //(. 1HG2 (3d ed., with
Bernhardt. 1882); "Zur Kcnntniss der Wilrniercgu-
lirung bei den Warmbliitigen Thieren," Erlangen,
1872; "Allgemeine I'hysiolOgie der Muskeln und
Nerven," Leipsic, 1878* (2d ed. 1898); "Bier und
Branntwein in Ihren Beziehungen zur Volksgesund-
heitspfiegc," Berlin, 1881 (2d ed. 1893); and " Vorle-
sungen iiber OelTentliche und Private Gesundheits-
pflege," Erlangen, 1887 (2d ed. IHilO). He was a
collaborator on Hermann's " Lehrbueh der Physio-
logic," for the subjects treating of innervation and
motion, of respiration, and of animal heat, and w as
editor of the " Biologisches Centiali)latl."

3/t')/fr.s Kot}i'crs(itiini»- Lcjrihon ; I'a^l,

F. T. H.

ROSENTHAL, JACOB: Polish idiysieian;

born at Warsaw; son of David Rosenthal; studied
medicine at Berlin and Warsaw. In 1870 he be-
came physician in ordinary to the Jewish Hospital.
Warsaw, devoting himself to gynecology. Owing
to his efforts a section for the diseases of women
was established in 1894; and this department Las
been directed by him up to the present time (1905).
In " Historyi Szpitali w Krel Polskiem," a history of
the hospitals in the kingdom of Poland, edited by
Girsztow in 1870, Rosenthal published a description
of the Warsaw Jewish hospital. Further, lie trans-
lated Bock's "Bucli vom Gesunden und Kranken
Mcuschen " (1872). and jiublished a medical hand-
book for women, entitled "Paradnik Lekarski dia
Kobiet" (1874). Since 1895 he has jmblished in the
periodicals several reviews of Polish medical litera-
ture.

BiBi.iOGRAriiv: S. Orpelbrand, Encyhlopcdja Pnunzfchntu
xiii. yi.
II. K. M. R.

ROSENTHAL, JOSEPH : Russo-Jewisli schol-
ar; born at Suwalki, in tiie government of the same
name in Russian Poland, Feb. 14, 1844. He began
the study of the Talmud and commentaries at an
early age without the aid of a teacher, ami at the
same time devoted liiinself to the study of difTerent
languages and sciences. In the nineties he settled
at Warsaw, where he is now practising law.

Rosenthal began his literary career in 1866 by
contributing phihjlogical articles to "Ha-Muggid "
Since then he has written for such Hebrew peri-
odicals as "Ha -Lebanon." "Ha-Karmel." " Ila-
:Meliz," and others, writing on topics of the day as
well as on Jewish science. The most important of
his contributions are an article en the religious
system of the "Sefer Yezirah." in " Kenes<>t Yis-
riiel" (1887), and some articles in "Ha-F:shkol."
a Hebrew encyclopedia (1887-88). He wrote also

Rosenthal
TLosenzweig

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

480

some rc'sponsa. one of which was published in
•• Dibre Mosheli " by R. Moses of Nanioset ; and
"Derek Emunah," four essays on religious philoso-
phy (Warsaw, 1894). Rosenthal is noted as a chess-
jilayer, antl won the first prize at the Druzgenik
tournament in 1885.

BiBLiOGR.\PHY : Sefir Zihharon, p. 106, Warsaw. 1889 ; Zeitlin.
Bilil. Hclir. p. 317. Leipsic. 1891-95.
II. R. A. S. W.

ROSENTHAL, JULIUS: American lawyer;
born in Liedolslieim. grand tiucliy of Baden. Ger-
many, Sept. 17, 1828. He was educated at the ly-
ceum at liastadt and the universities of Heidelberg
and Freiburg. In 1854 he emigrated to the United
States and settled in Chicago. There he found em-
ployment in the bank of R. K. Swift until 1858;
but, having studied law, he was admitted to the bar
in 1860, and gave sjiecial attention to probate and
real-estate practise.

Rosenthal served as j)ublic administrator of Cook
county, 1859-84; was director of the first Public
Library Board, 1872-75; librarian of the Chicago
Law Institute twenty-five years, and president of the
same, 1878-80; secretary of the first State Board of
Law-E.xaminers, 1897-99; member of the Chicago,
Slate, and American Bar associations; and secretarj'
of the first Fremont Club, 1856.

Rosenthal has been a director of the Chicago Re-
lief and Aid Society, German Relief Society, United
Hebrew Reliet Association, Jewish Training School,
and German Alteuheim, and was one of the founders
of Sinai congregation. He has aKso been a generous
contributor to the Hebrew Union College library.

Married in 1856 to Jette Wolf, he has as issue
two sons, James and Lessing:, both of whom are
lawyers in Chicago.

DUJI.IOGRAPHV : Pritchard's Illinois of To-Daji. p. 73.
A. J. Sto.

ROSENTHAL, LEON (JUDAH LOB B.
MOSES HA-LEVI) : Kussiaii financier, philan-
thropist, and conuuunal worker; born in Wilna Nov.
16, 1817; died in Locarno, Switzerland, June 19,
1887. His father was a progressive, scholarly mer-
chant who.se liouse was one of the rallying-points of
the H.\SKALAii movement earlj' in the nineteenth
century. Young Rosenthal received a liberal edu-
cation; married very early, according to the custom
of those times in Lithuania; and lived .several years
with his father-in-law, Samuel Joel Neumark, in
Brest-Litovsk. He then entered the service of the
Glinzburg family, and, after becoming their business
as.sociate, settled in St. Petersburg about 1850. He
later engaged in extensive enterprises on his own
account and became one of the leading i)ankers and
linanciers in the Russian capital.

Rosenthal remained throughout his busy life an
ardent admirer of Hebrew literature and an active
worker for the spread of secular knowledge among
the Jews of Russia. He corresponded with many
of the best-known M.vskili.m and assisted a large
number of authors and students. The extent of
his benefactions, both pulilic and ]irivale, was very
great; but the crowning glory of his work in behalf
of the Jews was the foundation, in 1863, of the
Hebrat Marbe Haskalah, a society for the promotion

of knowledge among the Jews in Russia, of which
he was the treasurer and the ruling spirit from the
time of its establishment until his death. His "' Tole-
dot Hebrat Marbe Haskalah be-Yisrael be-Erez
Russia" (vol. i., St. Petersburg, 1885; vol. ii., ib.
1890) contains the records and correspondence of
the society. At the beginning of the second vol-
ume, which was printed posthumously, is an excel-
lent biographical sketch of the author written by
J. L. Kantor.

BiBi.iOGRAPHy: Giinzig, Tnlcdot Faliiui) Mici<es. pp. 26-28.
Craeow. 189() (reprint from <>z<n- ha-Sifnit. iii.i; Kiiu-.'ict
Yisrael (year-lxK)lv), iii. l.")]-l.")3. Warsaw. 1S87; lUt-McUz,
viil., No. 21 ; Ha-Sliahar, v. 14-13.
H. R. ■ p. Wl.

ROSENTHAL, MARKUS. See Rozs.wolgyi

(RoSKNTH.\I.), ^IaRKUS.

ROSENTHAL, MAX: American painter and
engraver; l>orn at TuieU, near Kalisz, Russian Po-
land, Nov. 23, 1833. He studied at Berlin mider
Karl Harnisch, and at Paris under Martin Thur-
wanger, whom he accompained to the United Sfates
in 1849. Settling in Philadelphia, he studied at the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and introduced
the use of chromolithograpliy. When the Civil
war broke out he followed the Army of the Potomac
as official illustrator for the United States Military
Commission. In 1872 he invented the sand-blast
process of engraving patterns on glass. Rosenthal
has received many prizes and diplomas. He has
etched more than five hundred portraits, a collection
of which is preserved in the Smithsonian Institution
at Wasliiugttm. He illustrated Longfellow's" Build-
ing of the Ship," "Legend of Rabbi ben Levi," etc.
His latest painting is "Jesus at Prayer." His son
Albert Rosenthal, also an artist, born in Phila-
delphia Jan. 3U, 1863, was educated at Philadelphia
and Paris, and settled in the former city.

Bibliography: American Jewish Year Book. .VkK (190t-5).
A. F. T. H.

ROSENTHAL, MORITZ : Austrian physi-
cian; born at (Jrosswaidein, Hungary, 1833; died in
Vienna Dec. 30, 1889. Educated at the Uidversity
of Vienna (M.D. 1858), he became in 1863 privat-
docent and in 1875 assistant professor of neurology.

Besides about seventy essays, he wrote several
works, of which may be mentioned : " Ueber Stot-
tern," 1861; "Ueber Hirntumoreu," 1863 (2d ed.
1870); "Ueber Scheintodt," 1872; " Handbuch der
Elektrotherapie," l!i73; "Klinik der NervenkranU-
heiten," 1875 (translated into French, English, Ital
ian, and Russian); "Cervicale Paraplegic," 1876;
"Rindencentren des Menschenhirns," 1878; "Mye-
litis und Tabes nacl) Lues," 1881; "Diagnose und
Therapie der Magenkrankheiten," 1882.

BiBi.iOGR.vPHY : racel, 7Ji"(/. Lex.
s. F. T. H.

ROSENTHAL, MORITZ: Austrian pianist;

burn at Lemberg 18<i2; studied successively under
Galath, Mikuli, and Raphael Joselfy. In 1875 the
family removed to Vienna, where at the age of four-
teen Rosenthal gave his first public concert, the
program endfraeing selections from Beethoven,
Chopin (concerto in F minor), Mendelssohn, and
Liszt (" Au Bord d'une Source " and "Campanella ").

481

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rosenthal
TLouenzweig

This concert was so successful that RoseiUlial de-
cided to undertake a series of concert tours, tiie first
of wliicii led him to Bucliarest, where he was ap-
pointeil Huiuanian court pianist.

From 187G to 1878 Rosenthal studietl under Liszt,
and during the following six years devoted himself
to scientific studies as well as music, attending the
University of Vienna. In 1882 he reappeared iu
public. In 1887 and in 1896 he visited America.

In collaboration with L. Scliytte, Rosenthal has
published a work entitled "Technical tStudies for
the Highest Degree of Development."

Bnii.ioc.RAriiv : MusikaUschcs ^y(H■}lC)^hlatt, xxii. 517, 518.
531. 53~'; Baker, iiioy. Diet. <>f Muitic a)ui MitsiciauK.

e. J. So.

ROSENTHAL, SAMUEL: Chess - master ;
born 1838 in Suwalki, Russian Roland; died in Paris
Sept. 25, 1902. After the last Polish revolution he
fled to Paris (1864), where he devoted himself to a
study of the game, and became so rapidly proficient
in it that after the lapse of a year he won the first
prize in a tournament held at the Cafe de la Re-
geuce, Paris. In the Tournier du Pri.\ de I'Empe-
reur, held in the same city in 1867, he won 18 games
and lost 6, and at the International Masters' Tour-
nament at Baden iu 1870 he won 13 and lost 7.
In 1873 he won fourth prize in the Vienna Interna-
tional Tournament. In a memorable match with
ZiK;kertort at the St. George's Chess Club, London,
iu 1880, he lost 7, won 1, and drew 11 games. At
the London Tournament of 1883 he was awarded
the brilliancy prize for a game with Steinitz.

In Paris Rosenthal founded the Cercle des Echecs,
at which he gave exhibitions of blindfold play. He
contributed chess articles to " La Revue des Jeux
et des Arts" and "La Strategic." and edited a vol-
ume on the Paris Tournament of 1900.

Bibliography : Mcycn^ Kdiu'ersation^-Lcxiknti, s.v.; Tlic
New York Times, Sept. 30, 190;.
II. u. A. P.

ROSENTHAL, SOLOMON: Hungarian schol-
ar; born in Moor, Hungary, June 13, 1764; died
at Pesth April 8, 1845. His father, Naphtali Ro-
senthal, was a personal friend of Moses Mendels-
sohn in Ids youth. Rosenthars teachers were Mor-
decai Benet, later chief rabbi of Moravia, and Meir
Barby, head of the Presburg yeshibah. For a time
Rosenthal engaged in commerce in his native place,
devoting himself in his leisure to Jewi.sh literature.
He contributed to " Ha-Meassef," "Orient," and
"Zion," besides maintaining a literary correspond-
ence with Ilartwig Wessely and Isaac Euchel. In
1819 he removed to Pesth.

Rosenthal was the author of " Bet Awen " (Ofen,
1839), in which he attacked Creizenach, Luzzatto,
and Reggio; and he publi-shed the " Ari Nohem " of
Leo da Modena, for which he wrote a preface and
notes. He left in manuscrii^t a fragmentary Hebrew
translatiou of ^Mendelssohn's "Phadou."

BiBi.iofjRAPHY: Ignatz Reich. Beth E(, ii. 3;U ; AlexandtT
Biioliler. Das Crntrttarium S. J. L. Rapoporrs.in Blocli .s
Oexterrdrhischc iror/ic/i.sc/in/f. 1890; idem, Histoni of the
Jcu's in Budapest (In HunKurian).
8. A. Bf.

ROSENTHAL, TOBY EDWARD: American
artist; born at New Haven, Conn., March 15, 1848.

X.— 31

He received a public school education at San Fran-
ci.sco, whither ills family had removed in 1855, and
studied art under Fortunato Arviola in tlie same
<'ity in 1864. in 1865 he went to Munich, where he
studied under Piloiy at tiie Royal Academy until
1876, wiien lie returned to San F'raucisco.

Rosenthal has rec<'ive<l mrdals from tin- exposi-
tions at Muiuch (1870 and 1883) an<l Philadelplda
(1876). Of his pictures tlie following, most of which
have been fxhibitcd in Europe, deserve mention:
" Love's Last OtTering "; " Sjjring, Joy, and Sorrow,"
1868; ".Morning Prayers in Bach's Family," 1870
(now in the museum at Lcipsic); "Out of the Fry-
ingPan into tlie Fire"; "The Dancing L«*s.son,"
1871; "Elaine." 1874; "Young Monk in Refectory."
1875; "Forbidden Longings"; "Who Laughs Last
Laughs Best"; "Girls' BoardingSchool Alarmed,"
1877; "A Mother's Prayer," 1881; "Empty Place."
1882; "Trial of Constance de Beverley," 1883; "De-
parture from the Familv." 1885.

A. " F. T. H.

ROSENTHAL-BONIN, HTJGO : German au-
thor; born at Berlin Ucl. 14. 184U; diid at Stuttgart
April 7, 1897. After having studied natural science
at the univer.sities of Berlin and I'aris, he traveled
through the south of Europe, the United States of
America, and Japan. He went to Switzerland in
1871, but removed in the following year to Stuttgart
and collaborated on " Ueber Land und .Meer." In
1889 he was appointed editor of "Voin Fels zum
Meer."and retired in 1894.

Roseuthal-Bonin was a prolific writer. Of his
works may be mentioned: "Der Heiratsdamm
und Anderes," Stuttgart, 1876; and " Unferirdisch
Feuer," Lcipsic, 1879 (both of these collections of
short stories have been translated into many Euro-
pean languages); " Der Bernsteinsucher," Lcipsic,
1880; "Der DiamantSchleifer," Stuttgart, 1^81;
"Das Gold des Orion," ib. 1882; "Die Tierbilndi-
gerin," ib. 1884; "Das Hans mit den Zwei Eing"- --
en," ib. 1886; " Die Tocliter des Kapitilns," ib. \ — -
"Der Student von Salamanca," i7». 1891; "Erzalil-
ungen des Schiffsarztes," ib. 1892.

s F. T. H.

ROSENZWEIG, ADOLF: German rabbi ;
born Oct. 20, 1850, at Turdossiu, Hungary. He
studied at the gymnasium at Budapest and at the
rabbinical seminary of Presburg. After graduation
he went to Berlin, where he studied philosophy and
Oriental languages and literatures at the university,
and theology at the Hochschule fiinlie Wissinschaft
des Judentums. On Oct. 20, 1874. he entered upon
the rabbinate of Pasewalk. whence he was called to
Birubaum, Posen. In 1879 he went to Teplitz, Bo-
hemia, and in 1887 he accepted a rabbinate at Berlin.

Rosenzweig has pulilislied the following works:
"Zur Einleitung in die BUclier Esra und Nehemia "
(Berlin, 1875); "Zum Hundertslen Geburlstage des
Nathan der Weise" (Posen, 1878); "Das Jahrhun-
dert nach dem Babylonischen Exile mit Besondt-rer
Rucksifhtauf die Religiose Entwickliingdes Juden-
tums" (Berlin, 1885); " KDnstlerund Jugcndbilder"
(Neuhaus, 1886); "Der Politische und Religiose
Character des Josephus Flavins" (Berlin, 1889):
"Jerusalem und Casarea" {ib. 1890); "Das Auge in

Rosenrweig
Bosh ba>Shaiiah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

482

Bibel imd Talmud" {ib. 1892); "Geselligkeit und
Geselligkeitsfreudeii iu Bibtl uud Talmud " {ib.
1895); "Kleiilung uud Schmuck im Bibliscben uud
Talmudischeu Scbiifttum " (ib. 1905). S.

ROSENZWEIG, GERSON : Russian-Ampiican
editor, auibor. aud puct; burn at Byulostuk, Russia,
April, 1861. He received his education in the Jew-
ish schools of Berlin, Cmcow, and in Byelostok and
other cities of Russia, aud conducted a Hebrew
school iu Suwalki, Russia. In 1888 he emigrated to
the United States, and, settling in New York city,
became joint editor of the "Jewish Daily News,"
"Jewish Gazette," and "Jewish World," which
position he held until 1905. He has contributed to
the leading Hebrew papers of the world, his wri-
tings being mainly in classical Hebrew. He edited
and published "Ha-'lbri" (The Hebrew), a weekly,
from 1891 to 1898, and " Kadimah " (Forward), a
monthly, from 1898 to 1902, botii in New York city.

Rosenzweig is the author of "Masseket Amerika "
(1891), a satire which became and is still very pop-
ular, portions thereof having been translated aud
printed in the "Sun" and other leading New York
papers. It is written in the style of the Talmud,
and is considered a masterpiece of satire and humor.
He has published also "Shirim u-Meshalim " (New-
York, 1893), a volume of poetry ; " Hamishshah
we-Alef " {ib. 1903; now being reprinted in Russia);
1,005 original epigrams and poems in Hebrew;
and "Mi-Zimrat ha-Arez," American national songs
translated into Hebrew and set to the original music.

A. F. T. H.

ROSEWALD, JULIE EICHBERG: American
prima donna; fourth daughter ol Moritz Eichberg,
cantor in Stuttgart; born in that city March 7,
1847. After finishing the course of instruction at the
Stuttgart Conservatorium, Jidie joined her sister,
Mrs. Weiller, in Baltimore, in 1864, and two years
later she was married to Jacob Rosewald, violinist
and conductor. She returned to Europe in 1870, and
continued her vocal studies under Marongelli, Mara,
and Viardot-Garcia. Her career as prima donna
began, in 1875, with the Kellogg Opera Company.
Going to Europe a second time, in 1877, she filled
engagements at Nuremberg, Mayence, Stuttgart,
Cologne, Amsterdam, Berlin, and Dresden. In 1880
the Abl)ott Company engaged Mrs. Rosewald as
prima donna, and her husband as conductor. This
engagement lasted until 1884, when she took up
her residence permanently in San Francisco, and
became a popular teacher of singing, her success in
preparing pupils for church choirs, the concert hall,
and the operatic stage being largely due to her thor-
ough knowledge of the anatomy and physiology
of the throat; she has often been called the Mar-
chosi of the West. For ten years, while living in
San Francisco, she was a member of the choir of
Temple Emanu-EI, singing and reciting, in place of
a cantor, the parts of the service usually sung and re-
cited by that functionary — the only instance known
in which a woman has le(l the services in a synagogue.
From 1894 to 1902 she was professor of singing at
Mills College Conservatory of .Music. Her memory
for music is almost prodigious. She is known to have
memoriz/'d a leading role in one niglit, aud her

repertoire includes one hundreil aud twenty-live
operas, in thirty of which she appeared, ou one oc-
casion, during seven consecutive weeks. Mrs. Rose-
wald has won fame for pure and brilliant vocaliza-
tion, versatility, cultivated method, and no less for
piquant and artistic acting. Impaired health com-
pelled her, iu 1902, to retire from professional life.

Bibliography : M. KayserlinK, Die Jlhiiticheii Francn in tier
(JesihiclUe, Liteuitiir. mul Kuust. l^Ttt, p. SJT ; Nabiila
Uemy, I>fi« JUdische Weih. n.d.. pp. :i59-200.

A. H. S.

ROSEWATER, ANDREW: American en-
gineer; born in Buiiouiia Oct. 31, 1848. When very
young he removed with his fauiilj' to the United
States, settling in Cleveland, where he was educated
at the public schools. In 1804 he joined the en-
gineer corps of the Union Pacific Railway; in 1868
he settled in Omaha, where he was for the following
two years assisUint city engineer, being appointed
city engineer iu 1870. In 1876 he became manager
and editor of "The Omaha Bee," and from 1878 to

1880 he was engineer in charge of the construction of
the Omaha and Northwestern Railway. In 1880 and

1881 he was engineer of the Omaha Water- Works
Company, and then became for the second time city
engineer of Omaha, holding this position until 1837.
In 1891 he was appointed president of the electrical
subway commission of Washington, serving as such
until 1892. Since 1897 he has held (for the third
time) the position of city engineer of Omaha; he
has also been president of the board of public works
in the same city, and has held positions as constdt-
ing and designing engineer for sewerage for twenty-
five cities.

Bibliography : American Jewish Year Book, 1905. s.v.
X. F. T. H.

ROSEWATER, EDWARD : American editor
and newspaper proprietor; born at Bukovan, in Bo-
hemia, in 1841. He was educated at the high school
of Prague, where he remained until he attained his
thirteenth year, when he emigrated to the United
States and there studied telegraphy. In 1858 he
obtained his first position as a telegraph operator
and held this position until the outbreak of the
Civil war, when he enlisted, and joined the United
States Military Telegraph Corps, being iu active
service during 1862-63. In the latter year he re-
signed and went to Omaha as manager of the Pacific
Telegraph Company. During his sojourn in that
cit}^ he took part in politics and was elected mem-
ber of the legislature of Nebraska in 1871. In the
same year he founded "The Omaha Bee," a news-
paper which he has edited from its first appearance.
In 1892 Rosewater was ciiosen to represent his state
as member of the Republican National Committee,
and in 1896 became member of the advisory board
of the National Conimitfeo, being reelected to that
office in 1900 and 1904. Rosewater was appointed a
member of the United States Mint Commission in
1896 and representative of the United States at the
Universal Postal Congress held at Washington in
1897. In the latter year he was elected vice-presi-
dent of that congress. Awake to the interests of
his adopted city, Rosewater was the projector of the
Trans-Mississippi Exposition held at Omaha iu 1898,
and was elected member of the executive committee

483

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Roaenz'w«itf
RoBh ba-Sbaiuih

ill charge of publicity ami promotion. In 1901 lie
icccived a large uuinbcr of votes in tlie Nebraska leg-
islature as a candidate for the United States senate.
A. F. II. V.

ROSEWATER, VICTOR: American editor
autl ecoiioiuist ; bcnu in Omaha, Neb., 1871; .son of
Edward HosKWATiiu; educated in Columbia Uni-
versity, New York (A.M. 1892; Ph.j:). 1893). Rose-
water was fellow in political science at Columbia
University during the year 1892-98. He entered
journalism by joining the stalT of " The Omaha Ik-e "
in 1893, becoming managing editor of that paper two
years later. In 1896 he wasaiipoinled regen.t of the
Nebraska State University. In 1893 he produced
"Special Assessments: A Study in Muuici[)al Fi-
nance," and subsequently contributed to " Palgrave's
Dictionary of Political Economy," to "Historic
Towns of the Western States," and to tlie "New
Encyclopa'dia Britannica " (1903). Hosewater is a
member of several national associations and societies,
and of tlie Republican state and executive commit-
tees of Nebraska.

A. F. II. V.

ROSH. See Asher ben Jeiiiel.

ROSH HA-SHANAH. See New- Year.

ROSH HA-SHANAH : Eighth treatise of the
order ^lo'ed ; it contains (1) the most important rules
concerning the calendar year together with a de-
scription of the inauguration of the months by the
na.si and ab bet din; (3) laws on the form and use of
the shofar and on the service during the Rosh lia-
Shanah feast.

The old numerical Mishnah commences with an
account of the four beginnings of the religious and
the civil year (i. 1); it speaks of the four judgment-
days of the pilgrim festivals and Rosh lia-Sha-
nah (i. 2); of the six months in which
Contents, the messengers of the Sanhedrin an-
nounce the month (i. 8); of the two
months the beginnings of which witnesses announce
to the Sanhedrin even on the Sabbath (i. 4), and
even if the moon is visible to every one (i. 5); Ga-
maliel even sent on the Sabbath for forty pairs of
witnesses from a distance (i. 6); when father and sou
(who as relatives may otherwise not witness to-
gether) behold the new moon they must set out
for the bet din (i. 7), since tliey do not absolutely
belong to those that are legally unfit for this pur-
pose (i. 8). The weak and sick are borne on litters,
and are protected against the attacks of the Sad-
ducees; they must be provided with food, for wit-
nesses are bound to jovirney even on the Sabbath
(i. 9). Others went along to identify the unknown
(ii. 1). In olden times bonfire-signals on the moun-
tains announced to all as far as Babylon that the
month had been sanctified. The custom of having
witnesses and messengers was introduced after the
Sadducees had attempted to practise deception (ii.
2, 3, 4).

The large court called " Bet Ya'azck " was the as-
sembly-place for the witnesses (ii. 5); bountiful re-
pasts awaited tliem, and dispensations from the Law
■were granted to tlieiiKii. (1) ; the first pair of witnes.ses
wasquestioned separately concerning the appearance
of the moon, and other witnesses cursorily (ii. 7).

TIhi; the ub bet din called out to a large assembly,
"Sanclilicd! " all tiie pecjple crying out aloud alter
him (ii. 8). Gamaliel II. had representalicjus of the
moon which he showed to the witue!4.se8. Once there
arose u dispute between hi:n and Joshua regarding
the Tishri moon; the latter, in obedience to the nasi,
came on foot to Jaiimia on iIr. day which he had
calculated to be the Day of Alonemeut, and tlie two
scholars made peace (iii.). There were various ob-
stacles to the sanctitication of the months, as when
time was lacking for the ceremony, or when there
were no witnesses present before the bet din. In
the tirst case the following day became the new
moon; in the second case the bet din ale me per-
formed the sanctitication.

The Mishnah treats also of the shofar (lu. '^j. the

horn of the cow may not be used (iii. 3j; the form of

the trumpet for Rosh lia-Shanah, the

The fast-day. and Yobel is determined

Shofar. (iii. 5); injuries to the shofar and the
remedies are indicated (iii. 0); in limes
of danger the people that praj-^assemblc in pits and
caves (iii. 7); they i)ass the house of wor.ship only on
the outside while the trumpets sound (iii. H); they
are exhorted to be t]rm by being reminded of Moses'
uplifted hands in the war with the Amalekites. In
such limes the deaf-mutes, insane, and children are
legally until for blowing the trumpets.

Even if the festival fell on the Sabbath, Johanaii
ben Zakkai had the trumpets blown at Jamnia, while
at one time this was done only in the Temple and the
surrounding places (iv. 1); he also fixed the lulab
outside of the Temple for seven days, and fori»ade
the eating of new grain on the second day of Pass-
over (iv. 2); he extended the time for examining
witnesses until the evening, and had them come to
Jamnia even in the absence of the ab bet din (iv. 3).
The Mishnah then treats of the order of the prayers
(iv. 4), of the succession of the Malkuyot, Zikrouot,
and Shoferot, of the Bible sentences concerning the
kingdom of God, Providence, and tlie trumpet<'all
of the future (iv. 5), and of the leader in prayer and
his relation to the tekiali (iv. G); descriptions of the
festival are given in reference to the shofar (iv. 7);
then follows the order of the traditional trumpet-
sounds (iv. 8); and remarks on the duties <>f the
leader in prayer and of the congregation clo.sc the
treatise (iv. 9).

Curious as is the order of subjects followed in
this treatise, in which .several mishnaic sources
have been combined, the Tosefta follows it. add-
ing comments that form the basis
The of the Geniara in iiotli Talmud^.

Tosefta. The contents of the Mishnah with
the corresponiling sections of the
Tosefta are as follows: General calendar for the
year, i. l-4 = Tosef. i. 1-13. Regulations c<mcerning
the months' witn<sses, i. 5-ii. 1 (connecting with
i. 4) = Tosef. i. ir>-ii. 1 (abbreviated). Historical
matter regarding tire-signals and nus.sengers and
their reception (m the Sabbath, ii. 2-6 = Tosef.
ii. 2 (abbreviateil). The continuati<in of tlic laws
of ii. 1 concerning witnesses (ii. 7, 8). and tiie (pies-
tioning of witnesses, and the sanctilication of the
months are entirely lacking in the Tosefta. His-
torical data concerniuL' numuli' I n-.l the i'iute

Bosh Teshibah
Rossi

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

484

with Joshua, il. 8-9 = Tosef. ii. 3 (a mere final
sentence). Continuation of the laws of ii. 7 con-
cerning witnesses, iii. 1 = Tosef. iii. 1, 2. Regula-
tions regarding the shofar and its use, iii. 2-5 = To-
sef. iii. 3-6a. Haggadic sentence on devotion = To-
sef. iii. 6b. Final remarks on the shofar and on its
obligations, iii. 6-cnd = Tosef. iv. 1. Ordinances of
Johanan ben Zakkai concerning Rosh ha-Shanahand
the Sabbath, and other matters = Tosef. iv. 2. Order
of wor-ship, iv. 5-end = Tosef. iv. 4-end. Mishnah
ii. 7 seems to have been transposed according to
Tosef. iv. 3, but it belongs there according to its
contents.

In quoting many of Gamaliol's ordinances the
Mishnah emphasizes the authority of the patriarchal
house by recounting the dispute between the patri-
arch and his deputy Joshua and showing how^ the
latter was forced to yield. The Tosefta omits the
ordinances of Gamaliel and of Johanan ben Zakkai,
and the dispute of the two leaders of the school-
house, nor does it mention anything of the power of
any tannaitic dignitary ; the Tosefta is here a product
of the tiuie of the Amoraim. The dignity of the nasi
is not emphasized, because acumen and scholarship
prevailed in the schoolhouse, and there was no de-
sire to let old precedences (see 'Eduyot) come to the
fore again. Even the Mishnah contains some ad-
ditions from the time of the Amoraim (see, for ex-
ample, iv. 2, where a gap must be filled from the
Tosefta).

Bibliography: M. Rawicz, RokIi Hafdiana (transl.), Frank-
fort-on -the -Main, 188(5; J. H. (iummin. Rosh Hashnna
(Theahtgische Studien), pp. 31-74, 179-a(X), Utrecht, 1890;
Zuckermann, Materialien zum Entwiirf der AltjUdUchen
Zeitrechnung, Breslau, 1882; Rosenthal, Ueher den Zu-
aammenhang der Mischna, i. 26-28, 70-71 ; Schelnin, Die
Hcltule in Jamnia, Lelpsic, 1879.
w. H, L. A. R.

ROSH YESHIBAH. See Yeshibah.

ROSIN, DAVID : German theologian ; born at
Rosenberg, Silesia, May 27, 1823; died at Breslau
Dec. 31, 1894. Having received his early instruction
from his father, who was a teacher in his native
town, he attended the yeshibah of Kempen, of Mj^s-
lowitz (under David Deutsch), and of Prague (under
Rapoport); but, wishing to receive a regular school
education, he went to Breslau, where he entered the
gymnasium, and graduated in 1846. He continued
his studies at the universities of Berlin and Halle
(Ph.D. 1851) and pa.ssed his examination as teacher
for tlie gymnasium. Returning to Berlin, he taught
in various private schools, until Michael Sachs, with
whom he was always on terms of intimate friend-
ship, appointed him principal of the religious school
which had been opened in that city in 1854. At the
same time Rosin gave religious instruction to the
students of the Jewish normal school. In 1866 he
was appointed M. Joel's successor as professor of
homilctics, exegetical literature, and Midrash at the
rabbinical seminary in Breslau, which position he
held till his death.

Rosin was the author of: " Abs(;liiedswort: Be-
riclite liber die Jlidische Religionsschule," Berlin,
1866; "Ein Compendium der Jl'idischen Gesetzes-
kunde aus dem 14. Jahrhundert," Breslau, 1871 (on
the " Sefer ha-Hinnuk ") ; " Ethik des Maimonidcs,"
ib. 1876; "Samuel ben Meltr als Schrifterklarer," ib.
1880; " Reime und Gedichte des Abraham ibn Esra,"

in 5 parts, ib. 1885-94 (Ibn Ezra's poems with vo-
calized text and German transl. in rime). He edited
Michael Sachs' sermons (2 vols., Berlin, 1867), and
Samuel ben Meir's commentary on the Pentateuch,
with a Hebrew introduction, Breslau, 1881. An
essay of Rosin's on the philosophy of Abraham ilin
Ezra was edited after his death by his devoted pupil
David Kaufmann and published in the "Monats-
schrift"(vols. xlii.-xliii.), to which magazine Rosin
occasionally contributed.

While not a voluminous writer and original
thinker. Rosin did his literary work with an exem-
plar}' accuracy of detail and in perfect sympathy
with his subject. To his numerous disciples he was
a kind friend and adviser. In his religious attitude
he was strictly conservative, a true disciple of Michael
Sachs (whose admirer he was); and he was at the
same time broad-minded and tolerant of the opinions
of others. His only son, Heinrich Rosin, is professor
of medicine at the University of Berlin. Another
Heinrich Rosin, professor in the law department
of the University of Freiburg-im-Breisgau, is his
nephew.

BiBLiooRAPHY : Dchnmh, June 15, isa3, and Jan. 24, 1895;
Ally. Zeit. Bes Jud. June 2, 1893, and Jan. 11, 1895 ; Jahres-
herlcht desJlidi.tch-Thenhigiiichen Seminars FrUnkelxcher
Stiftung, Breslau, 1895; Brann, Gesch. des JUdiachen Thei>-
logischen Seminars in Breslau, pp. 98-99, 115, Breslau. 1904.
9. D.

ROSIN, HEINRICH: German jurist; born at
Breslau Sept. 14, 1855. In 1880 he established him-
self as privat-docent in the law department of the
Breslau University, but, receiving a call from the
University of Freiburg as assistant professor three
years later, he accepted it, and subsequently was
promoted to a full professorship iu the same insti-
tution.

Among the works of Rosin are the following:
"Der BegrifF der Schwertmageu in den Rechts-
biichern des Mittelalters" (Breslau, 1877); "Die
Formvorschriften fiir die Verausserungsgeschilfte
der Frauen nach Langobardischem Reclit" (1880);
"Das Polizeiverordnungsrecht in Preussen" (1882);
" Das Recht der Oeffentlichcn Genossenschaf t " (Frei-
burg, 1886); "Das Recht der Arbeitsversicherung "
(Berlin, 1892-93); "Minoritatenvertretung und Pro-
portionalwahlen " (1892); "Grundzlige einer Allge-
meinen Staatslehre nach den Politischen Reden and
Schriftstlicken des Fiirsteu Bismarck" (Munich,
1898).

Bibliography: Meyers Konversations-Lexiknn (new edi-
tion),
s. J. Go.

ROSIN, HEINRICH : German physician ; born
at Berlin Aug. 28, 1863; son of David Rosin. He
studied at Breslau and Freiburg (M.D. 1887), and
in 1888 became assistant to Rosenbach at the Aller-
heiligen Hospital. In 1892 he went to Berlin as as-
sistant to Senator at the general dispensary, and in
1896 was admitted to the medical faculty of the
Berlin University as privat-docent. He received
the title of professor in 1002; and in the same year
he opened a private dispensary.

Rosin is a prolific writer. He has contributed
about 100 essays, especially on clinical medicine,
chemical medicine, and microscopy, to the pro-
fessional journals. He is a collaborator on Eu-
lenburg's "Realencyclopadie der Gesammten

485

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

nosh Tesbibah
Boasl

Hcilkunde," "Encyclopadisclie Jalirhnchcr der
Gesiinimtea IlcilkuiRlc," Dnischc's "Biljliotliek
Modiciiiischer Wisseiiscliafteu," Liebreicli's "En-
cyclopiidie der Therapie," etc. He has published,
with Ehilich, VVeigert, Krause, and Mosse, the
"Encyciopildie der Mikroscojiisehen Teclinik."

Kosin is a member of tlie Verein fur Jiidische Ge-
schichte uud Literatur, and has evinced an active
interest in the Jewish allairs of the German eaiiitai.

s. F. T. H.

ROSNOSKY, ISAAC: American merchant and
communal worker; born at Wollstein, Prussia, Nov.
6, 1846; sou of Henry and Zelda Kosuosky. He
went to Boston, Mass., as a boy and engaged in
business. He was elected to the Boston common
coiuicil as a Democrat in 1878, and as an Indei)en(l-
ent in 1879. He served in the Massachusetts House
of Keprjsentatives iu 1880 and from 1891 to 1894,
being the first Jew to be elected to either branch of
the legislature. Twice he was a delegate to na-
tional Democratic conventions; and he served as a
commissioner to the World's Fair. It was largely
through his efforts that the Carney (Catholic) Hos-
pital fund of 810,000 was raised.

Rosnosky has been for the last twenty-three years
(since 1882) president of Temple Ohabei Shalom,
the oldest Hebrew congregation in Boston. He ig
a member of the Association of Past Presidents of
the I. O. B. B.
BiBUOGRAPHY: Solomon Sclilndler, Israelites i)i Boston, Ui.

A. J. Lei5.

BOSSI, AZABIAH BEN MOSES DEI:

Italian physician and scholar ; born at Mantua in
1513 or 1514; died in 1578. He was descended from
an old Jewish family which, according to a tradi-
tion, was brought by Titus from Jerusalem. Com-
bining an insatiable desire for learning with re-
markable mental power, Dei Rossi early in life
became exceptionally proficient in Hebrew, Latin,
and Italian literature. He studied simultaneously
medicine, archeology, history, Greek and Roman
antiijuities, and Christian ecclesiastical history.
When about the age of thirty he married and settled
for a time at Ferrara. Later he is found at Ancona,
Bologna, Sabbionetta, and again at Ferrara. In 1571
a terrible earthquake visited the last-named city and
caused the deatli of about 200 persons. The liouse
in which Dei Rossi lived was partly destroyed; but
it liappened that at the moment he

Earth- and his wife were in their daughter's
quake at room, which remained uninjured.

Ferrara, During the disturbances consequent
1571. upon the earthquake Dei Rossi lived
in an outlying village, where he was
thrown into association with a Christian scholar,
who asked iiim if there existed a Hebrew translation
of the "Letter of Aristeas." Dei Rossi answered in
the negative, but in twenty days he prepared the
desired translation, which he entitled "Hadrat 7a-
kenim." His account of the eartlKjuake, writlen
shortly after, is entitled " Kol Elohim " ; he regardeil
the eartluiuake as a visitation of God, and not
merely as a natural phenomenon.

Dei Rossi's great work, ".^le'or 'Enayim " (Man-
tua, 1573-75; Berlin, 1794; Vienna, 1829; Wilna.
1863-G6), includes the two works already mentioned I

ami a third ectltlcd "Imre Binah." The latiir is
divided into four i)arts; the first pait contains a sur-
vey of the Jewish race at the time of the Second
Temple, narrates t lie origin of the Septuagint, points
out th(! contradictions between some of the beliefs
of the Talmudists and the proved results of scien-
tific research, records the origin of the Jewish col-
onies in Alexandria and Cyrene, chronicles the wars

of Bar Kokba against the l^omans,

His"Me'or etc. Dei Rossi quotes from tiie wri-

'Enayim." tings of Philo, whose orthodoxy lie

(juestions. He criticizes him f(jr hav-
ing allegorizeil Biblical narratives of facts, and
points out tliat the Alexandrian philosopher never
gives the traditional interjtretaticjn of the Biijlical
text.

In the second part Dei Rossi criticizes a number
of the assertions of the Talmudists (many of his
criticisms being repeated by later commentators), and
gives explanations of various haggadic passages
which can not be taken literally (as, for instance,
the haggadah which attributes the deatli of Titus
to a gnat which entered his brain while he was re-
turning to Rome). The third part is devoted to a
study of Jewish chronology and translations from
the Avritings of Philo, Josephus, and others, with
commentaries. The fourth part deals with Jewish
archeology, describing the shapes of the priestly
garments and the glory of the Second 'I'emple, and
giving the history of Queen Helen and her two
sons.

It is greatly to Dei Rossi's credit that he followed
scientilic methods of inquiry in his work and did
not rely upon tradition. But this way of dealing
with subjects which the multitude reverenced as
sacred called forth many criticisms on the part of
his contemporaries. Prominent among his critics

were Moses Piovenf;al of Mantua (to

Attitude of whom Dei Rossi had submitted his

His work in manuscript), I.saac Finzi of

Contempo- Pesaro, and David Provencal, who

raries. endeavored to defend Philo. Dei

Rossi appended to some copies of the
"Me'or 'Enayim" an answer to the ciiiicisms of
Moses Provencal, and a dissertation entitled "Zedek
'Olamim," in which latter he refuted the arguments
of Isaac Finzi. Later he wrote a special work en-
titled "Mazref ha-Kesef " (published by Filipowski
at Edinburgh, 1854, and included by Ziinz in the
Wilna edition of the "^le'or "), in which he defended
his " Yeme 'Olam " against its critics. Dei Rossi,
however, had to contend not only witli impartial
critics, but with the attacks of fanatics who consid-
ered his "Me'or 'Enayim " as a heretical work. Jo-
seph Caro commissioned Elisha Gallico to dniw up
a decree to be distributed among ail Jews, ordering
tliat the" Me'or 'Enayim " be burned. But. Josejih
Caro dying before it was ready for him to .sign, the
decree was not promulgated, and the rabbis of Man-
tua contented themselves with forbidding the read-
ing of the work by Jews under twenty-five years of
age.

The "Me'or 'Enayim " attracted the attention of
many Christian Hebraists, who translated parts of
it into Latin : Bartolocci translated ch. ix. and xxii..
in his "Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica"; Bochart,

Rossi
Kostof

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

486

ch. xvi. and xxi., in his " Ilierozoicon " (Leyden,
1712); Buxtorf, ch. ix., xlii.. and lix., in his "Trac-
tatus de Autiquitate Piuictoruin " (Basel, 1648);
idem, ch. 1. and Ix., in his translation of the "Cn-
zari " {ib. 1660); idem, ch. Ivi. and Iviii., in his " Dis-
sertatiode Li'ttcris Ilt-biaicis" (ib. 1662); Hottingcr,
cii. hi., in his "Cippi Ik-bnvi " (Heidi-lberg, 166'2):
Meyer, ch. viii., xiv., and xix.. in his version of the
"Seder '01am" (Amsterdam, 1699); Morin. ch. iii..
v., vii., viii.. ix., xix., xx.. and xlviii., in liis "Ex-
ercitationesBiblica " (Paris, 1638) ; Van Dale, ch. ix.,
in Jiis " Dissertatio Sujier Aristeam " (Amsterdam,
1708); Voisin, ch. ii., viii.,xv., xvi., xxii., xlv., li.,
Ivi., Ivii., and Hx.,in his edition of Hay mund Martin's
"PujiioFidei "(Paris, 1651); Voorst, ch. xxiii.. xxv.,
xxxiii.. and xxxv., in his translation of the "Zeiiiah
Dawid" (Leyden, 16-14). Ch. xvi. has been trans-
lated into Englisli by Raphall ("Hebrew Review
and Magazine," ii. 170), and ch. Ix. by Bislio])
Lowth, in the introduction to his translation of
Isaiah (London, 1835).

Dei Rossi was the author of a collection of poems
(Venice, n.d.), among which are several of a litur-
gical character.

BiBLior.RAPHV : De Rossi, Diziimario. p. 2S0 ; Zunz, in Kerem
Henud, v. 131-138, vii. 119-124; Rapoport, il>. v. l.-)it-162;
Steinschnelder, Cat. liodl. col. 747; Jost, Gesch.doi Juden-
(/iKni.x und .'^liner Sekteu, Hi. 1'*i; (iratz, Oe^ch. ix. 405 et
seq.: Zunz. Literaturnencli. p. 417; Ginsburg, Lcvita's Mas-
(urret)i lui-Ma-^.-'oreth, p. 52.
J. T. Bii.

ROSSI, GIOVANNI BERNARDO DE : Ital-
ian Cliristiau Hebraist ; bom C)ct. 2.j, 174'.2, in Ca.stel-
nuovo; died in Parma March, 1831. He studied
in Ivrea and Turin. In Oct., 1769, lie was appointed
professor of Oriental languages at the University
of Parma, where he spent the rest of his life. His
inaugural lectui'e on the causes of the neglect of
Hebrew study was pubJislied in 1769 at Turin. De
Rossi devoted himself to three chief lines of inves-
tigation— typographical, l)ibliograpliical, and text-
critical. Influenced by the example of Kennicott,
he determined on the collection of the variant read-
ings of the Old Testament, and for that purpose col-
lected a large number of manuscripts and old prints.
In order to determine their bibliographical position
lie undertook a critical study of the annals of He-
brew typography, beginning with a special prelim-
inary disquisition in 1776, and dealing with the
presses of Ferrara (Parma, 1780), Sabbionetta (Er-
langen, 1783), and, later, Cremona (Parma, 1808),
as preparatory to his two great works, "Annales
Hebra'o-Typographiei " (Parma, 1795, sec. xv.)and
'Annales Hebrieo-Typographici ab 1501 ad 1540"
(Parma, 1799). This formed the foundation of his
serious study of the early history of Hebrew print-
ing (see lNCt;NABiJL.\). In coimection with this
work lie drew up a " Di/.ionario Storico degli Autori
Ebrei e delle Loro 0])ere " (Parma, 1802; German
translation by Hamberger, Leipsir, 1839), in which
he summed up in ulphabelical order tlie biltliograiiii-
ical notices contained in Wolf, and. among other
things, fixed the year of Rashi's liiitli ; and he also
Iiublisiied a catalogue of his own manusfripls (lS(i;^)
and l)ooks( 1812). All these studies weie in a measure
preparatory and subsidiary to his " Varijc Lectiones
Vetcris Testament i" (Parma. 17S4-88), still the most

complete collection of variants of the Hebrew text
of tlie Oki Testament. In order to compile it he
visited all the chief libraries of Italy, and through its
compilation he obtained the knighthood of St. George
at the court of Parma and seductive oilers from
Pavia, Madrid, and Rome. As examples of the use
of Ills work lie issued a specimen of the Targum
on Estlier (Rome, 1782; 2d ed., revi.sed, Tubingen,
1783). He was also interested in the polemics of
Judaism and Cliristianit}', and wrote on this subject
his " Delia Vana Aspettazione degli Ebrei del Loro
Re Messia" (Parma, 1773), which he defended in a
pamphlet two years later; and he further published
a list of antichii.stiau writers, " Bibliotlieca Judaica
Antichristiana " (Parma, 1800). A select Hebrew
lexicon, in which he utilized Parhnn's work (Parma,
1805), and an introductit)n to Hebrew (i/j. 1815) con-
clude the list of those of his works which are of
special Jewish interest.

BiBi.ioGRAPHV: Numa Euciclopedia Italiaiui; Steinschnel-
der, Cat. Bodl. s.v.
T. J.

ROSSI, MOSES BEN JEKUTHIEL DE : Ro-
man rabbi of the fourteenth century. Between 1373
and 1390 he wrote a compendium of Jewish rites,
entitled "Sefer ha-Tadir," which he intended to
serve as a manual both for daily use and for the
synagogue. This work lacks depth of thought and
originality, and has therefore had little influence on
or consideration from the Poskim. It is full of the
prejudices and superstitions of the age, treating of
astrology, prophecies, the interpretation of dreams,
and similar subjects. Its chief imporUmce lies in
the fact that the author does not conflne himself to
the mere ritual laws, but introduces also maxims
of morality, homilies, philosophical cjuestions, and
h^'gienic precepts. The second portion is a collec-
tion of treatises and responsa of the author and of
other scholars. In addition to the " Sefer ha-Tadir,"
Moses ben Jekuthiel is the author of a hymn for
the use of synagogues, commencing " Meshok ua El
Hasdeka."

Ribliooraphy : Dukes, in Orient. 184!l, x. 4S8; Giuiemnnn.
Gc.st/i. ii. I!t5; Steinschneider. H<7»r Uilil. iXK). ]>. ii;i. note
2; VoKelstein and Uieger, Ue.tcli.dcr Judeii in l{<jni, i. 451;
Zunz, S. P. p. 511).

s. r. C.

ROSSI, SOLOMON: Ral)bi and composer;
lived in Mantua during tlie latter part of the six-
teenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centurj'.
He came from an old Mantua family in which the
traditional belief had been preserved that its ances-
tors had been taken as prisoners to Rome under
Titus and Vespasian. In 1587 Rossi was engaged
as musician and singer at the ducal court of Vin-
cenze I. of Mantua, where his sister Eurojia was em-
ployed as a singer. That Rossi stood in high favor
at this court is eviilenced by the fact that he was
allowed to appear in public without the yellow
liadge which other ]VIantua Jews were at that time
obliged to wear.

Rossi was a skilled contrajiuntist, and he worked
assiduously to compose synagogal music with which
the old siicred melodies of Zion might be harmoni-
ously combined. His "HaShirim Aslier li Siiclo-
moh" (Venice, 1622) gives evidence of the success
he attained ; anil it has been said that Licox of Mo-

487

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rossi
Bostof

DKNA and other Italian rabbis Avcrc infliionci'd liy
Rossi wJR'n tiicy issued their letter (lOOo) auiiiorizing
tlie introduction into the synagogue of niensurate
and polypljonic music.

Rossi's otiier compositions comprised chiefly re-
ligious poems, liymns, and madrigals; he wrote also
a musical drama entitled "Maddalena." Seveial of
his poems -were dedicated to persons of princely
rank. It is likely that Rossi in 1612 was tlie leader
of a Jewish l)and of singers, and likewise of a the-
atrical company.

Bibliography : S. iVaumbours:, Ila-Shirim Anherli-Shelnmnh
CatiiiqveK de Sahimon linssi, Hc/jreo, I'aris. 1877 ; Adolph
Kohut. litrlUnntf Israel it Utchc Mdnner xnid Frn (<oi. p. 81 •
Ed. Uirnbaum, J\Xiii»chc Musiher am Hofc vuti Mantua
15kS-16SS, Vienna, 1893.

D- F. C.

ROSSIENA (ROSSIENY): District city in the
government of Kovno, Russia. It had a prosperous
Jewish community in the first half of the nineteenth
century, and was a center of II.\skalah, or pro-
gressive ideas, when Abraham Mapu lived there
(1837-44). He lovingly recalls the time when he
niet kindred spirits like Senior Sachs, Shapiro,
Emanuel Soloweitschik, and JIarcus AVolpert in the
house of Abraham Wolfsohn (letterappended to vol.
ii. of "'Ayit Zabua'," partly translated by Rebecca
Altman in " The First Hebrew Novel," in " The New
Era Illustrated Magazine," Dec, 1904). But most
of the men who were animated by progressive ideas
left Rossiena for more promising fields of activity in
larger cities, and a fire which almost totally des-
troyed the city in 1865 and the hard times which
followed the brief period of revival in the first part
of the reign of Alexander II. contributed to the city's
decline. In 1866 Rossiena possessed 10,579 inhab-
itants, of whom 8,290 were Jews. A visitor to the
city in 1875 (" Ha-Shahar," vi. 79) found there but
little of its former prosperity and culture. B}' 1897
the entire population had dwindled to 7,455, " mostly
Jews." The chief articles of commerce are wood
aixl grain for e.\i)ort; but the graine.xport business
of Russia has been almost totally ruined by the latest
commercial treaties between Russia and Germany,
and the condition of the Jewish grain-dealers is now
worse than ever.

The following have held the rabbinate of Rossiena :
Nathan Nate Rabinowitz (c. 1775): Nathan's son
Dob Biir Rabinowitz ; Moses Zeitlin (c. 1845) ; Abra-
ham Abele Jafife ("of Rossiena and district"; 1872);
Alexander Moses Lapidoth (b. Feb. 27, 1819; a pupil
of Israel hipkin [Salanter] and formerly rabbi of
Yanova; has held otlice since about 1880). The best
known of the modern Hebrew scholars who were
brought up in Rossiena is probably Aryeh Lob Gor-
don (born in Kelmy 1844; now a resident of Wilna),
author of "Mishpetclia-Lashon 'Ibrit" (Wilna, 1874),
on Hebrew grammar, and several minor works.

The district of Rossiena, exclusive of the city, had
in 1897 a total population of 221,731, of whom 17,000
were Jews.

BiBMOfJRAPHV: Rrainin. Ahrahnm Mapv. pp. 30. 40, Piotr-
kovv, 1900; EutzililitiHilirhctki Slovnr, s.v.; Kfrati, /"Air icc-
Dnrshaw, p. W, Wilna, ]88<»: Eiseiistadt, 7>or Rahtianow ire-
Soferaiv, p. 37, Warsaw, 1895; Ha-Magijid, ii. il
H. R. P. Wl.

ROSTOCK. See :MF:cKi,ENnuKG.

ROSTOF : Ru.ssian fortilied commercial and maii-
ufacluiiiig town on the Dun; fcjrmerly in tiie gov-
ernment of Yekaterinosluf; since 1888 included in
thedistrictof the Don Co.ssacks. Jewssettled there
about 1827, and their number grew with the city's
increasing importance as a commercial center. A
large synagogue and a liet ha-midrasii were erected
in 1842; tlie foundations of h new bet hu inidrnsli
were laid in 1803; and the synagogue I'd'ale ^cdek
was foundeil in 1HH6. In "the days of the liheral
Alexandeii II. tiie Jews liad several of llieir own
representatives in tiie city council, and eleven Jews
were included in the comn)ission which Mayor
Baikov ai)pointed in 1803 to investigate the need.s of
the city and propose the neces.sjiry improvement.?.
In 1866 the Jews numbered 2,312 in a total iioi)ula-
tion of about 39,000. In the following twenty years
the city's population increased to more than 100.000,
and the Jews, who helped to develop its enormous
export trade in grain, increased to nearly 14,000.
These prosperous conditions, however, did not con-
tinue through the reign of Ai.p;xANr)KK III. An
ami -Jewish riot broke out there May 10(22), IWS.
in Mhich three Jews were injured and property val-
ued at 70,000 rubles was destroyed. Nearly two
j'ears passed before twenty -seven of the rioters were
brought to trial, and then all were acquitted (see
"Ha-Meliz," 1885, No. 84).

When the townsof Rostof and Taganrog (the latter
had about 200 Jewi.sh families) were to be ceded to
the district of the Don Cos.sacks, to which even Jews
who were privileged to reside in all other parts of
tlie Russian empire were not admitted, acommi.ssion
which was appointed by the minister of war decided
to expel the Jews from both towns. The Jewish
inhabitants were panic-stricken, and it was rumored
that a large number of them api)lied for baptism
(see " Jlidisches Volksblatt," pp. 466, 483, St. Peters-
burg, 1886). But Jacob Poliakov of Taganrog, on
the advice of the hetman Sviatopolk-Mirski of the
Don Cossacks (uncle of a later minister of the inte-
rior), induced representative Christian residents to
inform the government that the towns would sufTer
irreparable loss by the expulsion of the Jews. It
was finally decided that tho.«e Jews who lived there
might remain, but that no more might be permitteii
to settle in either town. The material condition of
Rostof was not improved by the change, for. although
the population continued to increase (it was 119.8.'<9
in 1897), its trade and the importance of its great an-
nual fair diminished. A large part of the popula-
tion of Rostof consists of Armenians, who live on
friendly terms with the Jews and frequently enter
into business partnerships with them.

Shrage Feiwel (Tuiesin, a graduate of the rabbin-
ical school of Wilna, became the government rabbi
of Rostof in 18()3 and remained such until 1889. when
he was succeeded by Dr. Jampolsky, who later was
succeeded by Lifshitz. R. Zlotkin was for a long
time the Orthodox rabbi. Wolkenstein was pres-
ident of the Jewish community for several decades,
and held also the office of Danish consul. Jacob
Ter, the Yiddi.sh i>laywright. wiio finally rcmovetl
to New York, was .secretary of the community from
1880 to 1H90. Zebi ha-Kolien Scherpschewsky (b.
Pinsk. 1840) lives in Rostof(1905) as a bookseller, and

Rota
Bothenburs

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

488

is the only well-kuown Maskil and Hebrew scholar

of the town. A Rustover Handworker Unterstilt-

zungsverein, composed of former residents of Ros-

tof, exists in New York.

Bibliography: Ha-Mdiz, 11. 223. 237: ill. 205. 426: Enci/c.
Brit.; Semenov. CJcografichegko-StatUiticheski Slnvar.

U. K. ■ P. Wl.

ROTA. See Badge.

ROTH. MORITZ : Swiss physician; born at
Basel Dec. 25, 1^39; educated at the universities of
Wi\rzburg, GOttiugen, Berlin, and Basel (M.D.
1864). In 186() he became privat-docent at the Uni-
versity of Basel, and in 1868 at that of Greifswald.
In 1872he wasappointed assistant professor at Basel,
and in 1874 professor of pathology and pathological
anatomy, which position he resigned in 1898.

Roth has contributed many essays to the medical

journals of Switzerland and Germany, and is the

author of '' Andreas Vesalius Bru.xellensis," Berlin,

1892.

BiDuoGRAPHY: PageI.J3io0.ier.

s. F. T. II.

ROTH, PHILIPP: German violoncellist; born
at Tarnowitz, Upper Silesia, Oct. 25, 1853; died at
Berlin June 9, 1898. He studied under WilhelniMlil-
ler, and from 1876 to 1878 under Robert Hausmann at
the Konigliche Hochschule flir Musik, Berlin. He
published a violoncello method and a work entitled
"Flihrer Durch die Violoncell-Litteratur." In 1890
he established the Freie Musikalische Vereinigung
in Berlin, and assumed the directorship of its pub-
lication, the "Berliner Signale."

Bibliography : Rlemann, Musik-Lexikon.

s. J. So.

ROTH, WILHELM : Austrian rhinologist;
born at Kluckno, Hungary, Oct. 10, 1848. He re-
ceived his education at the gymnasium at Eperies,
Hungary, and at the University of Vienna (M.D.
1873). Establishing himself in Vienna, he became in
1885 privat-docent at the university of that city.

Roth has invented a drop-syringe for the larynx
and several instruments for the nose, e.f/., a mirror,
an inhalation apparatus, and an electrical lamp, as
well as a medicine-carrier. Besides many articles
in the medical journals he is the author of: "Die
Chronische Rachenentzlindung," Vienna, 1883. He
has also collaborated on the."Therapeutisches Lexi-
con" and the " Diagnostisches Lexicon."

R. F. T. II.

ROTHENBTJRG : Town of Middle Franconia,
Bavaria, situated on the Tauber, 41 miles west of
Nuremberg. Jews must have been settled there as
early as the beginning of the twelfth century, since
a Jew of Rotlien})urg is mentioned in a WlUzburg
document of 1119 (Aronius, "Regesten," p. 100).
There are also isolated notices concerning Jews in
Rothenburg and dating from the end of the twelfth
and from the thirteenth century. Thus, in the year
1180 the Jew Samuel Biscoph of Rothenburg bought
from Count Eckard a place adjoining the foundation
of St. Killian, for which he was to pay
Early to the church 8 pounds of wax annu-

Mention. ally on St. Killian 's day (July 8; Aro-
nius, I.e. pp. 133-135); and in 1251
King Conrad IV., for 3,000 marks in silver, mort-
gaged the town of Rothenburg, with the Jews in it

(" Rothenburgum et Judffos"), to Gottfried of IIoli-
enlohe, to cover the many expenses which tlie latter
had incurred by being in the king's service (H. Bress-
lau. in "Ilebr. Bibl.^" x. 129; Wiener, "Regesten,"
p. 8, No. 41).

In the middle of the fourteenth century Rothen-
burg again became the possession of a stranger,
when the emperor Charles IV. bestowed the whole
town, together with the Jewish school, cemetery,
and houses, on Bisiiop Albrecht of Hohenlohe, at
Wiirzburg, and at the same time released the maf,is-
trates of the city from any oaths or obligations
which bound them to protect the Jews. But the
tow'n, which at that time was in a
Under the condition of growing prosperity, due

Bishops, in part to the Jews, was not disposed
to permit the latter to be systematic-
ally oppressed by the bishop and taken before tlie
ecclesiastical courts. Consequently complaint was
made to Charles IV., who invited the bisliop, with
both Christian and Jewish representatives of Rothen-
burg, to a council at Nuremberg. Before that took
place, however, the city released itself from its con-
nection with the bishop ; on Sept. 30, 1353, the Jews
came again under the jurisdiction of the town coun-
cil, and from that time on were not claimed by the
emperor. Nevertheless they were required to pay
certain taxes directly to the king; and Opferpfen-
NiG receipts for the years 1393, 1394, and 1395 have
been preserved, given to Rothenburg Jews in the
time of the emperor Wenzel by the latter's favorite
Borziwoy of Swynar. Tiie Jews appear to have
paid other taxes besides this, for two of the re-
ceipts designate the sums received as ".lew taxes."
The opferpfennig from Rothenburg alone amounted
to 75 gulden in 1409, under the emperor Rupert. It
was still collected in Rothenburg under Sigismund,
but when Emperor Maximilian I. also demanded it
(Sept. 17, 1504) the Jews refused to pay it, in which
refusal they were upheld bj' the city. After this
the payment of the opferpfennig by the Jews of
Rothenburg is no longer mentioned.

At the time of the Black Death there originated
in Rothenburg the so-called Shepherd Brotherhood's
day, which was celebrated annually with great i)()mp
on Aug. 27, in memory of the escape of the town from
poisoning by the Jew.s. The story runs that an
"otherwise simple " shepherd stated before the mag-
istrates that he had seen the well Hertrech, at the
upper Galgenthi'irlein, poisoned, and that he had
overheard a conversation on the .subject carried on
by Jews in Hebrew, and wished to save the town.
On the strength of this charge the burghers were
warned not to draw wafer from the well in ques-
tion, and the Jews of the town and vicinity who
had not already lied were thrown into prison and
tortured.

If a Jew desired to be admitted to the city, he had
first to make out an application bearing his signa-
ture in Hebrew, and jiresent it to the council,
in return for which he received from the latter a
permit with the municipal seal affixed. These per-
mits were for jMTmanent settlement as well as for
temporary residence. In especially difficult ca.ses
the council gave aid to its Jewish burghers. Thus,
in the dispute which Master Mendel of Pappenheim.

489

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bota
Rothenburff

for unknown reasons, had with the Nuremberg
Jewish burghers Isaac and Feyfelin, Mendel having
put the burghers under the ban (1383), it was de-
cided that each of the parties concerned should ad-
vance 1,000 gulden, and that the victor in the dis-
pute should take the whole sum.

According to Bcnsen (" Beschreibung und Qesch.
der Stadt Kothenburg," p. 521) and Merz ("Hotlieu-
burg in Alter und Neuer Zeit," p. 93), the Jews
were banished trom Rothenburg in 1397 and were
denied admission to the town until 1404. At the
time of banishment the council sold the synagogue
and Jewish dance-hall for 2,000 gulden to the
burgher Peter Creglinger, who built on the* site of
the synagogue a chapel to the Virgin.

In 1414 the knight Erkinger of Sausheim was en-
trusted with the collection of certain money (comp.
Keller, "ZurGesch. dcrBesteuerungder Juden Durch
Kaiser Sigismuud und KOuig Albrecht
Exactions II. " in Geiger's " Zeitschrift f lir Gesch.

in 1414. der Juden in Deutscliland," iii. pp.
301-336). On his arrival the council
arrested all Jews ia the town, including among
them strangers temporarily ia Rothenburg on busi-
ness. Archbishop John of Mayencc interposed in
vain on their behalf; they were all kept under ar-
rest until tliey had paid the required sum of 2,000
gulden, for which Sigismund himself signed the re-
ceipt (Oct. 8, 1414). In order to raise the money
they borrowed from the town council, binding
themselves to pay it back in weekly instalments.

The Jews of Rothenburg were especially oppressed
by the small princes. Thus on May 2, 1422, Bisliop
John of Wlirzburg issued an order to the pastor of
Rothenburg which made the following demands
upon the council: (1) the Jews were to be prohibited
from practising usury ; (2) they were to wear on the
breast a cloth badge, of red or other color, one span
long and one wide, so that they might be distin-
guished from Christians; (3) a Christian might
neither rent nor sell a house to a Jew ; (4) a Christian
might not serve a Jew for hire; (5) debts due from
Christians to Jews were to be paid to the bishop; (6)
other moneys and treasures were to fall to the council.
The council demanding an extension of the time
allowed before the order should come into force, the
bishop granted until July 7, 1422. In the meantime
the king came to Nuremberg, and since at that time
he was himself planning to tax the Jews the decree
of the bishop was revoked. Nevertheless, the reg-
ulation in regard to wearing distinctive signs ap-
pears to have been enforced, for in 1511 the Jews
asked the council how the new badges should be
made.

Another extraordinary imperial tax was imposed
in 1433, wlien the Rothenburg Jews had to pay Sig-
ismund a coronation-tax of 200 gulden, in return for
which, on April 14, 1434, they received an imperial
privilege releasing them from all taxes for ten years.

lyiaximilian was the first emperor to interfere in
Jewish affairs, the occasion being the general asseni-
bly summoned by the Frankfort Jews, on Nov. (3,
1509, in order to secure harmony in decisions. The
assembly met with little success, principally through
the ostentatious reserve of the Rothenburg dele-
gates, who at the request of the Augsburg Jews were

urged even by the emperor to act in concert with their
fellows, but with noelTecl. About eight years later
the Rothenburg Jews themselves had occasion to
appeal to the emperor, wiien (1517) a demand was
made upon the council of Rothenburg by the robber-
knight Klaus Wolgemuth Ihul the Jews sliould be
compelled to pay him a certain sum of money.
Tliereupon the Jew.s received a i)rivi
Privilege lege fntm the emperor (July 7, 1517)
of 1517. permitting them to refu.se to submit
to such extortions. But in spile of
privileges they could not prevent the council from
voting, on Nov. 7, 1519, a decree f)f banishment. It
is remarkable, however, thataccording to the records
they were banished at their own request, repr-atcd
by the "Schulklopfer" Michel only a few days' be-
fore the pas.sing of the decree. When the emperor
asked the reason for the request the council an-
swered that the preachers, especially Dr. Teutschlin,
had stirred up the people against the Jews, that the
council could not protect them, and that when stones
were thrown at the Jews the latter Imd asked to be
formally banished.

The truth of this, however, does noi appear to be
proved, lor from another record it is learned that
the Jews complained of Teutschlin's activity and
petitioned the council not to listen to liis invectives
and not to banish them. When the decree of ban-
ishment was issued they received the
Expulsion right to collect any money due tliem.
of 1520. without interest. But the people, not
satisfied with this, went to the jurist
Dr. Steinmetz for advice, who, although very re-
served, allowed interest already paid to the Jews to
be deducted from the principal. Before the time .set
for their departure the synagogue was plundered of
all its treasures. On Jan. 8, 1520, there were only
six families left in the town; these left Feb. 2, f(jl-
lowing. Up to 1526 individual Jews endeavored to
gain admittance to the town, but without success,
audit was not until the nineteenth century that Jews
were again found in Rothenburg. The synagogue,
the school, and the cemetery were confiscated by the
city. The synagogue was transformed into a chapel,
but was destroyed in 1525 by the Reformers. The
place where the cemetery was situated is still known
as the Jewish burying-grouml.

As elsewhere in Germany, the occupation of the
Rothenburg Jews was usury. There was a " Will-
kiirbuch" in Rothenburg dating back as early as
the thirteenth century. The follow-
Loan- ing paragraphs from it are especially
Making, noteworthy : " Loans may be made not
only upon pledgesbut also upon given
surety, if the burgher first pledges himself to pay."
"The rate of interest is not expressly regulated."
"If a Jew has not renewed his claim for a debt in
the otticial register within two years, tlic debt shall
be considereii canceled under nil circumstances"
The activity of the money-lending business is indi-
cated by the records of the end of the fifu-enth cen
tury, when six Rothenbiirg Jews alone had 6.281
guUlen and 70 pounds outstanding.

Among the names of persons of especial note in
connection with the history of Rothenburg are those
of the physician Joseph Oeringer. MeYu ok Roth-

Rothenburg'
Rothschild

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

490

ENBriiCi, the alroady-meutioued Master 3Ieudel of

Pappeuhciiu, Master Israel of Nuremberg (settled in

Rotheuburg in 1400), and H. Jacob (wlio in 1457

was appointed rabbinical overseer in AViuzburg at

the command of Bishop Courail).

Bibiiograpiiy: Anmiiis. liiuciiteii ; Koliut, Gisdiictite Oer
L)i utfchfii Jiuku, pp. 19ti, 44-t. 446 tt .<«</. : Salfeld, Marturo-
Imjiunt: Benseu, I{<>c/i(TiV(ioi(; uml Gisch.dcr Stadt liutli-
fiihxtro, p. ?7. Ilothenliurp, lS:.'t5; .Mer/. lii>tltci\1>ur{j in
Altfr mill Xfucr Ziit^ -il ed., Ansbacli. istil : H. Bivsslaii, in
(jeiper's Ziit:tilirift fUr Ucscli. ikr Jmlcii in Diutscliland,
iii. o01-;Ci). iv. 1-7.
J. S. O.

ROTHENBURG, ELIAKIM GOTT-

SCHALK. Sec El.IAKIM GoTT?-CllAI,U UK UuTlI-

ENBiiu;.

ROTHENBTJRG, MOSES BEN MORDECAI
StJSSKIND : German rabbi; born aljoul lOOo;
died at Altona Jan. 12, 1712. He was successively
raiibi of Tykoczin, Brest-Eitovsk, and Altona. In
the last -mentioned town he at tirst shared the rab-
binate with Zebi Hir.sch Ashkenazi (Hakam Zebi);
but from 1710, when the latter left Altona, Rotheu-
burg was sole rabbi. Some of his novellas were
published by his widow iu his father's responsa
(Amsterdam, 1747).

Bini.iOGRAPHv: Demhitzer, KcUlat I'ofi. i. 92b; Enulen, 3/f-
ijiUut St/f r, p. :^-' ; Kfitistein, 7r 2V/ii7/o/i. p. 2s ; Hiirwitz,
lUhiibot 'Ir, p. 24; Wittkuwer, ^l{iu<l<l(it Pnahiin. p. 2S4.
E. C. ■ B. Fr.

ROTHSCHILD : Celebrated family of finan-
ciers, the Fugirers of the nineteenth century, deri-
ving its name from the sign of a red shield borne by

The llothschlld '•Staimnhaus," Frankfort-on-the-Main.

(From a photof^raph.)

the house No. 148 in the Judengasse of Frankfort-
on-the-Main. This house is mentioned in the "Ju-
deustUdtigkeit" of IGl'J, at which date its number

Avas 69. Curiously enough, it at first bore the sign
of a green shield ("Zuni Griinen Schild "). It was
restored iu 188G, and, though notiu its oiiginal loca-
tion, it still remains in possession of the Rothschilds
as a kind of family museum and memorial.

Theearliestnoticeof amemberof the family, given
in the burial records of Frankfort, is that of Moses
Rotiischild (1). c. looO), whose daughter Esther died
in 16U8. 3Ienibeis of the same family are mentioned
at Worms in the seventeenth century as rabbis
(Lewysohn, "Sechzig Epitaphieu zu Worms'").
One of these, Mendel Rothschild, was for several
years preacher in Prague, then rabbi of Bamberg, and
finally rabbi of Worms for fourteen years.

Tlie liist Rotliscliiid of any jirominence was one
Amschel Moses Rothschild, a small merchant
and money-changer at Frankfort-on-the-Main; but
tiic fniiiKh-r of the house was his sou Mayer Am-
schel Rothschild, born in that city aljout 1743.
When a boy JMayer used to be sent to
Mayer excliange money for use in his fatlier's

Amschel Ijanking business; and he thereby de-
Roths- veloped an interest iu coins which was
child. both practical and scientific. He was
at one time destined for the rabbinate,
and studied for that ptirpose in Fiirth. He soon
changed his career, however, and took a i)ost in the
Oppenheim banking-house in Hanover. About 17G0
he started iu business for himself in his native cit}-,
in the house of his father,
who was then dead. He
married, Aug. 29, 1770,
Giittele Schnapper, who
lived to see her sons at
the head of European
finance. JMayer Avas a
general agent and bank-
er, and traded also in
works of ait and curios.
In the latter connection
he became un agent of
William IX., Landgrave
of I Ies.se -C'assel, wlio on
his father's death iu 1785
had inherited tiie largest
private fortune in Eu-
rope, derived mainly from llic iiirc of troop.s to the
British government for tlie putting down of the
Revolution in the United States.

Mayer Amschel Rothschild had become acquainted
with the crown prince in 1775, but does not seem
to have done much business with him till toward
the end of the next decade. He changed some
English gold for him iu 1789, and in 1794 took as
much as £150,000 worth, but not alone, having as-
sociated with him no less than si.K other bullion-
brokers of Frankfort. It was onlj' toward the
end of 1798 that he had sufficient credit with the
prince to undertake single-handed any large quan-
tity of gold brokerage. From 1800 to isoG the land-
grave jilaced with Rothschild 1,750,000 thaler,
mostly at 4 per cent, part of it to be invested in
Frankfort town loans, partin Danish loans. In 1801
he l)ecame the landgiave's court agent.

.Alcanwhile his thiid son. Nathan Mayer Roths-
child (born at Frankfort Sept. 10, 1777j, had .settled

Mayer Auiscbel Ilutli.scliiid.

9 =

-A

- £

-J 5

c
u

-a-

•—I

£|
II

«ll

-=^E"SL;_
= ^llS

= ■■»

£!•-

©•d

e i _-c

li^Nf

Iirs

Ei^iU-

1S2I2

g£ i

L-Ei_5

c ■ c

t«;— '^

S3
_ 5-'*

§3

k(5 ts
'S-c-f^-d

Pcld

o — -^ i —

II S5

— DA

s .

-«X-;5 5i'^': = £:-;-
i• .s "^ "— " '- ^ ^ •=: '-

S"3

k2 ^sii^-3

€i

*3
So

Ei^

Sig

5i;

T^->'

CA^^

£•""£

£->-

~ II

" II

IPS

2 —

•< . £ • —

~-=?

?• S s g

y.^t-^

•r^'

=^25^

^V.l

'f—':!

E .7=

^2-0

c>-2

— -•■o

u:-|i

'iiM^

K II

n!3

kx3 -a

?! w

E • ^ ^

— 5— ■^•ci —

^11

-•S 5^H
^^ ■
« 112

u:2 11-^

1 1^
^2

^-^

riT,

'—

— cT

r-^

**,

■J.

Z ^

.*■* **

-2

H-C

ili^

>•

■<

-??

'•*

E
u

e
&

t7.

£55^ xSICS

-•31::

•3

c _ =

e
c

b C

_2 -~

_;■'-— —

3 II -

er -

1-. .^ * -^ jr ,

s-
z
<
a
z

,_= =?5 r=5 =-•* > 5-^ +
r c-;x— x< — <.'-c

g- -_ 5

-S^„3 i - _

~53 o- J=^

•5 iJ

* = ? =

^i ::

c >>

S--C t-

2 1^2-^

.^^

ci'o

o- < L^ ^

-J

^•S

s
■<

><
■<

zf;-S =

C si
- a r

- T * h ? 2 ^-
S -- rti --^

-S II ^

S^— XJIX — xj .—

"'^^ _: ~i? ^ &;

C5 M

-SZxtTX?^ o

2?f ?lS»

w «:
z s

"O E-
2^

3t-

- w ^«

£-° 11 =

a
-be

3
s)

■a

^ O rt ^^ *"*

- t* • !5 ■" -- - c
^£S~ II

a
2

z
z
w

* I- X •'■■'- X

e3-3j=3 0
CO

PS .

■* I —

■^ '^ m >- +

■<
ec

> — X c

-^^^

2 S^S

^ • s

^£11

•< ^ > — -w -

_ a 3 i-s-r!

5 c

_i 3* X g"*

^it-

t- p^a*'

^c>Oia2S"^2S = ~
&: £ -o II *■►^-'

c t. £ *'

« I; ~ £

-Cx^xgcsc

•Ss2z2f-= =
"£ II ^i

.— r» ~- — '

«5i
t,<:-,

^^1

= £

_3g

ca -

CO ,

=£

ce-H

— 1 -» t; ."* _ - +

E«

EfSii

5x£,.
cZ2-^2t;

g£ 11 I

r— ■= =a '

-£§S

o
ca •■

oa .-^

§£

■<

= o >

;§£

e
•5
s

£ a

. ■«
u c

^ 11 +
e ^' ~ t«- £ „

=Sii-5 OS

a a; »
. =5

W»

j:~ 3

S£

1-5

&-^

a .
te-
cs—

T3 ,

Mr'"

C
O

£ II

See.

TS
%>

s
s

Q
U

CL,

Q
►J

1-^

K
o
tc
K
H
O

= S II

u:
in

(»

>J
a.

•<

.-3

'" *" 1

ocoo

.rrH"*

;2is?(?(

~^ S 3

^•^:S

■a II

:«

'■' -t == 2

«*■ 'Z ■

W^ "— T-^

Q.
-<1

tt_

2 t -t

e J3 II ^^

"i? ^22 K? •==-'

3^^: --^ '^^ ».»»

eaS *

02 •

»-.=35

■C tikoS3

ii t£

= c o

? ? =8

p..

«<«i^ II ^'l

«5w

.-So

a +

^ S' 2
^ £ tj

-j"^— * cS'T^^ c a; c

57*3 -3 ^"3 53

^t2«2 ijSca-'

CO """Z

< _

2= ^

•3

■ct:2
33

'ft

•^^w

^=^

-l^lilill

^C£ II S «

■2 — ;?' •«

^ xl II " "^

. % E a"^ OS'S

S C- = -: " S

Cm ^

c i'CS 3 2
t:-j II 2

w i-S ii-— 3

»»• X _ TT C X

•c

^tt'^. II 2

M CD

%. •- - s

2 <=' a

. -■ t.' » o

~ »^;t<- g o a

.^ K _' J, ~! ^

-c-si - 5 3 c =

C, — . ■«-

c2^

~ II

-« ajS— o .a

Rothschild

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

494

in England under somewhat remarkable circum-
stances, as related by himself to Sir Thomas Buxton.
The firm dealt iu Manchester goods, and, having been
treated somewhat cavalierly by a commercial trav-
eler, Nathan at a moment's notice settled in ^Man-
chester (179y) with a credit of £20,000, upon whicli
he earned no less than £40,000 during tJie following
seven years by buying raw material and dyes, hav-
ing the goods made up to his own order, and selling
them abroad, thus making a triple profit. He be-
came naturalized as a British subject June 12, 1804,
and in 1805 went to London, establishing himself at
first in St. Helen's place and afterward in New
Court, St. Swithin's lane, still the olTice of the firm.
He married shortly afterward a sister-in-law of Closes
Montefiore, thus coming into association with the
heads of the Sephardic community, then ruling the
financial world of London
through their connection
with Amsterdam. Owing
to Napoleon's seizure of
Holland iu 1803, the lead-
ers of the anti-Napoleonic
league chose Frankfort as
a financial center where-
from to obtain the sinews
of war. After the battle
of Jena in 1806 the Land-
grave of He-sse-Cassel fled
to Denmark, where he had
already deposited much
of his wealth through the
agencj'' of Mayer Amschel
Rothschild, leaving in the
hands of the latter specie
and works of art of the
valueof£600,000. Accord-
ing to legend, tiiese were
hidden away in winc-
ca.sks, and, escaping the
search of Napoleon's sol-
di(?r3 when they entered
Frankfort, were restored
intact in tlic same casks in
1814, when the elector re-
turned to his electorate (see ^larbot, "^lemoirs,"
1891, i. 310-311). The facts are somewhat less ro-
mantic, and more businesslike. Roths-
Nathan child, so far from !)cing in danger, was
Mayer on such good terms with Napoleon's
Roths- nominee. Prince Dalberg, that he had
child. been made in 1810 a member of the
Electoral College of Darmstadt. The
elector's inone}' had been sent to Nathan in London,
who in 1808 utilized it to purchase £800,000 worth
of gold from the East India Companj', knowing that
it would be needed for Wellington's Peninsular
campaign. He made no less than four profits on
this: (1) on the .sale of Wellington's paper, (2) on
the sale of the gold to Wellington, (3) on its repur-
chase, and (4) on forwarding it to Portugal. This
was the beginning of the great f(jrlunes of the
house, and its early transactions may be divided
into three stages, in each of which Nathan Avas the
guiding spirit: namely, (l)froin 1808 to 1815, mainly
the transmission of bullion from England to the

Nulhuii .Mayer Kutlischild

Continent for the use of the British armies and for
subventions to the allies; (2) from 1816 to 1818,
"bearing " operations on the stock e.vchange on the
loans needed for tlie reconstruction of Europe after
Napoleon's downfall ; and (3) from 1818 to 1848, the
unilertakiug of loans and of refunding operations,
wliieh were henceforth to be the chief enterprises
of the house.

(1) As regards the first stage, the deaths in 1810
of both Sir Francis Baring and Abraham Goldsmid
left Nathan Mayer Rothschild without a formidable
competitor iuthe Loudon bullion market ; anil it has
been calculated that England forwanied to the Con-
tinent through him in the three years 1813 to 1815
no less than £15,000,000 sterling, while iu the latter
year up to the battle of Waterloo he forwaided in a
similar manner £1,000,000 per month. He had a

pigeon-post between Eng-
land and the Continent
which brought him early
information of all impor-
tant events. While the-
battle of Waterloo was in
progress his agent Ro-
wertli awaited the result at
Ostend, and was the first to
bring the news to London.
This was on the morning
of June 20, two days after
the battle, when Roths-
child inuuediately trans-
mitted the intelligence
to the government; this
shows that the tradition
that he gained largely by
keeping the news secret
is entirely mythical. In
many instances Rothschild
found it unnecessary to
transmit English money
to the Continent, as the
foreign governments fre-
cjuently preferred to have
their loans reinvested for
them in English con.sols.
It was mainly in connection with this movement in
bvdlion that the reMiarkal)le plan was adopted of hav-
ing one of the Rothschild brothers in each of the chief
capitals; Init it is a mistake to believe that this ar-
rangement wasdue to the foresight of Ma3-er Amschel.
James, the youngest of the brothers.
Dispersion was not established in Paris till 1812,
of the the year of Mayer Amschel's death.
Brothers, and then secretly for the purpose of
collecting French coin to forward to
Wellington for his advance through southern
France; the firm of ]{otliselnld Freres was not
founiled in Paris till 1817; Karl did not go to
Naples till 1821; and Salomon went to Berlin in 1815
to arrange for payments through London to Berlin
to the Englishman Herries. It was evidently Nathan
who made these arrangements.

(2) The great sums needed by France and the
allies after the Waterloo period were at first not
supplied by the Rothschilds at all, though undoubt-
edi}' the large movements of bullion which were

495

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Botbachild

required for these loans -were nej^otiatcd tliroui^h
them, as it is reckoned that from 1814 to 1822 no less
than £18,01)0,000 slcrling was transferred by them
to the Continent, and it was for this reason tiiat the
brotliers were raised to the Austrian nobility (Sept.
29, 1822; Nathan never assumed the title, tliough lie
acted as Austrian consul-general). But the loans
themselves were made by the banking-house of
Baring, which was connected with the firm of Hope
in Amsterdam and with tliat of Ouvrard in Paris,
for a long time the chief rival in Paris of the Kolhs-
childs. The profits on these issues were enormous.
The French loan of 181G of 350,000,000 francs yielded
10 per cent; and the Austrian loan of 50^000,000
gulden in 1815 yielded 9 per cent.

(3) As early as Feb. 5, 1817, the Rothschilds had
taken up a Prussian loan of 1,500,000 gulden at 5
per cent; and by the end of the following year the
brothers in their collective capacity were reported
to be the richest firm in Europe, though they had
not conducted any of the great loans of the prece-
ding three years. Ehrenberg, therefore, thinks that
they nuist have gained their fortune
Foreign by speculating in the loans issued
Loans. under the auspices of the Barings,
probably by "beaiiug" operations
which were so successful that they forced the gov-
ernments concerned to allow the Rothschilds to
participate in any future loans.

Year.

Country.

Amount.

181"

Prussia

1,. 500,000 gulden.

1818

£5.000.0(K)

1819

fireat Britain

£12,(KHI,(KI0

1820

Austria (Lottery Loan)

4s,iKK),(KK) gulden.

1820

2(),8<K),0(K)

1821

11.

37,500,0CK)

1821

Naples

16,0(10,000 ducats.

1821

Slcllv

4,.5()(),0(X)

1822

£3.500,000

1822

Russia

£3,500,000

1822

Naples

£6,500,000

1822 . ..

20,(XK).f)00 ducats.

1823

Austria

£2,5tKI.000

182:^

25,iKKi,Oii0 gulden.

1823

France

2;3,0(t0,iKK) francs.

1824

Brazil

Naples

£3,200,000

1824

£2,.5()<I,(HI0

1825

Grand Duchy of Hesse

Brazil

6,.50(),000 gulden.

1825

£2,000,(K)0

1829

£800,000

1829

2.5,(XI0,(K)0 gulden.

1829

Tipogp.Homburff

1,7.tO,(XX)

1829

HohenzoUem-Hechingen.. .
Prussia

260,000

\m)

£4,;)<K),00(t

1831

Belflriuin

50,00o,(KK) francs.

1831

Papal States

16,0(X).()0(l

18;j2

Beiflriiiin

£2,1X10,000

18:34

Austria

Zi.mim) gulden.

18;}4

66,00O.0(Hl finncs.

1834

183;')

Grand Duchy of Hesse

(ireat Britain

2,5(KI,(HI0 gulden.
£1.5,O0O,(«KI

1837

Ducliy of Nassau

A ustria

2,6(K),000 gulden.

1839

30,000,0(K)

184f)

1840

Duchv of Lucca. • «

Bacien •

Austria

Ducliy of Lucca •

l.a50,00(l
,5,000,0(H)

1842

40,0(KI,(XH)

1843

1,120.000

184r,

1845

Papal States

Biulen

Irish Famine Loan

France

Hanover

Bailen

Bavaria

2,l(iO,(Kl(i francs.
M.tKKl.lHK) gulden.

1847

£10.0<K).(KK)

250,(K)0.0(KI francs.

1847

184S

184S 51

IJ.IKKMX"' thaler.
2.r)<HI.()(KI gulden.
22.(KKI.(KK)
C,.XM),00(J

The above is a list of the loans issued Ity the

Rothschilds during the years 1817 to 1848, as fur
as these can be definitely ascertuim-d : they make a
total of $(J54. 847,200 (t;i:j(»,9G9,440).

The profits on the.se loans were at first very great.
Salomon Rothschild in 1820 declaretl that the broth-
ers in that year made G,000,0(»0 gulden, proiiubly on
the two Austrian loans, t.f., about 10 percent. But
others were by no means so renumerutive. No less
than £500,000 was lost in attempting to 8U|)port
Lord Be.xley's refunding schemes; and the French
refunding ojjeration of 1823 fiom 5'.s to 8"s, tJKHigh
originally stiggested by Nathan, was etjually unrc-
munerative, causing a loss, it is sind, of 3,000,000
francs. Nor were the Rothschilds always success-
ful in obtaining the is.sue of loans. In 1834. despite
their competition, a .syndicate of the Fould.s, Op-
penheiins, and others obtained the Sardiuiun loan;
but the Rothschilds adopted their usual "bearing"
policy, with the result that the next papal hmn was
financed by them. The Pereireswere etjually inim-
ical to the Rothschilds, and successfully competed
with them for Russian railway cf)ntracts.

While the early history of the firm was donnnuted

by the influence of Natlian, after the year 1830 the

youngest brother, James, came to the front, and tlie

Paris house gained that predominance in French

finance which it still retains, whereas

Baron throughout the nineteenth century

James. there was concealed but very elfeclive
rivalry between the Barings and the
Rothschilds in London. Baron James had befriended
and assisted Louis Philippe before he came to the
throne in 1830, and was the medium through which
that astute monarch conducted his stock-e.vchange
operations till his overthrow in 1848. In return
Baron James obtained in 1846 the concession for the
Great Northern Railway CUimpany of France, hav-
ing 300,000 shares, each of the value of 300 francs.
His position in the social world of Paris is described
by Balzac under the guise of "Baron Nuciugen."
In the year 1848 the Pai is house was reckoned to be
worth "600,000,000 francs as against 362,000,000
francs held by all the other Paris bankers. .Mean-
while the Vienna branch obtained a similar conces-
sion for the Austrian Northern Railway (Xordbahn).
Baron Salomon had also acquired from the Austrian
government the Idia quicksilver-mine; and in 1833
the Almaden mines in Spain also came under the
control of the Rothschilds, who tiius obtained a
monopoly of that metal. The Austrian firm later
owned, in ccuijunction with the biothers Wilhelm
and David von Gutmann. mines and iron-works at
Witkowitz, 3Ioravia. In the early stages of its ex-
istence the Austrian house did a large money-lending
business with the meiliatized anil impoverished
nobility of the Austrian empire, loans to the amount
of no less than 24,521,000 gulden being on record.

There is little to be .siiid about the Naples house,
established in 1821 and discontinued in 1861 at the
fall of the Bourbon dynasty.

Apart from railroads and mines the Rothschilds
have rarely been interested in industrial develop-
ments, though the London hotise is still rated as "N.
M. Rothschilil and Sons, merchants." At one time
they took up general insurance, and founded in
1824, with Sir Moses Monteliore, the Alliance In-

Bothschild

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

496

sunince Company as a sort of rival to Lloyd's.
Only recently has the firm again turned its attention
to mines, under the iutlueuce of Lord Rothschild,
the interests of the Loniion house in the Rio Tinto
copper-mines and the De Beers diamond-mines being
considerable. Similarly the firm has large interests
in the oil-wells of Baku, Russia, thus becoming the
chief competitor of the Standard Oil Company.

With the fall of Louis Philippe (1848) the" hege-
mony of the various Rothschild firms again reverted
to London. Baron Lionel, though his attention
was diverted
considerably
from finance to
politics by the
struggle for the
emancipation of
the Jews, gained
considerable
prestige by his
repeated elec-
tion as repre-
sentative of the
city of London ;
and the London
firm was instru-
mental during
liis leadership of
it in financing no
less than eight-
een government
loans, including
the Irish Famine
Loan, one of
£15,000,000 to
the English gov-
ernment in 1856,
the £5,000,000
Turkish loan of
1858, several re-
funding opera-
tions for the
United States,
and national
loans to the Rus-
sian govern-
ment. He de-
clined, however,
to take up the
Russian loan of
1861, owing to
his disapproval
of the action of the Russian government toward
Poland.

After Mayer Amschel's death the Frankfort firm,
wiiich for many years, especially between 1850 and
1870, was of great importance, was until about 1855
under the guidance of Baron Amschol Mayer von
Rothschilil, and upon his death came under the joint
management of the brothers Baron Mayer Karl and
Baron Wilhelm (universally known in Germany as
"Baron Willy"). The former was a man of high cul-
ture and great ability, a lover of art and literature,
but somewhat of a misanthrope, owing, it is .said,
partly to the fact that seven daughters were born to
him but no son. Baron Mayer Karl became a mem-

Nathan Mayer Roiliscliild.

(From an oM print.)

ber of the Prussian Herrenhaus (House of Peers) in
1870, and thereafter paid little attention to business
affairs, leaving these to his brother Baron Wilhelm.
The latter was a very religious man, of rather narrow
views, under whom the importance of the Frankfort
firm rapidly declined. It was liquidated after his
death in 1901.

The Rothschilds were not, however, without com-
petitors in the issue of public loans. Other Jewish
families — the Lazards, Sterns, Speyers, and Selig-
inans — adopted the Rothschild plan of establishing

local branches in
European capi-
tals, each headed
by a brother,
and after 1848
the governments
ofEuropeadopt-
ed the plan of
throwing loans
open to the pub-
lic instead of re-
sorting to one or
two banking
firms like the
Rothschilds. In
this w ay the
Sterns secured
the chief Por-
tuguese loans,
while a number
of smaller Jew-
ish firms began
to combine their
resources and
form limited li-
ability compa-
nies like the Ch'e-
dit Mobilier, the
DresdcnerBank,
and the Deutsche
Reichsbank of
Berlin.

The relative
importance of
tlie Rothschilds
diminished con-
siderably in the
second half of
the nineteenth
century. Having
been ill advised

as to their American policy, they invested largely
in Confederate bonds and lost heavily. This
appears to have disgusted them with American
finance, which they left severely alone for many
years, thus losing the opportunities afforded by the
great financial expansion of the United States in
the last decades of the nineteenth century. With
the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71) the Rothschilds
again came into financial prominence. They ar-
ranged with Bleichroder for the payment to Ger-
many of the indenmity of five milliard francs; in
1875 the London house advanced the British gov-
ernment £4,080,000 for Suez Canal shares, upon
which the Rothschilds were reported to have made

497

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bothscblld

£■100,000; and in 1884 they loaned the Egyptian
government £1,000,000.

Meanwliile the Nationalist and Reactionary parties
in France desired to counterbalance the " .Semitic "
influence of the Kothschild.s by establishing a bank-
ing concern -vvliich should be essentially Catholic.
Aceortliiigly in INTO tlie Union GeueralcAvas founded
Avith a capital of 4,000,000 francs, increased to 25,-
000,000 francs in 1878 under the direc-
The tion of a certain Eontoux. Aftervari-

TJnion ous vicissitudes, graphically described
Generale. by Zola in his novel "L'Argent," the
l.'nion failed, and brought many of
the Catholic nobility of France to ruin, leanng the
Hothschilds still more absolutely the undisputed
leaders of French finance, but leaving also a legacy
of hatred ■which had much intluence on the growth
of the anti-Semitic movement in France. Something
analogous occurred in England when the century-
long competition of the Barings and the Rothschilds
culminated in the failure of the former in 1893; but
in this case the Rothschilds came to the rescue of
their rivals and prevented a universal financial catas-
trophe. It is a somewhat curious sequel to the at-
tempt to set up a Catholic competitor to the Roths-
childs that at the present time the latter are the
guardians of the papal treasure.

Of recent years the Rothschilds have consistently
refused to haveanything to do wi*.h loans to Russia,
owing to the anti-Jewish legislation of that empire,
though on one occasion the members of the Paris
house joined in a loan to demonstrate their patriotism
as Frenchmen.

The remarkable success of the Rothschilds, which
has now lasted exactly a centur}-, has been due in
the first place to the financial genius of Nathan
Mayer Rothschild, and secondly in large measure to
the settlement of the five brothers in the European
capitals, which enabled them to issue loans simulta-
neously. In the early and later stages the London
house was the base of operations; but during the
reign of Louis Philippe the Paris house appears to
have directed undertakings. Tiie business princi-
ples on which the Rothschilds acted were the unified
policy of the five, later four, and finally three firms;
their determination never to deal with unsuccessful
persons; their use of the surest information and the
most reliable instruments; and prompt action after
obtaining such information. They did not aim at
excessive profits, nor did they put "all their eggs in
one basket"; they drew back in time if an enter-
prise was not promising, selling quickly, if necessary
even at a loss, on the principle that the first loss is
the best; and they were almost thetirst to make use
of journalistic methods to arouse the interest of the
public in their loans. They have, however, consist-
ently kept the secret of their own ojKMations. The
original five brothers were shrewd business men,
but all were equally uncultured (Karl
As Philan- Maj'er writes of a "kondract" he had
thropists made). Their descendants, however,
and Art have been among the great patrons of
Patrons, art throughout western Europe, the
collections of Barons Amschel, James,
and Ferdinand being especially noteworthy. They
have created quite a school of Jewish dealers in art,
X.— 32

whose cliief customers tliey liavc been (Duvcen. 0.
Davis, Spit/.er, and Werlhcimcr).

Tiie scrv i( es of tiie Rolliscliihls in the cause of
philantliropy have been equally marked. Special
]iosi)itals ji.-ive Ixcn founded by tin in for all creeds
at JeiusjilcMi, Vienna, Paris, and London; the Jews'
Free School of the last-named city is supported al-
most entirely by Lord Rothschild at an estimated
annual cost of .fir,, 000. In Londnn ami I'uris they
have established workmen's dwellings ou a large
scale and on an economic and commercial Imsis; and
their jirivate charities are very large. The founder
of the house, Mayer Amscjiel Rothschihl. held the
curious theory that if a beggar thanked him. the
charitable transaction was concluded, whereas if lie
received jio tiianks. Heaven owed iiini some recom-
pense for his charity. Consequently, it was his cus-
tom to thrust a coin into the hand of a beggar, and
to hurry away before the latter could express his
gratitude.

In addition, some of the members of the family
have evinced an interest in Jewish literature. Ikron
James in Paris was the foiuider of the Socictedes
Etudes Juives; Baron Wilhelm of Frankfort was a
zealous collector of Hebrew incunabula, which are
now in the Frankfort town library; and almost all
great Jewish literary undertakings have been sub-
ventioned by one or other branch of the firm.

Hitherto the pedigree of the Rothschild family
has been traced only as far as Amschel, the father
of Mayer Amschel Rothschild; but, owing to the
recent publication of the tombstone inscriptions of
Frankfort -on-the-Main by Horovitz ("Inschriften
von Frankfort"), it is now possible to trace it back
with a high degree of probability four generations
further, as far as Moses Rothschild, who was born
about the middle of the sixteenth century. There
is little doubt that all the Rothschilds form one fam-
il3', as is shown by the similarity of first names; this
would account for the somewhat unusual name of
Kalman (brother of flayer Amschel), and would
give some hint as to the use of "Jacob " as the name
of Mayer Amschel's youngest son, since the younger
son of the uncle after w hom he was named was also
called Jacob. It is also seen that the rabbinic part
of the family left Frankfort early in the .seventeenth
century, and is not related in a direct line with the
more worldly portion.

The number of marriages between cousins in the
later history of the family is remarkable, especially
in the second and third generations after the five
brothers had gone to five different capitals. Alto-
gether of fifty -eight marriages contracted by the de-
scendants of flayer Amschel Rothschild to date
(1905), no less than twenty-nine, or exactly one-half,
liave been between first cousins. It is noteworthy
that these marriagesasande have been fertile, which
is what is antici|mted by biological science ; but sev-
eral of the unions have resulted in daughters only.
which is also anthropologically significant.

In the first namesailojited there has beena restric-
tion in choice in the early generations, causing a
considerable amount of confusion between the many
Charlottes, Louises, Karls, and Nathans. As a rule,
the sou has adopted the father's name as a second
name, which has enabled a distinction to be made;

Bothschild

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

498

and tlie same plan has with less suitability been
followed ill the case of the (laughters. The family
tree is found on pages 491-493.

BiDLiO<iKAPiiv : Das H(iU!< liothsvlLilfl. Seine Ge/^chicfilr inxl
Ocscluirte, Pr.igae, l»oI : Uee\es. The HothschiUl!; Lomixu,
IMT; Silierh. Gt-yc/i. das Jlause.i Hollusctttlil, Berlin, It-M;
A. Ehrenl)eiv. in Deuti<che Iiuivl->chau. 19(J:i-» ; />i(f. Ati-
tiniial liiiiinapliu: Wurzbuch. iiir)|/^(IpAi.•^r^^■.•< Le.rilum, s.
v.; A. Kohut. JUdischc Iterllhiiitnt iten : Hurovitii, Iiisehrift-

fn vitn Frankfurt :
U'ornts.

Lewysobn, Sechzin E(.iitaphictt zu

The following notices of members of the family
are arranged in alphabetical order:

Albert (Anselm) Salomon von Rothschild,
Freiherr : Head of the Austrian branch of S. 31.
V. Kothschild und Sohue; born at Vienna Oct. 29,
1844; youngest son of Anselm von Rothschild. He
was educated at the gymnasium of Vienna and the
University of Bonn; entered the banking house of
Behrend at Hamburg ; and then traveled e.xteusi velj-.
He succeeded his father as head of the Vienna
branch in 1874. In 1876 he married Karoliue Bct-
tina. daughter of Baron Alphonse Rothschild (b. at
Paris Feb. 1"), 1858; d. at Vienna Maich 24, 1892),
in memory of whom he erected the Bettina Frauen-
spital. He takes especial interest in the orphan
asylum and foundations for Jewish artists and musi-
cians in Vienna.

p. F. T. II.

Alphonse, Baron de Rothschild : Second son
of Baron James Mayer de Rothschild ; born at Paris
Feb. 1, 1827. The son of Austrian parents, he be-
came naturalized in France in 1848. He received a
careful education and was employed at an early age

by his father in the
management of the
C h e m i n d e F e r d u
Nord. In 1854 he be-
came head of the
French house, and in
the same year was
made one of the gov-
ernors of the Bank of
France. In 1869 he
became president of
the board of directors
of the Chemin de Fer
du Nord, also presi-
dent of the Central
Consistory of the Is-
raelites of France, to
w h i c h he had b e -
longed as early as 1851
as delegate of the Jewi.sh community of Be rdeau.x.
When the Franco- Prussian war ended disastrously
for the French republic, Baron Alphonse became the
head of the syndicate of French bankers which
guaranteed the payment of the indemnity of five
milliard francs by France to Germany. It was espe-
cially through his ability that France was enabled
to pay the indemnity Avithin a very short time.

He further directed the imjjortant work of estab-
lishing a fund, chiefly in German bonds, to avoid
theexpenseof converting bills into German currency
when remitting them to the German government,
thus saving a great amount to the French govern-
ment.

Baron Alphonse de Rothscblld.

As to Baron Aliihonses connection with tlie Suez
Canal transactions, opinions dilfer. He and Charles
de Lessejjs were commissioned to effect a harmoni-
zation of the French and the English interests. It
is a fact that tlie management of the canal changed
hands in 1883, and that England is now actually in
possession.

At present the baron is especially interested in im-
portant electric and petroleum undertakings. He
has presented over 6UU pictures to the ^luseum of
Paris; anil in 1895 he succeeded Emile Perrin as hon-
orary member of the Paris Academy of Fine Arts.
The Chateau of FerriOres-en Brie (department of
Seine-et-.Marne) is his property. The German stalT
was installed there at the commencement of the siege
of Paris. There al.so Jules Favre, on behalf of the
French government, conducted the unsuccessful
peace negotiations with Prince Bismarck.

The charitable and benevolent institutions of all
creeds have been enriched by gifts fi-om the lirm of
Rothschild Brothers. Each year as winter ap-
proaches. Barons Alphonse, Gustave, and Edmond
donate 100,000 francs for distribution among the
poor of the twenty arrondissements of Paris. They
are the founders of sixty annual stipends for the
benefit of young persons wishing to enter tiie higher
commercial schools. On June 27. 1904, the three
Barons Rothschild notified Troullot, minister of
commerce, of their intention to donate the sum of
10,000,000 francs, to be employed in the erection of
inexpensive dwelling-houses, and for the general
furtherance of i)lans for ameliorating the condition
of the working classes.

In 1857 Alphonse married Leonora, daughter of

Baron Lionel de Rothschild of London. His only

son, Edouard (b. Feb. 24, 1868), fought a duel

during the excitement caused by the revision of the

Dreyfus case.

Biblio(;r.\phy: Curinler, Diet. Nat. ii. 3.50; La Grande En-
cjiclopidic.
s. F. T. H.— J. Ka.

Amschel Mayer von Rothschild, Freiherr :
Eldest son of Mayer Amschel Rothschild and, after
the death of his father, senior member of the family
and head of the Frankfort branch; born at Frank-
fort-on-the-Main June 12, 1773; died there Dec. 6,
1855. The Emperor of Austria knighted him in
1815 and inaile him a " Freiherr " in 1822. In 1820
he was appointed Bavarian consul in Frankfort with
the title of court banker.

Amschel Mayer was very Orthodox and actively
supported the Conservative party in Judaism. He
took great interest in the history of his race, and
when in 1840 many cloisters weie sequestered in
Spain, he directed his agent to secure all documents
of interest to the Jews. He was besides a collector
of paintings, coins, and metal-work.

Amschel Mayer left no chiUli-en, but was suc-
ceeded in business by two sons of his brother Karl,
the founder of the Naples branch.

Briti.HxJiiAPMv: (Anonymous) Das Huus JioUixchiUl, 1. 173-
2U.J, Pratrue and Leipsic, 185".

Anselm von Rothschild, Freiherr : Austrian
liank<M; bninat I'-raiikfort-on-the-Main .Lim. 29, 1803;
died at Ober-Diibling, near Vienna, July 27, 1874;
only son of Salomon Mayer von Rothschild. While

499

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rothschild

liis fallier iind uncles luul received tlieir education
and training in tlie paternal Iionic, lie was sent, in
1820,,to the University of Berlin. Two years later
lieenteretl the Paris hoiiseof the Hotliscliilds, spend-
ing some time there as well as at Berlin, (,'open-
hageu, Brussels, and The Hague. From 1848 lie
assisted his uncle Amschcl Mayer in Frankfort, and
after the death of his lather, removed to Vienna
(I8o.j), where he continued to conduct the Austrian
liouse of the Kothschilds till his death.

In 1861 Auselm was appointed a life member of
the Austrian House of Lords. In 18G9 he founded
a Jewish hosjiital in Vienna. He was an enthusiastic
collector of paintings and other objects of art.

In 1826 Anselm marrieil his niece Charlotte Nathan
Rothschild, daughter of Nathan Mayer Rothschild
of London. He left three sous, Nathan, Fei{Di-
NAM), and Aluert Salomon. Nathan (b. Oct. 26,
1830) is a sportsman, traveling much, especially ou
the ^Mediterranean ; he has not taken any active
interest in the Rothschild business. He has pub-
lished "Skizzen aus dem Sildeu." Anselm had
also three daughters: Julie, married Adolf Karl
vou Rothschild; Mathilde, married "Wilhelm Karl
von Rothschild (both of the Naples branch); and
liuise, who became the wife of Baron Fran-
chetti.

BiBi.iocuAPiiY : Von Scherb, Gegch. des Hauses Rotltschild,
BtTliu. IWC.

t*. F. T. H.

Anthony de Rothschild, Sir : Born at New

Court, London, 1810; died at Woolston, near South-
ampton, Jan. 3, 1876; second son of Nathan Mayer
Rothschild. I^ntering Jiis father's banking business,
he became a prominent member of the firm. He
lived the life of a country gentleman, which did not,
liowever, prevent him becoming themr.in represent-
ative tjf the family in the London Jewi.sh commu-
nity. As president of the Jews' Free School he was
unwearied in his efforts to promote tlie good man-
agement of that institution. He assisted at the es-
tablishment of the United Synagogue, and became
its president. For a short time he was president also
of the Jews' Hospital. In 1846 he was created a
baronet of the United Kingdom, with special re-
mainder, failing liis own male issue, to the sons of
his elder brother. Baron Lionel de Rothschild. He
was also a baron of the Austrian empire, and was
made Austrian consul-general in London in 1858.

Sir Anthony was prominently connected with
numerous mercantile bodies, notably the Alliance*
Life and Fire Assurance Company, of which he was
a director. In 1840 Sir Anthony married Louisa,
daughter of Abraham Montetiore ; he had two
daughters, who survived him.

BiBLiOGKAPHV: Je.ic. Chmn. and Jew. Tror?d. Jan. 7, 1876;
The Times (London), Jan. 5, 10, and 11. 187(); Morais. Emi-
nent I><rnelitcs i>f the Niiieteeiith Centum, s.v., Pliiladel-
phla, 1880.
J. G. L.

Arthur de Rothschild, Baron : Born at Paris

March 28, 18ol ; died at Monte Carlo 1903 ; son of Na-
tlianiel Rothschild of London. He was the author
of: "Notice sur I'Origine du Pri.x Uniforme de la
Taxe de Lettres et sur la Creation des Timbres de
Poste en Anglcterre, " Paris, 1871 ; and " Ilistoire de la

Poste au.\ Lettres," tl>. IHTlj. Baron Ailhur was in-
terested in yachting, and for .several years was vice-
president of tile Union des Yachts Francuis.

I!ii)Lio(;iiAPirv: La Oramic Eiicucloindlc.

J. Ka.

Charlotte de Rothschild, Baroness : Born ut
Naples 1819; died at Gunnesbury Park. Acton, near
London, March 13, 18H4; .laught.r of Ban.n Karl
von Rothscliild. In 1830 she married Jier cousin
Baron Lionel de Rothscliild. SIio took the deepcRt
interest in jiolitics and was of the gieat«'St service
to her liusband in his i)arlianientury career.

In 1859 the baroness establislied an Invalids'
Kitchen at Bishopsgate, London, and in Nov., IS/iO.
founded the Home for Ageil Incurables, both of
which institutions as well as several other churities
were entirely supported by her. In 1867 .slie became
president of the Ladies' Benevolent J^oan and Visit-
ing Society. She founded also the Emigration Soci-
ety. Her labors in connection with the Jews' Free
School were far-reaching; she even compo.scd aa
readings for the school "Addresses to Young Chil-
dren." In memory of her daughter, she established
"Evelina Prizes" at all the Jewish elementary
schools and at Jews' College.

Bibliography: Jeir. Chron. and Jew. H'orW, March U. 18M.
J- G. L.

Constance de Rothschild (Lady Battersea) :

Authoress and communal worker; eldest daughter
of Sir Anthony de Rothschild; born in London 1847.
In 1877 she married Cyril Flower, who was created
first Baron Battersea in 1892. In conjunction with
her sister Annie (the Honorable Mrs. Eliot Yorke)
she published, in 1870, "The History and Literature
of the Israelites According to the Old Testament
and the Apocrypha, "an adaptation, for the young, of
the Biblical narrative. The work was republished
in 1872, in an abridged form, for the use of schools.
Lady Battersea has since contributed occasionally to
magazines, dealing descriptively with the ceremo-
nial and ritual she witnessed in her father's house.
She has taken a great interest in the Jewish As.soci-
ation for the Protection of Girls and Women, of
which she is vice-president and secretary ; and she
has been intimately associated with other depart-
ments of Jewish social work in London.

Bibliography: Jewinh Year Book, 5665 (1904-5).

J. J. DK H.

Edmond de Rothschild, Baron : Born at
Paris Aug. 19. 1845. He is associated with bis
brothers Alphonse and Gustave in the French house
of the Rothschilds. He is known in the Jewish
world as the founder of the AGiucrLTfiiAL Colo-
nies IX Palestine, at present under the adminis-
tration of the Jewish Colonization Association. In
1877 he married Adelaide. daugliKTof Wilhelm Karl
Rothschild of Frankfort-onfhe Miiin. liy wlmm he
has three children: James Edmond Armand (b.
Dec. 18, 1878; M.A.. Cambridge*, Maurice (b. May
19, 1881). and Myriam.

Baron Edmond is a great lover of the arts and a
collector of paintings. His wife is president of
the patronjige committee of the Comite de Bienfai-
sance, and foundressaud vice president of the Home

Rothschild

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

500

Israelite Franyais, Avhicli assists youug Jewish girls
to tiiul situatious iu tlie trades, the industrial arts, as
teachers, etc.

s. J. Ka.

Ferdinand de Rothschild, Baron : English
politician and art connoisseur; born in Paris iyc59;
died at Wallesdon Manor. England, Dec. 17, 189^;
second son of Freiherr Anselin von Rothschild. He
was educated iu Vienna, and settled in England iu
1860. In 18G5 he married his cousin Evelina de
Rothschild, sister of Lord Rothschild. She died in
the following year, ami in her memory lie built and
largely supported the Evelina Hospital for Sick
Children,

Baron Ferdinand was fond of couutrv life and
had the ordinary tastes of a country gentleman.
He hunted, and bred fat stock ; he made Wallesdon
a model village; and he was fond of Viuhting. In
1883 he held theothceof high sherill of Buckingham-
shire, and was also justice of the peace and deputy
lieutenant for the county. In 1885, when Lord
Rothschild was created a peer, Baron Ferdinand
succeeded as a Liberal to his seat for Aylesbury ;
but in the following November the borough was
disfranchised, and he was returned for the newly
created divisioH of Aylesbury, which constituency
he continued to represent as a Liberal Unionist until
his death. At AVallesdon the baron had the honor
of entertaining the Queen of England on Ma}' 14,
1890 ; and the emperor Frederick of Germany and
the Shah of Persia were likewise reckoned among
his guests. The baron was a freemason, and in 1892
was one of the founders of the Ferdinand de Roths-
child Lodge, of which he was installed master.

As a collector of works of art, Baron Ferdinand
held one of the first places in his generation. The
Manor itself was one of the most celebrated homes
in England, its staircases, copied from those of the
Chateau Chenonceaux, being specially noteworthy.

Baron Ferdinand rendered valuable services in
various capacities to the Jewish community. From
1868 to 1875 he was treasurer of the Board of Guard-
ians ; in 1808 he laid the foundation-stone of the North
London Synagogue; in 1870 he became warden of
the Central Synagogue; and at the Stepney Jewish
Schools he founded a "Baron Ferdinand de Roths-
child Technical Scholarship." He Avas a man of
wide culture and strong literary sympathies. The
result of some of his studies he gave to the public
in the form of lectures to working men, in articles
in the "Nineteenth Century," and in a work (Lon-
don, 1896) entitled " Personal Characters from French
History." At his death he bequeathed to the British
Museum some of the rare art treasures of Walles-
don Manor, a gift amounting iu value to about
£100,000.

Biui,io';raphv : Jew. Chron. and Jerv. World, Dec. 23, 1898 ;
The Times (London). Dec. 19, lS!i8.
.1. G. L.

Gustave de Rothschild, Baron : Born Feb.
17, 1><2'J; consul-gcijcral for Austria-Hungary, di-
rector of the Chemin de Fer du Nord and the Paris-
Lyons and Mediterranean Railway; member of the
board of directors of the Rothschild Hospital and
Hospiee; ])resident of the Jewish Consistory of
Paris (of which he has been a member since 1856),

and also of the committee of consistorial schools;
chevalier of the Legion of Honor.

In 18C6 he founded a Hebrew primary school
known as " The Gustave de Rothschild School." On
the anniversary of the death of his daughter. Baron-
ess Emanuel Leonina, in 1898, he estaiilished twenty
annuities of GOO francs each, to be distributed among
aged Jews of cither sex.

In 1859 Baron Gustave married Cecilie Anspach.
Issue, live children: Robert (i). Jan. 19, 1880),
civil and mining engineer; Lucie, wife of Baron
Lambert, president of the Central Hebrew Coiisis-
torv of Belgium, and representative of the firm of
Rothschild Brotliers at Brussels; Aline, wife of Sir
Edward Sassoon, 31. P., of Loudon; and Juliette,
wife of Baron Emanuel Leonina, civil engineer.

The Baroness Gustave de Rothschild is president
of the Indies' commhtceof in-speftion of the Hebrew
schools of Paris. In 1877 she established a clothing
club, for tlie distribution of garments, medicines,
etc., among the Jewish children attending the con-
sistorial and parochial schools.

Bibliography: Leon K&V\n, HiMoiredes Ecoles Commutiales
et Co)i!<ii<t<)rialC!> de Paris, 1884.
s. J. Ka.

Hannah Rothschild. See Rosebeuy, Hannah,
Countess ov.

Henri de Rothschild, Baron : French phy-
sician; born at Paris July 26, 1872; sou of James
Edwanl Rothschild of London. After a careful
education he traveled extensively and then, return-
ing to Paris, studied medicine, graduating as M.D.
in 1898. Establishing himself as a physician in his
native city, he founded a dispensary for the treat-
ment of diseases of children.

Rothschild is the author of several books on his
travels ("Notes Scandinaves," "Notes Africaines,"
"Souvenirs d'Espagne," etc.), and of the following
medical works: "Quelques Observations sur I'Ali-
mentation du Nouveau-Ne et de I'Emploi Raisonue
du Lait Sterilise," Paris, 1897; " Notes sur I'Hygiene
et la Protection de I'Enfance dans les Principales
Capitales de I'Europe," ih. 1897; "L'Allaitement
Mixte et I'Allaitement Artificiel," ib. 1898. He has
also collaborated on several professional journals,
besides editing unpublished letters of Jean Jacques
Rousseau, with a preface and notes: "Lettres In-
edites de Jean-Jacques Rousseau."

Bibliography: Ciirinier, 7>iff. Xat. 1. 178.

s. F. T. II.

James Edouard de Rothschild, Baron : Born
at Paris Oct. 28, 1844; died there Oct. 25, 18S1. He
was one of the founders and the first president of
the Societe des Etudes Juives and the founder of the
Societe des AnciensTextes Fraiu/ais. He is theauthor
of "Introduction an Mysteie du Vieil Testament."

Baron James' widow is directress of the Hospital
of Berck-sur-Mer; and his daughter Jane, wife of
Baron Leonino, is the foundress of the Orphanage
of Boulogne-sur-Seine.
Bibliography : Ziidof Kahn, f>nnvc7iirK rt Reorcts, 1898.

James Mayer de Rothschild, Baron : Born .

at FiaiiUfort-on-the-Main May 15, 1792; died at
Paris Nov. 15, 1868. He founded in 1812 the Paris
banking-house known under the firm name of Roths-

501

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rothschild

Bui'uii JiUiH'S Mayer de RulUs-
child.

cliild Freres. In 1822 he was appointed coiisul-
ircncral to Austria -Hungary. He negotiated liie
Freneii loans of 1^30 and 1834, and in return for liis
services was created l)y Louis Phi'iippe grand ollicer
of tlie Legion of Honor, of wliicli lie liad been a
clievaiier since 1823. He took a very important part
in the building of the Saint Germain Haiiroad, one
of tlie most important roads in tiie north of France.
The baron was ever active in tiie interests of liis
coiciigionists. By his fearless intervention lie fic-

(juently averted cruel
jiersecutions of the
Jews, and caused the
rejieal of unjust and
burdensome laws di-
rected against them.
On April 7, 1852, he
made over to the Cen-
tral Consistory of Piiris
a hospital in the Kue
Picpus, Paris, built on
a site having an area
of about Ki.OOO sciuare
meters, on condition
that the establishment
should be reserved in
perpetuit}' as a ref-
uge for sick and
aged Jews. He was
besides a noted patron of Hebrew letters.

The baron's wife, Betty (d. in Paris Sept., 1886),
was foundress of the llosiiital for Incurables, which
she endowed with an annual revenue of 800 francs for
each of its seventy beds. The Salomon and Caroline
de Kothschild (Jrphanage, in Paris (opened June 3,
1874), wholly devoted to the care of Jewish oriihans
of either sex, is another testimony to her charity.
She, moreover, left GOO, 000 francs to the ptiblic
charities, for the assistance of poor laborers in
paying their rents.

Bibi.io(;r.apiiv : Zadop Kalin, ficrmnuf! et Allocutions, 3d
series, IfcUl ; idem, Sorivetdrs ct RcDtetS, 1898.
s. J. K.\.

Karl Mayer von Rothschild, Freiherr : Born
at Frankfort-on-the-Main April 24, 1788; died at
ISTajples March 10, 18o."); fourth son of flayer Am-
schel Rothschild and head of the Italian branch.
From 1821 he lived in Naples and Frankfort and
became banker to the kingdoms of Sicily, Sardinia,
and Naples, of the Papal States, and of the ilucliies
of Parma and Tuscany. He was made a " Freiherr "
by the crown of Austria in 1822 and consul-general
of Sicily at Frankfort in 1829. His wife, Adelheid
Herz, was a society leader and a well-known philan-
thropist.

Kai 1 Mayer left four sons— M.wkr K.vkl, Adolf
Earl, WiLiiELM K.\ui-. and Alexander — and one
daughter, all of whom married members of the
KothiiOhild family. Adolf Karl (b. at Frankfort
May 21, 1823) succeeded his father.

Bitu.ioijrapiiy: Dns Hniitt rinihschihl. ii. 10 ct seq., Prnpiie
and I.eipsic, 1857; Reeves, The Rijtli.'<chihls, pp. ~o~ ct tm/.y

London, 1887

F. T. H.

Leopold de Rothschild : Anglo-Jewish com-
munal worker and sportsman; born Nov. 22, 1845;

third son of Baron Lionel de Uotlisciiild. and broliier
of J<ord J{otlisciiild. He was educated at Trinity
C!ollege. Cambridge. England, and is a deputy lieu-
tenant, a justie<- of the peace, uud coiunmuderof tlie
l{oyal Victorian Order (l'J(J5).

HotlLsehild is an active worker in the Anglo-Jew-
ish community, being viee-|)resid<iil of liic Anglo-
Jewisii Association, a niemljer of tin.' council of the
United Synagogue and of the Jewish Board of
Deputies, chairman of tiie Jewish Emigration Sixi-
ety, one of llie treasurers of the Limdun Jewish
Board of Guardians, and a member of the board of
management of the Central Synagogue. London.

Kotlisehild is a sportsman, and an intimate friend
of the King of England. His horse St. Atnant in
1904 won the English Derby.

Bntr.ioc.RAPiiv : JcwMi Year ISnnl:, I.<tn<i"n, \'.*H ; Il'/i./'u
Willi, London, 1904.
J. I L B.

Lionel Nathan de Rothschild, Baron: liniri
at London Nov. 22, IHOti; died then- June 3. IHTO;
eldest son of Baron Nathan M.ayer de Botlischilil.
After passing some time as a student at (iottingi-n
he was initiated into the liusiness iransjictionsof the
firm under his father's direction. In 18:!(i he suc-
ceeded the latter in
the direction of the
English house of
Rothschild, the man-
agement of most of
the operations and
negotiations of the
firm being entrusted
to him. He had three
brothers, but they de-
ferred implicitly to
him. His was the
guiding mind; and
while he lived the
center of the finance
of the world may be
said to have been his
olHce in New Court.
In 1847 he negotia-
ted the Irish Famine

Loan; in 1854 he raised .£10.000.000 for the English
government to meet the expenses of the Crimean
war; and for twenty years he acted as the agent of

the Hu.ssian government. He had a

Financial large share in the successful funding

Career. of tiie United States national debt;

provided the funds for the immediate
purchase of the Suez Canal shares; and managed
the business of the group of bankers who giinnui-
teed to the German empire the permanence «)f the
exchanges, thus facilitating the payment of the
French indemnity at the close of the Fmnco-Prtis-
sian war. He was a diiectr»r rf the Alliance Insur-
ance Company, and of the Lombard<i Venetian Rail-
way, in which he held a large interest; and the
Cliemin de Fer du Nord of France owed its construc-
tion chielly to his foresight and activity. He act-
ively cooperated with the Vienna branch of his firm
in directing the finances of the Austrian empire;
and the Egyptian loan of £8,500,000 was contracted
bv his house.

r.ariiii Lionel Nalhua de UoiLs-
clirtd.

Kothschild

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

502

Barou Liouel was the leader of the Jewisli com-
mimity in Euglaud for upward of thirty years. He
was a member of the Board of Deputies, of whicli
he liad been elected president in April, IS^o, but de-
clined to serve; he was for u long period president
of the Great Synagogue; he laid the
As a fc)undation-stone of the Central Synu-

Communal gogue (1869), and was for some time

Worker. on the council of the L'nitcd Syna-
gogue. In 1843 he cooperated with
Sir Moses Montefiore in the latter 's efforts to amelio-
rate the condition of the Russian and Polish Jews;
and an appeal from him on behalf of the Rumanian
Jews was read at the Berlin Congress of 1878.

Baron Lionel's political career was chietly memo-
rable for the conspicuous part he took in the strug-
gle for Jewish emancipation. At the general election
in July, 1847, he was elected member of Parliament
in the Liberal interest for the city of Loudon, with
Lord John Russell and two other members. Parlia-
ment that year met early, and Lord John Russell,
then prime minister, brought in a bill, which was
passed by a large majority in the House of Com-
mons, aflirming the eligibility of Jews to all func-
tions and offices to which Roman Catholics were ad-
mitted by law. The bill was repeatedly rejected
in the House of Lords. Gladstone and Disraeli
Avere among those who voted with the AVhigs, the
latter appealing to the House to discard the super-
stitions of the Dark Ages, and to perform a great
act of national justice.

In the meantime Baron Lionel was elected to Par-
liament again and again. In 1849 he had been a
member for two sessions without having taken the
oath, when he accepted the Chiltcrn Hundreds and
a new writ was issued for the city of London. He
was again returned, and continue<l to be a member
Avithout taking the oath "on the true faith of a
Christian "; but being again returned in succeeding
parliaments, he accepted the Chiltern Hundreds a
second time, in 1857. On July 28 a writ was again
issued for the city of London, and he was returned
for the lifth time. At length, in 1858, the Jews'
Disabilities Bill passed, and its princi-

Becomes pie was extended by a further act.
First Jew- ])assed two years later. Baion Lionel
ish Member was the tirst Jew Avho took the

of Par- amended form of oath (July 26, 1858).

liament. In commemoration of the event several
scholarships were founded at schools
and colleges by subscription and otherwise. Baron
Lionel continued to sit for the city of London, with
the exception of a short interval, till 1874, when he
shared in the general Liberal defeat.

Baron Lionel was the friend and counselor of the
prince consort, and held intimate relations with
Disraeli, the prime minister, who.se Sidonia in
"Coninpsby " is an idealized i)ortrait of him.

In his I'liilanthropic endeavors tlie baron was
greatl}' assisted by Baroness de Rothschild, who
was his almoner, especially in the organization of
the Jews' Free Sciiool, which was raised by their
joint efforts from .squalor to a condition of compar-
ative refinement. It Avas said of the baron that
more than a tithe of his great income Avas applied
in charitable Avorks.

Baron Lionel married in 1836 Charlotte, daughter
of Baron Karl von Rothschild of Naples, who sur-
vived him. He was succeeded by N.xtu.vx Meveu
Rothschild, M.P. , his eldest son. and left two
other sons, Alfred de Rothschild and Leopold
de Rothschild, and a daughter, Leonora (m. 1S57
Baron Alphonse de Rothschild of Paris). The death
in 1866 of his daughter Evelina (m. Barou Ferdi-
nand de Rothschild) was a blow from which Barou
Lionel never entirely recovered.

BiBLiOGRAPnY: Reeves, The Ri>thi<chihUAj(irn\on,\^~ \ Jew.
Chioii. June 6, 1^79; Jew. ^y<>r■hl. June ti, 1K79; The Times
(London), June 4. 5. 1:.'. and 20, InT'J; The Mo)ititiirix Dia-
ries, lb90; Morals, Emiticiit Israelites of the S^ineteetith
Centuru, s.v.; Diet, yational Biography.

Lionel Walter Rothschild: Naturalist, com-
munal worker, and politician; born in London Feb.
8. 1868; eldest son of Lord Rothschild. He Avas
educated at Bonn and later at ^lagdalen College,
Cambridge. In 1899 he was returned to Parliament
for the Aylesbury division of Buckinghamshire, the
scat previously held by his uncle. Baron Ferdinand
de Rothschild. For this constituency he was again
returned in the Conservative interest in Oct., 1900.
He is greatly interested in natural history, and has
built in Tring Park a museum containing many
rare specimens, to replenish Aviiich he has sent ex-
peditions to the remotest corners of the earth.

Rothschild is member of the council of the United
Synagogue, of the Board of Deputies, of the Jewish
Board of Guardians, and of the committee of the
JcAvs' Free School, and treasurer of the Jewish In-
dustrial School. He has published "Avifauna of
La3'san," and is editor of " Novitates Zoologicie,"
issued at the Zoological Museum, Tring.

Bibliography : Jew. C/iron. Sept. 28, 1900.

G. L.

Mayer Amschel Rothschild. See p. 490.

Mayer Karl von Rothschild, Freiherr : Ger-
man banker; born at Frankfort-onlhe-Main Aug. 5,
1820; died there Oct. 16, 1886; eldest son of Karl
Maj-er von Rothschild of Naples. He lived with his
l)aients until l.'^:!7. During the following two years
he studied at the University of Gottingen, and in
1839 at that of Berlin. In 1840 he returned to
Najiles, and joined in 1842 the Frankfort house, of
Avhich he became the head in 1855, Avhen his cousin
Auselm succeeded iiisfatln rin Vienna. Until Mayer
Karl's death he jiresidcd over the Frankfort estab-
lishment. In 1867 he was elected a member of the
North German Reichstag, which position he held
until 1870, when he was appointed a life member of
the Prussian House of Lords. He was philanthropic
and a collector of Avorks of art.

In 1842 Mayer Karl married Louise, daughter of
Nathan IVIayer von Rothschild of Loudon, and left
as issue five daughters.

Bini.iofiRAPMv : Von Scherb, Gcsch. dcs TInusrs liothsehild,
Berlin, Ib'J;.'.

s. F. T. H.

Mayer Nathan de Rothschild, Baron : Eng-
lish tinanciei and sportsman ; born in London June 29,
1818; died there Feb. 6, 1874; fourth son of Nathan
i\Iayer Rothschild. He was educated at Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, and became a member of the firm
of N. M. Rothschild *t Sons, in which house he at
one time took an active interest. He held a seat

603

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

Rothschild

in Pailiamfiit, being eleck'd nicniljor for Hytlie on
several suecessive occasions, and was a steady ad-
herent of the Liberal party.

In 1857 Kotliseliild acciuircd land in r>uekingliain-
shire and connnented building his mansion of Ment-
niore, which was soon celebrated alike for its hos-
]iitality and works of art. In the neighboring ham-
let of Crafton he set up liis stud-farm, where he
bred many famous horses. He was a popular mem-
ber of the Jockey Club. He thrice won the One
Thousand Guineas stakes and twice the Goodwood
Cup. In 1871 he won the Dcrbj', the One Thousand
Guineas, the Oaks, the St. Leger, and the Cesare-
witch ; and that year Avas cullecl " the Baron's year."

Rothscliild married in 1850 his first cousin Juliana,
eldest daughter of Isaac Cohen, and left as issue
one daughter, who married Lord Rosebery.

BinLio(!KAPHY : Jew. Chrnn. and Jew. World, Feb. 13, 1874;
llic Times (Loudou), Feb. 7, 11, and 12, 1874.
J. G. L.

Nathan Mayer Rothschild. See p. 490.

Nathan (Nathaniel) Meyer Rothschild,
IjOrd: Son of Baron Lionel Nathan de Kothschild ;
the present (1905) head of the English house of
Rothschild; born in London Nov. 8, 1840. He was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where as
a student he was one of the associates of the present
King of England, with whom he has since remained

on terms of iutimuc}'.
Politically a Liberal
(now a Liberal Union-
ist), he sat in Parlia-
ment from 18fi5 to
1885 as the member
for Aylesbur}-. He
had inherited his
English baronetcy
from his uncle in 1876
and the Austrian bar-
ony from Ills father
in 1879; in 1885 he
w-as raised to the
])eerage, and, as Bar-
on Rothschild, was
the first Jew to take
his seat in the House
of liords, an event
which was regarded
as completing the emancipation of the English Jews.
Lord Kothschild has been continuously reappointed
lord-lieutenant of the cotmty of Buckingham. In
1903 he was made a privy councilor, and in the same
year the knight grand cross of the Royal Victorian
Order was conferred upon him.

In 1889 he became a member of a parliamentary
comnn'ssion appointed to report on the congestion in
the popidation of London. He urged the London
Jewish community to unite on what was known as
the "East End Scheme," a plan for improving the
S])iritual and social life of Jewish East Li'ndon.
Though Lord Rothschild offered £20,000 toward the
expenses, the ]dan was vigorously opjiosed by Sir
Samuel jNIontagu and others, antl nothing came of
it except the annual free services for the Jewish
masses held ou New-Year's Day and the Day of

NaiUaii, Lord Rothschild.

Atonement, which L<jrd Rothschild reijulurly at-
tends.

Lord Uoth.schild is a povcrnor of the; Bank of
England and a presiding ollicer of many great cor-
porations. In 1902 he was appointed a member of
the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration, an
ollice that brought him in touch with the l:ite Tlieo-
dor Her/1, whose East African project lie indor.scd.
He olTered positive and out.spoken resistance to the
bills proposed in Parliament for the restriction of
alien imndgration. He has always l)een a liberal
contributor to funds for the relief of llie per.s<ciile«l
in Russia and elsewhere; he is a supporter and an
ollicer of most of the commuinil ciiarilies, ami u
dispenser of private charity on a large scale, and is
especially intensted in the Jews' P'ree School, of
which he is president and w hi( h owes its position to
his benefactions. He liolds the cominiinal offices of
president of the United Synagogue and warden of
the Great Synagogue (tin; most typically Orthodo.x
Engli.sh synagogue in London), and is regarded as
the lay head of the Jewish community of England.
As a social worker his most notable success lias
been as a founder of the Four Per Cent Industrial
Dwellings Co.

BlBLIOGKAPHY : J< iJ'i.s/i Yrnr TlunU, 19fM-.'i (.VW.">).

J. J. nr. H.

Salomon Mayer von Rothschild, Freiherr :
Austrian banker; boin at Frankfort-on-the-Main
Sept. 9, 1774; died at Paris July 28, 1855; second
son of Mayer Amschel Rothschild, head of the Vi-
enna branch of the Rothschilil house. Salomon sjient
most of his time in his native city until 1810, when
he removed to Vienna, becoming interested in all the
great financial undertakings of the Austrian empire.
He became the financial originator of the K;dser
P\rdinands Nordbahn, which was inaugurated in
1886. Among the other enterprises in which lie was
interested may be mentioned: the Austiian state
loans of 1823, 1829, and 1S42 ; the coal-mines of Wit-
kowitz ; and the asphalt lake of Dalmatia.

Salomon flayer received the honorary freedom of
the cities of Vienna and BrUnn ; he was knighted
in 1815 by the crown of Austria; and in 1822 he was
created a "Freiherr." He ac<i<nred for his family
extensive landed juoperties, among them Odcrberg,
Ilultschin, and Schillersdorf.

Salomon ISIayer died while on a visit to Paris; he
left two children: Pjctty, who married her uncle
Baron James de Roth.schild of Paris, and a s..ii, An-
selm, who succeeded him in business.

DiBLiofiRAiMiv: Letterls, Lfhc»!>\i\U\ ilex lVr<-i/i(;ffM Frri-
hcrrn Siilninfii r. I{i>t)i!<cliH)l Uii Uet)n'«-. xvlth (i«-niiBn
title), Vieinia. IKVi; Heevi's, Thf Unlli^cliiUtti. i. :^-'if «</.,
London, 1887; Von SiIktIi, O'l^/i. dri HauifK llotln'rhild,
Berlin. 1892.

"Wilhelm Karl von Rothschild, Freiherr:
German l)anker; born at Frankfort-on-ihe-,Main .May
16, 1828; died there Jan. 25, 1901 ; son of Karl Mayer
von Rothschild of Naples. With his brother Mayer
Karl he became joint head of the Frankfort house
in 1855. and he was sole head from the tiiuc of Ids
brother's decease (1886). He n.arrie<l Mathilde,
daughter of An.selm Rothschild of Vicuna, and left
two daughters.

As neither Wilhelm Karl nor his brother Mayer

Rothschild
Bozsavolgri

THE JEWISH E^XYCLOPEDIA

504

left a male heir, the Frankfort branch of the house
of Kothschikl was discontinued (July 1, 1901).

BinLior.RAPHY: Von Scherb, Gesch. des Hauses Rothschild,
Berlin. l)At2.
s. F. T. II.

ROTHSCHILD. DAVID : German niblii and
autluii ; bwiuut llaiiuu, Westphalia, ><uv. Iti, IMO;
died at Aachen Jan. 28, 1892. After completing his
studies he became preacher in his native town. In
185U he was called as rabbi to Aaciien, and in 1862
to Alzey. Hesse. Rothschild was a follower of Ke-
form Juilaism. He wrote: "Der Eid der Judeu:
Eine Kritische Beleuclitung vom Jiidisch-Theolo-
gischen Standpunkt," I3rilon, 1847; " Die Psalmen in
Ueberseizungeu, Betrachtungen und Gebet," Bonn.
18."»0; "Gebetbuch nach dem Kitusder Israelitischen
Gemeinde zu Aachen," Aachen, 1853; "Der Syna-
gogale Cultus in Historiscii-Kritischer Entwick-
lung. Popular Dargestelit," Alzey, 1870; "Spinoza:
Zur Kechtfertigung Seiner Philosophic und Zeit,"

Leipsic, 1877.
s. 31, K.

ROTHSCHILD, MENAHEM MENDEL
(BACHARACH, ASHKENAZI) : German rab-
bi; liDiu ill Fiankf.irt-on-tlie-Main about 1650; died
in Worms Oct., 1731. He was the grandson of
Isaac, head of the Frankfort community and progen-
itor of the Rothschild family, and the son of Solo-
mon, "Landesrabbiner" of Wiirzburg and Fried-
berg, to whose name he adds sometimes the sur-
name Rothschild and sometimes that of Bacharacli.
^lenahem was for several years a preacher in Prague.
In IB'^e he Avas chosen "Landesrabbiner" of Bam-
berg, in succession to Mordecai Lipscliitz, and was
at the same time made rabbi of Bayrcuth and of
Baiersdorf. He remained in Bamberg until 1718,
when he accepted a similar position in Hesse. After
a short stay there, he became rabbi of the old com-
munity of Worms, where he remained until his
death. Like many rabbis of his time, he appears
to have been a man of considerable wealth. He is
known to have had two daughters, one of whom
died in Bamberg. He was succeeded in that city
by Moses Broda (d. 1741), who later became also his
successor in Worms.

BiBi.iocuAPny : Txkstem. Gcsch. der Judeu im Ehemaligcn
FiirsthistJtuin Bamberg, Index, Bamberg-, 1898.
F.. f. P. Wl.

ROTT (ROSENBERG), MORITZ : Austrian
actor, nephew of the composer Ignaz Moscheles;
born at Prague Sept. 17, 1797: died in Berlin 1860.
He was the leading actor of his time, and was the
favorite of the Pru.ssian public and the king. He
was destined by his parents for a commercial life,
but forsook it for the stage, making his debut in
Vienna in 1817 as Karl Moor in Schiller's "Die
Riluber." His success was instantaneous and was
repeated in Kaschau. Eperies, Batfeld, Leniberg,
Olmlitz, and Linz. In is21 lie became the leading
actor at the Theater-an-der-Wien, Vienna, remain-
ing there until 1829, when he went to the Hofthea-
ter, Leipsic, as stage-manager. While connected
with the latter theater lie starred at Budapest,
Briinn, Gratz, Prague, Breslau, Presburg, Lemberg,
Vienna (Hoftheater), and Hanover. In 1832 lie be-
gan a life engagement at the Hoftheater, Berlin. In

1840 he held a special engagement at the Hofburg-
theater, Vienna, and, seven years later, in Prague.

Rott's best roles were: Faimt, Brutus, Kreon,
Jiiiion, Ilnmlet, Vasn, Wallenstcin, Gutz von Berlich-
iiifjen, Franz and Karl Moor, Shylock, Hugo (in
"Schuld"), liodcrich (Calderon's "Leben ein
Traum"), Jarmnir (Grillparzer's " Ahnfrau "), and
Meinau (" Menschenhass und Reue").

BiBLiouRAPnY : J\ldischcr Plutarch, 1W8, pp. 220-228.
s. E. Ms.

ROUELLE. See B.vdoe.

ROUEN (Hebrew, jxil. 'JSn. ■'DJJX'TD'n. and
more rarely D1"i~l) : Ancient capital of Xormandy,
and now the administrative center of the depart-
ment of Seine-Inferieure; situated on the right bank
of the Seine. The settlement of Jews in the city
dates in all probability from the Roman period. The
lirst document, however, concerning the community
contains an account in Hebrew of a terrible perse-
cution which the Jews of Rouen and of other locali-
ties e.vperienced at the beginning of the eleventh
century. Therein it is said that Robert the Pious
having concerted with his va.ssals to destroy all the
Jews on their lands who would not accept ba])tism,
many were put to death or killed themselves.
Among the martyrs was the learned Rabbi Senior.
An influential and highly esteemed man in Rouen,
Jacob ben Jekuthiel, went to Rome to invoke for his
coreligionists the protection of the pope; and the
pontiff sent a high dignitary to put a stop to the
persecution (Berliner's " Magaziu," iii. ; " Ozar Tob,"
pp. 46-48).

In 1066 numerous Jews of Rouen emigrated to
England, having been induced to settle there by
William the Conqueror, who, while still in X<ir-
maudy, had always protected them. His son, Will-
iam Rufus, showed himself no less favorably in-
clined toward them. On a complaint of the Jews of
Rouen to the effect that many of their coreligionists
had been forced to embrace Christianit)', SVMlliam
Rufus not only allowed the converted to return to
their oUl faith, but himself actually persuaded some
of them to do so.

In 1096 the Rouen community was totally des-
troyed by the Crusaders, It seems, however, that
it was reestablished shortlj' after, although there is
no official document showing the further presence
of Jews at Rouen befoie 1204. In that year a Rouen
Jew nained Brunius, son of Bonentia, was author-
ized to live at the Chateletin Paris. In 1217 Philip
Augustus imposed upon the Jews of Xormandy a
heavy tax, to which the community of Rouen con-
tributed 595 li vres. This relatively small sum shows
that at that time the Rouen Jews were neither nu-
merous nor rich ; while, according to an oflicial doc-
ument of 1299, the jiersonal taxes of only one Jew
of Rouen, a certain Samuel Viole, amounted to 1,200
livres yearly. A certain Calot of Rouen figures in
the registers of the Jewish imposts for the years
1296 to 1300 as the financial intermediary between
his coreligionists and Philip the Fair. In an official
document of 1297 C'alot is said to have been chosen
umjiire in a dispute between Philip and his brother
Charles, Count of Valois, concerning the property of
some Jews. On the banishment of the Jews from

605

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rothschild
Rozsavol^yi

France, in 1306, Pliilip presented tlie Jewisli (luarter
to llie municipality, wiiicii estal)lislic(l tlicrca vegeta-
ble market. This (luarter, in which Maranos settled
in gicat numbers, still bears the name "Rue des
Juifs." After the Revolution Jews bej^an to .settle
at Rouen; and a community was gradually formeil
which became in 1»7G a rabbinate. The .sole incum-
bent of the office has been Benjamin Caheu.

Biiu.Kx.UAPnY: Ocppiim-, Lm Juifs (liui!< Ic ^^l^||cn Aar pp
Ul-1-12. I'aiis. is:54 ; .lost, (Jisch. ilrr IsracUtiii. v. llMi ; .stciii-
sclitit'Klcr, llihr. mill. XX. 44 : Picciolto, Sketchcn nf A »i(//o-
Jtu'islt Ilistiiiii. p. •>, Loiitlon, 187.'); \\. Biieker, Cliroitivle of
t!ic A'i/((/,s iif Kiiuland, p. :.':J; tiross, (iailia JuilaUiu p. «K2.
s- I. Bk.

ROUSSILLON (jrfjti'n) : Province of ancient

France, now forming the department of Pyrenees-
Orientales. Jews settled theie in the eaily part of
the thirteenth century, and formed congregations
at Perpignan, Collioure, Ceret, IMillas, lUe, Puig-
cerda, Elne, Thuir, Toreilles, Clayra, Salses, Le
Boulou, and Villefranche-deConfluent. In the last-
named city, about 1250, was born Levi ben Aiji{.\-
HAM KEN IIavvim, kuowu for liis part in the struggle
between the partizans of philosophical studies and
the adherents of Orthodox Judaism (1308-6). In
122« King James I. forbade the Jews to liold any
public otlice, or to employ Christian servants in their
houses, while they were likewise prohibited from
taking as monthly interest more than four deniers
l)er livre of silver, or in a year more than one-sixth
of the sum loaned.

In 1270 James of Aragon confirmed the franchise
granted by the king, his father, to "all Jews dwell-
ing at Perpignan, Confluent, and Cerdagne, and all
others dependent on their collection," or contribu-
tion, antl in 1323 his son Sancho exempted them
from wearing the wheel while traveling. Accord-
ing to the "Ceremonieux," Pedro IV. autiiorized the
Jews of Perpignan to enter France for commercial
purposes in 1372; and in 1377 lie gave letters of
safe-conduct to foreign Jews who asked permission
to visit Roussillon and Cerdagne. Don Martin,
Duke of Montblanc, who succeeded liis brother
Jolin I. in 1396, took severe measures against Chris-
tians who maltreated Jews, and frequently dis-
avowed the actions of priests and monks who
jireached against them. In 1398 he commanded the
governor of the two counties, under penalty of a tine
of 1,000 gold florins, to establish at Perpignan a
"carteria," or depot of standaid weights and meas-
ures, so that every Jew might be enabled to verify the
value of his goods and protect himself against fraud.
In 1415 Ferdinand I. of Aragon forbade the Jews to
receive in pawn any object belonging to the Church,
or to practise medicine, surgery, or pharmacy among
Christians, who in their turn were proliibited from
receiving bread, meat, or any other kind of food
from Jews. In case of violation of this law, a Jew
was to be flogged in the public streets and squares,
while a Christian was to be fined 50 sous for each
infraction. In 1417 Alfonso IV. withdrew the Jews
from the jurisdiction of their governors, the bailifT
of Perpignan and the provost of Roussillon, and
placed them under a royal procurator, who was
charged with the administration of the province.
Nor was the king less energetic in his measures
against the Inquisitors, who had brought terror into

the communities of tlie two ((.unties, mul who were
prohibited by him from interference with the Jews
exce]>t in certain special cases; while tw<j years later
he forbade his ollicials to enforce the wearing of tlio
wheel, under jtain of a tine of l.OUU llorins.

In 1492 a number of Jews, driven from Spain !)y
Ferdinand and Isai)ella, sought refuge in Roussilh.n
and Cerdagne, iiul in the following year they were
expelled with all their coreligionists, and were for-
bidden ever to return, under penalty of death and
conti.scation of their (iroperly.

Bnu.ifKiRArnv: Cnrmoly, Ln Frnncr Titraililf. p. 4fl: r;r(m§.
aalUa Jiiilnicn, i.p. IIW, 4;rr, tCt' ; Heiirv. Hi^toiic .(. IO.um.
Kllhilt. I. »'(>.i. li.aHlcf Nf-/.; Keniin-Ni-iilmii.T, Lcm lt<ll,l,i,t»
I<iat,r(ti.\ p. (tiJJ; if. f. J. XV. Ill; xvl. 1. i;u.
•■• S. K.

HOWE, LEO S. : American economist ; lH)rn in
.McGregor, Iowa. Sept. 17, 1871. lie entered the
Arts Department of the Uinversity of Pennsylvania
in 1887, but later transferred to the Department of
Finance and Economy (Wharton School), and re-
ceivetl the degree of Ph.B. in 185)0. Then as a fel-
low of the Wharton School with the privilege of
foreign study, he spent two years in Germany, and
took the doctor's degree at the University of Halle in
1892. After this he spent one year in France and
one year in Italy and England. In 1894 he was ap-
pointed lecturer in public law at the University of
Pennsylvania, in 1895 was made instructor, in 1897
assistant professor, and in May, 1904, was advanced
to a full professorship of political science. In June,
1900, he was appointed by President McKinley a
member of the Commission to Revise and Compile
the Laws of Porto Rico. At the expiration of the
term of this commission Professor Rowe was ap-
pointed chairman of the Insular Code Commi.ssioii.
In 1902 he was elected president of tlic American
Academy of Political and Social Science.

Professor Rowe has published the following vol-
umes: " Rejiort of the United States Commission to
Revise the Laws of Porto Rico," with Judge Daly
and the Hon. Juan Hermande/.-Lopez (2 vols,. Wash-
ington, 1901); "Report of the Insular Code Com-
mission," with Hon. J. M. Keedy and Hon. Juan
Hermandez-Lopez (4 vols., Porto Rico, 1902); "The
United States and Porto Rico" (New York. 1904).
He has also contributed many essays and p.-ipers on
economics, political science, and public law to the
leading periodicals of the Uniteil States.

A. J II 11-

ROZSAVOLGYI (ROSENTHAL). MAR-

KUS : Hungarian composer ; born at Balassa (Jyar-
math 1787; died at Pesth Jan. 23, 1H48. Having a
native love for music, he went at the age of eleven
to Vienna to study, and thence to Prcsburg and
Prague. Attracted by the beauty of the Magyar
songs, he composed works based on the niilional
music, and became the most popular violinist in the
lirst decade of the nineteenth century. In 1812 he
was appointed conductor of the orchestra at the
German Theater in Pesth. and in 1824 was maile a
regular salaried member of the Philharmonic Society
of the county of Veszprim. the name " Ros<nlliar'
being publicly Magyarized to " RozsavOlpyi " on
the occasion of his election. He gave several of-
ticial concerts during the coronation ceremonies at

RcJzsay

Hubinstein

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

506

Presburg in 1825; and in 1835 he appeared at the
Court Opera House in Vienna. Two years later, at
the opening of the new National Tlieater of Pesth,
the Hungarian Orchestra of that city played a work
composed by him for the occasion, and he subse-
quently became a regular member of that orchestra.
The famous Gipsy musicians Patikarus, Siirkozi,
Farkas, and others were pupils of Rozsavolgyi.
After his death the poet Petoti siiug his praises in a
Iniig poem, reproaching the Hungarian people for
permitting the last years of the artist to be clouded
by tinaucial difficulties.

BiDLiOGRAPHY : Relch. Brth-EU I. 25, Budapest, 1878.
S. L. V.

ROZS AY, JOSEPH : Hungarian physician ;
born at Lackenbach March 15, 1815; died at Buda-
pest May 19, 1885. Educated at Nagy-Kauizsa,
Szombathely, Pesth, and Vienna (M.D.), he began in
1843 to practise medicine at Pesth; and five years
later the Hungarian government appointed him head
physician of a military hospital, making him chief
physician of the house of detention and poorhouse
of Pesth in the following year. He was decorated
with the gold medal for art and science in 1858, and
received the cross of the Order of Francis Joseph in
1866, having been elected a member of the Hunga-
rian Academj' of Sciences two years previously. He
was elevated to the Hungarian nobility with the
name " Murakozi."

Rozsay's works, all written in Hungarian, are as
follows: "On the Mur-Island from the Point of
View of Medical Topography and Natural History "
(1840); "On Education, with Special lieference to
the Jews of Hungary" (1848); "On the Effect of
Sulfuric Ether"; "On Apoplexj' and PueTimonia in
Old Age " ; " On Intestinal Diseases " ; " On the Heat
of Marienbad " (1860) ; " On Jewish Physicians in the
:^Iiddle Ages " (1861^) ; " On Physiological Changes of
the Organs of Respiration " (1863); "On Senility"
(1865); and "On Etiology of Typhus" (1866). "in
1848 he published the first Hungarian Jewish annual,
with a calendar.

Rozsay contributed much to the emancipation of
the Jews in Hungary, founding for this purpose the
society Magvarito Egylet and the societ)' Izraelita
Magyar Egylet, becoming president of the latter in
1861. In 1802 he reorganized the Jewish Hospital,
Budapest, and placed it in the foremost rank of such
institutions.

BiDLiOGKAPMV: Reich. Deth-El, 11. 354.
s.

L. V

RUBIN, MARCUS : Danish statistician and
autiior; born in Copenliagen .March 5, 1854. He
studied at the university of his native city (B.A.
1871), and then took up the study of national econ-
omy. In 1874 he passed the requisite examination
and was appctinted .secretary to a committee on com-
merce; and as a result of his labors a statistical bu-
reau was established in Copenhagen, whose ciiief he
became in 1883. Together wilb H. Wcstergaard he
compiled tlie two stati-stical works " UndersOgeLser
over Jjandbobefolkningen's Diidelighed " and"iEg-
teskabsstatistik" (1886-90), tiie latter of which was
translated into German (Berlin. 1893). In 1892
Rubin published "1807-14. Studier over Ki<3ben-

havn's eg Danmark's Historic," which work was
supplemented in 1895 by a second volume, entitled
" Frederik VI. 's Tid '" ; for this comprehensive work
he was awarded the prize founded by L. N. Hvidt
(one of the city fathers of Copenliagen) for the best
work on the history of Copenhagen during the first
half of the nineteenth century. Rubin did more than
any of his predecessors to place the statistical bureau
of Denmark on a level with the foremost institutions
of the kind in other countries. Since 1902 he has
been "Generaltolddirektor."

BiBLiOGRAPHV : C. F. Bj Icka. Dansk Biografiak Lexicon.
s. F. C.

RUBIN, SOLOMON: Galician Neo-IIebrew au-
thor; born in Dolina, Galicia, April 3, 1823. He
was educated for the rabbinate, but, being attracted
by H.\SK.\LAU and modern learning, he entered upon
a business career which lasted about five years.
This proving unsuccessful, he went to Lemberg,
where he studied bookkeeping at a technical insti-
tute, and also acquired a knowledge of German,
French, and Italian. After serving two years in the
Austrian army he attempted to establi-sh himself in
Lemberg as a teacher; but persecution due to his
liberal views made liis position untenable, and lie
went to Rumania, at that time a very favorable field
for active and enterprising Galician Jews. He se-
cured a good position in a commercial establishment
in Galatz, which enabled him to devote his evenings
to his favorite studies.

In 1859 Rubin returned to Galicia and became
principal of a school for Jewish boys in Bolechow.
He went to Russia in 1863, where he was engaged as
a private tutor in a Avealthy Jewish family of Os-
trog, Volhynia, with which he went to Vienna in
1865. In the Austrian capital he became acquainted
with Peter Smolenskin, who was then in despair
owing to the difficulty of continuing the publication
of "Ila-Shahar." liubin promised him to write a
complete work for that publication every year; and
he kept his promise even after his personal rela-
tions with Smolenskin had become somewhat
strained. The years 1870 and 1871 were spent b)'
Rubin as a private tutor in Naples, Italy, and from
1873 to 1878 he lived in the same capacity in the
household of Jacob Poliakov in Taganrog, Russia.
He then returned to Vienna, whence in 1895 he re-
moved to Ciacow, where he still (1905) resides.

Rubin is one of the most prolific of Neo-Hebrew
writers and one of the most enthusiastic and per-
sistent champions of haskalah. ]^Iost of his literary
labors are directed against superstitious customs and
beliefs: but his method is unique among writers of
his class; for he neither ridicules such customs and
beliefs, nor does he preach against them, but pro-
ceeds in a quasi scientific manner to adduce proof
that similar superstitions prevailed or are still pre-
vailing among those who iiave attained to only a
very low plane of culture. He objective!}' describes,
or rather compiles descriptions of, superstitious
practises among savages and barbarians, and some-
times only alludes, as if incidentallj' (mostly in foot-
notes), to the equivalent follies among fanatical
Jews. He has published about twent3'-five works
with this object in view, two of which, the "Ma'ase

607

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rdzsay
Kubiustein

Ta'atuyim " (Vienna, 1887) and thn " Yosod Mistcre
liii-'Akkuni we-Si)d Hokmat lia-K;il)l)alali "(i7/. 1888),
have appeared in German tiaiiskitions also, the lirsl
as "Geseliiclite des Aberghiubens" (transl. by I.
Stern, Leipsie, 1888) and tiie second as " Hcidentluim
und Kabbala" (Vienna, 1892). A biblii)fj;iapliy of
liis works and of tlie more important of his many ar-
ticles in jH-riodicals will be found in Zcitlin, "IJibl.
Post-.Mendcls." f!.v.

J{nbin is an ardent ailmirerof the system and per-
sonality of Spinoza; and he has written much to
prove the close relation between Spinozism and Ju-
tlaism. Among his earliest literary jHoduetions arc
acompendiumof Spinoza's writings, entitled "'Moreh
Nebukim he Hadash"( Vi-
enna, 1850-57), and "Te-
shubah Nizzahat" (Lem-
berg, 1859), a refulaticm
of S. D. Luzzatto's at-
tacks on Spinoza, llu-
hin's essay in German,
"Spinoza und Maimon-
ides, ein Psychologisch-
Pliiloso]iliisch('s Ant it he-
ton," won for tlie author
the title of doctor of
pliilosophy from the
University of Gottingen.
Later in life Hubin re-
turned to his favorite
philosopher and brought
out "Heker Eloah 'im
Torat ha- Adam, "a He-
brew translation of Spi-
noza's "Ethics," with
notes and au introduc-
tion. This is Rubin's
most important contribu-
tion to Neo-IIebrew lit-
erature. Among his la-
test works are "Yalkut
Shelomoh" (Cracow,
1896), consisting of ten
essays, and "Segulot ha-
Zemahim we-Ototam"

(German title, "Symbolik dcr Plianzen " ;
1898).

Bini.innRAriiY : Ish 'ibri (pseudonym), in ^?)iasfl/, 5003, pp.

28.V:!(I(I.

II. n. P. AVi.

RUBINSTEIN, ANTON GRIGORYE-
VICH : Russian pianist and composer; l)orn Nov.
16 (28;, 1829, in the village of Wcchwotynetz (Vikh-
vatinetz). near Jassy, Bes.«aral)ia; died at Peterhof,
near St. Petersburgi^Nov. 20, 1894; brother of Nik-
olai (Nicholas) Rubinstein. His parents were Jews
who embraced the Greek-Orthodo.x religion, proba-
bly a few years after Anton's birth; the entire fam-
ily removed to Moscow in 1834, where his father
established a pencil-factory. Anton, the fourth of
si.x children, received a good education from his
mother (Katherina Khri.stoforovna, nee Liiwenstein),
and from her lie also took his first ]iiano-lessons.
At the age of seven he commenced to study under
A. I. Villoing, the leading piano-teacher in Moscow.
The latter taught him gratuitously from his eighth

Anton Grlgoryevlch Rubinstein
ib.

to Ins tinrteentli year. In Ids reminiscences Rubin-
stein refeis griitetully to Villoing.

In 18;{U Rubinstein gave his tlrst public concert, in
the Petrovski Park at Moscow, and in 1H41 hi- gave,
under Viiloing's personal direction, a serie.s <.f con-
certs in Germany. Holland. .Scuiidl-
His Early navia, and France. While in Paris he
Debut. vLsited Chupin. who left u deep im-
pression on Rubinstein. Soniewhut
later he met Liszt, then tlie musical idol of Europe.
The latter was so carried away iiy tlie boy's |)laying
that lie took him in Ins arms and declared tliut lie
would make him his lieir in art. Rubinstein visited
London also (1842). where he won the admiration of

Moschelcs, and met Men-
dels.so]in at a private con-
cert given befdre (^ueen
Victoria.

On his return to Rus-
sia in 1848 RubinsteJD
was invited to the Winter
Palace, where he was pre-
sented to the imperial
family. Emperor Nicho-
las I. treated him kindly,
and, embmcing him, jo-
kingly addressed liim as
"your E.xcellency." Ru-
binstein's public concerts
in the Russian cai)ital
met with signal success;
and the income from
tliein went to meet tlie
needs of his jiarents, who
were then in pecuniary
ditliculties.

In 1844 he accompa-
nied liis motlier and his
brother Nikolai to Ber-
lin, where, on tlie advice
of Mendelssohn and
Meyerbeer, lie studied
composition under Dehn.
an<l also studie<l under
Marks.
His mother was compelled in 1846 to return to
Moscow, his father having died and left his busi-
ness affairs in a confused state. In order to preserve
her liusl)ands good name Katherina Khristoforovnn
paid all his debts. She was thus left penniless and
was compelled to become a music teacher in a pri-
vate school in Moscow. She died in ()des.sa in 1891.
Left to his own resources, young Rubinstein went to
Vienna (1840), hoping to secure Liszt s support in
his work. Liszt received him cordially, but refused
him monetary aid. since, as he said, every able man
should accomplish his aims without help. Un-
daunted by the difbculties confronting him. Rubin-
stein began to comjiose. supiii>rting himself mean-
while by giving lessons. For about a
His Friend- year and a half lie was even in want,
ship until Liszt, remembering his young

with Liszt, colleague, visited him in his poor
lodgings and took steps towanl pro-
curing for him a permanent source of income. The
two remained warm friends until Liszt's death. In

Rubinstein
Rufina

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

508

1847 iluljiustein went back to Ijcilin, aud at the out-
break of the Revolution of 1848 he returued, on
Delin's advice, lo Si. Petersburg.

At St. Petersburg. Kubin.steiu received the patron-
age of the grand duchess Helena Pavlovna, and his
musical reputation was thereby established. His
opera •• Dmitri Donskui " apjieared on the imperial
stage in 18o2, and his "Sibirskije Ochotuikie" in
1853.

In 1S34 Rul)iustein made another concert -tour
through Europe; in ISoS he was appointed court
pianist; antl in 18')'J he was made di-
Director of rector of the Imperial Russian Musical
the Society, which he had been instru-

Russian ment^il in founding. The conserva-
Musical tories of St. Petersburg and Moscow
Society. had thcij- origin in this society; and
under tlie instruction of Anton aud
Nikolai Rubinstein there graduated many talented
musicians, among them Tchaikowsky and ^Madame
Essipic. The great services rendered by Rubinstein
in the advancement of uuisic in Russia were recog-
nized by the czar, who decorated him with the Vladi-
mir Order. In 186."> Rubinstein married Vera de
Tschikouanov, a maid of honor at the Russian court,
who bore him three children. He toured P^urope in
1867-70; anil in 1876 heresignetl the directorship of
the Conservatorium.

In 1873 and 1873 Rubinstein, accompanied by
Henri Veniavski, professor of the violin at the Con-
servatorium of Brus.sels, made a professional tour of
America: and in 188-) and 1886 he gave a series of
concerts in Europe, which were arranged to bring
out the historical development of musical literature
and marked an important epoch in the history of
music. These concerts were given in the cities of St.
Petersburg. Moscow, Vienna, Berlin, London, Paris,
and Leipsic. He resumed the directorship of the
Conservatorium from 1887 till 189U, aud tiien lived
successively in Berlin and Dresden. Rubinstein's
professional jul)ilee was celebrated in 1889.

Rubinstein won his laurels as a pianist rather than
as a composer. His technique was above criticism,
and his interpretation of familiar selections highly
original and sympathetic; but his compositions,
while lyrical in feeling, lacked dramatic eflfect. His
works embraced every form of composition — songs,
chamber-music, operas, etc.— but few of them have
attained to the popularity of his " Persian Songs"
and "Ocean Symphony." He wrote in all 119 com-
positions exclusive of operas and of a
His Com- considerable number of minor pieces
positions, for the piano. Among his more jiromi-
nent works should be mentioned:
"Ivan the Terrible." "Don Quixote," and "Faust,"
"character pictures" for orchestra; "Antony and
Cleopatra"; " Rossiya " (written for the Moscow
E.xposition of 1882);"" Paradise Lost," "The Tower
of Babel," "Closes," and "Christ." sacred operas;
"Sulamith"; 13 operas, viz., "Dmitri Donskoi,"
" Khadzhi Abrek." "The Siberian Hunters." "Toni-
ka the Fool," "Demon." "Feramors," "Merchant
Kalashnikov," "The Children of the Steppes," "The
Maccabeans." "Nero," "The Parrot," "With the
Outlaws," "Goryu.sha" ; and the ballet "The Grape-
vine."

BiBLiOGUAPnv : AntonUuhinstein,.li(<'i/)i()f;»r7y)/i)/. published
bv Seiiifvski, St. IVtei-sbiirc 1889: 3/i(.<!//i(i i Tci/d I'lrdsla-
vitcU. il). Is'Jl : Kavos-Dfkbtyareva, Aiitint <;ri(iii>!iivivh
liulniu^tciii : .Nauiuann. Illu^irurl< Mii-<il;in:-<c]iivhtc : Ad-
htyiulatil. March, 18(r>; M. A. Davulov, Vnxiiiiiiihiatihin.
A. O. /^(/)ni.sfi oii/( . St. I'etersbmr. l*^'-*!': ISaker. /{loi/zd/i/i-
ical liUt. nf Muaiciatis, .New York, HHX*: tinivc. l>Ut. of
Mutiic tutd Muf<ifiaii!<, I.omldii and New York, iss'l.

U. ]{. .1. Cr. L.

RUBINSTEIN, ISAAC: Austrian deputy;
burn ul (.'/.ernowii/. in iMJo; died at Ischl Sept. 1,
1878. He was a member of the town coiuuil and
vice-president of the Czernowitz chamber of com-
merce and industry, which he rei)i-cscntetl in the
Austrian Reichsrath from 1873 to 1878. He was
actively interested in philanthropic work aii<l held
many honorary ollices in his ct)nnniinily.
s. E. J.

RUBINSTEIN, JOSEF: Russian pianist and
comjjoser; lioiu at Staro (."onstantinov Feb. 8, 1847;
died by his own hand at LiKH-rne Sejjt. lo, 1884.
He was a ]mpil of Ilelliuesberger, Dachs, and Liszt,
and a friend and ardent admirer of Wagner, from
whose drama " King ties Nibelungen " he made ex-
cellent pianoforte tran.scriptions. In 18(39 the grand
duchess Helena of Russia appointed Riil)iiistein
•' Kammerpianist." Three years later he visited
Wagner at Triebschen, and went with him to Bay-
reuth, wliei-e he attended the ]iiano rehearsals of the
" Ring des Nibelungen." In 1SS() he gave in Berlin
a series of lectures on the " Wohltempcrierle Kla-
vier" which gained him considerable renown.
Rubinstein was the author of several song- and piano-
compositions, and a niunber of articles appeared in
the "Bayreuther Bliitter" over his signatuic. in
which SchumaiHi and Brahius were attacked in a
very offensive and vindictive manner. These arti-
cles, which are believed by some to have emanated
from a more fatuous pen, obtained for Rubinstein a
rather unenviable uotoriet}'.

CiBMor.RAPnY: Grove. Dictlnnnni of Mui^ir and ^^usicinnl>,
vol. iii.. s.r.; Then. Haker, liiiiijraiihivol iJUtidnarij <>f Mu-
f.iciVoi.s ; Mcycra K(invir!<atiiins-Lc.vik())i.
II. K. F. C.

RUBINSTEIN, NIKOLAI (NICHOLAS):

Russian pianist; l)orn in .Mos( mv .lune 2, 183."): died
in Paris March 23, 1881 : brother of Anton Rubin-
stein. He received his early instruction from his
mother, by whom he and his brother were taken to
Berlin in i844. There he studied pianoforte under
KuUak and composition under Dchn until 1846, when
his father's illness necessitated his mother's retiu-n
to Moscow; sIh! took Nikolai witii her.

In 1859 Rubinstein founded the Moscow ]\Iusical
Society, under the auspices of whicli the Moscow
Conservatorium was established in 1864. Of the
latter institution he was the director till his death.
In 1861 Rubinstein visited England, and in 1878
Paris, where he conducted four orchestral concerts
consisting entirely of Russian music. Tiiese con-
certs took jdace at the exposition then being held
at th(! French capital. Subsequently he returned to
St. Petersburg and gave animal concerts there.

Rubinstein's powers as a virtuoso were remarka-
l)le, but his fame was overshadowed by that of his
brother Anton. The latter, however, fretiuently
declared that he considered Nikolai to be a better
pianist than himself.

509

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rubinstein
Ruflna

Amoiif^ the more important of Kiiliiiistoin's com-
positions were : mu/inkas 1 and 'J (op. 11); bolero
(op. 13); tarantelie (op. 14); antl iioionuise, "Scene
de Bal " (op. 17).

BniLKKiUAPiiY : Grove, />l(•^ of Music and Miisiciaux; Ule-
iiianii, ^[^lflik-L^■.l■ihllll ; tJaker, ]{i(i{i. iJiit. of Muticiauit,
New York, liRM; Mci/os Kmn-crsatioiis-Lexihoii.

II. i;

A. P.

RUBINSTEIN, SUSANNA: Au.strian psy-
ciioiogisl; bwru ui Czernowiiz, Huicowina. Sept. 20,
1847. She was the daughter of an Austrian deputy.
In 1S70 slie entered tlie University of Prajrue, and
subsc(|iiently studied at Leipsic, Vienna, and Bern
(Ph. I). 1S74). Her works are as follows: "Psycholo-
gisch-Aestiietiseiie Essays," Heidelberg, 187H-84;
"Aus der Innenwelt," Leipsic, 1H88, jisychological
studies; ''Zur Natur der Bewegungen," ib. 1890;
"Auf Dunklem Grunde," tb. 1892; " Ein Indivi-
dualistiseher Pessimist," ib. 1894; "Eine Trias von
Willensmetapliysikern," ib. 189G; " Psychologiscli-
Aesthetisclie Fragmente," ib. 1902.

BiBLioriK.xPHY : S. Pataky, DcutKchex Schriftstellerinnenlexi-
kiin ; Metiers Konvcrtatioiin-Lexikoii.
^- R. N.

BUBO, ERNST TRAUGOTT : German jurist;
born at Berlin July 8, 1834; died there March,
189,5. Educated at the University of Heidelberg
(LL.D. 1857), he was admitted to the bar in 1859.
In 1861 he was appointed judge in Berlin, and iu
18G2 became privat-docent, and later professor, at
the university of that city.

Of Kubo's works may be mentioned "Zur Lehre
von der Verliiumdung," Berlin, 1861, and "Ueber
den Sogenanuten Zeugnisszwang," ib. 1878.

Rubo assisted in drafting the military law-code
of the German empire, and he contributed several
essays to the "Gerichtssaal," Goldainmer's "Archiv
fiir Strafrecht," and Gruchot's "Beitrage."

BiBLiOGRAPny : Stier-Somlo, in AUg. Zeit. dcsJud. 1S9."), p. 146.
^. F. T. H.

RUBO, JULIUS: German jurist; born at Hal-
berstadt.lune9, 1794; died at Berlin March 13, 1866.
He attended the gymnasium in Halberstadt, and,
after serving as a volunteer in the war with Napo-
leon, he studied jurisprudence at the universities of
G5ttiiigen and Berlin, obtaining his degree iu 1817.
A war of pamphlets which raged about that time
affords evidence of the fact that he had won repute
as a legal scholar. One Th. Grupp maintained that
none but Christian jurists should be honored with
the degree of doctor of jurisprudence; in a reply in
Kamptz's " Jahrbiicher " (.\v. 486) Grupp was asked
whether he seriously proposed to withhold tlie right
to compete for this dignity from the coreligionists
of Rubo, who iiad recently won it with so much
credit. But his academic reputation availed Rubo
little when he strove to establish a practise succes-
sively in Hamburg, Ilolstein, and Brunswick; and,
seeing that the practise of law was closed to him on
account of his religion, lie settled at Halle as privat-
docent.

The legislation of 1822, however, declaring Jews
ineligible for academic positions, deprived Rubo of
his office, and he went to Berlin to seek a liveli-
hood in literary work. His first production was
"Versuch ciner ErklSrung der Fragmente Lex II,

HI, IV, LXXXV. Digest de Verborum Obligu-
lionibus (45. 1), nber die Thcilbarkeit und Unlii.-il-
liurkeii der Obiigiilionen nacii der Grundsatzen des
lUMnischcn Hcchts" (Heriin. 1822). In 1824 lie was
aplininlcd ".Syndikiis" of the Jewish congregation
in Berlin, wjiich position lie li.ld fur iweniy live
years. It was during Ids tenure of tliift position
that he wrote "Die Hechtsveriiilltnisseder Jr. ' ' ,
Geineinden in Denjcnigen Lamlestheilcn d>
.sisclieii Staates, in Welchen das Edict voni 11 Mflrz.
1812, zurAnwendiingKomint. Eine Benntworimii.'
von 11 Fragen, init Besonderer Bncksiehl mif .u.-
Jiidische Gcmeindc in 15erlin " (ih. 1^44). In 1K4'J ii
newly elected board of directors suddenly reinove<I
him from office. He immediately began legal pro-
ceedings, which, after a number'of yeurs. ended in
his reir.statement.

Rubo contributed to Zunz'.s"Zeitsclirift "a review
of Lips' "Staatsbrugerrecht der Juden." lie co-
operated actively in the founding of ihe Wiss«'n-
schaftliche Institut established by the Verein fOr
Cultur und VVissenschaft der Juden.

Bini.IOGRAPllY : L. (ielper. Genrh. der Judri, i/i /{, rliii. n.^X-
Lebreclit, In V<>iiiiit>chc Zcituiii;, Muv ,j, ISO).
'^ M. Co.

RUEFF, JULES : French merchant and ship-
owner; born at Paris Feb. 10, 18.54. At an early
age he turned his attention to colonial affairs anil
navigation. In 1872 he went to Imlo China, and
became one of the pioneers of French influence in
that country. Later, he became president of the
"Societe Franco-Africaine," which established the
firstcommercialcounting-housesin Abyssinia, among
others that at Jibuti. He is the originator of the i)hin
for the railroad of Saigon-Mytlio, in Cochin-China,
and the founder and present (1905) general director
of the "Me-ssagcries Fiuviales de Cochincliine."
which greatly facilitated the spread of French
trade iu Indo-China by the route of Mekong. One
of the company's vessels took part in the mili-
tary expedition that forced the pass of .Meinam.
Jules Rueff was also of great assistance to the
French government in organizing its various colo-
nial expositions. Since 1900 he has been adminis-
trator of dockyards at Saint-Nazaire. the greatest
of their kind in Fiance. He was made commander
of the Legion of Honor in 1900.

Bibliography: Curlnler, Dictiotntaire Xuttniwl den Con-

temporaiiw, 1901.
S. J. Ks

RUFINA : Smyrna Jewess; lived about tlie
third century of the common era. Her name has
been perpetuated in a Smyrniot Greek inscription
which is unusually importnnt for a knowledge of
the Jewish culture (»f the period. Translated, the
text in question reads as follows:

" The Jewess Riillna. niler of the svni»(ri>tnie. built tills tomb
for her freediiien unil her slaves. .None other has the rl(rht to
bury a IhxIv here. If, however, any one shall havp fhp tinrdl-
IioihI to ilo so. he must pay l.."i<in <lenar11 Into the iiry

and 1,IKI(I denarii to the .lewlsh |>e.ipif. a copy or rljw

tlon has been deiHWlted In the an-hlves."

This is the only instance, so far as is known, in
which the office of ruler of the synagogue was held
by a woman ; and it is evident that Ruflna was
very wealthy, since she was able to provide so hand-

Rufus

Rulea of R. Ishmael

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

510

somely for slaves and household depeikUnts. The
acl itself and the penalty for violation of the tomb
are wholly in keeping with the customs of the time,
and dilTer in no way from similar cases in the life of
the pagan Greeks.

BiBLUKiRAi'iiY: S. Reinach, In R. E. J. vii. IHl-lOC; Schurer,
(;tj<i/(. 3il eU., iii. 11. ^,

s. S. Ivu.

RUFUS : Koman general in the first century of
the conunon era. In the battles after Herod's death
the Romans were assisted against the Jews by the
3.000 "men of Sebaste,"' the flower of the royal army
and a troop which aflerwanl becaino famous. The
cavalry in this body was led by Rufus (Josephus,
"B. J." ii. 3, § 4), while the infantry was under the
command of Gratus. Rufus and Gratus maintained
their resistance until the legate Varus appeared in
Jerusalem witli recnforcemeuts (/i. 5, i^ 2; coinp.
idei/). "Ant." xvii. 10, ^ 3).

RUFUS ANNIUS.

S. Kr.
See Annius Rufus.

RUFUS, TINEIUS (written also Tinnius) :
Governor of Judea in the first century of the com-
mon era. Jerome, on Zech. viii. 16, has "T. Annius
Rufus," and the editor, Vallarsi, conjectures that the
full pra-nomen is " Tyrannius,"a name which would
correspond to the DIJTID DIE"!"! of Jewish tradition.
Rufus was governor at the time of the outbreak
of the Bar Kokba war (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl." iv.
6, § 1 ; idem, "Chronicon," ed. Schoene, ii. 166).
The course of this struggle is described under Bar
Kokba ; it is, therefore, only necessary to mention
here the fact that Rufus took a prominent part
in the contlict, as appears from the works of Euse-
bius. He was unable, however, to -withstand the
vigorous onslaught of the Jews, so that Pubiicius
Marcellus, the governor of Syria, and later Julius
Severus, the most prominent Roman general of the
time, had to be sent against them.

Rufus 'is not mentioned again until the suppres-
sion of the insurrection, when it is said (Eusebius,
"Hist. Eccl." iv. 6. g 1) that on the plea of martial
law he cleared the land of the Jews of its inhabitants.
An insult to Judaism which left a deep impression
on the minds of the survivors was the plowing up of
the Temple mount, which is expressly designated as
the deed of Rufus (Ta'an. iv. 6; comp. BaraitaTa'an.
29a; Jerome on Zech. viii. 19: "aratum templum
in ignominiam gentis oppresste a T. Aniiio Rufo ").

The severe religious persecutions by Hadrian are
for the most part to be laid to the charge of Rufus,
including the cruel decree that the bodies of those
who fell in battle might not be buried for a long
time (Yer. Ta'an. 69a), and the bitter pursuit and
merciless execution of Jewish teachers of the Law,
of which tradition speaks. Jewish literature por-
trays Rufus as one of the bitterest enemies of the
race, and often means Rufus when it names his
master Hadrian ; for it was not the emperor far
away in Rome, but the governor in Palestine, who
was guilty of these acts of cruelty.

Legend tells of religious conversations between
Rabbi Akira and Rufus. The wife of Rufus also
came within the charmed circle of that great .son of
Israel, and tradition relates that she became a con-
vert to Judaism (Raslii on Ned. ."iOb).

BiBLioGRAPiiv : (iriilz, Gcfch.Sd eil., iv. 139, l.>4. Conterning
Rufus' wift' : iinitz, in M(Hi<itssrliiift. 1SS4, .\.\xiii. 3G;
Scbiirer. (.'»'s(/i. 3(1 ed., 1. 04", txST-i)89 ; I'vosiiinmiaijliin hn-
jKrii U'Dnaiii, lii. IKl, .No. IfiS. Rabbinical sources are
given iu Krauss, Lcltnworter, ii.'^'J-
s. S. Kr.

RUHS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH : Ger-
man historian and antiJewisU writer; born at
Greifswald March 1, 1781 ; died at Florence Feb. 1,
1S20. As professor of histoiy at the universities of
(ireifswald. Gottiugen (lf?01-9), and Berlin (IblO-
1820), and as historiographer of the Prussian state, ho
wrote a number of works, especially on the history
and literature of the northern countries of Europe.

When, after the downfall of Napoleon I., the
question of the emancipation of the Jews was agi-
tated in Germany, Rl'ihs took his stand among those
who opposed the granting to them of jjolitieal and
civil rights, and wrote m the "Zeilschrift fiir die
Neueste Gesehichte. Volker- und Staatenkunde " for
1815 an article entitled " Ueber die Ansprliche der
Judeu an das Deutsche Blirgerrecht " (printed as a
separate pamphlet, Berlin, 1816). In this article he
argues that the Jews, being a scattered nation form-
ing a sejiarate state administered by an aristocracy
(the Rabbis), are not qualified for citizenship, which
requires unity of sentiment, of language, and of
faith. Forcible means should not be used against
tlie Jews; but their growth should be checked, and
they should be won for Christianity. He repeats all
the reproaches heaped upon the Jews during the
^Middle Ages, and asserts that by their own faults
they provoked the persecutions of the dark ages.
In an appendix treating of the history of the Jews
in Spain he demonstrates that the privileges which
they obtained in that country caused their sufferings
and final ex])ulsion.

This article, followed by his •' Rechte des Chris-
tenthums und des Deutsclien Volks Gegen die An-
spruche der Juden und Ihrer Verfechter" (Berlin,
1816), exercised a great infiuence in Germany, and
called forth similar writings by Jakob F. Friks and
others. Against them August Kramer of Ratisboa
and Johann Ludwig Ewald of Carlsruhe pleaded
in defense of the Jews.

BiBLiOttRAPHY: AUgemeinc Deutsche Binaraphie. xxix.C>2i
ct sc(].; Griitz. Gi'sch. xi. :i.3() et seij., 342-347; Jost, ('ultur-
acschichte, i. 49 ft seq., 66-07.
D. S. Man.

RULE, GOLDEN. See Golden Rule.

RULES OF ELIE2ER B. JOSE HA-GE-
LILI, THE THIRTY-TWO : Rules laid down
by R. Eliezkr r. Jose iiaGelii.i for haggadic
exegesis, manj' of them being applied also to hala-
kic interpretation.

1. Ribbuy (extension): The particles "et,"
" gam, " and " af , " which are superfluous, indicate that
something which is not explicitly stated must be
regarded as included in the passage under consider-
ation, or that some teaching is implied thereby.

2. Mi'ut (limitation): The particles "ak." " rak,"
and "min" indicate that .something implied by the
concept under consideration must be excluded in a
specific case,

3. Ribbuy ahar ribbuy (extension after ex-
tension): When one extension follows anotlier it in-
dicates that more must be regarded as implied.

511

TPIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rufiis

Rules of R. Isbmael

4. Mi'ut ahar mi'ut (limitation after liniiiu-
tion): A double' limitation indicates that more is to
be omitted.

5. Kal wa-homer meforash : "Ar/,Mimemum a
minori ad majus," or vice versa, and expressly so
cliaractc rized in the text.

G. Kal wa-homer satuni : "xVrijumentum a
minori ad majus," or vice versa, Init only implied,
not, explicitly declared to be one in the text. Tlii.s
ant! the preceding rule arc contained in the Rri.Es
OF FIii.i.EL, No. 1. Rules 7 and 8 are identical with
Rides 2 and 3 of IliJlel.

•J. Derek kezarah : Abbreviation is sometimes
used in the text when the subject of discussion is
self-explanatory.

10. Dabar shehu shanuy (repeated expres-
sion): Repetition implies a special meaning.

11. Siddur she-nehlak : "Where in the text a
clause or sentence not logically divisible is divided
by the punctuation, the proper order and tiie divi-
sion of the verses must be restored according to the
logical connection.

13. Anything introduced as a comparison to illus-
trate and explain something else, itself receives in
this way a better explanation and elucidation.

i;i When the general is followed by the particu-
lar, the latter is specific to the former and merely
defines it more exactly (comp. Rules ok IIillel
No. 5).

14. Something important is compared with some-
thing unimportant to elucidate it and render it more
readily intelligible.

15. Same as Rule 1:3 of R. Ishmael.

16. Dabar meyuhad bi-mekomo : An expres-
sion which occurs in only one passage can be ex-
plained only by the context. This must have been
the original meaning of the rule, although another
explanation is given in the examples cited in the
baraita.

17. A point which is not clearly explained in the
main passage may be better elucidated in another
passage.

18. A statement with regard to a part may imply
the whole.

19. A statement concerning one thing may liold
good with regard to another as well.

20. A statement concerning one thing may apply
only to something else.

21. If one object is compared to two other objects,
the best part of both the latter forms the tertium
quid of comparison.

22. A passage may be supplemented and ex-
plained by a parallel passage.

23. A passage serves to elucidate and supplement
its parallel passage.

24. When the specific implied in the general is
especially excepted from the general, it .sei ves
to emphasize some property characterizing the
specific.

25. The specific implied in the general is fre-
quently excepted from the general to elucidate some
other specific property, and to develop some special
teaching concerning it.

26. Mashal (parable).

27. Mi-ma'al : Interpretation through the pre-
ceding.

28. Mi-neged: InlerpretatiomUrouuh llie opno-

site. ' '

2D. Gematria: Interpieiution according to the
num.rical value nf the letters. See (Jematui.v

30. Notarikon: Interpreluiion by dividing a
word into I wo or more parts. See NoVauiko.s

ai. Pnstp(,sition of the precedent. Many phmscs
winch folh.w must be regarded as pr.ipei'jv pn . .
dnig, and must be interpreted ncrordinglv iuexe^' ^, -

32. Many portions of the Ril.le refer'to mi eurJicr
period than do the secti-.ns u|,i. I, p!.< -de them and
vice versa.

These thirty-two rules are united in Die Ho-calle<I
Raraita of 1{. Kliezer b. Jose ha-Uelili (.see Raiiaita
OK THE TniUTV-Two Rii.Ks). In the iutr«<lucl:..i,
to the .Midrash ha-Gadol (ed. Sehechter, Candjn :
1902), where this baiaiia is given, it contains thi;: ,
three rules. Rule 29 being divided into tliree. urn]
Rule 27 ("Mi-ma'al ") being omitted. With regard
to these rules see also Tal.mlo— Hkumknh tics

''■ "• J. Z. L.

RULES OF HILLEL. THE SEVEN: Rules
given to the sons of IJathyia by llii.i.Ki, I. as the
chief guides for the interpretation of the Scriptures
and for the deduction of laws from them (Tosef..
Sanh. vii. ; the introduction to tiie Sifra. ed. Weissi
p. 3a, end; Ab. R. N. xxxvii.).

They are as follows:

1. Kal (kol) wa-homer: "Argumentum a mi-
nori ad majus" or "a niajori ad minus"; corre-
sponding to the scholastic proof a fortiori.

2. Gezerah shawah : Argument from analog' \
Biblical passages containing synonyms or homonx n s
are subject, however much iliey differ in other re-
spects, to identicjil defuiitions and applications.

3. Binyan ab mi-katub ehad : Application of
a provision found in one pa.ssage only to passages
wliich are related to the first in content but do not
contain the provision in (piestion.

4. Binyan ab mi-shene ketubim : The same
as the i)rece(ling, excejit that the provision is gen-
eralized from two Bililical passages.

5. Kelal u-Perat and Perat u-kelal : Defi-
nition of the general by the particular, and of the
particular by the general.

6. Ka-yoze bo mi-makom aher : Similarity in
content to another Scriptural passage.

7. Dabar ha-lamed me-'inyano: Interpreta-
tion deduced from the context.

Concerning the origin and development of these
rules, as well as their susceptibility of logical pnKif.
see Tai.mi D — IIeilmeneutics.

w. n. J. Z L

RULES OF R. ISHMAEL, THE THIR-
TEEN: Thirteen rules compiled by Rabbi Ishmaki,
n. Ei.isiia for the elucidation of the Torali and for
making halakic deductions from it. They are.
strictly speaking, mere amplifications of the seven
Rn.Es OK IIii.i.Ei.. and are collected in the Baha-
ITA OF R. Isii.MAKi.. forming the introduction to the
Sifra and reading as follows:

1. Kal wa-homer : Identical witli the first rule
ofllillel.

2. Gezerah shawah : Identical with the second
rule of Hiliel.

Riilf
Rumania

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

512

3. Binyan ab : Rules deduceil from a single pas-
sage of Scripture and rules deduceil from two pas-
sages. This rule is a combination of the third and
fourth rules of Hillel.

4. Kelal u-Perat : The general ar.d tiie par-
ticular.

-)_ u-Perat u-kelal : The jiariicular and the
general.

6. Kelal u-Perat u-kelal : The general, the
particular, aud the general.

7. The general which requires elucidation by the
particular, and the particular which requires eluci-
dation by the general.

8. The particular implied in the general and ex-
cepted from it for pedagogic purposes elucidates
the general as well as the particular.

9. The particular implied in the general and ex-
cepted from it on account of the s|)ecial regulation
which corresponds in concej)! to the general, is thus
isolated to decrea.se rather than to increase the rigid-
ity of its api)lication.

10. The i)arlicular implied in the general and ex-
cepted from it on account of some other special reg-
ulation which does not correspond in concept to the
general, is thus isolated either to decrease or to in-
crease the rigidity of its application.

11. The particular implied in the general and ex-
cepted from it on account of a new and reversed de-
cision can be referred to the general only in case the
passage under consideration makes an explicit ref-
erence to it.

12. Deduction from the context.

VS. When two Biblical passages contradict each
other the contradiction in question must be solved
by reference to a third passage.

Rules seven to eleven are formed by a subdivision

of the lifth rule of Hillel; rule twelve corresponds

to the seventh rule of Hillel, but is amplified in

certain particulars; rule thirteen docs not occur

in Hillel, while, on the other hand, the sixth rule of

Hillel is omitted by Ishmael. With regard to the

rules and their application in general see also Tal-

M t" o — II i;umkni:i:ti( .s.

BiBr.ioGRAPHV : In addition to the works on Talinudic method-
olosry. set^ (Euvrex Com/i/r^'.s de .SViadiri, ix. 73-83 (com-
mentary of Saadia on the thirteen rules), xxiii.-xxxili., Paris,

1M97.

w. 1!. J. Z. L.

RTJLF, ISAAC: German rabbi and author;
born Feb. 10, 18:^4, in Ilolzhauscn, near Marburg in
Hcssen; died at Bonn Sept. 19, 1902. He was edu-
cated at the universities of Marburg and Rostock
(Ph.D. 1865). When thirty -one years old he ac-
cepted a call as rabbi from the community of the
district .sj'nagogue of Memel. While in tliis office
he took great interest in the condition of his op-
pressed brethren in Russia, and thus created for him-
self a wide sphere of activity. In 1898, after thirty-
three years of service, he resigned and retired as
professor emeritus to Bonn. Riilf was the author
of: "Meine Reise nach Kowno" (1869); "DerEin-
heitsgedanke als Fundamentalbcgriff," etc. (1880);
" Drei Tage in .liidisch-Russland "(1882) ; " Aruchas
Bas-Ammi" (1883); " Wissenschaft des Weltgedan-
kens" and "Wissenschaft der Gedankenwelt, Sys-
tem einer Neuen Metaphysik " (2 vols., 1888); " Wis-
senschaft der Krafteinheit" (1893); "Das Erbrecht

als Erbubel" (1893); "Wissenschaft der Geistesein-
licit" (1898); "Wissenschaft der Gotteseinheit"
(1903). From 1872 until his departure from Memel,
Hlilf was editor-in-chief of the "]\Iemeler Dampf-
boot, "a <laily political journal. He wrote also for
various Jewish papers.

RUMANIA: Kingdom of southern Europe. If
the assertions of Rumanian historians are to be ac-
cepted, Jews lived in Rumania for a considerable
time before the advent of the hordes of Rtiman con-
viets lirought by Emperor Trajan for the purpose
of populating the fertile countr} of the Dacians,
which he had desolated after his bloody conquest.
Decebalus, King of the Dacians, accorded to the
Jews of Talmaci special jirivileges whieh they did
not enjoy in other places of Dacia, although they
hud the right of residence everywhere. A decree of
the Roman emperor (397) granted protection to the
Dacian Jews and their synagogues ("Cod. Theod.
de Jud." xvi. 8). At the Roman invasion Jews fol-
lowed the army of occupation as purveyois and in-
terpreters. In the eighth century it
Invasion of is said that an armed force of Jews
the from southern Russia, presumably the

Chazars. Chazars, entered both Moldavia and
Wailachia and united with the Jews
who were already living there; and " for a number
of years the Jewish religion reigned supreme in the
country."

After about 400 years, during which nothing is
heard of Jews in Rumania, it is related that when
the principality of Berlad was established, which
included Little Halitz (Galatz) and Tecuci, Jews
lived there and were activel}' engaged in commerce.
When Radu Negru crossed the Carpathian Moun-
tains (1290) in search of a new country he was fol-
lowed by a number of Jews, who assisted him in the
establishment of his rule over Rumania, and who set-
tled in various towns in which Jewish conuiuinities
were already in existence. In 1349, when the Mol-
davian principality was founded, the ruling prince
invited traders from Poland to settle in his do-
mains, olTering them special privileges; and many
Jews responded to the invitation. When Roman I.
(1391-94) founded the city to which he gave his
name Jews were among the first settlers; and their
houses were the finest in tin; new capital. Roman
exempted the Jews from military service, in lieu of
which the}' had to pay three liJwenthaler for each
person.

In Wailachia, under Vlad Tzepesh (1456-62), the
Jews were the greatest sulTerers from the cruelty of
that t3'rant. In Moldavia, Stephen Voda (1457-1504)
was a more humane ruler, and the Jews were
treated by him with consideration. Isaac ben Ben-
jamin Shor of Jassy was appointwl steward by this
prince, being subsequently advanced to the rank
of "logofet" (chancellor); and he continued to hold
this honorable ])osition under Bogdan Voila (1504-
1517), the son and successor of Stephen.

At this time both principalities came under the
suzerainty of Turkey, and a number of Spanish Jews
living in Constantinople migrated to Wailachia,
while Jews from Poland and German}' settled in
Moldavia. Although the Jews took an important

613

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Riilf
Bu mania

part in the Turkish gnvonimont, the Riiiimnian
princes did not mudi Ueed this fact and continued to
harass them in their respective princiiialities. Ste-
phen the Younger (1522) deprived tlic
Under Jewish nierciiants of almost all the

Turkish rights given to them by his two prede-
Suze- cessors; and despite the fact that Peter

rainty. Karesh was assisted in the recovery of
his throne, and was afforded pecu-
niary aid, b}' a Jewess, the confidante of tiie sultan's
mother, his tirst step when he took up the reins of
government (1541) was to rob the Jewish traders in
a most dastardly manner. Alexander Lainishneanu
(1552-Gl) cruelly treated the Jews until he was de-
throned by Jacob Heraclides, a Greek, who was
lenient to his Jewish subjects. "When Lapushneanu
returned to his throne, however, he did not renew
his persecutions.

During tln^ first short reign of Peter the Lame
(1574-79) the Jews of Moldavia suffered under heav}-
taxation and were otherwise ill-treated until he
Avas dethroned. In tr)82 he succeeded in regaining
his rule over the country with the help of the Jew-
ish physician lienveniste, who was a friend of
the intluential Solomon Ashkenazi ; and the last-
named then exerted his influence with the prince in
favor of his coreligionists. In Wallachia, Prince
Alexander Mircea (1567-77) engaged as his private
secretary and counselor the talented Isaiah ben Jo-
seph, who used his great InHuence in behalf of the
Jews. In 1573 Isaiah was dismi-ssed, owing to the
intrigues of jealous courtiers; but otherwise he was
unmolested. He went to Moldavia, where he entered
the service of Prince Ivan tiie Terrible. Through the
efforts of Solomon Ashkenazi, Emanuel Aaron was
placed on the throne of Moldavia. Although of
Hebrew descent, he was very cruel to the Jews.
The entire Jewish community of Bucharest was ex-
terminated; and by Aaron's orders nineteen Jews
of Jassy were brought before him and, without any
process of law% decapitated. Almost all the Jews
had to leave Wallachia; and those that remained
in Moldavia were delivered from the inhuman op-
pression of Aaron only when he was deposed and
replaced by Jeremiah Moviia.

It was late in the seventeenth century before Jews
could once more enter Wallachia and reside there
in security. In Moldavia. Varili Lupul (1634-53)
treated the Jews with consideration until the appear-
ance of the Cossacks (1648), who marched against
the Poles and who, while crossing Rumania, killed
many Jews. Another massacre by the Cossacks oc-
curred in 1652, when they came to Jassy to claim
Yasili Lnpul's daughter for Timush, the son of
Chmielnicki.

The first blood accusation in Rumania was made
April 5, 1710. The Jews of Neamtz, Moldavia,
were charged with liaving killed a Christian child
for ritual purposes. The instigator was a baptized
Jew who had helped to carry the body of a child,
murdered by Christians, into the courtyard of the
synagogue. On the next day five Jews were killed,
many were maimed, and every Jewish house was
pillaged, while the representatives of the com-
munity were imprisoned and tortured. Meanwhile
some "influential Jews appealed to the prince at
X.— 33

Jassy, whf) ordered an invefitigation. the result being
that the prison<rs were libenited. um\ the guilty jter-
sons discovered and severely dealt with.

This was the first linie that tlie Huintinian clergy
participated in Jew-bailing, and they were tin- otdy
persons who declared that they were not c«invinc<-d of
the iiuiocence of the Jews as regards the HCcusntinii
of ritual murder. It was due to tlie clergy's con-
tinued manifestations of animosity against iln-Ji-ws
that in 1714 a similar charge was brough' r

the Jews of the city of Hoinan. There u ( ,,,,>w,,ii
girl, a servant in a Jewish family, had been alMluel-
ed by some Roman Catholics ami strangii-d. The
crime was immediately laid at the door of the Jewg.
Every Jewish liousewas plun(h'red; two proinhient
Jews were hanged; and probably every Jew in the
city would have been killed iiail not the real crimi-
nals been opportunely discovered.

The ^Vallachian prince Stephen Cantaruzene
(1714-16) nmlcted the Jews at every possible op-
portunity and ill-treated them outrageously. This
state of affairs lasted uiitil his success(tr, Niehohi.1
Mavrocordatos (171fJ-3(>), came into power. He
invited Jewish bankers and merchants into the
country, and accorrled to the entire Jewish com-
munity many valuable j^rivileges.

The most baneful infiuenceon llic condition of the
Jewish inhabitants of Moldavia was exercised dur-
ing the reign of John Mavrocordatos
Under John (1744-47). He was a profiigate chnr-

Mavro- acter wlio sacrificed many Jewish

cordatos. women to his evil desires. A Jewisli
farmer in the district of Suchava. in
whose house he had indulged in tlie most unnatural
orgies, preferred charges against the i>rince before the
sultan, whereupon John Mavrocordatos had his ac-
cuser hanged. This act at last aroused the sultan's
Mohammedan rei)resentative in Moldavia; and tlio
prince paid the penalty with the loss of his throne.

Under the subsequent M >ldavian and Wailachi-
an princes, the Jews of both principalities enjoyed
many liberties until the arrival of Ephniim. |>atri-
arch of Jerusalem. The last-named at ouic com-
menced a bitter arraignment of the Jews, which
ended in riots and the demolition of the newly
erected synagogue at Hucharest.

During the Russo-Tiirkish war (1709-74) the
Jews of Rumania ha<l to endure great li
They were mas.sacred and robbed in aim- - y

town and village in the country. AVhen peace was
at last restored both princes, Alexander Mavr.
datos of Moldavia and Nicholas .Mavn.gheniof 'o .
lachia, pledged their special protection to the Jews.
whose condition remained favorable until !"-~
when the Janizaries on one side and the Ru"-

on the other invaded Rumania and
During: the vied with each other in butchering the
Russo- Jews.

Turkish Freed from these foreign fens, the

War, 1769- Rumanians themselves emliittered tlie
1774. lives of the Jews. Jewish ehildren
were seized and forcibly 1

The lituai - murder accusation became ij

One made at Galatz in 1707 lc<l to exceptionally
severe results. The Jews were attacked by a 1 .
mob, driven from their homes, robbed, and "v i

Eumania

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

514

on the streets; mauy were killed outright; some
were forced iuto the Danube aud drowueil; others
wlio took refuge iu tiic syuiigoguc were burued to
death in the buildiug; aud only a few escaped, to
wh(iui au old priest gave protection in his cinirch.

In ISUG war was renewed between Russia and
Turkey. The invasion of the Russians into Runiauiu
was, as usual, attended by massacres of the Jews.
The Ivalinucks, a horde of irregular Turkish soldiers,
who appealed at Bucharest in 1812, became a terror
to the unfortunate Jews. They passed daily through
the streets inhabiteil by the latter, spitted children
on iheir lances, and, in the presence of their parents,
roasteil them alive ami devoured them. Before
the Revolution of 1848. which swept over Rumania
also, many restrictive laws against the Jews had
been enacted; but although they entailed consider-
able sufTering, they were nevt-r strictly enforced.
During the time of the revolutionary upheaval the
Jews participated in the movement in various ways.
Daniel Rosenthal, the iiainter, distinguished him-
self in the cause of liberty, aud paid for his activity'
with his life.

After the close of the Crimean war the struggle
for the union of the two principalities begiin. The
Jews were sought after l)y both parties. Unionists
and anti-Unionists, each of which promised them
full equality; and proclamations to this effect were
issued (l8o7-58).

From the beginning of the reign of Alexander
Cuza (ISoO-GG), the first ruler of the united prin-
cipalities, the Jews became a prominent factor in
the politics of the countr}'. In 1864 the prince,
owing to ditliculties between his govenunent and
the general assembly, dissolved the latter and, in
order to gain popularity witii the masses, decided
to submit a draft of a constitution* granting uui-
versid suffrage. He purposed creating two cham-
bers (of senators and deputies respectively), to ex-
tend the franchise to all citizens, and to emancipate
the peasants from forced labor, expecting thus to
nullify the influence of the boyais, whose enmity
he had alread}' incurred beyond hope of reconcilia-
tion, and at the same time to win financial support
from both the Jews and the Armenians. It appears
that after all the prince was very modest in his
demands; for his aids, when they met
Negotia- the representatives of the Jews and
tions with the Armenians, asked for only 40.000
Alexander galbeni (about $90,000) from the two
Cuza. grou])s. The Armenians discussed
the matter with the Jews, but they
were iu)t able to come to a satisfactory agreement
in the matter.

Meanwhile the prince was pressing in his demands.
It is claimed that one rich Armenian decided to ad-
vance the necessary amount of money, while the
Jews quarrelled about the method of assessment.
The rich Jews, for some reason or other, lefused to
advjince the money; and the middle classes main-
tained that it would be simply money thrown
away, since they could see no benefits in political
riLdits. The more devout even insisted that such
rights would only interfere with the exercise of their
relJLnon. Cuza, on being informed that the Jews
hesitated to pay their share, inserted in his draft

Persecu-
tion by
Bratianu.

of a constitxition a clause excluding from the right
of suffrage all who did not profess Christianity.

When Charles von Hohenzollern succeeded Cuza
(18(56), the first spectacle that confronted him in the
capital was a riot against the Jews. A draft of a
constitution was then submitted by the govern-
ment, Article G of which declared that "' religion is no
obstacle to citizenship"; but, "with regard to the
Jews, a special law will have to l)e framed in order
to regulate their admission to naturalization and
also to civil rights." On June 30, 1866, the great
synagogue at Bucharest was desecrated and demol-
ished. Many Jews were beaten, maimed, anil
robbed. Asa result, Article G was withdrawn and
Article 7 was added, which latter read that "only
such aliens tis are of the Christian faith ma}' obtain
citizenship."

•lohn Rrati;inu, nominally Lilieral, the first anti-
Semite of the motiern type in Rumania, was then
called to the premiership. Charles was very timid,
and dared not interfere in national affairs. Bratianu
thus gained absolute power; and his first stej) was
to ransack the archives of the country for ancient
decrees against the Jews and to apply them with
merciless rigor. The Jews were then driven from
the rural communities, and many of those who were
dwellers in towns were declared vagrants and,
under the provisions of certain old decrees, were
expelled from the country. A niunber
of such Jews who )>roved their Ru-
manian birth were forced acro.ss the
Danube, ami, when Turkey refu.sed to
receive them, were thrown into the
river and drowned. Almost every coiuitry in Eu-
rope was sliocked at these barbarities. The Ru-
manian government was warned by the ]H)wers;
and Bratianu was subseciuentl}^ dismissed from
office.

However, when the Conservatives came into
power they treated the Jews no less harshly. After
sometime the Liberals again secured the ascendency,
and Bratianu resumed the leadership. He was an
unscrupulous diplomat, and understood how to
allay tiie wrath of the other European countries,
^leaii while tln^ situation iu the Balkans became
threatening. The Turks in Bulgaria attacked the
Christians, and the Russo-Turkish war was ap-
proaching. This war was concluded by the treaty
of Berlin (1878), which stipulated (.Vrt'icle 44) lluit
the Jews of Rumania should receive full citizen-
ship. After many exciting scenes at home and
diplomatic negotiations abroad, the Rumain'an gov-
ernment at last agreed to abrogate Article 7 of
its constitution ; butinstead thereof, it declared that
"the naturalization of aliens not inuler foreign i)ro-
tection should in every individual case be decided
b}' Parliament."

A show of compliance with the treaty of Berlin
being necessary. 883 Jews, participants in the war
of 1877 against Turkey, were Uiituralized in a body
by a vote of bf)th (chambers. Fifty-.seven persons
voied ui)on as individuals were naturalized in 1880;
6, in 1881 ; 2, in 1882; 2, in 1883; and 18, from 1886
to UIOO; in all, 8r) Jews in twenty-one years, 27 of
whom iu the meantime died. Besides this eva-
sion of her treaty obligations, Rumania, after the

515

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rumania

Berlin ticaty, bcf^aii a systcmatir persecution of the
Jews, uiiicli was relaxed only when tlie guvermiitnt
was in need of Jewish money. As soon as u loan
frmn Jewish hankers in other eontitries had been ob-
tained, the Jews weie once more driven from the
rural communitios and small towns. Various laws
were passed until the pursuit of all voeations fol-
lowed liy the Jews was made ilependent on the jkjs-
session of politieal rights, which only Humanians
nnght exercise. Even against the Jewish working
men laws were enacted which forced more than 40
pel' cent of them into idleness.

Similar laws were passed in regard to the liberal
professions, allecting Jewish lawyers, physicians,
pharmacists, veterinarians, etc. The most mali-
cious law was one enacted in 189o, which deprived
Jewish children of the right to be
Excluded educated in the public scliools. This
frona law provided that tiie children of lor-

Education. cigners might bo received only after
those of citizens had been provided
for, and that they should, moreover, pay exorbitant
tuition-lejs. In 1898 another law was passed, ex-
cluding the Jews from the secondary schools and
the universities.

Meanwhile the government was very active in ex-
pelling Jews from the country. This was iu accord-
ance witli the law of 1881, which permitted the "ex-
pulsion of objectionable aliens." The authorities
commenced with the expulsion of Dr. M. Ga.ster,
Dr. E. Sclnvarzfeld, and other Jews of note who had
dared to protest against the cruel treatment accorded
by the government to their coreligionists; then
journalists, rabbis, merchants, artisans, and even
conuiion laborers fell victims to such pro.scriptions.
The Oath ^Iore Judaico iu its most disgraceful
form was exacted by the courts, and was only
abolished (in 1904) in consequence of unfavorable
comments iu the French press. In 1892, when the
United States addressed a note to the signatory
powers of the Berlin treaty, it was bitterly assailed
by the Rumanian press. The goverimient, however,
was somewhat frightened: and after some time a
ministerial council was called and the (juestion dis-
cussed. As a result the Rumanian government
issued some pamphlets in Fremh, reiterating its
accusations against the Jews and mantaining that
whatever persecution the}' liad endured they had
fidly deserved in con.sequence of their exploitation
of the rural population.

The emigration of Rumanian Jews on a larger
scale connnenced soon after 1878; audit has contin-
ued to the present day (190")). It is admitted that
at least 70 per cent would leave the country at
any time if the necessary traveling expenses were
furnished. There are no oflicial statistics of emi-
gration; ])ut it is safe to i)lace the nn'ninuim
number of Jewish emigrants from 1898 to 19(»4 at
70,000.

According to the oflicial statistics of 1878. there

were then 218,304 Jews in Rumania. The excess of

births over deaths from 1878 to 1894

Statistics, being 70,408, the number of Jews at

the end of 1894 ought to have been

288,712. But the census of December in that year

showed only 243,225, or 4o,4871ess than the number

expected. In 1904 it was estinmted that the num-
ber of Jews who were living in Rumania did not
exceed 250,0(10.

The administration of Jewisli coininunul ufTuirs in
Itumunia <litTers very little from that in soutliern
Russia; and it iia.srenuiined in almost the sjime stuti;
from time innnemorial. There is the '•gubelia"
(meat-lax), from whidi the rabbis and synagogues*
are supported, as w<ll as the Jewish hospitals. Hebrew
free schools, etc. In religions life Hasidisin liaH tlio
greatest number of followers; indeed, ii is claimed
that the cradle of Ilasidism rested on Itiiniunian Hoil.
There Ba'ai. Siikm-Tok, the founder of the s«xt.
expoundeil his doctrines; and his des<-enilanls uro
now represented l)y the Friednninn family, vurions
members of which have taken up their abode in the
towidei of Buhush.

In the old graveyards of Jas.sy, Botushaoi, and
other towns of ^Moldavia, tombstones indicate the
resting-places of well-Un(jwn rabbinical autlKirs.
Nathan (Xata) IlAXNovEit, rabbi at Fokshani at the
beginning of the seventeenth century,
Babbis and was the author of " Vewen Mezidali."
Savants, a valuable account of tiie persecutions
of the Jews during his lifetime. Julius
Bai«asch is jirobably the most interesting Jew iti
the history of Rumanian literature. He \va.s the
first to introduce AVestern thought into that lit-
erature; and it is justly claimed that he taught
the Rumanians how to employ in their own lan-
guage a graceful style previously unknown to them.
Hillel Kahane of Botushani wrote a laborious work
in Hebrew on i)hysical geography. Wolf ZImrztr
and M. T. Rabener distinguished themselves in He-
brew poetry by their easy and elegant style. Baron
Waldberg and D. Wexler contiibuted largely to
modern Hebrew literature; and M. Brauenstein is a
fluent and prolific Hebrew publicist.

M. Gaster, haham of the Portuguese Jewisli com-
munity of London, is the author of a standard work,
in the Runumian vernacular, on Rumanian litera-
ture; ^I. Schwarzfeld, a prolific writer nn the his-
tory of the Jews in Rumania; Lazar Shaincanu, a
Rumanian philologist whose works liavewon prizes
offered by the Runnmian Academy; an<l Heimann
Tiktin, the most celebrated Rumanian gramnuirian.
The last two have recently become converted to
Christianity.

Ronetti Roman is undoubtedly the greatest of
all Rumanian poets; his poem " Radu " is tlie high-
est poetic acliievement in Rumanian liteniture.
and of equal merit is his drama " .Mana.'^se." on the
problem of Jewish apostasy, which evoked admi-
ration an<l praise from the critics genendly. A
German poet who was born in Rumania is Marco
Brociner. Solomon Schechter. <liscoverer of the He-
brew Ben Sim, and now jiresident of the Jewish
Theological Sennnary of Americn. was born at Fok-
shani, and received his early instruction at the bet
ha-midrash there.

Among communal workers deserving of especial
mention are Adolf Stern of Bucharest and Karpr-l
Lippe of Jassy. The latter is alsti an author of
works on Jewish subjects.

See B'nai B'imtii: Jkwisii Cui.iimzation A>s<)-
ciATiox; PicixoTTo. Benja.min Fkanklix; United

Kumania
Kussell

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

516

States. For Jewish Rumanian periodicals sec Jew-
ish Ei«cycLOPEDiA, ix. 0081), .<. r. Pekiouicals, and
the list given at end of that article.

Bibliography: a. S. Laiirian. Inlnria linnx'mUnr: Hurmu-
zaki. Lhicuwente PrivUtue la Worid lidim'ntilur : Hiisileu.
Toleranta in lininaiiia : Duuiitru Boliiitineaiui, Viata Ini
Ciua V(kIh: E. SchwarzfeUl, T/ic Jewx in Rnunuinia, U\
American Jewish Year Bnnh ; M. Srlnvarzfelil, in Antiarul
Pentru I/fraelitzi ; M. Betk. KeviMa l.Tiiilita : A. I). Xenn-
pol. Les Ii(jumai)i» au Mufien Aw: Enpt'I, Die Uexclt. der
Walachei ; idem. Die Gesch. der Muldau.
D. D. M. II.

The history of Riimauiau legislation against the
Jews during the nineteenth centurj' is one of the
most remarkable in all the annals of Jewish perse-
cution. It culminated in the Artisan Bill of March
16. 1902, which was intended to prevent Jews earn-
ing their livelihood by any fflrm of handicraft or
trade, and against which Secretary Hay protested in
a ministerial note to the Rumanian government (Aug.
11, 1902), pointing out the tendency of such legisla-
tion to produce an abnormal stream of emigration to
the United States. The following resume of en-
actments includes most of the measures adopted
during the century:

1SC3. Alexander Monize of Moldavia forbids Jews to rent farms
("American Jewish Year Book," 1!)*)1, p. 48).

1804, May 18. Alexander Moronzl of Moldavia forbids Jews to
buy farm products (Loeb, " La Situation des Israelites
en Turquie. en Serble et en Roumanie," p. 212, Paris,
1877 [hereafter cited as " Loeb"]).

1817. " Code Cahmachi," section 1-430. forbids Jews of Rumania
to acquire real property (Loeb, p. 213).

By 1818. Code of John Caradja of Wallachia repeats the Church
laws against allowing Jews to be witnesses against
Christians ("Am. Jew. Year Book," 1901, p. 50).

By 1819. Code of Kallimachor of Moldavia gives civil rights to
Jews, who, however, may not own land (" Am. Jew.
Year Book," 1901, p. 50).

1831. Fundamental law of Moldavia, ch. iii., section 94, orders
all Jews and their occupations to be registered; Jews
not of proved usefulness are to be expelled ; others of
same class shall not be allowed to enter (Loeb, p. 214).

1839, March 11. Tax of 60 piasters per annum placed on Jews
of Moldavia (Loeb, p. 215).

1850, Dec. 12. No Jew allowed to enter Rumania unless- possessed

of 5,000 piasters and ofkTiown occupation iLoeb, p. 216).

1851, May 5. Appointment of commission of vagabondage at

Jassy to determine right of entry of foreign Jews (Loeb,
p. 216).

1861, June 17. Circular of Rumanian ministry, preventing Jews
from being innkeepers in rural districts (Loeb, p. 217).

ISm, April 12. Communal law of Rumania permits only those
Jews to be naturalized who (1) have reached the grade
of non-commissioned officers in the army, (2) or have
passed through college, (3) or have a recognized foreign
degree, (4) or have founded a factory (Loeb, pp. 107-1()n)-

1884, Dec. 4. Jewsexcluded from beine advocates (Loeb, p. 124i.

1804, Dec. 7. Elementary education of all children between the
ages of eight and twelve (Sincerus, " Les Juifs en Rou-
manie " [hereafter cited as " Sincerus "]).

1866, April 14. Ghlka, Rumanian minister of Interior, permits
Jews already settled in rural districts to keep farms till
leases run out, but they must not renew them (Loeb,
p. 218).

1SS8, March. Law submitted to chamber preventing Jews from
holding land, settling in the country, selling food, keep-
ing inns, holding public office, trading without special
permits. Jews already settled in runil districts were to
be driven therefrom. This was withdrawn April 5. in
fear of the intervention of the powers (Loeb, pp. 109,
311-312).

1868, June Zi. All Rumanians forced to serve In army, " but not
strangers" (Loeb, p. 109i; therefore Jews who served
were for this purpose regarded as Rumanians.

1868, Dec. 27. Jews excliide<l from medical prufession in Ruma-
nia (Loeb, p. 124). Clause omitted in decree of June,
1871.

1809, Jan. 1.5. Jews not allowed to be tax-farmers in rural com-
munes (Loeb, p. 112).

1S(59, July. Note "if M. Cogalniceano to French consul at Bucha-
rest refuses to consider Jews as Rumanians (Loeb, p.
102).

1869, Oct. Extra tax put on kasher meat at Roman and Focsan
(Loeb, p. 127).

1869, Oct. 25. Jews prevented from being apothecaries in Ru-

mania, except where there are no Rumanian apotheca-
ries (Loeb, p. 12.5; Sincerus, p. 102).

1870, Nov. 10. Servian Jews obliged to serve in army (Loeb,

p. 57).

1872, Feb. 15. All dealers in tobacco in Rumania must be " Ru-

manians" (Loeb, p. 120).

1873, April 1. Law forbidding Jews to sell spirituous liquors in

rural districts (Loeb. p. 188). A license may be given
only to an elector (Sincerus, p. 19).

1873, Aug. 4 and Sept. 5. Chief physicians of sanitary districts

must be " Rumanians" (Sincerus, p. 102).

1874, June 8-20. Sanitary code restricts office of chief physician

of districts and hospitals to Rumanians. No pharmacy
may be opened without special permit of minister of in-
terior. Directors of pharmacies may be "strangers"
up to 1878; after that, only in case there is no Ruma-
nian pharmacy. New pharmacies may be opened only
by Rumanians (Sincerus. p. KJ;5).
1876. Revised military law of Rumania declares "strangers"
liable to military service unless they can pmve them-
selves to be of another nationality (Loeb, p. 109).

1879, Oct. 21. Rumanian Senate passes law stating that distinc-

tions of religion shall not l>e a bar to civil or political
rights, but that " strangers " may obtain naturalization
only by special law on individual demand and after
ten years' residence (Act Vll. of Constitution ; Sincerus,
pp. 3-4).

1880, June 0. The directors and auditors of the National Bank

of Rumania must be Rumanians (Sincerus, p. 77).

1881, March 18. Law of expulsion passed, authorizing minister

of interior to expel, or order from place to place, with-
out giving reason, any stranger likely to disturb public
tranquillity (Sincerus, p. 14(3). (Originally Intended
against Nihilists after murder of czar, but afterward
applied to Jews.)

1881, July 16. Law pnmiulgated declaring that all "agents de
change" or "courtiers de merchandise" must be Ru-
manians or naturalized, except in the ports (where there
are Christian " strangers ") (Sincerus, p. 45).

1881, Oct. 21. Ministerial council extends the law excluding
Jews from sale of liquors in rural districts, to cities and
towns included in such districts (Sincerus, pp. 22-2:3).

1881, Nov. 11. All "strangers " in Rumania required to obtain

a permit of residence before they may pass from place
t(T place- (Sincerus;- p. 163).

1882, Feb. 26. Jews forbidden to b'j custom-house officers (Sin-

cerus, p. 53) .

1882, Nov. 3. Rumanian Senate passes law declaring all "in-
habitants" liable to military service, except subjects of
alien slates (Sincerus, p. 35). See above, June 2:3, 1868.

1884, Jan. 31. Rumanian Senate decides that "strangers" have
no right of petition to Parliament (Sincerus, p. 197).

1884, March 19. Law passed prohibiting hawkers from trading

in rural districts (Sincerus, p. 6o).

1885, April 15. Pharmacy law permits minister of interior to

close any pharmacy not under direction of a recognized
person ; pharmacies may be acquired only by Ruma-
nians or by naturalized citizens; permission to employ
"stringers" extended to 1S86 (Sincerus, p. 104).

1886, March 13. Electors of chambers of commerce must be per-

sons having political rights (Sincerus, p. 75).
1886, June 10. Druggists must be Rumanians or naturalized
citizens (Sincerus, p. 84).

1886, Dec. 7. Account-books must be kept in Rumanian or in a

modern European language (Sincerus, p. 81). (The ob-
ject was to keep out Yiddish.)

1887, Feb. 28. All employees of the " regie " must be Ruma-

nians or naturalized (Sincerus, p. 29).
1887, April 28. Farmers of taxes in Rumania must be persons

capable of being public officers (Sincerus, p. 89).
1887, May 22. Majority of administrators of private companies

must be Rumanians (Sincerus, p. 78).
1887, May 24. Five years after the founda'ion of a factory two-
thirds of its workmen must be Rumanians (Sincerus,

p. 94).
1887, Aug. 4. Ministerial circularorders preference t«> be given

to children of Rumanians in the order of admission to

public schools (Sincerus, p. 12:3).

517

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rumania
BuBsell

1889. Of 1.W7 permits issued t went to Jews ;
of these (inly ti were held in Widlucliia (Sincerus. p. TO).

1892, AuR. ■il. Itelired Jewisli soldiers are not allowed U} serve

as rural K»'iidarnies (Sincerus, p. W).

1893, April 21. Professional education perndited to "stranprers "

only when places are availal)le and on payment of fees.
The luiiuber of "strangers" on the roll of sueti an edn-
catioual institution nuist not e.xceed one-tlfth of the
total roll, and these may not comjiete for scliolarships.
" .•^tran^rers " are not admitted at all to schools of agrl-
cultiu'e (Sincerus, p. i;38i.
1893, May 20. Rumanian Senate passes law Klvinjr preference
to children of Rumanians in element^iry public schools,
and placing a ta.x on children of "strani^ers" admitted
(Sincerus, ]>. 129). This tax amounted to 15 francs for
rural, and 30 for urban, schools (i/». 127).

1893, June 2ti. Royal decree declaring all functionaries in the

sanitary service must be Rumanians, except In rural
districts. " Stranper " invalids may be adndtted to free
public hospitals only on payment of fees, and they may
not inany case occupy more than 10 per cent of the beds.
A "stranger" may be Uiken as an apprentice by an
apothecary only where there is a Uumanlan apprentice
(Sincerui, pp. 10(5. 110, 115).

1894, Jan. 20. Farmers may be repre.sented in law-courts by

their stewards, if the latter be Rumanians, not Jews
(Sincerus, p. 44).

1895, May 22. Students in the military hospitals, and army doc-

tors must be either Rumanians or naturalized citizens
(Sincerus, p. 117).

1896, April 13. Jews may not act as Intermeillaries at the cus-

toms in Rumania (Sincerus, p. 54).

1896, June. A ministerial order declares that letters ou school
business (excuses for absence, etc.) need not be
stamped, except in the case of "strangers"; only chil-
dren of "strangers" are required to pay entrance-fees
at examination.s (Sincerus, p. 130).

1890, June 2(). Ministerial order instructs rural council that
permission to remain In a rural district may be revoked
at any moment (Sincerus, p. 185).

1898, April 4. Law permitting secondary instruction of chil-
dren of "strangers" only where places are available
and on payment of fees, though to Rumanians tuition
is free (.Sincerus, p. i;^^).

1898, Oct. Admission to public schools in Rumania refused to

11,2(X) Jewish children (Sincerus).

1899, Feb. 18. Only Rumanians henceforth admitted as em-

ployees on state railways (Sincerus, p. 97).

1899, Oct. 21. Ministerial order closes private Jewish schools in

Rumania on Sundays (Sincerus, p. 141).
19(X). Number of .Jewish children in elementary public schools
in Rumania reduced to SJ^ per cent; in .secondary
schools from U)]4 per cent (in 1895) to 7J^ per cent
(Sincerus, p. 133).

1900, Feb. 27. Ministerial circular orders pupils to receive in-

struction in Jewish private schools with beads un-
covered (Sincerus, p. 143).

1900, March 28. On private railways, RO per cent of the em-
ployees must be Rumanians (Sincerus, p. 99).

19(K1, April 17. Ministerial circular orders Jewish private
schools to be open on Saturdays (Sincerus, p. 142).

1902, Mar 'h 16. Artisans' bill reciuires special authorization
from the authorities to carry on any trade, only to be
obtained by "strangers," i.f., Jews, on production of
foreign passports, and proof that in their " respective
countries " reciprocal rights are accorded to Rumanians
(" Am. Jew. Year Book," 1902-3, p. aj). ..

•J .

RUMSCH, ISAAC MOSES: IJtissian toarlior
and Iluhiuw aiitlior; l)orn in the village of Zezemer,
government of Wilna, April 6, 1822; died in 1894. At
the age of nine he went to Wilna, wiiere he studied
the Talnuid in tiie j'cshibali of his brother Joseph
Riinisch, and then in that of R. ISIordecai Melzer.
Subsequently he studied tlieEibleand Hebrew gram-
mar secretly and acquired a knowledge of German
and other sectilar subjects; but liis plan of going to
Germany to obtain a scientific education was frus-
trated by the persecutions to whicli he wus subjected
by his relatives because of his love for study. When
in 1853 the Russian government opened public

s( h<)(.ls for Jewisjj ehildrfu in llic government of
Wilnu. he. together wilii his friend Judah L5b
Gordon, was appointed a teacher in tlie wliool uf
Ponevye/li.

Runiscii was the uutlior of tlie following works:
"Kur 'Oni" (Wilna. 1H(51; printed at tiie expense of
the Russian governineni), a free Hebrew tranKlulion
of " Rol)inson Cru.soe " from the German of Ruueli ;
"Kin'at Sifre Kodesli" (ib. 1878). critical gloss4-s on
L. Mandelstamm's Russian tniiislation of the I'siilms.
together with notes on some ol tiiem; "Sliillumut
Resha'im." a story of Jewish life, and "Halikat
Bail" a Hebrew novel (ih. lM7."i): "Megillal Ester
ha Siieniyah " (ih. \HH:i),n historical novel of Esther
or Esterka. the favorite of the Polish king Cusimir
tlie Great, in Hebrew based on the Grrmair; and
"Hat Hayil," a liislr)rieal novel of Jewish life in
Spain in the fourteenth century, freely tmnsloted
from Philippson and published in "Ha-.\sif." 1hh9.
v. 1-47. He coiitrii)iited also many arlielis to " Ha-
Karmel" luid " Ha-Meliz." and left in manuscript
some Hebrew stories and notes on the Hible.

DinMOiiRAPiiv: Sokolow, Sffrr Zikkariin, ».v.. Wamaw. 1860;
Zeitlln, Bilil. I'lmt-Mcmkls. p. ;J24.

"■ !«• J. Z. L.

RUNKEL, SOLOMON ZALMAN : Itabbi of
Mayeiieeandaflerwiird of Worms; died before 1420.
Runkel was a cabalist, as is shown l)y his work " Ha-
tan Damim " (Prague. 1605). which contains a caba-
listic commentary on the Pentateuch according to
gcmatria and notarikon, besides collectanea of ritual
laws for circumcision, wedding ceremonies, etc.
Runkel did not finish the commentary, which was
c<mipleted by Isaac ha-Koben, sou iu-Iau- of R. Liua
of Prague.

BiHLiOGRAPiiv : Ben Jacob, Ofnr hn-Sefarim.p. 300. No. 87B ;
Fiirst, liilil. Jiiil. ill. ISl ; Stelnschnclder, Cat. B»(U. col. 2a«.
s. M. Sei,.

RUSSELL, HENRY : English composer and
singer; born at Sheeruess Dec. 24. 1812; died in
London Dec. 7, 1900. He appeared in infancy in
Christmas pantomimes, and later learned singing
from Bellini iu Italy in 1825, and counterpoint from
Donizetti. He .settled in Rochester. N. Y.. in 1843 as
teacher of the pianoforte, having appeared as Klriuo
in "La Sonnambula" in Piiiliidelphia in 18^19. For
j'ears he traveled in America, giving monologue
entertainments of his own compositions. He was
also engage<l for the concerts of oratorio and phil-
harmonic societies.

On his return to Europe Rus.sel appeanvl in enter-
tainments in many cities in Great Britain ami In-land
and repeated his American success. Finally he re-
tired from the concert-room and settled in Ix)ndon as
an opulent money lenderand bill-bioker. Eight hun-
dred songs have come from his pmlitic pen. of which
no less than 760 have been published. Although
the 800 together brought to the author only £400.
Rus.scll made a forttinc by singing Jns (wings. In
three seasons in America Jie realized from tins source
.^.lO.OOO, which was, however, entirely lost through
the failure of a New York bank.

His songs include: "Ivy Green." "Cheer. Boys.
Cheer," " .V Life on the Ocean Wave." - I'm Afloat."
"Some Love to Roam." and "To the West, to the
West, to the Land of the Free" (said to have largely
influenced emigration to the United States).

£ussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

518

Russell was twice marrieil. His dist wife, who
■was uot of the Jewish faith, was a daughter of
Lloyd, the banker; ins second was Miss DcLara. of
a Jewish family. He was buried accordiug to the
rites of the Christian Church.

BlBl.ior.RAPHY: Jfu: Chron. Oct. 0. 1891. and Deo. U. 1900;
People of the I'criiHi ; Londun newspapers of Dec. 8, 1900 ;
Jcic. Year liDuk, XSi), p. 'Mt.
J G. L.

RUSSIA.— History : [Much of the history of
the Jews of Russia having already appeared under
the headings Ai,k.\.\xdku, Akmksi.v, C.\rc.\srs,
Coss.vCKS. elc, the present article has been framed
so as to include only those facts which are necessary
to supplement the data given in those articles.]
In some of the territory included within the limits
of the present Russian empire Jewish inhabitants
were to be found in the very remote past; Ar-
menian and Georgian historians record that after
the destruction of the First Temple (587 B.C.) Nebu-
chadnezzar deported numbers of Jewish captives to
Armenia and to the Caucasus. These e.xiles Avere
joined later by coreligionists from Media and Judea.
Some members of these early colonies, notably the
B.\GH.\TLXi, became prominent in local political life.
The Bagratuni family stood high in the councils of
the Armenian government until the fourth century
of the present era; but religious pressure finally
compelled its members to adopt Christianity. Ac-
cording to tradition, another influential Jewish fam-
ily, the Am-^tuni, came to Armenia in the reign of
Artashes (85-127 C.E.). At the end of the fourth
century there were Armenian cities possessing Jew-
ish populations ranging from 10,000 to 30,000.
The Jews were subjected to great suffering when the
Persians invaded Armenia, most of the cities being
destroyed, and many of the Jews being led into cap-
tivity "(360-370).

Jews had lived in Georgia also since the destruc-
tion of the First Temple. The ruler of Mzchet as-
signed them a place for settlement on the River
Zanav. This locality was subsequently named
"Kerk," meaning "tribute," on account of the taxes
imposed upon the Jews. After the capture of
Jerusalem by Vespasian (70 c.e.) other Jewish exiles
joined their coreligionists at Mzchet (see Jew.
E.NCVC. ii. 117b, s.r. Armem.x, and ib. iii. 628, s.v.
C.\i:c.\sus).

Monuments consisting of marble slabs bearing
Greek inscriptions, and preserved in the Hermitage,
St. Petersburg, and in the museum at Feodo.sia
(Kaffa), .show that Jews lived in the Crimea and along
the entire eastern coast of the Black Sea at the begin-
ning of the common era, and that they possessed
well-organized communities with synagogues. They
were then already Helienized, bearing such Greek
names as Hermis. Dionisiodorus, and Heracles. In
the reign of Julius the Isaurian (175-210) the name
"Volamiros" was common among the Jews of the
Crimea. This was the origin of the Russian name
"Vladimir." Most of the Greek iivscriptions relate
to the liberation of slaves who in obedience to relig-
ious vows had been dedicated to the Synagogue.
The entire Jewish community thus became the
guardian of these liljcrated slaves.

The presence of well-organized Jewish communi-

ties in that region serves to prove that Jews lived
there a long time before the conunon era, and
supports the statement of Strabo (b.
Early in Poutus 03 u.c.) that it is not easy to
Period. find in the inhabited world a ])lace
without Jewish inhabitants. Philn
Judanis also remarks that tiie Jews populated nu-
merous cities on the continent and the islands of
Europe and Asia. Beginning with the second half
of the second century the Crimean inscriptions are
exclusively in Hebrew, instead of in Greek as they
formerly were, which goes to siiow that the first Jew-
ish settlers in the Crimea were not from western
Europe, but were Bosporian and Asiatic Jews. Of
such inscriptions about 120 are umiuestionably
genuine; and these cover the period 157 to 1773
(.see Ji;w. Excyc. iii. 329b, s.i: Bosporus; also
Cuimka; K.vffa; Kertch).

Jews from the Crimea moved eastward and north-
ward and became the founders of Jewish communi-
ties along the shores of the Caspian Sea and of the
lower Volga (see Atel), carrying with them a civil-
ization more advanced than that of the native tribes
among which they settled. Under tlieir influence
IjfL.\N, the "chaghan" of the Chazars, and the
ruling classes of Chazaria adopted Judaism in 731
or 740. The spread of Judaism among the Chazars
rendered the entire region of the lower Don, the
Volga, and the Dnieper especially attractive to Jew-
ish settlers (see Jew. Encyc. iv. 1, s.r. Cu.\z.\rs).
After the overthrow of the Chazarian kingdom by
Swyatoslaw (969), Jews in large numbers fled to the
Crimea, the Caucasus, and the Russian jirincipality
of Kiev, formerly a jiart of the Chazar territory.
There is even a tradit;ion (unsupported, however, by
sufficient documentary evidence) that the city of
Kiev was founded by the Chazars. ^Mention is made,
in Russian chronicles of the year 987, of Chazarian
Jews who came to Prince Vladimir desiring to con-
vert him to Judaism. In the eleventh and twelfth
centuries the Jews occupied in Kiev a separate
quarter, called the Jewish town ("Zhidy"), the
gates leading to which were known as the Jew-
ish gates (" Zhidovskiye vorota "). At this time
Jews are found also in northeastern Russia, in
the domains of Prince Andrei Boooi.YfissKi (1169-
1174).

From the writings of Ilarion, ^Ictropolitan of Kiev
in the first half of the eleventh century, it appears
that the local Jewish community po.ssessed very
considerable influence. It is al.so evident that that
author's familiarity with Jewish matters was gained
by personal contact with Jews, and that he found it
necessary to coml)at the spread of Judaism. In 1321
Kiev, Voihynia, and Podolia were conquerefl by the
Lithuanian grand duke Gedimin, who granted the
Jewish inhabitants of these territories the same
rights that were enjoyed by his Jewish subjects in
LiTinwNiA. These rights were subsequent!}' am-
jilified by the well-known charter of Witold in
1388, un(ler which the Jews of Kiev and of other
Russian principalities were accorded full citizenship,
not a few of them serving in the body-guards of the
Russian princes.

Jews lived in Lithuania and Poland as earl\' as
the tenth centur}-, having come from South Russia,

619

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

BuBBla

from Germany, and from other west-European
countries. See Hissia: Poland.

Documentary evidence as to tlie presence of Jews
in j\Iuscovite ihissia is first found in tlic chronicles
of 1471. The Grand DuUo of Moscow, Ivan HI.
(1-4(W-1505) was tiie lirst IMuscovitc jirince to ai)olish
the feudal organization and to cstahlish a centralized
government. The independent towns of Novgorod
and Pskov alone remained unamiexed to Russia.
Novgorod, which was a member of the Han.seatic
League, was frequently visiiej by foreign me\--
chants, who thus helped to introduce Western ideas
among the Russian people. The grand duke Ivan
was eagerly watching events in Nov-
Muscovite gorod, where opposing political ]5arties

Russia. struggled for supremacy. One of these
parties strongly favored annexation to
tlie spiritual center of Greek-Orthodoxy, while the
other, disapproving the growing religious formalism
and ceremonial, attempted to lead the Russians t(j-
ward the more progressive forms of western Europe.
This political and religious unrest prepared a favor-
able soil for religious heresy. In 1470 the people of
Novgorod invoked the aid of Prince iMichael Olel-
kovich, brother of the viceroy of Kiev, in their
struggle with Moscow. He- brought with him the
learned Jew Skhariyah, who converted the i)riest
Diouis to Judaism (see Aleksei; Ivan III., Vas-
sii.ivicii; JuDAiziNG Heresy).

The Judaizing sect rapidly gained adherents and
spread to Moscow, where it won the support of in-
lluential men standing near to the grand duke. Ivan
himself was favorabh' disposed toward the new re-
ligious movement, and for political reasons made
no attempt to suppress it. It was with evident re-
luctance that he yielded to the appeal of the Bishop
of Novgorod and the Metropolitan of Moscow to
punish the offenders and to check the spread of the
heresy. Very probably Ivan attempted to strengthen
his influence in. Lithuania with the aid of ]VIichael
Olelkovicli and Skhariyah (see Lithuania). There
may have been some connection between the expul-
sion of the Jews from Lithuania by Alexander in
1495 and Ivan's attitude toward the Judaizing her-
esy. It is known that, although the Jews were
readmitted in 1503, stern measures against the Ju-
daizers were not taken until 1504. At any rate it is
evident from many sources that Ivan attempted to
further his schemes of conquest in Lithuania as well
as in the Crimea by gaining the support of the Jews.
Panov comes to the conclusi<m ('' Yeres Zhidovstvu-
yushchikh," in "Zhurnal 3Iinisterstva Narodnavo
Prosvyescheniya," 1876) that Skliariyah (Zacharias)
of Kiev and Zacharias Guizolfi were one and the
same person — a deduction which has very little jus-
tification, as may be seen from the facts set forth in
the article GrizoLFi.

Ivan's dealings with the Jews were not limited,
however, to the two Zachariases. There is docu-
mentary evidence that the grand duke corresponded
with the Jew Khozei Kokos. He instructed the
ambassador Beklemishevin 1474 to convey his greet-
ings to Kokos, and in a message to the latter re-
quested him to use his influence with the Crimean
khan Mengli-Girei to induce that ruler to send not
merely his assertions of friendship, but a formal

treaty with Ivan. Thegrand dukeuisoasked KokoB
to assist liis agents us llKrelofore, for which aid he
promised due compcnsution; mid he explained tlmi
the presents then forwarded lo Ki.kos were of less
value than they ndght liuve been " bccauKe the am
bassador was unable to carry inucii baggage." The
grand duke finlher re<|uesied Kokos to ubstaiii
from the u.se of Hebrew sciipt in Ids corrcKpoml-
ence, and to employ iuslcad Russian or Tutar tlmr-
acteis. The last recpiesl shows ilmi on previous
occasions lelteis in Hebrew Imd been receiveil and
translated at the Muscovite court. OUicrilcM iiments
show that Kokos conducted negotiations relating lr»
the mairiage of the heir to the MuMovitc throne
with the daughter of the Prince of Mungup. and in
14bG the Russian amiiassador was instructed to in-
form Kokos that, should his services prove us ac-
ceptable as theretofore, he would bcrewnrde<l by the
grand duke "with jialaces, ainethvsls. and flue
peails."

The grand (bike's invitation to Zuchariua Gui/old
to reside in ^Moscow indicates that no reslri«'tion8
existed with regard to the residence in tliat < ily of
wealthy and intluential Jews. Tliecxecutionof the
Jewish court physician Leo (or Leon) did not afTecl
Ivan's attitude toward the Jews; for in Ids subse-
quent correspondence (uj) to 1500) he still urged
Guizolfi to settle in Mo.scow.

It is known that in the reign of Vasili Ivan«)vich
IV. (1505-;]3) the Jews were Iield in ill leputc mainly
on account of the Judaizing heresy. While there ig
jiroof that Lithuanian Jewisli merclianLs currie«l ou
trade with and visited Moscow and Smolensk, their
transactions were made possible only by the lux en-
forcement of the restrictive regulations concerning
the Jews; the grand duke's special undiu-ssjidor
to Rome. Dmitri Gcrasimov. whose mission it was
to establish a union between the Greek-Orllio-
dox and the Roman Catholic churdies (1.520i. re-
marked to the historian Paolo Giovio. " We abhor
the Jews and do not allow them to enter Russia."

Muscovite treatment of the Jews became harsher
in the reign of Ivan IV., the TEKium.K (l.')3;{-84).
Apart from the savage instincts of the czar, from
wlu'eh all of his subjects suffered, he vente<l upon
the Jews his religious bmaticism and hatred, which
were strengthened by tiie hostile attitude of the
Catholic Church toward the Jcwsof western Europe.
In his concjuesl of Polotsk, Ivan IV. ordered that all
Jews who should decline to adopt Cliristiunity
should be drowned in the Di^na. In the perifxl of
thirty years which intervened between tiie death of
Ivan IV. and the accession of the first Ronuinof,
Jews were connected more or less intimately with
])()litical events in the history of the Musc<ivite king-
dom. Thus mention is made of Jews among the
followers of the usurper Grishka Otrepyev. There
is even a tradition that he himself was of Jewisli
origin.

'The Russian chronicler who describes the time*
of the first pseudo-Demetrius (see " Regesty.'* i. 338)
states that tlie Mu.scovite kingdom was overrun with
foreign heretics. Lithuanians. Poles, and Jews to
such an extent that there were scarcely any native
Russians to be seen (1605k

In the reicn of the lirst Rouianof. Michael Feodoro-

Sussia

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

520

vich (1613-45), certain cuactments placed the Jews
on an equality with the Litiiuauiaus, Germans, Ta-
tars, and Circassians, all nationalities being treated
in a spirit of tolerance. In a message
The of Oct. 9, 1634, to the governor of

Bomanofs. Great Perm, the czar ordered the re-
lease of certain Lithuanian prisoners
(Germans, Jews, Tatars, and Circassians), who were
to be permitted to return to their fatherlands or to
remain in Ru.ssia, as thej' might decide.

Four yeare later (1638) the czar in his congratu-
latory message to the King of Poland displayed a
changed attitude toward the Jews, He instructed
his representatives at the Polish court to propose
that Polish merchants should be prohibited from
bringing into Russia certain merchandise, "and that
Jews be forbidden to enter Russia at all" (see Aarox
^Iahkovich of Wilna). Thisattitudewas undoubt-
edly inspired by purely religious motives; and the
czar's message indicates that, notwithstanding the
persecution of the Jews in Russia, they still entered
the country for purposes of trade. On the whole,
it is quite certain that there was no fixed policy in
the treatment of the Jews by Michael's government,
and that orders and decrees were frequently issued
as special occasions required.

In the code of 1649, under Michael's successor,
Alexis (Aleksei) Mikhailovich (1645-76) the attitude
of the government toward the Jews was more clearly
defined. This code contains no general direct lim-
itations of the rights of the Jews then living in
Russia, and where in exceptional cases such limita-
tions are made they concern religious matters and
foreign Jews only. The document furnishes strong
proof that the former restrictions upon the Jews were
inspired by religious intolerance, and that the expres-
sion of such intolerance was oflicially avoided in the
written code. It may be inferred from the decrees
issued subsequently to the code that the Jews had
access to all the towns of Russia, including Moscow.
Bv the first of these decrees, the ukase of July 30,
1654, the establishment of turnpikes was ordered so
that all persons going to Moscow might be ex-
amined: "and such persons as shall prove to be
from Mstislavland other frontier cities, Lithuanians,
Catholics, nonconformists, Jews, Tatars, and various
unchristian people, all shall be admitted to Moscow."
This enactment, later incorporated into the legal
code, shows that the Jews were not singled out from
the other peoples, and that they were subject to
the general laws. On special occasions, however,
decrees unfavorable to them were issued, as, for in-
stance, in the case of the expulsion of the Jews
from MoGHiLEF in 1654.

The ukase of I^Iarch 7, 1655, ordering the transfer
of "Lithuanians and Jews" from Kaluga to Nijui-
Novgorod, provided for their proper protection and
for the payment to them of a liberal allowance for
traveling expenses. Moreover, article ii. of the
treaty of Andrusov (1667), agreeing upon an armis-
tice between Russia and Poland for a period of thir-
teen years and six months, provided that all Jews
who so desired and who had not become converts to
Christianity should be allowed by the czar to return
to Polish territory, taking with them their wives,
children, and possessions, and that those preferring

to remain in Russia should be accorded the requisite
permission.

The Ukrainian writer Joanniki Goi.vatovski, in
his work " Messia Pravdi vy" (1G76), attacked the Jews
with the intention of prejudicing the czar against
them. Kostoniarov, in commenting on this fact, states
that, notwithstanding the disinclination of the Great
Russians to admit the Jews to their country, the lat-
ter found their way to Moscow, usually concealing
their racial and religious attiliations. It is worthy
of note here that there were at that time in Moscow
a considerable number of baptized Jews in the mon-
asteries, especially in the Voskresenski monastery,
concerning whom Archbishop Nikkon wrote to
Alexis complaining that they "had again begun to
practise their old Jewish religion, and to demoralize
the young monks." It may be seen from the facts
]irescnted here and in the articles Alexis Mikhailo-
vich and Gaden that in this reign the Jews of Mos-
cow had increased both in numbers and in influence.
Alexis' son and successor, Feodor Alekseyevich
(1676-82), stipulated in his treaty (1678) with King-
John Sobieski of Poland that all Polish merchants,
excepting those of the Jewish faith, should be al-
lo^Ved to visit Moscow ("Pokioye ISobranive Zako-
nov." i. 148).

The Russian documents thus far accessible do not
permit a definite conclusion as to the attitude of
Peter the Great (1682-1725) toward his Jewish sub-
jects. The Russian historian Solovyev, who was
himself not without prejudice toward
Under the Jews, points out ("Istoriya Ros-
Peter the sii," vol. xv.) that when Peter invi-
Great. ted talented foreigners to Russia, he
invariably excepted Jews. No docu-
mentary evidence in proof of this assertion is, how-
ever, furnished. Peter's edict of April 16, 1702,
which Solevyev cites, contains no reference to the
Jews; and the historian's assertion is evidently
based on Nartov's anecdote concerning Peter's so-
journ in Holland (1698). "When petitioned by the
Jews of Amsterdam, through his old friend Burgo-
master Witsen, for the admission of their coreligion-
ists to Russia, Peter is reported to have replied, "The
time has not jet come for a union of the Jews and
the Russians." Nartov also cites Peter as having
stated that he would rather call to Russia Moham-
medans or heathen than Jews, who are "tricksters
^and cheats. " Nartov adds that Peter remarked to the
Jewish delegation petitioning for the right to trade
in Great Russia: " You imagine that the Jews are so
shrewd as to be able to gain advantage over the
Christian merchants; but I assure you that my peo-
ple are more cunning even than the Jews, and will
not permit them.selves to be deceived."

On tlie other hand, the selection of Baron Shafi-
rov, a baptized Jew. as chancellor of the emjiire,
and the confidence shown in him, as well as the ad-
vancement by Peter of Dewier, suppo.sedly the son
of a Portuguese Jewish barber, indicate that the
czar personally had no race prejudices, and that he
di.scouraged superstition in tlie Greek -Orthodox
Church. Nevertheless he found it expedient to
leave unchanged the religious legislation framed
l)y his father, Aleksei, which contained many restric-
tions of the rights of non-Christian subjects of the

521

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

Ruasla

empire. In a document of the pinkes of Mstislavl,
government of Mogliilef, it is staled :

" . . . Ourctiildrcn still to 1)0 born sliduld tell tho comltiK pnn-
erntionstliat oiirllrst (iclivcrer never forsook us. And If all men
were to write, they I'oilld nt>t record nil the nilnicles that were
vouchsafed to us [until now]. For even now. oti Thursday, the
28tli of i:iul, .■)4i;s, there came the C:i'sar, called the Czar of Mos-
cow, named I'eter Alekseyevlch — may his fame (irow great I—
with all his forces, a jrreat and immerous army; and rolihersand
assassins from among his people attacked us without his knowl-
edge, and lilood came near heingsiiilled. And If (iod our Master
had not inspired the czar to conie personally to our synagogue,
l)l(Jod would surely have llowed. It was only through the help
of (ioii that the czar saved us and revenged us, and ordered iliat
thirteen of those men be immediately hanged, and there was
peace again."

Tliis incident does not necessarily show, however,
tliat Peter was a steadfast friend of the Jews (Dub-
now, in " Voskliod," ISHO, pji. 1-2, 177).

Active measures against tiie Jews, especially those
living in the Ukraine, were inaugurated by Peter's
successor, Catherine I. (1725-27). On March 25,
1727, tlie empress issued a ukase prohibiting the leas-
ing of inns and customs duties to Jews in Smolensk,
and ordering tiie deportation beyond the frontier of
Baruch Lkihov and those associated with him. On
May 7 of the same year another edict was promul-
gated ordering the expulsion of the Jews from
liussia :

" The Jews, both male and female, who are living in Ukraine
and other Russian towns are to be immediately deported beyond
the frontier, and must not henceforth be allowed to enter Russia
under any circumstances. The requisite measures to prevent
this must be taken in all places. In removing the said Jews
care should be taken to prevent their carrying out of Ilussla
gold ducats or any similar Russian coins. If such should be
found in their possession, they should be exchanged for copper."

In signing this decree Catherine was apparently
prompted by purely religious motives. She was
strongly influenced by her religious advisers, nota-
bly by Feofau Prokopovich, elder of the Holy
Synod. Prokopovich also secured the cooperation
of Menshikov, who may have been provoked against
the Jews by his quarrel with Shafirov. It was
Menshikov who prohibited the election of Jews as
general or military elders in Little Russia. The
Ukrainians soon found tJiat the removal of the Jew-
isli merchants from among them resulted in great
economic injury to the country, and their hetman,
Apostoi,, petitioned the Senate for a revocation of
this drastic law (1728).

Under Peter II. (1727-30) and Anna Ivanovna
(1730-40) the strict measures against the Jews were at
first somewhat rcla.xed. Toward the end of Anna s
rule Jewish religious influences became more mani-
fest. It was in her reign that tiie above-mentioned
Baruch Leibov and the naval captain Voznitzyn were
burned at the stake (July 15, 1738), the former for
proselytizing, the latter for apostasy. By a decree
of July 22, 1739, Anna ordered the expulsion of the
Jews from Little Russia; and on Aug. 29 of the
same year she issued another decree forbidding
Jews to own or lease inns or other property in that
territory. It was also in her reign and in the subse-
quent reign of Elizabeth Petrovna that the Jews of
Lithuania and Ukraine suffered from theexcesses of
the Haidamacks.

Elizabeth (1741-62), the daughter of Peter the
Great, was especially harsh in enforcing anti-Jewish

legislation. In iier edict e.xpeljing the Jews from
l.iltie Russia siie staled tlial "no oilier fruil may be
fxpccted from the liattTs of Christ the Suvior'Hname
than extreme injury to our fait iiliil subjects." When
the Senate, urgetl by the Lillh-Riissian CoH.sark8
and the merchants of Higa. decided to rerotnnund
to the empress a more liberal Ireutmenl of the Jews,
in view of the great Iosjm-s that would otlierwUc
result to the t wo coiintrirsand lothe iiujuTial ticas-
ury, Elizai)eth wrote on the margin of the report:
"I will not derive any profit from the enemies of
Christ" (1742). Having dis(r.vercd tluit her ronrt
physician Sanchez was an adherent of iJic Jewish
religion, Elizabeth, notwithstanding the esteem in
which he was held, summarily ordered him lo re
sign from the Academy of Sciences ami to give up his
court practise (1748). The mathematician I>«'onliurd
Elder, who was also a member of the Academy of
Sciences, wrote from Berlin: "I df)ubi miicli
whether such strange procedures can add to the
glory of the Academy of Sciences." It should be
added, however, that the fanatical enijiress perse-
cuted the ]Mohamrnedans as well. In 1743 she des-
troyed 418 of the 536 mosques in the government of
Kazan.

A broader conception of tkr. rights of the Jews
obtained under Catherine II. (1762-96). For while
the empress, though talented and liberal in her per-
sonal views, was careftd not to antagonize the prej-
udices of the Greek-Orthodox clergy, and still fountl
it inexpedient to abolish entirely the time-honored

discriminations against the Jews that

Catherine had become a part of the imperial

II. policy of the Romanofs, slie hcverihe-

less found it neces.sary to concede R4)me-
thing to the spirit of the times. For this reason,
and recognizing also the useful services tliat the
Jewish merchants might render to the commerce of
the empire, she encouraged a less stringent applica-
tion of the existing laws. Thus, in spite of the
protests of the merchants of Riga, she directed
Governor-General Browne of Livonia to allow the
temporary sojourn in Riga of a i»arty of Jews, who
ostensibly had the intention of settling in the new
Russian provinces (1765); and in 1769 Jews were
permitted to settle in these provinces on ei)iial terms
with the other foreigners who had been invite<l to
develop that uninhal)ited region. About this lime
occurred the first partition of Poland, residting in
the annexation to Russia of the White-Russian terri-
tory (1772), with its vast Jewish popidation.

The edict of Catherine, as promulgated i)y Gov-
ernor-General Chernyshov, contained the fullowiug
piissage relating to the Jews:

"Religious lltvrty and InvlolRblllty of pnipertv an- hervby
granted to all subJiMt^cif Russia, and certainly u> Uie Jewn •!••);
for the humanitarian principles of lier Majesty ilo nr>t p«-nnH
the exclusion of the Jews alone fn>fn the fatorn >h"« n '• .<'i. to
long as they, like faithful sutij'-'t-*. '■"iiilmie '" • ' "ni-

selves as hitherto in coniineR-e-a«<Wmmllrnift«. e.i. .. ■■ "t'

to his vocation."

Notwithstanding the ]iromise of Chenivshov
(1772) that the White-Russian Jews would »K'allowr«l
to •eiijoy all the rights and privileges thitlierio
granted to them, they continued to suffer from the
oppression of the local administrations. In 1784 the
Jews of White Russia petitioned the empress for the

Russia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

522

amelioration of their condition. They pointed out
that, havinir lived for generations in villages on tiie
estates of the landlords, they had established dis-
tilleries, breweries, etc., at great cost, and that the
landlords had been pleased to lease various revenues
to them. The governor-general had now jirohibited
the landlords from making any leases to them, so that
they were in dangcrof Iteeoniingimpoverishcd. By
an imperial order the "White-Kussian Jews were eli-
gible for election to municipal ottices, but they had
never been elected in ]>i-actise, and were tlius de-
jirived of legal safeguards. They were at a furtlier
disadvantage because of their ignorance of the Kus-
sian language. They therefore aslied for lepresen-
tation in the coiuts, particularly in
Petition of cases between Jiews and Christians,
the White- and that purely Jewish and relig-

Russian ious affairs should be tried in Jewish
Jews. courtsaccording to Jewish law. They
petitioned further for projjcr pro-
tection in the observance of their religion in ac-
cordance with the promises made to them. In
some towns and villages Jews had built houses
under a special arrangement with the landlords con-
cerning the ground-rents; now the landlords had in
some instances raised the rents without warning, and
the Jews had in consequence been compelled to
abandon their houses. They therefore asked that
tlie rents be maintained as theretofore, or tiiat at
least a few years of grace be given them to enable
them to make the necessary arrangements for re-
moving to other places. In some towns, to make
room for squares and to facilitate the more modern
arrangetnent of the city streets, dwellings and other
buildings had been torn down without compensation
to the Jewish owners. Jews belonging to villages
and townlets had been compelled by the authorities
to build houses in the cities, and were thus brought
to the verge of ruin.

After due consideration of this petition by the
Senate, a ukase was issued (May 7, 1786) allowing
landlords again to lease their distilleries and inns to
Jews, and permitting the election of Jews to the
courts, the merchant gilds, the magistracy, and the
city councils. The request for special Jewish couits
Avas not granted, though religious matters Avere
placed under the jurisdiction of the rabbis and the
kahals. Questions as to alleged extortionate rent-
charges and damages sustained by the removiil of
buildings owned by Jews were left for adjustment
to the local authorities. The petition of the Jews
for protection in the exercise of their religion Avas
granted.

Soon after the issue of this ukase White-Russian
Jews came in larger numbers to Moscow, thus
arousing the opposition of the merchants of that cit}-.
The latter applied to the military commander of
Mf>scoAv (Feb., 1790) for the exclusion of the Jcavs,
Avho, it Avas claimed, Avcre undermining the pros-
perity of the merchants by selling goods beloAv the
standard price. Other stereotyped accusations Avcro
likewise made. From thisapplication (preserved in
Vorontzov's "Archives") it is evident that the Mos-
cow merchants, Avhose usual business motto Avas " He
Avho does not deceive makes no sales," Avere alarmed
at the competition of the Jcavs; and, knowing that

the tolerant empress Avould not countenance discrim-
ination on religious grounds, they stated that they
were free from religious jnejudiee and merely sought
to protect their business interests. That they suc-
ceeded in tlicir elTorts is evident from the decision
of the imiierial council of Oct. 7, 1790, and from the
ukase of the empress of Dec. 23, 1791, by which
Jews Avere forbidden to register in the ^loscow mer-
ciiant gild.

Notwithstanding Catherine's liberal ideas, the per-
]ilexing Jewisli (piestion in Russia originated at the
time of the first partition of Poland. II. H.

The tragic events in the life of Paul I. (1790-

1801), as, for instance, the dethroning and the death

by violence of his father, Peler III.,

Paul I. and the subsequent attempts of his
mother, Catherine II., to deprive him
of the right of succession, made a serious impression
upon him ; and his reign Avas one of the darkest ])e-
riods in the history of Russia. Nevertheless, his
stormy reign Avas a propitious jteriod for the Jews.
loAvaril Avhom Paul's attitude Avas one of tolerance
and kindly regard. This is partly evidenced by the
contemporary legislation, Avhich consisted of only a
IcAV enactments. On the advice of his confidant.
Baron Heiking, he granted the privilege of citizen-
ship to the Jews of Courland, and gave them also
municipal rights — a A'cry important concession, as
until then the Jcavs of Courland had been denied
such privileges. But of even more importance is
the fact that Paul I. opposed the expulsion of the
Jcavs from the toAvns. Thus he prohibited tlicir
expulsion from Kamenetz-Podolsk and from Kiev.
About this time (1796) the Senate Avithout the em-
peror's knoAvledge enacted a law calling for a double
])ayment for the gild license bj- the Jewish mer-
chants. As to the decree of 1797 included in the
legal code and imposing double taxation on the
Jcavs, it is erroneously ascribed to Paul I. Such
a decree Avas issued under ('atherine II. in 1794,
and although, in \Mrtue thereof, the Jcavs continued
to pay double taxes under Paul, he did not re-
enact it.

Paul's attitude toAvard the Jcavs and the ]iart
])laj'ed by him in their historical life Avere of greater
significance than may appear from his legislative
measures. This is shoAvn by contemporary ofiicial
regulations not incorporated in the legal code.

In 1799 Senator Derzhavin, a Ru.ssian poet, Avas
sent to White Russia commissioned to investigate
the complaints of the JcAvish inhabitants of Shklov
against its OAvner, General Zorich. At about the
same time one of the White-Russian courts Avas in-
vestigating a blood accusation against the Jcavs;
and Derzhavin, Avho hated them as "the enemies of
Christ" and Avished also to help Zorich, proposed to
Paul I. that the testimony of Jewish Avitnesses should
not be accepted luitil the Jews proved that they
Avere innocent of the accusation brought against
them. This proposal, had it been accepted, Avould
have been disastrous to the Rus.sian Jcavs, for they
Avould have been denied the right to testify at
every trial of this nature, and the general effect
Avoiild have been to deprive the Jewish ])opulation of
the right of citizenship. Paul I., hoAvever, notified
Derzhavin that Avhen a case was once before a court

523

THE JEWISH •£:N CYCLOPEDIA

Ruaala

it was lint necessary to confuse it wifli iiucstions
concerning Jewish witnesses.

Still more important was the solution of the (jues-
tion involving the attitude of the i^oveinnient toward
the Jewish schism tliat concerned the Jews of ]{iis-
siaand led to the formation of the sect of Hasidim.
Under Paul the antagonism of the Hasidim toward
their opponents became vi(dent. The
The two jiarties began to make false accu-

Hasidim. sations against each other to the gov-
eriunent. Tlie honored representative
of the llasiilim, Zalman JJorukhovich, was arrested
anil taken to St. Petersburg. According to the state-
ment of his opponents, he has been guilty of active
])articipationin anattempt to injuriahe government.
Zalman succeeded, however, in proving his inno-
cence, and at the same time in placing the Hasi-
dim in a favorable light. He was released, and or-
ders were issued directing that Hasidism be tolerated
and that its adherents be left unmolested. Subse-
(piently Zalinan's enemies again succeeded in bring-
ing about liis imprisonment, but on the accession to
the throne of Alexander I. he was liberated, and the
sect was again declared deserving of toleration. These
incidents resulted in again confining the religious
controversy to the Jews themselves, and in lessening
somewhat the aggressiveness of the antagonism.

Paul I. opposed the attempts of the Christian com-
munities to expel, under the authority of old Polish
privileges, the Jews from the cities. B3' his order the
dispute between the Christians and Jews of Kovno,
which had continued for nianj^ decades, was settled.
He decreed that the Jews be allowed to remain in
the city, and that no obstacles be placed in their
way wiiile in the pursuit of their trades or handi-
crafts. Consequent upon this there followed other
decrees prohibiting the expulsion of the Jews from
Kiev and Kamenctz-Podolsk. After the death of
Paul I. the Christians of Kovno again petitioned for
the expulsion of the Jews, but in view of Paul's
decree their petition was not granted. During his
reign, and apparently at his instance, the Senate be-
gan to collect material for comprehensive legislation
concerning the Jcavs. His untimely death, liowever,
jirevented the immediate realization of his project,
which was only completed under Alexander I.

In addition to the general censorship restrictions
to which Russian literature was subjected in the
reign of Paul, there was established a censorship for
Jewish books. It had its center in Riga. Leon El-
kan was appointed .senior censor and was given two
assistants, all being placed under the general Rus-
sian censorship committee in Riga. Paul I. was con-
stantly informed of the reports of the censors on the
books condenuied, and tliereby was able to take
measures to strengthen the laws relating to objec-
tionable books.

11. u. *

The early years of the reign of Alexander I. (1801-

1825) were marked by the prevalence of liberal ideas

and by attempts at liberal legislation.

Alexander As the pupil of Laharpe and the ad-

I. niirer of Rousseau, the young monarch

was at tirst inclined to apply their

teachings to practical government. The broader

spirit in Russian legislation for the empire at large

alli( ted favorably the cuuditiuu of ilH Jewibh »ub-
jects also.

After the publication of ijie senatoriul decree of
Dec. it. 1802. concerning tlie eligibility of Jew8 to
municipal ollices to the extent of oue-lliir<l of llie
total number of such ollices, llie reprcfM-ntullvcs of
the Christian inhabitant.s of the city of Wilna ap-
plied (Feb. 1. 1H(»:{) I.) the chanceliiir of the empire.
Count Voront/ov, for the n-penl of this cnuctnicni.
on the ground of its conllici with lh< ■ I iih-

uanian privileges. A similar spirit nd

in many other tr)wris of liussln.

Despite the hostility of the Cnri'-tian ni(i<hant.s.
the connnencement of the pulitical emancipalion of
the Jews niay be .s.iid to have begun with tlie I'liact-

ment of 1804. The admiiiistrativ< ' tnientB.

however, either (leliberal<'ly or unc< : ,v t>viT-

looked tlie true purpo.se of this law, and made no
sincere attempt to further thcs<iliuion of tise Jewish
question by anu'liorating the cconomir condition of
the Jews themselves. It was the purpose of the
enactment to encourage in the first i>lace the spreuil
of modern education among the Jewish njas-scK. to
hasten their Russitication. and to lead them to airri-
cultural pursuits. Unfortunately those entrusted
with the enforcement of these measures were not
guided merely by motives of humanity and justice;
and the}' endeavored to spread forcible baptism
among the Jews. lu consequence of thi.s attitude
the Jewish masses became suspicious of the govern-
ment and its measures; and the latter could not
therefore be carried out successfully (sec Alexan-
der I.. Pavlovich; Ishaelite-Ciiiustiank).

H. R.

The reign of Nicholas I., Pavlovich (born 1796;
reigned 1825 to 18.55), who.se ojipressive rule fell us
a pall on the Rus.sian ])eople. was one of constant
affliction for his Jewish subjects also. Of the legal
enactments concerning the Jews framed in Russia
from 1649 until 1881. no less than six hunrired. or
one-half, belong to the period cm-
Nicholas I. braced by the reiin of Nicholas I.
These laws were drafted almost en-
tirely under the immediate supervision of the em-
peror. His attitude toward the Jews was marked.
on the one hand, by a hatred of their faith nn<l by
persistent attempts to convert them to Chiistianity ;
on the other hand, by mistrust of them, which orig-
inated in the conviction that they, or at least the
bulk of them, formed a fanatical, criminal asso-
ciation, which fountl in religion a support for its
evil deeds. There is no doulit tliat the Jews then
concentrated in the Pai.k ok Sktti.kment. and
separated from the Chri.^tians by a series of legal re-
strictions and subject to the Kaiiai- administration
sanctioned by the government, live<l a !■ " na-

tional life, narrow and marked by ign md

fanaticism. Added to this was the extreme poverty
of those within the Pale, which to s N'lit de-

morali/.etl the outlawed Ji-wish i< . f. Hut

this unfortunate condition was not due to the exac-
tions of their faith, and was . ' ' ' the
measures now adopte<l. The- - ^''
lating to the Jews which had developed in preceding
reigns, and which considereil them, because they
were non-Christians, as the natural exploiters of

Russia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

524

Christiaus. assumed iiuder Nicholas I. peculiarl}- pro-
nounced characteristics. In fact, the legislation of
Nicholas I. relating to the Jews treated the follow-
ing problems: First, according to the
Anti- sense of one official document, "to
Jewish diminish the number of Jews in the
Policy. empire." which meant to convert as
many of them to Christianity as pos-
sible. Secondly, to reeducate tlie Jews in such a
manner as to deprive them of their individuality;
tliat is, of their specitic, religious, and national char-
acter. Tliirdly, to render the Jewish population
harmless to the Christiaus both economically and
morally. The last two problems proved impossible
of solution by the government mainly because it
resorted to violent measures. In order to weaken
the economic intluence of the Jews, and to remove
them from their religious and national isolation, it
would have been necesaxry to scatter them by giv-
ing them an opportunit)' of settling in a vast region
sparsely inhabited. Fearing, however, that even
small groups of Jews would prove economically
stronger than the ignorant, stolid people, most of
whom Avere still serfs; and fearing also that the Jews
would e.xert an ethical or even a religious influence
on tlie Russit«is. the government refrained from
encouraging more intimate relations between Jews
and Christians, and reconcentrated the former, thus
strengthening their isolation. Only by sudden
and violent measures did the government ever re-
move a part of the Jewish population from its sur-
roundings.

In order to encourage conversion to Christianity
the government resorted to various measures, the
most important among them being the endowing of
baptized Jews with all the rights accorded to Chris-
tians of the same rank. There were
Con- also other auxiliary measures. For
versionist instance, baptized Jews were e.x-
Measures. empted from the payment of taxes for
tiiree years ; murderers and other crim-
inals who adoi)ted Christianity were shown compar-
atively greater leniency than they otherwise would
have received. But meas\ires were also taken for
compulsory conversion to Christianity. There is no
doubt that it was in virtue of this consideration that
the Jews, who until 1827 had paid a specified sum
for relief from conscription, as was done also by the
Russian merchant class, were called upon in that
year to appear for personal .service in the army.
This regulation was framed ostensibly for the more
equitable distribution of military burdens among
all the citizens, but, as a matter of fact, the govern-
ment was actuated by a desiie to detach from Jew-
ish society, by the aid of military service, a large
number of Jews, and to transplant them elsewhere
on Russian soil so as to deprive them of tJieir Jewish
traits, and, where practicable, also to baptize them.
The conditions of the service under Nicholas were
such that transfers of this kind could be made with
impunity. Conscription, notwithstanding the fact
that exemption had been purchased, continued for
twenty-five years, the ages of the recruits ranging
from twelve to twenty-five. (For its effect on chil-
dren see tiie article Cantonists.) Special oppress-
ive conditions of conscription were devised for the

Jews in order to increase the number of Jewish sol-
diers. The Jews were compelled to furnish ten con-
scripts per thousand of their popula-
Conscription tion, while the Cinistians had to fur-
Measures, nish only seven recruits; moreover,
the Jews were obliged to furnish con-
scripts for every conscription term, wliile the Chris-
tians were exempted at certain intervals. The Jews
were furthermore made to furnish conscripts for ar-
rears in the payment of taxes, one conscript for every
one thousand rubles. Subsequently these extra re-
cruits were taken as a mere fine for arrears without
discharging the inilebtedness thereby. Tliis led to
terrible sulTering. For lack of able-bodied men
(many fled, fearing the miseries of war and com-
pulsory baptism) the Jewish communities, repre-
sented by the kahals, were imable to furnish such
an excessive number of recruits; and yet for every
conscript that was not furnished at the proper time
two new conscripts were demanded. Tiius it be-
came necessary to recruit cripples, invalids, and old
men, who were placed in the auxiliar}' companies;
at times even members of the kahal were impressed
into service, notwithstanding their advanced years.
The sole supporters of families were also taken, and,
finally, boys only eight years old. In spite of all
these measures, however, the conscription arrears
were on the increase. In order to remedy the short-
age, the Jewi.sh communities were permitted in ISaS
to seize within their own district all the Jews who
had no passports and belonged to other Jewish
communities, and to enroll them in their own quota
of recruits. The heads of families, whatever their
standing, had the right to seize such Jew* and to
deliver them to the autiiorities as substitutes for
themselves or for members of their families. Among
other objects the government thereby intended to
rid itself of those Jews whom the kahals refused
to supply with passports in order to avoid the in-
crease of tax and conscription arrears.

This measure was followed by the wide-spread
persecution and capture of Jews who had no pass-
ports and who were known as "poi-
The " Poi- maniki." Furthermore, in localities
maniki." where recruits were needed, the so-
called "lovcliiki" (catchers) began to
seize even Jews possessing passports. Passports
were stolen and destroyed, and the "poimaniki"
were impressed into service without being able to
secure redress. It was no longer safe for any man to
leave his house. From motives of selfislmess the
local authorities encouraged this traflUc in human
beings. Children were made the special object of
raids. They were torn bj- force or taken by cim-
ning from the arms of their mothers in open day-
light, and sold as having no pa.ssports. Nicholas I.
himself was eager to increase the number of Jewish
"cantonists." It happened, at times, that he per-
mitted Jews to remain in localities from which they
had been ordered to depart, on condition that they
made cantonists of their sons, born or to be born.

Tlie school reforms initiated by Nicholas I. were in
their fundamental tciidency similar to his militar}' re-
forms. The education of Jewish children and j'outii
at that time had a distinct religious and national
character. This was caused largely by the con-

525

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ruasia

ditionsof contemporary civic life, wliicli discouraged
iutiiiiiile relations between Jews and C'iirislians.
The way to general enlightenment could liave been
paved most easily by the curtailment of the Jews'
disal)ilities and l)y the improvement of their social
condition. But Nicholas I. was, on the whole, not
ii friend of enlightenment or of civic tolerance, and
his final consent to the initiation of school reforms
was prompted, there is reason to believe, by a secret
liope of the conversion of the Jews. Be this as it
may, the school reform was directed under his influ-
ence with the view of forcing the reeducation of
the growing generation of Jews in religious affairs.
The reforms were outlined by the minister of i)ublic
instruction, Uvarov, who was, apparently, a real
friend of the Jews, and who found an able assistant
in a German Jew, Ma.x Lilienthal. The govern-
ment established the so-called " government .schools"
of the first and second class, and for this purpose use
■was made of special Jewish funds and not of the
general funds, notwithstanding the
Edu- fact that the Jews paid their share of
cational all the general taxes. According to a
Policy. program jireviousl^' worked out, in-
struction in the Talmud was to be in-
cluded, but was to be nominal only, and was to be
ultimately discontinued, as, in the opinion of the gov-
ernment, it tended to foster various evils. In Wilna
and Jitomir two rabbinical schools for the training of
teachers and rabbis were established. The schools
were placed in charge of Christian principals, who
w ere in most cases coarse and uneducated, and who
were! instructed to inculcate in the students a spirit
contrary to the teachings of the Jewish faith.
About the same time the persecution of the Jewish
popular teachers ("melammedim ''), who had been
in charge of Jewish education for generations, was
initiated. While it is true that the government
schools had served the useful purpose of imparting
to the Jewish inasses a general education, V'et they
had failed to achieve the success that had been ex-
pected of them. The harsh methods, referred to
above, created distrust and anxiety in the luinds of
the Jewish people, who were never made aware of
the government's intentions. Moreover, certain laws
were enacted sinudtaneously with the opening of the
schools, and also later, that likewise awakened fear
among the Jews. They ruthlessly forbade the ob-
servance of habits and customs made .sacred by an-
tiquity, but which were unimportant in themselves,
and in tlie course of time would perhaps naturally
have fallen into disuse. For the legislation on Jew-
ish garments see the article Coptvme.

As an educational measure, the government of
Nicholas I. attempted to direct the Jews into agri-
cultural pursuits. This wise undertaking had its
origin in the preceding reign, but assumed consid-
erable practical importance under Nicholas I. Farm-
ers were granted various privileges in the payment
of taxes, and the\' and their descendants were freed
from military service for a period of fifty years.
Vnfortunateh', the severity subsetpiently displayed
considerably reduced the numljer of woidd-b(^ agri-
culturists. The enforcement of regulations for the
proper management of the farms was entrusted to
discharged uon-commi.ssioued oflicers, persons not at

all fitted lor the supervision of Jewish eolouiea.
Besides, tiie Jews were foHjidden tu hire Chrisljaiig
to work for them. In 1844. however, these opprewi-
ive measures were n[)eulod, and in Iw.Vi new and
broader provisions were enacted for iuducjug the
Jews to take up ugricidture on u larger m-ale.

Although thegovrrnment made ((Torts i<» ** reedu-
cate " the Jews, plafing u numl)er of ihem in Hua-
sian environments, and although it intnjdure«l Kug-
sian influence among the young generation of Jews,
also by forcilile means, yet, fearing tliem. it pro-
vided likewise for the separation of the Jews from
the Christians, immindfid of tlie fact that this wgre-
gation counteracted all its otiier enact menls. To
isolate the Jews, numliers of them were e.xpellcd.
under various pretexts, from villages, towns, and en-
tire provinces, thmigh at intervals the jueasures of
expulsion were relaxed, in 1K43 tlje Jews wore
ordered from the TiO-verst i)oundary-/.one al)iining
Prussia and Austria, ostensibly bc<au«.' thi-y wire
suspected of engaging in contraband tmde (si*e
below, 8.r. Kl ual Co.mminitiks). The enforcement
of these measures gave ample opportunity for abuse
and oppres.sion, and led to a gradual economic ruin
of the Jews, the great bulk of whom were alreu<ly

greatly impoverished. Apart fmm

Expulsions general causes, their economic con<ii-

and tion had steadily been growing Wfirse

Special because they had been compeiletl to

Taxation, pay double taxes fnim 1794 to 1H17.

and when the.se double taxes were
abolished they were rejjlaced by special Jewish
taxes. To be sure, the law stated that these taxes
were imposed for the maintenance of good order and
for the strengthening of the charitable work withio
the Jewish communities; nevertiieless. the govern-
ment did not turn over to the Jews for their «>wn
needs all of the moneys collected, a considerable
part remaining in the hands of the gDVcrnment.

The abolition of the kahal (1844) may perhaps be
considered as the most advantageous and mo.st use-
ful measure of the reign of Nicholas I. This popu-
lar elective institution liad served in its tinu- a useful

purpose in Poland, where it protected

Abolition the Jews from the surrounding hostile

of and turbulent classes. Also in Hiis.siu

the Kahal. the kahal repeatedly fought in tliedc-

fen.se of Jewish interests, but the relig-
ious dissensions which broke out within ltus.sian
Jewry transformed the kahal into an arena of party
strife and internal contliet. The kalials utili/.ed the
tax assessments and other preroiratives as instruments
by which they might jiersecute I lu-ir enemies. TIkso
abuses paralyzed the beneficent activities of llic
kahal. transformed it into a bugbear for the popu-
lace, and deprived it of all send)lance of authority in
the eyes of the government. In the days of Nicho-
las I. it had already lost the chanieterof a reprcst-nt-
ative body, and had ilegenerai<d into an institution
concerned merely with theconlribulionof the Jewish
taxes to the imperial treasury. The government
strenirthened the power of the kahal in ord<r to si--
cure a more imiform collection of taxis and a more
uniform conscription among the Jews. The in-
creased power brouixht with it new altuses. Toils
old weapons the kahal addeil a new one — conscrip-

Kussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

526

tion. This period coincided with that of the awa-
kened desire among tiie Jews for western-European
education, purticuhirly for tiie study of German.
The fanatical leaders of the kahal persecuted those
imbued with the new ideas, and thus retarded con-
siderably the new culture movement.

But the abolition of the kahal had also its negative
side. When in the following reigns the conililion
of the Jews was iniproved, they no longer possessed
the representative institution which might have
served them a useful purpose in securing certain
reforms. With the aboliti.m of I he kahal there was
also lost that bond of union among the Jews that
was indispensable to them in the defense of their
common interests as a distinct portion of the city
population. Most of the Je\\^ lived in the cities,
and almost all of them belonged to the burgher or
merchant class; but while at that time city gilds
and merchant and artisan gilds enjoyed a certain
degree of self-government in administrative, eco-
nomic, and judicial matters, the rights of the Jews
in so far as this was concerned had been limited
even before the accession of Nicholas I., and he im-
posed still greater restrictions. There was a rule
that even in places where the Jewish jiopulation
was quantitatively greater than the Christian, the
Jews could participate in local self-government only
to the extent of one-third of the total number of
votes. ^Moreover, the holding of certain positions
was not open to them. Thus, being without proper
representation, they could not protect their in-
terests, and hence municipal and general duties
were imposed on them in undue proportion. They
were entirely e.vcludcd fioni participation in jury
service, even in the commercial courts. In some
towns in which the merchant class was entirely com-
posed of Jews, Christian blncksmiths were selected
as members of the court, and they decided the com-
mercial dispiites of the Jews. All this nat\irally
lowered the Jews in the esteem of their neighbois
and estranged them from the Christians.

Notwithstanding his enmity toward the Jews
Nicholas I. assumed the role of protector when the
Bi.ooD Acci's.\TiON was brought against those of
Veli/.h. Believing at tir.st in the truth of the accu-
sation, he treated the accused with gieat .severity;
but when it became clear to him that the accusation
was false he condemned the irregidar proceedings
of the investigating commission, and it thus became
possible to vindicate all the accused. ]Many of the
decrees of limitation promulgated under Nicholas I.
are still (1900) in force.

II. n. *

A new era of lio]ie and of partial realization came
to the Jews of Russia with the accession to the
throne of Alexander II., Nikolaievich (1805-81).
The disastrous results of the Crimean war had de-
monstrated the unfitness of the government machine
and of theexisting legislation to cope with the needs
of the day. Heforms became neccs-
Alexander sary, and some were introduced.
II. Favors Nevertheless, limited as was the ap-
the Jews, plication of these reforms, the effect
was remarkable. Aside from the laws
themselves, l{ussian society manifested a more
tolerant attitude toward the Jews, contributing

thereby to their rapid Russiticationand to (he spread
of secular learning among them. Unfortunately
this movement was soon crossed b}' two opposing
currents in Russian life — Nihilism and Panslavism.
These resulted in bringing about a less tolerant senti-
nitnt toward the Jews, but this was through no fault
of Alexander II., Avhom Lord Reaconstield desig-
nated as " the most benevolent prince that ever ruled
in Russia" (see Ai.exandkk II., Nikoi..\ii;vicii).

The reign of Alexander III. (1881-94) marks an
era not only of reaction, but of return to medieval
methods (see Alkx.wdkk III., Ai.iAANDitovicii).
During this reign a commission, under the chairman-
.^hip of Count Pahlen, was entrusted with the in-
vestigation of the Jewish question; and its findings
were rather favorable to tiie Jews. One of the
members of the commission, Dkmidov, Piince of
San-Donato, even advocated the abolition of the
Pale of Settlement and the granting of equal rights
to the Jews. However, the ^I.\y L.\ws, introduced
by Ignatiev in 1882 as a temporary measure until
the comjiletion of the investigations by the Pahlen
commission, had disastrous consequences. Alex-
ander III. continued to be guided in his attitude
toward the Jews by the procurator of the Holy
Synod, Pobiedonostzev, who was ap-

Reaction- pointed procurator-general in 1880,

ary and who is reported to have stated

Attitude of that one-third of the Jews in Russia

Alexander would be forced to emigrate, another
III. third would be compelled to accejit

baptism, and the remainder would be
brought to the verge of starvation. Pobiedonos-
tzev's program maintained that ab.solutism and
Greek-Orthodoxy were the mainstays of the empire,
since they were sanctioned by God and founded on
historical antecedents. He thus secured the ap-
proval of Alexander III. in tlie enforcement of des-
potic measures not against the Jews only, but also
against Catholics, Lutherans, and Armenians.

Restrictions limiting the number of Jewish stu-
dents in high schools and universities (1887), the
exclusion of Jews from appointment or election as
members of city councils or boardsof aldermen, and
the discharge of Jewish emidoyees frtnn railroads
and steamship lines, and even from certain ir.stitu-
tions, as hospitals (although partly supported by
Jews), were among the civil disabilities; iuid ob-
stacles were raised also to the exercise of the Jewish
religion. The violence of minor othcials increased,
and th*^ situation was rendered more critical by the
conversion of many towns and townlefs into villages,
and by the expulsion of the Jews therefrom. The
districts of Rostov and Taganrog, which had formed
a part of the Pale, were included in the military di.s-
trictof the Don, their Jewish inhabitants being sum-
marily expelled (ISS!)). A large number of Jewish
mechanics was cxjielled from St. Petersburg be-
tween 1888 and 1890. Karly in 1891, with the ap-
pointment of Grand Duke Sergius (assassinated
1905) as governor-general of Moscow, the banish-
ment of the Jews from that citj'^ was determined
upon. The intention of the administration was kept
secret until the first and second days of Passover, a
time deemed convenient by the police for entrap-
jiing a great number of Jews. It is estimated that

C27

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Russia

by Juno 14, 1893, 14,000 Jewish artisans had hccu
banished from Moscow. Being unable to find pur-
chasers for their household effects, the exiles fre-
quently left them behind; and many (k-bfs remained
uncollected. The iuhumaniiy and brutality wiih
which this banishment was carried out find an anal-
ogy only iu the dark history of Spain (see Jkw. EiNCYC.
ix. 41a, s.v. ^loscow). Similar expulsions occurred
in Tula, Novgorod, Kaluga, Ryazan, Riga, etc.
Foreign Jews in great numbers were expelled from
the country, and especially from South Russia.
Many families were ordered to leave Riga and Libau
in lb93; and in the same year all the Jewish resi-
dents of Yalta were directed to leave that city.

Had as were the econonnc conditions within the
Pale before these expidsions, they became indescriba-
bly worse after its i)opulation had been augmented
by thousands of impoverished refugees from the in-
terior of Russia. The struggle for mere existence
became so licrcc that the i)Oor often worked for
lifteen, eighteen, or even twenty hours a day and
were able to alTord no better food than bread and
water. A large portion of the proletariat lived in a
condition of semislarvation. In an article in tlie
"Journal du Nord " for 1892 (Errera, "Les Juifs
l{usses," pp. 120-121) it was stated: "There are in
Russia only 10,000 to 15,000 Jews who possess any
certain means of existence. As to tlie masses, they
possess nothing ; and they arc far poorer than the
Christian populace, who at any rate own some land."
The prevailing ignorance in foreign countries con-
cerning these terrible conditions was due largely to
the suppression by the censorship of any mention
in the Russian newspapers of the brutal acts of the
police. But isolated notices which found their way
into the foreign press created a wave of indignation
throughout Europe, and forced even Pobiedonostzev
to make apologetic explanations. In an interview
with Arnold "White he declared that "everybody
was sorry for the brutality of the chief of police in
Moscow." It is well known, however, that the latter
oflicial merely carried out the instructions of Grand
Duke Sergius, who himself applied in practise
Pobiedonostzev 's teachings. Speaking of these, the
historian Mommscn said (Nov. 1, 1903): "Is it not
possible to arrest the decay of a greatly vaunted
civilization, the suicide of Russia? . . . But "wc
ma)' still hope that the statesmen of a great empire
and the sovereign arbiter of Europe may no longer
be dominated by the blind action of a resuscitated
Torquemada."

As a result of this medieval policy the various fac-
tions in the Russian Jewry united for the purposes of
national self-defense. Committees were organized
throughout Russia and in other countries for the relief
of the oppressed Jews. Considerable numbers of the
more enterprising of tlie latter sought relief in emi-
gration, with the result that during the last two dec-
ades of the nineteenth century more than 1,000,000
Jews left Russia, the greater part of whom went to
the United States of America, while smaller numbers
emigrated to Palestine, South America, and South
Africa. Another movement directly traceable to
the repressive legislation in Russia was the growth
of nationalism among the Russian Jews, resulting
in agricultural colonization in Palestine, and in tlie

organization of Zionist socjelies (see Agiuci-lti-1«ai.

Coi.OMKS; Al.KXANUKK HI.. Ai.EXAXDIlOVK II ; Ig-

NATiKv; May Laws; Mowow).

Tlie liopcs wliich the Jews of Itussiu repose<l in
Nicholas II., the piisill»nim(jus heir of Alexander
III., were not justified by the eventH subwiiuent to
his aecesbion (Nov. 1. 1«94). Tlie oppressive treul-
ment of the Jews by Alexander IH. ut leuBt left
no room for misunderstandinij us to liiH leul in-
tentions. The policy of Niciiolas II,. wliile no less
ojipressive, was more eva.sive. Wliere tlie legul
discriminations ugain.sl the Jews were

Nicholas somewjiat relaxed, as in the discon-
II. tinunnce of expulsion from the inU--

rior provinces, or in the nioro liln-ral
ai)plication of the 50-verst boundary law. sikIi re-
laxation was due to utilitarian motives rntlier than
to those of justice. Some influence in this diri-ctinn
was undoubtedly exerted by the petitions of many
Christian merchants and farmers of Aslrakliun,
Tambov, Borisoglyebsk, Tzaritzyn, etc., wlio suw
economic ruin in the removal of the Jews. On the
other hand, additional heavy burdens were impo.><-d
by Niciiolas' government on the Jews of Russia.
The establishment of the government liquor monop-
oly (189G) deprived thmisjinds of Jewish families of
a livelihood. For ethical reasons the leading Jews
of Russia were pleased to see their coreligionists elim-
inated from the retail lifjuor-trade; yet it was felt
that in the execution of the law a more equitulilc
treatment should have been accorded to the Jewisli
tavern-keepers. In tlie sjime year further restrict-
ive measures were introduced concerning the right
of residence of Jewish students at the University of
Moscow, and an order was issued prohibiting the
employment of Jews in the construction of the
Siberian Railroad. The number of Jewish women
eligible for admission to the medical school of St.
Petersburg was limite<l to three per cent of the tutal
number of students; and to the newly established
school for engineers at Moscow no Jews were ad-
mitted. An ordinance was likewise issued prohil>it-
ing the employment of the Hebrew language or the
Yiddish dialect by Jewish merchants in their busi-
ness accounts; ancl in 1899 new restrictinns were im-
posed on those Jewish merchants of Moscow who by
law had hitherto been exempt from certjiin disabil-
ities as members of the first merchant gild.

A blood accusation with its usual setjuencc — an
anti-Jewish riot — was brought against the Jews of
Irkutsk in 1S9G. In Feb.. 1897. an ant i Jewish riot
occurred in Shpola, government of Kiev, resulting
in the destruction of much Jewish property. An
anti-Jewish riot occurre<l also in Kantakiizov. gov-
ernment of Kherson, and a blood accus:itii'n in the
government of Vladimir; in 1H99 a numlier of anti-
.lewish riots occurred in Nik(il;iief aiul elsewhere in
South Russia, and in the following year the Jews
sufTered from additional riots and blood accusations.
As a result the Jewish masses were ruined, and their
liitiable condition was intensified by famine which
spread in Bes&irabia and in Kherson.

The economic crisis that culminate<l in 1899 brought
great distress upon many Jewish communities in
South Russia, but the .Jewish Colonization As.<*ocin-
tiou took energetic in>-ciin. s t,. m nd timely help to

Hussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

528

the needy. It is to the- credit of tiie wealthier of the
Russian Jews that tlwy rtispondetl iiunK-diately to
appeals for aid, and in tliis manner greatly alleviated
the misery. Jewish charity manifested itself also in
that year in the establishment of loan associations,
model schools, and cheap lodging-houses for the poor.
Furthermore, commercial and technical schools were
founded in many cities of the Pale.

In 1899 seventy Jewish families which had lived
in Nijni -Novgorod under temporary permits were
expelled, as were also si.\ty-tive pavers from the
city of Kiev on the ground that they were not pur-
suing their calling. Thb admission of Jews to uni-
versities and to other educational institutions was
made increasingly dillicult. In 1903

Riots at notoriousexpulsiousoccurred in Kiev,

Kishinef the Caucasus, and Moscow. A de-
and Homel. structive anti-Jewish riot was allowed
to take place in Kishinef through the
connivance of the local authorities, who were encour-
aged by Minister of the Interior von Plehve (assassin-
ated 1904); and in September of the same year a simi-
lar riot occurred at Homel. In that year also an
ordinance was issued prohibiting the holding of Zion-
ist meetings. All these measures of oppression were
carried out by the government (as was admitted by
Von Plehve to the Zionist leader. Dr. Herzl) l)ecause
of the participation of Jewish youth in the socialistic
movement.

The riots at Kishinef and IIomel and the general
economic depression gave an impetus to Jewish emi-
gration from Russia, which was almost doubled
within a year. ^Matters were made still worse by
the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war in Feb.,
1904. when about 30,000 Jews were included in
the regiments sent to the Far East. Especially
great was the number of Jewish physicians ordered
to the front, a number largely disproportionate to
the Jewish population. The general discontent
caused by the organization of the military reserves
found expression in outbreaks against the govern-
ment, and in anti-Jewish riots which, adde<l to the
grave economic crisis, brought thousands of Jewish
families to the verge of starvation.

A ray of hope appeared to the Russian Jews on
the appointment of the liberal minister, Prince Svy-
atopolk-Mirski, to succeed Von Plehve. In his
promise of general reforms they saw the ameliora-
tion of their sad condition; but their hopes, with
those of all Russia, were shattered by the stern events
of Jan. 22, 190.1, when hundreds of workmen were
killed or wounded in St. Petersburg. In the struggle
for a more liberal form of government now in prog-
ress (1905) the Jews naturally are on the side of the
Liberals.

Tlic intelligent portion of R>issian society, for-
merly more or le.ss influenced by the anii-Semitic
crusade of the " Novoye Vremya," " Svyet," etc., has
come to recognize that the Jews are not to blame for
the economic plight of Russia, and that the Ru.ssians
themselves, more than others, have been the vic-
tims of a corrupt bureaucratic regime. Prominent
writers like Count Leo Tolstoi, Maxim Gorki, and
Korolenko have protested against the organized
anti-Semitic movement as a menace not only to the
Jews, but to civilization itself. On the other hand.

there is a portion of the uneducated Russian people
auKsng which the systematic preaching i^uinst the

.lews has taken a lirm hold. Thus

Conditions the stock exchange of Kursk resolved

in 1905. to exclude Jews froni membership,

as did the Bes.sarabian horticultural
society, although the minister of agriculture had
accorded his praise to the model viticulture practised
by the Jews of Bessarabia. A similar resolution
of exclusion was passed by the Odessa shoemakers'
association. Jewish pupils of the Libau com-
mercial school who were brought by the director
on a scientific excursion to Moscow were not per-
mitted to enter the city. This and various other
particularly cruel discriminations against the Jews
in Moscow were largel}' due to the attitude which
was taken by the governor-general. Grand Duke
Sergius. Elinor officials interpreted the law to suit
their own convenience, and continued in their course
even after the Senate had reversed many of their
decisions. The legal proceedings in the cases arising
out of the Homel riots were a travesty of justice,
and were marked b\' vain attempts on the part of
the judiciary to justify the course of the adminis-
tration and to throw the blame for existing condi-
tions on the Jews. The lawyers engaged to defend
the Jews were so disgusted by the insults and re-
strictions to which they were subjected by the court
that they withdrew in a body, leaving the accused
without counsel.

The great evils of the reactionarj' regime of Alex-
ander III., and of the rule of Nicholas II., inflicting,
as they have done, untold sull'ering on the Jews of
Russia, have not been without some compensation.
On the one hand, the avowed intention of the reac-
tionary officials to make the Jew the scapegoat for
all the governmental corruption and economic back-
wardness of Russia has led to anti-Jewish demonstra-
tions and endless extortion, to the almost complete
destruction of respect for the law, to the impover-
ishment of thousands of Jewish and non-Jewish
families, to extensive baptism, practically compul-
sorj', and to wide-spread emigration. On the other
hand, the government measures have driven a great
number of Jews to seek employment in the handi-
crafts and as agricultural laborers on farms, have
compelled Jewish manufacturers to establish and
develop new industries on a scale unprecedented
within the Pale, and have created among the Jews of
Russia an awakening national consciousness which
finds expression in broader self-education, in the es-
tablishment of literary societies and reading-circles,
in the growth of Zionism, and in the determination
to carry on an organized propaganda for the moral,
mental, and physical uplifting of the Jewish mas.ses.

Bibliography: ArclifnoraHclifKhi fihnriiik Dohiimoitov,
etc.. IziUmn]! pri I'pravlenil ^Vilenxhnvn Ucli(h)i<iV(>OI(i'ii-
(/rt, IHtiV-iK); Itcrsliadski. Litovshiuc IVrrci. St. Petersburg,
18K?; I)a).'iin, I/Oiiinissiaii dcs Juifn <i<ni><VEitri)pc Orien-
tal!', I'iiris, I'.KKi: Diilinow, VnTciskniin Istmiiia, Odessa,
l«9t; 97; Errera, Lcs Jiiifs Itussrs. Bruss^els, isiW; Frederic,
Tlic \fw K.roiliis, New Yiirk, 1Hi):J; (inidiivski, Tomnvyva
i Dru(ii]ia I'lani Yi rjrii( v v Jiassii, vol. i., St. retersburp:,
ISST; Criitz, (irsrii. (Ilehrevv transl. by S. P. RabbiridWitz);
Karaiiisin, /.s^ici'i/a (i<}sii(liirstr<i h'nssishdvo. ih. IHIM 20;
Kosloinariiv, Iiuxsha)i(t htnrij/d v ZhiZDrDitisdniyahh, etc.,
ih. 18'.)2 <«); Levanda. Pnhni KliriDuilniiitliffhi SIxtrniH
Zahmiaw etc.. ili. 1874; Mysh. livknvixlstiio K Iliisffkim
Zalutnnm it 17'rrt'//(iA/i, 2<led., i/(. 1H9S; oi-slianskj, Russhoe
Znkiiiiiiiliilrlstvit It Yivrciiiihli, lb. 1H77; Ilefirsly, vol. i., lb.;
HusifliD-YcvrciifkiAi-liltiv, vo\s.i.-m., ih.; Solovyev, Iiitoriua

529

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Russia

TinsKii X Dfi'Vticixhikh TrfHiiww. Moscow, IHtiS-T"); Vnnhliod,
IShl-liKO. Klbliojfraplili's of works rcliitltin to the Jews In
Uussia have b«^ea etmipiled by Me/.hov (/{i/i/iof/rii.rtj/d IVr-
n itiliooi) Vopriwi r Uos^ii, IK").")-?'!), anil more completely
by the Society for the Promotion of Culture AmouR the Jews
of Russia, uniier llie supervision of A. Landau, editor of I'o.s-
hliiiit, under the title Sistcinatirlifshi L'li(iz<ttil Litcrntum
(J Vcrrtiidhh nn Rus.-thom Yazykuf. liOH-lSn:), St. I'eters-
burj:, 1893; St^lusclineider, Hcbr. liibL vol. xlv., Berlin,
I>H74.

II. H.
Census Statistics : Tlie first Russian census

tliat is based on icliahU! sources is tliat of 1897.
Tlie Jewish population took a great interest in tlie
taking of this census, because all legislative matters
relating to the Jews iiad previously been based on
unix'liable statistics, the nuniber of Jews had been
overestimated, and, therefore, the Jewish population
had often been overburdened Avith taxes and other
state duties. 'The census of 1897 included the whole
of the Russian territory e.\cept Finland, Bokhara,
and Khiva.

According to this census, the total population of
Russia in 1897 was 126,368,827. This number in-
cluded 5.189,401 Jews, or 4.13 per cent. Tlie as-
certaining of this single fact concerning the Jewish
population was of great importance for the interests
of the Jews. On the basis of these figures there
have appeai-ed in the Jewish as well as in the gen-
eral press many articles which show clearly that
according to their numerical proportion to tlie gen-
eral population the Jews pay heavier taxes and
duties than they should. The same condition pre-
vails with regard tfi the military service. There is
in Russia an entire series of special legislation di-
rected against the Jews and based on the sup-
position that they try to avoid military service ; as a
consequence the measures taken against them are
quite abnormal. A specimen of this special legis-
lation is the fine of 300 rubles imposed on the rela-

tives, from the nearest to the most distant, of any
one who has avoided military service. This heiivy
line has ruined many hundred Jewish familie.s Ix*-
cause, in order to levy the fine, the government
ollicials were compelled to sell tlie properly of tlie
Jews at auction. Sometimes the houseliold yoods,
including the most neces.sary articles, were «ul<l by
the auctioneer. Tiie Jesuit of the census »»li<iwecl
that I lie suppositions regarding the military Kervjce
of the Jews were entirely unfounded. In 1901. for
instance, 303,897 persons were called to miliuiry
service, of whom 17,412, or 5. 73 per cent, were Jews.
According to law, however, only IS.-VjO Jews were
liable to military service; tiiat is. it would have
been necessary for the Jews to furnish only 4 13 per
cent instead of 5.73 per cent. From this it i.s
evident that the Jewisii population not only was
not trying to avoid military service, but actually
furnished 4,862 soldiers more than law and duty
required.

The distribution of the 5,189,401 Jews through-
out Russian territory is (juite uneven. ForaiJmin-
istrative purposes theRu.ssian empire isdivided into
eight large territories: (1) European Russia, with
fifty governments; (2) Poland, with ten govern-
ments; (3) Caucasus, witli eleven governments; (4)
Siberia, with nine governments; (5) Central Asia,
with nine governments; (6) Finland: (7) Bokhara;
(8) Khiva.

The greater part of tlie Russian Jews lives in the
Pale of Settlement, which occupies only onetwenty-
third of the general territory. The proportion of
the Jewish population to the Christian in this Pale
is 11.46 per cent, while outside of the Pale it is only
0.38 per cent. The percentage of Jews living with-
in the Pale is 93.93, as against 6.07 per cent who
live outside the Pale.

European Russia,
Outside of the Jewish Pale of Settlement.

Governments.

I. North Russia.

Archangel

Kazan

Kostroma

Novgorod

Olonetz

Perm

Pskov

St. Petersburg

Ufa

Vologda

Vyatka

Totals

II. Central Russia.

Kaluga

Kursk

Moscow

Nijni-Novgorod

Orel

Penza

Ryazan

Saratov

Simbirsk

Smolensk

Tamlwv

Tula

Carried forward
X.— 34

Male.

152

1,179

461

3,338

201

1.129

:}.113

11.462

35.5

242

3»4

22.026

94.1
.2.t2

vr,

,3iKl
,488
3.53
,079
,7tW
329
,711
,2.58
,605

25.615

Jewish Population.

Female.

100

1.107

369

1,402

202

890

3.341

9,808

340

1«3

423

18.165

536
1,889
3,312
1.2S3
2,770

207

4«i8
1,274

242
4,785

905
1,045

18,716

Total.

2.52

2.286
830

4,740
4U3

2,019

6,4.54

21.270

695

425

817

40.191

1,481
4,141

8,749
2.673
6.258

.5(»1
1,547
3.m2

.571

10.4>.«

2.ltU

2.tV)0

44.331

Total
Population.

346,.5.36
2.17rt.424
l.:wi.t<l2
l,:vi7,(t£;

.3«M,l.'irt
2,9BH..5rt2
1.122,1.52
2,l(».4fi3
2,l»l,tM2
1,;M1,7k5
3,CQ2.55S

ia44ai06

1.132,84,3
2.:t7I.213
2.427.415
1..5M.774
2.(I»,><»'
1.47ii.l«iS

1.8l).l.rtl7
2.4'W,919
1..527.4.-1
1.. 525.1129
2.6S3.I iW
1.422.291

tal

22,396.017

..58
1.01
.08
.tn
.(O

13
.17

:h
.12

31
.114
.m
.13
.04
.09

.19

Russia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

530

EiROPEAX Russia,
Outside of the Jewish Pale of Settlement— (Co)i(inwed).

Jewish Population.

Total
Population.

Percentage

Governments.

Male. Female.

Total.

of Jews to 'lotal
Population.

11. Central Russia— Brought forward

25,615
753
693
985

18,716
(HO
474
661

44,331
1,396
1,167
1,646

22.3516.017
1.769.44;}
l,51.5,6i«
1.071.579

l^•e^

.08

Vladimir

Yaroslav

.15

Totals

III. Southeast Russia.

A^l^ikhan

28,040

1,637
7,847
7,531
1,099
1,293
1,418

20,491

l..>>6

7,.593

6,194

994

i.3as

1,262

48,540

3,173
1.5,440
13.725
2.093
2,.501
2,680

26,752,732

1,(103..542
2..562.7.54
2.492.367

i.ty)o..5<)0

2.748.K76
2,531,253

.18
31

I><in Territory

Kharkov

.55

Orenburjr ,.

Samara

.09

Voronezh

Totals

IV. Baltic Pnninces.

(^(tiirland

20,825

23,327

903

14,703

18,787

2.5,986

487

13,951

39,612

49,313

1,396

28.654

12,939,292

672.308

418,817

1,299,-523

.31
7 33

Ksthonia

Livonia

2 24

Totals

38.939

40,424

79.363

2,390,648

3 .32

Totals, European Russia, excepting the
Pale

109,839

07,867

207,706

60,.522,778

0 34

Pale of Settlement.

Jewish Population.

Total
Population.

Percentage

of Jews to Total

Population.

Governments.

Male.

Female.

Total.

I. Northwest Russia.

Grodno

134,126

101,290

163,457

96.686

a3,238

98,443

142.748
110,940
17.5.200
104,615
92,440
106.818

276,874
212,230
;«8.f).57
201,301
175,678
205,261

1.602,681
1,.548.410
2,147,911
1,688.573
1.489,228
1,591,207

17 "8

Kovno

13 71

Minsk

15 77

Moghilef

Vitebsk

11.92
11 80

Wilna

12 90

Totals

677,240

55,091
207,245
177,4.58

55,337
193,059

732,761

59..539
220,618
189,139

.56.080
204.713

1,410,001

114.630
427.863
36t)..59r
111,417
397,772

10.068.010

2,298.834
3..5.59.481
3.018,.551
2,780,424
2,987,970

14 00

II. Southwest Russia.

Chernigov

4 90

Kiev

]■' (6

Podolfa

Poltava

12.15
4 02

Volhvnia

13 31

Totals

688,190

110,.573
33.880

16,5,900
51,327

730,089

11.5.064
32.245

171,382
49.409

1,418,279

22.5,6:}7

6<),125

337,282

100,736

14,645,260

1.930..392
1. 448.973
2,738.923
2,113,384

9.70
11 65

III. South Russia.

Be.ssarabia

Crimea

4 .57

Kherson (including Odessa)

12 32

Yekaterinoslav

4 77

Totals

361,680

34.915
40.fM4
44.4K5
74..'i57

100.497
23.769
.5.5.160
28.468
.59.6.56

169.978

368,100

37.424
42.383
46,42)»
79.371

112.802
26.7f>4
.58.117
30,.340
62.714

179.96.5

729,780

72,339

82.427

90.912
1.5.3.728
222.:.'9i)

.50.473
113.277

.58.808
122.370
349.943

8,237,672

842,398

761,689

.579.3(XJ

1.1.59.273

1.4(>4.(«1

81.5.0t)2

.582,696

772,386

1,931.168

8.86

8..59
10.82
15.69
13.26
15.a3

9.13
13.89
10.09
15.84
18.12

IV. Poland 'Territory of Vistula).

Kallsz

K lelce

I.omza

Lublin

Plotrkow

PkK'k fPlotzk)

Radotn

Suwalkl

Syedlllz

Warsaw

Totals

640,327

676.249

1.316.576

9.401,097

14.01

Grand totals

2,367,437

2,.t07.199

4,874,636

42,352,030

11.46

I- ^

I-ISZ-j

isz

Suvvall/i ■^ > vvn L N A i

-^...'-y<'^''^-' J?f:-~&:^ J \ .' Minsk

•- — — <~i Moscow

/ h

-Vitebsk v^-^ / \

_ iSMO LE N S kJ^-

^r~7s^moiensk ,^

I wt..,. \ iMoghil^A >.

! MOGHILEF \ /

orrve

Bobruisk*. ^
MINSK

•LubJi^i

PERCENTAGE OF JEWS
IN GOVERNMENTS

From 4^ to 5% From 8* to lO:^ From lOi to 12'

From \i1i to U^ From U^ to 10^ From 17? up
Tolt^iva 1.02^ Podolia 12.15:i

Taurida l.ST'i

Vekaterinoslav i.l'i'i
Chernigov 1.995

Kajisz %.i9%

Flock 9.13:<

Suwalkl 10.09:$

Kielce 10.82^

Bessarabia 11.65:1

Vitebsk 11.80:J

Moghilef 11.92:4

Kiev liSai)

Kherson 12.32:<

Wihia 12.90;^-

Volhynia 13.3i:{

Kovno 13.71*

Radom 13.89*

Loniza 15.09:4

Minsk 15.7

Piotrkow n.83*

Syedlitz 15.84*

Grodno 17.28*

AVarsaw 18.12<

25^ l.oiiKlni'le East from Or<y

Map of Western Russia Showing the Jkwism Pale of SfrrrLEMENT.

Sussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

532

Caucasus.

Governments.

Baku

DIack Sea Territory.

I)aglieslan

Klizabetlipc'l

trwau

Kars

KuLiun

Kuiuis

Stavropol

Territory of Tersk . .
Tillis

Totals

Jewish ropulation.

Total

Percentage

of Jews to Total

Population.

Male.

Female.
5,610

Total.

Population.

6.040

11.650

826.806

1.41

587

467

1.U54

.57.478

l.s:?

5,25(5

4,594

9.S5()

571.381

1.72

992

1,031

2.(I2;J

878.18.")

.23

1.197

876

2,073

.s2^»..v.n

.2-")

1.118

iX)

1.208

29(l.(i,54

.42

2.4.53

2.343

4.796

1.9]!t.:ftl7

.2.")

4,703

4.1i»'J

8.902

l.(i.")7.243

.84

717

574

1.291

873.80.-)

.15

4,272

2.848

7.120

932.341

.71)

4,666

3.838

8,504

1.054,2.50

.81

32,001

26,470

5.8,471

9,291,090

.6:1

Central Asia.

Governments.

Akmolinsk

Ferphana ,

Saiiiareand . . .
Semipalatinsk.
Semirye<'hensk

Syrdarian

Topfiay

Traiiseaspian .
Ural

Totals

Jewish Population.

Male.

811

1.366

2,&52

1.56

1.5;}

l,64<i

669

7,259

Female.

317

903

2.027

146

126

1,131

240

5,470

Tot;>.l.

1,628

2.2»i9

4,379

302

279

2,777

909

128

12,729

Total
Population.

682.429
]..575.Ni9
.'<;59.12:}
(M).909
itf)0.211
1.46<).249
4.>1.()91
380.32:5
645,590

7,740,394

Perceiitape

of Jews to Total

Population.

.24

.14
.51
.04
.(«
.19
.02
.24
.02

.16

Siberia.

Jewish Population.

Total
Population.

Percentage

of Jews to Total

Population.

Governments.

Male.

Female.

Total.

Amur

231
1,441
4,396

163
1.50
3,843
47
1.212
;i.844
3.616

■,m

2,813

394
1,591
8,239

127
2.453
7.696
7,.5.50

697
5,730

120,306

22;5.;ii6

514,202

28.113

1,4:{4.482

1.928.2.57

t);}7.777

209.t)07

570,579

Coast Territory (Khabarovsk)

Irkut.sk

1 60

Island of Sakhalin

4-5

Tobolsk

1.241
3,852
3,9:14
391
2,917

.17
.40

1.18
.26

1.00

Transbaikal (Chita)

Yakutsk

Yeniseisk

Totals

Totals Asiatic Russia

18,483

15,994

34.477

5,666,6.59

.60

57,743

47.934

105,677

22.698.143

.48

From the foregoing figures the following conclu-
sions maybe drawn: (1) Tliat there is scarcely a
single province in Hussiu witiiout a Jowisli popula-
tion. The Jews are to be found even in the steppes
of Astrakhan, among the Kalmucks
Density of and Kirghiz, on the island of Sakhalin,
the Jewish, and even in tiie out-of-the-way terri-
Popula- tory of Yakutsk. (2) That only in the
ticn. farthest north is the Jewish popula-

tii)n ver}- small, as for instance in the
government of Arcliangel. In the governments
of Vyatka, Vologda, and Olonetz there are no

Jews whatever; but of the 592 districts (•' uyezdy ")
in European Kiissia only 17 are without any Jewish
population. In the Asiatic governntents the pro-
portion is greater, as there 18 districts out of 176
have no Jewish population. In the Pale of Settle-
ment proper — consisting of Poland, Lithuania, Vol-
hynia, Kiev, IJcssarabia, Podoiia, and Odessa — the
Jewish poimlation varies from 10 to 15 per cent;
in tiie immigration region — also a part of tlje Pale,
and consisting of the governments of Poltava, Ciier-
nigov, Yekaterinoslav, Crimea, and Kherson (except
Odessa) — from 4 to 5 per cent; and in the rest of

533

THE JEWLSII ENCYCLOPEDIA

HuBBia

Russia, from 0.03 to 0.5 per cent. lu the iiiitui-
gratioii district the Jews. settled at the end of llie
eighteenth eentuiy in great luunbers, and cimstant
ininiignitiou followed from the formerly Polish gov-
ernnients.

It is interesting to note the proportion of sexes
among tin; Jewish and non-Jewish popiilulioii of
Knssiu. The following table shows the percentage
of females to the male population in the Pale of Set-
tlement:

Territory.

Among .lews. '" '"e Total
Population.

In Nortlnvest Russia

108.3 101 ..5
lOti.l 101.5
101.8 03.9
10,5 (j 9iJ .5

In Soiiiliwest. Uussia

In Smiili Uussia

In Poland

Conditions dii-ectly the opposite of this are found
in th(! interior of Russia. Outside of the Pale of
Settlement to every himdred males there are the fol-
lowing numbers of females:

Territory.

Among Jews.

In the Total
Population.

North Russiji

82.4
73.1
99.3
103.8
83.7
86.5
75.4

106..5

no..5

100.4

106.3

90.1

94.3

8.5.8

Central Russia

Soutlieiist Russia

Baltic I'rovinf-es

Caiirasus

Siberia

Middle Asia

This dilTerence may be explained by the fact that
the emigration from the Pale into the interior of
Russia naturally brings more men than women,
owing to the peculiar conditions existing there,
while the emigration to America, Africa, etc., con-
sists ciiieriy of whole families.

Bini.KKiK.^PHV : Shnrnih Matcrialov oh Eko)i<niuchcsl(o)n
I'dhizlicnii Ycvreyev v flf.s.sif, vol. i., St. Petersburg, 1904;
B. (ioldberg, in JUdische StatU^tik, Berlin, 1903.
H. R. J. G. L.

CENSUS OF 1897.

I. — P(>Pri..\T10.\ OF THE GOVKRNME.NTS OF THE PaLE OF
SETTLE.MEXT.

(ioverninents.

Male.

Female.

Total.

s; S c
:3 .- w

^i 3
u » o

Be.ssarabia

Cllei'liigdV

(ipMlni)

110,.573

.5.5.091

134,13(>

l(1.5,iMKI

207,345

]01,2<,K)

1(13, 457

9(l,fi8(l

177.4.58

,5.5.:i;i7

.3;i.,s,S()

83.3;f8

19:},059

98,443

11.5,004

59..5;i9

I43,74.s

171,383

330.(118

110.940

17.5,3(K)

104,615

189,1:j9

.56,(N)

33.345

it3,440

304,713

106,818

49,409

335,(i:!7
114.6:!0
37(1.874
:J:57.383
4.37.86;i
313,3:!0
3;i8,(i.-)7
301.301
3(1(1.507
111,417
(1(1,135
17.5.(i;8
397.773
30.5.3(11
100,7:tO

96.09
9'.53
93.9(1
iHl.MI
!«.93
91.:i0
93.39
93.43
93.83
9S.(>7
1(15.07
'.'0.04
94.:«i
!t:.M5

lo;i..ss

11.90

4.99

17 38

Kherson

Kiev

Koviio

I3.:tj

12.(H
13.71
1.5 77

Minsli

iMoLThilef

Poddlia

PolI:i\ii

11.93

13.15

4 03

Taurida

4. .57
11.80
13.31
1:' 90

Vitebsk

Volhvnia

Wiliia

Yekattrinoslav .
Tc.tals.

.51,337

4.77

1,727,110

1,830.9.50

3,5.58.06(1

94. :t.'

10.79

lI.-r0PlLATI0.\ OK TIIK 0OViR.SMt.\T8 OK Bl'SSU.V POLAXD.

Uovernnu'iitd.

Kallsz

Klelee

I^iiii/.ii

I.iililln

Plotrkow

I'IcKk iPlotzk)

Radoiu

Suwttlkl

SyeUlltz

Warsaw

Totals

Totals, Table I.

Totals of the
whole Pale of
Seltlemeni ..

34.91.5
4<MH4
44.4Kt
74.;J.57

109.497
33.769
5.5,161)
38,468
.59.6.56

169.978

K.-M,|,|.

37,434
43,;jKI
46.439
T9.371
113. Hit'
36.7<H
.58.117

:iii.:u<)

«3,7I4

179.9IV5

T-.tal.

34H,»4,i I

640,;t37
1.737.110

676.349

l,8;«).{rio

i. a

t » a

.'J

i:,.m

W.l.i

lu.io

r. Ki

U.l'l
lo.?J

2,367,437 I 3,507,100

4,874,6:t6 W.<2 I II JI

III.— POPfLATICV

OK F,lROPF.*.N nrSiSM (OlTSinE OK TUB
P.\LK).

Governments.

Arohanjrel

Astrakhan

("ourland

District of Cos

sacks of Don.

Esthonia

Kaluga

Kazan

Kliarkov

Kostroma

Kursk

Livonia

Moscow

N i J n i - N o V -

gorod

Novgnrod

Oliinelz

Orel

Orenl)urg

Penza

Perm

Pskov

Ryazan

SI. Petersburg

Saiuiira

Saratov

Simbirsk

Smolensk

Taml)i>v

Tula

Tver

Ufa

Vladimir

Vologda

Voronezh

Vyatka

Yarosluv

Totals

Totals of the
whole Pale of
Settlement. . .

Male.

1.52

1,6:^7

33,337

7,847
909
$(4.5

1.179

7,5:11
461

3 2.52

5.437

1,390

3,:n8

201

3,488

1,((99

a53

1.1351

3,113

1.079

11.463

1,35-3

1,7(VH

.339

.5.711

1.358

l,6a5

756

:t55

6»1

243

1.418

394

085

Female, i Total.

Sis

'^a

z a
Si?-

u ■

2.5,986

7,593

4'*7

.5:iil

1.107

6.! "4

1.- •

13.9.51

;).3I3

1. :

l.i'.J
3(C.'

2.770
994
3«C

.s'.K I

3.:mi

4(1-*
9. SOS
1,3118
1,2:4

34:;

*.:<>

'AC,
1.015
640
340
474
)«
1.3ta

061

49,313 I W.76

15.440

1.:ri'.

1 : ■

~>.t»>4
8.74V

.08
M

.13

.11

,\5

.17

334

..M

1((9,839

97,867

.12

-t . « *"

_.o

4(0

'.''.(

.•50

.11

6.3-i8

1 J-,

'r'

.31

2.(i!tt

.1.3

rM>

.04

3.01!'

.07

(1.4.54

.VH

1..54:

I'.t

? 1.370

1 o|

3..50I

.IM

3.(M3

1.1

.571

.ii»

.l-»
.(«

.(M
Ml

3.<rf^i

iot.ll 1

.11

•^17
1

<f(

10.15

2.307,437 2..5(T7,109

»7.

Grand totals In j

Euro p can

Uussia 2,477,270 ' 2.005,060

Out.slde of the

Pale (Incliid-l

Ing SIberIn,

cUM I" 1«».747 14«.01.'<

Grand totals in
the empire... 2..>1G.18I

4.874,(00

M.«S '

5.068313

»!.;:,>

314,7^1

1I'..2«

:,ft53.

M
UM

4. OS

.37
i.13

'I n.

Hussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

534

■<

■<
D

o
O

•IBJOl

— ?! 00

■SAiaf-uox

?|2i?J2'"'|^'i5S2iZ?JS

sjiaf

»-»— :i'::^'s = ==H=^^»» :

•IBJox

'=~2:S^-^^ = |gi'--ti»tf;

•Sii9r-noK

•SAiar

. .»H -cs— ■ ■•s •?»» • • -—i

c
"3

•Wox

S?Sj1S|^551-hH51'3 = 5^

•SAiar-noK

gSS|nr:55£gsss5?:

•SM3r

: :'^~"*e5 I'' :-"' : : : :

E
.a

•TOOX

•sjiaf-uoN

■SAiaf

:- : K

•mox

■ — t- ^

•S.ttaf-UON

•SAiar

l2
<

•mox

^ ^* X -^ i^ i-"^ ?i L* I- •.- ^ ^- rt X i.*;

•SAiaf-aoM

■tf -^ ^- X i^ .'^ Q ^ »*••■** ?t t'- -^

•SAi3f

1 §

•mox

Si-2-.C C ?.=:•* — sill- XX-1- I —

-^ " ?j Ci ^ -i — rr -H ci I t-

•fiiiaf-uoM

•SM3f

•I»lox

il — — rrrriirtx — •»" — — — -"r

•8J43f-nO>J

ox — i.-;-»'-»tiiC2'Si3 — — 2F^

•Riiar

■ 5

•Wox

ti — ij ri -r I! Tj J-. rt -r -* ?5 — i5 «

•SMaf-aoK

•8.«af

— is — 3;;^ — = f5 ?«..- — ?! — »-•

•mox

— 3 -r 1 1 Z 1 - ;: K- c -i 3; I- X "* i

•8A13f-aO>{

•8M3r

|53;gS-2s|g|USgS?3

■♦ ;r5 — co»lM— ■ — •><« -r-l

a
e

£5!

i >

w t. S X -y. K x r- H > >

Statistics of Jkwisii Colonies in the Govern-
ments.*

Governments.

No. of
Settle-
ments.

15
36
76
15
28
18
32
17

301

No. of
Families.

Population.

Land in
Deciatines.

Bessarabia

1,024
1(17
261

3.304
477
216
885
824
&52
192
991
372

1,416

5,466
&52
1.811
.24.25(5
3,221
1,6(«
5,762
5.828
3,279
1,2*5
5,1 ttJ
2.414
8.389

3,300

c'lieniijrov

1.280

G rod no

Kherson

Kiev

3..585

42.839

2.812

Kovno

2.049

Minsk

C.tiOl

Mophilef

5.:i43

Podulia

2,191

Vitebsk

Vollivnia

Wilna

Yekaterlnoslav

1.914

5..551

4.392

17.6.50

Totals

10.721

68.959

100.107

♦ See also Agriccltcral Colo.mes in Russia.

II. R.

Artisans: In the Pale of Settlement: In tlie

middle of the nineteenth century the Russian govern-
ment, realizing the usefulness of the Jewish arti-
sans, issued a ukase (June 28, 1865) permitting them
to reside anywhere in the empire. This edict, how-
ever, did not ameliorate to any great extent the con-
dition of the Jewish artisans crowded together
within the Pale ; for its indefinite character afforded
many opportunities for abuse in its execution by the
local administrations. Hence only a comparatively
small number of artisans dared to avail themselves
of the opportunity to settle in the interior, the
territory being strange to them. Moreover, they
had to take into consideration the fact that their
children, when grown, would be returned to the
Pale if they failed to follow some handicraft, and
that they themselves, %siien prevented by sickness or
other disability from pursuing their vocations, might
be expelled from the places in which they had set-
tled, even though they had lived there for decades.
It is not surprising, therefore, to find that only 2
per cent of the Jewish artisans in the Pale and in
Poland availed themselves of the pro-
Congestion visions of the new law. On the other
of hand, the "Temporary Regulations"

Artisans (May Laws) of 1882, which caused the
Within the removal en masse of Jews from vil-
Pale. higesinto townsand townlets, contrib-
uted still further to the congestion of
artisans within the Pale, is'eithcr the emigration
to America nor the growth of manufactures im-
proved the condition of the Jewish artisans, since the
emigration of the latter was not sufficiently exten-
sive, and since many manufacturing establishments
were closed to Jewish employees because they would
not work on Saturdays or on Jewish holy days.

The number of Jewish artisans in the twenty-five
governments of the Pale of Settlement and Poland
in 1898 was 500.986, or 13.2 percent of the Jewish
population of that territory. This is a very high
percentage considering that in Germany artisans form
only from 6 to 7 per cent of the entire population.
The proportion of Jewish artisans to the entire Jew-
ish population varies in the different portions of
Western Russia. The lowest percentage is that of
Western Poland, namely, 9.9 percent; the highest, of
Lithuania, namely, 14.8 per cent. In the govern-

635

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Buscia

ment of Warsaw it, i.s only 7.5 per cent; in Suwalki
8.7 per cent; in Grodno 18.5 percent; in 'Uiinriila
and Kadoni 20 per cent. On an average, in tlie
Iwenty-tive governments of Western Russia one-
tenth to onc-tifth of tiie J^'s are engaged in handi-
crafts.

Tiie following table shows the proportion of Jew-
ish artisans to the total Jewish jiopiilation in the
fifteen governments of the Pale of Settlement, ac-
cording to statistics of 1887 collected by a govern-
ment committee, and tho.se of 1898 gathered; bv the
Jewisli Colonization Association:

Statistics ok Jewish Artisans ix the Pale of
Settlement in 1887 and 1898.

1887

1898

•" X.X

•Stn.2

Governments.

c[2

en tape (
Artisan
Populat

J= o

•eg
ft

£ J3

en tape f
Arti.san
Populat

3 M

Ci-S-?

3«

t^a

>Z \f

^■t~

^•'S

i-iiS

Oh&is

Ch jtfe

1-5

O 0,.

1-3

a; 0)

'^-5

►^-^

Bessarabia

\m,(m

18.193

13.4

173,641

20.976

12.1

Cliprnigov

.57,3:«

7,315

12.8

71,a57

ll.ofj:?

15.5

<;ri)iiiii)

1.5.5,149

:W,442

22.2

24;i,.>56

44,829

18.5

Ktierson

197,«^8

17,.573

8.9

2:?<),6ti9

24,7S2

10.8

Kiev

194 471

2;i,;J21
21,275

12 0

2(3<.J,:3a5

2(X),i:«

4:{,;isti

2:i„525

16.1
11.8

Kovno

2.52,492

8.4

Minsk

21.5,013

30,875

14.4

2;50,.578

;i5,r)87

14,2

MoKhilef

1.55,732

14,%9

9.6

178,714

25,849

14.5

I'odolia

304,ft55

37,080

12.2

319.691

40,621

12.7

Poltava

49,208

5,909

12.0

76,.541

8,815

11.5

34,94<)
115,116

5,261
14,534

15 1

;«.()91
146,612

7.466
2:1473

20.0
16.1

Vitt'l)sk

12.6

Volhvnia

290.962

28,167

9.7

241,512

36.9(U

15.3

Wilna

192,988

27.(i(»)

14.3

193,461

26.240

13.fi

Yekaterinoslav

52,5(J0

6,9:32

13.2

71,(J86

8,o:{9

11.2

Markedly large increases are shown for the gov-
ernments of Kovno, Moghilef, Taurida, and Vol-

Jewish artisans, or 01 per cent uf llictolui; and in
19U3 ill that of Vilelisk tiie total number of niasler
ailisaiis was 2,820, of whom 72 jier cent were Jews.
It thus becomes clear that, with thiscarcity of artisans
aiiii.ng the jicasant class, and llie growing «lcniand
in Ihc villages for cheap manufactured urlicieH. Ihc
Jews are important factors in the economic life of
Western Hussia.

The 500,980 Jewish artisans in Wesl«rn Hu8^ia in
1898 were distributed as follows: Litliuunia, 94,594 ;
Poland, 119,371; South Pussia. 01,203; Southwest
Russia. 140,H.19; and Whit.- Russia. 84.909.

In White Rus.sia 55 percent of all the Jewish arti-
sans lived in the cities of Vitebsk. Dhnaburg
{Dvinsk),andP(jlotsk. In the government of Poltavu
57 percent lived in the cities of Poltava, Krcmen-
tchug, and Kobyliaki; and in thai of Kherson 77
per cent lived in Ode.s.sa, Kherscjn, and Yeli/.avet-
grad. This disproportionate number of Jewish ar-
tisans in cities with large Jewish populations was
due to the economic and legal disabilities of the Jews
in the Pale of Settlement. The percentage of Jew-
i.sh arti.sans in thedilTerent trades in the I'ale and ia
Poland was as follows:

Boot-making, shoe-making, etc :7.o

BulUliiig anil ceramics aj

Carpentry, cabinet-making, etc 9.9

Chemicals o.7

Clothing, etc 3M.7

Food preparations H.a

Metal-working, high grade 4.1

Metal-working, low grade 6.7

Paper-iimking, paper-box making, etc 2.3

Weaving, spinning, rope-making, etc :i.7

It is thus seen that one-half of the Jewish ailisuns
within the Pale are engaged in the manufacture of
clothing and foot-wear.

The distribution of Jewish arti.sans \\ it bin the Pule
and Poland according to trades is as fi.lliiw«i-

Trades.

Twenty-
flve Uov-
ernments.

Lithuania.

White

Russia.

Southwest
Russia.

South
Russia.

Westpm
Poland.

Eastern
Poland.

Bakei*.

4.6
1.2
3.1
1.4
4.4
6.0
3.2
2.3
2.4
6.5
1.2
1.3
l.l
1.1
2.2
1.6
1.0
3.8

14.4
1.5

19.1
1.4
1.2
1.0
1.7

6.3
1.2
3.2
1.1
4.8
5.2
2.0
3.9
2.2
7.3
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.6
4.0
1.9
0.8
3.2
13.9

;t.o

13.8
2.1
1.5
0 8
2.7

4.3
0.9
4.2
1.3
4.3
7.9
2.8
3.1
2.0
8.5
1.5
1.2
1.2
1.1
3.2
1.4
0.7
3.4

16.7
1.5

14.5
1.4
1.3
0.8
0.7

3.2

1.2
4.0
1.7
4.4
7.3
4.1
2.0
2.5
5.9
1.1
1.6
0.9
1.6
2.1
1.3
1.2
4.:i

12.6
1 1

19.7
1.6
1.4
0.9
0.5

2.8
1.1
3.4
1.8
3.1
.5.8
4.7
1.2

1.5
1.2
2.3
1.2
0.7
2.8
1.7
2.8
13.2
o.s

21.4
0.2
1.0
17
0.03

5.6
1.5
(1.7
1.5
4.0
3.8

2.8
0.6
2.5
3.7
0.7
1.3
0.5
(19
0.5
1.3
0.9

liii

1.2
27 7

'i!i

U.3

i.i
tt.i

r, r.

Barbers and wig-makers

1 5

Blacksmiths

1 7

Bookbinders

\£

Butchers

('al)inct-makers and joiners

Cap-makers

Carpenters

Copi)ersinittis

1 5

Dressmakers

0.3

Dvers

1 0

<; laziers

1.5

Liicksuiiths

1.4

Musicians and piano-luners

0.7

< iveii-makers and bricklayers

a •»

Painters

Saddlers and liarness-makers

0.7

Seamstresses

4.1

Shoemakers

17.5

stocking-makers

0.7

Tailors

31.7

Tanners

1.5

Ti )t)acco-cutters

0.8

Watchmakers

0.9

Weavers

0.3

hyniu. The proportion of Jewish to non-Jewish arti-
sans may be illustrated as follows: in 1880 there
were in the government of Moghilef 5,509 master
artisans, among whom were 4,290 Jews, or 78 per
cent; in 1897 in that of Grodno there were 20,515

It will be noticed that witii tlic exception of Po-
land the distribmion is tolerably uniform Most of
the Jewish weavers are concentnited in Western
Poland and Lithuania.
The following table shows the clussilicalion of

Bussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

536

the Jewish artisans in the twenty-live g-overnments
of the Pale ami of Poland as masters, assistants, and
apprentices, with the percentages in each class:

in Poland is 250 to 300 rubles per annum; of shoe-
makers, 150 to 250 rubles. Seamstresses earn on the
average not more than 100 rubles; lacemakers.

Territory.

Masters.

Assistants.

Apprentices.

Total.

Percentage

Masters.

Percentage

of
Assistants.

Percentage

of
Apprentices.

Lithuania

.55.980
2.5.420
38,2:U
28,2.58
69,.5x:{
41,921

18.393

17.121
20.0ti2
46.:i95
25.177

20.221
10,748
14.4«8
12.94:j
24,871
17,811

94,.594
49.548
69.823
61,2(3
140,849
84,909

59
51
54
40
.50
50

19
25
2t
33
33
30

Potund Ea>tern

Poland, W«^stt*rn

S<>utt)\vest Russia

WUlte liussia

Totals

259.396

140,528

101,062

500,980

2-J

Here Lithuania shows the greatest proportion of
masters (59 per cent) ; South Russia, the smallest
(46 per cent). The small number of assistants in
Lithuania indicates a greater amount of poverty
among the master-workmen there.

The Jewish women engaged in the various trades
within the Pale are distributed as follows:

Territory.

Number.

Percentage of

Total Jewish

Artisans.

Lithuania

16,7.54

7,671

8.581

21.23:{

15.040

Polanil. Kastern

Poland, Western

South Itussia

Sfuith west Russiii

White Russia

14
15

Tiie trades followed by them are shown iu the
table below :

about 45 rubles, because tiie demand for lace lasts
only a short season. The liighest wages, from 8 to 12
rubles a week, are earned by embroid-
Wages of erers. Conditions are somewhat bet-
Artisans, ter in South Russia, where some of
tiie Jewisli artisans earn from 400 to
1,000 rubles per annum. As a rule, throughout the
Pale the incomes of tlie Jewish arti.sans aie-insuf-
ficient for the proper support of their families-
Thousands lead a hand-to-mouth existence and are
compelled to seek the aid of charit}'. In 1900 iu
Odessa 1,427 Jewish artisans lived in extreme pov-
erty and amid indescribable insanitary surround-
ings. These conditions can be improved only by
the dispersion of tiie artisitns throughout the emjiire
or by their more extensive removal to other countries.
In the Interior of Russia : Statistics concerning the
Jewish artisans iu tlie governments of the interior
of Russia, outside the Pale, are derived from reports
of the artisan gilds to the Ministry of the Interior in

Territory.

Dress-
makers.

Seam-
stresses.

Milliners.

Stocking-
Makers.

Cigarette-
Makei-s.

Glovers.

Other

Trades.

Total.

Lithuania

6,860
3.104
2..594
4..596
8.2a5
7,180

2,799
1,851
2,a33
1.605
5,798
.2,445

523
295
579
792
1.147
678

2..566

249

2(i8

3:J5

1.191

1,091

630
37
33
153
484
363

101
173
34
28
89
39

3.275
1..5.54
].:330
1.072
4,2:i9
3.250

16.754
7.26:3
7.671

8..581
21.2:!3
15,046

Poland. Ea.stern

Poland. Western

South Russia

Southwest Russia

White Russia

Totals

32.619

17,331

4,014

5,700

1.700

464

14.720

76.548

The Jewish artisans learn their trades in the old-
fasliioned way, the appreciation of the importance
of teclinical training being of recent growth onlJ^
The trade - sciiools and evening -schools recently
opened in Pinsk, Byelostok, Warsaw, etc., are over-
crowded and altogether inadequate for present
needs. In general it may be said that
Trade- the state of Jewish handicrafts in the
Schools. Pale at present is like that of German
handicrafts at the beginning of the
nincteentli century. At the same time, in the large
cities, where there is a growing demand for articles
of better woikmansiiip, the Jews furnish the best
tailors, shocmakeis, joiners, watchinakers, etc.

Owing to keen competition, and the im favor-
able eoiiditioiisof credit and of the market, wherebj'
money-lenders and middlemen leeeive a large part
of the jirotits. the income of the Jewish toilers is
ve3-y small. The average income of Jewish tailors

1893. The table on page 537, giving data concern-
ing the Jewish artisnns in the lifleen more important
governments, is ba.sed on the.se rejiorts.

In tiie enactment of 1804 the necessity was recog-
nized of granting to Jewisli artisans the right of
residence in governments outside the Pale; but the
comjilieated formalities, the lack of familiarity with
the life of interior Russia, the inackvpiate means of
commuiiicalion, and ignorance of the
Leg-al Russian language prevented the bulk
Position, of the Pnlish-r>itliiianian Jewish arti-
sans from taking advantage of this
permission. Individuals jiossossing enterjuist! and
courage, however, found opportunities in the in-
terior governments, where they not only became
prosperous. lint were the means of estal)lisliiiiir tiie
reputation of the Jewisli artisan. Jewish distillers
esjiecially were in demand among the Russian estate-
owners. Accordingly, the laws of 1819 and of 1827

537

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bussia

< .

As I »-ti-

(•■S —< I tS 30 ■♦

IIS

IS.

SS8

5,1

t. o.--

1— (

»-H

«> s-^

£.., a

ft-

■ ?j

P2 i= ti

«3« IIS»» ,

1* -_• «

a— ,
■> bo ti

C8 C C

"a*

! CO

-f Cd —
o25c5

^ll

sliig J3 §s^s

N ;

s|^ zfM'41 ?i;

COglO

liii^

slii

5-'

555^ 1=5 Sli^il

??: S?»gfeS

^*j"'M

g's! ssijs

JS'-S 33 •■Ncc— a5»'i— -f3Ci-»

X t- -^ 2? -*■ Q

— 3t t-i ;i

tM AM W, ^> sM

S5 55feSU

|i P =iil5!^ip ss^Mll^i Sg 5S

^11

-St-

S;S3 IsS-r X3J-J CCiQ
rj — " Ui" ■ ei ^ r-i >c

■M = irj t^ I-
t- ?! Lt ;r —

cC' X i I 3C 1.7 c: o
^ .-; ' ^ — iit »c

— — — r: !

S?^ ii5J^2 5vi ?;?? fB

>-> 1 V

III

9,696
10.24

b /^-^

s w rt

— "5 r» C^ oc

OJC?iC ©_;

§1 iliilSlgfiiis gS35£;g^ i3( js

i--2;i

-■ - : rf'

0^ «3

x:t3

002' :;«

acre CO ;d —

— as

_ 33

x'o'co

oc cc i « * is TO
1.0'— I — t-^:o' ^

— — ■ — •

ijjs ! rfH , -zi;;i- 1 1:-2 ^•5--^;i , 5n ii :^i:

— ?*

to
a

1- — ' I 1 - '* CO
CO .v< -r — '-O

cscii

SiilS ||^.! 5f!sf:

LO 1 - -.c CO ?T

?}?25 S£3^5 95 !i -"'■'- ,~^' ,~E C*r^

fj . = . i£ -x '* " ^1 S ■ I- = y I .■* T ~ -iC • i •

• C^ .1- .-■*.'".. .1* V ... -T . ?* .X

tfir rfio -r?;~xc; -V* r-i-TJ-.-o x .^ -- ;^S

55 — — _ - "

5§2

aSJji

-r

*■• ^

r:r:ri

C5 —

I - 71 >.o ■?? »o

— ZJ L- '■" 7t
-r TO ri 1- 3

H?{

I - -r rt -r I 2 V — _■

— ri I X •

'i ri

z, s _

;= to >
■2 •; St

r-— t^A>-

'^ii w

— :j
■S tf

> —

si Si
~ r.

!Sii> j^i:; £2h^> --i ^— "j!-^

fa 3

■J]

c
I*

c
r

5S f St 7

2J£ ^1 >l JS'

^t. Pi H-

Bussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

538

granted Jewish distillers the rigiit to live aiiywliere
in the interior of liussia, and in Irkutsk, Siberia,
also.

By the ukase of 183'), limitations were imposed
upon the rights of Jewish artisixiis in the interior.
Thereupon the military governor of Astrakhan
requested permission to retain forty-nine Jewish
artisans on the ground of their usefulness (Sec-
ond Complete Code, vol. x., No. 8481); but bis
request was not granted. On the other hand, a
request of the viceroy of the Caucasus that Jewish
artisans might be allowed to remain in that tcr-

24.020 bt'louging to non-Jews, or T.o per cent of the
latter. The greater number of these were located
in St. Petersburg. In the government of Pskov,
as against G67 non-Jewish workshops there were
308 Jewish ones, or 31. o8 per cent of the total.
In the government of Smolensk the numbers were
1,123 non-Jewish workshops and 347 Jewish (23.5
percent); Orel had 11.52 per cent, and Kursk 1U.9
per cent.

The distribution of Jewi.sh arti.«ans as compared
with non-Jews among the various trades is of im-
portance, and is illustrated in the following table:

Trades.

BuUdiiiff and ceramics

Cabinet-making and wooden ware.

Chemicals

Clothing, etc

Kood preparation

Gloves and leather goods

Metal-work <high grade)

Metal-work (low grade)

Paper-mating, etc

Weaving, spinning, rope-making..

Totals.

In the Fifteen Governments.

the Government of Vitebsk.

•5 B3

"x ^

1°

-* u

— • o

0,2

Si
Is

... X
■■ a

c =

p. c

£-1

c a

1..5:J5

9.0

•^s

2.1

1,495

6.3

2.6

187

9.4

263

71.1

2.S

2,657

11.3

2,7! I

1.9

163

7.x

152

18.8

315

23.7

1.3

124

0.5

151

17.8

0.3

100.0

ari

46.6

6.034

25.3

6.936

13.0

749

36.0

8.7

819

91.4

3.6

2.950

12.5

s.m)

2.3

206

9.9

10.6

292

70.5

175

9.1

4,.580

19.4

4,755

3.7

4(J0

19.2

286

35.4

688

58.3

352

18.2

1.812

I.I

2,164

16.2

i:J5

6.5

2.7

157

85.9

156

8.1

2,479

10.5

2,6:i5

5.9

1.5S

7.6

10.2

240

65.8

117

6.0

7£l

3.1

81^9

13.9

2.9

0.2

96.8

1.935

2.2

727

3.1

769

5.4

0.8

4.0

66.6

100

23,580

100

25,515

••

2,082

100

808

100

2.890

••

ritory was acceded to. It should be added that the
viceroy pointed out that the Jews, being the only
tailors, shoemakers, etc., there, were indispensable
to the garrisons. These utilitarian motives made it
possible as early as the fourth decade of the nine-
teenth century for Jewish artisans to settle in Tula,
Voronezh (Voronej), Saratov, and other Great-Hus-
sian governments. As stated above, the Russian
government in 1865 found it expedient for economic
reasons (law of June 28, 1865) to permit Jewish ar-
tisans freely to settle in the interior of Russia and to
remain there as long as they continued to follow their
vocations.

This enactment, however, did not allow the Jew-
ish artisans to register in the local communities, and it
permitted them to remain there only with temporary
passports. This dependence on their native com-
munities, and the extortion pi-actised in tliis con-
nection by the local administrations made it impos-
sible for the Jewish artisans of the Pale to emigrate
in large numbers to the governments of the interior.
Nevertheless from that time until 1881 permission
was granted to 682 Jewish artisans to open work-
shops, as follows: in the government of St. Peters-
bmg, 187; Smolensk, 142; Pskov, 108; Orel, 66;
Kursk, 32; Voronezh, 6; Saratov, 25; Moscow, 24;
etc. The riots of 1881 and the May Laws of 1882
compelled many of these to abandon their new
homes. Large numbers emigrated to Western Kus-
.sia and to America. Fiom 1881 to 1887, workshops
were established by 479 Jewish families in the fifteen
governments. From 1887 to 1893 no less than 779
such workshops were established by Jews in the
governments of the interior. According to Ihe re-
ports of 1893, there were in the fifteen governments
of the interior 1,948 Jewish workshops, as against

This account does not include trades outside of
those above classified. It will be seen that the Jews
are most numerous in tailoring, clothing, etc. (902);
but among the Christian artisans also tailoring pie-
dominatcs (6,034;. While the non-Jewish tailors
form only 25.6 per cent of the total of non-Jews, the
Jewish tailors form 46.6 of the total number of Jews.
Another occupation in which Jews are prominent is
high-grade metal-work, but in metal-work of the
lower grade they are not numerous. Paper-making,
bookbinding, and paper-box making also employ
many Jews of the interior.

Besides artisans there are in the fifteen govern-
ments of the Pale and in the ten governments of
Poland about 105,000 Jewish day-laborers, or about
2 per cent of the whole Jewish population of that re-
gion. Ivan S. Bliocii, in his pamphlet on the moral
conditions of the population in the Jewish Pale of
Russia (see Jkw. Encyc. iii. 251a), gives the per-
centage of Jewish day-laborers to the whole Jewish
pojjulation as 6.2. This may be explained by the
fact that Blioch had in view not only the common
day-laborers but also those who work in factories or
are occupied in peddling and as middlemen.

BinLiOGRAPnY; Shftrnik Mntirialnv nb Eltnnnmicheskom
I'liliizcnii Yevrcxicr r Rossii (published by the Jewish Colo-
nization Association). St. Petersburg. 1904.

H. R. V. P..

Charities : Statistics of the Passover charities

in 1.200 Russian towns show that 132,855 families
applied for relief in 1898. They were distributed
as follows, the figures in parentheses, following
provinces, representing the percentage of pauper
families to the total of Jewi.sh families: Kalisz.
Warsaw, Syedlitz, Plock, Lomza, Suwalki (14);
Taurida(16); Vitebsk, Moghilef, Minsk, Volhynia,

539

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Russia

Chernigov (17); Podolia, Kiev, Poltava, Yckatni-
noslav, Klicrson, Bessarabia (20); Lulilin, Radom,
Kiclce, PioUkow, Kovuo, ^VilIla, Grodno (22).
This gives an average of 18.8, whicii is 7 per ccbt
of Ihe total url)an poimlation of Hussia.

The following table is given for purposes of com-
parison :

Country.

Year of
Investigation.

Ppreentngp of
Jt'wisli I'ipor

to Total
Population.

Austrla-Hungarv

1892
]8ii2
1H92
1893
1893
18&)
1891)
1890

1 0
4 7

Fninie

llolliiiid

5.4
5 •")

Swi'dt-n

Norway

4.1
3 4

(iermanv

<ireal Biitiiin

2 9

United States

0.14

In Germany the proportion of poor in cities with
a population of from 10,000 to 20,000 was 4.93, from
20,000 to 50,000 was 5.53, from 50,000 to 100,000 was
6.31, over 100,000 was 6.9; in Hamburg it was 9.66;
and in Paris (1883), 7.5.

In 1898 tlie Fuel Charities reported 59,468 families
applying for relief — 8 per cent of the total number
of Jewish families in the territory covered by the
report: Northwest, 14,203 families; Southwest, 20,-
820; New Russia, 15,311 ; other districts, 9,034.

•m X'

il^.

0;S

« * >rr

city.

e a =

City.

C t 3

a;.s cisi

0..= - :b

ti«

pM Z.

c 5J

Wilna

37.7
30.9
29.5

2.S.7
27.8
26.7

Kovno

25 8

Dvinsk

Yekaterlnoslav

Kherson

25 4

Jitoiiiir

22 8

Nikolaief

Berdvcliev

19 7

Pdltava

Minsk

17 2

Krenientchug

Klsliinef

14.9

I'elizavetgrad

26.7

In the territory covered by the report of the Fuel
Charities, then, from 25 to 37.7 per cent of the pop-
ulation are paupers.

The number of destitute Jewish families increased,
according to statistics, from 85,183 in 1894 to 108,-
922 in 1898; even this is far below the
Increase actual number, as many towns gave
of only partial reports. Many thousands

Pauperism, of "reticents" shrink from open char-
ity, and inmates of asylums are not in-
cluded. The increase during tiiese four years was
distributed as follows:

Division.

Per
Cent.

South 39.9

Southwest 32.5

Division.

Per
Cent.

Northwest 26.3

Poland 21.3

Provlno*.

Per
Cent.

Syedlitz 46.8

Cheniiirov 46.1

Piotrkow 42.3

Bessarahiu 42.0

Tekaterinoslav 41.9

Kherson 39.6

Volhynia 39.4

Province.

Per
Cent.

Podolla 38.1

Moghilef ;58.1

Klelee 35.7

Kovno 3:>.3

Vitebsk 31. «

Taurida 2i'.2

Suwalkl 27.9

Province.

Pr<.\liii ••

Iludoii,

Miniik..

l.Ubllii..

I'l.«k...

Wnr-inv

ivr
I 'Hi.
17.5
17.3

I.V'i

. laji

. 0.7

Per
Cent.

Poltava sii.o

I.oinza 2.').7

Wllna 'St.')

Grodno ai.s

Kiev a).2

Kallh/ ln.B

General l)iisine.ss deprpHMni,, i.ii diveiopnieni of
railroads and Imnking, and the expulsion of llie Jews
fioni villages and from the GO-verst frontier- bell ac-
coiuil for this increase.

Loan-funds on which no interest is charged arc
organized to help ai tisjins and small traders to carry
on their business independently of the
Loan As- usurer. These funds are u.sually dc-
sociations. rived from cnntributions or beqiiesls.
as well as from nieinbership dues ran-
ging from 25 copecks to 3 rubles annually. The
number of loan associations is as follows:

Division.

Northwest 20")

Southwest 50

Division.

South 71

Poland ,TjO

In the separate provinces of Northwest Hussia there
are:

Province.

Kovno 47

Grodno 44

Wllna :j(i

Province.

Minsk.. ?7

Vitelwik 13

In the oilier sections of Western Russia there arc:

Province.

Suwulki 10

Chernigov 14

Kalisz l:t

Syedlitz 1

Kielce 2

Province.

Lublin t

Warsaw 4

PIm-k 4

Kherson .^

NcMBEU OF Loan Associ.xtions. with Their
Annual Incomes.

'• i

—

~ 3

c =

"■ »—

:^ -

^ —

—

Northwest

Southwest

111

South

Poland

The loans generally range from 5 to l.j rubier.
Such small amounts aie usually secured by pledges,
which aie sometimes returned even in case of non-
payment. In some associations the amounts loaned
are higher. In 1898 the tran.sactlons of the assix-la-
tion in Poniewicz, whose capital was 3.402 ruble.<«.
amounted to 8.581 rubles. Loans of loO rubles or
more are secured by a note and two indoi-sements.
The Volkovisk association loans as much as 50 rubles
at a time.

^lost of these associations arc unincorporated and
are managed by one or several trustees. ThcGrotlno
association is incor|>oraled. with a <a|)ital slock f>f
7.000 rubles (in 190(1). Fr>>m 1893 to liKK) its loans
ranged from 3.86 to 4.4T rubles. The security ac-
cepted is personalty. Even in this model a.s.soriatii)n
from one-lifth to one-fourth of ihe amo\mt loaned
remains v:npaid. The Warsjiw loan Imnk atlvnnccs
small amounts without interest, taking pledges as

Kussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

540

security. lu 1901 the niiniber of persons thus ac-
coniniodatcd reached 6.671 ; the loans aggregated
76,062 rubles: 155 unredeemed pledges were sold.

A number of charity boards appropriate a part of
their funds for benevolent loans, managed by an
au.xiliary board, as in the case of the Society Linat
ha-Zedek of Byelostok. In 1901 the society appro-
priated 1.300 rubles for this purpose. It advances
small loans to artisans and traders for terms not ex-
ceeding si.K months, and charges 0.5 per cent per
month to defray expenses. Only easily stored mov-
ables are accepted as security.

In about 36 cities 50 loan and savings associations
of the Schulze-Delitsch and Reifersen type have
been organized. Shares are from 10 to 25 rubles
each. The membership, from 1,000 to 3,000, largely
consists of small Jewish tradersand artisans. Loans
must not exceed eight times the amount of a mem-
ber's share. The interest charged on loans is from
9 per cent to 12 per cent. The largest associations
are in Wilna ('230.000 rubles capital stock). Warsaw
(200,000 rubles cai)ital stock), Kishinef (70,000 rubles
capital stock), and Grodno (38,000 rubles capital
stock).

There are 126 homes and houses of shelter for
transient poor in the larger cities; 6 percent of them
are in Southwest Russia. They are maintained
chiefly by appropriations from the meat-tax, seldom
by private contributions. The largest of these are
in Wilna, Minsk, Berdychev, Krenientchvig. Odessa,
Yelizavetgrad, and Warsjiw. The home in Kremen-
tchug has 455 inmates and shelters from 3,0U0 to 4,000
transients annually. There are besides 100 shelter-
ing-homes, called "hekdeslnm," in the small towns
of the 25 provinces of Western Russia, especially in
the provinces of Grodno, Wilna, Suwalki, Lomza,
and Plock (in which there are 96 of these homes).
The transient poor are crowded into small, unfur-
nished, and very unsiinitary rooms, where they stay
as long as they desire. The Hekdesh shelters are
supported by membership dues and small contribu-
tions.

In the small towns within the Pale the destitute
poor are fed chiefly by private households; the
regular institutions for this form of relief are shown
in the following table:

NcMBE:ja OF Institutions.

»M

—

S »

= S

"5 ='5

•

= c

-1

—

C M

■*

Northwest Ilussiii

Soiiihwest Russia

South Uiissia

•1

I'ulaiid

Four of these institutions supply Jewish soldiers
with kasher food, and most of them are supported
by members' dues. T!ie largrst of these is the elieai)
eating-house of Odes.sa. in which 40U dinners are
supplied daily at the rate of three cents per dinner.
About 3U per cent <if these are free, being mostly
given to poor students.

There are 72 societies for supplying poor students
with clothing, 37 in Northwest Russia, 5 in South-
west Russia, 8 in South Rus.sia, and 22 in Poland.
In the following provinces there are 37 such soci-
eties:

.^verape
Province. Societies. E.xpeiise :

Rubles.

Wilna 5 •>"

Kovno 6 408

Grodno 6 319

Vitelwk 4 217

Minsk 10 137

Mo-rhilef 6 VX>

The number of medical committees and hospitals
within the Pale is large, and is distributed as fol-
lows:

Division. CoSL^is. "-P'^^l-

Northwest 349 29

Southwest Ill *^

South 32 16

Poland 173 19

Totals 6t>5 112

The medical committees are confined to small towns.
They arrange with the local physician for treat-
ing the poor; often they send patients to health re-
sorts or to cities where they can secure better treat-
ment, meeting a part or the whole of the cost of
treatment. Members take turns in nursing the sick.
The annual income of 124 of the committees is over
500 rubles each ; of 43, over 1,000 rubles; of a few,
over 5,000 rubles— all derived from members' dues.
The hospitals and free dispens;iries are chietly in the
larger cities. The income of most of them does not
exceed 10.000 rubles. The exceptions are the Jew-
ish hospitals of Warsa v.- (116,000 ruble.s) and of Kiev
(60,000 rubles). The Vilkomir (Kovno government)
hospital owns a drug-store, the public bath, the
meat-market, and the slaughter-house, the income
from which helps to maintain the hospital. Most of
the other hospitals are supported by appropriations
from the meat-tax in addition to members' and other
dues; they accommodate generally from 15 to 20
resident patients, preferably Jews living in the
town, and treat large numbers of visiting patients.
Non-Jews and non-residents are admitted when there
is room.

To help poor brides there are 51 societies in small
towns in Western Russia. Their incomes, from 50
to 400 rubles annually in most cases, are derived from
collections made every Friday. Five rubles is the
maximum sum given to one bride. There are 486
charitable societies of a general type within the
Pale. The following table shows the amounts, in
rubles, annually expended by these societies, together
with their distribution:

Divisions.

.500.

9.T
47
10
13

.500 to
1,000.

1,000 to
5,000.

20
13

s
0

Over
5,000.

■^

Total.

Northwest

13
6

4
3

127

Southwest

Soufli

<i9
24

I'olaild

Of these. 75 receive appropriations from the meat-
tax ; the rest are supported by members' dues. Ce-

541

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Buula

sides these, 89 "societies for helping tlie poor" were
called into existence by a si)ecial ministerial eireiilar.
These societies are (listril)uted as follows: Isorlli-
west, 37; Southwest, 4; South, 31); Poland, G; out-
side the Pale, 3. Tliey sjive pecuniary assistance
chiefly, but frequently they do the work of the
special charities, allording medical help, paying
funeral expenses, distributing books, iiiaintainiug
free dining rooms, and nursing the sick.

The charters granted to some societies permit
the investing of money in loans, the opening of co-
operative stores, and the industrial education of
orphans and poor children. The two wealthiest
societies are those in Lodz (annual income 35,925
rubles) and Yekaterinoslav (50.35"3 rubk-s). The
societies are well organized, and they are modifying
]irofoun(ily the economic condition of the Jewish
]>oor. The society of Khotiu (Bessarabia) is typical
in this respect. Since 1898 it has absorbed all the
local charities, the poor-house, the cheap dining-
room, and medical relief. It has undertaken the

Isr.MBEU OK Jewish Families Which Applied fou
Ch.\iuty at P.\ssoveu from 1894 to 1898.

Governments.

1894.

1895.

6,730
.5,831
.5,793
3,676
5,977
2,908

1896.

6..500
6,163
6,006
3.69t)
6.30S
3,220

1897.

1898.

Nortluvestern Terri-
tory. .
Wilnn

0,439
5,559
5,695
3,658
5,923
2,725

7.646
6,619
6,261
4,211
6..')07
3,437

8,082

7,414

Orodnc)

6.878

4.814

I^'insk

6.946

3,763

Totals

29,999

1,591
2,770
6,724
5,461
7,127

30,915

1,657
2,857
6,976
5,951
7,646

31,893

1,779
3,075
7,245
6, .575
8.284

34,681

2,oaj

3,2.58
7,.526
7,320
9,161

37.897

Southwestern Terri-
tory.

Clieniipov

Poltava

2,324
3,490

Kiev

Volhvnia

8,081
7,614

Podolia

9,^-48

Totals • • • •

23,673

515
2,873

784
4,076

25.087

.566
3,025

840
4,423

26,958

622
3,:}06

873
4,7ft5

29,268

612
3,8;}5

907
5,084

31,357

SouUiern Territory.

Yekaterinoslav

Kherson

731
4,012

Taurida

1.008

Bessarabia

,5,788

Totals

8,248

8,854

9,506

10.438

11.539

Totals within Pale
of Settlement...

61,920

64,856

68.357

74,387

80,793

Poland.

Warsaw

Kalisz

6.715
1,:»4
2.117
1.690
2.i:J6

•;.:^rj

1.635

l.tw9

816

673

2:1,261

6,779
1,475
2,099
1,7:54
2,06:3
4,440
1,737
1,722
8.50
704

7,120
1,541
2,192
1,965
2,112
4,.563
1,811
1,819
891
755

7.199
1,639
2,190
2.093
2,268
4,787
1,986
1,875
915
767

7,ir^

l,a5»i

Pioirkow

K;el<-e

Uadoiii

Lublin

;i.iii2

2.29:?
2.513
.5,177

Svedlitz

2.401

I.omza

Plofk (Plotzk)

Suwalki

2.086
9tl4
861

Totals

23,603

24,769

25,719

28,129

Totals in Western
Russia, iurlu-
dinp Pale of Set-
tlement

85,181

88,459

93,126

100,106

108,922

care of orphans and poor children and organized
model hedcrs. It supplies the poor with unleav-
ened bread at Passover and makes an arrangement

witii tlie bakers in accordance with wliidi the luitor
deliver maz/.ot at a reduced price to tliose who arc-
deserving.

BuiLiooiuPiiv. Shnniik Materlalov oh EkonnmieheMknm

I'l'liizlititii Ycvicii'V »' Ummtl. vol. II., St. PeltTuburK. IWM.

II. It. V. H.

Education : A systematic and organized al-

teinpt was inailr by tlic Russian govi in 1^40

to raise the intellectual and moral f its

Jewish subjects by the cstablislimeiit of inrMlcrii
Jewish .schools. In accordance with thi
mittees were tailed for from the si.x ■ ,

within the Palo of Settlement, whoso task It wa« to
formulate jilaiis for the secular education of tlio
Jewsof Russia. Thesecoinmitteesgavc uii impetus
to the movement for culture among the Jew* tlicin-
selvcs, and aroused the interest of the ministry of
public instruction, at the head of wljieh was Co-.int
Uvarov. However, even before Uvarov's day, iImtc
had been various attempts at encouraging genenil
education among the Russian Jews. Tliecelebratfd
" Enactments" of 1804 jiaid some attention to the
matter and provided for the ailmission of Jewish
students to the general educational institutiontt of
the empire. These |)rovisions are marked by a hu-
manitarian and tolerant spirit, and .stale that no
attempts should be made to lead away froni their
religion Jewish children obtaining tln-ir education
iu the schools, and that those Jews wh<j obtained the
customary university education in medicine, sur-
gery, physics, ma« hematics, or other branches of
learning should be granted the proper digrees on
equal terms with other subjects of
Degrees. Russia. By the law of 1811 Jewish
students who had completed their uni-
versity studies were exempted from the head-tax.
But notwithstanding these i)rovisions the few Jew-
ish students who attempted to avail themselves of
the privileges were di-scriminated against. Thu.s
Simon Levin Wolf, who in ISIO completed the full
course at the University of Dorpat. petitioned for
permission to take his examinations for the degree
of doctor of jurisprudence, biit was informed l)y the
faculty that as a Jew he could not be given su< h
permission. When the case was refern'tl to the
ministers this decision was contirmed. Again, in
1836 a Jewish doctor, Joseph Bertensohn, applied
to the ministry of the interior for ajipointment to a
government position. The minister of the interior
presented the matter t<i the committee of ministers,
anil the sjinction of the czar was obtained for an
appointment, but "in the Western provinces only ."

Such were the dilliculties encountorwl by Jewish
youth in that day. In addition, the Jews of the old
scliool regarded with decided hostility all aitem|>ts
on the partof theirsons to obtain a serulare«lui-at loo.
while the latter hail to contend with d<-. 1

prejudices among the wealthier clasw«« of < >

society. Among the Jews tliemsi-lves narrowness
anil intolerance were most intense, before the f<»rlic8
of the nineteenth century, in the Northwest<rn prov-
inces, while a more libenU spirit i)revailed in ilic
Southwestern provinces.

Odessa was especially distinguishe*! for its liber-
alitv, and to its community belongs the credit of
having established the first modern Jewish school In

Bussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

543

Russia. This school was fouuded in 182G througli
the initiative of Jacob Nathausohu, Leon Landau,
H. Herzenstein. and Joseph Schwefelberg, and was
supported by the Jewish community. It originally
contained four classes, in which, besides specitic-
ally Jewish subjects, mathematics, calligraphy, Rus-
sian, and German were taught. The school was
under the management of adirectorand school board
whose appointment hatl to be sanctioned by the
governor-general of New Russia. The tirst school
board consisted of Dr. Kosenblum,

Schools. David Friedman, Behr Bernstein, and
Solomon Gurovich, and the first di-
rector was a German Jew, Sittenfeldt. With one
exception the instructors were all Jews, either Aus-
trian or German, and the te.\t books used were all
German; even Karamzin's history of Russia was
used in the German translation of Jaffe. The ex-
penses of the school were provided for by an initial
appropriation of 9,000 rubles and an annual appro-
priation of 7.600 rubles for maintenance.

The number of i)upils at the beginning was 208,
and in the following year the number increased to
such an extent that the first appropriations were
found inadequate; additional funds were provided
by a special tax on kasher meat, imposed by order
of Count Pahlen, the governor-general. Odessa was
thus the first city in which the meat-tax was col-
lected, its introduction elsewhere not taking place
until 1844. Even in Odessa, which possessed at
that time probably the most enlightened Jewish com-
munity iu Russia, the establishment of the school
created much bitter feeling in Orthodox circles,
where it was feared that it would prove a menace to
Orthodox Judaism. The Jews of Odessa even peti-
tioned Count Pahlen against the project, claiming
that there was no necessity for such an institution,
that the local Hebrew schools were sufficient for
Jewish subjects, and that German and Russian
could be acquired in the lyceum. The reply of
Count Pahlen, who had grown impatient with the
refractory members of the community, caused the
latter to relinquish their opposition. On the death of
the first director, Sittenfeldt, in 1828, Basilius Stern
was appointed, and retained the position for many
years.

Following the example of Odessa the Jewish com-
munity of Kishinef establislied a school, which it
placed under the direction of Dr. Goldenthal. In
1838 a similar school was founded in Riga under
the direction of Dr. Lilienthal. The curriculum of
the Riga school as outlined by its founders included,
among other subjects, reading, penman.ship, gram-
mar, and history (Russian). The principal, accoid-
ing to the program, was to be an alien of Jewish
faith, "educated in the spirit of true learning." Ac-
cording to an official report of July 18, 1840, the
school prospered.

With the exception of these schools, whose estab-
lishment was largely due to foreign influence, the
Jews of Rus.sia were almost strangers to European
education. The old organization of the kahal, the
respecl for tradition and ancient custom, as well as
poverty, ignorance, and prejudice, made it very dif-
ficult to establish an effective educational system.
Before the forties the Jewish population of the

Northwestern provinces insisted on strict intorpre-
taticu of the Talmud and close adherence to the
dogmas of religion, while the Jews in the South-
western provinces, fronr the beginning of the nine-
teenth century, had leaned towaid a liberal inter-
pretation of the religious laws. Between these was
a numerically small party advocating European edu-
cation, which found it necessary to hide its inclina-
tions and was compelled to peruse non-Jewish
books in cellars or attics to escape detection.

Secret societies were formed among young men
for the promotion of the work of eidightenment.
At the head of one of these organizations was au
alien named Dr. Rothenberg, who labored with great
enthusiasm for the cause. Russian society, unac-
quainted with the aspirations of these Jewish young
men, took little interest in them; this explains why
the best Jews of that time were educated in the
German spirit and studied German literature, while
things Russian were unfamiliar to them.

According to Lilienthal, the idea of improving
the condition of the Russian Jews by educating
them iu a modern spirit originated with the czar
himself, and an earnest attempt to carry out this
idea was made by Count Uvarov, then minister of
public instruction. He worked out the first plan
for the establishment of special Jew-
Count ish schools and presented it to Em-

Uvarov's peror Nicholas I. (June 22, 1842). His

Report. report, remarkable for its breadth of
view, states that " radical reforms are
imperative for the education of the growing gener-
ation of Russian Jews." He shows that the repress-
ive measures against the Jews in many European
countries had failed to achieve any beneficial results,
and then points out the excellent effects of the hu-
manitarian measures adopted since the beginning of
the nineteenth century. His suggestions were ap-
proved by Nicholas, who wrote on the margin of
the report, "'These deductions are correct." The
czar requested his ministers to acquaint themselves
with the condition of the Jews in order to make
possible the enactment of proper laws. To facili-
tate the work committees were appointed in prov-
inces where Jews were permitted to live. These
committees were to render reports, and it was on
the basis of these reports that Uvarov worked out
his project. He commissioned Dr. Lilienthal to visit
the various centers of Jewish settlement in the Pale,
determine the attitude of the Jews toward the pro-
posed measures, and allay existing su.<;picion as to
the intentions of the government. From the cir-
cular letter issued by Count Uvarov for this pur-
pose it is evident that the Jewish mas.ses regarded
with animosity the estai)lishment of the Jewish
schools in Odessa, Kishinef, and Riga, and believed
tliat the promoters of these schools intended to lead
the JeAvish youth away from Judaism. Suspicions
of this nature were not without some show of reason ;
indeed, they were partly justified by the meas-
ures taken during the latter part of Alexander I. 's
reign and by the attitude of Nicholas I. toward the

C.\NT()MSTS.

Count Uvarov's plan for the establishment of
Jewish sohools was substantially as follows: The
schools were to be divided into two classes— higher

543

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

BussU

and lower. The liiglier were to l)c ostublislied in the
cities and were to contain tlic ecjuivalent of tlie lirst
four or five grades of a chissical gymnasiiiin. Tliese
seliools ef)iilil, if necessary, he niiidilied to serve as
preparatory schools for niitlilk; or higher institutions
of learning. The lower schools were to be established
in district towns and were ultimately to replace the
Jewish private schools. For the carrying out of the
plans of the government Uvarov proposed a com-
mittee of rabbis and scholars, Avhose appointment
was to be approved by the governors of tlieir respect-
ive provinces and who were to be known as tiic
"Commission for the Education of tJie Jews of Rus-
sia." This plan was approved by the czar, wiio
added in his own handwriting, "I approve of it on
condition that the conuuission shall consist of no
more than four rabbis, one from each of the provinces
in which Jews are permitted to reside."

Lilicnthal occupied himself working out the de-
tails of organization, corresponding with foreign
Jews in order to determine how many teachers could
be secured for the projected schools,
Wilna. and visiting in person some of the
larger cities. On going to Wilna lie
soon became convinced that he wovdd meet very
serious opposition there. The Jews of that city im-
pressed him as "familiar with Talmudicand rabbin-
ical lore, but ver}' ignorant of other learning and
without much knowledge of the modern branches of
science; full of prejudice and narrow-mindedness,
and steeped in wild, absurd Hasidism which passes
all understanding." But after much elfort Lilicn-
thal succeeded in convincing the leaders of the com-
nuinity that the school would not be a menace to
their religion, whereupon an annual sum of 5,100
rubles was promised by them toward the supjiort of
the institution. Lilicnthal was then invited to Minsk
bj' the rabbis and the kahal, but met there a very
determined opposition. The objectors claimed that
without equal rights education for the Jew would
be a misfortune — words that are proved to have
been almost jirophetic.

Heturning to Wilna, Lilicnthal found that the op-
position there had gained strength during his ab-
sence. The community withdrew its promise and
exerted itself to discredit Lilienthal's elTorts. The
minority in favor of modern education made mat-
ters worse by its belligerent attitude. Lilicnthal
left W'ilna greatlj'' disheartened and rendered his re-
port to Count Uvarov. Notwithstanding the dio
couraging results of the first toin-, Lilicnthal was
again sent out, encouraged at the beginning of the
second journey by the friendly attitude of the Jews
of Berdychev. This time his elTorts proved moic
successful. He met few ditliculties in the Baltic
Provinces, where the Jews were to some extent ac-
quainted with modern schools. Lilicnthal sent a
circular letter to the couunuuities of the Western
provinces, wherein he clearly showed their true in-
terests and the danger of narrow opposition ; this
undoubtedly produced a deep impression. He was
awaited impatiently in Berdychev, and liis message
was received there with great enthusiasm. Similar
receptions were . accorded him in South Russia.
New Russia was prepared for modern schools.
There Lilicnthal was received joyously, and was

I)k'asantly surprised at tiiu advance ulready made
by the Jews of Odes.mi in matters educutioiu'il. He
was warndy received also in Kliersou and Kishinef.
On his return to St. Pelersbiirjf. Lllienlliul Utok part
in the sessions of tlie rabbinical commisvidii us the
repre.sentativeof the governinenl. 'I'lie cmmiHsiou
consisted of Voronrhcnko (ciiainnan). Dukst-Duk-
shinski (recording secretary). Lilicnthal (government
representative), Kusnetzru- (.secretary", and Rjibbi
IsA.\c HEN JIayvim OK Voi.o/.HiN. Mtiidcl Shnevr-
soiin, rabbi of Luybuvich. Beznleel Stern, dir. . • ■
of the Odessa scliool. und Israel Halpeiin, u l,.i:
of Berdychev.

The seliools established according i.i I varov »
plans did not meet with the expected success. On
the one hand there was u scarcity of competent In-
structors. It was Lilienthal's expectation Uiat
foreign Jews would be appointed as instructors, and
he had practically engaged about '2(H) of thi-m for
the proposed work. The authorities decide*!, how-
ever, to employ only natives, believing that enough
Jewish instructors could bo found in IJussia its<lf.
There was no dilliculty in .securing Christian [jrinci-
pals for the schools; and for the chis.ses In general
subjects (Russian, geography, arithmetic, etc.) in-
structors from the non-Jewish schools were ap-
pointed. It was not ea.sy, however, to llnd suitable
teachers of Jewish subjects and of German, and ap-
l)ointment3 were made from among persons not fully
competent for their task. Considerable difticulty
was encountered in the teaching uf
Difficulties German. Professor Mukhlinski. who
of the visited, at the instance of the ministry

Uvarov of ptiblic instruction, the Jewi.Hli

Schools, schools of Western Russia, wrote in
1«51 that "the Jews of the Western
provinces complain of the slight progress of their
children in the German language, and for Ihisrea.son
it wonkl be advisable to have in the schools spe-
cially qualified teachers of this language, as the in-
tluence of the German language in the education of
the Jews may jirove to be of great importiuice."
The " learned Jew " M. BEiti.i.v, assigneil to the gov-
ernor-geneml of the provinces of Smolensk, Vi-
tebsk, and 3Ioghilef, made a tour of ins|M-ction in
1854 among some of the Jewish schools, the result
of which was u written warning to a number of the
teachers and principals that their duties were \mi\f;
very unsatisfactorily discharged.

The situation of the instructors in the Jewish
schools was not an enviable one. The salaries jinid
were for that time ratlnr high— 'Jot) ruldes a year
to the juincipals and 225 rubles to the instructors.
Nevertheless, since the jnoney ft)r the p
derived from the candle tax, theauthori;,
layed paynu-nt for mouths, thus leaving the teach-
ers almost destitute.

Beside these ditliculties there was tlie animosity of
the Jewish population, which- n'gwT<lf<i the instruct-
ors as traitors to their religion, and, fearing them
as representatives of the government, was always
ready to express its enmity toward them. F.u
instance, the instructors and their children were n<it
subject to military service; yet the Jewish com-
miuiities vented their spite by presenting Ur> the
authorities the names of the relatives of the in-

Kussia

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

544

structors. "When those relatives were missing tlio
instructors, according to law, were held responsible
for concealing their whereabouts and were thus
subjected to much annoyance.

As to pupils in the Jewish schools, it appears
that few were sent voluntarily by their parents or
guardians. Tiie organization of a school usually
began with the arrival of the Christian principal,
whose duty it was to enroll students. For this
purpose he applied to the Jewish community, sta-
ting that it was absolutely necessary to create a stu-
dent body. Tlie community, being in fear of the
administrative authorities, acted in precisely the
same spirit that it displayed in the matter of military
service. Orphans, artisans' children, and beggars
were forced by the influential members of the com-
munity into constituting the school contingent;
the school was recruited, in fact, from the very
dregs of the Jewish population; at times parents
were paid for sending their ciiiidren to tlie school.
The community took care to secure only the mini-
mum number of pupils necessary to give the school
the semblance of an educational institution. Thus
in one city, where there was, according to oflicial
statistics, a Jewish population of 10,000, there were,
in 1852, only 27 pupils in the Jewish school; in
Vitebsk, in 1849, there were only 13; in Jan., 1851,
only 19; and 50 in the November following.

But even these figures do not betray the exact
condition of affairs. A princii)al would have been
embarrassed, for instance, liad he been compelled
to report that his school, with three teachers, had
often less than ten students. For this reason he
would report as being in attendance even those who
had left during the year. For example, in one
school twenty-three pupils were reported on the rolls,
though as a matter of fact fifteen of them had left
during the term. In another school most of the stu-
dents who had entered during the pre-
Expedients ceding year appeared in the report of
of the the current year, though most of them
Principals, were marked in the class register as
having left "on account of poverty."
The irregular attendance led to many attempts at
improvement. Thus Professor Mukliliuski sug-
gested that "there should be at every Jewish scliool
a Jewish attendant who could be sent after pupils
that failed to report" ; and in 1855 the princi]>als of
the Jewish schools in the government of Minsk were
ordered to see that the Jewish teachers visited the
dwellings of the i)upils and reported the causes that
led to their absence. The school authorities usually
ascribed all absences either to poverty or sickness;
indeed, there is no df)ubt that poverty was respon.si-
ble in part, since, as alieadj- stated, most of the
pupils came from the poorest liomes.

The ])i'ogram of instriiction in the schools pro-
vided for sixteen lessonsof one and ii half hours each
in the week. Of tliese lessons seven were devoted
to religious instruction, two to Hebrew, four to
Kussian and i)enmanship, two to arithmetic, and one
to German. Before and after the lessons prayeis
were .said in Russian and Ilelncw. The schools
were ordered by the liigher authorities to omit cer-
tain passages from the Hebrew l)ooks. For instance,
in 1854, whentheschoolauthoritiesof the L^overnment

of Minsk replaced the Shulhan "Aruk with the Hayye
Adam, thi'y pointed out the passages to be omitted
from the latter. In 185:3 the same authorities ordered
that the teaching of the Mishnah should be discon-
tinued. These changes and omissions were un-
doubtedly due to the suspicion entertained by the
government that the Hebiew books contained state-
ments, expressed or implied, directed against the
civil government or against Christianity. Notwith-
standing the fact that in some jilaces the ])opul;ilion
consisted almostexclusively of llasidim. the ministry
of public instruction made obligatory upon the
schools the use of the Ashkena/.ic prayer-book witii
its German translation. Of the textbooks em-
ployed, .several were prepared liy Leon Mandel-
stamm, including Hebrew, German, and Russian
grammars.

The- evident failure of the Jewish government
schools convinced the government after some years
that a reorganization of these schools was desirable.
At the suggestion of several of the governors of the
South-Russian provinces the ministry of public in-
struction took the problem imder consideration.
Tlie question was raised whether these schools should
be al)olished as useless. After a thorough investi-
gation covering a i)eriod of eight montiis the special
agent submitted his report to the governor-general
of New Russia and the superintendent of instruction
in the Odessa district. The report declared that these
schools, while requiring reorganization, should not
be abolished entirely, and that the main defects in the
existing organization Avere due to an inadet|uate
knowledge of the Russian language on the part of
the children admitted and to the unsympathetic and
severe methods of the Christian principals, who
usually possessed but little pedagogic training. Be-
sides, the pupils who came from the hadarim were
not accustomed to school disci jiline,

Failure and capable teachers would not rc-
Rec- main long in positions affording a sal-

ognized. ary of only 225 rubles per aimum. As
a result, the numl)er of hiidarim had
increased rather than decrea.sed since the establish-
ment of the schools; the more so since the principals
of the Jewish schools, to whom was given the super-
vision of the melammedim, often furnished the latter
with certificates on personal and illegal grounds. An
instance of the increase of the hadaiim is jifforded in
the case of Kishinef, where there were 100 in 18G4.

The following recommendations were made in the
report of the special agent to the governor-general :
(1) The schools should be reorganized so as to make
those of the first class prejiarator^'^ for entrance to
the classical gymnasium ; those of tiie second class
should be i)rovi<ied with a more luactical curriculum,
so that pupils might be to some extent better \ne-
pared for lifi' if obliged to discontinue their studies
before graduation. (2) Klemeiitary classes for the
j'oungcr children sliould be iiistituteil, thus doing
away with tiie necessity for the heder. {'.]) As
)uinci|ials of such schools shouhi be appointed only
sucli as had completed their studies in a rabbinical
school or in .some higher institution of learning.
(4) Sullicient money for the ])urchase of books and
other school materials should be allowed to every
poor pupil. Tiio remuneration of the Jewish teach-

645

THE JEWISH ENX'YCLOPEDIA

KUMiA

ers sliould be increased, and pnncij)als should be
chosen from anionj^ them. (5) It sliouhl be made
obliLTiitory upon teacliers and prineij)als to serve at
least live years in one i)lace. (6) Tiie inelainniedim
should b(' placed under llie supervision of tlie school
administrations, and hadarim should be allowed only
in those jilaces wliere scliools did not exist. The
leport pointed out also that the reorganization should
be of such a character as not to lead the parents to
think that the main jiurpose of the school was to
discouraiie the religious and national sympathies of
tlieirciiildren. "Theabolition of these schools," said
Count Kotzebu, "would drive the Jews back into
their fanaticism and isolation. It is uecessaiy to
make of the Jews useful citizens, and I see no other
means for achieving this than their education."

Artzimovich, tin; superintendent of public instruc-
tion of the Odessa district, came to a somewhat dif-
ferent conclusion, as is sliown in his report to the
minister of public instruction. He dwelt on the
suggestion of Dr. Shwabacher, then rabbi of Odessa,
to found rabl)inical seminaries; he recommended the
establishment of such a seminary iu Odessa and the
appointment of Dr. Shwabacher as its director, the
fimds for its support to be derived from sjiccial Jew-
i:",h ta.ves. He further suggested transferring one of
the rabbinical schools of Western Russia to Odessa,
where there was less prejudice and more intelligence
among the Jewish population, where the many edu-
cated Jews — doctors, lawyers, bankers, etc. — would
exert a beneficial influence upon the students, and
where there were many Jewish children who had
obtained the desired preliminary edu-
Artzimo- cation iu the general schools. Thus
vich's Rec- in the Second Gymnasium at Odes.sa,
ommenda- in 1862, there were 115 Jews; iu the
tions. woman's gymnasium 36 Jewish girls;
in the commercial school 39 Jews;
while the number of students in the specially Jewish
schools was steadily decreasing. In 1862 there were
in the first-class Jewish government schools of
Odessa 316 pupils; in 1863and 1864, 300 pupils; and
iu Jan., 1865, only 260 pupils. In the second-class
school there were 114 in 1862, 135 iu 1863, and only
45 in 1864.

The suggestion for the establishment of rabbinical
seminaries did not receive support from the govern-
ment, and the plan was still unrealized twenty five
years later, when the Society for the Promotion of
Culture Among the Jews of Russia again raised the
question of establishing a seminary in Odessa.

In April, 1866, General Zelciioi, then secretary of
the imperial estates, pointed out in a report that
the great obstacle to the success of the Jewish agri-
ctdtural colonies in South Russia was the extreme
religious fanaticism of the colonists, and that the
surest means of removing it would be to abolish
the system which permitted the teach-
Education ing of children at home. In conse-
in the quence, Marcus Ourovich, an educated
Agricul- Jew, was commissioned to inspect the
tural Jewish colonies and outline practi-

Colonies. cable school reforms. Gurovich sug-
gested that in the schools to be opened
the melammedim sliould be retained as instructors
in Hebrew, lest changes of too radical a nature
X.— 35

should excite the prejudices of tlie colonists. His
plan provided for the estubli.siimenl of f

schools with u iiiichingstatl of t wo inelainrn< ;„l

one secular teacher. Iu the larger colonies a two-
room school should be opened, one r<M.m f<.r gen-
eral subjects, us Hibl.'. Hebrew, German. HuKsiao.
arithmetic, and penmanship, and tlic other for coni-
plementary studies, ns geography, i;
drawing, and agriculture. The h< ■ .
should lie paid by the government, while the me-
lammedim should receive payment from the parents
according to agreement.

The minister of public instruction ndopic<l this
plan with slight modificatif.ns, excluding CJcrman
as unnecessary, and increasing the attention given
to the Russian language. He apree«l with Guro-
vich that great care should h<r exerciwd in effecting
the proposed changes. Oflicinl inertia eause<l tlie
executi(m of the jiroposed measures to l)e delayed
until 1868, when the conununilies in the various
colonies offered to supply the money nefcxsary lo
carry on the work of instru(tif)n provided funds
were advanced to them for the initial outlay. In
that year there were opened in the ten colonies
twelve .schools (ten for boys, and two for girls), the
maintenance of which was undertaken l)y the re-
spective communities. In recognition of Ids servitres
the ribbon of the Order of St. Stanislaus (3d digreei
was conferred upon Gurovich. with a purse f<{ .'iMt
rubies.

The benevolent efforts of the government during
the reignsof Nicholas I. and Alexander II. gradually
but surely effected important changes in the attitude
of the Russian Jews toward modern e<lucation.
Thousands of Jewish families settle<l fniLside of the
Pale, became familiarwith the Russian
Good Ef- language and custom.s, lost some of
fects of the their narrowness, and no longer kept

Govern- their children from attending non-

ment's Jewish educational institutions. The
Attitude, classical gymniisiums and universities)
soon came to have more than n mere
sprinkling of Jewish students, and. while in the
smaller towns within the Pale secular education was
still regarded by the masses with extreme disfavor.
the educated and progressive elements of Jewjsli
society in the larger towns constantly gained iu
strength and importance.

With the reactionary reign of Alexander HI. the
liberal interpretation of the existing laws was aban-
doned, and new regulations were pa^-
the attendance of Jewish students in :
higher schools. In 1887 a regulation was put in
force according ti> which only 3 to fi per c iiit of tlie
students in any gymnasium or university ndghl
be Jews. Naturally, while outsitle Jl.e Pale the
Jews are comjijiratively few and tlic vn' ' ex-
isting in these institutions are not nhv ■ d.
the number of Jews in towns within tiie Pale
who wish to enter is greater than the numlier of
vacancies. Thus higher education is difficult to
attain for most of the Jewish youth. Tlie very
strict interpretation of this law makes mattirs still
worse. It appears that there is a determination ou
the part of the authorities to rt^luce the number
of Jewish students to a minimum. Maay Jew-

Hussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

546

ish students graduating from the middle schools
with honors are not permitted to enter the uni-
versities, the reason alleged being lack
Later Atti- of vacancies. In the entire province
tude of Wilna, e.g., there were in a certain
of the Gov- year only three or four vacancies.

ernment. The result is that those who have
the means go to schools or univer-
sities in Germany, France, or Switzerland.

The lower general schools, while nominally open
to Jewish children, are not always accessible to
them. The city and district schools admit Jewish
students on an equal footing with the others, yet
the regulation, issued by the ministry of public in-
struction in 1901, which requires Jewish students to
do written work on Saturday, virtually excludes the
children of Orthodo.v Jews. In Lubny, government
of Poltava, there had been twelve Jewish students in
the district school, but after the enforcement of the
new regulation only one remained. The same is
true of many other places. Many of the lower
schools even refuse to receive Jewish children, claim-
ing that there are no vacancies. The Jewish com-
munities are thus obliged to provide for the ele-
mentary education of their children, and as a result
the Jewish schools are indispensable.

The specilically Jewish schools in Russia to-day
maybe divided into three classes: (1) government
schools, (2) communal schools, (3) private schools.
The first class comprises the schools established in
the forties and described above, and the teachers'
seminary at Wilna. The government schools founded
in 1844 were reorganized in 1873. The minister of
public instruction pointed out at that time that
these schools were to be regarded as
Spe- temporary and were to be abolished

cifically when "the Jews begin to send their

Jewish children to the general schools. " Ap-

Schools. parently it was not suspected at that
time that ultimately the general schools
•would be closed to most Jewish students. The Jew-
ish elementary schools are divided into one- and
two-class schools, each having a preparatory class.
The full course extends over si.x years. The in-
structors are usually graduates of the Wilna Jewish
seminary, but in case of necessity appointments are
made from among Christians familiar with Juda^o-
German. These schools are not popular with the
Jewish masses because too little time is devoted to
Jewish subjects; nevertheless they are well attended
where other schools are lacking.

The Jewish private schools usually offer a two- or
three-year course, but in a few cases a four-year
course. Of twenty-four lessons every week, four at
the most are devoted to teaching Jewish religion. In
most cases the time devoted to Jewish subjects is much
less, being rarely suflirient for more than the study of
the prayers and of Biblical history. The teachers in
private schools are poorly paid — on theaverage, from
300 to 400 rul)les annually for instructing from thirty
to forty students. In many instances the expenses
of the private schools do not exceed the income.

In addition to these schools tliere are the Talmud
Torahs and the hadarim. The Talmud Torah came
into existence owing to the necessity of caring for
orphans. . Being unable to maintain orphan asylums,

the community had to content itself with sheltering
the orphans through the day. The children were
fed, clothed, and taught. The instruction usually
consisted in the reading of Hebrew and the study of
the prayers, the Bible, and other religious books.
The Talmud Torahs are still maintained for the
poorer classes and are under the direct supervision
of the elders of the community. As a rule the
teaching is irregular and without system. Not-
withstanding the great interest of the masses in the
Talmud Torah and their conscientious contributions,
they have little voice in its management ; the leaders
of the community usually conduct it according to
their own ideas. Moreover, the in-

Talmud come of the average Talmud Torch
Torahs and rarely exceeds from 400 to 500 rubles
Hadarim. annually, and with such small means
but little can be accomplished. The
methods in vogue in the heder are generally fol-
lowed, and the children are scarcely less ignorant
when they leave the Talmud Torah than they were
on entering. There are some exceptions, however,
in which the Talmud Torahs are conducted according
to modern pedagogic principles. Usually, people
who can afford to send their children elsewhere do
not send them to the Talmud Torah.

The heder, which is a t3'pe of school evolved
during many generations of religious isolation, is
a purely religious school. The so-called "model"
heder is the more modern type, in which an attempt
is made to include secular subjects. In 1875 a law
was passed which prohibited the heder to admit
those who were not graduates of a rabbinical school
or of a middle-class school. This law failed to
achieve its purpose because of the slight remunera-
tion offered by the heder — often not more than 100
rubles a year; persons who had obtained an educa-
tion in a rabbinical or middle-class school were not
tempted to apply for positions. The government,
realizing the futility of the regulation, passed a new
law in 1893, which allows anyone who so desires to
conduct a heder on payment of an annual tax of
three rubles.

The heder as an institution is intimately connected
with tlie life of the Jewish masses, and it will take
many years and much effort to replace it with mod-
ern Hebrew schools. The heder transforms health}'
children into sickly and nervous ones, and it has
been said with much truth that the physical degen-
eration of the Jewish masses is due in part to the
baneful influence of this class of schools. The heder
is usually conducted in the home of the melammed,
and often in the family living-room. The melammed
usually attends to one or two children at a time,
while the rest repeat their lessons aloud. The heder
contains children of all ages, rendering system im-
possible; its sessions are carried on for six days
in the week, during the entire da}'. There is no
summer vacation for the Jewish boy, and most of
his time is spent in the heder. The model heder
is more cleanly, and has the appearance of a prop-
erly furnished schoolroom. Unfortunately, the
model heder is not met with very frequently.

A better conception of the old heder and the old
Talmud Torah maybe obtaineil from the following,
taken from the " Voskhod " : " Our hadarim. " writes

547

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

a correspondent from Zveiiigoioilkii, government of
Kiev, " with their melanimedini, represent a eopy in
miniature of the medieval Inquisition applied to
ciiildren. There are no rules and no system. . .
Our Talmud Torahmakesa still sadtier picture. . .
Its program consists of cold, hunger, corporal pim-
ishment, and Hebrew reading." Another corre-
spondent, from Vitebsk, writes: "Our Talmud
Torahs are filthy rooms, crowded from nine in the
morning until nine in the evening with pale, stjirved
children. These remain in this contaminated at-
mosphere for twelve hours at a time and see only
their bent, exhausted teachers. . . . Most of them
are clad in rags ; some of tliem are almost naked. . . .
Their faces are pale and sickly, and their bodies
are evidently not strong. In i)arties of twenty or
tliirty, and at times more, they all repeat some lesson
aloud after their instructor. He who has not lis-
tened to the almost absurd commentaries of the
ignorant melammed can not even imagine how little
the children gain from such instruction." These
quotations might be multiplied indefinitely. Those
given are, however, sufficient to show how the Jew-
ish masses within the Pale of Settlement obtain their
heder education.

Bibliography: Buduschvost, 1902. Hi. 172: Voskhod, 18ft3,
xlii. 100; 1894, ix. 1 ; Yevreiski Yezhegndnik, pp. 156, iW,
St. Petersburg, 1902; Sovremennuye Riu<skn-Yevreuikiye
DyeyatelU p. 53, Odessa, 1899; K Istoni OhrazmmnU/a
Russkikh leureyer; M. G. Marprulies, Yevreiskaya Biblio-
teka, 1. 1;M, St. Petersburg, 1881; Buchholz, Oench. der Ju-
den in Riga : Die Juden in RunMand (edited by August
Scholt«), p. 102, Berlin, 1900; Le.mer Yevrei v NovorosUs-
kom Kraye, pp. 5, 34, 198, 218, 225, Odessa, 1901.

n. R. J. G. L.

-Emigration : The extensive

emigration

Jews from eastern Europe, where a large Jewish
population has concentrated within the last cen-
tury, forms a very significant phenomenon of Jew-
ish life during the last two decades, and is full of
meaning for the entire Jewish people. This emi-
gration has been directed to different regions;
namely, North America, England, South Africa,
Palestine, Argentina, and Australia. There is no
doubt, however, that the main stream has been di-
rected to the United States, and in consequence the
Jewish population of that country, which until the
eighth decade of the nineteenth century was but
small, is now about 1,500,000 persons.

Tiie study of this subject presents very consider-
able difficulties. Russian official statistics afford no
information, while the registration at certain foreign
ports gives the countries from which the immigrants
come, but not their nationality or re-
Sources ligion. Though data of Russian emi-
of gration through all the German ports

Informa- and through Antwerp are available,
tion. it would seem that during certain
years more immigrants from Russia
entered the United States alone than had passed
through all these ports together; nevertheless a not
inconsiderable number of emigrants proceed from
Antwerp and Germany to Argentina, Brazil, and
South Africa. It becomes necessary, therefore, to
seek the desired information in the immigration
statistics of the country which is the principal des-
tination of the immigrants, namely, the United
States. These statistics, which have been kept since

1820. and whirli are abgolutely reliable, are for the
purpo.ses of thiH artic Ir, lidwi-vcr. not entirely satis-
factory ; for up to Die year lx{)H immignmlH wero
clas.sirted only according to the countries fromwliich
they came, and not according to race and relij;ioM uh
well. Since; the year IHlJH-UU, however, this addi
tional information has been registered. »o that il is
now possible to determine the extent and rUnrtutir
of Jewish emigration to the North Aineriran eon
tinent. .Moreover, comj)etent authorllii-s a^ree that
until the ninth decade of llie nineteenth <<iitury
the immigrants from RuRsiu (excluding I'r.land and
Finland) were, wiiji the exception of some thousandH
of Mennonites, almost exclusively Jews. Of recent
years the Russian immigrants have included a con-
siderable numt)cr of Litliuanians an<l (iernuinH; but
for the year 1903-4 two tiiinis of the immignmUi
from Russia (exclusive of Poland and Fiidanil) were
Jews. The following table shows thetouil immigra-
tion into the United States, and that from Ru.s.sitt,
beginning with the year 1870-71 :

Immigration to the United Stateh.

Total

Russian

ioLltl iCllMlRn

Year.

iDiml-

Immi-

Year.

Imml- Irnml-

grants.

grmcts.

grmou.

18701871

321. avi

1.005

1K87-1KWH .

444.427

3I.2M

1871-1872

4(M.8<l6

1.811

IKRK Ihrtt

444.427

31.'%N«

1872-1H73

4rc;.M<tt

.3.490

]Kt<tt-lW«l..

4V ■:■■

•-• 147

1873-1874

313,339

7,477 '

1H9(I-1«»1....

.V.

idT.

1874-1875

227.498

4.369

IHHl-lSlt.'....

417

1875-187«

1H9.9K6

6.787

1W»2 IWO....

•w

1878-1877

141,K57

3.:t70

1H«J 1H94....

^'-

Ti'i

1877-1878

138.469

4.210

1KSI4 lMk^>....

11- -

St:

1878-1879

177.826

.3.7H4

lWft-lx5l6....

:■.; l.r

1879-1880

4.57.257

,5,27S

l«l6-lNlt7....

Z»> '.»_•

—.:r*)

1880-1881

669.431

H.lia

lW>7-lH<tf«

229.2WU

27.221

1H81-1882

78S.992

17,497

IMiH-lsici....

311.715

24.275

1882-18K)

51H..5'.r2

6.91 rr

IHSf.HWd. ..

44\.5r-'

37.1)11

188:M884

;fi«5.;j46

1.5.122

1S«»^1W)1....

4>7.H1>* 37.a9<

1884-18H.-)

:cn,2«w

16.61 H

iwii-me....

64M.74.3 37.H4«

1885-1886

490.1(19

17.:«I9

IWL'-IWH....

S57.(H« 47.a(«

1886-1887

546.889

28.m4

1UU3-1WM....

8tX»70 77.&t4

The data concerning the total immigration have
been purposely given, inasnuich as immigration to
any country is inffuenced nuiiuly by two factors.
It depends, in the first place, on the advantages lo
be obtained in the new country, and in the second
upon the forces tending to .send the emigrants
from the old. In years of industrial prosperity,
when there is a great demand f>ir labor, iniinigmtion
increases rapidly, and during an industrial crisis it
decreases proportionately. It is but uatunil that the
general causes infiueucing the economic life of the
United States should modify the extent of Hus.sian
immigration. Of still greater influence in the cose of
Russian Jews arc the forces whirli
Jews drive the Jewish population from the
Driven Pale of Settlement. An examination

from the of the foregoing table shows that there
Pale. have been two distinct waves in Rus-
sian immigration. The first was not
great, the inaxinuim intensity In'ing attaine<i in
1873-74, when there were 7,477 arrivals in the Unit<il
States. This was a time of prosperity In tl'.at
country. After the cri.sis which led to adecrea.se in
the total inunigration, an increase is again apparent
in 1879-80; and the figures gnidnally ris«- until
1881-82, when the high water mark of 788,992 in

Russia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

548

the total immigration is readied. This is accom-
pauied by a similar increase in the immigration from
Kussia, the arrivals in the latter year numbering
17,497, an increase over tlie preceding year of more
than 100 per cent. In tliis rapid increase are seen
evidences of the results of the well-known events
of the early eighties in Riissii — the anti-Jewish
riots, the ministry of Count Ignatiev, and the pass-
ing of the "Temporary Regulations" (M.\y L.\ws).
■\Vith the resignation of Ignatiev (June 12, 1882) the
number of immigrants from Russia decreased to
6,907; but in 1883-84 it again rose, to 15,122. Since
that time emigration from Russia to the United States
has steadily grown.

It is evident that within the Pale of Settlement
chronic conditions had arisen which drove its pop-
ulation to other countries. These conditions were
no less than an economic crisis in the life of the
Jewish population, intimately connected with the
legal limitations and i)articularly witli
Eflfect of tlie rigid application of the"Tempo-
the "Tern- rary Regulations." In 1891-92 the
porary gradually growing Jewish immigra-
Regula- tion took another bound upward, from
tions." 42,195 to 76.417. This was the year of
tiie expulsion of the Jews from Mos-
cow by order of the fanatical Grand Duke Sergius,
and of their extensive removal from the interior of
the country and from the villages. After this the
number of immigrants from Russia diminished
until 1896-97. when the minimum of 22,750 was
reached. A summary of the figures in the foregoing
table by decades since 1870 shows that during the
first decade there annually entered the United States
an average of 4.108 Russian immigrants; during the
second decade, 20,686; and during the third, 38,058.
For further statistical data see Migr.\tion ; United
States.

II. K. L. Wy.

liegislation : With the expulsion of the Jews

by the czarina Elizabeth Petrovna (Dec. 2, 1742)
the Jewish problem in Russia was apparently
solved; but on the partition of Poland, Russia re-
ceived the territory now known a^ " Wliite Russia,"
and other provinces having a large Jewish popula-
tion. The people of these regions were granted all
rights " witliout distinction of faith or nationality "
(Feb. 26, 1785). But even as early as the reign of
Catherine II. this decree was not strictly observed,
and afterward the Jews were subjected to various
acts of special legislation, the origin of whirh may
be ascribed to several motives: (1) The Religious
Motive: Theconversionof a Jew to Cliristianity frees
him from all restrictions. The only impediment to
the enjoyment of equal rights by Jews is their relig-
ion (Senate decisions, 1889, § 25). (2) The Economic
Motive: To protect the native population from so-
called Jewish exploitation. (3) The Fiitrnl Motive :
The fear that Jews might engage in contraband
trade. This caused restrictive measures to Ije passed
against them, and led, for instance, to their removal
from the western boundaries to a circle 50 versts
distant. (4) To Reduce the Poptibit ion : Thii \\cnn\\9,-
sion to establisli a Jewish colonization association
for the emigration of the Jews. Jews leaving Rus-
sia with permits to colonize elsewhere are considered

(Hules, May 8, 1892) to have abandoned Russia for-
ever. (5) TIte Asxiniilation Motive: Jews are for-
bidden to wear clothes dilTerent from those worn by
the rest of the population; Jewesses are forbidden
to shave their heads (ukase, March 31, 1856).

On Ott. 19, 1881, the commission which had been
appointed to report on the subject of Jewish affairs,
having completed a project for Jewish registration,
was discharged, and in its place a committee was
formed for the examination of the material collected
by the local commissions on the Jewish question.
This committee was placed under the chairmanship
of Assistant Minister of the Interior Gotovtzev.
When the committee was summoned the following
persons took part in the proceedings: I. N. Dur-
novo, the Prince of Tzertelev, and Professors An-
dreyevski, Grigorj-ev, and Bestyuzhev- Hyumin.
Shortly afterward this committee was merged in a
high commission appointed to examine into the
operation of the laws affecting the Jews. Its first
chairman was Makov, the minister of the interior,
who served till his death in 1883, and was succeeded
by Count K. N. Pahlen. This commission was dis-
continued Nov. 17, 1888.

The existing laws affecting Jews will be found in
articles 952-989, 992, 993, 1004, of volume ix. of the
Code(ed. 1876); articles 11-25, 157-165, 289-291, of
volume xi., part 1 (ed. 1890); and articles 700-705,
1060-1096, 1135-1139, of volume xi., part 1.

Following is a summary of the special legislation
concerning tlie Jews of Russia:

I. Legislation on Subdivision ; This concerned the
separating of Jews into three classes: {n) Karaites;
{b) foreign Jews; {c) Polish Jews. As regards {a) :
The czarina Catherine II., in the year 1795, sug-
gested to the governor-general of Voznesensk and
Taurida that certain regions of the.se districts be as-
signed to the Karaites. From that time additional
rights were granted them until 1863, when it was
declared that the Karaites "enjoy all the rights ac-
corded to Russian subjects."

At first all foreign Jews {h) were allowed to reside
in Russia within the Pale of Settlement. In 1824,
however, this privilege was restricted, and now only
the following are allowed to live within the Pale:
rabbis, sent for by the government ; physicians for
the arm)' or navy; manufacturers intending to es-
tablish factories (not distilleries); mechanics for
Jewish factories. Foreign Jews not having right of
residence may not own real property in the Pale;
and if they inherit any, it must be sold within six
months of the notification of the inheritance. The
right of residence and freedom to engage in any
occupation were granted to Polish Jews (c) under
certain restrictions until 1862, but they were not
permitted to own real estate. Though on May 24.
1862, they were granted full rights, in recent years
restrictive measures have lieen re\'ived.

n. Legislation Concerning Religious and Communal
Organizations: Within the I^lle. Jews may have one
liet lia-iiiidrash to every thii ty dwellings and one syn-
agogue to every eighty. Without the Pale, a permit
to establish a bet ha-midrash or a .synagogue must
first be obtained from the ministry of the interior
(Dec. 25. 1867). Regular attendants at a synagogue
constitute a jiraying community and maj* elect their

549

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

RuMla

own ecclesiasfic government, which consists of one
man leiuiicd in the liluai, an eider, and a treas-
urer, the local iabl)is being ex-oflicio memhers.
.lews in every locality are organized into a tax-
able community, which may elect its own tax-
collector and assistants, the latter being also as-
sessors.

In 1842 a Jewish commission was apjiointed to
solve certain religious problems. From this was
developed a rabbinical conunission which was at-
tached to the ministry of the interior (June 24,
1848); its purpose was to sanction by religious au-
thority reforms conteiu])lated by the government.
Sessions of the commission were held in 18o5, 1857,
1861, 1879, and 1893.

III. Legislation Regarding the Pale of Settlement ;
For conditions within the Pale see Pale of Sktti.I':-

MKNT.

As regards Jews without the Palo, i.e., those en-
joying the right to live in isolated localities, the fol-
lowing legislation was enacted: (1) Only those Jews
who had been registered prior to April 18, l83o,
were permitted to reside in Courland and in the
suburb Shlok Lievland. (2) In Nikolaief and Sebas-
topol Jews were granted residential rights on Dec.
23, 1791, but were expelled Nov. 20, 1829, notwith-
standing the governor-general's intercession. In
1859 it was again found useful to grant them per-
niunent residence in those cities. (3) In the city of
Kiev, on ,Iune 23, 1794, Jews were permitted to en-
gage in business; tliey were expelled in 1827, but
on Dec. 11, 1861, Jews of the lirst and the sec-
ond mercantile gilds (at present the permission
is extended onlv to those of the first gild) were
granted permanent lesidence in the districts of
Lybedskaya and PlosUaj'a. (4) By the Senate deci-
sions of 1888 the native mountain Jews of the Cau-
casus enjoy the same rights as the native Caucasians
(No. 10). (5) In Turkestan the name " native," ac-
cording to article 262 of the Turkestan Code, ap-
idies also to old Jewish settlers and their progeny
(May 23, 1889). (6) In Siberia, Jewish agricultural
colonies were established at Tobolsk and Onusk in
183o. P^migration thither was stopped in 1857, and
measures were taken to diminish the number of
Jews tliere. At present domicil in Siberia is permit-
ted to banished Jewish settlers and their children.

IV. Legislation Concerning Temporary Sojourn : The
following classes of Jews uuiy remain temporarily
outsiile the Pale: heirs, for the purpose of receiving
legacies; litigants before the courts of justice; mer-
chants ; and bidders on contracts. These may remain
six weeks, with a possible extension to two months.
Carriers are allowed two weeks; a merchant of the
tirst gild, six months; one of the second gild, two
months; and learned Jews attached to the stalTs of
the governors, during their term of service. Those
having nci riirhts are rleporled.

V. Legislation Concerning the Right to Acquire or
Lease Property: During the nineteenth century the
Russian government, wishing to interest tlie Jews
in agriculture, issued various rules to facilitate their
ae([uisition or renting of land. This encouragement
continued during the reign of Nicholas I. Wherever
they were allowed permanent residence Jews could
acijuirc all kinds of realty, except inhabited estates.

At present (1905). however, tliey are forbidden to
acquire, liold under n ,• n-altv in any

of the following local . ;e the ciliesuml

iowns witliin the Phi in nine of the westeru

provin<esof the Pale. (Jy uu a - " 'swido

along the western border, when n i ila-rc,

(4) In the luovinces of Cuuriuiid, Donarniy. Fin-
land, Kuban. IJivhuid. Akinolinsk. SeinipulHthiak.
Semircchinsk. T«ick. and linl.

VI. Legislation Concerning Commercial and Indnttrial
Rights: Jews within the I'alc may join iR.
gilds and engage unrestrictedly in bi. ,iu|
manufactures. Jewish nrliHtins and lulMin-rs iiioy
join trade corporations (" tzekh ") even < ■ ' tIic
Pale; within the Pale, Jews lorm their ou ra-
tions (Hides, 1852). First-gild luerelnuits in tin* Pule
may imiiort or export goods through ChrJHtiMng.
Kesfrictions imposed on nianuriu-turers may be re-
moved by governiiii'iit purveyors «if their pHMJiirts.

Jews, where allowed teinponiry residence, may
neither sell goods at home nor peddle them, under
penalty' of confiscation of tlir gf>ods or of deporta-
tion of the person ollering them for sale. This law
is now applied even to Jews having common right
of residence (Decisions, CrimiDals Cassations De-
partment if^, \i, eU, vr,), etc.

VII. Legislation Concerning Education : (1) Grtirral
liis(((utujji.t: Thelawsol ls;i5 expressed the princi-
ple that Jewish children iniglil be received int«> all
schools. In 1886 and 1887 the number of Jewish
students in secondary aixl hiirher institutions was
restricted within the I'ale to 10 jht cent, el.sewhere
except in St. Petersburg and Moscow to 6 per cent,
and in those cities to 3 per cent. To some schools
Jews are not admitted. (2) O'ureriiment Srfi<M>la/»r
Jeirs: On Nov. 13, 1844, a decree ordered the es-
tablishment of primary and secondary schools for
Jewish children, and rabbinical s<lio»ds for the
training of teachers and rabbis. On March 16, 1873,
it was decreed that: (-M the rabbinical schools in
Wilna and Jitomir be changed into institutes for
Jewish teachers; (f>) the gniinnmr schools be closoil;
(r) the Jewish primary schools be retaine<l only where
the number of general schools was insiilUcient. At
present only the teachers' institute, in Wilna antl a
few primary schools remain. (3) PriniU Se/i(K>la:
In 185G rules were issued for the supervision of the
private education of Jewish chihiren. Teachers
were compelled to procure certificjites. and were re-
stricted as to subjects and the methods of teaching.
Since 1893 teachers' certificates have 1 ' for
one vear only, for a fee of from one t. is.

Vill. Legislation Concerning the Right to Hold Office :
(1) Stitte SrnW: In 1><35 the -n

to Jews without the Pale hold •■c

and possessing a testimonial from the minister of
education and a jMrmit from the czar. To these
were added in 1836 and is:'„s Jews living within the
Pale who hehl similar credentials. ttn»l on Nov. 28.
1S61, all Jews with academic degrees were incUidetl.
without restriction of residence. These privileges
were extended in 1865. 1866. and P*67. .soinewlnit

restrictedly. to physicians not ha vi- ■■''•mic lilies.

At present the rights alxtve m< : are prac-

tically void. In 1HS2 the number of .1. wi«:|i phy-
.siciaiis and nurs«s in the army was limited to 5 per

HuBBia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

550

cent. (2) Communal Serrice : {a) In the ante-re-
form institutions. Jewish municipal representa-
tives, limited to one-third of the council, were elected
(1839) by their respective coninuinities. Jews are
eligible to no other municipal olHtes. (b) In the
new institutions (Jan. 1, 1864). The Jewisli elective
rights, which at tirst were unrestricted, were sus-
pended ou June 12, 1890, and regulations ordering
the preparation of a list of eligible Jews from which
the councilmon might elect a number (not exceeding
one-tenth of the whole council) to the chamber, was
substituted on June 11, 1892. (c) As jurors, Jews
are elected in proportion to tlie population. They
may not be foremen, nor may they try cases of in-
fraction of the ecclesiastical laws. (3) In the Army:
Jewish privates or volunteers may not be granted
commis-sions nor be admitted to the military schools
(1887). They may not direct military bands, nor be
assigned to quarantine, frontier, navy, or gendar-
merie service, nor to service in Warsaw or Caucasia.

IX. Legislation Concerning the Practise of Law :
The code of Nov. 20, 1864, puts no limitation on the
practise of law by the Jews. The regulations of
Nov. 8, 1884, and April 10, 1890, make the admis-
sion of Jews to attorneysiiip dependent on a permit
from the minister of justice. This, liowever, has
never been granted.

X. Legislation Concerning Military Duty : Until 1827
Jews, instead of performing military duty, had to
pay a money - tax. On Aug. 26, 1827, personal
military duty on tlie part of Jews was introduced,
the ages of recruits being from twelve to twenty-
five years, and the rate ten from each thousand
males per annum (at this time the non-Jewish rate
was seven per thousand every second year). On
Aug. 26, 1856, Jews were granted equal rights with
other citizens as regards military duty. The mili-
tary code of Jan. 1, 1864, contains no special rules
for Jews. Later, orders were issued (Feb. 3, 1876)
that unfit recruits be replaced by their healthy
coreligionists; (May 9, 1878) that any shortage in a
precinct be supplied by the drafting of those exempt
from duty in such precinct; and (April 12, 1886)
that the transfer of Jews from one recruiting pre-
cinct to another be restricted. The family of a Jew
who evaded service was liable to a fine of 300 rubles,
and a reward of 50 rubles was offered for his capture.
The number of Jewish recruits drafted during the
period embraced within the years 1874 to 1892 (ex-
cepting 1883, for which no reliable figures are ob-
tainable) was 173,434.

XI. Legislation Concerning the Jewish Oath : The
chief peculiarity of the Jewish oath is that it implies
distrust of the person who is taking it and assumes
that he will swear falsely. The person swears that
he will testify or act not with mental reservation
nor according to any secret meaning of the oatli
taken, but in accordance with the intention of those
administering it. Imprecations and renunciations
of the Jewish faith in case the oath is violated are
eliminated from the oath as at present administered.

ir. It. M. Mv.

XII. Legislation Concerning Special Taxation : The
Doublf Tut: By tii<- dccnjo of 1T'J4 I lie Jews were
ordered to pay doul)le taxes for the privilege of*
engaging in handicrafts or commercial enterprises.

Those already engaged in such enterprises were
given the alternative of leaving Russia after the ex-
piration of three years, during which period, how-
ever, the double taxes on their respective occupa-
tions were to be paid. In 1799, when the Jews of
Courland were granted the right of permanent resi-
dence, this decree was reaffirmed, but modified in
favor of those of the Covuland Jews who were too
poor to pay the double tax for three years, and they
were immediately sent across the frontier. In 1800
this modification was abolished, and persons too
poor to pay the double tax were to set to work in
the government smelting-works.

The double tax was retained in the regulations
of 1804, exceptions being made in favor of Jewish
farmers, factory-hands, and artisans. At this time
the government promised to take proper measures
to place the Jews on the same level as other subjects,
"wlien all the Jews engaged in agriculture, manu-
factures, and commerce will show tenacity of pur-
pose and diligence." This tax was imposed on both
sexes and thus made more burdensome.

After 1818 a decree was promulgated which de-
clared that "on account of the impoverished condi-
tion of the Jews " they should be required to pay
only a single tax ; but the government took harsh
measures in the collection of arrears. Thus, in 1830,
in order to collect them in the governments of Minsk,
Grodno, Wilna, and Podolia. the Jews were im-
pressed into military service with the provision that
each community furnishing recruits should be cred-
ited with 1,000 rubles for every recruit over twenty
years old and with 500 rubles for every recruit under
that age. This regulation was abolished in the
same year, revived in 1851, and finally abolished in
1857.

Another measure, passed in 1831, called for an
additional payment by Jewish merchants whenever
the amount paid by their Jewish townspeople was
insufficient. This was abolished in 1856.

A third measure, the purpose of which was to
provide for tax deficiencies and also to supply funds
for the education of the Jewish youth, originated
the basket-tax, the candle-tax, the tax on Jewish
garments, and tlie tax on Jewish printing establish-
ments. For details of the B.\sket-T.\x see Jew.
Encvc. ii. 578b.

The Cdmlle-Tax : This tax is collected on candles
lighted by Jewesses on Saturday night. It was es-
tablished in 1844 and was intended exclusively for
the support of Jewish schools. It was at first sub-
ject to lease, but as this led to abuses the following
regulations were formulated in 1851, to be in force
for a perit)d of three j'ears: (1) Tlie total amount to
be levied by candle-tax was 230,000 rubles. This was
to be collected for three years beginning with 1853.
(2) This amount was to be ai)i)()rtioned annually liy
the ministry of the interior. (3) Each community
was to subdivide its pro rata tax. (4) Each com-
munity was to be responsible for collecting its
proper share. (5) The tax was to be collected by
the elders and their assistants, and was to be re-
mitted to the city councils. (6) The elders, their
assistants, the members of the city councils, etc..
were to be lield responsible to the government for
the fulfilment of tlicir duties. (7) The ministry of

651

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Busala

public instiuctiou was to inform the ministry of tiie
interior annually of the amount of the candle-tux
fund due from the various communities. (8) The
dates wiien the taxes should be remitted were to be
determined by the common consent of the two minis-
tries. (9) The ministry of the interior was to be en-
trusted with the carrying out of the details affecting
the distribution of the funds.

In accordance with a decree issued Dec. 24, 1858,
these rules are still in force.

The Tax on Jewish Garments: For the legislation
on Jewish garments see the article Costume.

Tlie Tax on Jewish Printiriff Establishments : In
1845 the printing of Jewish books was confined to
two printing-houses; the privilege of printing was
sold at public auction to the highest bidder among
Jews in good standing. Moreover, a duty not to
exceed 1| kopeks per printed sheet was imposed on
Jewish books brought from abroad, exception being
made in favor of those treating scientific subjects or
relating to the study of languages. As a result of
this tax the prices of books rose beyond the means
of the Jewish masses. The attention of Alexander
II. having been directed to this matter, he ordered
by a decree dated July 1, 1862, that the Jews should
be permitted to open establishments for the printing
of Jewish books exclusively, (1) in all places where
Jews were permitted to reside, and wherever the
ministry of public instruction might find it possible
and convenient to have special Jewish censors, and
<2) in St. Petersburg, the books to be sold to Jews
who enjoyed the right of residence in the capital.
These printing establishments were taxed to support
the Jewish schools — 20 rubles for each hand-press;
120 rubles for each small power printing-press; and
240 rubles for each large power printing-press.

BiBMOGRAPnY : Sistematicheski Ukazatel Literaturyn Yex^-
reyakh 710 Htissknm Yazyke s 1708-1S89, St. Petersburg, 1893 ;
v. O. Levanda Polny. Citrnnoligicheski Sbornik Zakonnv i
Polozheni,Ka><nyushchikhKm Yevref/cv nt Ulozheni Czar-
ya Alereya Mikhaihn'icha do 187S Goda ; E. Levin, Svod
Uzakoneni o Yevreyakh s Razya^meniynmi, St. Petersburg,
1884; Prince N. N. Golitzyn, Istoria /{iwsfraro Zaknnndatel-
stva 0 Yevreyakh, vol. i., ih. 1886 ; N. D. Gradov.skl, Turaoviya
i Dnigiya Prava Yevreyev v Rossii, lb. 1886; V. N. Nlkitln,
Ycvrem Zemledyeltzy, lb. 1887; I. G. Orshanski, Russkoyc
ZaktmodatelMvo o Yci>reyakh, ib. 1877; idem, Yevrei v
Ro.ssi, lb. 1877; M. I. }>\ys>h, Rxikovodstvo K Rtisskim Zako-
11am o Yevreyakh, ih. WW; Deiiiidov San-Donato, Yex'rr.uiki
Vopros V RossiU ib. 1883; M. L. Peskovsky, Rokovnye Nedn-
razumyeniye : Yevreiski Vtyprm^, Yevn Miroraya Maria i
Yestestvemii Put Razryesheniiru, lb. 1891 ; Mysh, lUikovod-
stvn K Russkim Zakonam o Yevreyakh, 2d ed., p. 432, St.
Petersburg, 1898.
II. K. J. G. L.

The Jew in Russian Literature : The ear-

liest treatment of the Jew in Russian literature is an
abstract one, the conception of his character being
founded on the ancient Church eimiity. This con-
ception gives place but very gradually to a tolerant
attitude inspired by broader knowledge. Notwith-
standing the fact that certain relations with the
Jews were maintained by ancient Moscow, and that at
the end of the eighteenth century Russia included
among its subjects hundreds of thousands of Jews,
all the references to the Jews in Russian literature
up to tlie middle of tiie nineteenth century arc
marked by intolerance and deep ignorance. The
oldest literature, which is religious and polemical in
character, is directed not so much against men as
against religion ; its purpose is to show the supe-

riority of the New Testament "grace" to the Old
TesUiment " Law," and to expose from thedogtiwtlc
standi)oint the teacJiingH of the Jewihli religion.

The supposed social and ethical faulu of llic
Jews, brought to the front by medieval Europe,
arc scarcely toucljed upon. An< ienl Muscovy oc-
casionally exi)elled or shiughtered it.s Jews, not be-
cause they were usurers, ncjr ber.iu.se tJiey exploited
the population, but on tlie ground llmt llicir unt-i-*-
tors crucihcd Jesus. This rircumHtunce determined
the point of view of the literature, in which, uulll
its renaissance in the first half of the
First nineteenth century, references to llie

Attempts. Jews are exceedingly rare. It wub
only in the reign of NicholuH I., wjjen
questions of Jewish life called with piirtiruhr insist-
ence for the attention of the government, llmt Rus-
sian literature first created Jewish types and found
an expression for its conception of the Jews.

Notwithstanding the fact that these first attrmptfl
to portray the Jews were made by the greatost of
contemporary writers, the descriptions do not indi-
cate an intimate ac(iUHintunce with Jewish life; they
merely reproduce commonplace types, partly carica-
tures and partly repulsive monstrosities. Such are
the detestable jioisoner in Pushkin's "Skupoi Ryt-
zar"; the Jewish traitor and coward in the"Tara8
Bulba," by Gogol; the professional Jewish spy in
young Lermontof's poem, "Sashka." I.jitt r on. in
a story entitled "Zhid," by the tolerant Turgencf,
tliere occurs an even more disgustingand impossible
Jewish spy, who barters his own daughter. Eco-
nomic and periodical literature, hampered by the
censorship and hardly able to maintain its exlsl-
ence, paid no attention to the Jews. But new
tendencies were alieady discernible, and the great
teacher of an entire generation of Russian human-
ists, the cultured Granovski, declared from his chair
in the Univensity of Moscow: "Two thousand
years of cruel suffering and affliction have eniM-d at
last the bloody boundary-line separating the Jews
from humanity. The honor of this reconciliation,
which is becoming firmer from day to dny, belongs
to our age. The civic status of the Jewg is now
established in most of the EurojH-an countries, and
even in the backward countries their mnditinn is
improved, if not by law, then by enlightenment."

At the outset of the civic regeneration of Ilu.<tsla,
the Russian Liberals readily agreed that it was
merely necessary for the Jews to adapt themsolvcs
to the national culture in order to remove entirely
the last traces of the ancient enmity. No one sua-
pected at that time that for the proper .solution of
the Jewish question it would be ni-cegsary to en-
lighten, not tiie Jews, but the nations surrounding
them. Then came the cpcx^h of the " great reforms "
of Emperor Alexander II. "With irresistible force
young Russia abolished her previous injustice and
resigned her traditional prejudices. The Jews, who
had freed themselves of the faults i)r<^lucc<l by
centuries of slavery and had 8urrenderc<l everything
which isolated them from the great M ' ly.

were entitled in the near future to t dl-

fledged members. A protest signed by all the
prominent writers was m.'idr ' use of the

wonl "Zliid ■■ In Russian !!• ,f the Jew-

Hussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

552

ish question had no separate place; it appeared
liiere only as a portion of a greater question con-
cerning the fundamental regeneration of Russian
life and Russian government. There was no bellijr-
erent anti-Semitism. The weak and infrequent at-
tacks of the obscurantists were met by the recently
founded Jewisli journals.

Wortliy of note in this connection is the activity
of the pedagogue and surgeon N. I. Pirogov. To
the traditional ill-will exhil)ited toward tiie Jews he-
opposed clear and convincing proofs of their worth
founded on his intimate acquaintance with the life
of the Jewish masses in Southwest Russia. In the
main, however, Russian literature still sliowed but
a slight and superficial knowledge of the economic

and spiritual life of the Jews. This

Alexander fact was realized, but there was no

II. one with the ability to remove the

reproach. In the early seventies the
mouthpiece of young and cultured Russia, the
monthly "Otechestvenyya Zapiski," began to pub-
lish Grigori Bogrov's "Zapiski Yevreya," a story
of Russian-Jewish life. It acquainted educated
Russian society with a world new to it, so near and
yet so strange. The novel had a greater success
in Jewish than in Russian circles. In 1855 there
appeared in "Russia Vyestnik" O. Rabinovich's
" Shtrafnoi. " In " Yevreskaya Biblioteka " Lc vanda
first published his artistic sketches of the life of Rus-
sian Polish Jews and of the kahal of the si.xties of
the nineteenth century. The entire Russian litera-
ture of the seventies is stamped by a careless in-
difference toward the Jews.

In this epoch of "great reforms," inspired by gen-
eral political and progressive ideals, the Jews had
no active enemies, neither had they real friends.
The}' were not known, nor was it regarded as nec-
essary to know them. But a change was soon
brought about. The declining prosperity of the
peasantry led to a search for the cause of its pov-
erty, unforeseen at the time of the liberation of tlie
serfs. The petty officials readily found it in the
activity of the village Jews. More intelligent, in-
dustrious, gifted, and temperate, they crowded out
the unstable representatives of the corrupt landlord
class from the various spheres of free labor. The
part played by Jews in revolutionary movements
was found to be considerable. The war with Tur-
key easily infected superficially cultured Russian
society with coarse nationalism. This prepared the
way for an outbreak of anti-Semitism, always near
the surface among the great mass of tlie people.
Its strongest exponent among the prominent writers
was Dostoyevski, who saw in the Je""s only the most
modern vehicles of those liberal ideas which he had
constantly fought against. Wiih the ingenuity
characteristic of him, he advocated the granting to
the Jews of full rights, on condition, however, that
this political equality should not make them stronger
than tlie native population — a confiition wliich de-
prived his suggestion of any significance. The anti-
Russian activity of Lord Beaconsfield and several
lawsuits with Jewish military contractors afTorded
considerable material for the agitators. The Rus-
sian press found a demand for anti-Semitism which
it actively supplied.

To this period belong the first success of the

newspaper "Novoye Vremya" and the beginning of

the active and successful anti-Jewish

The "No- propaganda which this influential
voye j)aper lias bt-i-n carrying on for more

Vremya.'' than a quarter of a century. It was
joined by others less widely circulated :
the "Novorossiski Telegrajih," published by O/.nii-
dov in Odessa; the " Kievlyanim," pul)lisiied by
Pikhno in Kiev; and the insignificant "Luch," in
St. Petersburg. The terrible violence of the South-
Russian " pogromy " (riots) and the reactionary reign
of Alexander III. placed the Liberal press at a dis-
advantage; lack of familiarity with Jewish life was
always one of its failings. It could not at once
assume a definite attitude toward this important
(juestion, and protest with proper firnuiess and force
against the tragedy of the annihilation of an en-
tiro people. It had previously been accustomed to
guard the nation against the discretionary measures
of the government; but in this case common sense
showed that no policy could be suggested other
than a physical struggle of the authorities in behalf
of the Jews against the turbulent masses.

Still more important was the fact that the Jewish
populace appeared to the Russian Liberals not as
an industrial people, but exclusively as petty bour-
geois. Being accustomed to trust in popular opinion
and await the solution of political questions by con-
temporary popular movements, a portion of the
Russian Radicals was not loath to see in the Jewish
pogromy the beginning of such a popular move-
ment; nor was it entirely free from the belief tint
the pogromy were violent attempts of the masses to
throw off the burdens of exploitation. For this
reason the protests of the Russian writers against
the pogromy Avere, if not evasive, at least not suffi-
ciently courageous and sincere. The forceful ex-
ception was the voice of the great Russian satirist
and journalist Saltykov-Shchedrin. In an article
entitled "Yulskoye Vyeyaniye," published in the
most influential of the Russian progressive papers,
edited by himself, he expressed with splendid pas-
sion and pathos the deep significance and tragedy of
the suffering of the Jews and the absurdity of the ac-
cusations directed against them. "With his custom-
ary penetration he described the real cause of anti-
Semitism and the soil on which it had developed,
appealing to his readers to make tliemselves ac-
quainted at first hand with Jewish life. When the
single appeal of Saltykov was sounded it was as
from a voice crying in the wilderness.

The entire reign of Alexander III. was an epoch
of anti-Semitic orgies, in the press, in society, and
above all in government circles. Enactments di-
rected not only against the economic welfare of the
Jews, but also against their participation in the
blessings of culture, followed one another rapidl}'.
The bringing of accusations against the Jews in the
anti-Semitic press was systematized. The "Novoye
Vremya," with its satellites, among

Alexander which the "Nablyudatel," edited by
III. Pyatkovski, was preeminent in un-

restrained attacks, stopped at nothing,
not even at methodically persistent accusations of
ritual murder. This met with but feeble resistance.

553

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

RuiiBia

Hfiictioimry feeling dominated not onl)' the govern-
ment, but a considerable portion of the Hnssian
people, and the refutations of the liistorian of the
Jews, S. A. liershadski, of the Ktalesnnin Demidov,
and of the journalists Chichorin and K. K. Arsenyev
were without avail.

Some time afterward the attention of society was
attracted by the attempts of two really inlluential
writers to defend tiie Jews. Tiie attitude of tiie
philosopher V. S. Solov3-ev and of the writer V.
G. Korolenko was the more valuable because it was
not inspired by mere pity, but by the evident con-
sciousness of the fact that the suppression of anti-
Semitism is of great importance not only for tiie
Jews, but also for the Christians. For Solovyev
the Jewish question was a Christian one — namely,
tiiat of Christianizing the Aryan world, hitherto
Christian only in name. A deeply religious tiiiiiker
aiui a Hebrew scholar, he energetically rehabilitated
the Talmud and personally endeavored
The Jewish wherever possible to influence the
Question a representatives of society and govern-
Christian ment. The humanitarian champion of
Q,uestion. everything outlawed and oppressed in
Russia, Korolenko attempted to in-
fluence Russian society not only by the artistic types
in his excellent stories, but also by articles on current
questions and by enthusiastic partici|)ation in every
social undertaking aiming to improve the condition
of the Jews. In his " Yoni Kippur" he showed
that even when seen through an anti-Semitic lens
the average Jew, with all his faults, is better than
the native Russian "Kulak " who exploits the village
po])idation. " Skazauye o-Florye-Rimlyainnye,"
transporting the reader to the time of the Roman
sway over the Holy Land, depicts in living and at-
tractive colors the types of Jewish youth who would
not wait to conquer by submi.ssion. It was tiie in-
tention of the author to reply in this story to Tolstoi's
theory of non-resistance to evil, but the "Skazanye,"
addressed to the Jews, could have been taken also
as an appeal to their national consciousness. Two
voluminous, coarsely anti-Semitic novels that ap-
peared at this time— "Tiomny Put," by Kot-Mur
lyka, and "Tma Yegipetskaya," by Vsevolod Kres-
tovski— met with no success.

Anton Chekhov, also, a native of South Russia,
devoted some time and attencion to the Jews.
Highly talented, but with insufliciently developed
social temperament, he modified his attitude toward
the Jews according to the fluctuations in his social
symi)atiiies. At tirst a collaborator on humorous
papers, he did not fall far short of clowinsh raillery.
After he had become connected with the "Novoye
Vremya" he presented, in two stories entitled
" Perakati-Pole " and "Tino," several more passable
thoiigh somewhat negative Jewish types; and
finally, in his " Step " (a story) and " Ivanov " (a com-
edy), i)ublished in the Liberal " Syeverny Vy<'stnik."
he showed that he had had direct acquaintance with
the Jews and was capable of working his impres-
sions into lifelike images. But the geni'ral atti-
tude of Russian literature at that time toward the
Jews may be described as indefinite. Although ag-
gressive and defensive tendencies were distinctly
observable, neither were characterized l>y what is

most important, namely, insiijlit Into the ens. uie of
Jowisli life, a clear untlcisUiiiding tlM-reof, und llie
ability to ex press this understandinjf In others. New
restrictive enactmenls were met nimply by objec-
tions—logical iind stnsible, it is true— on the part
of th(! Liberal preas. while the violeutly viiidirtivu
accusations of the untiSeinileH were un.swen-d by a
few storie.S frr)m Jewish life which showeil that tliu
Jews also were human beings and were lieKideH for
the most part poor and HUlTering — tin much m> as
their suppos<'d vicliniH.

Tliis was the condition in which !{u.s.sj,in literuturu
was found by the social movemeuL of the niin tieu
of the ninetectitli century. The rcactiotjary policy
of the govermnent became uid»eanible. even for the
patient Ru.ssian society. The most acute e\pre.s.siou
of this reaction was the attitude of tlie f^overiitiieiil
and its press toward the Jew.s. Natundly this hI-
tracleil the attention of the i)rogrevsive Hussiati el<*-
ments, and the enlistment of their sympalhieH wim
favored by the evidences of a growing consciouhmsH
of responsil)iliiy on the part of the J«'\v.s, who. vann-
ing to regard their interests as identical with those
of general Russian proirress. turned theiratlention to
the specific needs of their own people uiid begun to
announce them boldly and i)ersistently. Thi<cttusf<i
certain modifications in the attitude of Hus.sian lit-
erature toward the Jews. Its repr<'Sent«tiv«'S real-
ized for the first time that the Jewish question called
for concentrated attention, tliat they
Importance had hitherto sinned by their indifTer-
of Solving ence. and that they liad thereby in-
the Jewish jured their own cause. They realized,

Q,uestion. even if not fully, that the Sfdution of
the Ji'wish (juestion was not «iidy a
portion of their coming victory, but that in fuel it
was a preliminary condition of that victory ; nntl the
mere number of active participant.s furnished by the
Jews in the final struggle lor the complete lilanition
of Russia showed that their emancipation would be
the greatest contribution to the successful conclu-
sion of the struggle. Sketches from Jewish life arc
gradually occupying more space in Russian period-
icals. The misfortunesof the Jews are meel^
greatersympathy among the more cultured 1,
than has been the case heretofore. Famine among
the Ressarabian Jews led to an appeal in " Po-
moshch," a literary aiuiual, which appeal was sup-
ported by the most prominent Russian writers.

The coarsely anti-Semitic play of the converted
Jew Litvin, ••Kontral)andisty." was received with
hisses by the Russian youth, both in tiie capital ami
in the provinces. Finally, the tragedy of Kishii -f
brought into existence an entire literature r.f in.: .-
nant protests, individual and collective, from the
most prominent representatives of Russian letters.
AmoiiiT them should be mentioned Maxim Gorki,
always sympathetic to Jewish n'

After the who gave a p.)werful descripti.

Kishinef the Nijni-Novgorotl pogrom of l-~.
Aflfair. of which he was an eye-wit i

who after the Kishinef horrc: •
a jiassionate protest against the exemption from
punishment of the moral instigators of the cri ■
The romantically exaggerated figure t^f the pit.;.
Jew in Gorki's' " Artenn Kain " should be noted

Busala

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

654

here. The more conscious attitude of the Russian
writers toward the Jews found weak expression in
the artistic literature. Among its most prominent
manifestations may be noted the stories by Machtet;
"Zhid," by Potapenko; "Itzek-Shmul Briiiant-
shchik," by Garin-Michailovski; "Itzka i Davidka,"
by Yablonovski; "Nukhim," by Alexander Novi-
kov; "Poslednyaya Povyest Katzenbogena," by
Menshin Yaku'bovich; "Kobylka v Piiti"; and
others.

The Russian writers are seemingly attempting to
share with their readers those living and strong im-
pressions which they themselves receive in their
infrequent meetings with the Jews. That they
are thus supplying a real demand is proved by the
success which has been gained among the Rus-
sian reading public by writers upon Jewish life.
At one time the artistic creations of the Jewish
bclletristic writers found with difficulty a place in
the Russian journals. The greatness of such wri-
ters as Levanda passed entirely unnoticed among
Russian readers, who were not acquainted with the
Jewish periodical press (in Russian). On the other
hand, the stories of Kogan-Naumov, Khin, Yush-
kevitch, Aiseman, and Khotimski found a place in
the general journals and considerable success in sep-
arate editions.

One of the most recent Russian productions from
Jewish life is "Yevrei," by Chirikov, a successful
attempt to put into dramatic setting not only the
daily life but also the spiritual tendencies of con-
temporary Russian Jews. This attempt is quite
characteristic of the present-da}' attitude of Russian
Liberal literature, which has now separated itself
from the old abstract conceptions concerning the
Jews. It has become more careful and sympathetic
toward them. It has passed beyond the boundaries
of the old, obscure humanist apology, and describes
various groups and spiritual types among the Jews,
though to an insufficient extent; and it still lacks,
as formerly, a more exact acquaintance with Jewish
life and an understanding of Jewish psychology.
Russian literature, for all its outward nearness to the
Jews, notwithstanding the necessity of penetrating
into this but slightly explored world, and in spite of
the significant place Jews liold in Russian life, can
not show to the present day a single i)roduction from
Jewish life equal in pafhos and tolerance to Lcssing's
"Nathan the Wise," in power of description to
Gutzkov's "Uriel Acosta." in insight into Jewish
daily life to the works of Elizabeth Ozheshko. The
Jews have not yet found their poet in Russian liter-
ature.

H. n. A. Go.

Municipal Government : When at the first

partition of Poland tlie Jews of the region that was
ultimately known as White Russia became subjects
of the czarina, they were all registered in the towns
and neighboring villages. But tliey were not in-
cluded in the mass of the Christian urban population,
and their status remained the same as wlien they
lived in Poland. Tlie kahals represented the .Jews in
communal affairs, and were responsiljle to the gov-
ernment in all matters of taxation ; as a result the
.lews as individuals were isolated from the civic
and social life of their neighbors. But in 1780 the

Jews were given the right to register in merchant
gilds, and, in consequence, those of their number
who had not the capital necessary for registration
in the merchant class, and who were also deprived
of the right to join other classes, became members
of the townfolk class. In this way the mass of the
Jewish population was included in its entirety in
the town population and also in the tradesman and
merchant class, and formed in many cities a quanti-
tatively predominant element.

The class of inhabitants engaged in manufactur-
ing and commerce at that time exerted a dominant
influence in the town life and in the municipal gov-
ernment, and its representatives filled positions in
the magistracies and the town councils. Having
joined the merchants and townsmen, the White-
Russian Jews became subject to the urban class in-
stitutions (thus lessening the influence of the kahal),
and took part in municijial administration. The
ukase granting this right was issued by Cather-
ine II. in 1783. The Christians of White Russia,
accustomed to seeing the Jews excluded from social
and political life under the Polish regime, opposed
their election. The Jews complained to the em-
press, and the Senate decided (1786) that Jews and
Christians should be elected to municipal offices in
proportion to the number of Jews and Christians
registered in the municipality. This decision was
applied also to other governn^ents that were added,
at one time or another, to Russia from Poland.

Nevertlieless, when Russian administration was
established in the governments of Volhynia and Po-
dolia the governor of these provinces prescribed that
the number of Jews serving in the magistracies,
which according to law were composed of two
burgesses and four aldermen, should not exceed one-
third of the total number — more exactly that only
two of the aldermen might be Jews. This was the
beginning of the limitations of the electoral rights
of the Jews in Russia as a whole.

Under Paul I., on account of the reorganization
of the municipal administrations, the Jews of the
governments of Volhynia and Podolia were elected
to the magistracies to the number of one-half of the
entire number of councilmen. In 1802 the new gov-
ernor of these provinces requested the Senate to pre-
scribe that the Jews be elected to the city councils
only to the extent of one-third of the entire number
of councilors, and that the Christians and Jews elect
their representatives separately, and not jointly as
had been the custom until then. The Senate not
only granted this request, but also extended the new
regulation to all the governments where Jews lived,
even though no complaints had been made of the
supposedly injurious activity of the Jews in the
municipal administrations of the other governments.

The position of the Jews in the Lithuanian gov-
ernments was somewhat different. In 1803 they
were granled electoral rights, but the Christians of
several towns strongly opposed this concession, and
it was consequently revoked. On the other hand,
the Jews of the province of Byelostok received the
right, under a sjiecial law, to become members of
the magistracies without any limitation, and of the
city councils to the extent of one-half of the entire
number of councilmen; but lor some unknown rea-

655

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

BusaU

son tlioy were subsequeutly entirely excluded from
the magistracies, and in some cities from the town
councils also.

However, all these limiting regulations were local
in character. Neither the Regulations (Polozheniye)
of 1H04 nor the Code of Laws of 1832 mentions the
limitations in question, although both decree that
the Jewish representatives shall wear German or
Polish dress, and shall know one of three languages:
Russian, Polish, or German.

New enactments concerning the Jews were pro-
mulgated in 1835, and one of them contiiined among
others the following provision: "The Jewisli town
classes may take part in the elections for municipal
offices, and any Jews knowing liow to read and write
lUissian may be elected as members of the city coun-
cils, town councils, and magistracies under the same
conditions as prevail in the election to these offices
of persons of other religious beliefs." In this man-
ner all of the limitations then in force were to be-
come void. The enactment was energetically op-
posed by Prince Dolgoruki, administrator at that
time of the governments of Lithuania, White Rus-
sia, and Minsk. He pointed out, among other mat-
ters, "that the election of Jews as presidents of the
boards of aldermen and as city mayors would hardly
be permissible since the president is the presiding
officer in the courts, and the city ma)'or, as the rep-
resentative of the entire municipality, is obliged at
the opening of the elections ... to lead the towns-
people to church for religious service and is then ad-
mitted to take the oath " ; and that in general " the
election of Jews even as members of city magistra-
cies and town councils is in a manner inappropriate
to the decorum and sacredness of the courts, where
not infrequently the oath is taken with cross and
mirror; moreover, the judges should be drawn from
men whose integrity and uprightness could be
guaranteed at least by the morality instilled into
them by education and religious precepts."

While Prince Dolgoruki's representations as to
the limitation of the electoral rights of the Jews
were being considered in St. Petersburg, there ap-
peared an independent enactment (1836) limiting
the election of Jews in the western governments to
one-third of the total number of municipal officers.
Following this came a new law (1839), called into
being as a result of the representations of Prince
Dolgoruki, in accordance with which the Jews in
any western government might be represented in
municipal organizations to the extent of only one-
third the number of municipal officers, and only
Christians might act as chairmen. The Jews were
excluded from the positions of borough president,
city mayor, etc., and also from "municipal positions
which either are entirely reserved for Christians, or
by virtue of their duties C()uld not with convenience
and propriety be entrusted to Jews." Aside from
membership in town councils and magi.stracies the
Jews could be elected only as aldermen, as d;'puties
of house commissions, and to various other insig-
niticant positions. At the same time the election of
Jewish and Christian representatives was to be
carried out separatel\- bj' the Jews and Christians.
This law led to even greater limitations in practical
application. The circumstance that, contrary to

law. the Jews were excluded from participaiiou in
(•lections of Chrisliims to i)OBition» reservi-d for
('hii.stians alone, ussunicd a peculiar Hignilkancc.
i)ecau8e tlirough lids InUrpntulion of the law the
Jewish populiilion was deprived of miy influence in
the election of liigh.-r officials, and this could but
have an evil effect on the altitude of the latu-r
toward the Jews.

In this manner participation by Jews in the vari-
ous departnients of the municipal government wiui
reduced to a mininuim by the law of 1839, an<l yet.
when the kuhal wus abolished in 1844. Ihew: inhlitu-
tions assumed a special significance for the Jews, u
they were entrusted with the administration of oil
matters especially affecting the Jews.

The law of 183r,, which placed Jews and Chris-
tians on an equality in electoral rights, wasapj.lica-
ble to the entire Jewish population <jf RushiH. wiiile
the subse(juent restrictive laws f)f 1W6 and 1839
were valid only in the western governments. Never-
theless, the statement that the laws of 1836 and of
1839 were intended oidy for the western govt-m
ments was omitted from the code of laws puliliflhiHl
in 1842, and it was probably due to this that llie
same limitations were occasionally to Ik? noted in
other governments. Thus, in Odessa the Jews par-
ticipated with the Christians in the election of the
city mayor. In 1857, at the instance of the gov-
ernor-general of New Russia, the Jews to:jk part
with the Christians in the elections of the city of
Kishinef.

In general, the Jews of South Russia did not suf-
fer from the social ostracism that at one time was
carefully fostered in Poland. In the former region
greater respect was accorded them in civil life, and
the local authorities made repeated represenlAtions
to the higher government for improvement in their
political condition. In 18.17 Count Stroganov, the
governor-general of New Ru.s.sia. applied to the min-
ister of the interior for broader electoral rights for
the Jews. He was guided in this instance not alone
by sentiments of justice toward them, but also by
the interests of the cities, which were made to suffer
because of the removal of Jews from certain posi-
tions and their replacement by persons altogether in-
competent and who were therefore not qualitie<l
under the law to be entrusted with a share in the
municipal administration. In consequence of this
the governor of Kherson reciuested jiermission to
elect a Jew as mayor of Kherson in 1862.

The ministry of the interior began the framing of
new city regulations in 180"2. and among the.s*- one of
the ministry of Valuyev prescribed that Jews might
be elected to the tow n council to the numlH-r of one-
half of the total members thereof, and that they
might also participate in the election of the dty
mayor, although no Jew was eliiiible for t' "' <■.

But subsequently the new minister. Tim:i .<•-

creed that Jews might be elected to the town coun-
cil and town ailministration only to the numlH-r o(
one-third of the total members of the elective ImkIv :
and, notwithstanding opjiosition from the represent-
atives of the Imperial Bureaii and of the ministry
of linances, this limitation was incorporated into the
law of July 11, 1870. A point was gained, however,
in that the Jews were now included in the general

Hnssia

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDI.V

556

body of electors, and thus received power to iuflu-
enco the electioa of Chrisiiaus.

The new regulations had hardly been in force for
twenty years when by sudden decision the Imperial
Council (July 11, 1892) decreed that the Jews should
not take part in municipal elections, and that they
should be excluded from municipal administrative
positions and the management of separate depart-
ments of municipal finance and administration. In
other words, the Jews were excluded altogether
from the election of councilmen, of members of the
administration, and of the city mayor, and were
themselves no longer eligible for election to any of
the public otttces mentioned above. They were per-
mitted to "assume the duties of councilmen" only
under the following conditions: The town admin-
istrations were to prepare lists of Jews who, were
they not Jews, might, according to the general regu-
lations, be elected to the post of councilman, and
from this list the commission on municipal alfairs
was to appoint at its discretion councilmen, whose
number was to be determined by the minister of the
interior, but was not to exceed one-tenth of the
entire number of such officials. Under such con-
ditions the Jewish councilmen ceased to be actual
representatives of the Jewish population, and the
latter remained without representation. Many in-
stances might be cited to show the injurious effect
of this condition of things upon the interests of the
Jewish population.

At the beginning of the year 1904 the town coun-
cil of Odessa resolved to urge the admission of Jews
to municipal offices under the general regulations.
The outcome of this resolution is still unknown
(1905).

Bibliography: J.Uesseri, Stranitza iz Tstnrii Ohschestven-
nai-:) Samoupravleiiiya Yevteycv v Rnmsii, in Vuskhod, 1903,
books i. and ii.; 1904, books vii. and viii.

n. R. *
Periodicals, Russo-Jewish : Russo-Jewish

journalism came into being on May 27, 1860, with
the appearance in Odessa of the weekly entitled
Razsvvet (see also Rabinovicii, Osip Aarono-
vich). In the same year there began to appear in
Wilna, as a supplement to "Ha-Karmel," aFfticles in
the Russian language; but these had no literary or
social significance.

From 1861 to 1862 the journal formerly known as
"Razsvyet" appeared under the new title •' Sion,"
being edited by E. Soloveichik and L. Pinsker, later
the author of " Autoemancipation." Pinsker soon
gave place to N. Bernstein. '"Sion,"' as compared
with the "Razsvyet, "restricted its publicistic activ-
ity, and devoted more space to questions of Jewish
learning and history. The editors hoped that by
familiarizing Russian society with both the his-
torical past and the contemporary life of the Jewish
people, they could render its attitude toward the
Jews more friendly. The journal
The Anti- was therefore more conservative than

Semitic tiie "Razsvyet" had been; and it
Press and aimed to discuss the Jewi.sh question

" Sion." in an academic spirit. This, however,

proved impossible. The anti-Semitic

press by its irritating accusations compelled "Sinn "

to reply sharply, for it was only through this

hostile source that Russian society hail learned to
know of the Jewish question; but the censorship,
which left the other papers unrestrained, interfered
in the case of "Sion," and the latter found it neces.sary
toterminateitsactivities. " Having met, '"announced
the editors, "with peculiar difficulties in refuting
unfounded accusations brought against the Jews
and the Jewish religion by certain Russian journals,
and also wishing to acquaint the public with the
true spirit of the Jewish religion, the editors of
' Sion ' consider it their duty to discontinue its pub-
lication until they shall have obtained permission to
edit it with a broader program."

Apparently the reference to "a broader program "
was made for the purpose of concealing another
cause for discontinuing the publication ; namely,
the lack of a sutficient number of subscribers. It is.
believed by some that the limited circulation of the
journal was due to the desire of the Jewish youth
for a general education, they having become indif-
ferent to the interests of Judaism. But the lack
of subscribers may be explained also bj' the fact
that a knowledge of Russian was restricted at
that time to a limited portion of the Jewish popula-
tion.

After the discontinuance of "Sion," the Jewish
community had for a period of seven j'earsno pub-
lication of its own. In 18G9 there appeared in
Odessa a weekly entitled " Den," under the editor-
ship of S. Orenstein, with 'M. G. ^lorgulis and I. G.
Orshanski as collaborators. The new journal di-
rected its attention mainly to the external relations
of the economic and social life of the Russian Jews.
Having found that their isolated position was
due not to religious or national causes, but to
those of a civil, social, and economic nature, " Den "
pointed out those conditions under which it seemed
likely that the interests of the Jewish inhabitants
would become identical with those of the rest of the
population, and the existing animosity of the Rus-
sians toward the Jews be thus overcome. These
conditions, however, could only be created under
circumstances legally favorable to Jewish life; in
other words, by civil emancipation. This naturally
called for certain concessions on the part of the Jews
to the spirit of the times and to the
The "Den" general conditions of the life of the

and Rus- empire. " Den " advocated the Russi-
sification of ficaticm of the Jews, their education

the Jews, in the Russian spirit, etc. ; but no
attempts were made to undermine
the foundations of .Tewish life. It fought with
equal courage against the anti-Semitic press and for
Jewish rights; and this firnuiess led to its suppres-
sion. In 1871, when tlie anti-Jewish riots occurred
in Odessa, its publication ceased.

After the demise of "Den," St. Petersburg became
the center of Russo-Jewish journalism. From 1871
to 1873, with long intermissions, a daily paper en-
titled " Wyestnik Russkikh Yevreyev" and
edited by A. Zederbaum and A. Gokleiililum wa.H
published in that city. It had no public significance.
In the year 1879 there appeared siimiltanenusly at
St. Petersburg two weeklies, "Razsvyet" and
"Russki Yevrei." "Rjizsvyet" was published
from Aug., 1879, until Jan., 1883. The editors of

557

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

BusBla

"Wycstnik Husskikli Yevrcyev " were llie nomi-
nal editors of "Kazsvyct" also; but tiiose wiio were
more directly respousible for llie edi-

Journal- torial work on the latter journal were
istic Activ- M. S. Varsliavski, N. M. Viienkin,

ity in St. M. I. Kulisiier, J. L. Kosenfeld, and

Peters- others. With No. 15 of the year 1880

burg. the editorship was transferred to the

writer Bogrof and to J. Roseufeld, the

latter subsequently becoming sole editor. "Husski

Yevrei " was published from Aug., 1879, until Dec.,

1884, under the editorship of L. J. Bermann and

Q. M. Rabinovich.

The advocacy of assimilation with the Russians
attained to considerable proportions in Russian
Jewry in the seventh decade of the nineteenth cen-
turj'. It was believed that the Jewish question, if
indeed there really was one, was in reality only a
]iart of the general Russian problem; that the for-
tunes of the Jews would be modified onl}'' with a
change in tlie fortunes of the Russian jieople; and
that therefore it was necessary to work with the
latter in endeavoring to realize the common Russian
aims. It was at the same time considered advisa-
ble that the Jews should throw aside everything
specifically Jewish. This attitude caused indiffer-
ence on the part of educated Jews to the oppressive
legal and economic conditions of the Jewish popu-
lation. The two journals arose in opposition to
this abnormal state of things. Both
The of them were representatives of mod-

"Russki orn assimilation. The " Russki Yev-

Yevrei" rei " undertook to facilitate a more in-
and Assim- timate acquaintance between theJew-

ilation. ish and the Russian people — the same
aim that had inspired the " Razsvyet "
of 1860 and "Sion," with the difference that the
" Russki Yevrei " emphasized the fact that the Rus-
sian Jews, though not Russians, were Russian sub-
jects of Jewish faith. The journal proved the in-
justice of the accusations brought against the Jews.
While devoting a certain amount of space to ques-
tions of Jewish internal life, it did not denounce
Jewish shortcomings lest, by such self-criticism, it
should supply the enemies of the Jews with material
for further persecutions.

The " Razsvyet " assumed a different attitude. As
the advocate of "Russo-Jewish needs and wants," it
dwelt more on the phenomena of Jewish every -day
life. It courageously directed attention to its fail-
ings, and, anticipating no outside help, iirged the
educated Jews to assume the work of .self-improve-
ment. At the same time it pointed
The Second out that this work for the Jewish
" Raz- population would prove useful to the

svyet." world at large also. Apparently it
was not practicable at that time, ow-
ing to internal conditions, to urge specifically Jew-
ish work, or perhaps the cooperation of the educated
Jews could not be counted upon. The jmgromy
which swept through Russia in 1881 gave birth to
the idea of nationalism; and the " Razsvyet " was
soon transformed into an advocate of Zionism. It
terminated its existence a year or two later.

For the space of one year (1881-82) there was
published in l?iga the monthly " Yevreiskiya

Zapiski," under the editorship of A. Pumpyuuski.
It was of a iiistorico-literury t liiirncl<T. In 1884
there ap))earc(i in .St. P.-tcrslmri: seven riumberH of
the monthly *' Yevreiskoye Obozryeniye/'editMl
by L. (). CantDr.

A mf)re kindly fale uwaiU-d the journal ••Vo«-
khod." It was founded in 1881 by A E. Ijindmi.
who from 1871 to IHKO hud pulilisliiij <ii.'|it v.ilutncH
under the general title " Yevreiskaya Biblio-
teka." Only inontlily volumes were puhlisli.d in
IHSi, l»iit from IHH-:; iIkt.' api.<-,if.d iil-,, t|,c u.t-kly
"Nedyelnaya Khronika Voskhoda." \ ..luni'e
ix. of the "Yevreiskaya Bibliotcku" appeared in
1901, and vol. x. (published l»y O. A. I-unduu, the
son of Adolph Landau) in 1903.

"Voskhod"was founded at tlic most unM'tlled
period of Jewish as well as of Russian life. It lias
fought with unvarying courage for civil riieJits for
the Jews, and has at the same time fearlessly ex-
posed Jewish national defects as well as the fuilinps
of certain social groups. It has receive<l niuny liard
blows, both from Jewsand from non-Jews, but it has
survived to carry out its original program. At tiio
time when Jewish society was s«'ized with fear and
despair, after the pogromy in the early eighties,
the " Voskhod" opposed tiie couns»-ls of tiie "Raz-
svyet" and of individuals adv»K-ating emigration.
declaring itself against such a soluiifni of the Jew-
ish question. At that time the Jews tlunis(^-lvc>s
argued that the worse the condition of the Jews in
Russia, the better for the idea of the regeneration of
the nation on its own soil. The " Voskliml," liow-
ever, declared that : "Its aim is to defend tlie inter-
ests of the Russian Jews, and to strive to make the
life of Jews in Rus,sia possible and
Aims of bearable. With this piirpos** it will
the " Vos- defend and guard tlu-ir riirhts.and at-
khod." tempt, in so far as lies in its power, to
effect an extension of these rij^lils.
On the other hand, it will cooperate by nil po<ysible
means in the improvement of the inner life of the
Jews themselves and in the attainment fif tlieir so-
cial regeneration on Russian soil." The" Vo.-ikhod "
continued to adhere to this jiolicy. It defended the
rights of the Jews so vigorously and with such per-
sistence that it soon attnictfd the attention of the
governiuent. On June 24, 1SS4. It received its first
warning for "permittinc itself very frequently to
criticize insolently the existing laws and government
measures and to interpret falsely their meanine and
aims." It received a .second warning on July 3.
1885, for continuing to criticize the laws adversely.
"spreading among the Jews the belief tliat tlie por-
ernment and all classes of the Russian people
maintain toward them an attitude of merciless and
unreasom"ng harshness." Finally, in 1891 the jour-
nal was suspended for eight months.

As (he only perio<lical in the field forabout fifteen
years, the "Voskhod" was read by all the Jewish
social groups, ami the number of its sub«< ribers in-
creased from2,G92in 1883 to4.2»4 in ISO^ In IHftO.
while Landau was still living, tlie journal was trans-
ferred to other hands.

The significance of the "Voskhod" is not con-
fined to its ptihlicistic activity. During landau's
editorship there appeared in its pages a whole series

Russia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

558

of writings on Jewish life from the social, lit-
erary, and historical standpoints. Belletristic wri-
tings by Levanda, Ben-Ami, Yaro-
Its shevski, and others; historical works

Publicistic by S. M. Dubnow and the Christian
Activity, jurist S. A. Bcrshadski; juridical and
publicistic papers by ^I. Morgulis, M.
Kulisher, and M. Mysh; archeological and philo-
logical contributions by A. J. Harkav y ; poems by
S. Frug: and translations into Russian of the lead-
ing works in foreign languages — all these, represent-
ing material of the greatest value, were published
in the " Voskhod."

Under the new management, with G. Syrkiu as
editor, the journal has adhered to its original pro-
gram while adapting itself to the recjuirements of
the times. Devoting to the Zionist cause only so
much attention as. is demanded by its impartial
attitude toward this movement, the
Its Im- "Voskhod" is nevertheless read by
partial the most enthusiastic adherents of
Attitude Zionism. As formerly, the journal is
Toward courageous!}' outspoken in defense of
Zionisni. the rights of the Jews. It sounded a
mighty note of protest against the
Kishinef pogrom of 1903, and was punished therefor
by the government. Nos. 16 and 17 of the "Khro-
nika" (one of which contained an article by J. Brutz-
kus urging the Jews to armed defense) were confis-
cated. The publishers received two other warnings,
on April 28 and May 15, 1903, respectively. In 1904
the "Khronika" was suspended for si.x months for
a sharp criticism of the activity of the anti-Semitic
journal "Znamya" and of its friends in Russian so-
ciety. Besides Svrkin there are closely connected
with the "Voskliod" L. Zev, M. Trivus, and M.
Vinaver. Notwithstanding its high subscription
price, 10 rubles, it has not less than 5,000 subscri-
bers. For the last two years it has offered as a sup-
plement the "History of the Jews," b}' S. M. Dub-
now. Recently the weekly numbers of the journal
have been named "Voskhod," and the monthly vol-
umes " Knizhki Voskhoda."

At the end of 1899 there appeared in St. Peters-
burg the weekly (with a volume of collected arti-
cles as annual supplement) entitled " Budusch-
nost," under the editorship of S. O. Gruzenberg,
who was for many years a contributor
The " Bu- to the " Voskhod." The journal was
duschnost" soon transformed into a Zionist organ,
a Zionist and this caused it to lose public sup-
Organ, port. It is, moreover, indifferently
supported by the Zionists. At first the
contributors were well-known writers, but one after
another these withdrew, and its editor, though an
old, experienced, and capable journalist, was unable
to maintain the paper at its original high level.

In 1903 there appeared in St. Petersburg the
'* Yevreiskaya Semeinaya Biblioteka," a
monthly journal under the editorship of M. Ryvkin.
In liie following year the title was changed to
"Yevreiskaya Zhizn," and the editorship was
undertaken by G. Sorin, with the collaboration of M.
M. Margolin and J. D. Brutzkus. The journal,
which is devoted to Zionism, at once gained popu
larity, securing in the first year of its existence

about 7,000 subscribers — a circumstance explained
to a certain extent by the support of a Zionist or-
ganization and by the low subscription price, 4
rubles. Asa supplement the journal offers a collec-
tion of Frug's poems.

Bibliography: L. Levamlii. AT Istorii Voznihovcniya Pcr-
vavo ()r{inna Tius.ikik)i I'fr/Ti/tr, in Vonkhiui. 1881, vol. vi.;
S. M. Dubnow. O Siuiiciiiic yapravleni, v Russko-Yevreiskoi
Zhurnalistiktie, in liuduiichnost, 1899.

II. It. *

Rural Communities : Wishing to create im-
portant commercial centers, Catherine II. ordered, in
17S2, that merchants and commoners no longer re-
side in rural communities to the detriment of the
peasants, but remove to the towns. This measure
was directed at the commercial classes, which in-
cluded the Jews ; and as they were without exception
registered among the merchants and tradespeople,
the regulation, which was only a i>artial limitation
for the ("hristiaiis, became for the Jewsa general legal
limitation, and was especially burdensome because
the great mass of them resided in niial communities.
Closely allied with the concentration movement
was the question of the distilling and sale of spirits.
As merchants and tradespeople the Jews of White
Russia were at that time forbidden by the local
authorities to distil spirits, to lease estates, or to man-
age rural industries, that is, to continue in those oc-
cupations by which the Jews, owing to peculiar his-
torical conditions, had earned their livelihood for a
period of years. This regulation was generally con-
sidered a restrictive measure directed against the
Jews, as before its enactment they had received the
same privileges as the merchants and trading classes.
But in 1786 the Senate repealed the regulations re-
garding lea.ses and the distilling of spirits; and in so
far as the question of residence in rural districts was
concerned, the Senate, knowing that the empress, for
important reasons of economic policy, desired the
removal of the Jews to the towns, and knowing also
that the conditions prevailing in the towns did not
warrant peremptory removal, contented itself by ru-
ling that the Jews should not remove prematurely,
because it was uncertain whether they would find
work or dwellings in the towns. Nevertiielessmany
Jews were removed and thereby ruined.

Before long this question w^as revived. In 1795,
when Russian administration was being introduced
in the new governments annexed from
Removal Poland, viz., those of Minsk, Vol-
of Jewrs. liynia, and Podolia, the empress or-
dered that " efforts be made " to remove
the Jews to the towns so that they might engage there
in commerce and in handicrafts. She did not intend
to make the measure compulsory in character, yet
the governor-general of White Russia, who had re-
ceived a similar order cimcerning the Jews, set one
year as the time-limit for their removal. Butatthe
time the sparsely populated cities were not adapted
to accommodate so great an influx of new inhabit-
ants. Even then the towns contained many Jews,
who furnished a greater number of merchants and
artisans than was necessary. The order for the re-
moval of the Jews created apprehension also among
tiio estate-owners, to whom it meant pecuniary loss,
and for these reasons the governor-general ordered

559

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ruaaia

tliat only Jews living in inns and villages situated
on nuiin roads be forced to obey it. An extension of
time was also granted ; but notwithstanding the fact
that tlie removals were not carried out on as large
u scale as was desired, such removals as did take
place materially affected the prosperity of the Jews,
and much sulfering and inronvenience was caused
thereby.

The question of the harm said to be caused bv
Jews dwelling in rural districts, and the best means
of dealing with the subject, were matters referred for
consideration, by order of the Senate, to the local au-
thoritiesand to ownersof estates situated in govern-
ments which had a Jewish population. Neither the
authorities nor the owners found it desirable to re-
move all the Jews, avIio, moreover, they suggested
sliould be distributed over a larger area. These sug-
gestions Avere transmitted to the Senate, which was
at that time engaged in working out a general plan
for Jewish reform.

In 1801 a new regulation was passed ordering
merchants and tradesmen to remove to the cities.
The Jews of White Russia petitioned the Senate to
be allowed to remain in their old homes, and the
Senate granted their request. But in other govern-
ments no attempt was made to remove the Jews,
and the administration of the government of New
Russia went before the Senate to urge tlie non-
removal of Jews from the rural districts, as the ad-
ministration declared they caused no harm or dam-
age to the peasants.

In 1802 the i)roject of Jewish reform was sub-
mitted to a committee comjiosed of persons near to
the emperor, and, according to the regulations
worked out by it (1804), the Jews were
Committee to be deprived of the right of distil-
of 1802. ling spirits, of leasing estates, and
of residing in villages and hamlets.
A time-limit of three years was set for their removal.
This eonmiittee expressed itself as opposed to resort-
ing to stringent measures in dealing with the Jews,
and explained that only dire necessity induced it to
forbid them to distil, to sell spirits, and to lease estates.

In connection with this prohibition the commit-
tee ordered the removal of all the Jews from the
rural districts, as under the proposed conditions
the greater part of the Jewish population would be
without means of subsistence. The exclusion of the
Jews from the distilling industry and from lease-
holding was declared incompatible with justice
and with the requirements of life: the government
budget w-as based largely on tlie income from the tax
on spirits; and the estate-owners also derived their
incomesaimost exclusively from the proceeds of dis-
tillation. This condition of atlairs was permitted to
continue in the former Polish governments for many
decades, and had led to the Jews, in virtue of peculiar
circumstances, serving during all that time as inter-
mediaries between the estate-owners and the peas-
ants; the Jews caused economic injury not as Jews
but as intermediaries, and that without benefit to
themselves.

Count Gudovich, governor-general of Minsk, Po-
dolia, and Volhynia, stated that the tavern-keepers
had no daily bread for themselves nor for their fam-
ilies, "for they receive only a tenth or even a fif-

teenth i)art of llic profits." The governor of Lilli-
uania sUited tliat the tuveruH were in charge only of
women, as lack of means drove the nun to other
work. Senator Der/havin wrote tliut the JeHihli
massesin While Russia were HufTiring from extreme
privation and poverty. The governor <.f Kiev re-
ported that the Jews not only were unable to pay
taxes but had no mear\8 of subHlHtcnce. which nhow e«l
very clearly that the Jew.s heciircd no profit for
themselves eitlier from the dUtilllng of Bpiril* or
from theownersliipof leuws. S«nalor Der/lmvin. in
a private letter written in IH(K) lo one of the le^ul
oflicers of Un- crown. »leult with the famine in
White Russia, wiiich he ofllcially oHcrilnMl to the
Jews; but lie said also: "It is dimcull to wri-
ously accuse any one without actually violaliufj llie
common principles of justice and fairnesH. The
peasants sell their grain to the Jews for spirits, and
therefore they do not have enough bread. The land-
lords do not prohibit drinking because they derive
their entire incomes from the sale of licjuor; and
the Jews can not be held entirely to Ijlame if they
take the last crust from the peasants for their own
sustenance."

From the evidence collected the committee rr-a( lied

these conclusions: (1) The landlords made an e.\ee!>»-

ive quantity of distilled spirits in or-

Its Con- der to pay the heavy taxes with which

elusions, they were burdened, and to provide
for their living expenses. (2) The
Jews trafficked in spirits in order to be able to pay the
double taxes imposed upon them, and to keep from
starvation. Owing to the existing economic condi-
tions the Jews could not have found other means of
subsistence at that time. (3) The pea.«ants in their
turn drank in order to forget the burdens of their
serfdom.

The committee, being powerless to improve the so-
cial and economic life of the peasants, det ided lo
pretend that the removal of the Jews to the t<»wn8
would result in such an improvement. Undoidit-
edly it realized the inq)ossil)ility of carrying into
effect the measure propo.sed, for it involved the re-
moval of more than fifty thousand Jewish families.
Nevertheless steps were taken to enforce the removal,
and they wereattcnded by extreme barbarity. Count
Kotchubci, a member of the committee plare<l in
charge of the movement, learned what misery was
thereby cau.sed in some villages. Humlredsof fam-
ilies were left without shelter in the fields or on the
squares of near-by cities, as there were not Hullleient
houses to acconunodate them, and nothing was pro-
vided with which to feed them. The government
was unable to suj)ply the necessiiry nil .nl

the tracts of land promisetl for the pii .ms-

forming the former merchants into agriculluristA.

The sulTering was intense, and. to maintain the
prestige of the government, orders were given lo
suspend the removals, ostensibly Incause Na|K»leoD
had summoned a Jewish synod' in Paris — a cirrum-
stancc that, had not the order been suspende«i. might
have caused restlessness among the Jewish miussc".
A new committee was organized for reviewing the
question, and Count Kotchului insist^nl on delay.
pointing out that only a part of the Jews rould be
removed, and that enormous suras would be required

Hussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

560

by the governmeut to cairv the ineusiiiL' into elTect ;
for the ])oor Jews, iimler the existing economic
conditions, could not reatlily tind
Removal other means of sustenance. Tlie sub-
Postponed, jfct was referred to a new commis-
sion composed of liigher ollicials, ami
later Senator AlexielT was ordered by tlie emjieror to
make a journey tlirough loeaUties having a Jewisli
population, for the purpose of seeing whether im-
mediate removal was feasible. He was iu'^trucled
that if it was feasible he shouKl order the governors
to effect it. If, however, he found it impracticable,
he was to report to the emperor the best means for
removing the Jews gradually. At this time per-
mission was given to the Jews to select delegates
to present to the senati^r their views on the (juestion
of removal. The Jewish delegates jietitioned for
the repeal of the enactment, and the senator de-
clared the removal impracticalde; but this did not
lead to a solution of the matter, for the govern-
ment desired to maintain its prestige and did not
care to c(msider the repeal of this law, and set
itself to temporizing by postponing its enforce-
ment. On Oct. 19, 1807, a ukase was issued or-
dering gradual removal during a term of three
j'ears. In con.setpience of this decree the expulsion
of Jews from the villages was resumed, and the suf-
fering inflicted thereby attracted the attention of
the new minister of the interior. Count Kurakin.
He reported to the emperor that the removal could
only be eiYected in the course of several decades.
Therefore, by decree of Dec. 29, 1809, the ukase was
repealed, and a few days later a new commission for
the investigation of the subject was appointed under
the chairmanship of Senator Popov. This commis-
sion continued its labors for three years. It made a
general and thorough investigation, and declared
in its voluminous report that the exclu.sion of the
Jews from the manufacture of and traffic in spirits
would not decrease drunkenness among the peasants,
as the general social and economic conditions, and
not the Jews, were accountable therefor. The re-
moval of the Jews from the rural districts would
work injury to the peasanlrj- from both the eco-
nomic and the commercial standpoint; their imme-
diate transformation into farmers was an imjiossi-
bility; the overcrowding of the towns with an ex-
cess of poor would lead only to very distressing con-
sequences. Hence, the commission recommended
that the Jews be allowed to remain in their old
homes, and that they be permitted to continue their
vocations as theretofore. This report was not given
the force of a legal enactment, but as removals had
already been discontinued by order, the Jews were
permitted to enjo}' a period of jieace. This peace,
however, was not of long duration, for in 1821. in
fotiseiiuence of representations from
Removal the military governor of Chernigov,
of 1821. which branded the Jews as specula-
tors, an order was issued calling for
their removal from the rural districis of that gov-
ernment. This measure was extended to the gov-
ernment of Poltava in 1822, and in the following
year to the governments of M'hite Russia because
of a deficiency in foodstuffs there. In 1^27 a partial
removal of the Jews was begun in the rural districts

of the government of Grodno, and in 1830 a similar
one was enforced in the gt)vernment of Kiev.

In IHuo a decree was issued ordering the suspen-
sion of the removals: but they were undertaken
again in 1843, when the Jews were excluded from the
military settlements of Kiev and Podolia.

All the removals in question were ]iresumably
inspired by the sujjposed evil inlluence of the Jews
in increasing drunkenness among the peasants. But
there were also other reasons for the expulsion. For
instance, in 1835 the Jews were excluded from the
government of Astrakhan on the pretext that they
caused harm to the trade with Asia. The Jews in
the boundary -zone were expelled therefrom in order
to suppress contraband trade. Thus in 1812 the Jews
living on the landed estates situated near tin; fron-
tier of the goverinnent of VoUiynia were removed,
and in 181G a decree was issued calling for the re-
moval of the Jews from theo^l-verst boumlaiy-zone.
Under the decree the ])laces where the Jews were
registered according to the census and where there
were organized kahals were exempt. This led
to removals from the government of Volhynia up
to the year 1821. Subsequently the Jews returned
to their old homes. However, in 1825 another decree
concerning the western • frontier governments an-
nounced that only those Jews avIio owned real prop-
erty should be allowed to remain within the 50-verst
zone. In 1839 this decree was extended to the ter-
ritory of Bessarabia. On April 20, 1843, an imperial
decree ordered that all the Jews living in the 50-
verst, boundary-zone ail jacent to Prussia and Austria
should be removed to the interior of the govern-
ments, the owners of houses being ))ermitted to sell
them within two years i)rovided they obeyed the law
without reservation. Later an extension of time Avas
granted, and the removal was not carried out in its
entirety ; nevertheless the policy of removal was far-
reaching and Avas continued for a term of years.

In addition to removal from villages and handets

there Avas also the removal from towns, but thisAvas

conducted on a much smaller scale.

Removal In this the Christians of Kovno took

from the initiative. They ]>etitioned Em-

ToAvns. i)eror Paul 1. in 1797 for the removal
of the JcAvs from their city on the
ground of ancient Polish jirivileges. The governor-
general of Lithuania, Count liyepnin, declared.
hoAvever, that tiie Christians "did not themselves
knoAV for Avhat they Avere asking, and merely obeyed
their ancient antipathy and unwarranted envy of the
JcAvs," and that the removal of the Jcavs Avould
cause harm to the city : therefore this petition Avas
not granted. Paul I. ordered that the Jews be left
also in Kaminetz-Podolsk, Avhence it had been in-
tended that they should be removed. Similarly, in
1801 he rejected the jietition of the merchants of
Kiev for the exclusion of the Jcavs. Under Alexan-
der I. petitions of this kind were rencAved, but un-
successfull}'. In 1803 the iictition of tiie Christians
of Kovno and in 1810 a siniilai' one from the Chris-
liansof Kiev were rejected. In all these ))etitions
the Christians Avere iiniielled by the desin; of rid-
ding themselves of their competitors in conunerce
and manufacture. In )nore recent times the agi-
tation for the exclusion of Jcavs from the towns

661

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

&UBBia

was resumed. In 1827 tlie Christians of Kiev liud
their %vish granted and the Jews were expelled,
notwithstanding the tact that the loeal authorities
earnestly desired their retention. In 1829 expul-
sion from Nikolaief and Sebastopol was ordered, and
only tliose Jews who had served in the army or navy
were authorized to remain. However, in 1830 the
military governor of Nikolaief and Sebastopol, in
agreement with the .sentiments of the city poliee ad-
ministration, the magistrates, and the city council,
applied to the ministry of the interior for the reten-
tion of the Jews, and pointed out that if they were
removed the city would be without artisans. Tiiis
application not being granted, in 1882 the governor
ajiplied forat leasta postiKinement of the expulsion.
'I'his was granted, at lirsl for two years, and later for
another year ; but ultimately the Jews were expelled.
In this instance the government was apparently iu-
llucnoed by tlu; military importance of the cities. In
Itr^HiJ the Jews were expelled from Yalta (there only
remained those who were registered in the local
connnunity), which was then excluded from the
P.\M-; OK Settlement, probably because the im-
perial family sojourned there during the summer
months. In accordance with the laws of 1891 and
1892 there were expelled from Moscow, within a
short time, all Jewish artisans, brewers, distillers,
and even soldiers who had served under Nicholas I.
for iwenty-tive years and who had enjoyed certain
privileges. Altogether there were expelled from
Moscow about 20,000 Jews.

Aside from these expulsions en masse, the removal
of separate groups of Jews and of individuals was
continued until very recently. The complicated en-
actments concerning the Pale of Settle-ment, in
connection with the general disabilities of the Jews,
offer a wide field for unwarranted interpretation of
the written laws; added to this there are at times
ignorance of the laws and, not infrequently, inten-
tional disregard of them on the part of those in sub-
ordinate authority. Finally, the change in family
relations, the change of occupation, and other cir-
cumstances often led to the expulsion of Jews.

Oil April 3, 1880 (under Alexander II.), the min-
ister of the interior suggested to the governors that
they should not expel the Jews who did not enjoy
right of residence in any given locality, but who were
already established there and engaged in commercial
undertakings, the destruction of which would ruin
not only the Jews but also the Christians who had en
tered into business relations with them. In con-
nection with this it was ordered that no Jews should be
permitted to establish themselves in new localities
without liaving first secured permission to do so.
A document containing these orders was again sent
out in 1882. On Jan. 14, 1893, the order was re-
scinded, and the governors Avere connnanded to en-
force, not later than Nov. 1, 1893, the expulsion of
the Jews directed liy the law. Later the time was
extended to June 1, 1894 (persons who had attained
the age of seventy <ir more were exempted entirely).
For the reasons indicated above, the expulsion of
the Jews from various localities was thereafter
intermittently persisted in.

After the outbreak of the war with Japan orders
were issued by circular to discontinue the expulsions
X.— 36

temporarily. In Kiev the local autlioriliesuttentpted
toexitel the mother an<l tiie wife of a Jewisii [ :
sieian who had been wnt lolhe wene «»f war. l>c( ;i .-.^
according to the strict interpretation «)f tlie hiw ilie
mother and wife could live in Kiev only wilii the
male head of the family.

BniLKHiRAPiiY : M. Myhh. It'.rha I'rarlttUIra a Pilrinym
I'rmnmi'xn Vevn yci' v St lahh I lirrm ' " !

18H1. v-.ls. vUl. iinil U.; J. I. Hfw«-n. A i'

rcrnj/cr iz ml i lurrviti. In VitAhhixl, ..• ,. ..;

Idem, IziHihkihh (Jlyobinkin', In Voskliixl, lUH. Nua. u tnd IV
II. It. •

-Poland* (Polish, "Polska": German. " Po-

len"; Hebrew, ]'^1Q; nussian, " Poishu"): Former
powerful kingdom in north central Europi-. <nm-
prising, until its first partition, in 1772. a lerriti.ry
bounded i)y the Oder and tlie WarUi on the west, by
the Carpathian Mountains ami the Dinester on llie
south, by the Dnieper on the east, au<i by the Dhna
on the north.

From the liistorical documents thus far available
it is difficult to determine with certainty when tlie
first Jewish settlers arrived in Poland. Some Polish
writers, like Naruszewicz, are of the opinion that
Jews went to Poland in very early times, and that
they lived there liefore the introtluction of Chris-
tianity (965) under Mieczyslaw I. Olliers, like Ja-
nicki, claim that authentic evidence as to the pres-
ence of Jews in Poland does not go furtlier iiack
than the twelfth century, when, untler Prince Miec-
zyslaw III. (1173-1209) and kings Casimir the Just
and Leshek the White (1194-1205), the Jews \uu\
charge of the mints.

Tlie Polish historian Maciejowski advances the
view ("Zydzi w Polsce," etc., p. 8) that ".lews were
present in Poland if not in the eighth century at
least in the ninth "; but on the other hand he ridi-
cules the statement of Leon Weil ("Orient," 1><49.
p. 143), who, on the strength of certain documents,
relates the following: "Hard pressed by the Ger-
mans, the Jews sent to Poland (894) a delegation
composed of the most eloiiuent Spanish rabbis, in
order to petition the reigning prince. Leshek. for
the apportionment to them of a parcel of land in
Polish territory on which they might establish them-
selves and engage in agricultunil pursuits an«l in
handicrafts and the liberal arts. No special territory
was assigned to them; but they were given permis-
sion to settle anywhere in the land, and to engage
in the occupations specifiinl. Eleven
Jewish years later (905) the Jews were l)y
Charter of (barter assured religious lilxrty. nu
905. touoiny in judicial matters, freedom

of trade, independence from tlie
Shlyakhta, or lesser nobles, and iiroteetinn from the
attacks of hostile mobs. This charter w n'^ l.^«t in
the Polish-German war of 1049."

Coins unearthed in 1872 in the Gnat i
of Glenbok show conclusively that in f

Mieczyslaw III., Casimir, and I^eshek tiie Jews
as stated above, in charge of the coinage in '
and Little Poland. Thes^- coins bear emblem-

• OwIhk to tin- rm-nt (llsttirban'— - "--'" " •■"■•'■• ^^-

LANn. wlilHi was nssiKiHil t > a I 1

WHS to hnve aiiiM'Hipil In Its pp't- i >-<... ...■ , - • • ■■ -J^

received. Tlie <'nlv other caption umler which It coaM be
Inserled Is that under which It now appeare.

Sussia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

562

ing iuscriptious of various cliaraclers; in some ex-
amples ouly the name of the kiug or priuce being
given, as, for instance, "Prince Meshko," while in
others the surname is added, as " Meshek the Blessed "
or "the Just." Some of the coins, moreover, bear
inscriptions having no direct reference to Poland, to
the reigning princes, or even to the coin itself, but
referring to incidents of a purely Jewish character,
as, for instance, "Rejoice, Abraham, Isaac, and Ja-
cob"; "Abraham Duchs(D3n DX13S) and Abraham
Pech (nriD)." Similar coins had been discovered
elsewhere several years earlier ; but, owing to their
peculiar inscriptions, doubts were expressed, even by
such a noted numismatist as Joachim Lelewel, as to
their being coins at all. Their true nature was re-
vealed only with the discovery of the Gleubok treas-
ure. All the inscriptions on the coins of tlie twelfth

on the strength of the charter of privileges granted
by Boleslaw of Kalisz to Jeuisii immigrants, for the
charter makes no mention of a Jewish community,
nor of the right of Jews to acquire landed property.
"The facts," says Bershadski, "made plain by the
grant of Premyslaw II. prove that the Jews were
ancient inhabitants of Poland, and that the charter
of Boleslaw of Kalisz, copied almost verbally from
the privileges of Ottocar of Bohemia, was merely a
written approval of relations that had become gradu-
ally established, and had received the sanction of
the people of the country."

Bershadski comes to tlie conclusion that as early
as the thirteenth century there existed in Poland a
number of Jewish communities, the most importsint
of which was that of Kalisz. Maximilian Guniplo-
virz, however, hazards the conjecture that the word

Polish Coi.ns with Jewish Inscriptions.

(From '* Revue Numisinatique.")

century are in Hebrew ; and they sufficiently prove
that at the time in question the Jews had already
established themselves in positions of trust and prom-
inence, and were contented with their lot.

"The Jewish coiners," says Bershadski, "might
have been people who came to the country only oc-
casionally, and for that special purpose." But
there is found among the few documents dating from
the second half of the thirteenth century a char-
ter issued by Premyslaw II., successor of Boleslaw
of Kalisz, confirming a previous grant of privileges
whereby the Jew Rupin, son of Yoshka, is per-
mitted to dispo.sc of his inheritance,
Jewish a hill ("montem") situated near the
Coiners. boundary of his estate of Podgozhe.
It is diliicult to assume that the ac-
quisition of real estate, its transmission by inherit-
ance, and its further cession to the "Jewish elders of
Kalisz and their entire community " were permitted

" Pech " on the Glenbok coins is the Chazjirian
" Peeh " or "Beck," meaning " viceroy of the Cha-
ghan " (see Jew. Encyc. iv. 5a, s.v. Chazaus), and
that the supposedly legendary King AnnAiiA.M
Phociiownik, who according to tradition ruled Po-
land for one day only, perhaps really existed in the
person of some Chazarian prince who was for a time
viceroy of Poland. Gumplovicz cites the Polish
writer Stronez^'nski (" Pieniadze Piastow," 21 cd.,
Warsaw, 1883), who thinks that the coins with He-
brew inscriptions belong to a period prior to the
introduction of Christianity. The Arab geogra-
phersof theninthcentury relate that Jewsof western
Europe who traveled toChazaria came there by way
of the Slavonic countries and Poland (see Jew.
Encvc. iv. 3a, s.v. Chazaus).

It is not definitely known whether the first Jewish
arrivals in Poland were from the Chazarian coun-
tries in South Russia or from western Europe. The

563

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Russia

first liisioriiui of the Jews of Poland, C/acUi, .si.ii. >
in his " KoziJiuwaoZydacli i Kaniilacli" (1807) tliat
the earliest Jewish immigrauts in Poland were of
German origin ; but, as lias been pointed out by
IJcrshadski and Dubnow, C/aeki's work, however
conscientious and cicar-sigiited, can be regarded
only as a historical (hjcuuieut, and not us a complete
liistory of the Polish Jews. Unfortunate!}', C/.acki
was followed Llinilly by Sternberg, Weil, and (Jraetz.
Though direct proof is absent, it is nevertheless
safe to assume from the documents at i)resent
available that South Russia furnished the first Jew-
ish settlers in Poland (see Jkw. Enxyc. viii. 118,
s.r. Lithuania). It is known also that German
Jews traded in the Slavonic countries as early as the
reign of Charlemagne; and some of them may have
established themselves in Poland.

Jews in thcdevci..pnit-nt oi llictDUJinereiai iutcn-sta
of Ids eouiilry. The JcwihIi Imvelir Pktjiaiiiaii
UKN Jacouilv-Laiian vislU-d Polund toward ihe end
of the twelfth century. A( Unit linic tiicir position
in the numerous principaljij. s bad been wcijitly es-
tablished. The Prince of Crucnw. Miec/.ysluw III.
(1173-1202), in his endeavor to ■ ' " i, law anil
oilier in his di.mains. pidhibjicd i, i„ «• uKuiiist

the Jews, particularly ulla<k8 upon Miciii by unruly
students. Hoys guilty of such utt v ' , their
|)arents, were made to pay lines oh ). ,, tbow

impo.sed for sacrile)i;ious acts. Early in the thir-
teenth century Jews owned land in Polish Sllc«iu.

The commercial relations between the Jewiitb
settlements in Poland und thow in western Eu-
rope were not without eJTect in Intel'" *' ;itiil re-
ligious matters. The Polisji Jcw«, . their

I'OLISn lOI.NS WITH JKWISH INSCKIPTIONS.
(From " Revue Nuniismalifjue.")

The first actual mention, however, of Jews in the
Polish chronicles occurs under date of the eleventh
century. It appears that Jews were then living in
Gnesen, at that time the religious capital of the
Polish kingdom. Some of them were
Early Jew- wealtliy, owning Christian slaves;
ish Slave- they even engaged in the slave-trade.

Traders, according to the custom of the times.

The pious Queen Judith, wife of the

Polish king Ladislaus Herman (d. 1085), spent large

sums of money in purchasing the freedom of

Cln-istian slaves owned by Jews.

The first extensive Jewish emigration from west-
ern Europe to Poland occurred at the time of the
First ('rusade(1098). Under Boi,esi,aw III.. Ivitzv-
wousTV (1102-39), the Jews, encouraged l)y the tol-
erant regime of this wise ruler, settled throughout
Polish and Lithuanian territory as far as Kiev.
Boleslaw on his part recognized the utility of the

energies to conwnercial pursuits, were obligecl. ac-
cording to the testimony of Eliezer of lloiieniin, to
obtain their rabbis from France. Germany, and other
west-European countries, while the young Polish
Jews went abroad for the study of rabbinical and
other literature. Among the
the twelfth century lueiitiMii i
Poland (Dubnow)

From the various souiits it isi\iil'
time the Jews enjoyed undisturbed \>'
perity in the many principalities inlo whirl
country was then divided. In th' '
inerce the reigning princes ex
and sjiecial |>rivileges to the Jewish settlers.

the descent of the Tatars on Polish t.

the Jews in common with the other ii ■'■

fered severely. Cmcow was pillage<l and hiirned.
other towns were devastated, and hundreds of Jews
were carried into captivity. As the tide of invasion

■ f

s-
I the

n
Wilb

Kussia

THE JEWISH E>X'YCLOPEDIA

564

receded the Jews returned to their old homes and oc-
cupations. They formed the middle class in a coun-
try where the general population
The Tatar consisted of landlords and peasants,
Invasion, and they were instrumental in pro-
moting the commercial interests of the
land. Money-lending and the farming of thedilfer-
ent government revenues, such as those from the salt-
mines, the customs, etc., were their most important
pursuits. The native population had not yet be-
come permeated with the religious intolerance of
western Europe, and lived at peace with the Jews.

This patriarchal order of things was gradually al-
tered by the Homan Church on the one hand, and
by the neighboring German states on the other.
The emissaries of the Roman pontiffs came to Poland
in pursuance of a ti.xed policy ; and in their endeavors
to strengthen the influence of the Catholic Church
they spread teachings imbued with hatred toward the
followers of Judaism. At the same time Boi.eslaw
v., WsTYDi.iwY (1228-79), encouraged the influx of
German colonists. He granted to them the 3Iagde-
burg Rights (see Magdeburg Law), and by estab-
lishing them in the towns introduced there an ele-
ment which brought with it deep-seated prejudices
against the Jews. There were, however, among the
reigning princes determined protectors of the Jew-
ish inhabitants, who considered the presence of the
latter most desirable in so far as the economic de-
velopment of the country was concerned. Promi-
nent among such rulers was Boleslaw Pobozny of
Kalisz, King of Great Poland. With the consent of
the class representatives and higher officials he is-
sued in 1264 a charter which clearly defined the po-
sition of his Jewish subjects. This charter, which
sul)sequently formed the basis of Polish legislation
concerning the Jews, does not differ greatly from
that granted by Witold (1388) to the Jews of Lithu-
ania (for text of the latter charter see Jew. Encyc.
viii. 120, s.v. Lithuania).

In a critical review of L. Gumplovicz's work on
Polish-Jewish legislation, Levanda (in "Voskhod,"
1886, No. ix.) comes to the conclusion that Boles-
law's charter was meant to define unequivocally the
exact position that the Jews were to occupy in the
body politic throughout Poland's history. The
terms of the charter, marked by patriarchal sim-
l)licity, show clearly that the Jews were regarded as
an association of mone^'-lenders to whom a conces-
sion was made to trade and to lend money on inter-
est, with the guaranty of religious freedom and of
the inviolaljility of person and properly. They
were to circulate their capital and thus supply the
needs of the Christian ]iopulation, and were to be al-
lowed to enjoy profits made through their business
o])erations. No mention occurs in the charter of
other business pursuits, handicrafts, or industries,
from which it may be inferred that the Jews were to
engage in no other occupation than money-lending.
The term " priviU-gium " apjilied to the charter
shows that the latter was not a part of the general
laws, butanexceptionlo their provisions. It opened
a wide gap between the Christian and the Jewish
population that was never closed. It placed the
latter in a position of isolation, owing to whicli
they were compelled to develop an internal organi-

zation of their own. This, however, served them in
good stead with regard to the defense of their com-
mercial interests and in the mastery of new forms
of conunercial activity.

The charter dealt in detail with all sides of Jewish
life, particularly the relations of the Jews to their
Christian neighbors. The guiding princijile in all
its provisions was justice, while national, racial, and
religious motives were entirely excluded. In onler
to safeguard their persons and property, the Jews
were in some instances granted even greater privi-
leges than the Cliristians, who thus came to recog-
nize that the Jews were to be regarded as a people
with a civilization of their own and entitled to the
l)rotection of the laws.

But while the temporal authorities endeavored to

regulate the relations of the Jews to the country at

large in accordance with its economic needs, the

clergy, inspired not by patriotism, but

Hostility by the attempts of the Roman Church

of the to establish its universal supremacy.

Church. used its influence toward separating
the Jews from the body politic, aiming
to exclude them, as people dangerous to the Church,
from Christian society, and to place them in the
position of a despi.sed sect. In 1266 an ecumenical
council was held at Breslau under the chairmanship
of the papal nuncio Guido. The council introduced
into the ecclesiastical statutes of Poland a number
of paragra]ihs directed against the Jews. In para-
graph 12 it is stated that "since Poland has but
latel}' joined the fold of the Christian Church it may
be apprehended that its Christian inhabitants will
the more easily yield to the prejudices and evil
habits of their Jewish neighbors, the establishment
of the Christian faith in the hearts of the believers
in these lands having been of such a recent date.
We therefore emphatically decree that Jews living
in the bishopric of Gnesen shall not dwell together
with Christians, but shall live separately in some
portion of their respective towns or villages. The
quarter in which the Jews reside shall be divided
from the section inhabited by the Christians by a
fence, wall, or ditch." The Jews were ordered to
dispose as quickly as possible of real estate owned
by them in the Christian quarters; they were not to
appear on the streets during Churcli processions;
they were allowed to have only a single synagogue
in any one town ; and they were recjuired to wear a
special cap to distinguish them from the Christians.
The latter were forbidden, under penalty of excom-
munication, to invite Jews to feasts or other enter-
tainments, and were forbidden also to buy meat or
otlier provisions from Jews, for fear of being poi-
soned. The council furthermore con-
The Badg-e firmed the regulations under which
Instituted. Jews were not allowed to keep Chris-
tian servants, to Ica.se taxes or customs
duties, or to hold any jjublic oflice. At the Coun-
cil of Ofen held in 1279 the wearing of a red badge
was prescribed for the Jews, and the foregoing pro-
visions were reaffirmed.

Though the Catholic clergy continued in this way
to sow the seed of religious hatred — which in time
bore a ]ilentiful harvest — the temporal rulers were
not inclined to accept the edicts of the Church, and

665

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Russia

tlie Jews of Poland were for a ]ong time left in the
enjoyment of tlieir rights. Ladishms Lokietek, wiio
ascended the Polish throne in 1319, enileavored to
establish a uniform legal code throughout the land.
IJy tlie general laws he assured to the Jews safety
and freedom and placed them on an equality witli
tlie Cliristians. They dressed like the Cliristians,
wearing garments similar to lho.se of tiie nobility,
and, like the latter, woreal.so gold chains and earned
swords. Ladislaus likewise framed laws for the lend-
ing of money to Christians. In 13;54 Boleslaw is-
sued a charter of still greater signilicance. It was
much amplified by King Casimiu ILL, tiik Gkkat
(1303-70), who was especially friendly to the Jews,
and whose reign is justly regarded as an era of great
jirosperity for the Polish Jewry. His charter was
more favorable to the Jews than was IJoleslaw's, in
so far as it safeguarded some of their civil rights in
addition to their commercial privileges. This far-
seeing ruler sought to employ the town and rural
p(>pulations as checks upon the growing power of
the aristocracy. He regarded the Jews not sim))ly
as an association of money-lenders, but as a part of
the nation, into which they were to be incorporated
for the formation of a homogeneous body politic.
For his attempts to uplift the nias.ses, including the
Jews, Casimir was surnamed by his contemporaries
"king of the serfs and Jews." His charter for the
Jews provided among other things that any lawsuit
in which Jews were concerned might at their recjuest
be brought before the king; that they might not be
summoned before the ecclesiastical tribunals; that
eldersorwaywodes had no right to exact special taxes
or contributions from them; that the murder of a
Jew was to be punishable by death, whereas in
Bolcslaw's charter the penalty had consisted merely
of a fine and confiscation of property. Apart from
these amplifications of Bolcslaw's charter, Casimir
granted to the Jews the right of unrestricted resi-
dence and movement; and they were not obliged to
pay taxes other than those paid by the Christians.
They were permitted to lend money on farms and
other real property, and to rent or acquire lanils
and estates (L. Gumplovicz, " Prawodawstwo," etc.,
p. 23).

Most of the documents of the fourteenth century
treat of the Jews of Little Poland and especially of
those of Cracow. Notwithstanding its paucity the
material is ample to show the gradual growth of the
Jews in numbers and in wealth. Thus in 1304 men-
tion is made of the cession by Philip Pollack toGenez
JIagdassen of one-half of the former's
Prosperity property on the Jewish street in
Under Cracow ; in 1313 the Jew Michael

Casimir and his son Nathan purchased an
III. estate in the Jewish (piarter from

the widow of the burgher Giinther;
in 1335 the Jew Kozlina acquired from the burgher
Herman four liou.scs near the Jewish cemetery:
in 1339 the widow of the Jew Kubin sold her
house to the burgher Johann Romanicli ; and in 1347
there occurs a reference to a Jewish (juarter in the
suburb of Cracow (" vicus Judieonnn"), with a syn-
agogife and a cemetery on the banks of the Rudava.
The cemetery had existed from the beginning of the
centurv. Prominent among the Jews of Cracow in

tlur liitiir liall <d liiis ciutury was the Ifiiseliitldt-r
Levko, will) was under liie direct jurihtliction <.f the
king. Lcvko leased tlie salt monopoly, and had ex-
clusive jurisdiction over the numerous ! in ihe
saltmines, lie was regarded uh the n. ... ..mg of

his time; and his sons, wlio hiheriu<l hiH wtalth.
frequently lent large sums to (Juccii Yiidwigu and
also to Ladi.slaus Jagtljon (see C ammik ill;.

Nevertheless, wliile for the greater pun of CmI-
mir's reign the Jews of Poland. , " ■ , i,,

enjoyed Iranciuillity, toward its ci. ,|>1

jected to persecution on account of the Black
De.vtii. iMiLssacres occurred at Kuli.sz, Crnrow.
Glogau, and other I'olisji ciiies along the German
frontier, and it is estimated that 10.000 Jewg were
killed. Compared with the pitiless deHtruction of
their coreligionists in western Europe, however, lljo
Polish Jews did not fare badly; and the Jewisli
ma.sses of Germany tied to the more liospitable lands
of Poland, where the interests of the laity still re-
mained more powerful than tho.se of the Churrii.

But under Casimir's successor, Louis fif Hungary
(1370-84), the complaint became general that justice
had disappeared fiom the land. An attempt was
made to deprive the Jews ot the protection of the
laws. Guided mainly by religious motives, Louis
persecuted them, and threatened toe.xpel those who
refused to accept Christianity. His sliort reign did
not suffice, however, to undo the beneficent work of
his predecessor; and it was not until the long nign
of the Lithuanian grand duke Ladislaus II.. Jagellon
(1386-1434). that the intlucnce of the Church in civil
and national affairs increased, and the civic ronditiftn
of the Jews gradually became less favor.ible. Never-
theless, at the beginning of Ladislaus' reign the Jewg
still enjoyed the full protection of the laws. Hulw
cites a series of old documents from Posen, from
which it appears that in monetary transiictions the
Jews of Great and Little Pohmd were protected l»y
the courts to such an extent that in cases of non pay-
ment they might take posses.sion of the real estate
of their Christian debtors. Thus in 13!S« a verdict
was rendered in favor of the Jew SalMlai, whereby
his debtor was j)laci'd under arrest and was made to
pay the principal together with nine years' interest
upon it. In 130H another debtor pledged hiinsilf to
transfer to his Jewish creditors half of a vi -h

all its revenues, excluding the manor aii'i ; ;.il

belonging to it. In 1300 the Jew Daniel wasplaettl
in ]iossession of the estate of Kojiashevo for a debt
of 40 marks ; and in the same year a debt of 20 marks
due to the above-mentioned Sabdai from the owner
of a certain estate was given j • M

other obligations of the latter a; - ^ .1

in possession of the estate.

Asa result of the marriage of .la J i,

daughter (^f Louis (.f Hungary. Li n-

porarily united to the kingdom of Prv

Extensive lanil. Under his rule the first exten-

Persecu- sive persecutions of the Jews in Poland
tions in the were inaugurated. It was raid that
Fourteenth the Jews of Posen had induced a |w>r

Century. Christian woman to steal fnuii the

Dominican church tliri-e hosts, which

they desrcraled, and that when the hosts lH>pan to

bleed, the Jews had thrown them into a ditch, where-

Russia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

566

upon various miracles occurred. When informed of
this supposed desecration, tlie Bishop of Posen or-
dered tlie Jews to answer the charges. The woman
accused of stealing the hosts, the rabbi of Posen,
and thirteen elders of the Jewish community fell
victims to the superstitious rage of the jieople.
After long -continued torture on the rack tliey
were all burned slowly at the stake. In addi-
tion, a permanent fine was imposed on the Jews of
Posen, which they were required to paj' annually
to the Dominican church. This fine was rigorously
collected until the eighteenth century. Tlie perse-
cution of the Jews was due not only to religious
motives, but also to economic reasons, for they had
gained control of certain branches of commerce,
and the burghers, jealous of their success, desired to
rid themselves in one way or another of their objec-
tionable competitors.

The same motives were responsible for the riot of
Ck.\cow, instigated by the fanatical priest Bcdek
in 1407. The first outbreak was suppressed by the
city magistrates; but it was renewed a few hours
later. A vast amount of property was destroyed;
many Jews were killed; and their children were
baptized. In order to save their lives a number of
Jews accepted Christianity. The reform movement
of the Hussites intensified religious fanaticism; and
the resulting reactionary measures spread to Poland.
The influential Polish archbishop Nicholas Tronba,
after his return from the Council of Kalisz (1420),
over which he had presided, induced the Polish
clergy to confirm all the anti-Jewish legislation
adopted at the councils of Breslau and Ofeu, and
which thitherto had been but rarely carried into
effect. In addition to their previous disabilities, the
Jews were now compelled to paj' a tax for the ben-
efit of the churches in the precincts in which they
were residing, but " in which only Christians should
reside."

In 1423 King Ladislaus Jagellon issued an edict
forbidding the Jews to lend monej' on notes. In
his reign, as in the reign of Jiis successor, Ladislaus
III., the ancient privileges of the Jews were almost
forgotten. The Jews vainly appealed to Jagellon
for the confirmation of their old charters. The
clergy successfully opposed the renewal of these
privileges on the ground that they were contrary to
the canonical regulations. In the achievement of this
purpose the rumor was even spread that the charter
claimed to have been granted to the Jews by Casi-
mir the Great was a forgery, inasmuch as a Catho-
lic ruler would never have granted full civil rights
to " unbelievers."

The machinations of tlie clergy were checked
somewhat by Caslmiu IV., Jagellon (1447-92). He
readily renewed the charter granted to the Jews by
Casimir the Great, the original of which had been
destroyed in the fire that devastated Posen in
1447. To a Jewish deputation from the communi-
ties of Posen, Kalisz, Syeradza, Lenchich (Lenczyca),
Brest, and Wladislavov which applied to him for
the renewal of the charter, he said in his new grant:
" We desire that the Jews, whom we protect especi-
ally for the sake of our own interests and those of
the royal treasury, shall feel contented during our
lirosperous reign." In confirming all previous

rights and privileges of the Jews — the freedom of
residence and trade, judicial and communal auton-
omy, the inviolability of person and
Charter of iiroperty, and protection against arbi-
Casimir IV. t lary accusation and attacks — the char-
ter of Casimir IV. was a determined
protest against the canonical laws, which had been
but recently renewed for Poland by the Council of
Kalisz, and for the entire Catholic world by the Diet
of Basel. The charter, moreover, permitted more
intimate relations between Jews and Christians,
and freed the former from the jurisdiction of the
clerical courts. Strong ojiposition was created by
the king's liberal attitude toward the Jews, and
was voiced by the leaders of the clerical party. Car-
dinal Zbignyev Olesnicki, Archbishop of Cracow,
placed himself at the head of the opposition and
took the king sternly to task for his favors to the
Jews, which he claimed were " to the injury and in-
sult of the holy faith." "Do not think," he wrote
to the king in 1454, " that you are to decree what-
ever you please in matters of the Christian religion.
No man is so great or so powerful that he may not
be opposed in the cause of religion. Hence I beg
and implore your majesty to repeal the privileges
and rights in question." Joining forces with the
papal nuncio Capistraxo, Olesnicki inaugurated a
vigorous campaign against the Jews and the Hus-
sites. The repeated appeals of the clergy, and the
defeat of the Polish troops by the Teutonic Knights
— which the clergy openly ascribed to the wrath of
God at Casimir's neglect of the interests of the
Church, and his friendly attitude toward the Jews
— finally induced the king to accede to the demands
which had been made. In 1454 the statute of Niesza-
wa was issued, which included the abolition of the
ancient privileges of the Jews "as contrary to divine
right and the law of the land." The triumph of the
clerical forces was soon felt by the Jewish inhab-
itants. The populace was encouraged to attack
them in many Polish cities; the Jews of Cracow
were again the greatest sufferers. In the spring of
1464 the Jewish quarters of the city were devastated
by a mob composed of monks, students, peasants,
and the minor nobles, who were then organizing a
new crusade against the Turks. More than thirty
Jews were killed, and many houses were destroyed.
Similar disorders occurred in Posen and elsewhere,
notwithstanding the fact that Casimir had fined the
Cracow magistrates for having failed to take strin-
gent measures for the suppression of the previous
riots.

The policy of the government toward the Jews of
Poland was not more tolerant under Casimir's sons
and successors, John Albekt (1492-1501) and Alex-
ander Jagellon (1501-6). John Albert frequently
found himself obliged to inquire into local disputes
between Jewish and Christian merchants. Thus in
1493 he adjusted the conflicting claims of the Jew-
ish merchants and the burghers of Lemberg con-
cerning the right to trade freely within the city.
On the whole, however, he was not friendly to the
Jews. The same may be said of Alexander Jagel-
lon, who had expelled the Jews from Lithuania in
1495 (see Lithl'ania). To some extent he was un-
doubtedly influenced in this measure by the expul-

667

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Buula

sion of tlie Jews from Spain (1492), wliirli was re-
sponsible also for the increased persecution of the
Jews in Austria, Bohemia, and Germany, and tlius

stimulated the Jewish emigration to

Importance Poland. For various reasons Alexan-

of der permitted the return of the Jews

the Polish in 1503, and during the period immedi-

Jewry. ately preceding tiie l{eformalioD tlie

number of Jewish exiles grew rapidly
on account of the anti-Jewish agitation in Germany.
Indeed, Poland became the recognized haven of ref-
uge for exiles from western Europe; and the result-
ing accession to the ranks of the Polish Jewry made
it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish
people. This, as has been suggested by Dubuow,
■was rendered possible by the following conditions:

" The Jewish population of Poland was at, that time greater
than that of any other European country ; the Jews enjoyed an
extensive communal autonomy based on special privileges ; they
were not confined in their economic life to purely subordinate
occupations, as was true of their western coreliKioni.sts ; they
were not engaged .solely in petty trade and money-lending, but
carried on also an important export trade, leased government
revenues and large estates, and followed the handicrafts and, to
a certain extent, agriculture; in the matter of residence they
were not restricted to ghettos, like their German brethren. All
these conditions contributed toward the evolution in Poland of
an independent Jewish civilization. Thanks to its social and
Judicial autonomy, Polish Jewish life was enaliled to develop
freely along the lines of national and religious tradition. The
rabbi became not only the spiritual guide, but also a member of
the communal administration [Kauai.], a civil judge, and the
authoritative expounder of the Law. Rabbinism was not adead
letter here, but a guiding religio-judicial system ; for the rabbis
adjudged civil as well as certain criminal cases on the basis of
Talmudic legislation."

The Jews of Poland found themselves obliged to
make increased efforts to strengthen their social and
economic position, and to win the favor of the king
and of the nobility. The conflicts of the different
parties, of the merchants, the clergy, the lesser and
tlie higher nobility, enabled the Jews to liold tlieir
own. The opposition of the Christian merchants
and of the clergy was counterbalanced by the sup-
port of the Shlyakhta, who derived certain economic
benefits from the activities of the Jews. By the
constitution of 1504, sanctioned by Alexander Ja-
gellon, the Shlyakhta Diets were given a voice in all
important national matters. On some occasions the
Jewish merchants, when pressed by the lesser nobles,
were afforded protection bj^ the king, since they
were an important source of r03al revenue.

The most prosperous period in the life of the

Polish Jews began with the reign of Sigismund I.

(1506-48). In 1507 that king informed the autliori-

ties of Lemberg that until further notice its Jewish

citizens, in view of losses sustained

Favorable by them, were to be left undisturbed

Reig-n of in the possession of all their ancient

Sigis- privileges ("Russko-Yevreiski Ar-

mund I. khiv," iii. 79). His generous treatment
of his physician, Jacob Isaac, whom
Le made a member of the nobility in 1507, tes-
tifies to his liberal views. In the same year Sigis-
mund leased the customs revenues of Lubuchev to
the Jew Chaczko, exempting him from all taxes.
Similar exemptions from general or special taxes
were granted by the king to a number of other Jews.
In 1510 he reduced the taxes imposed upon the Jew-

isii community of U'inbcrg to 200 Horins, iu consid-
eration of their imp(.verishe<l condition, und ap.
pointed m tux-colle<ior» the Jews Solomon and
Barurh. In the following your lie wan cnllwl upon
to adjudicate in a cuBcwhleh illii>; d

relations between the Jews and ( ^,1

city. The Jew Abraham whh riccuftcd of wtciilege
and placed under arrest. The king ordend hiH re-
lease on May 1 with the Htipulation that he hIiouIU
either appear before the king's court on Muy 2 of
the f<jll(.wing year or pay a penalty of 8.0fM) markii.
His bondsmen were the Jews Abnihani Krunc/.ek of
Cracow, Isaac Jaeolj Franezek of Opoczno. Hlioma
Swyathly, Oser. David and Michael Tabyc, and the
Lemberg Jews Israel. Judah, two namei'l Solomon.
and Sanuiel. In the sjime yeurSigismun«l excipptinl
the Jews of Ix.-mberg from the payment of all
crown taxes for six years. In 1512 lie* leaAod to the
Lemberg Jew Judah, son of Solomon, the cu«t/)mR
revenues of Yaroslav for a term of four years.
On June 2 of the same year he appointed Auuaiiam
OF Bohemia prefect of the Jewsof G- Little

Poland; and on Aug. 6 following he :,, , . •, d the
Kazimierz Jew Franezek as tax-collector for all the
provinces of Little Poland, excepting Cmcow and
Kazimierz. In 1515 he adjudged an important suit
between the aldernu-n and the Jews of Lemberg
concerning the rights of the latter to carry on trade
in that city. The aldermen had complaim-d that the
Jews had gained complete control of the trade, thus
rendering it impossible for the Christian mrTehnnt.s
to do business. Both parties submitted to the king
copies of their ancient charters of privileges, and
Sigismund decreed that the Jews, like the other mer-
chants of Lemberg, were entitled to trade in various
products throughout the country, but that they
might sell cloth in the cities and towns during fairs
only. The purcliase of cattle l)y them was per-
mitted only to the extent of 2,000 head annually,
and then on the payment of a sjiecial duty.

In 1517 Sigismund confinned the ancient privi-
leges of the Jews of Posen. In 1518 \\r ordered the
customs-collector of Posen not to exact from the
Jews larger duties on their wares than those col-
lected from the king's other subjects. In the sjime
year he confirmed the election for life of the rabbis
Moses and Mendel as judges over the Jews of Great
Poland. They were given the authority to deride
suits both individually and jointly; and the Jews
of Great Poland were required to recognize Ihelr
authority, and to pay a fine into the r ' -v

in case of failure to ac(< , i-

Certain sions. In October of the same year
Jews Ad- the king admitted to Polish ' ' r»-
mitted to ship the Bohemian Jews J . d

Denizen- Lazar. granting them the right of un-
ship, restricted residence and movement
throughout the king<lom. In 1519
Sigismund released the Jews of Great Poland, for a
period of three years, from the payment of any
crown taxes directly to the royal tax-<ollprtnrR He
decreed that instead five Jewish collect" r ' !

be chosen, and a commissi»m of eleven p> ; it-
appointed for the apportionment of the total tax
of 200 florins among the several Jewish t
due regard being had to the wealth of i ...I

Russia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

668

special reductions being proviLied in the case of
the poor. In the event of the death or impoverish-
ment of any of the taxpayers tlie collectors were
empowered to increase the taxes of the well-to-do,
in order tJiat the poorer taxpayers might not be ex-
cessively burdened and that the total amount of the
tax might remain undiminished. Tliis decree was
tlie result of complaints made by the Jews of Great
Poland against the abuses and oppressions of the
royal tax-collectors. The members of the commis-
sion appointed for this purpose were: Isaac of Mes-
eritz (Mezhirechye). Samson of Skwirzyna, Mendel
of Gnesen, Beniash of Obornik, Moses of Vlazlav,
Kalman of Pakosch, David of Brest-Kuyavsk, Sli-
oma of Lenchich, Abraham of Polotzk (formerl}'^ of
Sokhaczev), Uziel of Kalisz, and Solomon of Plonsk.
The tax-collectors appointed were: Samuel and
Beniash of Posen; Mossel, the customs collector of
Inovlozlav; Moses, the customs collector of Brest-
Kuyavsk; and Jacob, a physician of Sokhaczev.

In the same year a quarrel arose between the
Bohemian and the Polish Jews in the communitj^ of
Cracow over tlie question whether there should be
one rabbi for the entire community or a separate
rabbi for each faction. The case was brought be-
fore the king, who decided (May 25, 1519) that, in
accordance with established custom, the community
should have two rabbis. Rabbi Peretz, who had
already held that position for two years, and Rabbi

Asher (son-in-law of Rachael), both of

Two Con- them experts in the Law, were pro-

gregations posed by the respective parties with

in Cracow, the consent of the entire community.

The king reserved the right, in case
Peretz declined to continue in the rabbinate, to ap-
point his successor. Each rabbi was forbidden to
interfere in the affairs of the other, under a penalty
of 100 marks in silver payable into the royal treasury ;
and each member of the community was at liberty
to choose which congregation he would join. The
entire community was ordered, under a penalty for
disobedience, to pa\^ to the rabbis the various fees
and other sources of income assigned to them by
ancient custom. This arrangement failed to adjust
the difficulties, as is seen from a subsequent decision
of the king (Nov. 5, 1519). A party of recently ar-
rived Bohemian Jews, lieaded by Rabbi Peretz,
wished to crowd out from the synagogue belonging
to the Polish congregation the native part of the
community, headed by Rabbi Asher. This ancient
synagogue had been built by the Polish Jews and
kept in repair by them until the arrival of the Bohe-
mians. The king's second decision was more favor-
able to the native portion of the communitj', which
was left in permanent possession of the synagogue.
The followers of Rabbi Peretz were not permitted
to enter the edifice without the consent of Rabbi
Asher and his followers; and h penalty of 1,000
marks was imposed for infraction of this regulation.
The Bohemians were, moreover, precluded on pain
of a similar fine from inducing members of the native
community to join tlieir synagogue; while Rabbi
Asher and liis follower's still retained the right to
admit any person at their discretion.

The commercial activity of the Jewish merchants
arrayed against them their Christian rivals of the

larger cities. The magistrates of Posen and Lem-
berg, in their opposition to the Jews, even went so
far as to propose a coalition against them (1521).
The struggle was not always above board. In some
towns the populace was incited against the Jews,
and several riots occurred. Sigismund took meas-
ures to prevent the repetition of such disorders; and
in the case of Cracow he warned the magistrates
that he would hold them responsible for any recur-
rence.

Sigismund's protection of his Jewish favorites is
demonstrated by his letter of respite, Aug. 2G, 1525, to
the Posen Jew Beniash, surnamed "Dlugi " (= " the
Tall"), an insolvent debtor, granting him an ex-
tension of time (until Feb. 21, 1527) wherein to
pay his liabilities. Tiiis letter was intended to en-
able Beniash to adjust his business affairs, which had
become involved owing in part to the large amount
of debts due to him from various persons, espe-
cially Christians. A subsequent letter extended the
royal protection to him for a further term of three
years, prohibited forcible collection of money from
him, and ordered that he be assisted in the col-
lection of his debts. Any infringe-
Jewish ment of the provisions of the letter
Favorites was to be regarded as lese-majesty.

of Sigis- Further, Beniash was made subject to
mund. the jurisdiction of the king and of
the way wode of Cracow. An especial
mark of favor was shown also to the Jew Lazar of
Brandenburg in a royal order dated Nov. 14, 1525,
and exempting him for life from payment of the taxes
imposed upon the other Jews of Cracow. In return
for this privilege he was to pay only the sum of three
florins annually. These favors were an acknowl-
edgment of services rendered at Venice in the inter-
ests of the royal treasury and to Jodoc Ludwig, the
king's ambassador there.

By an edict of June 14, 1530, the king exempted the
Jew Simon and his family of the new town of Cerczin
from subjection to any religious bans, and announced
that any rabbi or doctor of the kingdom issuing
an excommunication against them would be liable
to a fine of 100 marks. On July 30, 1532. the king
appointed Moses Fishel chief rabbi of the Polish syn-
agogue of Cracow in succession to Rabbi Asher;
and Fishel, with all his property in Kazimierz,
was exempted for life from all taxes and duties,
both ordinary and extraordinary. On Aug. 8,
1541, Sigismund issued an edict whereby the Jews
of Great Poland were given the right to elect a
chief rabbi, "a doctor of Judaism," subject to con-
firmation by the king. The government officials were
forbidden to install in this office any person not pre-
viously elected thereto by the voluntary act of the
Jews themselves.

But while Sigismund himself was prompted by
feelings of justice, his courtiers endeavored to turn
to their personal advantage the conflicting interests
of the different classes. Sigismund's second wife,
Qaeen Bona, sold government positions for mone)' ;
and her favorite, the waywode of Cracow, Peter
Kmita, accepted bribes from both sides, promising
to further the interests of each at the Diets and with
the king. In 1530 the Jewish question was the sub-
ject of heated discussions at the Diets. There were

569

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

KuiBia

some delegates who insisted on the just treatment
of the Jews. On the other hand, some went so far
as to demand the expulsion of the Jews from tiie
country, while still others wisheil to eurUiil their
commercial rights. The Diet of Piotrkow (1538)
elaborated a series of repressive meUsures against
Uie Jews, who were prohibited from engaging in
the collection of taxes and from leasing estates or
government revenues, "it being against God's law
that these jjcople should hold honored positions
among the Christians." The commercial pursuits of
the Jews in the cities were i)laeed under the control
of the hostile magistrates, wiiile in the villages Jews
were forbidden to trade at all. The Diet revived
also the medieval ecclesiastical law compelling the
Jews to wear a distinctive badge. In 1531) a Catho-
lic woman of Cracow, Katherine Zalyeshovska, was
burned at the stake for avowed leanings toward

Judaism, the populace being incited

Converts to against the Jews by various pam-

Judaism. jihlets circulated among the peoiile.

This and similar cases of conversion
to the Jewish faith were probably the result of the
secret societies which were established among the
Shiyakhta in 1530, and which owed their origin to
the religious reforms among the intelligent members
of Polish society on the advent of Lutherani.sm in
the German districts of Poland (see Dubnow in
"Voskhod,"May, 1895).

The influx of foreign Jews, particuhuly from Bo-
hemia, was probably responsible for a decree of Oct.
17, 1542, by which ordinance they were forbidden
to settle within the kingdom, and freedom of move-
ment was accorded only to such Bohemian Jews as
had already settled on crown or Shiyakhta lands.
An exception was allowed, however, in favor of the
cities of Cracow, Posen, and Lemberg. This decree,
issued at the request of the Jews themselves, W'as
promulgated before the death of Sigismund Jagel-
lon, and was not signed by Sigismund II., Augustus,
as certain sources state.

Sigismund II., Augustus (1548-72) followed in the
main the tolerant policy of his father. He confirmed
the ancient privileges of the Polish Jews, and con-
siderably widened and strengthened the autonomy
of their communities. By a decree of Aug. 13, 1551,
the Jews of Great Poland were again granted permis-
sion to elect a chief rabbi, who was to act as judge
in all matters concerning their religious life. Jews
refusing to acknowledge his authority were to be
subject to a fine or to excommunication; and those
refusing to yield to the latter might be executed
after a report of the circumstances had been made
to the authorities. The property of the recalcitrants
was to be confiscated and turned into the crown
treasury. The chief rabbi was exempted from the
authority of the waywode and other ollicials, while
the latter were obliged to assist him in enforcing the
law among the Jews. In agreements concluded
(June 30 and Sept. 15, 1553) between the Jews of
Cracow and the Christian merchants of Kazimierz
and Stradom the signatures of the following promi-
nent Jews occur: Rabbi Closes; Jonas Abramo-
vich; Israel Czarnij ; Simon, son-in-law of Moses;
Samuel, son of Feit; Moses Echlier; Rabbi Esaias;
Lazar, son-in-law of the widow Bona; and Rabbi

Alexander. In 1550 the king issuid u .Ititte de-
fining the judicial rights of the Jews of Lublin.
In a similar document issued in tlie same year the
conflicting claims of the Jewish and Chrlstiuu uii-r-
chants of Posen were adjusted.

Tiie favorable attitude of the king and of Uio
enlightened nobility cotdd not prevent the :•
animosity against the Jews in
Under parts of the kingdom. The Refornia-
Sigismund tion movement stimulated an luitj-
II. Jewish crusade l)y IheCalholic clergy,

who preached vehemently uguinsl lill
heretics— Lutherans. Caivinisls, and Jew. s. In l.'i.'io
the papal nuncio Alois Lipomano. who hud been
prominent as a i)erseeulor of the Neo ( liritttlanH In
Portugal, was delegated to Cracow to Klrengtlien
the Catholic spirit among the Polish n<»i)ilily. Ho
warned the king of the evils residting from his tol-
erant attitude toward the various non believers in
the country. Seeing that the Polish nobles, among
whom the Reformation had already taken strong
root, paid but scant courtesy to his preachings, lio
initiated a movement against the TaUirs and the Jew-
ish inhabitants of IJthuania. w iiom he attempted to
convert to Catholicism (1555j. Returning from
Wilna to Cracow in 1556 he inaugurated there a
crusade again.st the Jews. In the int'-rests of this
crusade a rumor was spread among the populace to
the effect that a Christian wonmn of Sochaczow,
Dorotea Lazencka, had .sold to the local Jews a host
which she had received at communion and which
they had pierced until blood began to flow from the
punctures. By order of the Bishop of Kholm three
Jews of Sochaczow and their "accomplice," Dorotea
Lazencka, were put in chains, and later sentenced
to death. When the king, who was at that time in
Wilna, learned of the matter, he sent to the burgo-
master of Sochaczow orders to stop the proceedings
until a thorough investigation coidd be made. The
bishop, however, presented a forgetl royal order for
the execution ; and the supposed blasphemers were
burned at the stake a few days Iwfore the king's
deputy arrived (1557). Sigismund Augustus was
highlv incensed at this sjinguinary deed, the prime
mover in which was the nuncio Lipomano. "I am
horrified at the thought of this shameful crime," lie
said, "and besides I do not wish to be regarded as
a fool who believes that blood may flow from a
pierced host." The Protestant no-
Host-Dese- bles. who could not conscii ntiously

cration bring theni-selves to believe in the ab-
Charges, surd medieval fable, took the part of
the Jews; and numerous satires were
written against the nuncio ami the bisho|>. Sigis-
mund pointed out that papal bulls had repeat«ily
asserted that all such accusations were w'" * ny
foundation v.halsoever; and he «lecre«'d ; ■<-c-

forth any Jew accused of having committtHl a mur-
der for ritual purposes, or i>f Laving stolen a lio.Qt.
should be brought before his own court during the
sessions of the Diet.

Notwithstanding this decree and the ridicule of
the reformers, clerical inlluences forced the enact-
ment of anti-Jewish laws at the Diets of 156'.' and
1565. At this time the Jews found a defender in
Solomon ben Nathan Asiikknazi, who before his dt-

Hussia

TIIK JEWISH EXCYC'LOPEDIA

570

parturc for Turkey was tlic king's physician. Simon
Giiuzburg, a wealtliy court Jew ami a celebrated
architect, also ckfeniled tlie cause of his coreligion-
ists. In 1.jG6 tiie Jew Benedict Levith was awarded
for a term of four years the monopoly of importing
Hebrew books and of selling thein throughout the
country. At the request of the Jews the king per-
mitted (1567) Rabbi Isaac M.vy to build a yeshibah
in tiie suburb of Lublin. In loTl the elders of the
Jewish conuuunity of Posen were given the right to
expel from the citj- lawless or immoral members of
the community, and even tosentence tlieni todeath.
The local way wode was at the same time forbidden to
oppose the execution of such sentences. The autono-
my thus granted by Sigisnuind August to the Jews
in the matter of communal ailministration laid the
foundation for the power of the K.\iiai., which, as
has been pointed out by Diibnow, subsequently
brought to tlie Polish Jewry both great advantage
and considerable harm.

The oflicers of the kahal frequently made agree-
ments with the magistrates on the strength of which
the Jews were given the right, in return for certain
taxes, to trade freely and to own real estate within
tiie city limits. There were, however, some cities
like Syeradz and Vielun in which Jews were not
allowed even to reside. In 1659 Lithuania was
united to Poland; for the effect of this xuiion on
Jewish life in Poland see Jew. Excyc. viii. 126, s.r.

LiTHtANI.V.

Tlie death of Sigismund Augustus (1572) and the
termination therewith of the Jagellon dynasty ne-
cessitated the election of his successor by the elect-
ive body of the Shlyakhta. The neighboring states
were deeply interested in the matter, each hoping to
insure the choice of its own candidate. The pope
was eager to assure the election of a Catholic, lest
the influences of the Reformation should become
predominant in Poland. Catherine de Medici was
laboring energetically for the election of her son
Henry of An jou. But in spite of all the intrigues at
the various courts, the deciding factor in the election
was the above-mentioned Solomon Ashkenazi, then
in charge of the foreign affairs of Turkey. Henry
of Anjou was elected, which fact was of deep con-
cern to the liberal Poles and the Jews. Fortunately
this participator in the massacre of St. Bartholomew
secretly fled to France after a reign of a few months,
in order to succeed his deceased brother Charles IX.
on the French throne.

Stephen Bathori (1576-86) was now elected king
of Poland; and he proved both a tolerant ruler and
a friend of the Jews. On Feb. 10, 1577, he sent
orders to the magistrate of Posen directing him to
prevent class conflicts, and to maintain order in the
city. His orders were, however, of no avail. Three
rrionths after his manifesto a riot occurred in Posen,
for details of which see Jkw. E.ncyc. ii. 596a, 8a\
BATiioni, Stkimie.n. Political and economic events
in the course of the sixteenth century
Under forced the Jews to establish a more

Stephen compact communal organization, and

Bathori. this separated them from the rest of the
urban population; indeed, although
with but few exceptions they did not live in sepa-
rate ghettos, they were nevertheless sufficiently iso-

lated from their Christian neighbors to be regarded
as strangers. They resided in the towns and cities,
but had little to do with municipal admini&tration.
their own affairs being managed by the rabbis,
the elders, and the dayyanim or religious judges.
In the reign of Stei)hen Bathori they were at-
tacketl by the Polish jtoet Sebastian Klenowicz
(1545-1602) in his works "Worek Judaszow "
(="The Bags of the Judas") and "Victoria Deo-
rum." These conditions contributed to the strength-
ening of the kahal organizations. Conflicts anil
disputes, however, became of frequent occurrence,
and led to the convocation of periodical rabbinical
congresses, which were the nucleus of the central
institution known in Poland, from the middle of
the sixteenth to the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury, as the Council op Foi:k L.\nds. The meet-
ings were usually held during the fairs of Lublin;
and the sphere of tiie activity of the council grad-
ually widened until it came to include not only judi-
cial but administrative and legislati\e functions
al.so. At times the regulations of the Polish govern-
ment were stiengthened by the oflicial sanction of
the council. A notable instance of this occurred in
1587, when tiie council approved witli great solem-
nity tlie well-known edict forbidding the Jews to
engage in the farming of government revenues and
of other sources of income, since " people eager for
gain and enriclnncnt by means of extensive leases
might bring great danger to the many."

Yeshibot were established, under tiie direction of
the rabbis, in the more prominent communities.
Such schools were oflicially known as gymnasiums,
and their rabbi-principals as rectors. Important
yeshibot existed in Cracow, Posen, and other cities.
Jewish printing establishments came into existence
in the first quarter of the sixteenth century. In
1530 a Hebrew Pentateuch was printed i-n Cracow;
and at the end of the century the JeAvish printing-
houses of that city and Lublin issued a large num-
ber of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character.
The growth of Talmudic scholarship in Poland was
coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish
Jews; and because of their communal autonomy
educational development was wholly one-sided and
along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded,
however, where Jewish j-outh sought secular in-
struction in the European universities. The learned
rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law,
but also sj)iritual advisers, teachers, judges, and
legislators; and their authority compelled the com-
munal leaders to make themselves familiar with the
abstruse questions of Talmudic law. The Polish
Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of
the Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influ-
ence was felt in the house, in the school, and in the
synagogue.

In the first half of the sixteenth centurj- the seeds
of Talmudic learning had been transjilanted to Po-
land from Bohemia, particularly from the school
of Jacob Poi,i-AK, the creator of Pilpul. Shalom
Shachna (r. 1500-58), a jnipil of Pollak, is counted
among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland.
He lived and died in Lublin, where he was the head
of the 3-esliibali which jiroduced the rabbinical ce-
lebrities of the following century. Shachna's son

571

TITK JEWISH ENCYCL01M:I)IA

Rusaia

Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of liis
father, aiidShaclina's pupil Moses Issi:»LKs(ReMA ;

1520-72) aciiievcd an iiitcrnnlional rep-
Pioneers of utation among llie Jews, lliseunlein-
Talmudic porary and correspondent Solomon
Learning. Lliua ( 1510-73) of Lul)iiM also enjoved

a wide rcpulalion among his corelig-
ionists; and theautliority of both was recognized by
tlie Jews tiirougliniit Euroiie. Among tiic famous
pupils of Isserles should be mentioned David Gans
and Mordecai Jaffe, the latter of whom studied
also under Luria. Another distinguished rabbin-
ical scholar of that period was Eliezer b. Elijah
AsHKENAZi (1512-85) of Cracow. His "Ma'a.se lia-
Sheni " (Venice, 1583) is permeated with the spirit
of the moral philo.sophy of the Sejdiardic sciiool,
but is extremely mystical. At the end of the work
he attemiits to forecast tlie coming of the Messiah in
1595, basing his calculations on the Book of Daniel.
Such IMessianic dreams found a receptive .soil in the
unsettled religious conditions of the time. The new
sect of Sociuians or Unitarians, which denied the
Trinity and which, therefore, stood near to Juda-
ism, had among its leaders Simon Bcdny, the trans-
lator of the Bible into Polish, and the priest Martin
CzECHowic. Heated religious disputations were
common, and Jewish .scholars participated in them.
The Catliolic reaction which with the aid of the
Jesuits and the Council of Trent spread throughout
Europe linally reached Poland. The Jesuits found
a powerful protector in Bathori's successor, Sigis-
mund III. (1587-1632). Under his rule the "golden
freedom " of the Polish knighthood gradually van-
ished; government by the "liberum veto" under-
mined the authority of the Diet; and the approach
of anarchy was thus hastened. However, the dying
spirit of the republic was still strong enough to
cliec'f somewhat the destructive power of Jesuitism,
which under an ab.solute monarchy would have led
to drastic anti-Jewish measures similar to tliose that
had been taken in Spain. Thus while tlie Catholic
clergy was the mainstay of the anti-Jewish forces,
the king remained at least in semblance the de-
fender of the Jews (see Jew. Enxvc. viii. 12Tb, x.r.
Lithuania). False accusations of ritual murder
against the Jews recurred with growing frequency,
and assumed an "ominous inquisitional character."

The papal bulls and the ancient char-

Sigismund ters of privilege proved generally of

III. little avail as protection. In 1598 the

crown judges of Lublin condemned
three Jew's to death for the supposed murder of a
Christian child whose body had been found in a
swamp near the village of Voznika. The accused
were tortured on the rack and then quartered amid
impressive ceremonies at Lidjlin. The body of tlie
murdered child was placed in one of the monasteries
in Lublin and became an object of worship for the
l)opulace. A polemical movement against the Jews
also was initiated by the clergy. The luiest ^loeczki
published in Cracow (1598) a bitter denunciation of
the Jews under the title " Okrucienstwa Zydowskie "
(—"Jewish Atrocities"); and similar works were
published by Gubiczki(1602), by Wyeczlaw Grabow-
ski ("0 Zydach w Koronie," 1611), and by the Polish
pliysician Sleshkowski, who accused tlie Jewish puy-

sicians

■ ri ,>_\ ^1 1 liiiii n iiiij iiiiiinjii.

. llieir
in Po-

Catholic patients. The plague i
land was nltril)uted by 1dm to divine wrulh ut the
protection afforded to tlie Jewsof lliecouuliy (1G28).
JMost bitterof all in iiis tinules against the J. wh wuh
the Polish writer Sebastian ^licziuKki. anllior of
"Zwicrciadlo Korony PnUkle" (.'id ed. lOJM). A
impil of the Je.suits. he coilectcd hi thU hook every
charge that wa.s ever invented against the Jews by
fanatical superstition and po|)uIar malice. He in-
cited the Polish people, and especially the delegiilcn
to tlie Diet, to treat the Jews as they hud been
treated in Spain and el.sewhere.

Ladislaus IV. (1682-48), tliough penjonally a toler-
ant ruler, could not check the bitter factional hatri-«l(i
of his subjects. In 1(542 he permitted the Jews of
Cracow to engage freely in export trade, but wIlli-
drew this jiemiission two months later in coin-
pliance with the demands of the Clirisiian mer-
chants. Many of the Jews, thus rcslricU'tl and
oppressed in the cities, moved to the villages and
became leaseholders of estates belonging to the
Shlyakhta, and engaged also in the liquor trade.
The powerful nobles as well as the high church
dignitaries leased their lands to ihcni, and the
synod of Warsjiw (1643) severely criticized some of
the bishops for thus jilacing the Jews over the Chris-
tian peasants. The synod of Posen indignant ly com-
mented on the "audacity of the Jews" in trading in
the market-places on Ciiristiun holy
Blood Ac- days. In 1636 the Jewsof Lublin had
cusations. been acquitteil by the crown liiliunal
of the charge of having murdered a
Christian child for ritual purposes. The local clergy,
annoyed at the accjuittal, invented another charge.
supported by "evidence." The Carmelite monk
Paul declared that Jews Imd lured him intoaliouse,
had bled him with the aid of a German barln-r
named Schmidt (a Lutheran), and had collected bis
blood in a dish, whispering meanwhile some prayer.
The tribunal accepted this accnsjition, and, after a
trial accompanied liy torture on the rack, sentenced
one Jew, named Mark, to death. The Carmelites
hastened to make this case public in order to
strengthen the prejudice of the populace. The
Jew ]\Iark is mentioned also on the Hy-leaf of an
old ]iraycr-book preserved in the synagogue of
Pinchov. The inscrijition speaks of "the martyrs
on this earth in the city of Lublin, in the year (5)396
= 1636." The martyr Mark is called 'here "the
learned Rabbi Monlecai. son of the .sainted Hubbi
MeYr." The pamphlet by the Camielite monks tv
fcrring to this case is entitled " Processus Caus.T Inter
Itistigatorem Judicii Tribunalis Hegiii et IVrtidium
Marcum Judaum Airitatac." This ca.sc is report*-*!
also in the book of the priest Stefan Zuchowski.
published in 1713. Nine months after the revolting
judicial murder of Lublin a more hon- ution

took place in Cracow (1687). The «:. f tids

case are not known: but, from enlrii-s in the Pin-
chov prayer-book and the- pinkes of the !
ciety of Cracow, it appears that wven Jt :e

executed; namely. Rabbi Abniham Ix-n Isaac. J«c<»ii
b. David, Samuel b. Samuel, P^lijah b. Ju
jamin b, Siialom. Jacob b. Issachar. and >:
Phinehas. Zhukhowski makes no mention of this

Russia

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

572

case. A similar case occurred iu Lenchicli ia 1639
(see Jew. Excyc. viii. 128, s.r. Lithc.\ni.\).

The lioslility of tlieir Cluistiau neiirlibors reacted
on Uie iuuer lite of the Polish Jews ; aiul the sehohxr
Delniedigo, who visited Poland and Lithuania in
1620. was struck by their indillVrt'nl and at times
hostile attitude toward secular harning. But, while
the intellectual tield of the Jews was narrowed
equally with tln-ir social life, tiiere was displayed
in both an unceasing atlivity inspirnl by Tal-

niudic precepts. The Talmud served

Study tlR-m as an encyclopedia of all knowl-

of the edge and for (juestions of every-

Talmud. day life, including abstract law, legal

decisions, both civil and criminal, re-
ligious legislation, theology, etc. It was diligently
studied ; but the methods of stmly depended on the
social position of the student. The rabbis of higher
rank, those who took an active part in the kahal
administrations and wiio inirticipated in tlic Coun-
cil of Four Lands, paid most attention to tiie prac-
tical application of tiie TaliHUtlic law. Chief among
them was Mordecai J.\fke (see Jew. Encvc. vii. 58),
who at the end of the sixteenth century frequently
presided at the meetings of the council. His suc-
cessor as rabbinical elder and president of the coun
cil was Joshua ben Alexander ha-Kohen Fai.k, rabbi
of Lublin, and later director of the yeshibah at
Lemberg. Together with these should be mentioned :
MeYr ben Gedaliah Lrni.ix (d. 1616), authority in
rabbinical matters: Samuel Edki.s (tl. 1631); and
Joel Sirkes (d. 1641). The C.\c.\l.\. had become
entrenched under the protection of Rabbinism ; and
such scholars as ^lordecai Jaife and Joel Sirkes de-
voted themselves to its studj'. The mystic specula-
tions of the cabalists i)repared tin; ground for Sliab-
bethaianism, and the Jewish nias.ses were rendered
even more receptive by the great disasters that over-
took the Jews of Poland about the middle of the
seventeenth century. Had the rabbis of that time
evinced a more active interest in worldly affairs, and
had they taken warning from the ominous popular
unrest, they might in a measure have averted the
calamity of the Cossacks' uprising. It should be
stated, however, that the great catastrophe Avas due
not to the Jews themselves, but to the decay of the
entire system of which the Jews were but an in-
active part (see Jew. E.nxvc. iv. 283b, s.c. Cos-

8.\CKS' L'l'KISINf;).

The kingdom of ]\)land proper, which had hith-
erto suffered but little either from the Cossacks' up-
rising or from the invasion of the Russians, now be-
came the .scene of terrible disturbances (1655-58).
King Charles X. of Sweden, at the head of his
victorious army, overran Poland ; and soon the
whole country, including the cities of Cracow and
War.saw, was in his hands. The Jews
Cossacks' of Great and Little Poland found
Uprising, themselves between two fires: those
(jf them who were spared by the
Swedes were attacked by the Poles, who accused
them of aiding the enemy. The Polish general
Stefan Czaunieckf. in his flight from the Swedes,
devastated the whole country through which he
passed and treated the Jews without mercy. The
Polish i)artizan detachments treated the non-Polish

inhabitants with eipial severity. ^Moreover, the
horrors of the war were aggravated by pestilence,
and the Jews of the districts of Kalisz, Cracow,
Posen, Piotrkow, and Lublin perisheil en masse by
the sword of the enemy and the plague. Certain
Jewish writers of the day were convinced that the
home and protection which the Jews had for a long
time enjoyed in Poland were lost to them forever.

Some of these apprehensions i)roved to be un-
founded. As soon as the disturbances had ceased,
the Jews began to return and to rebuild their des-
troyed homes: and while it is true that the Jewish
population of Poland had decreased and become im-
poverished, it still was more numerous than that of
the Jewish colonies in western Europe. Poland re-
mained as hitherto the spiritual center of Judaism;
and the remarkable vitality of the Jews manifested
itself in the fact that they in a comparatively short
time nianagetl t(j rt'cuperate from their terrible trials.
King John Casimir (1648-68) endeavored to com-
pensate the impoverished people for their sufferings
and losses, as is evidenced by a ilecree granting the
Jews of Cracow the rights of free trade (1661) ; and
similar privileges, together with temporary exemp-
tion from taxes, were granted to many other Jew-
ish communities, which had suffered most from the
Russo-Swedish invasion.

In spite of the sjiiritual poverty of the Jews of
Poland, some of them sought instruction at foreign
universities. Among the Polish physicians of the
time was Jacob, who studied medicine at Padua, and
came to Posen after the expulsion of the Jews from
Vienna in 1670. He married the daughter of the
physician Moses Judah (.Mojzese Judko). In 1673
Moses Judah became the physician to the Jewish
community at a salary of 40 gold ducats; he was
also one of the elders of the .lewish connnunity, and
defended its suits at the Diets. He was highly re-
spected 1)V the nobiiity. His son. who also had stud-
ied medicine at Padua, succeeded him in liis post,
and remained in Posen until 1736. The grammarian
Isaac bex Samiel tiA-LEvi lived for some time in
Posen, and died there in 1646. The philosopher Sol-
omon Ashkenazi of Posen and the mathematician
Elijah of Pinczow were prominent at the end of the
seventeenth century.

John Casimir's successor, King Michael "Wisch-
neveczki (1669-73), also granted some privileges to
the Jews. This was parti}' due to the efforts of
Moses .Markowitz, the representative of the Jewish
communities of Poland. The heroic king Jonx
SoHTESKi (1674-96) was in general very favorably
inclined toward the Jews; but the Senate and the
nobility deprecated such friendliness toward "in-
fidels."

With the accession to the throne of the Saxon
dynasty the Jews completely lost the support of the
government. While it is true that Augustus II.,
THE Sthoxo (1697-1733), and Augus-
Accession ns IH. (1733-63) officially confirmed
of at 1 heir coronations the Jewish char-

the Saxon ters, such formal declarations were in-
Dynasty. sulllcient, owing to the disorders pre-
vailing in the kingdom, to guard the
already limited rights of the.Tews against the hostile
elements. The government was anxious only to

573

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ruaaia

collect from the kalmls the t;ixes, \viii( h were con-
staiilly being iimde heavier in spiteof thelaet lliattlie
Jews had not yet recovered from the ruinous events
of the Cossacks' uprisiiii,^ and the Swedish invasion.
Tile Slilyakhla and the otlier classes of the urban
l)opulation were extremely liostile fo tiie Jews. In
the larger cities, like Posen and Cracow, ()uarrels
between the Christians and the Jewish iniiabilants
were of frequent occurrence; and I hey assumed a
very violent aspect. liased originidly on ccoimjuu'c
grounds, tiiey were carried over into tiie ri'ligious
arena; and it was evident that the seeds wliich the
Jesuits had planted had linally borne fruit. Eccle-
siastical councils disidayed great hatred toward the
Jews. Attacks on the latter by students, the so-
called "Schiilor-Gelauf," became evory-day occur-
rences in the largo cities, the police regarding sucii
scholastic riots with indilTerence. Indeed, hiwless-
ncss, violence, and disorder reigneil sujirenie at that
time in Poland, marking the beginning of the down-
fall of the kingdom. In order, therefore, to protect
themselves against such occurrences, the Jewish
communities in many cities made aimual contribu-
tions to the local Catholic schools.

Many miracle-workers made their appearance
among the Jews of Poland, prominent among whom
was Joel ben Isaac HEii-PitiN, known also as " Ba'al
Shem I.," a believer in and practitioner of demon-
ology. These men added to the mental and moral
confusion of the Jewish masses. "There is no other
countrj'," says a writer of the seven-
Prevalence teenth century, " in which the Jews oc-
of Super- cupy themselves so much with mystic

stition, fantasies, devilism, talismans, and the
invocation of spirits, as in Poland."
Even famous rabbis of that time devoted themselves
to cabalistic practises. Special notoriety as a caba-
list was gained by Naphtam ben Isaac ha-Kohkn,
whose belief in the power of a certain amulet led to
the destruction of almost the entire Jewish quarter
of Frankfort. The popular superstitions that liad so
completely enveloped the Polish Jewry were the di-
rect cause of the Messianic movements that Jiad be-
gun to agitate the Jewish world ; and although Shab-
bcthai Zebi, hailed at first as the Messiah, lost a
large number of his followers on his conversion to
]\Iohammedanism, mysticism had become toodceiily
rooted in the Jewish masses to be destroyed even by
this rude awakening. Shabbethaianism was suc-
ceeded by Frankism (see Jew. Encyc. v. 475, a. v.
Fkank, Jacoh, and the Fuankists). The era of
enlightenment which dawned tVu' the Jews of Ger-
many with the coming of Moses Mendelssolin in the
second half of the eighteenth century was coincident
with that of the decay of the Polish Jewry.

The sufterings of the Polisli Jews from external
enemies in times of war and froan persecutions b_v
tlieir Christian neighbors in tiniesof jieacc served to
cement more strongly their internal life and stimu-
lated a more thorough organization for the conunon
protection. One of the ])roclamations of the Coun-
cil of Four Lands, issued in 1G76, reads as follows:

" We have sinned grievously against tlie .\Iniiglify : the dl.*-
tiirl)ances increase from day to day. It is l)ecoiriing iiion' and
more difficult forusto live. Our people are considertHl as nnufrht
among other nations; and it is wonderful, in view of all our
misfortunes, that we still e.xist. The only thing left for us to do

Is to fiiriii ouDM-lveH Into u <
(-oiniiiundMof llii'l.urduuUUii- 1
uiid Kuldeti."

tiif

ThiswasfollnwodbyasfrieBofpamgniphHordtTiiig
implicit obedience tn the InstructionH of the 1 '
and forbid<ling the leasing of govt-rnMicnl i
estates of the Shlyakhtii and tlie foriniitioti ol any
conuneicial compardes wiili non-JcwK, v " ■ •'
con.sent of the kahaln, "since such enti
to clashes witli.and reprouclies iigainst tiic Jews by,
tile Christian jioiiulation." It wa« nJHo forljiddt-n "to
"transfer Jewish goods into strange hiinilH"«.r tn
api)eal tu the Polish authorities merely from
to injure the inlere.«ls of society or In create <.. - .,•.
or party conflicts in the coniinunilies. In this way
the j)ower fif the kaliids became very pronouncitl;
and they were aideil by the government, wliicli
found it more convenient to deal with a few cen-
tralized bodies than with a multitu<lc>of individuals.
Each kalial was responsible to ilie government for
the action of its individual members, and wjia re-
quired also tocollect the ta.xes (see Jew. K.v<vr. \i\.
409, «./. Kauai.). In time, however, tlie kahais l>e-
gan to abuse the power entrusted to tliem, and fre-
quent comjdaints were lieurd a.gain.st their oppress-
ive rule.

The decade from the Cossacks' uprising until
after the Swedish war (1648-5H) left adeeji and last-
ing im|)rcssion not only on the social life of the
Polish-Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life
as well. The mental level of the Jews gradually
sank. The Talmudic learning which up to timt
period had been the common ix>s.scs-
Period of sion of the majority of the people- be-
Decadence. came accessible to a limited nnnilH-rof
students only, while the masses re-
mained in ignorance and superstition. The intellec-
tual activity even of the rabbis fell to a low level;
for while it is true that there were still many promi-
nent rabbis in Poland who were men of great Tal-
mudic learning and secular knowledge, they did not
leave behind them any such great works as >]'■'■'
predecessors — Soh)mon Luria, Isserlcs. M
Jalfe, and MeYr of Lublin. In the very few works
that were produced there was noticeable u'
lack of originality. Some rabbis busied thi :
with insignificant quibbles concerning religioiui
laws; others wrote commentaries on dilT'
C)f the Talmud in which hair-splitting
were raised and discussed; and at times these argu-
ments dealt with matters which were of no pmcticjil
moment. Aaron Samuel KAinANovEli (l«N-70).
who barely escaped with his life from the Cosjwrks
in 1G48, wrote "Birkat ha-Zebah." a commentary on
the sacrifices and the abolished rituals of the T<-tnplc
of Jerusaleu). Others, like Ahhaiiam A 'U-

15INEH in his "Magen Al»mham." pro.i. ...m-

mentaries on the Shulhan "Aruk. Aside from so-
phistic argumentations the.se mbbis rei no
branch of knowledge, either secular or t... . ...uil.

Side by side with the scholastic w rifines of tlio
rabbis there flourished also a ditl.-i ■'•

Such were the pro<luctions of the ] •. :ar

shanim'*) who occupied promin<-nt positions in the
.synagogues or traveled from town to town The
collections of contemporary sermons contain a con-

Hussia
Bustchuk

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

574

glomerution of haggadic ami cabalistic sayings on
which in many cases are based entirely erroneous
interpretiitions of the Biblical text. Those darsha-
nim cared little for the enlightenment of their liear-
ers, and were intent solely on making a brilliant dis-
play of their own erudition in tlicological matters.
Some preachersendeavored to inculcate in their people
an appreciation of the practical Cabala. The works
of I&iac Luria and his school were at that time very
popular in Poland, and their teachings were spread
among the people in the form of monstrous stories
concerning the future life, the terrible tortures in-
flicted on sinners, the transmigration of souls, etc.

I>isorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland
during the second half of the eighteenth century,
from the accession to tlie throne of its last king,
Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski (1764-9o). This
state of affairs was due to the hauglity demeanor of
the nobility toward the lower classes. Tlie neces-
sity for reform was, it is true, recognized by the
king and by many of the Polish people; but Poland
was already in the grasp of Russia, and little could
be done in this direction. Jewish affairs were sadly
neglected, the government seeking merely the ex-
tortion of larger taxes; thus the Diet which met at
"Warsaw in 1764 for the discussion of measures of
reform considered the Jews only to the extent of
chancring the tax system. Up to that tin;e a poll-
tax had been imposed upon the total number of
Jews in Poland, the synod and Diet apportioning it

among the different kahals; but under

Reform the new system every individual Jew

Measures, was taxed two gulden, and every kalial

w'as responsible for payments by its
own members. The already oppressive tax bur-
den was increased by this " reform " ; and the central
autonomous government which the Jews had until
then enjoyed was overthrown. At that time the
Slilyakhta likewise were jealously guarding their
own interests; and at the election of the king in 1764
they insisted that Jews should not be permitted to
manage any crown lands or to lease taxes or other
revenues of the kingdom. Again, in 17G8 the Diet
revived a law from the old constitution of 1538, to
tlie effect that Jews wishing to engage in any com-
mercial enterprise in the cities must obtain a permit
from the local magistracies. In many instances the
members of these were Christian merchants and
burghers, competitors of the Jews.

About this time, and as a direct consequence of
tlie disorganization of Poland, the disastrous incur-
sions of the brigand bands known as the IIaidam.\cks
took place. The movement originated in Podolia
and in that jjurtof the Ukraine which still belonged
to Poland. These and other internal disorders com-
bined to hasten the end of Poland as a kingdom.
In 1772 the outlying provinces were divided among

the three neighboring nations, Russia,

First Austria, and Prussia. Russia secured

Partition, a considerable part of the territory

now known as White Russia; Austria
obtained Galicia and a part of Podolia; while Prus-
sia received Pomerania and the lands lying along
the lower Vistula. Jews were most numerous in the
territories that fell to the lot of Austria and Russia.
Tlie permanent council established at the instance

of the Russian government (1777-88) served as the
highest administrative tribunal, and occupied itselT
with the elaboration of a plan that would make
practicable the reorganization of Poland on a more
rational basis. The progressive elements in Polish
society recognized the urgency of popular educa-
tion as the very first step toward reform. In 1773
the Order of Jesus in Poland was abolished by Pojie
Clement XIV., who thus freed Polish youth from the
demoralizing influences of Jesuitism. The famous
Edukacyjne Komisje (educational commission), es-
tablished in 1775, founded numerous new schools
and remodeled the old ones. One of the members of
the commission, Andrew Zamoiski, elaborated a
project for the reorganization of the social life of the
Jews (1778). The author demanded that the invio-
lability of their persons anil proiJcrty should be
guaranteed and that religious toleration should be to
a certain extent granted them; but he insisted that
Jews living in the cities should be separated from
the Christians, that those of them having no definite
occupation should be banished from the kingdom,
and that even those engaged in agriculture should
not be allowed to possess land. This shows liow
deeply hatred of the Jew was rooted in the hearts of
the Polish nobility and how difficult it was for even
the best of them to consider the Jewish question
from an unbiased point of view. In 1786 certain
members of the Polish nobility conspired with the
Catholic clergy, the governor-general, and others,
and sent delegates to St. Petersburg with the object
of depriving the Jews of the right to farm taxes and
customs duties and to engage in distilling, brewing,
etc. It should be mentioned, however, that among
the clergy there were many who were friendly
to the Jews. At the Quadrennial Diet (1788-91)
the demand for reform grew stronger. Matheus
BcTiivMowicz, a deputy to the Diet, published in
1789 a pamphlet in which he strongly condemned
the lack of toleration, and advLsed that equality of
rights and citizenship should be granted to the Jews.
Tadeusz Czacki, the author and statesman, was
even more liberal; and in his well-known "Rozpra-
wa o Zydach,"etc. (= " Discour.se on the Jews"), he
advocated the establishment of separate institutions
b}'' the Jews for the management of their religious
affairs. In June, 1790, a special commission was ap-
pointed by the Diet to frame a measure for the reform
of the social life of the Jews. At the head of this
commission was Ezerski, and Butrymowicz was
one of its members. Two projects were submitted :
one by Hugo Kollontai, and the other, as some sup-
pose, by King Stanislaus himself, of wliich the chief
feature was the recognition, in the national system
of government, of the civil and political equality of
the Jews. This was the only example in modern
Europe before the French Revolution of tolerance
and broad-mindedness in dealing with the Jewish
question. But all these proposed reforms were too

late. Through the intrigues and bri-

The Second bery of Catherine II. the Confederation

and Third of Targowitza was formed, to which

Partitions, belonged the adherents of the old order

of things. A Russian army invaded
Poland, and soon after a Prussian one followed. A
second partition of Poland was made July 17,

575

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Russia
Rutttcliuk

1793, Russia taking a iurgo part of White Russia.
luilf of Volliyiiia, all of Podolia, and the pari of
the Ukraine which had prcvioiisiy been retained
by Poland, and Gerniany taking Great Poland
(loosen).

A general rising of the Poles took place in 1704.
Kosciusko was inatle dictator, and succeeded in
driving the Russians out of Warsaw. Dissensions,
however, arose among the Poles, and the Russians
and Prussians again entered Polaiul. Ko.sciusko
was decisively defeated at Maciejowice Oct. 10,
1794; Suvarof entered Warsaw Nov. 8, and Polish
resistance came to an end. The Jews took an active
part in this last struggle of Poland for independence.
A certain Joselovieh Bkukk formed with the per-
mission of Kosciusko a regiment of light cavalry
consisting entirely of Jews. This regiment accom-
plished many deeds of valor on the lield of battle
and distinguished itself especially at the siege of
Warsaw, nearly all its members perishing in the de-
fense of Praga, the fortified suburb of tiie capital.

The third and linal i)artition of Poland took place
in 1795. Russia acquired the whole of Lithuania
and Courlaud; Austria, the remainder of Galicia,
and Podolia, including Cracow ; i^russia, the rest of
Poland, including Warsaw, the capital; and there-
with Poland ceased to exist as an independent
country. The great bulk of the Jewish population
was transferred to Russia, and thus became subjects
of that empire.

BiBLiOGRArHV : Bershadskl, Litovtskie Ycvrci, St. Peters-
burg, 188;}; idem, V Izgiianii, in Vo.sA/kk/, 1W"2; Czacki,
Rozprava a Zi/dach i Karaitach, Wilna, 1807 ; D. Fried-
lander, Ueber die Verhe><)<erHuu der Isfaeliten im KOnifi-
rcicli Pnlen, Berlin, 1819; Dubnow, In Vnakhod, 18'.).5, 1. 125;
1900, ii., iv.; idem, YevreWaim Jstoria, vol. ii., 1897 (Uie chief
source of this article for the communal history of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries); Hollaenderski, Les Isra-
elitcx dc Poloune, Paris, 1846 ; Hube, I'rawadaicf<two Polskie
lit ^yicku. Warsaw, 1886 ; Kraushar, Hi^toria Zydirw W Pnl-
ncc, Warsaw, 18&5-66; Lelevel. HiMoire de Polo(ine, Paris,
1844 ; Levvanda, in Voskhod, 188G, ix.; Gratz, Gcsch. 4th ed.,
and Hebrew translation by Rabbinowitz, passim ; L. Gum-
plovicz, Stanlslawa Axtgusta Project Reform Zydowstwa
Polskiego, Cracow, 1875; Maciejowski, Zi/f/zi ie Pulscc, na
Rvsii Litwie, Warsaw, 1878; M. Guinplovicz, Pnczntki Rc-
Udii Zi/dowskiej w Polsce, ib. 1903; Naruszewicz, Hisiorya
Narodu PoUkicoo, ii. ih. 1780; Pavlovich, in Yevreiakaya
BiliUotckn, iv. 659, v. 89; Rit.sskn-YexircLski Arkhiv,\o\.iii.,
St. Petersburg, 1903; S. Bennet, The Coiistancy of Israel,
London, 1809; Stobbe, GeschicJitcdcrJudeii in Dexitscldartd,
1866; Schorr, in Voskfuxh 1900 and 1901; Bloch, Die Gene-
ratprimlegien der Polyiisehen Judensehaf t, Posen, W9l',
Feilchenfeld, Die Tnnere Gemeindcverfa^ssuun der Juden
in Pnlen, Posen, 188t5. Much of the history of Poland has
already appeared in Thk .Jkwisk E.vcyclopedia under the
captions indicated above by small capitals.

RUSSKI YEVREI. See Pekiodicals.

RUSTCHUK : City of Bulgaria, on the southern
bank of the Danube. It was founded by the Rus-
sians in 968, was occupied in tyrn by the Greeks
and the Bulgarians, and was finany captured by the
Turks under Bayazid I. in 1389. Jews are known
to have gone to Rustchuk for commercial purposes
from ditt'erent points in the vicinity of the Danube
in the early part of the eighteenth century ; but they
did not take their families with them. Tiie founda-
tion of the present Jewish commimity dates from
1792, when some natives of Belgrade, which city
had been captured by Emperor Joseph II. of Aus-
tria in 1788 and retaken by the Turks in the follow-
ing year, sought refuge in Rustchuk to escape tiie
reprisals of the latter.

The lust cliici laiJiii ni iiiu city \N;i» AUr.iiiuin
Gra/.iani (lHOU-0), wlio drew up u c<mIc (jf regula-
tions and obtained tlic grunt of a piece of bind for
a cemelery. tiie eoniiiiunity being placed under the
control of the nibbiiiale of Adriaiinplc. The Jews
of Rustchuk flourished coninierelully until Ihe Con-
tinental blockade; but the siegen of |t!M)7 and Ibil
destroyed tiie prosperity of the conuniinity. The
Russians converted the Kynagogue into a fitulde for
their horses, and finally dcKlKiyed it by file, the
memory of thi.s catastrophe being perpelunU-d by
the Jews of the city in a popular song entitled,
after the Rus.siaii name of the war, "'/m Veni" =
"For Religion." By the time peace wan declared,
almost the entire Hebrew cominunily had r<ni«)ve«I
to Bucharest; but some lime later ten fuinilicH of
refugees returned with sevend families from NIcop-
olis and with Graziani, the chief rabbi. Cru/iani,
although h(^ made some much ner-d<d reforms, was
removed from ollice in 1814. His successors were
Solomon Capon (1814-20); Shabbelhal P ' •' Da-
llam (1822-3")); .lacob Yom Tnb b. Ainai <tl
Bairam (183r)-46); Benjamin Pintoof Bosnia (1864);
Abraham Melammed (1800), the first nibbl of Uiist-
chuk to bear the oflicial title "hakam bashi"; and
A. Salonicchio, the present (lOCi) incumbent.

The War of Greek Independence in 1H28 «lrove
several thousand Mohammedan emigrants from Ru-
mania to Rustchuk ; and a Jewish resident named
Perez Alkalai generously provided the fugitives
with all necessary supplies, receiving as a rewanl a
"berat" from Vali Pasha which exempted him per-
manently from all ta.xation. In 1837 and 184.") the
city was visited by the sultans Mahinud II. and
'Abd al-Majid respectively, and the Jewish congre-
gation was the object of the imperial bounty.

The community of Rustchuk, which is the mo«t
prosperous in Bulgaria, possesses an excellent li-
brary, which is a legacy from Chief Rabbi Shab-
betliai Behar Abraham; and the family of Rosanes
also has a library containing some rare works.
The first rabbinical author of the city was Elijah
Ventura, originally from Spalato, who wmtc a
Hebrew work entitled "Kokeba di-Shcbit"; the
above-mentioned Abraliam Graziani compose*! the
"She'crit Ya'akob"; while in the libnuies arc pre-
served several manuscript works of his ~>>t,
Solomon Capon, among lliein the " K al
Rc'em." Abraham b. Israel Rosanes (Abir) pub-
lished in "Ha-Maggid"' (18G8) an account of his
travels in Palestine, while his son Solomon Israel
Rosanes, called -'Tchelebon," is well known for the
researches in the history of the Oriental Jews pub-
lished by him in various peritxiioals. such as the
"Anuar Penetru Israeliti" (1888. xi.).

The citycontains two synairogues: ono '■•'-• •np,
and a smaller one called "Kahallah K '8

lom." It possesses also two schools, sii; '>y

the Alliance Israelite Universidle. with an.... .. ...:i(v

of 273 bovs and 204 girls, as well as a Zionist soci-
ety, a hehm kadilisha, a chief rabbi, and a nibbin
ical trii)unal. There is likewise a small Ashkenazic
community, whi<li hasanomtory of Itsown. Every
ten years the interment <'f tli tsof the Gesi-

z.\ii is celebrated with great ^ ;.y.

A Jewish press was estaldished at Rustchuk in

Rusticanus
Kuth Kabbah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

576

1894: and two Judseo-Spanisli papers, "La Albo-
rada" and "El Amigo," have been jniblislied there
for some time.

In 1904 the Jews of Rustrhuk numbered 4.030
in a total population of 48.000. They are chietly
engaged in commerce and banking.

Bibliography : Franco. lUst. lUx hrni'Utcs <li' VKnipirf Ottit-
m(7>i. p. 2ia; H(i-M(m{li<l. 1 **•>"* ". UnUitin Atnunltlc VAUi-
aiice Iffnu'litc L'niverMUi\ 19a}: liiviudes Eculanlc VAllt-
iitice Ixraclite Universellc, Paris, I'JOl.
D. ^I. Fu.

RUSTICANUS. See Bertiiold of Kegens-
cruo.

RUTH. BOOK OF: The Book of Ruth, •whifli
is iKKtiially idyllic in character, although the nar-
rative is in the form of prose, contains an episode
from tlie period of the Judges. For this reason
it is jilaccd in tlie Septuagint after the Book of
Judges; and this order is followed in the Vulgate
and in the Engli.sh translations. In tlie riebiew
Bible, however, Ruth is found in the "Ketubiin,"
or third part of tlie canon, where it stands next
after the Song of Solomon, being the second of the
Five Megillot. In Spani.sh manuscripts and in one
Bible ofloOO Ruth comes first (Buhl, "Canon of
the Old Testament," i., § 10; see Bmi.E C.\non).
This position, as will be noted more fully below,
probaiily accords better with the date of the book;
for it was written so long after the date of which its
story treats that many of tlie customs to which it
refers had become antiquated.

Biblical Data : The book takes its name from

one of its characters, who, with her mother-in-law,
Naomi, shares the honor of being its heroine. The
story is as follows: Elimelech, a man of Bothle-
hem-judah, with his wife, Naomi, and his two sons,
ISIahlon and Chilion, went in time of famine and
sojourned in the land of Moab. There Elimelech
died, and the two sons married, ]\Ialilon taking Ruth
as bis wife, and Chilion taking Oplira — both women
of Moab, where both sons likewise died. In due
lime Naomi heard tiiat the famine in Judah had
passed, and determined to return thither. Ruth,
in snite of the dissuasion of Naomi, accompanied
her mother-in-law to Ik'thlcheni, and cast in her
lot with the people of Judah. The two women
arrived in Bethlehem at the beginning of barley
harvest. Naturally they were in a state of dire
poverty. Elimelech had had an inheritance of land
among his lircthren. iMit, unless a Go'el could
be f(jund, Naomi would be compelled to sell it (in
Ruth iv. 3 mao should be pointed mab = " is going
to sell "; comp. "Am. Jour. Semit. Lang." xi.x. 14o).
Elimelech had a prosperous relative in Bethlehem
whose name was Boaz, and who, like others, was en-
gaged in the harvest. Naomi sent Ruth to glean in
his fields, and, after he had spoken kindly to her
and shown her some favors, she, still acting upon
the advice of her motherin-law, ap|)roacli('d Boaz
at night and put herself in his power. Boaz was
attracted to her, but informed her that there was a
kinsman nearer than he who had the first right to
redeem the estate of Elimelech, and that it would
be necessary for this kinsman to renounce his right
before he (Boaz) could jiroceed in the matter. Ac-
cordingly he called this kinsman to the gate of the

city before the elders, and told him of the condition
of the wife and daughter-in-law of Elimelech, and
of his (the kinsman's) right to redeem the estate and
to marry Ruth. The kinsman declared that he did
not desire to do so, and drew off his shoe in token
that he had renounced his rights in favor of Boaz.
Boaz thereupon bought the estate from Naomi,
married Ruth, and became by her the father of
Obcd, who in due time became the father of Jesse,
the father of King David.

E. c. G. A. B.

Critical View : It should be noted that in the

narrative of tlie Book of Ruth there are several
points which are not quite clear. lu certain jiarts,
as i. 12-14, the action seems to presuppose the exist-
ence of the levirate law (comp. Gen. xxxviii. and
Deut. xxv. 5 et seq.), while in other parts, as iv. 3 et
spq., the redemption of Elimelech's estate for his
widow seems to be the chief point in the discussion.
This seems to presuppose the extension to wives of
the law concerning the inheritance of daughters
(Num. xxxvi.). Again, from the general course of
the narrative one receives the impression that Boaz
is the Go'ei. ; but in i v. \^et seq. thego'el seems to be
Obed (comp. Nowack, " Ilaiidkommeiitar zum Alten
Testament," p. 199, s.v. "Richter." "Ruth." etc.;
Bertholet, in " K. II. Q"adloc.). Finally, if the levi-
rate law had been really fulfilled, Obed should have
been counted the son of Mahloii, the son of Elimelech,
whereas he is really called (iv. 21) the son of Boaz.

Bewer (in "Am. Jour. Semit. Lang." xix. 143 et
seq.) points out that four steps in the development
of the levirate are met with in the Old Testament:
(1) the go'el need not be a brother, but may be
any kinsman of the deceased, as in Gen. xxxviii. ;
(3) he must be a brother (although this forni is not
actually found, it is necessr.rily presupposed by the
following); (3) only such brothers as have lived
with the deceased are required to perform the duties
of the levirate (comp. Deut. xxv. bet seq.); and (4)
no man is allowed to take his brother's wife (Lev.
XX. 21). According to this classification, the form
of levirate in the Book of Ruth is the oldest of all,
but here is encountered the difficulty that the de-
scribed form of purchase of the estate of Naomi
does not at all accord with any form of levirate, but
with the law of Lev. xxv. 2") (Holiness Code, cited
hereafter as H). Bewer therefore concludes that
the levirate idea is not an original part of the Book
of Ruth, but that the work was first composed
on the basis of Lev. xxv. 2.j, and that it was after-
ward interpolated to some extent to ingraft ujion it
the levirate idea. The phenomena of the book,
however, may quite plausibly lie explained in an-
other way, as will be pointed out below.

According to Bewer the Book of Ruth is later than

H., i.e.. it is post-exilic. This view of the date is

for other reasons held by many scholars {e.f/.,

Kucncn, " Ilistorische Buclierdes Alten Testaments,"

i., p;irt 2, p. 195; Cornill. " Einleitung,"

Date of ]). 241; Nowack, I.e.; Bertholet, I.e.;

Composi- and Kautzsch, " Literature of the Old
tion. Testament," p. 129). The days of the

Judges are referred to as a time far past
(i. 1), and even the law of Deut. xxv. 5 et .H,q. is re-
ferred to as a custom now obsolete (comp. Ruth iv.

577

THE JEWISH ENCYCUjPEDIA

Rusti. iiiiii s
Rulh Ratjbuli

T) : till' langimuf of tlic book contains scvoml Ani-
niaisni.s(*'.,V-. Q^'C: XL":> i. 4 ; -|2L". py. i. 13; and D'p,
iv, 7); Mic iiitorost, in tlio gont-alogy of David (iv.
'20 tt xti/.) is thoiigiit to indicate a date wlicn David
had liccoMR' tiie ideal of tiie nation ; and tiieevident
interest of the autiior in the marriage of an Israelite
witii a M()al)itess — an interest in sharp contrast to
the law of Deut. xxiii. 3 et sec/, as well as the jiroce-
dure of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra ix., x., and Neli.
xiii. 2',i ft ni'q.) — indicates that the autiior of Ituth was
a contemporary of Ezra and Nehemiah and wrote the
book to sliow that their opposition to foreign mar-
riages was contrary to ancient and most honorable
precedent.

Although Driver ("Introduction," ]>. 427) urges
thai the general beauty and jiurity of style of Kuth
indicate a pre-exilic date, holding that the Davidic
genealogy at the end is probably a later addilinn,
the post-exilic origin of Kuth seems to be contirmed
by its position among the "Ketubim," iu the tliird
part of the canon. The view which makes it a
tract against the marriage policy of Ezra and Nehe-
miah seems most probable.

Bewcr {Lc. xx. 205 et seq.) holds that the work

was written at that time and for that purpose, and

that in its original form, without any

BeAver's reference to the levirate, it was a more
Theory of ctTective weapon in the controversj'
Inter- than it is now\ His view is that some
polations. friend of Ezra added the levirate in-
terpolations in order to make it appear
that the foreign marriage of Boaz was not a prece-
dent for ordinary people, as the levirate comjielled
him to act thus.

If the book was written at the date supposed, it
is clear from the law of II (Lev. xx. 21) that the
levirate had passed away. It is too much, there-
fore, to expect an absolutely clear and accurate ac-
count of its workings. That the writer should min-
gle its ])ro visions with those of Lev. xxv., which
refer to the redemption of the estates of the poor,
would at this date be very natural. Confusion, too,
as to who the go'el actually was would also be nat-
ural. Bewer's theory of interpolations seems, ac-
cordingly, unnecessary. Cheyne's view ("Encyc.
Bibl." s.v.) that Elimeiech was a Jerahnieelite, and
that he went to sojourn in the land of Missur, is one
of the curiosities of his Jerahmeel-Missur theorj'.

BiBLiofiRAHHY: In addition to the works cited in tlie article,
Bleek, Kinlcitntio in das Alte Testament, ed. Willhausen,
ISaT; Kdnig, Eiitleitung, 1893; Strack, Eifileititmi. 4th ed.,
1895; Uettli, Ruth, in Kurzuefasstcr Kominentai; 1889.

E. c. G. A. B.

RUTH KABBAH (called also Midrash Rut) :
A liJiggadicaiui homiletic interpretation of the Book
of Kuth, which, like that of the four other scrolls
("megillot "), is included in the Midrash Kalibot.
This midrash, divided into eight chaptersor S(!Ctions
("parashiyyot "), covers the whole text of the Bib-
lical book, interpreting it verse by verse, now in its
literal, now in an allegorical, sense. The first chap-
ter terminates with Rutli i. 2; the second, with i. 17;
the third, with i. 21 ; the fourth, with ii. 9; the fifth,
with iii. 7; the sixth, with iii. 13; the seventh, with
iv. 15; and the eighth, comprising only two verses,
with iv. 19, verses 16 and 17 of ch. iv. being omitted.
Like Ekah Rabbati, the commentary proper on the
X.— 37

B()i)k (.1 Uiiili is pnti-dcd by u lonjj in' .ti

(■' jietilita ''j, wliidi consists of wveml pro* i i>j

iiu connectiun with one atiothcr.

The commentary itself, ev< ( pi in «li, j. and vli..

where it foiiow.sdii.tily iipi.n the Biblicul u-.xt. In

genemlly introduced by one or more

Introduc- pidcnis. It is nun- it

tion of liie I'alesiinian Iiu uu

and Proems, sduices beinjf the JeniHuJeni Talniiid,
Beresliil Habbali, Wayikm Hiibltiih,
and Ekuli Kabbuti. Il would seem, iiiotiuvi-r, lliat
its aulhor was ojiposed to the Bahyhtniaii Tal-
mud; for in his interpretation of iv. 7- . re
which is omitted in the printed cdjiions- . ,r-
ages that work. It is tna- that parallel (mHsaf^es
are found in Shir iia Siiiriin Kabimli. whicli this
midrash closely resembles as regards arnin^ement
and mode of interpretation, and in Kolielet Habtmli.
But as to the former, nothing proves that it is an-
terior to Kuth Kabbah, while the latter is rec(»cnize<i
by modern scholars to be posterior to this tnidraxii.
It ajiparently contains no Babylonian haggadot.and.
although in i. 3 (= ii. 4) it gives the huggadie inliT-
liretation of I Cliron. iv. 22, which i.s also f(»und
iu B. B. 91b, it may be seen that the source in llic
latter treatise is a baraita and not a Babylonian
haggadah. Thus Kiith Kabbah is one of ilie
earlier midrashim, composed about the same time
as or shortly after Shir ha Sliirini Kabbah. A*--
cording to "Zunz ("G. V." ed. Bmll. p. 277,
Frankfort-on-theMain, 1892). Ruth Kabbah, as well
as Shir ha-Shirim Kabiiah and Kolielet Kabbah, was
oiu! of the sources of the Yelanimedenu. Dcbarini
Kabbah, Pesikta Kabiiati, and Shemol Kabbah, b<ing
a medium between these midrashim and the older
haggadah (comp., however. Friedmann. intrmluc-
tion to his edition of the IVsikta Kabbati, p. 25).

Kuth Kabbah is specially interesting from a cul-
tural-historical point of view in that it endeavors to
throw light on the habits and conditions of the time
in which the incidents of the Book of Kuth took
place. Thus, interpreting the very
Examples lirst words of the bonk, "in the days
of wiien the judges judged " (Kuth i. 1).

Hag-gadah. as " in the days when the people judged
their judges," tlie author wishes lo
show that there was a time when the judges per-
verted their judgments so that they were held re-
sponsible by the i)eople. But when was there siich
a time, and who were those judges? Ari "o

Kab, the judges were Bandi and Delwmh ; ;i . ..-.tg
to R. Iluna, Deborah. Barak, and Jael ; and Hcrrinl-
ing to Joshua b. Levi, Elnni and ShamLiir The
famine is circumstantially desoribe<i ; it was om- of
the ten great famines which afflicted the entire
world.

Elimeiech is represente<l in an unfavorable light.
his name being interpreted as meaning "one eager
for royalty." He left the land of C";. • ' .•-

cause he would himself sufTrr from tl il

because he was afniid that the people might apply
to him for help. In interpreting i. 14. the author of
this miilrash expres.ses his views with repanl to
kissing. According to an anonymous authority,
kisses are permitted on three • '■ ' ""

conferring a high otlice. as wh. -d

Ryssel
Saadia b.

Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

578

(I Sam. X. 1); (2) at meetings, as iu the case of
Aaron kissing Moses (E.\. iv. 27); and (3) at part-
ing, as when Orpah kissed lier niotiier-in-law. Ac-
cording to R. Tanhuma, kissing is permitted also
to relatives, as when Jacob kissed Rachel (Gen. xxi.x.
11). Under other circumstances kissing is declared
indecent. Very grai)hic is the description of Ruth's
insistence on following Naomi (Rutin. 16-18), in that,
when her attention was directed by her mother-in-
law to the laws relating to proselytes, she accepted
them all.

Both Naomi and Ruth are described as righteous
women whose acts weie charitable. The latter par-
ticularly is pointed out as being modest and of ex-
emplary manners (ii. o). In his interpretation of iii.
S the author of the midrash shows the necessity of
honoring the Sabbath by wearing special garments.
It may be remarked that in iii. 13 there is a recension
of the storj' of Elish.v b. Ablyaii, the main source
of which is Hag. 14b. The midrash terminates with
a statement to the effect tiiat the Messiah is to de-
scend from Ruth through David.

With regard to lexical interpretations, in certain
cases the explanation of words is not contrary to
grammatical rules, but sometimes, as in all the other
midrashim, the interpretation is arbitrary. Thus,
while "Elimelech" is interpreted as composed of
"elai"and "melek"(="to me belongs royalty";
comp. above), "Naomi" as "she whose acts are
agreeable," and "Orpah" (from " 'oref " =r " the
nape of the neck '") as "she who turned her back
[comp. Jer. ii. 27 and elsewhere] upon lier mother-
in-law," "Wa-yehi" isinterpreted as an exclamation
of sorrow; and "Ruth" (derived from nNT = "to

see") as "she who saw or considered her mother-in-
law's words." For commentaries on and editions of
Ruth Rabbah see Ek.\ii R.\bb.\ti, Estuek R.\bh.\h,
and KoHELKT R.\bb.\h.

Bini.ioGRAPHV : Weiss. D<ii\ iii. 273-:J74, Iv. 209; Winter and
Wiinsche. hie JlUlische Litteratur. i. rii~ it .x<i/.: Wiinsche,
IntriHluction to bis Cierman translation of /{ti(/i Jiatilidli.

W. B. M. Sel.

RYSSEL, CARL VICTOR: German Protes-
tant tlieologiau; born at Ueiiisberg, Saxony, Dec.
18, 1849; died at Zurich. March 2. 1905. Having
completed his theological and Oriental studies, he
commenced his academic career at the Leipsic Uni-
versity in 1878 and was appointed assistant profess-
or there in 1885. In 188'J he received a call to
Zurich as professor of Old Testament studies and
Oriental languages.

Ryssel, who was doctor of philosopiiy and theol-
ogy, was the author of: " Die Syuonymades Wahren
uud Guten in den Semitischen Sprachen," Leipsic,
1872; "De Elohistic Pentateuchici Sermone," tb.
1878; " Uutersuchungen liber die Textgestalt und
die Echtheit des Buches Micha : Ein Kritischer Com-
mentarzu Micha," 1887. He also prepared the third
edition of Filrst's " Ilebraisches und Chaldaisches
Handworterbuch liber das Alte Testament" (1876),
and, for the " Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch
zum Alten Testament," the second edition of "Ezra,
Nehemiah and Esther" (1884) and the third editioa
of "Exodus-Leviticus" (1897); he also contributed
many articles to learned periodicals.

Bibliography : Holtzmann-Zopffel, Lcxikan fUr Theolnaic
und Kircheiiwesen,
T. B. P.

SAADIA : Biblical commentator, whose native
country ami epoch can not be preciselj' determined.
Rapoport (in"Bikkure ha-'Ittim," ix. 34-35) was
the first to prove that the commentary on Daniel
which is ascribed to Saadia Gaon does not belong to
him, but to another Saadia. This scholar further
says that, owing to differences between that com-
mentary and the one on Chronicles (see S.\.\di.\ b.
Nahmani), lie can notaffirm that both works belong
to the same author, although he does not feel justi-
fied in as.serting to the contrary. Matthews proves
in " A Commentary on Ezra and Nehemiah " (Ox-
ford, 1882) that the autlior of the latter commentary
is identical with Saadia, the author of the commen-
tary on Daniel.

In his commentary Saadia displayed a profound
knowledge of both Talmudim and of the Targum,
which latter he often quotes and explains. He was
acquainted with the works of earlier commentators,
wiiom he quotes under the general term " j)oterim "
(=" interpreters ") or "anshe lebab " (="men of
understanding"); only once (commentary on Dan. vi.
15) he quotes by name a Mattithiah Gaon. He very
often bases his interpretations on the interchange of
letters of the same class, as the "alef " and " 'ayin,"

"lamed " and "resh " ; also on the interchange of let-
ters which occur near each other in various alpha-
betical combinations, as, for instance, the "alef" and
" taw " in the combination t'3 DX. or the "alef " and
"lamed" in the combination D3 pX- As is the
Talmudic method of interpretation, Saadia often
explains foreign nouns as well as Hebrew proper
names by resolving them into the syllables of which
they are constructed. It may be seen from his com-
mentary on Dan. vi. 19 and Ezra i. 9 that Saadia
knew Arabic well : possibly it was his mother tongue.
As to the time in which he lived, both Rapoport
and Matthews suppose that he flourished in the be-
ginning of the twelfth century. The former further
supposes that he lived iu France, that he was a con-
temporary of Yakar, and that Ibn Ezra may liave
known his commentary. On the other hand, Porges
(in "Monatsschrift," xxxiv. 63-73) concludes that he
lived at the end of the twelfth century, this conclu-
sion being based on the fact that Saadia, in his com-
mentary on Dan. viii. 9 et seq., refers to the conquest
of Jerusalem by the Mohammedans in which the
Christian churches were destroyed. Porges thinks
this is a reference to the contjuestof Jerusalem by
Saladin in 1187. Further, iu the commentary on

579

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

RyBbel

Suuditi b. Joseph

Dun. xi. 30 Saadia ri-fiTS to tlic fad lliaf llic I.om
baidiaiis uiiitod afterward witli tlit- Ui)iiians to
wrench Jerusalem from llie Moslems. Altlioiigli
Saadia knew Arabic, Pnr^'es tliinks lie at least re-
sided in Italy, as he mentions very often the Lom-
hardians and Romans, and speaks of the i)ook
"Zeruhbabel," which was written in Italy. He-
sides, almost all the manu.scripts of Saadia's com-
mentary on Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah were copied
in Italy. It may be added that in Joseph Kara's
commentary on Lam. iv. 6 there is a note by ISIoses
of Home: "Such is the interpretation of K. Saadia."
Po/nanski (in "Ha-Goren," ii. 120 et seq.), however,
declares Porges' arguments doubtful; for the con-
quest of Jerusalem by the Moslems spoken of l>y
Saadia may be that achieved by Omar in 63H, and by
"the Romans" Saadia may liave understood the
Byzantine empire. Nor is it likely, Poznanski
thinks, that Saadia, who spoke Arabic and who
knew the Karaite literature, lived in Italy. He
thinks that Saadia lived in northern Africa, wliere
even in the time of the Geonim works of various
contents as well as commentaries on the Bible had
been written.

BinLiOGRAPHY : Besides the sources mentioned in the article.
Ivosin.in Mduatuxchrift, x.wil. 2;5() et .sf(/.; Znnz, Z. f.'.p. 71.

W. li.

See

SAADIA BEN ABRAHAM LONGO.

LoNoo, SA.\ni.\ i?EN Abraii.am.

SAADIA (SA'ID) B. DAVID AL-ADENI

(= "of Aden "): A man of culture living at Damas
cus and Safed between 1473 and 1485. He was the
author of a commentar}^ on some parts of Maimon-
ides' Yad ha-Hazakah, and copied the commen-
tary of an Arabian writer on the first philosophical
sections of that work. He also edited an Arabic
commentary on the Pentateuch, of which only frag-
ments are now extant, and compo.sed philosophical
hymns in Arabic and Hebrew. In 1451 he copied at
Aden the dictionary of Tanhuma. Saadia b. David
circulated under his own name and inider the title
"Zakat al-Nufus"a work of the Arabian writer
Ghazali on the views of the philosophers. An au-
tograph of this spurious work is extant in a defect-
ive manuscript in the St. Petersburg Library.

Another Saadia b. David, surnamed Zarafah,
a Mauritanian, was the author of a responsum in
the manuscript " Zera 'Anashim," and of a poem,
printed in 1623, on Solomon Duran's " Heshek She-
lomoh."

BIBI.IOGR.APHV: Steinsdineider, Ihlir. nihl. i. 21. xx. llVi;
idem, Hf7)r. L>he?-.s-. p. 298 ; Mem. iw Ka.v.serlinR's ifiWi()(;if^
JUdixcher Kanzeliedner, Supplement, ii. a5 et seq.; Azulal,
Shein ha-Gedi>lim, i. Tti.
J. M. K.

SAADIA B. JOSEPH (Sa'id al-Fayyumi) :

Gaon of Sura and tlie founder of scientilic activity
in Judaism; born in Dilaz, Upper Egypt, 892; died
at Sura 942. The name "Saadia," which, so far as
is known, he was the first to bear, is apparently an
artificial Hebrew equivalent of his Arabic name,
"Sa'id." In an acrostic of the Hebrew introduction
to his first work, the "Agnm," he call.s iiimseif
tlDV p T'VD ; but later he wrote his name nnyo. or
in its fuller and punctuated form innyO. as in tiie
"Sefer ha-Galui," while the form ^Nnyo is given by

Mo.sesil)n h/.ra. Saadia s enemies spicitd iiialit iuus
stories, wliieii proljably had no biisi^ in hui. re^-nnl-
ing hisorigin; and belli Hen MeTnind the |minplilets
referring to the controversy ■ i wit! tin- ixil-

arcli allude to the low calling I i by Iuh fiilhcr,

and speak of his parent as a nonJ'.*w. On the other

hand, Saadia in his polemic "Sefer 1 ivs

stress upon his ancient Jewjsli liii' ng

that lie belonged to the noble family of Hlielah, the
son of Judali (I Chron. iv. 21 ). and ci • njj

his ancestors llanina b. Dohji. the faii of

tiie first century. ExpreRsioii was given lo ihiR
claim by Saadia in calling his w»n Dosji, Nothing
is known, however, of the latter e.xcept hin name.
Regarding Jos«'pii, Saadia's father, a Klaleinent of
Ben MeYr has been preserved to the elTe« l that he-
was compelled to h'ave Egypt an<l liiat lie died in
Joppa, probably during Saadia's leiigtliy resi«leDCc
in the Holy Land. The usual epithet of "Al-Foy-
yumi," represented in Hebrew by tin- niniilar gi-o-
graphical name "Pilomi" (comp. Ex. i. 11). referu
to Saadia's native jilace, the Fay urn in Upper
Egypt; and it is known, throiigii hi.s opfinncntii
mentioned above, (hat he was born at Dila?. (|7*1).
a village there.

Nothing whatever is known of the youth and
education of Saadia; nor are his teachers name<1.
except that Masudi. a Mohamme«lan author who
died in 957. states that Saadia was a pupil of Abu
Kathir, with whom Masiidi hims<-lf carried on a
disputation in Palestine Al all <vj-iits he must
have acquired very extensive knowUnlgc in early
life, as is shown by liis writings. It
Early was in his twentieth year (913) that
Works. Saadia completed his first great work,
the Hebrew dictionary which lie en-
titled "Agron." In his twenty-third year, accord-
ing to a verse contained in Abraham ilm Ezra's
" Yesod Mispar." he composed a polemical work
against Anan, thus apparently beginning the activ-
ity which was to prove so important in opposition
to Karaism and other heresies and in defense of tra-
ditional Judaism. In the sjime year he left Ecypt
and went to settle permanently in Pal< hff

states in a Hebrew letter (Schechter. '> .a."

vii.) addiessed at the beginning of his controversy
with Ben MeVr to three of his pupils who hn<l rv-
mained in Egypt. It was this discussion— a n-mark-
able dispute between the authorities <if PaU'Stine
and Babylonia concerning the calendar— wir
revealed to i)ublic notice the full force of tin
which characterized Saadia's nature and the full
depth of his knowledge, although he must c\cn
before this time have bec«ime g<nenilly known
and been highly esteemed, not only on lu-count ol
these qualities, but al.so on account of hin lit-
erary activity, lie was in Ale]>po and on his way
from the East when he learned of Ikn MeVr's reg-
ulation of the calendar, which was imperiling lh«
unity of Juilaism. Ther.tipon he immediairly ad-
dressed II warning to him. and in I hi*
placed his knowledge an<l pen at the ... j -• of
the exilarch David b. Zakkai and of the »< holarrc
of the academy, adding his own lett.
bv them to the communities of the i'.- ,
In Babylonia, furthermore, he wrote his "Sofcrlia-

Saadia b. Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

580

Moadiin," or '"Book of Festivals," in -which he re-
futed the assertions of Ben Meir regarding the cal-
endar, and probably helped much to avert from
the Jewish community the perils of schism.

Tiiis activity of Saadia's was likewise doubtless
an important factor in the call to Sura which he re-
ceived in 928. He was made gaon by

Dispute the e.\ilarch David b. Zakkai ; and the
with ancient academy, which had been
Ben Meir. founded by Rab, then entered upon a
new period of brilliancy. This first
gaon called from abroad, however, was not allowed
undisturbed activity. There were .doubtless many
who viewed unwilling!}' a foreigner as the head of
the academy; and even the mighty exilarch himself,
whom the aged Nissim Xahamvani had vainly at-
tempted to dissuade from appointing Saadia, found,
after two brief years, that the personality of his ap-
pointee was far different from that of the insigniti-
cant and servile geonim whom he had succeeded,
and who had officiated at tiiee.xilarch's bidding. In
a probate case Saadia refused to sign a verdict of
the exilarch which he thought unjust, although Ko-
hen Zedek.gaon of Pumbedita, had subscribed to it.
"When the son of the exilarch threatened Saadia Avith
violence to secure his compliance, and was roughly
handled bj- Saadia's servant, open war broke out
between the exilarch and the gaon. Each excom-
mimicated the other, declaring that he deposed
his opponent from office; and David b. Zakkai ap-
pointed the utterly unimportant Jo.seph b. Jacob as
gaon of Sura, while Saadia conferred the cxilarchate
on David's brother Hasan (Josiali; 930). Hasan
was forced to flee, and died in exile in Khorasan;
but the strife which divided Babylonian Judaism
continued. Saadia was attacked by the exilarch
and by his chief adherent, the young but learned
Aaron ibn Sargado, in Hebrew pamphlets, fragments
of which show a degree of hatred on the part of the
exilarch and his partizans that did not shrink from
scandal. Saadia did not fail to repl)'. He wrote
both in Hebrew and in Arabic a work, now known
only from a few fragments, entitled
The "Sefer "Seferha-Galui" (Arabic title, "Kit ab
ha-Galui." al-Tarid "), in which he emphasized
with great but justifiable pride the
services which he liad rendered, especially in his op-
po.sition to heresy (see also Abraham ibn Daud in
Neubauer, "M. f. C." i. Ififi).

The seven years which Saadia spent in Bagdad,
far from the gaonate, did not interrupt his literar\-
activity. His jirincipal philosophical work was
completed in 933; and four years later, through Ibn
Sargado's fatlier-inlaw, Bishr ("1C3, Neubauer, I.e.
ii. 84, line 2; not "itJ'D. which Grillz transliterates as
"Kasser," and Steinschneider, "Die Arabische Lit-
teratur der Juden," p. 47, by " Kasher '") ben Aaron,
the two enemies were reconciled. Saadia was rein-
stated in his office; but beheld it for only five years.
David b. Zakkai died before him (c. 940), being fol-
lowed a few months later by the exilarch 's son
Judah, while David's young grandson was nobly
protected by Saadia as by a father. According to a
statement made by Abraham il)n Daud and doubt-
less derived from Saadia's son Dosa, Saadia him-
self died, as noted above, in 942, at the age of fifty,

of " black gall " (melancholia), repeated illnesses
having undern)ined his iiealth.

After Philo, Saadia was the first great writer in
post-Biblical Judaism. Like Philo, he called Egypt
his fatherland; and as Philo had united the Hellenic
language and culture with the Jewish spirit, so the
languageand civilization of the Mohanimeilan Arabs
gained a similar but far more lasting influence over
the history of Judaism through the writings of
Saadia. He was, moreover, almost entirely a crea-
tor and an iimovator in the scientific fields in which
he labored, although nuuli of his work, even that
which was written in Hebrew, is now known only
from citations. A complete edition of those of his
writings which have been preserved either in their
entirety or in fragments was begun
His "Works, by Joseph Derenbourg in 1892 in hon-
or of tiie milleiKuy of Saadia's birth.
Of this work, which is expected to fill ten volumes,
only five have thus far appeared (1893-99).

The following is a survey of Saadia's works ar-
ranged according to subject-matter:

Exegesis : Saadia translated into Arabic most, if
not all, of the Bible, adding an Arabic conunentary.
although there is no citation from the books of
Chronicles. The translation of the Pentateuch is
contained in the Polyglot Bibles of Constantinople
(1546), Paris (1045), and London _(1057), and in an
edition for the Jews of Yemen (JXD or niin "ina,
Jerusalem, 1894-1901), as well as in the first volume
of Derenbourg's edition of Saadia's complete works.
A large fragment of the commentary on Exodus
exists also in manuscript (see Berliner's "Magazin,"
vii. 133). The translation of Isaiah was edited by
Paulus (1790-91), and with portions of the com-
mentary, by Derenbourg in his third volume. A
translation of and conunentary on the Psalms have
been edited in the dissertation of ]\Iargulies(Breslau,
1884), and by others; selections were i)ublished by
Ewald in his " Beitriige zur Aeltesten Auslegung
und Spracherklilrung des Alten Testaments" (i.,
Stuttgart, 1844) : and the introduction was translated
into German by J. ("nlm (Berliner's "Magazin," viii.
1-19, 61-91). A translation of Proverbs, together
with a commentary and an introduction thereto,
was edited i)y l)erenl)ourg; and extracts have
been publishecl by Bondi(1888), a detailed character-
ization being given by Heller (" H. E. J." xxxvii.).
Cohn likewise edited the translation of and com-
mentary on Job, a comjilete edition of which
was publislie<l by Bacher (in Derenbourg. "0<]u-
vres Completes," v.); and extracts were published
by Ewald {I.e.). The translations of the Five Me-
gillot found in various manuscripts, and ascribed
therein to Saadia, are not genuine, though they are
probably based on his translation, the version of
Esther contained in them and printed in a siddur
of Yemen ("Vienna, 1890) being, at all events, very
close to Saadia's rendering (see Poznanski in "Mo-
natsschrift," xlvi. 364). His translation of and a
portion of his commentary on Daniel are pre-
served in manuscript; but the Hebrew commen-
tary on Daniel which bears Saadia's name in the
rabbinical Bible was written by another Saadia,
who lived in the twelfth century (see Porges, ib.
xxxiv. 63-73) ; and the same statement holds true

581

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Saadia b. Joseph

with regard totlie comnuntary on Ezra edited under
Saadia's name by ^Mathews (1HH2; see " HatJoren,"
ii. 72 et seq.). Here likc'wise nui}' be mentioned the
Arabic midrasli on tiie Decalogue ascribed to Saadia
and fretjuently reprinted (see Steinsehneider, /.^. j).
285; i(hm, "ilebr. iJibl." vii. 114; "J. Q. H." xii.
484). For tlie commentary on Canticles of which a
Hehrew translation was editeil at Constantinople
('•. loTT) and which was attributed to Saadia see
Kwald anil Dukes, "Beitrage," ii. 104-109; and for
a similar coniincntary on Eeelesiastes (Ilasiatvn,
19();J) see Bacher in " Ilebr. Bibl." i.x. (1905).

Hebrew Linguistics: (1) " Agron," so far as is
known, Saadia's first production. It is a double
dictionary, the two ])arts being arranged according
to the alphabetic order of initials and of final letters
respectively, and Avas intended to be used in versi-
lication, in which acrostics and rime were the
chief requisites. In a later edition Saadia added
the Arabic tran.slation of each word, and also in-
cluded jiassages concerning various "memorable
subjects of the poets," uanung the work in its new
form "Kitab al-Shi'r." The Arabic introduction to
th(! .second edition and the Hebrew preface of the
lirst have been in gi'eat part preserved (see Ilar-
kavy, "Studien," v. 39-59). (2) " Kutubal-Lughah,"
twelve "Books on Language," which are also des-
ignated as the twelve parts of a work entitled "The
Book on Language," iu which, as the author himself
states in his"Sefer ha-Galui," he sought to explain
the "i'rab,"or the grammatical formatiim of the He-
Ijrew language. Of this Hebrew grammar, which
is the oldest one known, fragments of greater or less
extent have been preserved, especially in Saadia's
conmientary on the "Sefer Yezirah" and by Dunash
ben Labraf. (3) "Tafsir al-Sab'ina Lafzah," a list
of seventy (properly ninety) Hebrew (and Aramaic)
words which occur in the Bible only once or very
rarely, and which may be explained from traditional
literature, cs])ecially from the Neo-Hebraisms of the
Mishnah. This small work has been frequently re-
printed.

Halakic Writings: (1) Short monographs, in
which individual problems of the Halakah are sj's-
tematically presented. Of these Arabic treatises of
Saadia's little but the titles and extracts is known
(see Steinschneider, I.e. pp. 48 et seq. ; Poznanski,
"Orientalistische Literaturzeitung," 1904, col. 306),
and it is onlj' in the "Kitab alMawarith" that
fragments of any length have survived; these were
edited by Midler in the "ffiuvres Completes." ix.
1-53. A book of rules for the shehitah is extant in
manuscript {ib. p. xxxvii.). (2) A commentary on
the thirteen rules of Rabbi Ishmael, preserved only
in a Hebrew translation (ih. pp. 73-83). An Arabic
methodology of the Talmud is also mentioned,
by Azulai, as a work of Saadia under the title
"Kelale ha-Talmud " ("Shem ha-Gcdolim," ii. 16).
(3) Kesponsa. With few excejitions these exist
only in Hebrew, some of them having been prob-
ably written in that language. About fifty have
been collected from the mass of geonic responsa by
J. Miiller {I.e. ix. 87-142), who has also compiled
numerous citations from Saadia which bear on the
Halakah {ib. pp. 145-173). On the " Book of Feasts "
see below. Saadia's interpretation, or more cor-

rectly translation, of the Mishnah iulo Arubic was
used in the twelfth century iu liiigdud. accordiuj; to
the traveler Pethahiah of H(g<-nHburg; but no fur-
ther data lire known corucrning it.

Liturgy: (!) The "Siddiir." Saudiu's pruyer-
book, liitherto known in detail only from tl, ' A%

of Steinsciuieider ("Cat. Bodl." cols. - .1,

supplenKiiled by Neulmuer in "Hen Cliananja."
laO^-urj), is culled by its author ("tat. H«Mil." col,
1096) "Kitab Jawanii" ai Saiawul wal-Tasubilj." or
"Hook of Coileeiiuns of PruviMs and Songs of
Praise." It contains the entire ritual for week-tlayn,
Sabbatlis, and festivals, with explanationH in Ambic
and Saailia's own synagogal j.oetry (coinp. Bontli.
"Der Sid-lur Saadia's," Frankfort-(.» - the- Main.
1904). (2) Of this synapogal poetry (conip. Stdn-
schneider, I.e. cols. 221 1-2217 ; Znnz.""s P."pp 9H-9H.
G68; Sciiechter, I.e. xvii.-x.w.) tiiemosi noteworthy
iwrtions are tin; "Azliarot" on the 618 cfimuianti-
ments, which give the author's name as ".Slid b.
Joseph " (see above), followed by the expretision
" AUuf," thus showing that the pocina were written
before he became gaon. Tliey have been coilecitHl
by Rosenberg (" Koitez," i)p. 20, 'A. Berlin, lH7fl ; «-e
also "(Euvres Completes." ix. 59-69; "J. g. H." vi.
704; Schechter, I.e. xv.); and there arc in addi-
tion the "'Al)odah" (lio.senherg. I.e. pp. 10-17).
and the " Hosha'not" (designated in Siuidia's "Sid-
dur" as the "Alfabatat ''). a portion of the prayer-
book of Yemen (.see "J. Q. R." xiv. 592), edited" by
Kohut (in " Monatsschrift," xxxvii). (3)" In con-
nection with Saadia's liturgical poetry may be men-
tioned his poem on the number of the letters in the
Bible (see Derenbourg, "Manuel dii Lecteur." pp.
139, 235), which has been incorrectly claimed for
another author (see Steinschneider, "llebr. Hibl."
vii. 143. note 2).

Philosophy of Religion: d) The "Kitab al-
Amanat wal-I'iikadat," or "Book of the Articles of
Faith and Doctrines of Dogma," the first systematic
presentation and philosophic foundatiou of the
dogmas of Judaism, completed in 933. This work
is better known under its Hebrew title, ".'^efer
Emunot we De'ot," as translated liy Jinlah ihn Tib-
hon. his version having been first printetl in Con-
staiitiiif)ple in 15()2 ami fre(|uently republi.shed.
while the original was edited by S. Landauer (Ix-y-
den, 1880). Another translation, or rather para-
phrase, of the "Kitab alAmanat," of uncertain au-
thorship, is contained in sevenil mannscripts. large
portions of this rendering were edited
The by t^dlancz ("The Ethical Treatises

"Emunot of Berachyah." London. 1902; comp.
we- "Monatsschrift," xlvi. 536). Of the

De'ot."' ten sections or"makalat "of the work,
the seventh, treating of the resurrec-
tion, is contained in two versions, the first of which,
the ba.sis of the translation of Ibn Tildwuj. has liecn
edited by Bacher in the "Steins<'hneider Festsrhrift."
pp. 98-112. anil the .second by I>andaner.

(2) "Tafsir Kitab abMabadi." an Arabic transla-
tion of and commentary on the "Sefer Ve?lrah."
written wliile its author was still residing in Egypt
(or Palestine). The .\n»lric original was edited with
a French translation by I^ml>ert (Paris. 1891). A
Hebrew translation exists in manuscript; but the

Saadia b. Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

582

Hebrew commentary on the " Sefer Yezirah " printed
under Saadia"s name in 1562 is incorrectly ascribed
to him.

Polemical Writings : (1-3) Refutations of Ka-
raite authors, always designated by the name " Kitab
al-Riuid." or "Book of Refutation." These are di-
rected respectively against Anan, the founder of Ka-
raism (written in 915); against Ibn Sakawaih or Ba-
kuyah, an autiior of wliom nothing more is known;
anti "against a bitter assailant" (" "ala mutahamil
liayyum ") who had criticized the anthropomorphism
of the Talmudic Ilaggadah. These three works
are known only from scanty referejices to tliem in
other works; that the third was written after 933, is
proved by one of the citations. (4) " Kitab al-Tam-
3'iz " (in Hebrew, "Sefer ha-Hakkarah " or "Sefer
ha-Mibhan "), or "Book of Distinction," composed in
926, and Saadia's most extensive polemical work.
It was still cited in the twelfth century; and a num-
ber of passages from it are given in a Biblical com-
mentary of Japheth ha-Levi ("J. Q. R." x. 245-252,
xiii. G50 et seq.). (5) There was perhaps a special
polemic of Saadia against Ben Zuta, though the
data regarding this controversy between that
Karaite scholar (who is otherwise unknown) and
Saadia, which is mentioned in Ibn Ezra's commen-
tary on the Pentateuch (comp. Jew. Encyc. v. 105),
are known only from the gaon's gloss on the Torah.
(6) A refutation directed against the rationalistic
Biblical critic Hiwi alBalkhi, whose views were re-
jected by the Karaites themselves; mentioned by
Saadia in the first section, p. 37, of his "Kitab al
Amanat wall'tikadat." This work was written
probably in Hebrew; the third section of the "Ki-
tab al-Amanat wal-I'tikadat " doubtless contained
the refutation which Saadia directed against Hiwi
(comp. Jkw. Encyc. vi. 429b). (7) "Kitab al-
Shara'i'," or "Book of the Commandments of
Religion," probably also polemical in content
(see Steinschneider, "Die Arabische Litteratur der
Juden," pp. 50 et seq.). (8) "Kitab al-'Ibbur,"
or "Book af the Calendar," likewise apparently
containing polemics against Karaite Jews (see Pos-
nanski in "J. Q. R." x. 260). (9) "Sefer ha-Mo-
'adim," or "Book of Festivals," the Hebrew polemic
against Ben Meir which has been mentioned above.
It has, as the author himself states, the exter-
nal appearance of the Biblical text, being divided
into verses and pointed for vocalization and accent.
Several large fragments of it have been found in re-
cent times (Schechter, I.e. ii., iii., xlvii. ; Harkavy,
"Studien." v. 220; " R. E. J." xli. 225). (10)
** Sefer ha-Gahu," also in Hebrew and in the sa»ie
Biblical style as the "Sefer ha-Mo'adim," being
an apologetic work directed against David b. Zak-
kai an(i his followers. The author himselr added an
Arabic translation, commentary, and preface to his
■work. The introduction has been preserved in
great part, and contains information regarding the
work itself, of which only a few fragments are now
extant (Schechter, I.e. i. ; Harkavy. I.e. p. 186; "R.
E. J." xl. 88). The book consisted of seven sections,
in the fourth of which Saadia spoke of his providen-
tial position as the leader of Israel, while in the
sixth and seventh he described the opposition which
be had to encounter, and enumerated those who had

been victorious over him. The second section con-
tained a chronology (Arabic, "ta'rikh") of the Bib-
lical and Talmudic jieriods; this is plausibly iden-
tilied with the " Kitab al-Ta'rikh " from which Judah
ibn Balaam, in his commentary on I Kings vi. 1,
cites a chronological statement regarding the date of
the Judges (Neubauer, "M. J. C." ii. 85; see also
"R. E. J." xlix. 298). (U) Dunash ben Labrat
cites a sentence of three Hebrew words in which
Saadia polemizes against the famous .Masorite Aaron
ben Aslier, although it is not certain that this was
from a special work in which Saadia a.ssailed his
contemporary, whom he probably knew jiersonally.

If the fulness and versatility of Saadia's literary
labor, which represents the activity of thirty years,
many of which were full of unrest, are astonishing,
they are still more astonishing when one recalls that
he was a pioneer in the fields in which he toiled,
being, to employ a tannaitic jthrase used by Abia-
ham ibn Ezra, "the first head of words in every
place " (" rosh ha-medabberim be-kol makom "). The
foremost object of his unwearied mental activ-
ity was the Bible; indeed, his importance in his-
tory is due primarily to his establishment of a new
school of Biblical exegesis characterized by a ra-
tional investigation of the contents of the Bible and
a scientific knowledge of the language of the holy
text. The services of Saadia as a representative of
the "peshat" and as the creator of Hebrew philol-
ogy have been emphasized elsewhere (see Jew. En-
cyc. iii. 166, s.t. BiBi-E Exegesis; ih. iv. 579, s.v.
DiCTioN.\uiES; ib. vi. 69, s.v. Gi{AM.\r.\i{). Here,
therefore, only a general sununary of his exegetical
and philological activities is necessary.

Saadia's Arabic translation of the Bible is of im-
portance for the history of civilization; itself a
product of the Arabization of a large

Charac- portion of Judaism, it served for

teristics. centuries as a potent factor in the
impregnation of the Jewish spirit
with Aral)ic culture, so that, in this respect, it may
take its place beside the Greek Bible-translation of
antiquity and the German translation of the Penta-
teuch by Moses ^lendelssohn. As a means of popu-
lar religious enlightenment, Saadia's translation pre-
sented the Scriptures even to the unlearned in a
rational form wliich aimed at the greatest possible
degree of clearness and consistency. His system of
hermeneutics, furthermore, was not limited to the
exegesis of individual passages, but treated also each
book of the Bible as a whole, and showed the con-
nection of its various portions with one another.
As specimens maybe cited the introduction to his
translation of the Pentateuch and his prefaces to the
Psalms, to Proverbs (which he called "The Book of
the Search after Wisdom"), and to Job (which he
termed the "Book of the Theodicy "), as well as his
concluding remarks on the Psalms and on the
speeches of Job and his friends. The niinuteness
which, in the judgment of Ibn Ezra, characterized
the geonic commentaries on the Bible must have been
especially marked in Saadia's Pentateuch commen-
tary, to which, according to a citation by Judah ben
Barzillai, a whole volume served as introduction.
The commentary contained, as is stated in the au-
thor's own introduction to his translation of the Pen-

583

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Saadia b. Joseph

tatc'ucli, not only an exact interpretation of tlio text,
but also a refutation of the cavils which the heretics
raised against it. Further, it set forth the bases of the
conunaudnients of reason and the characterization of
the commandments of revelation; in the case of tiie
former the author ai>i)ealcd to philosopiiicul specula-
tion ; of the latter, naturally, to tradition. His exe-
^etic application of the most diverse passages of
Holy Writ is conspicuously shown in that portion of
his conunentary which treats of Ex. xxx. 11-10, and
which has been translated by Bacher in Winter and
Wun.sche's " Jl'idische Litteratur " (ii. 251). It must
be noted, however, that in many of Jiis commentaries,
as on the Psalms and Job, Saadia restricted him.self
to a very limited number of iiKlis[)ensable elucida-
tions, since in general the translation itself prop-
erly served as a commentary, so that it was called
"Tafsir."

The position assigned to Saadia in the oldest list
of Hebrew grannnarians, which is contained in the
introduction to Ibn Ezra's "Moznayim," has not
been challenged even by the latest historical inves-
tigations. Here, too, he was the first ; his grammat-
ical w-ork, now lost, gave an inspiration to further
studies, which attained their most brilliant and last-
ing results in Spain', and he created in part the cate-
gories and rules along whose lines was developed
the grammatical study of the Hebrew language. His
dictionary, primitive and merely practical as it Avas,
became the foundation of Hebrew lexicography ;
and the name "Agron" (literally, "collection"),
which he chose and doubtless created, was long used
as a designation for Hebrew lexicons, especially by
the Karaites. The very categories of rhetoric, as
they were found among the Arabs, were first ap-
plied by Saadia to the style of the Bible. He was
likewise one of the founders of comparative philol-
ogy, not only through his brief "Book of Seventy
Words," already mentioned, but especiall}' tiirough
his explanation of the Hebrew vocabulary by tlie
Arabic, particularly in the case of the favorite trans-
lation of Biblical words by Arabic terms having the
same sound.

Tlie influence of the spirit and language of the
Bible on Saadia is shown by his Hebrew writings.
In his introduction to the "Agron " and in his po-
lemics against Ben Meir and David b.

Hebrew Zakkai he employs the method of
Style. presentation found in Biblical narra-
tive, as well as the external form of
division into verses. His models for this iuiitaiion
of Biblical form were, as he himself says, the Book
of Ben Sira, which he had in the Hebrew original,
and the Aramaic scroll of Autiochus. Even in his
choice of words Saadia endeavored to attain to Bib-
lical simplicity and purity of vocabulary ; but the
stylistic artificiality, especially in the formation of
words, which long since had been set up as a diver-
gent ideal for the Hebraists of Saadia's time through
the influence of the synagogal poetry of Jose, Yan-
nai, and Kalir, impressed itself upon him, so that his
Hebrew writings form a curious mixtine of Biblical
simplicity and payyetanic alfectation. Tlie same
statement holds good of his liturgical poetry, of
which Zunz ("S. P." p. 93) .says that "he employs
in his religious poems both the most lucid style and

the iiio.sL obscure, beuiy in ilu- one u W()rsliiiH.'r, in
theotherapayyetun." Saudiu hiniM-lfdet lures, in Iuh
introduction to the " Sefer ha-CJttlui." thai he iuti'udiHl
to makehisHlyle the mi»(h-l for that of uhchiK)!. To
thesevenchaplersof iiohniicsinihi.H w«irkln'itlttuui-«l
to add three (jf a general nature unci referring lo
the entire book; he dcchireH Jiis intention, wliich he
then proceeds to curry out, of analyzing, in Ihehe lou
certain extent "latent" chapU-rs.'lhe three stylUtic
merits of Ids book, correclnesR uf language, unity
of composition, and logical sequence of thought.
The first of tlie.se. a thorough inuslery of Hebrew,
was extremely important for the nation. Hin<e tla-
predominant use of Arabic and Aramaic had cuus«d
the people to forget its use. It is true lliul
the renaissance of Hebrew as a literary language
approaching as much as jjossible to the language of
the Bii)le first attained full potency in Spain a cen-
tury after Saadia; but this most noteworthy sign of
progress in the spiritual life of medieval Judaism
owes its first great inspiration to the powerful ex-
ample of the gaon. The important innovation of
the use of Arabic meters in Hebrew poetry was
due to Saadia in the .sense that it whs intnHluce<l by
his pupil Dunash ben Labrat. who showeil his met-
rical compositions to his teacher and received praise
for them, although Saadia himself did not adopt
this new form of verse.

Of the halakic writings of Saadia only one has
been preserved in any degree of entirety; but this
is suflUcient to show that even here he blazed a new
path by arranging his material .systematically and
by presenting his subject mi'thodically. Herein
Saadia was the first precursor of Maimonides, whose
masterpiece was his sy.stematic presetitation of the
entire Ilalakah. In hisdivision of the
His commandments of the Bible acrorriing

Responsa. to their subject-matter, Saadia likc-
wiseanticipatedMaimonidi-s, although
in the other division (introduced as early a.s Philo),
that according to the fundamental conunandnunl.s
of the Decalogue, he ap|iarentiy followeil Karaite
models. In regard to Saadia's respon.«i and the
specimens of his halakic decisions and interprc-ta-
tions which have been preserved. Midler, their col-
lector, says: "As in his other writings. Saadia is
fond of stating the number of possibilities which may
arise in connection with a givt-u subject, lie draws
his proof first from the Bible, then from the Talmud.
and finally from reason; his argunu-nts are always
cogent; and his conclusions proceed from sound
judgment and sober spirit. . . . He often conrhnlcs
his responsa with words of warning and with quo-
tations from the Bible."

In his "Kitab al-Amanat wall'likadal" (mx
above) Saadia became tlie creator of the Jewish phi-
losophy of religion. His detailed introdiiction to
the work speaks of the reasons which leil him to
compose it. His heart was grievetl when he sjiw
the confusion concerning matters of religion which
l)revailed among his contemporari«-s. finding an un
intelligent belief and unenlightened views current
among those who professed Judaism, while Uu>*?
who denied the faith triumphantly vnunte.l their
errors. Men were sunken in the s<'a of doubt and
overwhelmed bv the waves of spiritual error, and

Saadia b. Joseph

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

584

tliere was none to help them: so that Saadia felt
Jiimself called and in duty bound to save them from
their peril by strengthening the faithful in their
belief and by removing the fears of those who
were in doubt. After a general presentation of
the causes of infidelity antl the essence of belief,
Siiadia describes tlie three natural
His sources of knowledge; namely, the

Philosophy perceptions of the senses, the light
of of reason, and logical necessity, as

Religion, well as the fourth source of knowl-
edge possessed by those that fear God,
the *' veritable revelation " contained in the Scrip-
tures. He shows that a belief in the teachings of
revelation does not exclude an independent search
for knowledge, but that spec^dation on religious
subjects rather endeavors to prove the truth of the
teachings received from the Prophets and to refute
attacks upon revealed doctrine, which must be
raised by philosophic investigation to the plane of
actual knowledge.

In the scheme of his work Saadia closely followed
the rules of the Motazilites (the rationalistic dog-
matists of Islam, to whom he owed in part also his
thesis and arguments), adhering most frequently, as
Guttmann has shown, to the Motazilite school of
Al-.Iubbai. He followed the Motazilite Kalam,
especially in this respect, that in the first two sec-
tions he discussed the metaphysical problems of
the creation of the world (i.) and the unity of the
Creator (ii.), while in the following sections he treated
of the Jewish theory of revelation (iii.) and of the
doctrines of belief based upon divine justice, inclu-
ding obedience and disobedience (i v.), as well as merit
and demerit (v.). Closely connected with these sec-
tions are those which treat of the soul and of death
(vi.), and of the resurrection of the dead (vii.), which,
according to the author, forms part of the theory
of the Messianic redemption (viii.). The work con-
cludes with a section on the rewards and punish-
ments of the future life (ix.). The tenth section, on
the best mode of life for mankind in this world, must
be regarded as an appendix, since its admonitions
to moral conduct supplement the exhortations to
right thought and right belief contained in the main
body of the book.

The most important points contained in the indi-
vidual sections are as follows:

(i.) For the doctrine of the creation of the world
Saadia offers four proofs; three of these show the
influence of Aristotelian philosophy, which may be
traced also elsewhere in this author's writings.
After his speculation has led him to the conclusion
that the world was created ex nihilo, he proceeds to
state and refute the twelve theories of the origin
of the world. This part of the first section gives a
most interesting insight into Saadia's

Special knowledge of the Greek philosophers,

Views. which he probably derived from read-
ing Aristotle. At the end of the sec-
tion Saadia refutes certain objections to the Jewish
doctrine of Creation, especially those which proceed
from the concepts of time and space.

(ii.) The theory of God is prefaced by a develop-
ment of the view that human knowledge arises by
degrees from the merest sensuous impressions to the

most subtle concepts; .so that the idea of the divine,
wjiich transcends all other knowledge in subtlety,
is itself a proof of its verity. The concept of God
as a creator necessarily implies tlieattributis of life,
power, and knowledge. In like n)anner the con-
cept of the Creator demonstrates the unity of God.
For this view three direct and three indirect proofs
are olTered by Stuidia, the latter consisting in de-
monstrating that dualism is absurd. The thesis
of the absolute imity of God is established by a
refutation of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity,
which arises, in Saadia's opinion, from a misinter-
pretation of the three attributes of God already
named — life, power, and knowledge. Connected
with the refutation of the dogma of the Trinity is
an outline of the various theories respecting the per-
son of Jesus which reveals an accurate knowledge
of Christian controversies. To render possible an
imderstanding of the monoibcistic concept of God
in all its purity, and to f n e the statements of the
Scriptures from their apparent contradictions of the
spirituality of the absolute idea of God, Saadia in-
terprets all the (liHiculties of the Bible which bear
upon this problem, using the scheme of the ten
Aristotelian categories, none of which, he shows,
may be applied to God. At the conclusion of this
section the author pictures with deep religious feel-
ing the relation to the Deity sustained bj- the human
soul when permeated by the true knowledge of God.

(iii.) The divine commandments revealed in the
Holy Scriptures have been given to man by the
grace of God as a means to attain the highest bless-
edness. According to a classification borrowed by
Saadia from the Motazilites but based upon an
essentially Jewish view, the commandments are
divided into those of reason and of revelation, al-
though even the latter may be explained rationally,
as is shown by numerous examples. An excursus,
in which Saadia attacks the view of the Hindu sect
of the "Barahima" (Brahmans) to the elTect that
man needs no prophets, introduces his account of
prophecy and his apology for the Prophets. This
is followed by theses on the essential content of the
Bible and the credibility of Biblical tradition, by a
detailed refutation of the Christian and Moham-
medan view that the Law revealed in Israel has been
abrogated, and by a polemic against a series of
Hiwi's objections to the authority of the Scriptures.

(iv.) The foundation of this section is the theory
of the freedom of the will and its reconciliation with
the omnipotence and onniiscience of God. In its
opening portion Saadia postulates the anthropocen-
tric doctrine which regards man as the object of all
creation; and at its close he explains under eight
headings those passages of the Bible which might
cause doubt regarding the freedom of the acts of
man.

(v.) Men fall into ten classes with regard to merit

and demerit, and their religious and moral bearings.

In his description of the first two, the

Contents of j)iousand the impious, Saadia devotes

the himself in the main to the problem of

"Emunot." the sufferings of the pious and the

good fortune of the impious, while the

description of the last class, that of the contrite,

leads him to detailed considerations, based upon the

685

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Saadia b. Joseph

Bible, of repentance, praj'er, ami other evidences
of liuiiiaii iiiety.

(vi.) His view on tiie soul is prefaced l)j' a survey
of six otJRT theories. He states the relation of the
soul to (lie body, the basis of their union, their co-
oi)eration in human activity, their eoexistenee or the
appointed term of life, their separation or death, and
the state of the soul after death. The section eon-
eludes with a refutation of the doctrine of metempsy-
chosis.

(vii.) Here Saadia refutes the objections made, on
the basis of nature, reason, and the Bible, to thw
doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, and pre-
sents tiie proof lor it contained in tradition. He
then discusses ten questions bearing on this doc-
trine, which are of interest as "affording an insight
into popular views which then prevailed, and wliich,
despite their singularity, could not be ignored even
by such a nuin as Saadia" (Outtmann).

(viii.) The teachings regarding Messianic redemp-
tion are based almost entirely on statements of tiie
Bible and the Talmud, tiie definite year of salva-
tion being fixed by an interpretation of well-known
passages in the IJook of Daniel. In the concluding
portion the author refutes those who a.ssume that
the Messianic prophecies refer to the time of tlie
Second Temple; and he argues also against the
Christian doctrine of the Messiah.

(i.x.) Saadia demonstrates that the recompenses of
the Avorld to come are proved by reason, the Bible,
and tradition, and answers various questions bear-
ing upon this subject.

(X.) The system of ethics contained in the appen-
dix is based for the most part on a description and
criticism of thirteen different objects of life, to which
Saadia adds his own counsels for rational and moral
living. He adds also that in the case of each of the
five senses only the concordant union of sensuous
impressions is beneficial, thus showing liow great is
the need of a harmonious combination of the qualities
and the impulses of the soul of man. He concludes
with the statement that he intends his book only to
purify and ennoble the hearts of his readers.

In ids commentary on the "Sefer Yezirah " Saadia
sought to render lucid and intelligible the content
of tills mystical work by the light of philosophy and
other knowledge, especially by a system of Hebrew
phonology which he himself had founded. He did
not permithimself in this commentary
Relations to be infiuenced by the theological
to Mysti- speculations of the Kalam, which ar<'
cism. so important in his main works; and
in his presentation of the theory of
creation he made a distinction between the Bible and
the book on which he commented, even omitting the
theory of the "Sefer Yezirah" regarding the crea-
tion of the world when he discussed the various views
on this subject in the first section of his " Kitab al-
Amanat wall'tikadat." From this it may be con-
cluded that he did not regard the " Sefer Yezirah "
— which he traces ultimately to the patriarch Abra-
ham— as a real source for a knowledge of the the-
ory of Judaism, although he evidently considered
the work worthy of deep study.

Of ail Saadia's works his polemical writings, es-
pecially those against the Karaites, exercised the

greatest immediate influence. As he Idinself de-
clared, Karaism had within a century and a liulf be-
come ileeply rooted, wldlerabbinicarjudaism. whose
ofilcial heads, tiiea(;adeinieHof Babylonia. Jiad Ugiin
to lose their importance, was in peril of being over-
whelmed i»y the propaganda of the Karaites and
even of suffering Iorhcs of increasing niaf^nitude hi
its material welfare tlirougli the extension of Ka-
raite doctrines. It was Suadia who, equip|K*«l with
comprehensive knowledge, a thorough wcuiar train-
ing, and an extraordinary literary activity, waged
the ijattle against the foes of Jewi.sii tradition, and
not only averted the perils which tlireatene<l it. but
also, by establishing the scientific stiidy r>f the Bilde

and (»f the Hebrew language, gave

Relations rabbinical Judaism the supremacy

to even in this speciul province of Kuni-

Karaism. ism. If the Karaites made remarkable

contributions on these subjects during
the tenth and in the first half of the eleventh cen-
tury, their inspiration was tine to Saa<iitt's influence
and to the necessity of defending themselves against
his attacks; so that his activity was epochal like-
wise even for Karaism.

Nor wao Saadia without influence outside Jewish
circles. Abraham ibn Ezra, writing on Gen. ii. 11.
slates, probably on good authority, that Saadia
planned his translation of the Bible for Mohanuned-
ans as well as lor Jews, and that he us<-d Arabic
script for this reason; and Ibn Ezra accordingly e.x-
jilains the fact that Saadia translated even those ex-
pressions whose meaning was not known through
tradition, as being due to a desire that the Moiiani-
inedan reailer might not think the Bible contains
words which are unintelligible. Not only dtxs
a noted Mohammedan author. Saadia's younger
contemporary, Mas'udi, give data of the gaon's
life, but another Arabic author of the second liaif
of the tenth century, Mohammed ibn Ishak al-
Nadim, gives, in his "Fihrist al'l'lum." a list
of eleven of Saadia's writings. This list includes,
according to the editions, which are sometime.*
vague and partly corrupt, the translations of
Lsaiah, the Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. the trans-
lation of the Pentateuch, and tlie commeutAry
on the second half of Ix'viticus, besides the com-
mentary on the "Sefer Yezirah." the "Sitldur." the
"Kitab ha-'Ibbur," the" Kitab al-Shara'i," and prob-
ably his great work on philosophy ("Kitab al-Ama-
nat": the list has ^snOxi'X an3 instead of 2rO
nSJSJiS^K; see Hegenkamper. p. 27). It is. how-
ever, improbable that that author had seen all 'b--
writings of Saadia himself; for he seems to owe Ids
knowledge of tliem to a Hebrew source or to the
oral communicatifui of some Jew. N-'
of any of Saadia's works written in A
exists. The Florentine cwlox (dating from 1256).
containing a translation of the Pentnteurh i: \ '
characters (.see Kahle. "Die Arabischen B;
setzungeu." p. viii.. Leipsic, 1904). is not the original
work of Saadia. bid a revision theri-of approaching
more closely to the Hebrew text.

BiHi,io(;RAriiT: Rapoport, T"lfii"l H- •y^'V' • '"

Jiikhur,- ha-'Itlim.W'^ i' J> :r ; .s. Munk^ '•
.S(i,i<fi<i (;<!-. n. PHr1.«. K'»r. In hl!« "

ritcol. v. aiT :U6: St. ■■ • r. ( <!/. B<x». ^

Idem, Die Arahixhe UlUiatur <Ur JUiUa. p; 4'- ' a

Saadia b. Joseph
Sabbath

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

586

(conjp. Kaufmann Gedenkbttch, pp. 144-168); Gratz, Gi:»c)t.
v.; Vveiss, Dor. iv.; David Kohn, IiNH 0"i rn''>n 'D. Cra-
cow, lt>91 ; M. Friedlander, Life niui Wurku of Saadia. In
J. Q. R. V. 177-191); A. Harkavv. Lil>€ii inul HVrfrf Stiadia's
Gaon.i. tin Studien uud Mitthiihatutii. v.), Berlin, 1891;
W. Enpelkemper. De S(Uuli(V iJaonU Vita, liihlionim Ver-
giont. Ufi intiu'Uticd. Munster, IrttT. On liutruisticsand exe-
gesis: Dukes, in Ewaldand Dukes, IhUriliie zur Gei<c)tichte
der Adtesten .-iMWcyu/iy, li. 5-1 l.j; Baclier, Ahraliaiii ilm
E^ra')* Kinleitmigzu Seinem I'eiitatnicficinnmentar. Vien-
na, li<7t}: idem. Die Aufdiioe der Hchrili.''chen Gfamma-
tik. pp. 38-ttJ, Leipsic, l^'t: idem. Die Bihdcxege.-'e der
Jlldi.*cheu ReU^imisijIiilnxophen des Mittclallem vor Mai-
muui, 18inJ, pp. 1-44; idem, Lehen und Werke tff.s Ahul-
xcalid. IStio, pp. 93-'.*7 ; idem, in Winter and Wunsche, Die
Jiidische Litteratnr. ii. 1;}8-141, 243--'4ti; M. WolIT. Zur
Charakteristik d>r nibelexege,'<e Saadia's. in Stade"s Zeit-
schrift. iv. 225. v. 15; L. BiKlenlieimer, Da« Paraphrastifdte
der Arahi.schen L'ehentetznim des Sqadia. In Motiats-
schrift. iv. Si-33; Schmidl, Raudbemerkunoen zu Saadia's
PentateucliUhersetziuw. ib. xlv.-.xlvii.; A. Merx, Die Saad-
jani.tchf Uebersetzuiig drs HithenliedD, 19^2 (conip. Loevy
in Berliner's Mauaziu. x. 39-44; ^aclier in Stade's Zeit-
sc/inf7, iii. -"Ct-'-^U ■; also the iniroduftions and notes to the
editions of Saadia's works mentioned in the body of this ani-
cle. On the Halakah : the introduction to the ninth volume
of the CEuvres Oimjjb'tes. On the philosophy of religion :
in addition to the general works on this subject and its spe-
cial branches, J. Guttmann, Die RcUoiouspliilnsophie des
Saadia, Gottinpen, IH.'^S; M. Schreiner, Der Kalam in der
Jlidisdirn Litteratnr. pp. 5-32. Berlin, lHft5 (Thirteenth Re-
port of the Lehranstalt fur die Wissensehaft des Judenthums);
D. Kaufmann, Gesch. der Attributcidehre. pp. l-9(). On
polemics: H. J. Bornstein, i\ss pi |iNj ni-i;'D 't rp^n::. pp.
19-189. Warsaw, 1904; A. Epstein, La QuereUe an Sujet du
Calendrier, in R. E. J. xlii. 179-210, xliv. 2-.:>-236; S. Poz-
nanski, Tlie Anti-Karaite Writings of Saa ^iah Gaon.in
J. Q. R. X. 238-276 ; idem. Saadiah and Salomon h. Jeroham.
ib. viii. 684-691; A. Harkavy, Fragments of Anti-Karaite
Writings of Saadiali, ib. xiil. 6.">.>-668. Oii the Sefer ha-
Galui : in addition to Harkavy, Stndien und Mittheihuigcn.
v., Marpoliouth, Harkavy, and Bacher. in J. Q. R. xii. 502-554,
70:i-7i6: Bacher, in Erpusitory Timfs, xi. .")63. Various ge-
nizah fragments referring to Saadia have been edited by
Schechter, under the title Saaduana, in J. Q. R. xv.-xvi.,
and also separately, Cambridge, 1903 (coinp. Poznanski in
Steinschneider, Hebr. Riltl. vii.). Miscellaneous : Poznanski,
in Mi)notsschrift, xxxix., xli., xliv., xlvi.; Harkavy, in Ha-
Goren, i. 89 et seq.

W. B.

SAADIA B. JOSEPH BEKOR SHOE,. See

Bkkuh Siiou, Saadia.

SAADIA BEN MAIMON IBN DANAN.
See IiiN Danan.

SAADIA BEN NAHMANI : Liturgical poet
ami iM-rliaps also Bil)lical coiiunentator; lived in
the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He was the
author of a piy ytit for the first *' .Ma'aiib " of the
Feast of Tabernacles, beginning "Sukkat shalem
selali," and consisting of ten strophes of six lines
each; and Znnz thinks him to have written likewise
the piyyiit beginning "Elohekem dirshu"and re-
cited on Sabbaths which fall on the first day of the
mijntli. Saadia ben Nahmani is supposed by Hay-
yini Michael to be identical with the Saadia quoted
bv Raslii as having personally spoken to him
("Likkute ha-Pardes," Ililkot "fish'ah be-Ab ").

The supposition that Saadia was a Biblical com-
mentator is based on the fact that the commentary
on Chronicles, generally attributed to Rashi, was
discovered not to belong to the latter, as is men-
tioned in Tos. to Yoma9a, but to have been arranged
by the pupils of a certain W. Saadia. It has also
been proved that Saadia's commentary on Chronicles
was copied by his pupils in different localities, the
several copies, therefore, containing many variants.
Hayyim Michael holds that the Saadia in question
also may be identical witli the stibject of this article
and likewise with the author of the commentary on
the "Sefer Yezirah," in ascribing which to Saadia
Gaon the printers, as was proved by Delmedigo
("Mazref la-Hokmah," p. 9b) and by Jacob Emden

("Mitpahat Sefarim," p. 4b), were in error. This
commentary, too, was arranged by Saadia's pupils,
who in certain passages altered their master's words.
If the various identifications are correct, it may be
concluded, as appears from the many German words
found in these commentaries, that Saadia was a
native of Germany. The author of the commen-
tary indicates Kalonvmus b. Judah as liis maternal
uncle (connnentary on II Chron. iv. 7, 17) and Ele-
azar -b. Meshullam as his teacher (commentary on I
Chron. iv. 31, passim). He studied at Narbonne also,
under Isaac b. Samuel (ib. i.\. 34, pussim), which
accounts for the French words in his commentary.

Bibliography: Gross, Gallia Jitdaica. p. 416; Landshuth,
'Ammude ha-\ibodah. p. 299; Michael, Or ha-Hayuini.
No. 1146; Joseph Weiss, in Kerem Hemed, v. 232-244; Zunz,
Literatnrgesch. p. 177e.
E. c. M. Sel.

SAALSCHtJTZ, JOSEPH LEWIN : German

rabbi and archeologist ; born March l.j, 1801, at
Konigsberg, East Prussia; died there Aug. 23, 1863.
Having received his education at the gjinnasium
and universit}' of his native city (Ph.D. 1824), he
held several positions as rabbi and teacher at the
Israelitic communal schools of Berlin and Vienna.
Returning in 1835 to Konigsberg, he became rabbi
there, and in 1847 privat-docent in Hebrew arche-
ology at Konigsberg University.

In Hebrew archeology Saalschiitz was a pioneer
among the Jews. Among his works may be men-
tioned: "Von der Form der Hebraischen Poesie
Xebst eincr Abhaudluiig fiber die Musik der He-
bracr" (Konigsberg, 1825), reedited {ib. 1833) under
the title " Form und Geist der Biblisch-Hebriii.schen
Poesie"; " Geschichte und Wiirdigung der Musik bei
den Ilebrilern Nebst eincm Anhang iiber die Ilebrili-
sche Oigel" (Berlin, 1830); " Gotteslehre " (Vienna,
1833), a book on the Jewish religion, formerly used
in many schools in Austria and Hungary; " For-
schungen im Gebiete der Hebrai.scli-Aegyptischen
Archaologie" (KOnigsberg, 1838); " Die'Verstthn-
ungder Confessioneii, Oder Judenthum und Christen-
tlium in Ihrem Streit und Einklange " (ib. 1844);
" Vocabularium zum Hebriiischen Gebetbuche," with
supplement ; " Einleitung in die Hcbriiische Gramma-
tik " {ib. 1844). He also edited a new edition of Joliann
David Michaelis' "Das MosaischeRechtmit Beriick-
sichtigung des Spiitcrn Jiidischen " (Berlin, 1846-48),
in two parts: i)art i., on public law, is subdivided
into six parts; and part ii. into three. Other works
l)y him are: "Das KOnigthum voin Israelitiscli-Bi-
blischen Standpunkte " (1852); "Zur Geschichte der
Unsterblichkeitslehre bei den HebrUern" (1853);
" Archaologie der HebrUer " (KOnigsberg, 1855-56),
in twelve parts: (1) dress, home, and food; (2) life
and industries; (3) religion; (4) art; (5) literature;
(6) science; (7) customs; (8) family; (9) city law;
(10) the administration of law; (11) priests and su-
perstitions; (12) government (this book still remains
the only complete survey of the subject from a
Jewish standpoint) ; " Repetitionsbiichlein der Israe-
litischen Religion undSittenlehre"; and"Gebetbuch
der Synagoge" (1859).

Saalschlitz's son, Louis, is assistant professor of
mathematics at K()nigsberg University (1905).

Bibliography : S. Carpln, in Alln. Zeit. deaJud. Oct. 18. 1901.
8. F. T. H.

587

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

8&adia b.
Sabbath

Joseph

SAALSCHVTZ, LOUIS: German mathema-
tician: born at Kiiiiigsbcif,', Prussia. Dec. 1, 1885;
son of Josepii Levin Saalsciilitz. From 18r)4to 1800
lie studied niatlietnatics and piiysics at tlie univer-
sity of ids native city, graduating as Ph.D. in 1861 :
his dissertation was " Ueher die \Vilrniev<'ran(h'r-
ungen in den Iliiiieren Erdsehichteii Unterdeni Ein-
Hussdes Ni( lit iieriodisciien Temperaturweehseis an
iler Obertiiielie," and was |)ul)iished in tlie "As-
tronomisclie Nachriclitiu." Eroin 1861 to 1882 he
was teaelier of mat hematics, meelianies, and engi-
iieering at tlie Koyal School of Mechanics, KiJnigs-
berg. During the same period he lectured at tlie
university; and since 1875 he has been assistant
professor. Fora number of years he has filled the
■office of president of the Jewish orplian asylum of
K()nigsbei'g.

Saalschiitz is theauthor of : " Der Belastete Stab,"
Leipsic, 1880; "Vorlesungen Ueber die Beruouil-
lisclien Zahleii." Hcrlin, 1893; and of a number of
treatises in the technical journals. S.

SABA (X3D) : A word derived from the root
a'D, "to be white, old"; used in the Talmud with
various meanings:

(it) It designates an old man or old woman in gen-
eral, as in the saying "'an old man ["saba"] in the
house means ruin, but an old woman ["sabeta"] is a
treasure; since the former is unlit for work, while
the latter lielps in the house " ('Ar. 19a).

(b) Preceded by the demonstrative ("hai Saba"
= " that old man ") it was assumed to refer to the
prophet Elijali whenever the phrase occurs in either
Talmud; but this assumption was rejected by the
tosafists (Hul. 6a), and even before their time by
Hai Gaon in a responsum (ed. Ilarkavy, "Responsen
der Geonim," p. 23).

(0 It is used also as an honorific title, so that
R. Iluna and R. Hisda are called "the old men of
Sura," and R. Judah and R. 'En a "the old men of
Pumbedita" (Sanh. 17a).

(d) It was the name of R. Niha's father (Kil. ix. 1 ;
comp. Fraukel, "Introductio in Talmud Ilierosoly-
mitum," p. 117a.

(e) It occurs in the phrase "sabe debe Atuna" =
" the wise men of Athens " (Griitz, " Jahresbcricht des
Breslauer Seminars," 1884, p. 28).

Bibliography : Kohut, Aruch Cimipktxim, s.v.; Levy. Neu-
hebr. ^V6rterb. s.v.

T. S. O.

SABA. See Siirba.

SABA, ABRAHAM. See Abrah.\m Saba.

SABBATH (nncO: The seventh day of the
week ; the day of rest.

Biblical Data: On the completion of His

creative work God blessed and hallowed the seventh
day as the Sabbath (Gen. ii. 1-3). The Decalogue
in Exodus (x.\. 8) reverts to this fact as the reason
for the commandment to " remember " the Sabbath
day to keep it holy. The Sabbath is recognized in
the account of the gathering of the manna; a double
portion was gathered on the previous day, and the
extra supplj' gathered for consumption on the Sab-
bath, when no manna descended, did not spoil (xvi.
22-30). The Sabbath is a .sign between Yiiwn and
Israel, an everlasting covenant (xxi. 13). Death or

excision (xxxi. 14. 15) wm the ponaltv for ita prof-
anation by work. An insluncr ..f ih'is jh ufl<.r<ltd
by till- cast; of the man wIid gmhcn-d stick* on lUc
Sabbath and wa.s cnndemned to die by hipidution
(Num. XV. «2-86). Work Ih prohibitwl, ev.-n .luring
harvest time (Ex xxxiv. 21), and in deeiared to Iw «
profanation of the holySablmlh; and the kindling
of fire in tlie liabitationB is espcciully interdicU'd
(Ex. x\xv.3).

In the Decamhiue us contiiiued in Deuterouomy
(V. 12 et Heq.) the observance of the Bubbath ia
again enjoined, Itiit as a day of rest for tlie wrvanlii
as well us their masleis, in (•oinineniorution of
Israels redemption from Egyptian bondttge. The
Sabbath heads the enumeration of the ..J

holy .sea.sons( Lev. xxiii. :j). The Siiowm ;»»

changed every Sabbatli (Lev. xxi v. 8). The sacrifire
ordained for the Sabbath consisted of Iw.. ' ' Im
of the first year, without l)lemish. and of i mh

of an ei)liah of fine fiour for a meal-offering, mingled
with oil, and " the drink-offering thereof " : •' n-

stituted the burnt offering, an.l were brou, .1-

dition to the continual burnt offering (Num. xxviil.
9, 10). The Salibath is designated also us '"^' '
bat Shabbaton," as is the Day of Atonement
xvi. 31), often with the added (|ualiflcation of
"holy unto Ynwn "(Ex. xvi. 2:}. xxxi. 1. xxxv. 2);
and it is set apart for a holy convocation (Ix-v.
xxiii. 3).

From II Kings xi. 5 it appears tliat the royal
body-guard was changed every Sabbatli. The Sab-
bath and the day of the New Moon were the favor-
ite occasions for consulting the Proi>hets/lI KitiL'<»
iv. 23).

That the Sabbath was either improperly oIjm rved
or sometimes, perhaps, altogether ignored in the
time of the Prophets seems to be evi-
Non-Ob- denced by their writings. Amos cas-
servance tigates those that are impatient for the
by Some in passing of the Sabbath because it In-
Prophetic terferes with their usurious btisiness
Times. (viii. 6). Isjiiali is ecpially eiiipliatic
in condemning his contemporaries for
their unworthy celebrations (i. 9). Jeremiah exhorts
his people to refrain from carrying burdens on the
Sabbath (xvii. 21 et seq.). Ezekiel describes the
laxnessof the fathers, for the purpose of impreiwsing
upon his auditors the importance of observing the
Sabbath, evidently neglected in his day (xx. 12. 18.
20, 21, 24; xxii. 8; xxiii. 38). In his 'scheme of re-
construction the hallowing of the Sabbath hohin a
prominent place (xliv. 24, xlvi. 2, 3). Ac' '<>

him the burnt offering for the Sabbath, pri . . . : y
the prince (xlv. 17). consisted of six lambs and a
ram, with an entire epiiah of meal offering and a
"hin " of oil to every ephah (xlvi. 4-5).

Isaiah conditions Israel's triumph on the observ-
ance of the Sabbath, which may n> ' ' ' r
secular jiursuits; its observanc.- si, a
(Iviii. 13. 14). In his vision of Jerusalem's exalla
tion the prophet pretlicls that frf>m «' ' ' ' ith to
another all flesh will come to ^\orship : i iiwic
(Ixvi. 28). The colonists under NehemJah charged
themselves yearly with a third of a shekel to proviiie.
among other things, fur the burnt offerings of tJie
Sabbaths (Neh. x. 32). Nevertheless Nehemiah took

Sabbath

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

588

them to task for profaning the day (xiii. 16, 17), and
to prevent them from continuing to turn it into
a market-day he ordered the gates to be closed
and kept closed until the end of the Sabbath. This
measure, after a while, liad the desired effect (x.
19 et seq.). Ps. xcii. is entitled "A Psalm or Song
for the Sabbath Day." As Hosea (i. 11) tlireateus
the cessation of the Sabbath and other feasts as a
punishment to disloyal Israel, so does the author of
Lamentations (ii. 6) lament that the Sabbath has
come to be forgotten in Zion.

In Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha : Un-
der the strt'ss of the Syrian iicrseculion, faithful
compliance with the strictest interpretation of the
Sabbath commandment came to be regarded as a
sign of loyalty to God, especially since previously
the Sabbatli had been habitually desecrated (Olacc.
i. 30). Man_v of the refugees in the moimtains. thou-
sands in number, preferred to die rather than violate
the Sabbath by hurling stones upon their assailants
(I Mace. ii. 2Q ct se(j.). This made it necessary for
Mattathias to issue an imperative order that the
Jews, if attacked, should defend themselves (I Mace,
ii. 41). Nevertheless, II Mace. xv. 1 et seq. relates
that Nicanor planned the destruction of the Jews by
attacking them on the Sabbath-day, when he had
reason to believe they would not attempt to resist.
Though the Jews implored him to honor the "day
which had been dignified with holiness by the
Heavenly Ruler," he persisted, declaring that he
was ruler on earth. His expedition, however, failed.
A previous raid against Jerusalem on the Sabbath-
day, under Appolonius, had proved successful (II
Mace. V. 25, 26).

The Book of Jubilees calls the Sabbath the great
sign that work should be done during six days
and dropped on the seventh (ii. 17). The chief
orders of angels also were bidden to observe the
Sabbath with the Lord (ii. 18). In selecting Israel
as His chosen people, Yfiwh purposed to make
them a Sabbath-observing people. Eating, drink-
ing, and blessing God are distinguishing features of
the Sabbath, besides cessation of work (ii. 21). The
Sabbath was given to Jacob and his seed that they
might forever remain "the blessed and holy ones of
the first testimony and law," as is the seventh day.
Labor thereon entails death, but its defilement leads
to violent death (ii. 2"), 27). Among the acts pro-
hibited are included preparing food, drawing water,
and carrying Ijurdens, however small, out of or into
the house, or from one house to anotiier. The Sab-
bath was hallowed in heaven before it was ordained
for earth. Israel alone has the right to observe it
(ii. 28-31). Again, in ch. iv., buying and selling,
making verbal agreements for future fulfilment,
and journeying are mentionr-d as among the acts
prohibited, as well as drawing water, carrying bur-
dens, and marital indulgences. Only work that is
necessary for the sacrificial Temple service is per-
mitted. Death shall be the penalty for any one who
works, walks any distance, tills his land, kindles a
fire, loads a beast of burden, travels on a ship, beats
or kills any one, slaugliters bird or beast, captures
in the chase any living creature, or even fasts or
waees war. on tlie Sabbath.

The archangel Michael instructs Seth (Vita Ada?

et Evae, 43) not to mouin on the seventh day
(Kautzsch, " Apokryphen," ii. 528).

In Post-Biblical Literature : Josephus, in

the main, tollows the Biblical narrative, giving the
Word "Sabbath" the meaning " rest " ("Ant."i. 1,
§ l),and controverting the stupid etymology of the
name ujiheld by Apioii, according to whom tlie Jews
were forced to observe the Sabbath

In Jose- by the fact of their being afRicted with

phus and bubonic boils known in Egyptian by

the a word similar to the Hebrew word

Classical "sabbath" ("Contra Ap." ii., i? 2).

Writers. .Moreover, his descriptions of Sabbath
celebration do not differ from the Bib-
lical. That the beginning and end of the Sabbath
were announced by trumpet-blasts ("B. J." iv. 9,
§ 12) is shown by the ^lishnah (Suk. v. 5).

Josephus makes much of the spread of Sal)l)ath
observance in non-Palestinian cities and among non-
Jews (" Contra Ap. " ii. , § 39 ; comp. Philo, " De Vita
Moysis," ii. 137 [ed. Mangey]). That he does not
exaggerate is apparent from the comments of Ro-
man writers on tlie Jewish Sabbath. Horace, in his
"Satires" (i. 9, 69), speaks of "tricesima Sabbata,"
wiiich certainly does not refer to a Sabbath so num-
bered by the Jews. Juvenal ("Satires," xiv. 96-
106), Persius (v. 179-184), Martial (iv. 4, 7). and
Seneca (Augustine, "De Civitate Dei." vi. 11) also
refer to the Sabbath. In the Maccabean struggle
the observance of the Sabbath came to have special
significance as distinguishing the faithful from the
half-hearted; but Josephus confirms I Mace. ii. 39-
41, where the faithful, under Mattathias, decided to
resist if attacked on the Sabbatli, and not to permit
themselves to be destroyed for the sake of literal
obedience to the Sabbath law (comp. "Ant." xii. 6,
§ 2). He mentions instances in which the Jews were
taken advantage of on the Sabbath-day — for ex;'..-
ple, by Ptolemy Lagi ("Ant." xii. 1; xviii. 9, ii 2).
Still, according to Josephus. the Jews carried on
offensive warfare on the Sabbath ("B. J." ii. 19,
§ 2). Titus was outwitted by the plea that it was
unlawful for Jews to treat of peace on the seventh
day {ib. iv. 2, g 3). Josephus also publishes decrees
exempting Jews from military service on the Sab-
bath, which exemption gave rise to persecutions
under Tiberius ("Ant." xiv. 10, g§ 12 et seq.). The
Essenes are referred to as very rigorous observers of
the Sabbath ("B. J." ii. 8, §9).

In Philo an element of mysticism dominates the
interpretation of the Sabbath: the day was really
intended for God, a part of wliose divine happiness
it is to enjoy perfect rest and jx-ace.
In Philo. "Hence the Sabbath, which means
'rest,' is repeatedly .said by Moses to
be tlie Sabbath of God, not of men, for the one en-
tity that rests is God." Divine rest, however, does
not mean inactivity, but unlabored energy (" De
Cherul)im," § 26 [i. V')4-i:)5]). "Seven " being "the
image of God," the seventh day is a pattern of the
duty of philosophizing (" De Decalogo," ^ 20 [ii.
197]). The purpose of man's life being "to follow
God"("De Migratione Abrahami," § 23 [i. 456]),
the commandment was given for man to observe the
seventh day, ceasing from work, and devoting it to
philosophy, contemplation, and the improvement of

689

THE JEWISH ENCVCI.OlMiniA

Sabbath

cliiiractcr (" De Decalogo," g 20 [ii. 197]). Tlic Siib-
hiitli is tlic most tipjiropriate day for iustruction ( " Di-
Sciitcnario," § 6 [ii. 282]).

Aiisl()l)uliis, a predecessor of Phiio, Avrole a trea-
tise on tlie Sahbaili, fragments of whicii are e.xtaut.
I'\)l!o\viiig tlie Pylhagoreaus, lie enlarges on the
marvelous potency of the number "seven," but
endeavors, like Pliilo after him (" l)e Septenario,"
§5^ 6-7 [ii. 281-284]), to prove the observance of the
day to be both reasonable and jirotitable (Eusebius,
" Prajiaratio Evangelica," xiii. 12, t-§ 9-10). He as-
serts that even Homer and Hesiod observed the
Sabbath, citing lines from them and from Linus
According to his understanding, the Sal)i)ath was
primarily to be used for searching the Scriptures,
fostering the soul's powers, and striving after the
knowledge of truth. The Sabbath might be called
the tirst creation of the (higher) light, in which all
is revealed (comp. the benedictions preceding the
Shcma" ; Herzfcld, "Gescli. des Volkes Jisrael," p.
478, Nordhauseu, 1867).

These Alexandrian speculations partake of the

nature of haggadic homilies. In those of the Tan-

uaim and Amoraim similar strains are heard. The

Sabbath overshadowed every other

In the day (Pesik. K. 23), while Shammai

Talmud, began even on the tirst day of the
week to make provision for the proper
observance of the seventh day. It was Hillel who
recalled the dignity of other days (Bezah 16a). The
Sabbath is considered to be equivalent to the Abra-
hamitic covenant (Mek. 62b; Pesik. R. 23: Aga-
dat Bercshit, xvii.). Its ob.servance forestalls the
threefold judgment — the Messianic suflerings, the
wars of Gog and ^lagog, and the tinal day of retri-
bution (Mek. 50b, 51a; comp. Sliab. 118a). The
privilege of celebrating the three great jnlgrim fes-
tivals is the reward for faithful Sabbath observance
(Mek. I.e.). The Sabbath is likened to wholesome
spices (Shab. 119a; Gen. R. xi. ; Jellinek, "B. H." i.
75). Whosoever keeps the Sabbath holy is pro-
tected against temptation to sin (Mek. 50b).

Most characteristic is the dialogue between Rufus
and Akiba concerning the two signs of the Covenant
— circumcision and the Sabbath (Sanh. 65b; Gen. R.
xi.; Pesik. R. 23; Tan., Ki Tissa; Jellinek, "B.
H." i. 75). The will of God is alleged to be the sole
reason for the day's distinction. As proof that the
seventh day is the Sabbath the inability of the
necromancer to call a spirit from the River Samba-
tion, and the fact that the grave of Rufus' father
sends forth smoke during the six week-days, but
ceases to do so on the Sabbath, are adduced. Akiba
meets the objection that God violates His own law
by sending wind and rain on the Sabbath Avith the
statement that the universe is God's jirivate domain,
within which the proprietor is at liberty even on the
Sabbath. Moreover, God proved Himself to be a
Sabbath observer by interrupting the fall of manna
on that day. To observe the Sabbath is regarded as
eqiu'valent to having originally instituted it (Mek.
104a. b).

The Sabbath expresses the intimacy between God
and I.srael; from the days of Creation this relation
has existed. Each week-day is associated with an-
other, the first with the second, and so on; but the

...,-.

Sabbalh stands ulone. In auswer ; .
being thus neglected. God LXpliiiued thai bnul in
its peculiar a.'isot iale (U«/.ah 10a ; du. K. xi.).
Man's fa<-. oikes on u new luster uu the .Subballj.
Tlic two great heavenly liglili*. the sun uiui lUe
moon, did not begin to losr r , y

until afl(!r llu! tirst .Sabbiilii I - .. .vj.,

xii.). It all Israel were tu ubttcrve iwo succi-Asive
Sabbaths as tiny should bi- ' '.m

would ensue at once (Shab. 1 1 , ,ii.

04a); if even one Sabbath were rightly kepi tlie
Messiah woulil appear (Shab. llHh). S
Yohai regarded too much talking as ii
with the pro|)er celebration of the day (Yer. Sbab.
15b); R. Ze'era reproved his pupils for com n "
this fault (Shab. 119a, b). Tho.se that •
the Sabbath are ranked with those iliat give
tithes and honor the Law; their rewards are iden-
tical (Shab. 119a; Gen. K. xi. ; Pesik. H. 2^). Two
angels, one good, the other evil, accompany every
Jew on Sabbath eve from the synagogue to the
house. If the Sabbath lamp is found lighted and
the table spread, the gooil angel pniys that thU
ma}' be the case also on the following Subbatli. and
the evil angel is compelled to say "Amen " to this;
but if no preparations for the Sal)bath are M-en. tin-
evil angel pronounces a curse, and the l-' "•! un ■■ 1
is compelled to say "Amen" (Shab. 1191

The law of the Sabbath is equal to all iho otlur
laws and commandments in the Torah (Yer. Ber.
3c; Yer. Ned. 38b; Ex. R. xxv.). The ?i?it is in-
tendi'd to be a constant reminder of
Haggadic the Sabbath (Yer. Ber. 3c). "Queen"
References, and "bride "are two typical appella-
tions for the day (Shab. 119a; B. if..
32a, b; Gen. R. x.); it is the signet on the ring (ib.).
A special soul ("neshamah yeterah ") is given lo
man on the eve of the Sabbath, and leaves him
again at its close (Be/ah Uia ; Ta'an. 27b). Simeon
ben Lakish explains the repetition of the Sabbath
commandment by relating a parable of a father who
sent his son to a men liant witli a bottle an<l some
money. The son broke the bottle antl lost the
money, whereupon the father admonished him to l«e
more careful and gave him anotlur Ijottle and some
more money. Hence comes the u.se of the won!
mD'J' in Deuteronon\y ("be careful": Pesilj;. U, 28).
According to R. Simlai, the "remember'' in Ex. xx.
8 indicates the duty of thinking of the Sablwth be
fore, the "observe" in Dent. v. 12 that of t, , ihi^r it
holy after, its ad vent (Pesik. R. 23). Tin i fa

a precious pearl (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xcii . ed. BiiU r. p.
201a). The one day which belongs toGo»l is. accord-
ing to Ps. ex xxix. 16, the Sabbath; acconling Iohoujc
it is the Day of Atonement (I'csik. H. 23; T
midbar, 20). The superior character of the ^
day is marked by the circimistance that everything
connected with it is twofold: «'..(7.. the"
of manna (Ex. xvi. 22); the two lamb- ^
9) ; the double menace in Ex. xxxi. 14 : the repetition
of the Sabbath commaminn-nt (Ex. xx. H and Pout.
V. 12); the double title of Ps. xcii.— "mi/mor " and
"shir" (Midr. Teh. to P.s. xcii.. ed. Bul>er. p. 201h).

The Sabbath is a foretaste of the \ ' ' '-> come
(Gen. R. xvii.. xliv. ; Ber. 57b f"on. - of the

world to come"]). The example of the Creator is

Sabbath

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

590

cited to teach that all work, however important,
should cease as soon as the Sabbath approaches; for
God was about to create bodies for the demons
whose souls He had fashioned when the Sabbath
came and prevented the execution of the intention
(Gen. R. vii). The Patriarchs are said to have kept
the Sabbath even before the revelation on Sinai (Gen.
R. Ixxix. ; Tan., Naso, 33 [cd. Buber, p. 22a, b]).

According to the testimony of the Haggadah, the
Sabbath was looked upon and observed as a day of
joy. Samuel ben Nahman declared that the Sab-
bath was intended to be a day of good cheer (Yer.
Shab. loa; Hiyya b. Abba in Pes. K. xxiii). Fast-
ing was forbidden upon it (Ber. 31b), even up to noon
(Yer. Ta'an. 67a: Yer. Ned. 40d). Expenses incurred
for a proper, joyful Sabbath celebration do not im-
poverish (Geo. R- xi.); on the contrary, riches are
the reward of those that enjoy the Sabbath (Shab.
118a). Hence the special blessing for the Sabbath
in Gen. ii. 3, to vouchsafe impunity to the weak
for excesses in eating and drinking committed in
honor of that day (Bacher. "Ag. Pal. Amor." i.
111). Three meals were considered indispensable
(Shab. 118b). Of Hanina and Hoshaiah, disciples
of R. Johanan, it is reported that they occupied
themselves on Friday with the story of creation,
which miraculously enabled them to procure a fat-
tened calf for tlieir Sabbath meal (Sanh. 65b, 67b)
when they were too poor to prepare properly for
the day. Nothing should be eaten on Friday later
than tlie first hour after noon, in order that tlie Sab-
bath meal ma}' be better enjoyed (Pes. 99b ; Tos. Ber.
V. 1 ; Yer. Pes. 87b). Change of garments was also
deemed essential to a proper observance ; white Sab-
bath garments are mentioned in Shab. 25b. Every
person should have at least two sets of garments, one
for week-days and another for the Sabbath (Yer.
Pcah 21b) ; Kutli is referred to as an example (Ruth
R. iii. 3; Pes. R. xxxiii. ; Shab. 113b). The Jews
of Tiberias, who plead their poverty as a reason for
not being able to celebrate the day, are advised

to make some change in their dress
Dress. (ib.). To this refers also the proverb,

"Rather turn th}' Sabbath into a pro-
fane day [in dress], than be dependent on the assist-
ance of others" (Pes. 112a). The myrtle was used
for purposes of decoration on the Sabbath (Shab.
33b). It was noticed with displeasure that Aha ben
Hanina wore mended sandals on the Sabbath (Shab.
114a). The Sabbath was given to instructive ser-
mons and discourses (Yer. Sotah 16d ; Num. R. ix. ;
Deut. R. v.). To run to the bet ha-midrash on the
Sabbath to hear a discourse does not constitute
desecration (Ber. 6b). Rain on Friday is not wel-
come, as it interferes with Sabbath preparations,
while sunshine on the Sabbath is a divine boon to
the poor (Ta'an. 8b).

The Haggadah clearly shows that the Sabbath-
day was celebrated in a spirit of fervent joy fulness,
which was by no means intended to be repressed,
and which was not chilled or checked by the halakic
construction of the Sabbath commandments. The
Sabbath, indeed, was deserving of the designation
of " mattanah lobah " (a precious gift from on high ;
Shab. 10b).

E. G. H.

Critical View : The origin of the Sabbath, as

well as the true meaning of the name, is uncertain.
The earliest Biblical passages whicli mention it (Ex.
XX. 10, xxxiv. 21; Deut. v. 14; Amos viii. 5) pre-
suppose its previous existence, and analysis of all
the references to it in the canon makes it plain that
its observance was neither general nor altogether
spontaneous in either pre-exilic or post-exjlic Israel.
It was probably originally connected in some man-
ner with thecult of the moon, as indeed issuggested
by the frequent mention of Sabbath and New-Moon
festivals in the same sentence (Isa. i. 13; Amos viii.
5; II Kings iv. 28). The old Semites

Probable worshiped the moon and the stars
Lunar (Honmiel, " Der Gestirndienst der

Origin. Alten Araber "). Nomads and shep-
herds, they regarded the night as
benevolent, the day with its withering heat as malev-
olent. In this way the moon (" Sinai '' = " moon
["sin"] mountain") became central in their pan-
theon. The moon, however, has four phases in ap-
proximately 28 days, and it seemingly comes to a
standstill every seven days. Days on which the
deity rested were considered taboo, or ill-omened.
New work could not be begun, nor unfinished work
continued, on such days. The original meaning of
"Shabbat" conveys this idea (the derivation from
"sheba' " is entirely untenable). If, as was done by
Prof. Saj''ce (in his Hibbert Lectures) and by Jastrow
(in " American Journal of Theology," April, 1898), it
can be identified in the form "shabbaton" with the
"Shabattum" of the Assyrian list of foreign words,
which is defined as "um nuh libbi " = "da}' of pro-
pitiation" (Jensen, in "Sabbath-School Times,"
1892), it is a synonym for "'Azeret" and means
a day on which one's actions are restricted, because
the deity has to be propitiated. If, with Toy (in
"Jour. Bib. Lit." xviii. 194), it is assumed that the
signification is "rest," or "season of rest" (from the
verb " to rest," " to cease [from labor] " ; though " di-
vider "and "division of time" are likewise said to
have been the original significations; comp. also
Barth, "Nominalbiidungen," and Lagarde, "Nomi-
nalbildung "), the day is so designated because, be-
ing taboo, it demands abstinence from work and other
occupations. The Sabbath depending, in Israel's
nomadic period, upon the observation of the phases
of the moon, it could not, according to this view,
be a fixed day. When the Israelites settled in the
land and became farmers, their new life would have
made it desirable that the Sabbath should come at
regular intervals, and the desired change would have
been made all the more easily as they had abandoned
the lunar religion.

Dissociated from the moon, the Sabbath developed
into a day of rest for the workers and animals on
the farm (Deut. v. 14; Ex. xx. 10). Traces of the
old taboo are, however, still found. In Amos viii.
5 it is the fear of evil consequences that keeps
the impatient merchants from plying their wicked
trade. The multitude of sacrifices (Isa. i. 8; Ilosea
ii. 11) on Sabbath and New Moon indicates the anxi-
ety on those particidar days to projiitiate the deity.
Closer contact with Assyro-Babylonians from the
eighth to the sixth pre-Christian century probably
revitalized the older idea of taboo. The assumption

591

THE JEWISH ENCVn.oll.DlA

Sabbath

that the Hebrews borrowed the institution from the
Biihyloiiiuns, which was first suggested by Lolz
(•'Qiiii'stiom-s (le Hisloria Suhbati"), is unti-nablc;
but tiiat tiie Exile strengthened tlie awe in which
tlie day was lield can not be denieil. It liaving
become a purely social institution, a day of rest for
the farmers, tlie taboo element in course of time had
lost its emphasis. The Assyro-Babylonians may
liave had similar days of abstinence or jiropitiation
(the 7th, 14th, 19th, 21st, and 28th of tlie month
Elul), and contact with them may have served to
lend the Jewish Sabbath a more austere character.
The Assyrian calendar seems to disclose an elTort
to get rid of the movable Sabbath in favor of
the ti.xed. If after the twenty -eighth
Assyrian day two days are intercalated as
Analogues, new -moon days, the IDlh day be-
comes the 49tli from the beginning
of the next preceding month, as in tiie Feast of
Weeks, in connection with which the emphasis
on "complete Sabbaths" ("sheba' Shabbot temi-
mot"; Lev. xxiii. 15) is noteworthy. At all events,
in the Priestly Code, Sabbath violation is repre-

Candlcstick Used in Blessing the Sabbath Light.

(From a drawing by Vi<"fer8.)

sented as entailing death (Num. xv. 32-36). The
prohibition against kindling tire (Ex. xxxv. 3) prob-
ably refers to producing lire by the fire-drill or by
rubbing two sticks together; this was the crime of
the man put to death according to Num. xv. 32-3G.
the "mekoshesh " (see also Bezah iv. 7), the presence
of fire being considered, if the analogy with super-
stitious practises elsewhere is decisive, a very grave
sign of disrespect to the deity.

But Hebrew institutions are often in direct antag-
onism to similar ones among the Assyro-Babylonians.
The seventh days in the Babylonian scheme were

days of ill omen. The prophetHof the 1.

peciulemphusisoii the fact that the Subbulh JHudny
of joy, as did ihnse of tin .| on tlic

futility of the propitiuiiii;; . i). The

I'riestly Codo could not Deutrulize this view. It*
rigorous <ibservance found no
tiie "Nibiluiim" (the Si-parati
Every festival in the Biblical Hcliemo in u I

with ft histijrical event. The connection oi mc
Sabbath with the Exodus, in Ihut. v. H-l.'i. \\uk al-
together vague; and to supply a in<irc tictiiiile rel*-
tion to an event in Isnirl's history th*' '^ ' ' •' ■• -is
declared to have had an iniportJiiit y, ii

the desert when manna fell (Ex. xvi. 27 ft fq.).

The Decalogue of Exodus supplies a tli'- ' -"'il
reason for the observance of the day ; its jtii- . y

reflects that of Gen. ii. 1 et neq. Both — thiHcxpluna-
tion and the story in Genesis — are unioug the !i><-'
additions to the Pentateuch.

BlBLIOGRAPIIV : In aitiJIUon U\ tho atiiii u.

lloneil In llie l)lblliiKniphli-M of th»* Bllilf I-

rich Bohn. Der Snhlxtt (m AUrti TfitlK f^

(the latest contribullDn ; It aboundM In p

h <-i. Ji

Historical and Legal : A conipurison be-
tween rabbinical Sabbath legi-slation and the data of
the Bible, Apocrypha, and Pseudi ; ' ■ *-
tablish the fact tiiat the Talniudi "f
what is implied by Sabbath "rest."
Evolution with the practical determination of
of Concep- what may and what may not Itf done
tion of on that day, is the issue of a long pr<K--
Sabbath ess of development. Even tin- coin-
Rest, mandment ("remember") in Exodus
presuppo.ses the previous exi.stcncc of
the institution ; indeed, tradition assumes that the
Sabbath law had been proclaimed at .Marah, U-fore
the Sinaitic revelation (Hashi on Ex. xv. ; Maimon-
ides, "Moreh." iii. 32; Sanh. rmy). The restoration
of Sabbath observance in Ezra and Nehemiah's time
in no sense transcended the Pentateuclial i«rdinaiici-s.
By "no manner of labor" (Ex. xx. 10. llebr.l.as the
context shows, were indicated domestic and agricul-
tural occupations (comp. B. K. v. 7). The spi-cial
mention of plowing and harvesting, and pmbuhly
the direct prohibition of kindling fire, the explicit
mention of which the Rabbis attempt ' ".in
away (Shab. 70a). suggest that, in ih.- t: • ■!-
and "household-work were covered by the BlblicHl
ideaof labor(Ex.xxxiv. 21.XXXV. 8). C -f
loads "in and out" can not be held to b. • p-
tion (Jer. xvii. 21-22). Probably Jeremiahs cen-
sure had reference to carrying to m i ' Id
of field and farm, or the art id. s n, . at
home (comp. Amos viii. 5). It is jusl this lliat
Nehemiah dejilons (Nch. xiii. l-'O-

The Maccabean reU-llion marks the beginning
of an altogether different conception of the term
"labor." The rigorists r ' ' ! selMef'-
against a mortal attack. > led in i!

tion (Josephus, " Ant." xii. 6. ?>!i 2-3). '1
construction, then, must have been devi8e«l ...
Hasidim. Mattatliias representing the broa.ler view.
That for a long time the question of what w .
mitted in this direction on the Sablwth ru; ■

ven

tli.

:er
.. ihe

open is shown by a comparison

of I Mftcc. ix. 84.

I 43; II Mace, viii.' 26; Josephus. "Ant." xii. 6. §2;

Sabbath

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

592

xiii. 1. § 3; 8, § 4; xiv. 10. § 12; xviii. 9, § 2; idem.
"B. J." ii. 21, § 8; iv. 2, ^ 3; ?V7m, "Contra Ap." i.
§ 22; Ta'an. 28b, 29a; 'Ar. lib. Rabbinical law
is still busy debating in Sliab. vi. 2, 4 whctiicr
weapons" may be carried on the Sabbath, and what
are weapons and wliat onianients. Some latitude
is allowed soldiers in camp ("Er. i. 10; Dem. iii. 11),
and such as had gone forth carrying arms on the
Sabbath to wage war were permitted to retain their
weapons even when returning on the Sabbath (Yer.
Shab. i. 8; 'Er. iv. 3; 15a; Maimonides, "Yad,"
Melakim. vi. 11, 13).

Freedom to move about is indis-pensable to mili-
tary operations; but tlie interdict against marching,
walking, or riding established by the rabbinical law
rendered military ventures im\)ossible on the Sab-
bath. In the time of Josephus this

Military interdict was known. He reports that
Ex- Jewi.sh soldiers do not march on the

ceptions. Sabbath, their non-Jewish command-
ers respecting their religious scruples
("Ant." xiv. 10, § 12; xviii. 3, § 5). The "Sabbath
way " (see 'Erub), limited to 2,000 ells, is fully rec-
ognized in the New Testament (comp. Acts i. 12).
The institution of this Sabbath way, or walk, clearly
shows a purpose to extend the established limits.
There were several calculations by which the limit of
distance was arrived at. In the injunction concern-
ing the gathering of manna (Ex. xvi. 29) the phrase-
ology used is, " Let no man go out of his place. " But
this noun " place " is used also in the law concerning
the cities of refuge (Ex. xxi. 13). In Num. xxxv.
26 the "limit" or border of the city is named, while
verses 4 and 5 of the same chapter give 2,000 ells as
its extent ('Er. 48a). Josh. iii. 4 also is considered,
2,000 ells being the interval that must be maintained
between the ark and the i)eople. "Whether this dis-
tance should be measured in a straight line in one
direction, or whether it should be taken from the
center of a circle, was open to argument. If tlie lat-
ter, freedom to move within a circle 4,000 ells in
diameter would result. This would certainly an.swer
the ordinary needs of the Sabbath walker ('Er. iv.
3, 5, 8 ; R. H. ii. 5). By another calculation, in which
the area of limitation is a S(iuare, with each side of
4,000 ells, even greater latitude is arrived at; move-
ment along the border-lines as well as along the di-
agonal would be free ('Er. iv. 8; see Baneth, "Ein-
leitung zum Traktat Eruljin ").

In reference to other Sabbath distances, the tradi-
tional four ells, so often found in specifications of
proportions and quantities, are given as the limit
(Yoma i. 2; Suk. i. 10; Ber. iii. 5; B. B. ii. 4, 5, 12).
Within the distance of four ells throwing was allowed
(Shab. xi. 3, 4). Only so much water might be
poured out on the Sabbath as four ells square of
ground would absorb ('Er. viii. 9, 10; for other in-
stances see 'Er. i. 2; iv. 1, 5; x. 4, 5). How these
four ells should be measured is also a matter of serious
inquiry ('Er. iv. 5, 6). Thus the Mishnali preserves
the evidence of a constantly active desire to relax
the rigor of probably Hasidean constructions. For
this purpo.se the legal fiction of the 'erub was re-
sorted to, creating constructively a new residence.
Perliaps, originallv, huts were built (for instance,
the huts, 2,000 paces apart, for those that accom-

panied the scapegoat on Yom Kippur; Yoma vi. 4;
Bohn, "Der Sabbat im Alten Testamente," p. 72,
Guterslohe, 1903). Against this 'erub the S.\u-
DLCEES (literalists) are reported to have protested
('Er. vi. 1, 2). It is well known that the Samari-
tans withdrew freedom of movement almost entirely,
as did tlie Essenes (" B. J." ii. 8, § 9). The gloss to
R. H. ii. 5 is indicative of the exist-
Restricted cnce of similarly rigorous views among
Freedom of others. At first, in the case of an ob-
Movement. servation of the new moon on Sab-
bath, the witnesses were not permitted
to move about; but later R. Gamaliel allowed them
the freedom of 2,000 ells in every direction. Such
laws as the one that he who has exceeded the
"tehum" (Sabbath distance) even by one ell may
not reenter point to the same conclusion ('Er. iv.
11). Traveling on a ship was not prohibited,
though even in this case the disposition at one time
was to require the traveler to remain on the ship
three days previous to sailing if the day of departure
was the Sabbath, circumstances, of course, necessi-
tating certain exceptions (Shab. 19a; "Sefcrha-Tc-
rumah," quoted in "Shibboie ha-Leket," cd. Buber,
p. 41). A fictitious "shebitah" (acquisition of
domicil) helped to remove the rigoristic construc-
tion. During the voyage itself it sufliced, even for
the stricter interpreters, if the passenger informed
the captain of his desire that the ship should lay to
on the Sabbath. No responsibility rested upon him
if his desire were disregarded. On Sabbath, during
tlie voyage, the Jew might walk the whole length
of the ship even if her dimensions exceeded the
measure of the Sabbath way {ib.). Still, R. Joshua
and R. Akiba are remembered as having refrained,
while on a voyage, from walking farther than four
ells on shipboard on the Sabbath ('Er. iv. 1).

The fact that artificial "gezerot" (apprehensions
lest a forbidden act be done) are adduced to explain
the so-called "shebutim " (Bezah v. 2), i.e., acts that
ought to be omitted on Sabbath (for instance, climb-
ing a tree or riding on an animal), discloses a purpose
to relax the law. It is most probable that at one
time the acts classified vmder this name were not
proscribed. Only later practise prohibited them,
and when a less strict spirit began again to assert
itself, it was found that there was not sulficient war-
rant for the enforcement of the prohibition.

In the case of riding on the Sabbatli this evolu-
tionary process is ])lain. The prohibition appears
to have been first promulgated during the Hasmo-
nean period. But riding, especially

Restric- on asses, was the usual mode of loco-
tions motion, and the injunction seems not
on Riding, to have been readily heeded. An in-
stance exists of a court that, desiring
to make an example, put an offender to death (Yeb.
90b; Sanh. 46a; Yer. Hag. ii. 1). Yet Elisha ben
Abuj'ah is rejiorted to have ridden on horseback
within the limits of the Sabbath distance, R. Meir
following to hear him discourse on the Torah until
thohoofsof the horse reminded him that he ought to
turn back, as he had ridden the full length of the
distance permitted (Hag. 15a). While the names of
riders mentioned in the Talmud are mostly those
of apostates, yet the Talmud affords no justifica-

593

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sabbath

tion for the proliibition (see L(iw, "Gcsamiiulic
Schriftcn," iv. 'SO') et seq.). Tlie Tiilmud ussimii'S
tliiit every living creature carries itself (Sliab. $)4a);
lieiice tlie liorse or ass does not carry a burden wlien
ridden by a man ; and in oider to (ind some basis for
the injunction, rabbinical writers allege the appre-
hensiiui that the rider niigiit cut a switch on tlie
way with which to whip the horse, and therel)y be-
come a violator of tlie Sabbath (Shab. loSb; Mai-
monides, " Yad," Shabbat, xviii. 10-17; Tiir Grab
Hayyim, 305). It was a rule not to sell or hire ani-
mals to nou-Jews lest they be deprived of their Sab-
bath rest. The horse alone was excejjted, since it
would be used only for riding, which was not in
Taimudic law a violation of the Sabbath ('Ab. Zarah
i. 6; IHa; Pes. iv. 3^.

liud a reason for this prnlijbftion. but the multttmle
of tlie oxplanutions advanced— fear of mixing j<>\»;
apprehensions that [.reparation fortlie wwJdJugfeoiH
might lead to infraction of Sabbath laws; it.
sliows the embarraH.sment of tin- luN-r teucherM <i\- :
i. 1). Excefit in the ca.se of w whtcii were

forbidden, later practise whh op,,..,. .. i., thai of tin-
Samaritans (Ned. ii. 10, vlii. 6).

The Puritan ehanicter of the rubl .ili is

siiown in tiie aversion, dcduciblu :. .„. ..iw«.

to lo\id noises (instance Simeon ben Yohni'H re|)ro«if
of his mother for louil talking), <-l:i

striking with a hammer, trumpet .

(LOW, I.e. ii. 35.')). While to someof tijc moreoHcelic
rabbis any loud demonstration of joy '
a]iproachc(| irrevereru^- and impiety, it i l

.-r<Jf.

Sabbath Eve'Ckremonies in a Cer.man Jkwish Ho.mk ok thk Kn.iirKK.sTJi ( k.nh ku

(From K'lrchner, " JUdinche* Cerenionlil," 1156.)

The prohibition against kindling a fire was rigor-
ously and literally observed by the Samaritans (Leo-
jiold Wreschncr, " Samaritanische Tra-
Against ditionen," p. 15; De Sacy, "Notices
Kindling- et Ex traits," xii. 163, 176). The Sad-
Fire. ducees, as were later the Karaites,

were similarly convinced that light
and tire should not be found on Sabbath in the habi-
tations of the faithful (Geiger, " Nacligelassene
Schriftcn," vol. iii.). The purpo-se of rabbinico-
Pluirisaic casuistr}' is to combat tiiis ascetic literal-
ism. Hence its insistence on the lighting of the lamps
and its micrologic devices for keeping food warm ;
it accommodated itself to the rigorism of the literal-
ists only so far as to avoid the creation o£ an open,
flaming lire (Shab. ii., iv.). Marital indulgence on
the Sabbath was regarded as a profanation by the
Samaritans (De Sacy, I.e.). This opinion prevailed
also in the earlier rigoristic period of Sabbath le.cis-
lation. Weddings were not permitted on the Sab-
bath (Bezah v. 2). Later casuistry endeavored to
X.— 38

that the minor reasons adduced in regard to music
(e.g., lest musicians might be tempted to make or
repair instruments, or the estimate of music nn
"labor," not "art" [noan]) indicate that as,
tendencies had but little todowitlithe prohibui<-ii
of it. In llie later post-Tabnudical days n«)n Jew-
ish musicians were employed on the Sabbntii.

But the employment of nonJew.s to do wlial it
was not lawful for the Jew to do on the Sablmtli

present«-d dirticulties. If ther "
Employ- servants tiiey might not work \l.\
ment of the xx.). By a legal fiction, however, tlie
"Goy." i)resum|>tion wa.s esi '■ that in

reality the non-Jew v. for him

self (see "Sliibbole ha Leke?." pp. 84^r *v- : " Yad."
I.e. vi.). Among the thirty-nine cla!vs<snf f " ■\

acts are also swimming, jumping, dancing. -;

court (but comp. Sanh. 88b). performing the ceie
mony of halizah, sitting aside as holy. V'
pay the value of things so set aside, puttii;. r

the ban (a beast as devoted to the Temple), and

Sabbath

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

594

collecting the priest's portion or the tithes (Bezah
V. 2).

The Book of Jubilees reflects the earlier, more
rigid conception of the Sabbatii. The acts euuiner-
ated therein as forbidden are almost identical w itli
those found in llie Mishnah. Its temjier is evidenced
by the fact that it makes deatli tlie penalty for vio-
lations. Later, flagellation was substituted for the
severer penalty.

In the Halakah the observance of the Sabbath,
like any other Pentateuchal ordinance or statute,
is treated as a legal duty or debt laid upon the
Israelite, and the manner and measure in wliich this
duty must be discharged are legally fi.xed. Undoul)t-
edly, in the case of the Sabbath as in that of other
institutions, the Ifciiakah legalized and
Principle S3'stematized customs of long stand-
of ing, endeavoring to connect Ihem with

Halakah. Pentateuchal te.\t and iirecedent. This
systematizalion resulted in the accen-
tuation of limitations. Under the general precept
a luimber of specilic prescriptions were evolved.

acts are in themselves permi-ssible, though they may
involve possible, though not unavoidable, infrac-
tions of the Sabbath law. Unless a previous inten-
tion was manifest to perform an act in a way that
would lead to inciilental violation, tliis latter is net
to be taken into account. If, however, the secondary
violation is necessarily involved in the usually per-
missible act, even though no intention to violate tiie
Sabbath may be imputed, the perix'tratnr is guilty.
The existence of a good motive for doing a thing
that is prohibited does not e.vonerate the doer thereof.
For instance, extinguishing a light
Motive is forbidden ; it is forbidden also to
Considered, extinguish it for the purpose of econ-
omizing oil. The motive, however,
is decisive in cases where one act was intended and
another of dilTerent scope is accidentally performed.
Where two men perform one piece of work {ej/.,
carry a beam) in conunon, but each alone does less
than would render him liable, and it is within the
power of either to do it alone, both are cxemjit.
But where the work exceeds the strength of each

Devices for Kekping Water a.nd Food War.m on Sabbath.

(From Bodenschatz, " Kirchliche Verfassung^" IT4S.)

Again, the principle of "a fence around the Law"
led to the enactment of precautionary regulations.
Still, rabbinical Sabbath legislation was by no means
altogether restrictive. In many instances its effect
was to broaden the scope of the Biblical law or its
literal interpretation (see 'Erub).

The subtleties which this legalism engendered are
illustrated by the first mishnah in Shabbat, which
analyzes the possibilities of Sabbath violation in
connection with carrying from one territory into
another, or in the passing of alms from the donor
within the house to the donee outside it.

Another example is furnished by the following
abstract of Maimonides' first chapter of Shabbat.
To rest from labor on the Sabbath ("shebitah ") is a
mandatory commandment. Transgression thereof,
however, violates both a positive and a negative
precept, as the Pentateuch enjoins rest as well as
prohibits work. The penalty for intentional viola-
tion by work is excision ("karet"); if there were
witnesses to the act and the Irgal warning (" ha-
tra'ah")had been given, the penalty was stoning.
Unintentional desecration (-ntails the bringing of the
prescribed sin-offering. The law analyzes and dis-
criminates among the various kinds of acts: some

alone, and it is necessarj^ to do it together, both are
guilty. Work which destroys merely (" mekalkel ")
does not entail a penalty ; but destruction prelim-
inarj' to building is forbidden.

With a view to more thoroughly safeguarding
the Sabbath against profanation an hour of the pre-
vious day (■' 'ereb Shabbat ") was added to it. This^
was called "adding from the i)rofane to the holy "
(Shidhan 'Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 261, 2). The Pen-
tateuchal warrant for this was found in the use of
the definite article in Gen. i. 31 (l^t^'n, "the sixth
day ") or in Ex. xx. 10 (^yatrn, "the seventh day ";
see Gen. R. ix. ; Pesik. li. 23). Indeed, to a certain
extent Friday was included in the Sabbath legisla-
tion. Everybody was expected to rise very early
on that day in order to make the purchases neces-
sary for a worthy celebration of the Sabbath (Shab.
117b; Orah Hayyim, 2o0); the greater the outlay

the greater the merit (Yer. Sanh. viii.

Friday 2). Personal participation in various

Prepara- jirejiarations for the meals was recom-

tion. mended; indeed, many among the

most learned were remembered as hav-
ing proudly shared in such preparations (Shab. 119a;
Kid. 41a; Orah Hayyim, I.e.). According to one of

595

THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA

Sabbutt)

the ten ordinances of Ezra, Jewish women were ad-
vised to bake bread early on Friday to sujjply tlie
poor (U. K. 8:Ja).

The details of the toilet, such as the dressing of hair
and paring of fingernails, were attended to iiel'ore
the advent of the Sabbath (Shah. 2r)b. 31a; Sanli.
y.ja ; Bezah 37b ; Orah llayyini, 2(iU). Workaday gar-
ments were exchanged for better Sabbath clothes
(Shab. llfla; B. K.82b; Orah Ilayyini, 2G2). While
it was still daylight the table was set (Shab. lUhi;
Orah Jlayyini, I.e.), and it became the custom to
cover the table with a white cloth (Tos. Tes. IdOb,
s.v. "She'en ''); this was held to be in memory of the
manna, as was a certain favorite 'ereb Shabbat pie
consisting oi two layers of dough between which
the meat was placed ("nnilai" is the name given by
MaHalUL; Hilkot "Shabbat"). Two loaves of
bread, also in allusion to the manna, were to be on
the tal)le (Shab. 117a; Ber. iJOb; see Kii:)DUsii).
Near dusk the head of the family would inquire:
"Have you set aside the tithe, made the 'erub, and
separated the hallah? " U])on receiving an allirma-
tive answer, he would say : " Then light the lamp "
(Orah Hayyiin, 260).

According to the IMishnah (Shab. i. 3), a tailor
should not venture out near dusk with his needle
(stuck in his coat); nor a writer of books with his
pen; one should not read near the lamp, though
children might do so under the supervision of the
master. In fact, work was declared unjiropitious
after "miiihah " (construed to be the "minhah gedo-
lah," i.e., thirty minutes after noon; Pes. 51b; Orah
T.Iayyim, 2~>\). Yet this applied only to work for
personal profit; such work as was styled "work
of heaven," i.e., work from a religious or some high,
altruistic motive, was permitted. Long walksaway
from one's home on Friday were discountenanced
(Orah Hayyim, 249). Such work as could not be
finished before the beginning of the Sabbath, but
would "finish itself" during the Sabbath (as in the
case of rta.x put into an oven to bleach), might be
begun near uusk on 'ereb Shabbat (Orah Hayyim,
252). So was it lawful to put food intended for the
Sabbath where it would stay warm, though luiiier
certain conditions and precautions (Shab. 18b, 38a;
Tos. ib., s.v. " ShaUah Kederah " ; " Or Zarua'," s.r.
"'Ereb Shabbat," 9; " Shibbole ha-Leket," p. -14
[57] ; Orah Hayyim, 253, 254, 257-259).

The lighting of the lamp was considered an obli-
gation which had to be discharged before darkness
set in (Shab. 25b, 31a; " Yad," Shabbat, v. 1). This
duty could be deputed to a non-Jew (Orah Hayyim,
261), but so essential was the Sabbath light consid-
ered to a joyfid celebration that one was advised to
beg for the oil if necessary ("Yad," I.e.). A bene-
diction was prescribed (Tos. Shab. 25b, .v. /•. " Hobali " ;
R. Tarn, in " Sefer ha-Yasliar." s^ 622; "Yad," I.e.;
Ber. R. xi., Ixv. ; Pesik. R. 21). Men and women
alike were under this obligation, though its dis-
charge generally fell upon the women
The ("Yad," I.e. v. 3). Some rabbis de-

Sabbath inanded that at least two lamps should
Lamp. be lighted, one to express the " zaUor"
(remember) of Ex. xx., and the other
tlie"shamor " (observe) of Dent. v. (Shab. 33b). The
Sabbath meal might be eaten only where the lamp

was binning (,>iii;iij. -ijt,, j ^

Explicit (iireetionsHre gi\. ^ ^^

for the wick, the kind of oil that wu8 lawful, tliemau-
ner of lighting the lump, ' .v fur. ],t

profit from the light of tli< u lamp (. ; ., ..;jg

and other purpoHes (Siiui). ii. 1 ; " Vud. "/.<-. v.). Lm-
ter authorities (pn-stion whether I ' ' p

marked the beginningof the .Sul, bill, ,r

Sabbath di<l not set in unlii alter tlic pruycTtt Imd
been recited and ^lidduslj performed (mt- "Tanla
Habbali."ed. Warsaw, j.. aOa). In Pal. -.lin.- ih.- aj,
proachof iheSabliiilh wuNunnuuiiccd IjyHJx Irn
blasts, with an interval alter each b' ■ •
workers a succession of warnings lo c. . ,r

labors (Orah l.layyim, 256; "Ynd."/.c. v. ii^etttq.).
One of the solicitudes of rabbialail hiw wan to
enforce the exceptional <liaracter of Hie Sablmlh as
a day of rejoicing and ;-ood cheer; hence on Friilay
no sumptuous repast was t(» be eaten, uol even ul a
wedding, in order that all might anticipute tlie Suh-
bath meal with avidity. Some of tjie i n

went to the length .)f fasting during Fii<hr. it

to whet their appetite (Orah Hayyiin. 249). For
this reason, most of the people 1 . the

service in the synagogue on the <\ - n wiw

shortened; the reader, in.stead of reciliug Uie tcfll-
lah, gave an epitome of it (Ber. 21 . " Ac-

cording to Shab. ii. 1, tlie"Bameli .M wa«

read (see "Sefer ha-.Manhig" and " Kol Bo'). An-
other reason for abbreviating the service was that
evil spirits were said to roam about «in this evening
in greater numbers than on other evenhigs (coinp.
Rashi, "Sefer ha-Pard'^"; T'.s. 112b). Sve l\ii»-

ULSH.

The Mislmah (Shab. vii. 2) eiiitiiierutcs thirty-
nine principal classes of prohibitetl m- " ■■- ilieao
"abot"(lit. "fathers" or "chief aUt-;. com-

prehending, when developed casuistic ally, a large
variety of "toledot" (lit. "fiJTspring" or "de-
rivatives"). The number mentioned lias been
recognized as conventional even by Tn - ■■<'

list as given containing virtual duplii .lo

certain kinds of work are clearly oniitttHl (Sliub. 74a).
The explanation is thai \\ Uir l^

The Thir- done in the erection of lh« T. k?

ty-nine in the desert was ch».s.sifio«l ns "princl-

Prohibited pal." even if this lenileied v> ' ' ' i-

Acts. plications necessary (»/',). 1 i

ber is derivetl from tlio phni,«K> n7K

D'"l3Tn (••These are the words") in Ex. xxxv. 1

(\vv. Shab. 9b; Shab. 70a; Num. H. xviii. ; Tan..

Korah). the numerical value of M^K IwinglW. ami

as "debarim " isplunil it must signify at 1. a "

while the article j)refixcd indicates that it - r

"three" (30 -f- 3 = 39). The misreading in I iu .
Korah, wh(-renip^D{' beatings ")apiM"irs for n^rN^D
("labors"), disclo.ses the Irui- nature of the nuuilK-r.
"Forty," in Hebrew, tienotes the extreme iiimiiIkt
or quantity in the conniKtiim in wliich it is iistxl;
for instance. " forty " lashes inonns the utmost num.
ber of lashes that may be inllirted in «•
Hence, in order to remain within the li:. : -h

one was fixeil upon as the greatest number of IhiJu-h
that might be infiicted upon the culprit. The mish-
nah in regard to the clas.ses of prohibite*! aetiona
follows the prccetlent, and l)orn>wM the phraseology

Sabbath

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

596

("forty. less oue,") used in regard to flagellation.
See S.xBB.xTn L.a.\vs.

Maimonides (" Yad." Shabbat, vii.) lias the same
enumeration, thougli in different order and witii
verbal changes, and willi tlie substitution of "ruling
[the hide] with lines" for the "salting it" of the
Mislinah. According to Driver (Hastings, "Diet.
Bible," iv. 320, note -1), ]^Iargolioutli (in "Exposi-
tor," Nov., 1900, pp. 336 ^f «<'7.) cites, from an un-
edited Persian manuscript of the eleventh century,
a catalogue of tiiirty-eight forbidden acts containing
many variants from the Mishnah. An examination
of the thirty-nine discloses that they comprise only
the agricultural and industrial occujiations as known
in the mishnaic period (LOw, "Graphische Requisi-
ten," ii. 28). But these thirty-nine principals ex-
panded into 1,521 (=39x3!)) derivatives (Yer.
Shab. vii. 2); though even before R. Johanan b.
Nappaha and R. Simeon ben Lnkish, after three and
a half years' study of tlie Sabbath laws, iiad made
this discovery, a mishnah in Hagigah (i. 8) had
characterized these ainiililications as "mountains
susiK'nded by a hair."

A few examples ma}' serve to illustrate the method
and system of this expansion. The general princi-
ple being given tiiat " knots shall not be tied or un-
tied," it was necessarj' to determine the kinds of
knots that were proscribed. This led to the dec-
claration that a camel-driver's or boatman's knot was
intended; or a knot that could not be untied with
one hand. Knots might be tied by a woman on
articles of dress, or in packing articles of food. A
pail might be fastened with a band, but not with a
rope. ]\Iicrological as all this seems at tirst glance,
closer inspection discloses the sound
TJnderly- underlying principle that work done
ing Princi- on Sabbath to save labor on another
pie of daj' renders guilty. Permanent knots,

Prepara- says R. Juilah, are prohibited (Mai-
tion. monides, "Yad," I.e. x., says "profes-

sional knots"; comp. Shab. Ilia,
112b). This is apinuent also from tlie provision that
one may not, on the Sabbath, prepare the couch for
the following evening (Shab. iii., xv.).

The things that might be saved from a conflagra-
tion constituted anotiier solicitude of rabbinical Sab-
bath legislation. Sacred books, no matter in what
language they might be written, might be saved,
though on this point, and as to Avliether the books
of Christians, as containing the name of God, were
included, some rf)ntroversies are reported (Shab.
xvi. 1, 115a). Non-Jews were invited to help in
such cases. Of course, it was not lawful to resort
to the usual method of putting out the lire if no life
were endangered (" Yad," /.c. xii. 3); but indirect
means might be resorted to, such as covering with
a hide or making a barrier Ijy piling up vessels (Shab.
xvi. 5).

But the injunction against carrying received the
greatest attention. Territories were classified under
four heads ("reshuyot"; Siiai). (ia): (1) " Hesliut
ha-yahid ": To this belonged an elevation ten spans
in lieight and four by four or more in width; an
excavation ten spans deep and fouror morein width;
a space enclosed by four walls ten spans high and
four wide, no matter wliat its area, if intended for

dwelling purposes; a city walled in and with gates
shut at night; or covered passages with three en-
closures, the fourt-li being a board; a iiouse and
courtyard used for dwelling imrposes (" Yad," /.c.
xiv. 1). (2) " Karmalit " : A heap from three to ten
spans in height and four by four in width; a cor-
responding excavation or depression; an area en-
closed b}' four walls three to ten spans in height;
a corner adjoining the " rcshut ha-rabbim" (the pub-
lic domain), with three walls on three sides and the
public reshut on the fourth {e.fj., a covered jias-
.sage without board or beam on the fourth side). (3)
The public domain: Deserts, towns, market-places,
and roads at least tifteen cul)its wide. (4) " Makom
patur": A free, open space, t.e., a place less than
four by four sjians in width and three or more spans
in height; what is less than three in height is con-
sidered the earth, so that thorn-bushes in the public
domain, if less than four by four in width, belong
to this class ("Yad," I.e.). ' For tiie cirect of the
'Erur see article.

Another consideration involved in this injunction

is as to what one may wear abroad on the Sabbath.

Arms, certain kinds of sandals, signet-rings in tiie

ease of women, ]ilain rings in that of

Sabbath the men (though women were cau-
Garb. tioned against wearing these orna-
ments at all), and many more things
in connection with the toilet, were under the ban
(see " Yad," I.e. xix.). Under certain conditions the
liead-dress might be considered as a form of build-
ing, and therefore projiibited on the Sabbat li (Yer.
Shab. 12c, where plaiting is regarded as building).
Later literature on the toilet for the Sabbath is very
extensive, and historically valuable as showing ma.s-
culine and feminine customs of attire ("Siiibbole
ha-Leket," pp. 38 et f>r(/.). It maj' be noted that in
decisions made in the jVIiddle Ages it is assumed that
the Jews had at that time no regular reshut ha-
rabbim.

The cautions again.st wearing jewels and similar
ornaments were not insjiired by Puritanical moods
or views. The Sabbath was always and essentially
a day of rejoicing. Hence fasting was forbidden,
even for half a day (Ta'an. iii. 7; Yer. Ta'an. GTa;
Yer. Ned. 40(1; Judith viii. 6). Moiirning was in-
terrupted by the Sabbath CM. K. v. 3).

The technical term for susjiensionsof the Sabbath

is "dohin et ha-Shabbat " (push aside or set back

the Sabbath). For a higher dut}', that of observing

the Sabbath was held in abeyance. A ]iriest might

violate the Sabbath in the discharge

Suspen- of his sacerdotal work at the altar, or
sions of the wliile performing the saerilicial rite.

Sabbath, orany other function, assigned tohim.
For "en Shabbat ba-mikdash " the Sab-
bath law is not applicable to the service in the Tem-
ple (Pes. 65a). Acts necessary for the Passover are
not affected by the prohibitions (Pes. vi. 1, 2). The
blowing of the shofar is permitted (R. H. iv. 1), A
Lcvite may tie a broken string on his instrument
while performing in the Temple ('Er. x. 13). Cir-
cumcision also takes precedence of the Sabbath,
tiiough whatever preparations for this rite can be
completed previously should not be left for the
Sabbath (Shab. xviii. 3, xix. 1-3). But whenever

597

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sabbath

there was danger to life, or where a Jewish woman
was in the throes of childbirth, the Sabbath hiw was
set aside (Shab. xviii. 3). In the case of one dan-
gerously siei<, wiiateverwas ordered by a eotnjietent
physician niiglit be done regardless of the Sabbath;
but it had to be done by pious and prominent Jews,
not by non-Jews (" Yad," I.e. ii. 1-3). It was for-
bidden to delay in such a case, for it was intended
that man should live by the Law, and not die
through it (Yoina 85a, b; Sanh. 74a; 'Ab. Zarah
27b, 54a; Mek., Ki Tissa). Water might be heated
and the lamps lighted. In accidents, too, every help
might be extended. Some restrictions were placed
on the choice of lluids to relieve toothache or of oint-
ments to relieve pain in the loins (Shab. xiv. 4). A
sprained member might not have cold water poured
over it, but it might be bathed in the usual way
(Shab. xxii. 6).

It was permissible to take animals to water, pro-
vided they carried no load ("Shibbole ha-Leket," p.
74, where it is explained that covers necessary for
the comfort of the animal are not considered a load).
Water might be drawn into a trough so that an
animal miglit go and drink of its own accord ('Er
20b). If an animal has fallen into a well, it is pro-
vided with food until Sabbath is over, if this is
possible; but if it is not, covers, cushions, and mat-
tresses are placed under it so that it may get out
without further aid ; the pain of the animal is suffi-
cient excuse ("za'ar ba'ale hayyim ") for this Sab-
bath violation. But the animal might not be drawn
out by men, a precaution taken in those cases where
animals had gone astraj' and had to be driven hack
into the courtyard ("Yad," l.c.xxv. 26; Shab. 128b;
B. M. 32b; Ex. xxiii. 5).

In view of the spirit of philanthropy that, as
Maimonides constantly asserts ("Yad," I.e. ii. 3),
underlies the Law, it is difficult to understand the
controversies with Jesus attributed to the Piiarisees
in the New Testament. In Mutt. xii. 1, Mark ii. 23,
Luke vi. 1, the disciples plucked and rubbed the ears
of corn and thus violated a rabljinical Sabbath ordi-
nance ("Yad," I.e. viii. 3; Yer. Shab. 10a; Shab. x.
7). But the defense of Jesus assumes that the dis-
ciples were in danger of dying of starvation ; he
charges his critics with having neglected charity.
This must imply that they had not provided the
Sabbath meals for the poor (Peah viii. 7). Tims he
answers their charge with another. For the act of
his disciples there was some excuse ; for their neg-
lect to provide the Sabbath meals there was none.

In the cases mentioned in Matt. xii. 11 and Luke
xiv. 5 the "drawing up" of the animal would be
an innovation, but the provision made by the rab-
binical law for the comfort and jiossiblc escape of
the animal is also a violation of the Sabbath. In
the instance of the blind man whose
NeTv Tes- sight was restored (John ix. 6) the im-

tament portant point is not the fact that Jesus
Examples, broke the Sabbath law by kneading
(Shab. xxiv. 3), for the provisions in
regard to pain in the eyes ("Yad,"^<'. xxi. ; Yer.
Shab. xiv.) have no bearing on this ca.se; the point
involved is rather the use of magic in the restoration
of sight (comp. Shab. 67a; Sanh. 101a). In all cures
effected by Jesus this was the matter at issue, not

the incidental violation of the Sabbath, whicli might
be juslilied on the ground that life was ii. '

In John v. 2et wt/. ihe taking ujtof tin , ,ld

constitute the violation. But poshibly " betl " here is
a misreading for " stall " (" niiUali " inHt«-ad of - niut-
tell"). A "lame" pernon may carry hin cruUJi or
stall (Oiah llayyini. 301). If, more<iver. llio rttuling
" bed " must be retained, for which there in a Mtrong
presumption, another explanation may l»eH<lv(iiie<-«|.
"Take up thy bed " may be u misjippii of

the Aramaic "\i>\ we ?e," tlie well-knowi. ; da

for bidding one dei)art, "tol" lielng conKtriied as
"pick >ip" (naturally, therefore, "thy couch"),
when in reality it means "pick thywlf up." or
"walk away." Jesus' saying lliat the "SubUith
was made for man, and not man for the Sabbiiiii"
(Mark ii. 27) is a free translation of tlie Mekilta's
comment on Kx. xxxi. 13— "The Sabljuth is givcu
over unto you, vou are not delivered unto tlie Sab-
bath."

A brief description of the Sabbath eelebnition

under the rabbinical system may sIkuv iliat even

with all these minut(; constructi<in8 the «hiy wa.s a

bringer of unmixed joy. Tiie prepu-

Sabbath rations for the Sabbath liaving been
Cele- given in detail in a previous Mction,

bration. they need not be repealed ln-re. At
the conclusion of the servlei-R in the
synagogue with the orphans' " Ivad<li.sli." tlie at-
tendants hurried to their homes, wliere upon cross-
ing the threshold they recited the prayer. "Peace
be with ye, ye ministering angels," etc. (comp.
Shab. 1191), for the reason why the angels were
apostrophized). This prayer was precwled by the
greeting " Good Shabbat," which was alsoexchaugetl
on the way with passers by ; it was followed by the
recital, on*lhe part of the liusband, of Prov. xxxi.
10 etseq.. verses laudatory of tlie goo<i houscwfff.
after which the younger members of the family were
blessed by their jiarents; the elder sons having re-
ceived this benediction in tiie .synagogue, where the
rabbi was wont to bless all the young people of
the congregation. Every family iiad, as a rule, n
stranger as its guest, who had been to the synagogue
and had been invited to participate in the cel« bra-
tion of the Sabbath. Stutlents ate at the table of
their masters (Glldemann, "Gesch." iii. 102). The
meal on the eve of Sabi)alh began with the "Kld-
dush." The meal itself was sumptuous, lisli Im ing a
favorite dish (Abrahams. "Jewish Life in the Mulille
Ages," p. 150). The tableware was often of the
finest and costliest; there was hardly a family that
did not possessits goUl orsilver <lrinkinp cup for the
" ICiddush " and an ornamental seven-bninclic<l lamp
for Friday night (.Vbrahams. i.e. p. N6i. .\ftrr the
meal, the Ashkenazim throughout the year, the
Sephardim only in winter and sununer. sang the
"zemirot ha-Shabbat " (idem. Tr. pp. 133 r/ m^.).
This was followed by a grace ctintaining n special
reference to the Sabbath, after which all reiire<l.

On Sabbath the people .slept h»nger than on week-
days (Orah llayyim. 2X1 ; comp. Ev. xviii 4. "in the
morning," with verse 9. "ubayom ha-Shablmt."
from wiiich the inference is drawn that on w«M!k-day8
one shoidd rise early in the morning; on -" " " h.
when the dav i'* well advanced^ ,\fter iJ

Sabbath

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

598

repeating the usual nioruing prayers, they repaired
to the synagogue to recite the "shaharit," ending
with "ab ha-rahamim"; after this the Torah roll
was taken out and the proper " parashah " read, lor
which seven men were called up to the pulpit.
"Kaddish" following, the "niaftir" was called up,
special benedictions were recited, the

Sabbath Torah returned to the ark, and, finally.

Prayers, the "Musaf " pronounced. The serv-
ices ended, the second Sabbath meal
was commenced. Hands were washed and then tlie
blessing was recited over wine and bread. The meal
included the "shallet" (dish kept warm overnight in
the congregation's oven) and fruit. After this meal
" zemirot " were sung, audi grace being said, the next
hours were devoted to study or discourses on the
Ljiw. Gilils (•'hebrot") were sometimes organized
for this purpose (Abrahams, I.e. p. 327). The dis-
courses were often largely attended (see Maimonides'
letter in Abrahams, I.e. p. 236). The Kabbis regarded
the Sabbatli as a befitting occasion to exhort their
congregations. The " elders " are bidden to do this
by a "takkauah " contained in "Hukke ha-Torah "
(published by Gudemann, I.e. i. 271), especially that
the Torah may again come to its own. People of
less serious mood would walk about, or be found
dancing or gossiping in the yard of the synagogue
(Abrahams, I.e. p. 381). Mu.sic was not regarded as
incomjiatible with the character of the day, and
Christian musicians often i)layed gratuitouslj^ (see
Mordecai on Bezah v.; MallaHIL, Hilkot "'Erube
Hazerot ")•

Chess was a recreation largely indulged in on Sab-
bath, the figures being made of silver in honor of the
day. Some of the rabbis stii)uluted that no money
should change hands at the play (Low, " Lebensal-
ter," p. 328). The ^linhah service interi'upted stud-
ies, but this prayer having been concluded, the dis-
cu.ssions were resumed (Pirke Abot especially was
studied in the summer). After Minhah the third
meal, which, however, was much lighter than the
others, was served. The Sabbath concluded with
the "Habdalah."

The Sabbath was often a refreshing oasis in the
desert of persecution. Maimonides ("Moreh," ch.
ii. 31) assigns both repose of body and the symboli-
zation of God's existence as the reasons for its insti-
tution. Judah ha-Levi, a most scrupulous ob.server
of the Law, while emphasizing the joyful character
of the day, doubts that the Sabbath of the Chris-
tians and of tlie Moiiammedans is as blessed as that of
the Jews (" Cuzari," iii. 5, 9). His Sabbath hynms, as
those of Ibn Ezra and of many others, among them
being the " Lekah Dodi," attest the justice of Schech-
ter's words concerning the Sabbatli ("J. Q. R." iii.
763): "Notwith-standing rabbinical micrology, the
Sabbath was a day of delight, whose coming was
looked for with fond anticipations, whose parting
was sped with grateful regrets."

In the sy nagogal services the joyous note alone was
heard. In fact, the life of the Jews is ample testi-
mony that the Sabbath under the Law was anything
but irksome, gloomy, and fatal to spirituality. Ka-
raitic literalism succeeded in turning the Sabbath
into a burden ; but rabbinical legalism, with its legal
fictions, avoided this. The injunction not to kindle

a fire might have worked hardship: but the institu-
tion of tlie Sabbatli goy met the exigency, though
Mcir Rotheuburg and Solomon ben Adret scrupled
to avail themselves of this loophole. Even the pro-
visions regulating partnerships with and service of
non-Jews with reference to the Sabbath law may be
called legal fictions ; they are of an order of juridical
reasoning which is not foreign to modern English
and American courts. lialiiiinical law accommo-
dated itself to the demands of life.
.1. E. G. H.

Laws : The Sabbath, being the fundamental

and the most frequently recurring institution of
Judaism, naturally engaged the attention of the
Rabbis and of the codifiers to a very great extent.
The few scattered laws of the Bible pertaining to
the observance of this day grew into two large vol-
umes of the Talmud (Shabbat and 'Erubin), into
thirty-eight chapters of the code of iMaimonides,
and into 175 sections of Caro's Shulhan 'Aruk. The
present article can deal onlj- with the more impor-
tant laws, especially those having relation to the con-
ditions of modern life. These may be conveniently
treated under two headings: (1) laws prohibiting
the performance of any kind of work; and (2) tiiose
enjoining the observance of certain religious acts
and ceremonies.

I. In both Decalogues is included the prohibition
against performing any work on the Sabbath-day.
In Ex. XX. 10 this prohibition is extended to all the
members of one's family (including male and female
slaves), to one's cattle, and to "the
In the stranger that is within thy gates."
Decalogue. The sjime prohibition occurs in Deut.
V. 14, where details are added and
a philanthropic motive is assigned for the rest
to be given to the slave on that day. The trans-
gressor of this law incurs the death penalty (Ex.
xxxi. 15, XXXV. 2). No precise definition of the
term "work" is given in the Bible. From the ac-
count of the prohibition against gathering the
manna on the Sabbath, it appears that cooking and
baking were understood to be included under the
head of work (ib. xvi. 22-27). The kindling of
lights is expressly prohibited {ib. xxxv. 3). From
Ex. xxxiv. 21 (comp. the parallel passage ib. xxiii.
12) it appears that plowing, sowing, and harvest-
ing also were included in this prohibition. It is re-
lated (Num. XV. 32-36) that a man who was found
gathering sticks on the Sabbath-day was, by divine
command, stoned to death. In the prophetic books
references are found to what was then regarded as
work. Amos (viii. 5) refers to the prohibition of
trading on the Sabbath. Jeremiah (xvii. 21, 22)
emphasizes this prohibition, and warns the people
against carrying burdens or performing any kind of
work on the Sabbath-day. Nehemiaii enters into a
covenant with the people not to buy of strangers
who bring their wares to the market on the Sabbath-
day (Neh. X. 32); and when he finds this covenant
disregarded and sees the people doing all kinds of
work, as treading wine-presses, lading asses, and
carrying wine, grapes, figs, and all manner of bur-
dens, he remonstrates with the elders and closes the
gates of Jerusalem on that day, so that the mer-
chants have to remain outside the city (ib. xiii. 15-

599

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sabbutb

211 In otlier books of tlic Bibk' similar retcreiices
iirc niiide to the pcrformiince on the Sultlnithtluj' of
what was considered work; but nowhere is the term
"work "in relation to the Sabbatii strictly defined
and circumscribed. The Rabbis, however, with
their love lor legal precision, laid down strict rides
for the Sabbath, always endeavoring to find a Scrip-
tural basis for their assertions.

The INIishnah (Shab. vii. 2) enumerates thirty-nine
classes C'aixit" = " fathers") of work proiiibited on
tiie Sabbath. The.se are: sowing.
Classes of plowing, reaping, gathering into
Prohibited sheaves, thrashing, winnowing, cleans-
Work, ing, grinding, sifting, kneading, and
baking; shearing, bleaching, beating,
and dyeing wool; spinning, making a warp, making
two tlirum-threads, weaving two threads, splitting
two threads, tying, untying, sewing two stitclics,
tearing in order to sew two stitches; hunting deer,
slaughtering, skinning, and salting it (its hide), tan-
ning, scraping off the hair, cutting up (the hide);
writing two letters, erasing for the purpose of wri-
ting two letters; building, pulling down; extin-
guishing fire, kindling fire; beating with a ham-
mer; and ('arrying from one premise into another
(see ]\Iaimonides, "Yad," Shabbat, vii. 1). All of
these kinds of work were presumed by the Kabbis
to have beeu associated with the building of the
Tabernacle; and because tlie prohibition against
doing work on the Sabbatii is found in close prox-
imity to the account of the erection of the Taber-
nacle (Ex. XXXV. 2, 8), they assumed that only that
was considered work which was necessary to be
done in its construction (Shab. 73b, 96b). Each of
these thirty-nine classes comprises a number of
kinds of work which resemble it in some form or
other. Tlie specific kinds of work comprised under
one head are called the "toladot" (children) of that
class. For instance, the class of plowing, which em-
braces sucli kinds of work as digging or making
canals, has for its toladot such labors as weeding or
the pruning of trees(Shab. 103a; " Yad," I.e. viii. 1).
Similarly, reaping, which implies all kinds of har-
vesting, whether of grain, vegetables, or fruit, lias
for its toladot such acts as plucking fruit from a
tree, or tearing off grass or mold that has grown on
a box or a barrel, or cutting off a flower (Shab. I.e. :
"Yad," I.e. vii. 4, viii. 3).

There was no distinction in the punishment meted
out to the transgressor, whether lie performed one
of the chief works ("abot") or one of their toladot,
except as regards the sacrifice to be olTered in case a
number of works coming under the same head were
performed unwittingly C'shogeg"; "Yad," I.e. vii.
7, 8). In either case, if the work was done wittingly
(•' mezid ") in tlie presence of two witnesses who had
warned the transgressor of the attendant penalty, the
l>unishment was stoning ; if there were no witnesses,
the punishment was " karet " ; and if the transgres-
sion was committed unwittingly, the transgressor
had to bring a sin-offering ("hattat "; ib. i. 2).

Work on the Sabbath, in order to be punishable,
must be performed with tlie intention of doing tliis
particular work. If one threw a stone, intending to
strike a man or an animal, and the stone struck a
tree and broke one of its branches, or if one in-

leiidod to gather gmpes uud guthen-d dalfB, or viro
versji, then- was no punihiiinciit (naiTnO n3K^
mm niDK. Ker. Ittn; -Vud."/.r i.
Modiflea- m i:;, The iieceKKiiry result of any uc-
tions as to lion is rru'iirdi-d a« lyiinf in t' • n-

Punish- tionof itsautlior. w lmt4Vi r I, . tl

ment. ()bje<i may In*. For insUincc. um- who
cut olT the head of ii living bini in
order to give it to a cliiltl uh a toy. wan declared
to lie liable to piiniHiimeiil, Hiiice the deatli of the
bird was a ncces«Miry conHi-fjiieiice of the de<-apilii-
tion (niO' ^H) n^t'n P*DD> similarly. If a nmn blew
out a light, even though not for the purpoHc of be-
ing in darkness, but merely in order ? - ■••■ '' ■ -ill
or the wick, he was liable to punishni 'li.

93a; "Yad,"/.c. i. 7; comp. HAHal) adi«c.,. If.
liowever, the result was not a neeeRsury one, Hitliutigli
it did occur in consequence of the action, there wm
no punishment. If a man while walking on gmsii
tore some of the blades, he wa.s not liable to puninh-
ment, since the tearing of the grawi could not be
considered as a neeessfiry conse(jUeiiccofti;' iig

thereon (Shab. 9.m; " Yad." I.e. i. r,, 0). I rk.

in order to make the agent liable to punisliment,
had to be such as would be of advantage to him. If
a man tore garments or set lire to ohjtu-ts willi the
sole intention of destroying them, he whs not liable
to punishment. If, hr)Wever, he de.stroye<i them
with a view to later improvement, as in tearing
down a house in order to rebiiilil it. punishment fol-
lowed (Shab. lO.-)!); "Yad."/.r. i. 17. 18).

The laws relating to the Sabbath, in common with
the other ceremonial laws, are set aside in caMr of
danger to life (n33D)- Moreover, if such an oct-aslon
for the violation of the laws arises, (he work should
be done not by non-Jews or minors, but by adult
Jews or learned and pious rabbis, to
Exceptions show that while the laws of the Siil>-
When bath are important, the p' m

Life Is in of life is still more so (To.- . . -...ib.
Danger. xvi. 12: "Yad," I.e. ii. 8). In case of
dangerous illness about w! si-

cians disagree, if only one says that cer: . rk

should be done in order to save the patient's life.
no question need be asked, and any on. -r-

form such work. If a child is locked in > iiid

there is danger that it will die of fright, the door
may be battered down in order to releusi' it It is
forbidden to hinder even the diwcnition of the Sab-
bath when a life is at stake; "for the laws of the
Torah are not laws of vengeance against the world,
but laws of pity, mercy, and peace" ("Yod."/.e.

ii. 3).

The regular work of tlie Temple service was not
interrujiteil on the Sabbath (see Sacuifi<»>; TkM-
pi,E). Wars of defense might 1*0 waginl on the Sab-
Imth. Wars of offen.se w.re not to In* begun <hiring
the three days before Sabbath, but If bt-gtin earlier
they might be continued on that day (Shab. lft«:
"Yad," I.e. ii. 23-25).

The Habbis, in theirendcavor to insure the proper
observance of the Sabbath, prohibit.-d a Jew fr<.::-.
ordering a non-Jew to do any kind of work for him
on the'Sabbath day (".shebut "). If. liowcvcr. the
non-Jew performed some work f '"t

intending that the Jew should l>< ; ■'•'■'*'

Sabbath

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

600

might enjoy the product of such work. Thus the
Jew might use a light kiudleci by a uou-Jew or
grass gathered by a non-Jew for bis own benefit
(Shab. 19:1, 12:ia;""Yad," I.e. vi.). The Jew niiglit
even order the uou-Jew to do certain work for liim,
when such work was forbidden only by rabbinic
decree. Similarly, in case there was a sick person
who was not in ilaugerof death, and in whose behalf
the Jew himself dared not violate the Sabbath, the
non-Jew might be instructed to do the work (" Yad,"
I.e. ii. 10). When a non-Jew was engaged by con-
tract to do a piece of work for a Jew, the Jew did
not need to intjuire whether the non-
Sabbath. Jew worked on the Sabbath or not,
Work except when the work was to be per-
by Gentile fonncd openly and it was known that
for Jew. it was l)eiiig (lone for the Jew. Thus,
if a non-Jew entered into an agree-
ment with a Jew to build him a house, the Jew had to
stipulate iu the contract that the non-Jew siiould do
no work on that house on the Sabbath, unless it was
to be erected in a place where no Jews passed (ib. vi.
12-15). When a Jew and a non-Jew entered into
partnership, the Jew had to stipulate beforehand that
the non-Jew was to receive all the profits made on
the Sabbath and that the Jew should take all the
profits made on some other day. If such a condi-
tion was not made, tlie Jew forfeited hisshareof the
profits made on the Sabbath ('Ab. Zaiah 22a). Ac-
cording to a later opinion, when the partnership
was of such a nature that both partners worked to-
gether every day, the non-Jew might attend to the
work on the Sabbath and the Jew might take his
share of the aggregate profits (" habla'ah " ; R. Nis-
sim on Alfasi, 'Ab. Zarah i., end, s.r. " Umeha," and
Shab. xvi., en^, s.v. " We-Yisrael " ; Shulhan 'Aruk,
Grab Hayyim, 245, 1, Lsserles' gloss).

The Raijbis forbid also the handling on the Sab-
bath-day of objects that are " set aside " (" mukzeh ")
for work prohibited on that daj'. For instance, it is
forbidden to handle money, stones, boards, and ob-
jects not regarded as vessels (e.f/., a candlestick in
which candles have burned, although they are now
extinguished, or a purse in which money has been
hehl, although now empty), since these objects were
" set aside " for service such as is not permitted on the
Sabbatli. Vessels or other objects that are iised in
work proliit)ited on the Sabl)ath may not be lian-
dled unless they are needed for an action that may
be performed. For instance, a hammer may be
handled if it is needed for the imrpose of cracking
nuts, or if the place whereon it lies is needed ; but it
may not be handled for its own sake, e.g., to pro
vide against its being stolen or damaged. It is also
forbidden to handle objects that came into their
present form of existence on tlie Sabbath ("nolad"),
as an egg laid, fruit that fell from a tree, or milk
milked by a non-Jew, on that day (" Vad," I.e. xxv.,
xxvi. ; oVah Hayyim. 308, 13).

Basing their action on the Scriptural passage, "If
thou turn away thy foot from tlie Sabbatli, from
doing thy pleasure on my holy day . . . and shalt
honor him, not doing thine own ways, nor finding
thine own pleasure, nor speaking tliine own words"
(Isa. Iviii. 13), the TJabbis forbid conversation about
ordinary. matters of business; also unnecessary ex-

ertion, as running, for any purpose not connected
with worship or study. Tlius a man is forbidden
to examine his fields, to hire work-
Speaking- men, to walk (even less than the for-
on Business l)itiden distance) from tlie town and

Matters wait on the way till sunset and then
Forbidden, proceed on his journey, to calculate,
to read business or even jiersonal let-
ters, to speak of profane objects, and the like. It
is, however, permitted to speak or calculate about
matters pertaining to holy purposes or to coninuinal
alfairs, as the engaging of a teacher to teach one's
child religion or a trade, or to speculate about mat-
ters of congregational concern (Shab. loOa; "Yad,"
I.e. xxiv. ; Orah Hayyim, 300-307).

"With regard totiie lawsrelatiug to the prohibition
of the transportation of objects from one place to
another on the Sabbath, the Rabbis distinguish
several kinds of premises, e.g., "rcsliut ha-yahid,"
premises belonging to an individual, measuring at
least four square handbreadths( ''tefahim "), and
surrounded by a fence at least ten handbreadths in
height; "reshut ha-rabbim," public premises, as
streets, market-places, or thoroughfares, measuring
at least sixteen cubits in width; "karmelit," prem-
ises that can be considered neither as public nor as
private propert}', as fields that are not enclosed,
streams that are at least ten handbreadths deep and
four wide, the sides and corners of streets, or stands
erected in front of stores and similar places. In the
reshut ha-rabbim and in the karmelit it is forbidden
to carry an object a distance of four cubits. In the
reshut ha-yahid transportation is permitted. The
main prohibition is against removing an object
from private pioperty to public ])remises, or vice
versa ("Yad, 'W.c. xiv.-xviii. ; Orah llayyim, S45 et
seg.), the difficulties attending wliicli may be over-
come by the institution of the 'Ekub. The pro-
hibition of the transportation of objects from an en-
closed to an open place is extended also to the carry-
ing upon one's garments of objects which can not be
regarded as ornaments and which are not necessary
for one's health. An animal should not be permitted
to leave private premises with anything that maybe
considered as a burden (" Yad," I.e. xix., xx. ; Orah
Hayyim, 301, 5).

The passage "let no man go out of his place on

the seventh day" (Ex. xvi. 29) was iiiterjireted by

the Rabbis as a iirohibition against going beyond

the limits ("tehum") of the city in

Sabbatli which one resides. However, the

Journey limits of the city in this connection

Limited, were regarded as being 2,000 cubits
beyond its actual limits. Tims it
was permitted to walk within the city, no matter
how large, and without the city 2,000 cubits on each
side, but not farther than that ("Yad,"Z.^. xxvii.,
xxviii. ; Orah Hayyim, 390 et seq. ; see Jew. Encyc.
V. 204, K.v. 'Ehuue Tehumin).

II. From theexpression "Remember the Sabbath
day, to keep it holy" (Ex. xx. 8), the Rabbis in-
ferred that the liolinessof the Sabbath should be an-
nounced at its inception, and thus instituted the
Kini)t:sii service, to be recited while holding a cup
of wine. From the passage "and call the Sabbatli
a delight, the holy of the Lord, honorable" (Isa. Jviii.

601

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sabbath

13), tliey further inferred that one should endeavor
to provide for the Sabbatli objects tliat deliglit the
soul of man, and to honor it in every way. Jt is an
obligation resting upon every Israelite to eal three
meals (according to some four meals; see Hiuka)
during the Sabbath-day (Shal). 117b). For these
meals the best food tliatonc is able to procure should
be prepared (ib. 118b). Even those able to enjoy
the best food every day of the week should arrange
for some change in the Sabbath meals, if it be only

in regard to the hours of eating. The

Provisions poor also should endeavor to i)rovide

for better food for the Sabbath meals,

Sabbath even if it be only an additional kind of

Joy. vegetable. One is warned, however,

against going to too great an expense
in providing for the Sabbath ; especially is one
warned against soliciting charity for that purpose.
On this point the rabbinic maxim is "Make thy
Sabbath an ordinary da}' rather than render thyself
dependent on the ciiarity of other men" {ib. 118a).
It is forbidden to eat a full meal on Friday after-
noon, so that one may enjoy one's Sabbath-eve meal
with greater relish (see Evk of Holidays). Every
Israelite, even though he may have many servants,
should himself engage in the preparation of the Sab-
bath meal. It is customaiy to have two loaves of
bread (" barches " ; comp. Jew. Encyc. ii. 529) on the
table at each of the meals, symbolizing the double
portion of manna gathered by the Israelites on Fri-
day in the wilderness (ib. 117b).

The liouoring (" kibbud ") of the Sabbath consists
in wearing tiuer garments than usual, in being
bathed and shaven, and in showing reverence for
the day in every manner possible {ib. 2.5b). The
lighting of special lights by the housewife on Sab-
bath eve (see Lamp, Sabbath), the spreading of
a special table-cloth, the use of sjiecial dishes, may
be included under the same heading ("Yad," I.e.
XXX.; Orah Hayyim, 242, 249, 250, 260, 262 et
serj.).

The public worship on the Sabbath has many char-
acteristic features peculiar to the day. Before the
regular evening prayers on Friday night, the Sab-
bath is introduced ("kabbalat Shabbat '') by the
chanting of Ps. xcv.-xcix. (the Sephardim omit
these) and xxix., "Lekah Dodi," and Ps. xcii.-xciii.
Some read also before the evening service the Song
of Solomon, selections fioni the Zohar, and some
cabalistic poems. The service proper is the same
as on week-days, except that the last blessing before
the 'Amidah is replaced by the two verses Ex.
xxxi. 16, 17. A change from the regular form is made
also at the end of the benediction "llashkibenu "

(the changes made by the Sephardim

Sabbath are greater than those made by the

Ritual. Ashkenzim). The •Auiidah itself, as

well as the 'Amidahs for the other
services of tlie Sabbath, contains only seven instead
of the nineteen blessings, the first three and the last
three of the latter being retained, while the middle
thirteen are replaced by one blessing varying in con
tent in the different services of the day. Kiiidush
is recited by the reader after the "Anndah so that
even those who have no homes may hear this bles.s-
ing. In many synagogues the iMishnah of the sec-

ond chapter of tlie treatise Shabbat 1-, r. ad before
Kiddush.

In the morning service the "Zemirot" are aug-
mented by the addition of Ps. xix., xxxiv., xc, xci.,
cxxxv., cxxxvi., xxxii., xcii.. xciii., wliile Ps. c,
read on week days at this [toint. is omitted (Sejihar-
dim read P.s. xix., xxxiii.. xxxiv., xc, xci., xcviii..
cxxi., cxxii., cxxiii., cxxiv., cxxxv.. cxxxvi., and
then " HarukShe-Amar" followed by Ps. xcii., xr-iii).
After the Song of M(j.se8. a special prayer, " Nish-
mat," is used ; and in the " Yozer," the first part (" Hu-
Me'ir'") is replaced by t hre(< it her select ions (" lla-Knl
Yoduka," "El Adon," and " Lji El Asher Shabbat ").
The characteristic feature of tlie Sabbat h-niorniiig
service is the Heafling from the Law. The taking
out of the scroll from the Ark and the replacing of it
are usually accompanied by the chanting of various
hymns and psalms. After the scroll is leplaei-d the
MusAK prayer is recited.

Sabbath afternoon is usually spent by pious Jews
in the study of various sacred subjects, each one
according to his knowledge and ability. It is not
an unusual sight on Sabbath afternoons to see the
bet ha-midrash full of people, some reading psalms,
others reading from the Scriptures the i)ortion of the
week with various commentaries, others studying
the haggadic portions of the Talmud, and others
again engaged in the study of the inf)ie dillicult
]iortions of the Talmud and of the codes. Tliese
studies are pursued by the people either singly or in
groups, each group having its leader or reader. In
some synagogues there is a permanent preacher
("maggid "), who delivers a homiletic address dur-
ing the afternoon ; in more modern synagogues the
address is delivered by the rabiii during the morn-
ing service after the scroll is rei)la<V.-d in the Ark.

The MiNHAii service begins with the reading of
"Ashre" (Ps. cxlv.) and " I'ba le-Ziyyon Go'el,"
after which the fir.st section of the next week's por-
tion of the Law is read, when only three persons — a
koiien, a Levite, and a lay I.sraelite — are called up
to pronounce the blessing. After the

Sabbath- 'Amidah it is customary to read one of
Afternoon the chapters of the treatise Abot on

Service. .sumniei Sabliaths and Ps. civ., cxx.-
cxxxiv. on winter Sabbaths. After
^liiihah the last of thelliree prescribed meals ("slia-
k)sh se'uddot") is partaken of, after which the people
again assemble in the synagogue to read psjilms in
unison. Ps. cxix. is recited at dusk; and Ps. cxliv.
and Ixviii. are sung just before the i-vening service.

In the prayers for the Sabbath-day all references
to sad events should be omitted. It is forbidden to
fast on the Sabbath, even for a part of the day (see
Fasting), or to lament or to supjilicate for relief
when one is in distress. On visiting the sick on the
Sabbath (uie should say, " It is Sabbath; wedarenot
lament: healing will soon come; celebrate your Sab
bath in peace " (Shab. 12a). Similarly, on visiting
mourners one should sjiy, "It is Sabbath ; we dare
not console: consolation will soon come'" (Orah
Hayyim, 287. and "T>ire Zahab " ad loc). Prayers
for the dead are read in some synagogues before llie
scroll is replaced in the Ark. after which a peneml
prayer for the souls of Jewish martyrs of all genera-
tions ("ab ha- ral.iamim ") is recited. These prayers

Sabbath Leaves
Sabbath and Sunday

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

602

should be oniiited when there is present iu the syn-
agogvie a bridegroom or tlie father ol a child that is
to be circumcised on that day, or when the day of
the approaching new moon is jirochiimed. or on any
other joyous occasion (Orah Hayyiin, '^.s4. 7. Isser-
les' gloss).

Tiie observance of the Sabbatli in all its details is
highly extolled in the rabbinic haggadah. If all
Israel observes two Sabbaths (or even one Sabbath ;
Lev. R. iii. 1) iu all their details, it will imme-
diately be redeemed from exile (Shab. 118b). The
Sabbath is a costly present given by
Exaltation God to Israel {ib. lOb). The pleasures
of the of the Sabbath are one-sixtieth of the

Sabbath, delights of the world to come (Ber.
57b). He who honors the Sabbath
with the preparation of delightful things will re-
ceive all that his heart desires: his portion will be
limitless, and his sins will be forgiven. He who
eats the three prescribed meals on the Sabbath will
be saved from the troubles of the Messianic age,
from the judgment of Gehenna, and from the wars
of Gog and Magog (Shab. 118a, b). Had the Israel-
ites observed the first Sabbath iu all its details,
no nation or tongue could have prevailed against
them (ib. ; comp. ib. 87b; Tos. to Shab, s.v. "Kash-
er"). Maimonidcs concludes the chapters on the
laws of the Sabbath in his code with the following
paragraph:

" The Institution of the Sabbath and the prohibition against
idolato' are each equal in importance to all the other laws of
the Torah [comp. Hul. oa]. . . . The Sabbath is also a sign be-
tween the Holy One, blessed be He I and us forever. There-
fore while he who transgresses all the other laws of the Torah
is regarded merely as one of the wicked ones of Israel, he who
publicly desecrates the Sabbath is placed on the same level with
the idolater. . . . Thus the prophet Isaiah says. ' Blessed is the
man that doeth this, and the son of man that layeth hold on it ;
that keepeth the Sabbath from polluting it, and keepeth his
hand from doing any evil ' [Isa. Ivi. 2]. Tradition plainly de-
clares that the reward of him who observes the Sabbath in all
its details will be greater in this world than in the world to
come, as it is written, ' Then shalt thou delight thyself in the
Lord ; and I will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the
earth, and feed thee with the heritage of Jacob thy father ; fur
the mouth of the Lord bath spoken it'" (i'^. Iviii. U; "Yad,"
I.e. XXX. 15; comp. Maimonides, " Moreh." ii. 31).

E. C. J. H. G.

SABBATH LEAVES. See Periodicals.

SABBATH LIGHTS. See L.\.mp, SABB.\Tn.

SABBATH-SCHOOLS (termed also Sunday-
Schools and Religious Schools) : Among the
Jews the Sabbath-school or congregational religious
school is a product of the nineteenth century. True,
in past times every Jewish community of any size
liad its school for tiie teaching of the young; but
this was a day-school where the children received all
their instruction. Moreover, this school, or " heder "
as it was called, was a private enterprise of the
" melamnied " or teacher, and was not a school insti-
tuted and supported as such by the congregation.
The distinction between secular and religious educa-
tion which became current in Jewry in the nine-
teenth century was hardly known before the Men-
delssohnian period. The only instruction that the
Jewish child had received was in the Hebrew dis-
ciplines, Bible, Misluiah, Talmud, and the like.
The closing quarter of the eighteenth century wit-

nessed the establishment in Germany of schools for
Jewish children in which secular subjects were
taught in addition to the Hebrew branches. The
tirst of these schools in point of time was the Frei-
schule founded in Berlin iu 1778 by David Fried-
lilnder and others. Similar schools were opened
during the next few decades in Breslau, Seesen,
Dessau, Woll'eublUtcl, Frankfort, Cassel, and Ham-
burg, and gradually throughout Germany and other
European countries in which the Jews were being
emancipated from medieval conditions. See Edu-
cation ; Pedagogics.

The absolute separation of secular and religious
education through the medium of distinct schools
was first achieved iu the United States. This was
due without doubt to the national policy of the
separation of church and state. The
In the public-school system, altogether sec-
United ular in its nature, was one of the re-
States, suits of this policy. If religious in-
structiou was to be given at all to the
children of various denominations it had to be im-
parted in separate religious schools organized and
supported by these denominations. In the few cities
of the United States that contained Jewish congre-
gations before the fourth decade of the nineteenth
century the children received Hebrew instruction
either in a heder or from private teachers at home,
but the methods of the heder were too much at
variance with the American spirit to be continued
for any length of time after the Jewish child had
become thoroughly imbued with that spirit.

The fourth decade of the nineteenth century may
be regarded as the dividing-line betweeu the old and
the new religious educational methods in the Unitdd
States, as obtaining in the heder, on the one hand,
and in the Sabbath-school on the other, because it
was in the year 1838 that the first Sunday-school
for Jewish children was established. This school
was founded in the city of Philadelphia by Rebecca
Gratz with the assistance of some ladies of the Mik-
veh Israel congregation. The school was intended
for any Jewish child of the cilj' that desired to at-
tend, and was not therefore, strictly speaking, a
congregational school : it was a free religious school,
and was conducted along the lines of Christian Sun-
day-schools. In the same year the Beth Elohim
congregation of Charleston, S. C, organized a Sun-
day-.school; and in the following year a similar in-
stitution was opened in Richmond, Va., by Congre-
gation Beth Shalome. A number of ladies of the
B'ne Israel congregation instituted another such
school in Cincinnati in 1842.

At that time there Avere not twenty congregations
in the country; but soon afterward a remarkable
congregational activity began which has continued
to the present day. New congregations were formed
constantly, and the.se almost invariably made provi-
sion for the religious instruction of the children in
their Sabbath-schools. At present this is so gener-
ally the case that the exception thereto proves the
rule. The sessions of these schools are usually held
on Sunday mornings, iu .some instances on Saturday
and Sunday mornings, in a few cases on Sunday
afternoons, and exceptionally on some week day
afternoon. The subjects taught are Biblical and

603

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

Sabbath Leaves
Sabbath and Sunday

post-Biblical Jewish history, religious and ethical
lessons, and Hebrew, tlie last-named subject being

optional in sonic sciioois, wliiic in a
Subjects very lew it is not taught at all. The
Taught. rabbi is generally superintendent of the

school ; and in small commiuiilics that
have no rabbi this oHi(;c is lillcd by some interested
layman or woman. There are usually five graded
classes, the age of admission being fixed at eight
years, although some schools have introiluccd re-
cently a kindergarten class for younger children.
The i)upils attend the .school until tliey are con-
tirmed; and many schools have i)ost conlirmation
classes composed of those who have been confirmed
and who return to the school for furtlicr instruction
in religion and in Jewish liistory.

There is as yet neither unity nor uniformity
among the Jewish religious schools of the United
States. Eacii school is autonomous. In order to
piomote a sentiment of union the Hebrew Sab-
i!.\TH-ScHooi- Union of A.mkiuc.\ was organized in
188G. At its meeting held in Chicago in Jan., 1905,
the union resolved to meige with the Union of
American Hebrew Congregations; and the religious
educational work will henceforward be conducted
imder the auspices of the congregational union
through a committee to be known as the Committee
on Religious Education. The Jewish Chautauiiua
Society devotes a number of sessions of its sununer
assembly to the consideration of tiic ]iroblems of re-
ligious education ; and the Council of Jewish Women
has a standing committee on Sabbath - .schools.
The Central Conference of American Rabbis gives a
place in its programs to papers treating of religious
pedagogics; and several years ago a committee of
the conference prepared a curriculum for Jewish
Sabbath-schools. In (juitea number of towns where
the JewLsli coimnunities are not large enough to form
congregations, religious sciioois have been organized,
mainly through the agency of the Hebrew Sabbath-
School Union. This body has attempted to gather
the statistics of the schools of the country; but the
returns to date are far from complete. It is, how-
ever, safe to say that there is no city or town in tlie
country that contains a congregation where provi-
sion is not made for the religious education of the
young.

It aj)pears likely that the first congregational re-
ligious school (" Religionsschule ") in Germany was
that established by the Berlin Reform congregation
in 1847, although religious classes iiad previously
been conducted by Ludwig Philippson (in JVIagde-
burg), Abraham Geiger (in Breslau), and others.
The subjects taught were Bible, history, and religion.
Since then the religious school has become an adjunct

of all congregations in the larger coni-
In Europe, munities of Prussia; and it is in the

strictest sense a congregational school.
The government exercises no manner of supervision
over or interference with the management of these
schools. The same is the case in Saxony. In the
other large German states — Baden, Bavaria, and
Wiirttemberg — there are no separate Jewish re-
ligious schools, moral instruction being im|>arted to
Jewish children in the public schools by the rabbi or
the Jewish teacher at certain hours set apart in the

curriculum for this instruction. Tiie same liolds true
of Austria. In France a similar course is pursued
in the lycees or secondary schools; the children in
the confirmation classes, liowever, are twice a week
instructed in tlie .synagogues by the rubliis.

Up to the year 187(5 the Jewi.sh cliildren of Lon-
don received Hebrew instruction eiliier privately
or in the so-called voluntary schools, i.e.. Jewisli
day-schools in which instruction was given in liotli
secular and religious subjects. The Jewish children,
liowever, vvJio attended the board-schools were un-
provided with instruction in religious matters. To
remedy this defect the Jewish As.sociation for the
Diffusion of Religious Knowledge (now the Jewish
Religious Educati(jii Board) established classes in He-
brew and religious knowledge at the board-.schnol in
Old Castle street, Whitechapel. Since then tiiis or-
ganization has extended its activity, and has estab-
lished similar classes in various board-schools in the
metropolis. Different congregations, too. liave re-
ligious classes corresponding to the Sabbath-schools
in the United States.

In one form or another, then, the religious educa-
tion of the Jewish child of to-day is provided for
either through the medium of separate religious
schools maintained by congregations, as is tlie case
altogether iu the United States and jiartly in Eng-
land, Germany, and Fiance, or by means of instruc-
tion imjiarted in public schools at stated hours by
rabbis or Jewish teachers, as in Austria and partly
in England, Germany, and France. It may be
stated that the term "Sabbath-school," which has
been the designation mostly employed in the United
States, has fallen into disfavor, and that many re-
ligious educators advocate the use of the term "re-
ligious school " in its place.

^i. D. P.

SABBATH AND SUNDAY : A brief consid-
eration is desirable as to why and when the keeping
of the seventh day as the Sabbath ceased among
Christian churches. That Jesus and his disciples
kept the seventh day, and without vital df.'partiires
from Pharisaic usages, is indisputable. The question
of Sabbath observance first became
Early acute under Paul, with the rise of the

Christian non- Jewish Christian communities.

Practise. The Pelrine, or Jud;vo-Christian, party
insisted on rigid adiierence to the Jew-
ish law. It scorned the looser practises of the
converts from without Israel. To this Col. ii. 16 ff
sf(j. has reference; Paul protests against judging
the piety of the neophytes "in meat, or in drink, or
in respect of a feast-day ... or a Sabbath-day "
(R. v.). He protests with greater bitterness in Gal.
iv. 9-11, where observance of days is denounced as
a return to the "weak and beggarly elements." In
Rom. xiv. .5 et seg. it is assumed that whether one
day or another is distinguished, or whether all are
regarded as equally sjicred, is a matter of indiffer-
ence: every man must decitle for himself. Thus
while the Petrine jiartizans continued to assemble
for worship on the Sabbath (Acts ii. 1. iii. 1, et al.).
in non-Jewish Christian circles the first day of
the week came to be marked by longer worship
than usual and by collections of gifts (I Cor. xvi.
2; comp. Acts .\x. 7). The name KvpioKt/ r/fiipa

Sabbath and Sunday
Sabbatical Year and Jubilee

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

604

{= " Lord's day ") first occurs in Kev. i. 10, where it
may nieao the day of judgment (see Day of the
Lord); it is next found in Ignatius. "Ad^Iagnesi-
anos " (^ 9). Pliuy testifies to the fact that the
Cliristians assembled on "a fixed day " ("stato die " ;
"Epistohp," X. 9(5).

Tlie author of the "Epistle of Barnabas" ad-
duces the occurrence of the Resurrection on the first
day as tlie reason for the observance of this "true
day " (XV.). In the meantime the attitude of the Ro-
man authorities had become intermittently hostile to
the Jews; and after the rebellion under Hadrian it
became a matter of vital importanjce for such as
Were not Jews to avoid exposing themselves to sus-
picion (Huidekoper, "Judaism at Rome"). The ob-
servance of the Sabbath was one of tiie most notice-
able indications of Judaism. Hence, while in the first
Christian century more or less regard and tolerance
for the Jewish day were shown in Rome, even by
non-Jewish Christians, in the second century the con-
trary became the rule (Justin Martyr, "Dial, cum
Tryph." ii., i^ 28). In'the East, how-
Two Sab- ever, less opposition was shown to
baths Kept Jewish institutions. Saturday and

in the Sunday both were celebrated by "ab-

Second staining from fasting and by standing
Century, while praying " (I'^lii^'i'iwald, "Archii-
ologie," § 62). In the West, especially
where Roman influence dominated, Saturday was
turned into a fast-day (Huidekoper, ib. pp. 343-344).
The name "Sunday" is used for the first time by
Justin Martyr ("Apologies," i. 67) in accommodation
to a Roman nomenclature, but with reference to the
circumstances that the light was created on the first
day (noticed also in tlie Midrash ; Gen. R. iii. : "ten
crowns adorned the first day ") and that the "light
of the world" ro.se from the night of the grave on
the first day of the week. The Christians, accord-
ingly, were obliged to defend themselves against
the charge of worshiping the sun (Tertullian, " Apo-
logeticus," xvi.). The celebration of two days (by
the Judteo-Christians?) is attested by Eusebius
(" Hist. Eccl." iii. 37) and by the "Apostolic Constitu-
tions," which advise the keeping of Saturday as a
memorial of the Creation, and of Sunday, the Lord's
day, in memory of the Resurrection (ii. 59).

Originally, then, Sunday and Sabbath were kept
sharply distinct. But, like the Jewish Sabbath,
Sunday was deemed not merely a holiday, but a
holy daj', and lience fasting thereon was interdicted
(Tertullian, " De Corona Militis." § 3). Ease of
mind {eixppoaiv//. which corresponds to " nahat ruah " ;
" Epistle of Barnabas." ^r.) was the proper conditicjii
for the day. One should not kneel at prayer (Ire-
naeus, " Fragm. de Pa.schate " ; " Apostolic Constitu-
tions," I.e.); the standing po.sture, being at first a
protest against moiiniing and ascetic riles (such as
were forbidden on the Jewish Sabbath), came to be
explained as suggestive of the Resurrection. Tertul-
lian would have all work cease on Sunday as interfer-
ing with the proper mental condition, preoccupation
and worry being incompatible with joy (" De Ora
tione," xxiii.).

Down to the sixth century the solicitude of the
Church authorities was to prevent what tliey called
the" Judaizing "of the Sunday by the rigorous prohi-

bition of riding, cooking, etc. Even Constantine the
Great, when he enacted the first Sunday law in 321,
did not refer to Old Testament iujune-
First Sun- tions, but wished to iiave the day dis-
day Law, tinguished and kept sacred merely as
321. the "Sun'sday." This first decree was

supplemented by orders concerning
military exercise, but in general it affected only the
courts and the markets (Eusebius, " De Vita Con-
stantini," iv. 18-20, quoted in Ilerzog-Plitt, " Real-
Enc^'c." xiv. 429). Still, such decrees virtually
sanctioned the recognition of Sunday as the sole day
of rest, the "Sabbath," and thus consununated the
tendency that had been developing in the Christian
Church for nearly two centuries to substitute the
day of Jesus' resurrection for the Jewish Sabbath.
In thisway Sunday was given an antiJewisli signifi-
cance in accordance with Paul's contention that the
Resurrection abrogated completely the old dispensa-
tion and the Law.

This aspect of Sunday has been emphasized, and
with considerable force, in the discussions more or
less continuously provoked in modern Jewrj' by
the increasing neglect of Sabbath observance in
the countries where the keeping of Sunday is so
strongly established in industrial and social custom
that the Jew has been practically compelled to fol-
low the general usage. A few leaders (Holdheim,
Samuel Hir.sch) proposed to apply to this problem
the princijiles of Reform followed in the readjust-
ment of other religious practises to changed con-
ditions. It is recognized that the Sabbath as the
symbol of the full content of Judaism is a funda-
mental institution; but the argument has been ad-
vanced that astronomy discredits the assumption of
a universiil cosmic seventh day (comp. Judah ha-
Levi, "Cuzari," ii. 20); and the notion of God's
"resting" on a certain daj' the beginning and end-
iiitr of which are determined bv terrestrial plienom-
ena, is regardeil as tinged with mytliology. Six
days of labor are prescribed as clearly in the Sab-
bath law as is one day of rest; both must be relig-
iously observed, which is impossible
Jew^ish under prevailing conditions. Further-
Attitude more, the phraseology of the com-
Toward mandment does not fix the six days
Sunday. (the definite article is not prefixed to
D'D'); the definite article before "sev-
enth " implies merely that the day referred to is that
following any group of six con.secutive days; the
phrase " the seventh day " is found also in the Pessah
law (Deut. xvi. 8), where it is evident that no fixed
day of the week is intended.

No obligation should be imposed tliat is impossi-
ble of fulfilment to the majority (B. B. 601); Mai-
monides, "Yad," Mamrim, ii. 5). To the Sabbath
may be applied Ps. cxix. 126, in the sense often
given it (Ber. ix. 5; Yer. Ber. vii. 17; Git. 60a), for
now the Sabbath is "remembered," not "observed,"
just as Pesik. R. 23 asserts is the case with non-
Jews. The only consideration to be weighed is the
unity of Israel. If all or most Jews were to observe
Sai)bath on the so-called first day in the manner in
which it should be observed, namely, by abstention
from work, the difficulty would be met without
loss to true religion. Tliis in substance is the con-

605

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sabbath and Sundav
Sabbatical Year aud Jubilee

tention of Samuel Hirscli and others. Wliatevcr
may be the merits of tlie argument, it lias hail no
practical result. Supplementary Sunday services
have been introduced in some congregations, but
the facts that Sunday has an anti-Jewish implica-
tion and that in tiie jiast many allowed themselves
to be martyred for the honor of the Sabbath have
never failed to arouse both the indilTerent and the
zealous.

.1. E. (1. H.

SAB.BATICAL YEAR AND JUBILEE:
The scptennutc or seventh year, during which tin;
land is to lie fallow, aud the celebration of the (if-
tieth year after seven Sabbatical cycles. As regards
the latter, the Hebrew term "j-obel " refers to the
blast of the sliofar on the Day of Atonement an-
nouncing the jubilee year (comp. Dv^VH JTllDIt' ~
"trumpets of rams' iiorns"; Josh. vi. 4), though Ibn
Ezra thinks it signifies the transfer of pro])erties
(comp. S^v ; Isa. xviii. 7). So important was the law
regarding the juliilee tiiat, like the Decalogue, it was
ascribed to tiie legislation on Mount Sinai (Lev. xxv.
1). It was to come into force after the Israelites
should be in possession of Palestine : " "When ye come
into tiie land which I give you" (ib.). The law pro-
vides t liat one may cultivate his tield and vineyard six
years, but "in the seventh year shall be ... a Sab-
bath for the Lord," during which one

Biblical shall neither sow nor reap as hitherto
In- for his private gain, but all members

junctions, of theconimuniLy — theowuer, his serv-
ants, and strangers — as well as do-
mestic and wild animals, shall share in consuming
the natural or spontaneous yield of the soil.

The fiftieth year, i.e., that following the last j'ear
of seven Sabbatical cycles, is the jubilee; during it
the land regulations of the Sabbatical year are to be
observed, as is also the commandment "ye shall re-
turn ever}' man unto his possession" (ib. verse 10),
indicating the compulsory restoration of hereditary
properties (except houses of laymen located in walled
cities) to the original owners or their legal heirs, and
the emancipation of all Hebrew servants whose term
of six years is unexpired or who refuse to leave
their masters when sucli term of service has expired
(Gen. xviii. 6; 'Ar. 331); see Josephus, " Ant." vi.
8, § 28).

The regulations of the Sabbatical year include
also the annulment of all monetary obligations be-
tween Israelites, the creditor being legally barred
from making any attempt to collect his debt (Deut.
XV. 1 et seq.). The law for the jubilee year has not
this provision.

Technically the Talmud distinguishes the Sabbat-
ical year for the release or quitclaim of loans as
"shemittali," more distinctly "shemittat kesafim"
(money-release), in contradistinction to "shebi'it"
(seventh) or "shemittat karka'ot" (land-release).
There is this difTerence, however, that loans are not
annulled before the expiration (="the end") of
every seven j^ears, as the Mosaic law {ib.) provides,
whereas the land-release, the shemittat karka'ot,
begins with the seventh year. The general term
for the Sabbatical cycle is " shabua' " = " septen-
nate" (Sanh. v. 1).

Several reasons are advanced for these laws: (1)

In the Cabala the numlx-r seven isasymbolicdivision
of time, and is sacred to (iod. The week of ("nation
consisted of .seven days, the last iieing the Sabbath.
The Feast of Weeks is so called because it occurs
seven weeks after Pas.sover, the (iftielh

Reasons dtiy being Pentecost. Tliese days are
for Observ- parallel to tlie years of shemittali and
ance. yolxl. The duration of the world i.^
7,0(J0years. the seven thousandth year
being the nnllemiium, the Great Sabbath of" the
Lord (Sanh. 9Ta). (2) The physicf)-econ()mic and
.socialistic theoriesare that rest from labor isan abso-
lute necessity both for animal and for vegetable
life: thatcontiruiouscidtivation will eventuallv ruin
tiie land. The law of the Sabbatical year acts also as
a statute of limitation or a bankruptcy law for tiic
poor debtor, in discharging his liability "for debts con-
tracted, and in enabling him to start life anew on an
ecpial footing with his neighbor, without the fear
that his future earnings will be .seized by liis former
creditors. The juliilee year was the year of libera-
tion of servants who.se poverty liad forced them
into employment by others. Similarly all property
alienated for a money con.sideration to relieve pov-
erty, was to be returned to the original owners
without restoration of the amount which had been
advanced.

(3) The rabbinical view, however, is tiiat tlie.se
laws were made to promote the idea of theocracy :
that one year in seven might be devoted "to the
Lord," as the weekly Sabbath is devoted to rest
from manual labor aud to the study of the Law. The
jubilee was instituted primarily to keep intact the
original allotment of the Holy Land among the
tribes, and to discountenance the idea of servitude to
men. ''For unto me the children of Israel are serv-
ants ; they are my servants " (Lev. xxv. 55) ; and they
shall not be servants to servants, as God's bond has
the priority (Sifra, Behar Sinai, vii. 1). That the
main object was to keep intact each tribe's inher-
itance is evident from the fact that shemittah and
vobel were notinaugurated before the Holy Land had
been conquered and apportioned among the tribes
and their families. The first shemittah year is said
to have occurred twenty-one years after the arrival of
the Hebrews in Palestine, and the lirst yobel thirty-
three years later (/A. i. 3). The jubilee was ]iroclaiineil
"throughout all the land unto all the iuhabiiants
thereof " ; onlj' when all the tribes were in pos.session
of Palestine was the juliilee observed, but not after
the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the lialf-tribe of
Manasseh had been exiled (ib. ii. 3); nor was it ob-
served during the existence of the Second Temple,
when the tribes of Judah and Benjamin had been
assimilated (Slieb. x. 2; 'Ar. 3'2b). After the con-
quest of Samaria by Slialmaneser the jubilee was
observed nominally in the expectation of the return
of the tribes — according to some authorities, Jere-
miah brought them back (ib. 'S3a) — and till the final
exile by Nebuchadnezzar.

There is a difference of opinion in the Talmud as
to whether the jubilee year was included in or ex-
cluded from the forty nine years of the seven cycles.
The majority of rabbis liold that the jubilee year
was an intercalation, and followed the seventli Sab-
batical vear, makiuii two fallow vears in succession.

Sabbatical Year and Jubilee

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

6oe

After botli had passed, the next cycle began. They

adduce this theory from tlie plain words of the

Law to "hallow the fiftieth year,"

Fifty- and also from the assurance of God's
and Forty- promise of a yield in the sixth year
nine- sufficient for maintenance during the
Year Cy- foUowinir three years, " until the ninth
cles. year, until her fruits come in" (Lev.

XXV. 22), which, they say, refers to
the jubilee year. Judah ha-Nasi, however, con-
tends that the jubilee year was identical with the
seventh Sabbatical year (K. 11. 9a: Git. 36a; comp.
Rashi (1(1 loc). The opinion of the Geonim and of
later authorities generally prevails, that the jubilee,
when in force during the period of the First Tem-
ple, was intercalated, but that in the time of the
Second Temple, when the jubilee was observed only
"nominally," it coincided with the seventh Sab-
batical year. In post-exilic times the jubilee was
entirely ignored, though the strict observance of the
shemittah was steadily insisted upon. This, how-
ever, is only according to a rabbinical enactment
(Tos. to Git. SGa, x.r. "Bizeman"), as by the Mo.saic
law, according to R. Judah, shemittah is dependent
on the jubilee and ceases to exist when there is no
jubilee (Git. I.e. and Hashi (td loc).

That the Sabbatical year was observed during the
existence of the Second Temple is evident from the
history of the Maccabees (I Mace. vi. 51, 55). The
!Mishnah includes in the examination of witnesses
questions as to dates, in giving which there must
be specified the Sabbatical year, the year, month,
week, day, and hour (Sanh. v. 1).

The area of the Holy Land over which the she-
mittah was in force inckuled in the time of the First
Temple all the i)ossessions of the Egyptian emigrants
(" 'Ole Mizrayim"), which territory extended south
to Gaza, east to the Euphrates, and north to the
Lebanon Mountains. Anunon and .Moab in the
southeast were excluded. In the
Palestinian period of the Second Temple the area

Area of of the Babylon emigrants (" 'Ole Ba-
Shemittah. bel "), headed by Ezra, was restricted
to the territory west of the Jordan
and northward as far as Acre (Acco). The Rabbis
extended the shemittah to Syria, in order not to
tem]>t settlers of the Holy Land to emigrate thither
(Yad. iv. 3). The area of Palestine was divided
into three parts, Judea, Galilee, and the transjordau
districts, where shemittah existed in more or less
rigorous f)bsfrvance (see Sheb. ix. and Yer. ad lor.).

The duration of the shemittah year was from au-
tumn to autumn, beginning with New-Year's Da}';
but as a precaution against any infringement of the
Law, the Rabbis extended the time and prohibited
sowing and planting thirty days before Rosh ha-
Shanah. Still later they jirohibited the sowing of
grain from Passover, and the planting of trees from
Pentecost preceding the shemittah year, in order not
to derive any benefit from the fruits bearing in that
year (Sheb. i. 1, ii. 1). The extension of the time is
known as "'ereb shebi'it" (=" preceding the sev-
enth "). The penalty for non-observance of the
shemittah year is exile; for eating the fruits of the
seventh year {i.e., of t'lie sixth year's growth),
pestilence (Abot v. 11, 12).

The rabbinical enactment extended the shemittat
kesafimor money-release to countries other than the
Holy Land, but confined the shemittat karka'ot or
land-release to Palestine within Ezra's boundary-
lines of occupation during the period of the Secoiul
Temple. The money-release was obviously inde-
pendent of the Holy Land and was intended to free
from his debts the poor in every land, and at a cer-
tain period of time. On the other
Rabbinical hand, this bankruptc)' law checked all
Ex- business enterprises which the Jews

tensions; were engaged in after they had large-
Bank- ly abandoned agricultural pursuits.

ruptcy. Ilillel the Elder then amended the law
by his institution of the Puosbul. Iq
addition to this subterfuge, there are various ex-
ceptions which exclude the following debts from
the operation of shemittah: wages, merchandise
on credit, loans on pledges, a note guaranteed by
mortgage, one turned over to the bet din for col-
lection (according to the theory of the prosbul),
and one which stijiulates that the debtor waives
the shemittah defense as regards this particular note
(but he can not waive the law in general; Sheb. xi. ;
Yer. ad loc. ; Git- 36a, b, 37a).

The shemittat kesafim was undoubtedly intended
for the poor debtor, though the rich man also might
take advantage of the general law. The Mishnah,
however, plainly expresses the Rabbis' satisfaction
with the debtor who does not make use of the she-
mittah in order to be relieved of his obligations
(Sheb. x. 4). The Rabbis nevertheless desired that
"the law of the shemittah shall not be forgotten"
(Git. 36b).

Maimonides, in his responsa, rules that shemittah
is not operative against orphans, but that all other
debts are wiped out. Incidentally he says " the Sab-
batical year occurred last year " (1507 of the Seleuci-
dan era = 4956 of Creation = 1195 c.e. ; " Pe'er ha-
Dor," No. 137, Amsterdam, 1765).

Apparently the Jews of Spain, in the thirteenth
century, did not observe the shemittiit kesafim: and
in Germany the Jews made use of the prosbid.
When Asher b. Jehiel (1250-1328) went to Spain he
was surprised at the violation of the law of shemit-
tah, finding that collection was exacted of notes
that had passed many shemittiihs without a prosbul
(Asheri, Responsa, rule 77, §i^ 2, 4, 6). Neither
Jacob Asheri in liis Tur nor Joseph Caro in his
Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, mentions the shemit-
tat karka'ot and yobel (evidently considering the
law obsolete); but both of them refer to the shemit-
tat kesafim and prosbul (Hoshen Mishpat, § 67),
which they claim are operative both in and out of
Palestine. Moses Isserles adds, however, that the
majority of Jewish authorities in Germany are in-
different to or ignore the custom of the shemittah.
He dates the latest shemittah in the year 5327 (1567
C.E.), and says the next was to occur in 5334
(=1573 C.E. ).

Isserlein, in a responsum ("Terumat ha-Deshen,"
No. 304), explains the relaxation in the observance
in European countries as due to the fact that the
rabbinical extension was originally for the purpose
"that the law of shemittah may not be forgotten,"
and that it was apparently intended to apply to

607

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Sabbatical Year and Jubilee

Palestiiio proper and its neighboiiiijj; countries,
Babylou aiul Egypt, but not elsewhere. Joseph
Colon (Responsa, No. 92) decides that
Relaxation tiie sheinittali defense is a very \veal<
in Ob- one; (•()iise(nieiitiy a creditor is l»e-
servance. licvc il witliout an oatli when ho sajs
that lie has lost the prosbul. lie
rules, as regards the euforceuieut of Die siieinittat
kesaliin, that the bet din sliould be guided by tiie
jirevailing Jewish custom in the jiarticular country.
The sheniittat kesatini is eiiually relaxed in Pal-
estine to-day. The principal reasons seem to have
been that the ti.xeddateof i)aymenl, the guaranty at-
tached, and the terniinology of tiie present-day notes
abrogate the law of sliemittah. Tlu; sheniittat l>ar-
ka'ot, however, has been generally observed in Pal-
estine; and during the sheinittali year the Jews of
the Holy Land eat only of the products grown in
the transjordanic districts (Schwartz, "Tebu'atha-
Arez," cd. Luncz, p. 20, Jerusalem, 1900).

Since the Zionist movement began to encourage
agriculture in Palestine, the observance of sliemittah
has become a problem for solution. The leaders of
the movement, who had the interest of the colonists
at lieart and feared that the sliemittah might jeop-
ardize their existence, claimed that the law is now
obsolete. The Jewish jieriodicals, especially " Ila-
]\Ieliz,'" strenuously objected to enforcing the law of
sliemittah upon the colonists. When the sliemittah
year 5649 (= 1888-89) approached, the (lueslion was
submitted to the chief rabbis in Eu-
Shemittah rope and Palestine. Kabbi Isaac El-
and hanan Spector was inclined to be
Palestinian lenient, and advocated a nominal sale
Colonists, of the land to a non-Jew and the em-
ployment of non-Jewish laborers dur-
ing sliemittah. The Sepliardic hakam baslii, Jacoli
Saul Elyashar, concurred in this decision (see his
"Simhah la-Ish," p. 107). But the Ashkenazic rab-
bis in Jerusalem opposed any subterfuge, and issued
the following declaration:

" As the year of the shemlttah, 5649, is drawing nigh, we in-
form our brethren the colonists that, according to our religion,
they are not i)erinitted to plow or sow or reap, or allow Gentiles
to perform these agricultural operations on their fields (except
such work as may be necessary to keep the trees in a healthy
state, which is legally permitted). Inasmuch as the colonists
have hitherto endeavored to obey God's law, they will, we trust,
not violate this IJiblical command. By order of the bet din of
the .'\shkenaziiii at .Icrusalem. [Signed by the rabbis] J. L.
Diskin and Samuel Salant" I" Ha-Habazzelet," Oct. 26, 1888,
No. G; "Jew. World," Nov. 16, 1888)'.

An appeal, signed by prominent Jews in Jerusa-
lem, for funds to enable the colonists to observe the
shemittah was directed to the Jews outside the Holy
Land. Dr. Hildesheim as president of tiie society Le-
nia'an Ziyyon, in Frankfort-on-thc-Maiii, collected
donations for this purpose. Baron Edmond de Roths-
child, being informed by Rabiii Diskin that the
law of sliemittah is valid, ordered the colonists under
his protection in Palestine to cease work during tiie
Sabbatical year.

The exact year of the shemittali is in dispute, and
different dates are given. According to Talmudic
calculations the entrance of the Israelites into Pales-
tine occurred in the year of Creation 2489, and 850
years, or seventeen jubilees, passed between that

date and the destruction of tlie First Temple. The

(irst cycle commenced after the coucjuest of llie luud

and its distribution among tiie tribes,

Talmudic wiiich occupieii fourteen years, and

and the last jubilee occurred on llie "tenth

Samaritan day of tlie montii [Tisliri], in tiie four-

Calcula- teentli year after iliat the city was

tion of smitten" (Lzek. xl. 1). wjiicli was the
Jubilees. New-Year's Day of tiie jubilee ('Ab.
Zarali9b; 'Ar. 1 lb-12b). Joshua cel-
ebrated the first jubilee, and died just before the
second (Seder 'Olam R.. ed. Ratner, \i. 24b-2.'5b,
XXX. 69b, Wilna, 1895).

Tlie Samaritans in their "Book of Joshua "date
the first month of the first Sabbatical cycle and of
the first jubilee cycle as beginning with the cross-
ing of the Jordan and the entrance of the Israelites
into their possession; and they insist that the date
was 2794 of Creation, according to the chronology
of the Torali "and the true reckoning known to the
.sages since the Flood" (" Karme Shomeron." ed.
Raphael Kirchheim. i; 15, p. 6:J. Fraiikfort-on the-
Main, 18.11).

The First and the Second Temple, the Talmud .sjiys,
were destroyed "on the closing of the Sabbatical
year" ("Moza'e Shebi'it"). * Tlie sixteenth jubilee
occurred in the eigliteenth year of Josiali, who
reigned thirtj'-one years; the remaining thirteen
years of his reign, together with the eleven )-ears
of those of .Tehoiakim and Jehoiacliin and the eleven
years of that of Zedekiah (11 Kings xxv.), fix the
first exilic year as the thirtj'^-sixth year of the jubilee
cycle, or the twenty-fifth year of the captivity of
.Tehoiacliin, or fourteen years from the destruction of
tiie Holy City ('Ar. and 'Ab. Zarali I.e.; see Rashi
(td Inc.).

The Babylonian captivity lasted seventy years.
Ezra sanctified Palestine in the seventh year of the
second entrance, after the sixth year of Darius,
when the Temple was dedicated (Ezra vi. 15. 16;
vii. 7). The first cycle of shemittah began with the
s mctification of Ezra. The Second Temple stood
4'20 years, and was destroyed, like the First, in
the 421st year, on the closing of the shemittah
('Ar. 13a).

The Talmud gives as a rule for finding the year of
.shemittah to add one year and divide by seven the
number of years since the destruction of the Second
Temple, or to add 2 for every 100 years and divide
the sum by seven ('Ab. Zarah 9b\ The difTerence
among the Jewisli authorities as to the

Various correct shemittah year is due to the
Dates. varied interpretation of the words
"closing of shebi'it, "as meaning either
the last year of the cycle or the year after the cycle;
also as to the beginning of the exilic shemittah from
the year when the destruct ion of the Temple occurred,
or from the year after. There is another version of
the Talmudic rule mentionetl above, namely, t<">"add
two years to or deduct five years from " the number
of years since the destruction ('Ab. Zarah 9b).

Maimonides gives the date of a .shemittah year
occurring in his time as the year 1107 from the de-
struction of the Temple, 1487 of the Seleucidan era.
4936 of Creation (= 1175 c.E.; "Yad," Shemittah
we-Yobel, x. 4) ; i.e., he begins the cycle witii the

Sabbatical Year and Jubilee
Sabsans

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

608

year followinc: that of tlie destruction. Hashi's in-
terpretation is that the destruction occurred at the
"closing of shebi'it" (= "after the cycle had been
closed with the jirevious year "), and lie makes tlie
year in which the destruction occurred as tiie first
year of the new cycle. Rabbenu Tani agrees w ith
Kashi as to the date of the destruction, but ditTers
from him in asserting that the sheinittuh fell in tlie
year of the destruction, which was the "closing year
of the cycle." He fixes the sheniittah at the time of
Ins writing as the year 5012 of Creation (= r.351 c.E. ;
Tos. to ■ Al). Zarah 9b, s. r. 'Sn. end) : this result agrees
with tliat of Maimonides. tliough it is readied by a
dilTerent method of calculation. Kabbenu Hananeel
claims that the closing of shebi'it — that is, shemittah
— was the year after the destruction of the Temple.
The year of the shemittaii was tinally settled ac-
cording to the view of Maimonides, which agreed
witli tiie most plausible interpretation of the correct
Talmudic te.\t and also witli the practise of the
oldest members of the Jewisii communities in the
Orient by whom the shemittah years were observed.
Evidence to this elTect was given at a conference
of rabbis called in Jerusalem, wiio concurred in
the opinion expressed by the rabbis from Safed,
Damascus, Salonica, and Constantinople fi.xing tlie
shemittah year of tlieir time as 5313 = 1552 (Azkari,
"Sefer'Hasidim,"ed. Warsaw, 1879, p. 83).

Dates of S.\bbatic.\l and Ji:bii.ee Years, Ac-
cording TO the Talmidical Caixui.atiox.

Period.

Crosslnjr of the Jordan

Conquest and alluimeDt of
Palestine

First Sabbatical year

First jubilee year

F.xile of the Ten Tribes

Destruction of the First Tem-
ple

Second entrance to Pales-
tine

■Seleucidan era commenced. . .

Destruction of the Second Tem-
ple

Exilic Sabbatical cycle com-
menced

Current Sabbatical year

Last Sabbatical year will be-
>rln

Cabalistic jubilee will com-
mence

V a

2489

ailO
3187
3338

3408
3448

3828

3829
5605

5999

6000

■r. '" c

r.o

684
835

oj o a;

o i:

X4 X w

1
1836

1; -t^ u

= 13 "^

B.C.

1271

1257

12.50

1207

573

422

a53

312

C.K.

m-m

69-70
1904-5

2238

2239

95.6
117

127
135.5

187

449.2
497

U -; -K

(50-
year
cycle)

1.
13.34

16.35
(49-
year
cvcle )
18.7
18.47

26.35

64.9
71.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Jewish encyclopedia : a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the present day"

See other formats